Medicine during the American Revolution

Asa Professor Emeritus of Biology, I have taught various allied health science courses for over 48 years. When I joined the 1st Ulster County Militia re-enactment unit in 1999, they asked me to develop the persona of a citizen of the 18th century. It was my wife who then said to me, why not develop the persona of an apothecary? Since I had a strong interest in chemistry as well as the courses that I taught, I felt this would be appropriate for me.

However, as I approached retirement, I became interested in the history of colonial medicine. That’s when I chose to represent a colonial doctor from the middle to late 18th century, and because of my association with the 1st Ulster, I specialized in presenting as a Revolutionary War physician.

At the beginning of the Revolution, there were approximately 3,500 to 4,000 physicians practicing in the colonies. Of those, only 700 to 750 had formal degrees. Those with degrees either earned them at the University of Edinburgh or attended one of the medical colleges in the colonies.

There were only two medical schools in 18th-century America. The College of Philadelphia, later the University of Pennsylvania, which opened in 1765, and King’s College, later Columbia University in New York City, which opened in 1768. Because these colonial medical schools were so new, by the beginning of the war, only about 50 physicians had degrees from them.

Individuals who did not possess formal medical degrees usually received their education through an apprenticeship with a practicing physician. In many ways, medicine at that time was more of a craft than a profession. This is the characterization of a colonial physician I have taken to portray.

Generally, colonial-era physicians followed the ancient teachings of the Greek physician Galen. Galen believed that the human body had four humors or fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. To be in good health, one needed a balance of these humors. When the humors were out of balance, according to Galen, illness resulted.

Physicians would try to restore this balance by the processes of bleeding, purging (the use of diuretics, laxatives, and emetics), or forming blisters to draw out specific humors and, therefore, bring the humors back into equilibrium.

It was commonplace to find physicians acting as their own apothecary, formulating medications from combinations of spices, herbs, barks, mercury, opium, various mineral salts, alcohol, etc. in an attempt to treat diseases or their symptoms. So too, an apothecary might perform the activities and procedures of a physician. Both also performed common surgical procedures and even some rudimentary dentistry. There, in fact, was often little distinction between these occupations.

During the war, army encampments suffered numerous cases of dysentery (referred to as the flux), camp fever (typhoid or typhus), and/or the itch (scabies). Efforts to prevent and treat these conditions represented the main share of a physician’s daily activities.

At the time, little was known about germs or sanitation, so physicians did not know what might actually cause disease. Several diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, or typhus, were thought to be caused by “harmful vapors” instead of bacteria or parasites. Others, such as dysentery or typhoid, were assumed to come from spoiled food or water instead of from bacteria, viruses, or other microbes.

Smallpox was perhaps the deadliest disease affecting those living in the colonies, as well as in the army and militia. Throughout the 18th century, smallpox epidemics swept through the colonies, killing thousands of people. There was no way to cure the disease once someone got it. The best a physician could do was to treat the symptoms during the course of the disease.

However, physicians did try to prevent smallpox. One of the more unusual approaches was called “smoking.” They thought that smoke deactivated smallpox by cleansing individuals so that they could travel freely without transmitting the disease. Smoking involved the use of a small “house” about the size of a garden toolshed. A wood fire was lit inside, then was covered with brimstone or sulfur. Patients entered the house, which filled with fumes to fumigate the occupants.

But the most effective, and ultimately the most common, way to prevent outbreaks of smallpox was inoculation. Smallpox inoculations had been routinely performed in Africa and Arab countries for many years. And influential colonists, including the Rev. Cotton Mather and Benjamin Franklin, promoted them. Still, inoculation was not widespread in the American colonies until George Washington, knowing personally the effect smallpox could have on the Continental Army, ordered the mass inoculation of all troops.

Several processes were developed to perform inoculations, but these are the basic steps used. Clear fluid was removed from a pustule on a person with smallpox, and it was then transferred to the person to be inoculated. Once inoculated in this way, the person would experience a mild course of the disease. They would recover without the devastating effects of those who caught the disease through natural means and would be protected from the illness in the future.

During presentations at various events, I display the inoculation kit I would have used as an 18th-century physician. It consists of a copper box that holds several ivory shavings upon which was gathered the dried fluid from smallpox pustules. I also have a small lancet used to open a wound on the person to be inoculated for the introduction of the dried fluid.

