Perspective Student Research Journal, Edition 2 2021 by Pymble Ladies' College

Perspective STUDENT RESEARCH JOURNAL EDITION 2, 2021

Contents From the Principal....................................................................................................... Page 3 From the Editors........................................................................................................... Page 4 Diversity in cuisine....................................................................................................... Page 7 Indigenous Australian soldiers in the First World War and their place in Australian history...................................................................... Page 12 Australia: Breaking the boundaries of culture..................................................... Page 17 Open your eyes and see what you can with them before they close forever......................................................................................... Page 18 Assess the curatorial processes at the National Museum of Australia in response to changing attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia.............................................................................Page 22 To what extent has the rise of secularism in popular history depictions of Joan of Arc challenged traditional historiographical perceptions of her?...................................................................Page 28 Assess the role of historical empathy in challenging Leopold von Ranke’s empiricism in the construction of history....................Page 36 Why has the Myall Creek Massacre become a fixture in the Australian public memory?...............................................................................Page 46 Why you need to know about academic journals ............................................. Page 53 A comparative study on the emissions from black and brown coal power plants and their 100-year impact on global warming..........................Page 59 Substance use and mental health co-occurrence in adolescents..................Page 69 American Quarter Horses (AQH): The prevalence of genetic diseases, IMM + GBED, across AQH disciplines.................................... Page 76 Linking movement and stress amongst Year 12 female students ..................Page 84 Evaluate the impact of superstitions on the development of chopsticks in China .............................................................................................Page 90 Evaluate the impact of the invention of paper on collective learning...........Page 93

FROM THE

In October 2011, when Greater Sydney was in lockdown and staff and students were teaching and learning remotely via Pymble Online, the College hosted our second annual Research Conference – virtually, of course. One of the many highlights of the Making Space for Research conference was officially launching the Pymble Institute to our community of learners in attendance. The PI, as we have come to call our new research hub, connects students and staff with universities and other educational, community-based and research institutions in Australia, and from around the world, to help drive our thinking forward on issues that matter. A priority area of focus is girls’ education and positive outcomes for women. It’s an exciting space to be exploring at a pivotal time. All around us, girls and women from all walks of life are finding the courage to dive deeply into issues of social injustice, bias and inequity, and using their learnings and experience to spark new conversations, responses and actions to change the world for the better. Were we going to allow lockdown to stand in the way of our conference or our launch? Not a chance. Our girls and staff are inspired; they have work to do. Perspective sits under the umbrella of the PI as our flagship student publication. Intentionally, no two editions are alike, and the publication will continue to evolve as we create even more opportunities to include student voice and agency. Our first edition was dedicated to HSC work; this one extends to include articles from Pymble girls across Years 7 to 12. We are currently establishing an editorial board which will include student representation and planning for a student committee to design and edit the next edition. Excitingly, we are also looking to include Junior School students’ work in future publications.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Principal

The scope for submissions for Perspective is intentionally broad as we encourage students studying a wide range of subject areas to share their investigations and learning via any means they choose. Given our digital format, videos and scripts are as welcome for publication as written submissions so, girls, if you are reading this message, let’s get creative! Dream. Think. Make it happen. Take the opportunity to submit your research to the next edition and add your unique perspective on research to this growing conversation. Congratulations to all the students whose work is featured in this edition. The individual girls are acknowledged over the page by our Director of the Pymble Institute, Dr Sarah Loch and our High Potential Learning Co-ordinator, Mrs Debbie Tarrant, who I would also like to shine a light on for their role in shaping and supporting our girls as researchers of the future. Our girls are blessed to have access to so many outstanding educators, including these two inspiring women, to drive their thinking forward each day in their studies at Pymble. Dr Kate Hadwen (B.Ed, Grad Cert Ed Leadership, M.Ed, PhD) PRINCIPAL

CELEBRATING OUR STUDENT RESEARCH CONFERENCE IN 2022 Just as this publication has evolved, so too has our annual research conference. We are very excited to announce that our third event, to be held on Tuesday 17 May, is student-initiated, student-focused and open to students and teachers from all schools. Researching Students? Students as Researchers and Students Being Researched will be hosted by Lucy Clark and Charlotte Hartin (Year 11) and feature a keynote address on ‘Making a difference in the world through a career in research’ by Willa Huston, Associate Dean, Teaching and Learning from the Faculty of Science at UTS. Guests will also hear from PhD and Honours candidates, our own Dr Loch and Professor Amanda Keddie, Chair in Education, Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University.