Colonial physicians were mainly concerned with cuts, bruises, sprains, fractured bones, dislocated joints, boils, abscesses, and gunshot wounds. But as surgeons, they were generally restricted to cutting off parts of the body. The two major types of operations performed were amputations and trepanning.

Continued on page 22

During the Revolutionary War, amputation was the most common operation. Surgery was extremely painful for the patient who would only be given a stick or a stout piece of leather to bite on. Unfortunately, only 30 to 35 percent survived the procedure; most patients died from infection. I show replicas of the instruments and related items for amputation of limbs to those attending my presentations.

Injury to the head where the skull might be fractured, with or without brain injury, also occurred during the war. The process of trepanning means cutting through the scalp and then using a small circular saw to cut one or more small circles out of the bone of the skull to relieve pressure and bleeding. At my presentations, I use a melon to demonstrate the process, using a replica of a trepanning device.

This is just a small part of the presentations I give to audiences during my appearance at museums, historic sites, school programs, or at the 1st Ulster County Militia events. There is so much to discover and learn about 18th-century medicine that I am constantly adding to my collection. I often display my collections at presentations. To transport these objects, books, and other items to various sites, I built a replica of an 18th-century-style wheelbarrow. Obviously, the topic of 18th-century life has captured my intellectual curiosity and helps satisfy my love of teaching and learning. I thoroughly enjoy sharing it with others.

Donald Terpening will be presenting his program, Medicine during the American Revolution, at Senate House in Kingston, NY, on July 1st; Fort Delaware in Narrowsburg, NY, on July 29th; and the Persen House in Kingston on September 9th.

Making the Art Scene Forest Hall Studios

Ifirstmet internationally renowned art photographers Christopher Makos and Paul Solberg on the cavernous second floor of Forest Hall in Milford, PA, amid a cacophony of voices and swooping gestures.

The six people gathered there are in the throes of planning the September 23rd opening of the work of three artists representing three different media: painter Hunt Slonem, photographer Vincent Caruso, and sculptor Bruce Dehnert.

Chris Makos and Paul Solberg, who live in New York and frequent Milford, are the curators of the newly branded Forest Hall Studios on Broad Street, and as they welcome me into the conversation, I learn quickly about “curating 101.”

At its essence, curating an exhibit is about making decisions regarding which works of art should be displayed and how they should be seen. Curators also decide on the themes and ideas to be experienced by the audience.

But as I learn in my one-hour, on-site visit to Forest Hall, curating also involves collaborating with the artists and construction people about every little detail and nuance of the exhibit. Those present at this meeting discuss, opine on, and debate everything that will optimize the audience experience: colors, lighting, moveable walls, spatial considerations, fabrics, displays, shelving, graphics, signage, pedestals, angles, and much more.

“We have been coming to Milford for several years now,” Chris and Paul explain. “From day one, we fell in love with its charm, the natural beauty, and the diversity of people in the surrounding areas.”

In the early 2000s, they were introduced to Milford by current mayor Sean Strub, who had been a friend of

Chris’s for many years. “We go back to the days of New York in the ’70s and ’80s.” In 2005, Strub acquired Makos + Solberg’s first body of work for Bar Louis, entitled Hippofolium (2005), which are images of Makos’s horses combined with Solberg’s flowers, under the second identity the two artists share, the Hilton Brothers. The artworks now reside in the guest rooms of Hotel Fauchere.

“I came to New York in the 1970s to be a student and protégé of Andy Warhol at The Factory, which I considered to be Warhol University,” Chris explains further. “I was an only child from Lowell, Massachusetts, and somewhat inward. I fantasized about creating and making things like little houses as a child, and as I grew up in California, I realized I had to be the creation of my own world. Later, I met actor Tony Perkins at a party in New York, and he mentored me and even gave me my first camera.”

The world of Warhol also led Chris to writing for Rolling Stone and Interview magazines and mingling with celebrities, such as Gore Vidal and Tennessee Williams. “It was an exciting time in my life and in society when anything was possible, and I wanted to take full advantage of life’s possibilities,” he reflects.

Paul Solberg was born in St. Paul, MN, and in his teens was a Rotary scholar, spending two years in Southern Africa. He and Chris met in New York City through their mutual interest in bicycling. “We met on our bikes as New Yorkers often do,” Solberg says. “Chris showed me the business of ‘art by example,’ much like Andy showed Chris. I grew up surrounded by very good photographers. My father worked at my uncle’s photo shop developing pictures, and for me, being in the dark room was as common as being in the kitchen.

“At the time, fine art photography was not considered a viable vocation, simply because of access. I came to New York in the late ’90s to work in creative advertising, which led to independent film, until I resigned, going back to my original childhood language, photography. I just had to get out of my own way to find my purpose,” he says with a smile. Solberg has shown at the American Embassy in Kiev and La Casa Encendida in Madrid.

Forest Hall, where Forest Hall Studios will reside, has been under the ownership of the Milford Hospitality Group since 2020 and has a provenance of historical proportions. It was commissioned as a post office by James Pinchot in 1863 and designed by Calvert Vaux (co-architect of New York City’s Central Park, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and countless others) in a grand French Normandy style. Its 1904 addition housed lecture halls and auditoriums for the summer forestry Master’s program operated by the Yale School of Forestry at nearby Grey Towers. More recently, it has housed retail, art, and antiques shops.

“Our vision is all about balancing progress and preservation,” explains Steve Rosado, Director of Business Development at the hospitality group. “Milford has been a destination for tourists and locals alike for generations, and we want to expand on that by igniting the flame to further elevate the entire arts scene in the area.”

Having selected Chris Makos and Paul Solberg to curate the Andy Warhol exhibit last fall, the hospitality group’s natural next step was to invite them to curate future art exhibits and events at Forest Hall Studios. “I consider Bill Rosado, owner of the Milford Hospitality Group, to be the ‘Medici of Milford,’” states Chris. “We have an incredible opportunity to showcase the talents of local, national, and international artists of all stripes.”

The common theme for all the exhibits will be to celebrate art and the natural world. They started last year with Andy in Nature, consisting of Makos’s images of Warhol in nature with Solberg’s large-scale flower portraits, and are extending that show as a sort of Andy in Nature 2.0 through this summer. They will then launch the Slonem, Caruso, and Dehnert trifecta on September 23rd.

Hunt Slonem is inspired by nature and is renowned for his neo-expressionist painting style. His works can be found in the permanent collections of museums around the world, including the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Whitney in New York City.

Photographer Vincent Caruso is best known for his landscape and seascape photography and owns Studio 9 Fine Arts Gallery. Bruce Dehnert, who was featured in the May 2018 issue of The Journal, is the head of Ceramics at Sugar Maples Center for Creativity, has been exhibited internationally, and has taught at universities in the United States, New Zealand, and Malaysia.

“Chris and Paul bring brightness and light wherever they go, personally and professionally,” says old friend and publisher Marta Hallett, whose company Glitterati has published seven of Chris’s art books, two of Paul’s, and their collaboration art book, Tattoos, Hornets and Fire. The last adds a pictorial dimension to the Sweden that was introduced to the many readers of Stieg Larsson’s Swedish crime novel trilogy, which includes The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. “They are consummate artists and great friends,” adds Marta, who recently relocated from New York to Milford based on their recommendation.

Joan Mahon, former chief registrar at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and another friend who bought a home in Milford as a result of her professional and personal association with the two men over the years, concurs. “This entire area has so much to offer with its natural beauty and many fine artists. Chris and Paul’s curating of the new Forest Hall Studios will enhance the experience for all of us.”

Or as Chris and Paul put it, “We hope that Forest Hall Studios will be an incubator of the arts and continue to draw artists and people who love art and life to Milford. Pennsylvania’s state motto is ‘Pursue Your Happiness’ and that we take very seriously.”

“We’re thrilled to be looking forward to the gala opening on September 23rd and to be booked with curated exhibits into 2025,” Paul says. “And even if you don’t know much about art, we welcome you to drop by Forest Hall anytime to experience the various exhibits and artists. We all have a new blank canvas each day. If you’re interested in life, come visit!”

Will Voelkel is a Milford resident, an avid arts lover, and a contributor to The Journal.

We frame oil paintings!!