FROM THE

Editors

We are very proud to commend to you the second edition of Perspective. In this edition, we extend beyond Higher School Certificate Extension course essays to a collection of student research from other grades. The papers within are drawn from course work, academic competitions and conference speeches, as well as from the HSC History and Science Extension courses where a range of impressive research projects originated.

The process of collecting these papers has been

A number of papers foreground the College’s

humbling and joyful in equal measure. Very little

strategic pillar, Social Intelligence, deepening our

editing has been needed, owing to the care and

knowledge by illuminating histories of people,

attention each student has given her research,

places and objects. Maya Hu and Hayley Zhou

writing and presentation. Whether prepared for

(Year 10) research familiar items with Asian roots,

HSC assessment, competition or class task, the

namely chopsticks and paper, respectively. Winners

core phases of scholarship are evident within this

of the prestigious National History Challenge in

collection – taking time to settle on the topic of interest, crafting a robust research question, conducting the inquiry with openness and curiosity, writing with flair, and seeking and applying feedback. The role of Editor for this journal has been primarily located in identifying and encouraging our researchers and writers and bringing their perspectives forward. We feel assured that the future is in very good hands as our students consider and offer their perspectives on topics that truly matter. A significant

2021, Joy Ye (Year 9 – National

The importance of academic literacy to students is often underestimated. It is essential for the next generation to immerse themselves in credible, and comprehensive information… We hope to encourage a generation that is well-informed and educated regarding academic journals, as they are often inaccessible or difficult to understand for the vast majority of the population. (Clark and Hartin, 2021, p.53 this edition)

winner of the Asia and Australia category) and Amy Zhang (Year 8 – NSW State winner) share their papers. Joy takes readers on an historical tour through Asian restaurants in Australia, and Amy examines the contributions of Indigenous Australian soldiers in the first World War. In their Extension History studies, Alexandra Johnson (Year 12) explores a Europeanfocused topic with Joan of Arc and Priya Mehra (Year 12) brings a traditional European lens of the historian, Leopold

number of papers in this

van Ranke, to re-assess

edition explore historical topics, reflecting students’

Paul Keating’s famous Redfern Park speech on

understanding of the value of history as a starting

reconciliation. Sophia Mitchell (Year 12) considers

place for better directions for humanity. Helena

the communication of our First Nations history

Tang (Year 7) uses historical fiction as a vehicle to

through an examination of processes in the

evocatively explore anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany

National Museum of Australia and Alice Dixon (Year

in World War II and Hanna Cheung (Year 10) reflects

12) discusses the tragic events of the Myall Creek

on an iconic painting by artist Brett Whiteley as

massacre of First Nations people in New South

she considers meanings of culture and place in

Wales in the 1830s.

Australia today.

Pymble Ladies’ College

This important group of papers on social and

1. Introduce students to academia from a younger

historical topics positions our students as active

age – making the field and the process appear less

participants in the ways that histories and stories will

daunting.

be written in the future. Year 12 Science Extension students also make their mark as skilled researchers in a diverse range of influential fields. Charlotte Armstrong writes from an environmental perspective on the role of coal in global warming and Isabella Pippa offers a detailed analysis

2. Integrate it into the everyday classroom by providing academic articles to assist with teaching. 3. Educate students on how to comprehend these articles, by learning how to navigate their structure and identify their importance

of genetic disease in a breed of horses. Reflecting the

Lucy and Charlotte are already opening new doors

importance of studies into mental health in today’s

to Pymble students and students from other school

society, Isabelle Jimenez investigates substance use

through the Junior Journal Club and through

through a range of data and Alexandra Whittingham

preparations for our inaugural student research

conducts her own research to explore linkages

conference in 2022. Thus, it is fitting we leave the final

between Year 12 female students, movement and

word of this editorial to Lucy and Charlotte,

stress. The skills of the Science Extension students to

This journal is one way Pymble Ladies’ College is making the field of academia more approachable and accessible for students, as researchers, readers and writers.