It’s a Family Affair

Well-Sweep Herb Farm

Herb Farm boasts one of the largest live collections of herbs in the world. Gorgeous display gardens, rock walls, and meandering paths adorn the nursery that is located in Port Murray, NJ, just ten minutes west of Hackettstown.

Well-Sweep

Arriving twenty minutes before my scheduled appointment, I immediately observed the hard work and family values exhibited at the farm. There was constant communication among the staff as they moved plant trays, set up tables, arranged pots, watered rows of plants, made plant labels, and tidied up plants.

Cyrus and Louise Hyde bought the farm in 1966, when it was much smaller than the current 120 acres. They named it Well-Sweep, which is a means of getting water out of a well, that had been used in Cy’s childhood home in Totowa. A well sweep is a long pole with a pail at one end. The other end of the pole is inserted into a crotch that allows the pail to be lowered into the well and then raised, similar to how a lever works.

Cy died in 2020 at the age of 90 after a lifetime of collecting and breeding plants, especially his favorite herbs. After growing up in a household that had used medicinal herbs for healing for over 200 years, he worked at Waterloo Village in Stanhope, NJ, as an herbalist and conducted school tours. Cy created many new varieties of herbs but would not patent his own creations because as grandson and farm general manager Patrick explains, “Grandpa just wanted to share his plants with the world.” One example is the Cy Sunburst lemon-scented geranium.

Louise is the daughter of an investment banker in New York. She grew up with a horse on a gentleman’s farm, attended Columbia University, and then became a registered physical therapist. Louise maintains the beautiful show gardens at Well-Sweep and handles customer service and payroll. Patrick says, “Grandma is the grand master gardener. She takes care of the massive gardens. The gardens would be nothing without her.”

The original property was four and a quarter acres in size, but Cy and Louise gradually bought up surrounding properties, including one where the current parking lot is located. When that parcel’s owner died, it was sold overnight to a developer, who then charged a much higher price when he sold to Well-Sweep Farm.

The family-farm operation was abuzz with activity when I visited in late May as staff and volunteers were preparing for the annual spring open house, held the first weekend in June. The two-day event includes lectures and presentations, tours of the gardens, a craft market, live music, food vendors, and over 1,900 varieties of plants for sale. Open house programs included mushroom cultivation, cooking with herbs, pollinator gardening, backyard birdhouses, herbal gardening, miniature gardening, and medicinal herbs for health and wellness.

Well-Sweep has hundreds of varieties of plants available. Displays are very well organized and clearly labeled. All potted plants have detailed cultural labels with horticultural information and preferred growing conditions. The staff is extremely friendly and knowledgeable.

It is very clear that this is a family affair. Family members share a love and respect for nature and each other. Cy and Louise’s son David Hyde is the current owner and oversees farm operations. David is very proud of his rare plant collection, especially the Gisela lady slipper orchid, which had 44 blossoms this year, and was blooming when I visited. David’s wife, Maria, works on hand propagation to create new plants and works with volunteers who help with various farm tasks.

Grandson Patrick McDuffee gave me a guided historical tour of the farm and greenhouses. His extensive knowledge of herbs woven with his storytelling ability are both qualities passed down from his grandfather, about whom Patrick reminisced, “Cy collected herbs and stories.”

Patrick grew up in Virginia and would visit his grandparents’ farm in the summer where he loved to spend time helping his grandfather. Cy shared his stories and love of plants with his grandson. They would sit and marvel together as the magic evening primrose opened when the sun went down. Patrick enrolled at James Madison University as a quantitative finance major but soon realized that his heart was in plants so he changed his major to biology.

Patrick is also a leading United States breeder of the Onagadori chicken, which is a historic Japanese breed known for its exceptionally long tail. Patrick enthusiastically posed for photos with one of his prized chickens and gave me a tour of worldly herbs through both the propagation greenhouse and the tropical greenhouse.

When breeding Onagadori chickens, Patrick explained that he uses the best birds for breeding, and because breeding causes damage to the feathers, he uses the second best birds for showing. Their feathers can grow up to three feet per year. At Well-Sweep, the birds have been bred with tail feathers up to nine feet long, while in Japan the record for longest tail feathers is thirty feet.

One story Patrick proudly shared involves the longest living frankincense tree in the United States. Years ago, the Sultan of Oman gifted several named trees to the Brooklyn Botanical Garden, which then distributed some to leading herb collectors in the country, including his grandfather, Cy. In the Bible, the wise men gave frankincense for use in the temple, symbolic of prayers rising to heaven. Today, frankincense is used as an essential oil and may have beneficial health effects.

While Indian and Asian cultures have long used herbs for wellness, many other cultures around the world are now also looking to herbs for natural solutions. For example, cilantro has been shown to chelate, or bind, mercury and lead; some people who eat fish are adding cilantro to their diet with the hopes that the cilantro will remove the mercury that may have been in the fish.

On the subject of nearly 1,900 varieties of plants available at the farm, Patrick claimed that he has a “catalog memory and map in his brain” and knows the “what, where, and how many” of all the plants. Ironically, while Patrick was giving me a tour in the greenhouse, David popped in and said that a customer wanted to buy the entire flat of orange calendula and David wanted to know if there was additional orange calendula stock anywhere on the farm. Patrick listened and sheepishly replied, “That’s a grandma question.” It’s a family affair.

Another story that Patrick recounted was that Cy wanted a swimming pool, and Louise wanted a root cellar. Since both required a substantial amount of cement, the root cellar was constructed underground adjacent to the swimming pool when the pool was installed. Eventually, Cy ended up using the root cellar to over-winter his fig trees.

Patrick explained how the prickly thistle plant thwarted Roman invaders and became the Scottish national flower. According to myth, when the sandal-clad Roman invaders constantly encountered thistles that hurt their feet, the Romans put an end to their northern march of Britannia conquests, built Hadrian’s wall, and declared that Caledonian lands to the north were uninhabitable.

Back in the greenhouse, Patrick showed me two massive lemon verbena topiary trees, which are carefully pruned to a particular shape. The lemon flavoring is in his favorite pound cake.

When asked about his major challenges, Patrick exclaimed, “Every year brings its own variability, every year has its own curveball.”

The farm hosts many special events including the New Jersey Chapter of the American Herbalists Guild, which attracted over 1,000 participants this spring. “We like to bring in people and educate the public about medicinal herbs,” Louise explained. The recent program featured Kerry Adams, a New Jersey based clinical herbalist and educator with over 30 years of experience, who has increased public awareness in herbal medicine and wellness.

Louise was busy preparing for the Spring Open House as we talked about the history of the Well-Sweep Farm and the growing interest in medicinal herbs. She feels that people are going back to the old ways. A volunteer named Tracy joined our conversation and suggested that since COVID, many people are looking for alternate ways to help the world. People are gardening more and going back to basics. When I asked what the modern medical community thinks about herbal medicine, Tracy noted, “Some doctors are starting to embrace medicinal herbs. Some are open to it, and some are not.”

I asked Louise what her favorite plant was, and she replied, “That is a hard question because I love so many.” When pressed, she selected lovage, a celery-like plant, which she uses in potato salad, and pineapple sage, which has a lovely sweet scent in salads. As for the biggest sellers, Louise said medicinal herbs, basil, blueberries, strawberries, and raspberries because people want to do their own thing.

Louise authored a cookbook called Favorite Recipes from Well-Sweep Farm which is available at the onsite gift shop along with other books, gardening and cooking supplies, and crafts. Well-Sweep is also a source of herbs for chef gardens at restaurants.

Well-Sweep Herb Farm has a user-friendly website (wellsweep.com) that contains an extensive catalogue, mail order instructions, the farm’s history, and a fascinating section called “Nature’s Lore” under the “Others” tab. It includes useful information about the growing habits and culinary uses of various herbs.

Louise turned 85 just two days prior to our meeting. She loves the outdoors and tranquility of living on the farm and considers it a blessing and a privilege to live at Well-Sweep Herb Farm.

Aries (March 20-April 19) — There is a special gift in seeing what is possible. Yet most cannot see what does not already exist, or even what is right in front of them. Most cannot feel or see possibilities for improvement. The forthcoming Full Moon is all about showing you the landscape of your life, for many miles, in different directions. You don’t have to choose any of them; rather, you will feel better knowing they are there.