locate, interrogate and explain datasets is extremely impressive and readers will not fail to be engaged by their strength of analysis. We are also pleased to publish the speeches of the student presenters at the 2nd Pymble Research

Dr Sarah Loch

Conference, held online in October 2021. In her

DIRECTOR – PYMBLE INSTITUTE

speech about the Science Extension course, Charlotte

Mrs Debbie Tarrant

Armstrong draws attention to the early stages of the

HIGH POTENTIAL LEARNING CO-ORDINATOR

research process provoked by childhood experiences in Hong Kong that lead to her environmental research. Lucy Clark and Charlotte Hartin (Year 10) take their own steps into academia by not only conducting research, but interrogating the very culture of research through an examination of academic journals. The full speech is a must-read as their findings lead us to three well-considered and practical suggestions for raising academic literacy in school students:

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Joy Ye 1. Where did the inspiration for your work come from? As strange as it might seem, my motivation to enter the National History Challenge actually came from the sense of frustration and helplessness I felt when COVID-19 hit. When racially motivated crimes were being committed against Asians across the world, they were justified with the excuse that “they deserved it because they eat bats and dogs”. As an Australian-born Chinese girl who grew up being told sandwiches were acceptable, while 妈妈’s (Mum’s) homemade dumplings weren’t, it was upsetting to see the hypocrisy in the global food discourse. French snails and frog legs are revered as fine dining whilst Chinese people were verbally and physically abused just by being racially associated with eating bats. The irony of this situation truly drove me to research more about this issue of hidden racism within our discussions of cultural foods. 2. What was the most memorable thing learned from researching your topic/project? The most memorable thing that I learned from researching my project would be coming to understand the historical complexities of Chinese restaurants. I think that having the opportunity to analyse something so integral and familiar to me through an academic lens

3. What challenges did you come across in your research? In my research, the biggest challenge that comes to mind would be narrowing down my scope of research. As I was starting out with such a broad topic, I needed to be strict with myself in filtering through ideas to find the key ones I wanted to talk about, and have harsh criteria for what ‘relevant’ information looked like. It was difficult for me as I can sometimes try to convince myself that everything is relevant, so this experience was extremely helpful in training myself to be more disciplined. 4. How did you overcome the challenges? My biggest hurdle was my indecisiveness and in order to become disciplined in my research. I often wrote one-sentence summaries that captured the kernel of my arguments. I would then use these summaries to form my criteria for sources and see if my writing or references aligned with my argument’s purpose.

makes one realise that beyond the taste of

5. Complete this line. Research can…

home, the Chinese restaurant was a symbolic

challenge or affirm any one point of view, but it

sanctuary that represented the fight for a new

ultimately grants you a greater understanding of

life. When we recognise the personal sacrifices

the world around you.

immigrant families have made to ensure a future in Australia, it brings a greater meaning to the xiao long baos and mapo tofu that my people brought along with them.

Pymble Ladies’ College

National History Challenge Diversity in cuisine BY JOY YE, YEAR 9, 2021 e walk down the street and see restaurants from many different cultures: W Thai, Chinese, Indian, and more... Diversity in cuisine is often framed as a source of multiculturalism in Australia’s history. This essay, however, contests simplistic conflations between acceptance and the availability of ‘ethnic’ food. Focusing on Chinese restaurants, the essay locates the value of these eateries in helping migrant communities survive in the face of racism.

First, it is important to offer a historiographical critique of Australian food history. The dominant historical narrative about the arrival of migrant food, which is often used to promote Australia’s multicultural reputation, emphasises the delicious diversity of immigrant cuisines and how bland Anglo-Celtic ‘Australian’ food was in comparison, therefore attempting to paint a positive image of the migrant community and their contribution. Taste Magazine, one of

The hypothetical example of the sight of various

Australia’s most popular and prominent food publications,

multicultural restaurants in a street has been used in

offers a version of this stereotypical story, noting “The

political rhetoric for years as a reliable image or metaphor

‘melting pot’ of nationalities in Australia has brought

for politicians or commentators to promote Australia as a

with it a dazzling wealth of cuisines”1. This link between

diverse nation. This assumption, however, that consumption

multiculturalism and cuisine has become so ingrained

of food from migrant cultures automatically leads to

in Australian society that when Rebecca Huntley asked

pluralism and acceptance is problematic. Using Chinese

Australians in focus groups what migrants have contributed

food as a case study, this essay will argue that food and

to the country, “they gravitate[d] immediately to food”

immigration interact in a more complex fashion. First, the

as the main example of the benefits of multiculturalism2.

dominant Anglo-Australian narrative often conflates eating

For Huntley, this narrative is problematic because it

food with cultural knowledge, which is troubling because

assumes anti-racism can be achieved via passive contact

of the appropriation and assimilation of Chinese cuisine.

with difference, whether that is by simply consuming the

The food Chinese migrants introduced to Australian society

food of another culture or interaction with the people

was advertised as ‘authentic’, yet, in actuality, it catered

preparing and serving it. Moreover, she argues the arrival

to Western tastebuds. Furthermore this ‘food diversity’

of new food cultures coexists with racism. For instance,

narrative advances an instrumental, as opposed to inherent,

even when Vietnamese food grew in popularity during the

view of multiculturalism: that the presence of migrants is

1990s and pho became a popular menu item amongst

valuable because it satisfies the palate of the white majority

wider Australian society, the Vietnamese community were

in Australia. This multicultural mythology also serves to

being subject to abuse from the public, in particular due

construct “national cultures”: it simplifies Chinese food,

to moral panics around drug crime. Ghassan Hage argues,

neglecting its internal diversity and constant evolution,

moreover, that the dominant narrative “is a story that is

while at the same time, framing the kind ‘western’ Australian

almost entirely focused on the eater and the diverse and

society as tolerant and accepting. The significance of food

interesting food she now enjoys thanks to multiculturalism.

history, therefore, lies in its ability to contest these narratives

The ethnic cook (not to mention the ethnic food grower or

about race, culture and power. Focusing on the reception

kitchen hand) is rarely at the centre of this story”. Insofar as

of Chinese food in Australia from the 19th century to

food can be a metaphor for multiculturalism, it is actually

today, this essay will instead argue that the real way these

one of assimilation: food is often a diluted or invented

restaurants matter is in providing a sense of identity and

version of “authentic” cuisine3. Moreover, Lara Anderson

community for migrants.

and Heather Merle Benbow argue, “cultural indigestion” and “food xenophobia” continue to exist in Australia despite its multicultural policies4.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

DIVERSITY IN CUISINE

For instance, food taboos apply to the consumption

Whilst the Chinese restaurant has been a place of novelty

of particular animals that might be common in Asian

to white Australians, for the Chinese migrant community it

cuisines, while there is still an assumption that food made

has been a source of much needed financial stability since

with Australian ingredients and restaurant ‘culture’ and

the 19th century. This, rather than the value to the curious

‘aesthetics’ is superior. Food history, therefore, finds its

Western consumer, is the true contribution of migrant

significance in contesting these popular narratives.

cuisine to contemporary Australia. According to historian Barbara Nichol, the first sightings of commercially

This conventional story about Australian food and

available Chinese food in Australia appeared in the 1850s

multiculturalism can be challenged by turning to an

as Chinese migrants found work in kitchens to be more

archive of sources that reveal the ways Chinese food shaped Australian culture under the White Australia Policy. This history matters because it shows how the embrace

since they were less susceptible to discriminaiton8. By 1890, a staggering one third of all cooks in Australia were

of food can coexist with racism. Here, the magazine Australian Women’s Weekly (AWW) serves as an interesting case study because of its widespread circulation among

Chinese9. Even under the White Australia Policy, Chinese Australian restaurant owners who were already in the country were given an exemption to bring in Chinese