Taurus (April 19-May 20) — You are where you are largely by the good graces of your friends. Yes, you do plenty for yourself —yet if you go through every benefit you have, material or spiritual, you will see that it connects to someone’s strength, positive vibes or another form of generosity. In truth we are all supported by the dharma of those who care about us. We were put here together in the world to rely upon one another. Nobody can do it alone. Thankfully you don’t have to.

Gemini (May 20-June 21) — The Full Moon is your reminder that the world is much bigger than you think. Yes, we have those “small world” moments, and there are all kinds of interesting connections to be made. Yet you can also marvel at how much you don’t know and will never see. There are energy fields and various shapes of the land, the human environment and the cosmos, that facilitate tendencies of travel, movement and flow. You will benefit from following those now.

Cancer (June 21-July 22) — The forthcoming Full Moon will guide you in the direction of work-related activity: of wanting to do something productive. That’s about as much guidance as you will get, except for the reminder that whatever you think of as your work needs a spiritual angle somehow. Not everyone knows what this is; not everyone cares; it’s likely that you do. What you do for work must have actual meaning, to yourself and to others.

Leo (July 22-Aug. 23) — The world has become extremely risk-averse, except for the bit about society courting the most senseless opportunities for disaster. Most of us are more cautious, and understand that nothing attempted, nothing gained. On the ground, where people aspire to make their world a little better, we are living through a massive depletion of optimism and sense of potential. Yet you are being called to do what humans are best at. That is to persevere, including to persist in doing something unusual or wholesome or creative no matter how anyone may feel about it.

Virgo (Aug. 23-Sep. 22) – Your idea of a living place has a touch of the ashram to it — a place where people can come to find spiritual respite. Where you live tends not to be a strictly private place; though you need your private corner of whatever world you’re in. In the grand scheme, your chart is urging you to travel and see the world. Remember that merely visiting someone can be a healing experience. Many are just figuring out that it’s safe to leave, and others are unsure whether they will be judged for their point of view. If anyone can hold space for a real conversation, it’s you.

Libra (Sep. 22-Oct. 23) — You may awaken to the one idea that will help you make some major changes, simplify your life and get you to the next level. The question is, will you remember it? Will you do the one thing necessary, and put it to work? Ideas lose their luster quickly. So make sure that the series of revelations you have through the upcoming Full Moon find their way to the point of a pencil, or at least a voice memo that you listen to later.

Scorpio (Oct. 23-Nov. 22) — If I had to sum up the entirety of my work as an astrologer in a few words, it’s about helping people with self-esteem. You are fortunate in that, sooner or later, you always come back to feeling good about yourself. That is a powerful, natural force — and you are about to get a nice, fresh current of faith in yourself. Many of the greatest accomplishments are things people thought were probably impossible, but they had some little spirit inside telling them that they just had to try.

Sagittarius (Nov. 22-Dec. 22) — The upcoming Full Moon may have you feeling visible, though it’s also offering you a lot of protection. You have extra influence, and can afford to pluck up some extra confidence in proposing ideas and reaching out to clients. A rare combination of factors is granting you extra persuasive ability. All you need to do is be steady about your intentions; be flexible and gently guide events the way you want them to unfold.

Capricorn (Dec. 22-Jan. 20) – Most religious traditions have the concept of the “inner light.” Across every culture, it amounts to the same thing: the light of God comes from within. To trust this is an act of faith. You’ve learned over and over again that you must have fidelity to your inner truth. You seem to be at a philosophical loggerhead, and it may be interfering with your work. This will dissolve easily if you keep your attention focused inwardly, and go with the flow.

Aquarius (Jan. 20-Feb. 19) — You have an unusual gift for facilitating conversations about deep, taboo, or easily-avoided topics. That will be in rare form as the Moon reaches full phase. You will not need to do much except be present and allow the conversation to happen. Usually, the important discussions are derailed by one person not willing to face the deeper issues. This could be in family environments or social ones.

Pisces (Feb. 19-March 20) — You may find yourself unexpectedly being recognized for something you accomplished in the past. This will be of benefit, if you remember to use any acknowledgement for what you are doing today. If you get a chance to speak, focus on your current priorities, goals and perceptions. Do not succumb to nostalgia, or any glorified view of history. It was whatever it was. Meanwhile, your workshop is a busy place these days, and better things are developing.

Read Eric Francis daily at PlanetWaves.net