Anglo-Australians. In an AWW issue published in 1978,

workers. This allowed them to develop and foster a larger

just after the end of the White Australia Policy, an article,

Chinese-Australian community, even during a period of

‘A feast of Chinese food’, offers an eight-page spread

intense discrimination. Over time, restaurants offered a

of various recipes from Chinese restaurants in Sydney,

form of financial security, especially for migrants with

advertising how after reading the article, a reader would

limited English skills. Discrimination in wider Australian

become so knowledgeable of Chinese cuisine that there

society also meant it was one of the few small businesses

would be “no need to step outside of your own front

Chinese people could own and operate without disdain.

door for a fabulous Chinese banquet”5. The assumption

Jan O’Connell argues that, paradoxically and perversely,

of accessibility here reflects how comfortable Australians

the anti-Chinese sentiment under the White Australia

already were with the flavours and techniques of Chinese

Policy meant that running of restaurants was left to the

cuisine. In 1948, a similar article entitled “Chinese food”

Chinese community, rather than being appropriated

offers “recipes for five piquant dishes and a rich, unusual

by Anglo-Australians10. The segregation of the Chinese

soup.” It goes on to state “Those who are familiar with

community from most of society meant that Chinese

Chinese food will appreciate the recipe for the chicken

restaurants in Australia preserved more authentic traditions

and almond dish.”6. This reflects that Chinese cuisine

and ingredients, when compared to similar eateries in the

was known to many diners in Australia even at the height

UK and the US.

of Australian xenophobic migration policy. Enthusiasm for Chinese food during the White Australia Policy even

When historians analyse the Chinese migrant experience

emphasised its supposedly ‘exotic’ and ‘different’ aspects,

during the White Australia Policy, the narrative of the

even at a time when cultural difference was not promoted

Chinese migrant woman has often been overlooked.

in immigration policies. In a 1960s advertisement for a

Even in the mid-20th century, however, Chinese migrant

guided tour of Singapore and Hong Kong, the Australian

women actively exercised authority and challenged notions

Women’s Weekly paints Asia as a mystical region,

surrounding the roles of women. Chinese women were

reflecting the sentiments of traditional Orientalism to

not simply confined to waitressing or smaller tasks in the

characterise the East as unsophisticated but yet appealing

kitchen, rather they also worked as hostesses or as chefs.

due to its foreign nature. Particular attention is placed on

Given that most Chinese Australian restaurateurs often lived above their business, the lines between the domestic and

food and the ‘surprising’ quality of Asian cooking, with Chinese cuisine being the most featured in the magazine.

stable than laboring on farms or down mines, especially

the commercial spheres were blurred. Chinese Australian

As such, these sources reveal Chinese food was associated

women were thus not limited to the home, rather their

with diversity and excitement, even at a time when

roles were porous: they had an important function in the

Chinese people were devalued.

restaurant and the home. As such, this history matters

Pymble Ladies’ College

National History Challenge

insofar as it reveals the true significance of these restaurants

One needs to look no further than the xenophobic

in the history of modern Australia.

treatment of Chinese restaurants during the COVID-19

The restaurant was also a space that allowed the ChineseAustralian community to negotiate orientalist assumptions and reductive views of difference, by offering an insight into a culture.

pandemic, to see how racism coexists with cuisine diversity, while migrant communities use their food cultures to remain resilient. During the early stages of the pandemic, there was a conflation of Chinese citizens and ChineseAustralians, as such Anglo-Australians began boycotting or

It allowed them to mitigate xenophobic hostility to some

avoiding Chinese restaurants13. Although Australia claims to

extent. But such a process required anticipating and

appreciate and genuinely care for its minority communities,

combatting anxieties around Chinese cuisine, such as

and value its restaurants as symbols of diversity, there was a

the assumption it was too exotic, difficult, low-status and

lack of substantial support given to the Chinese community

associated with unsanitary cooking conditions. An article

in these times. Restaurants were economically harmed

on “Chinese Food” published in the Cairns Morning Post

by this xenophobic treatment, even prior to the problems

in 1907 notes, for instance, “some Chinese restaurants are

of COVID-19 lockdowns. This has led to the closure of

furnished expensively with teawood stools and tables inlaid

historic restaurants such as Melbourne’s Shark Fin Inn. This

with ivory and mother-of-pearl. They have entrances so

is problematic because restaurants operate as a significant

constructed that the patron, to reach the dining-room,

cultural and political site for the community, especially

must pass through the kitchen, the idea being that the

during times of distress14. For instance, restaurants in Sydney

patron should examine the kitchen, should see how clean

and Melbourne’s Chinatowns served student migrants who

it is, before he eats the food”11. Here, the decor adds to

were denied government assistance.

the cultural capital of Chinese food, while the design undermines racist assumptions about cleanliness. In 1940, The Daily Telegraph reported on the Consul-General for China, Dr Pao and his wife, Madame Pao, who invited other elite Australian individuals for a special authentic banquet. The article, ‘Ate Chinese Food with Chopsticks’12 reveals the way that food was used as a form of cultural diplomacy by the Chinese nation-state, utilising cuisine as a method to grant direct exposure and understanding of Chinese culture. The emphasis on the high status figures such as judges and politicians eating Chinese food reinforces the idea of Chinese food having high cultural capital, even at a time it was generally considered low-status. Both of these

History does not have a monolithic or fixed significance: its meaning and impact varies based on the vantage from which it is told. This analysis into the experience of the Chinese Australians contests the narrative that Australia’s multicultural dining scene or pluralism in taste means that Australia has overcome racism. Studying the lives of Chinese restaurant workers offers a new history for the wider Chinese Australian community. This narrative has relevance for our present moment, allowing us to hold the wider Australian society accountable for the lack of change in attitudes towards immigrant communities, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.

stories expose how not all food in Australia’s multicultural cuisine has always been equally esteemed: European or French cuisine is still considered higher status when compared with Chinese, Vietnamese or Thai. This relates to the notion of cultural capital, or non-economic status applied to certain practices and communities. In terms of cultural capital, Chinese cuisine is paradoxically deemed ‘low culture’ while marking out the sophistication of the consumer. Such a historical narrative focusses on its value to Western consumers, rather than the way it has been used as a tool by migrant chefs.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

DIVERSITY IN CUISINE ANNOTATIONS Huntley, Rebecca. 2019. “Sure, Australians Love

The Australian Women’s Weekly ‘We take you to the

Multicultural Food. That Doesn’t Mean We’re Not Racist

magic East’, 16 February 1972, p. 42. Viewed 15 Mar 2021,

– ABC Everyday”. abc.net.au. https://www.abc.net.au/

http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article46241948

everyday/australia-can-have-a-racism-problem-an d-multicultural-food/11636756.

This source is an advert for a cruise trip to East Asia written in 1972 published in the The Australian Women’s Weekly,

Written by Dr Rebecca Huntley in 2019, this secondary

boasting about the exotic but unrefined nature of places

source “Sure, Australians Love Multicultural Food. That

like Singapore and Hong Kong. This advert is used in my

Doesn’t Mean We’re Not Racist – ABC Everyday” is an article

second substantive argument, where this evidence is used

that analyses the current public sentiment on the benefits

to exhibit how racism and the fascination of cultural food

of multicultural food for combating racism in Australia.

coexisted in Australia. Given that this cruise trip was a

It was most useful in offering evaluations and reflections

collaboration with The Australian Women’s Weekly, there

on research by the author and Professor Ghassan Hage.

is a clear incentive for the magazine to exaggerate its

I referenced this article in the first substantive argument

language and description of the various Asian countries.

where the essay challenges the assumption that cultural

However, the source is still useful as The Australian

knowledge and tolerance is gained through the simple

Women’s Weekly was one of the most popular magazines

consumption of ethnic food. Considering that the author of

at the time. As such, it offers a representative view on how

this article and the referenced anthropologist are reputable

Australians depicted and understood Asia, and offers an

and qualified researchers, this source can be concluded to

accurate reflection of how the general public felt about

be highly reliable.

the East in the 1970s.

Ate Chinese Food With Chopsticks (1940, January 20). The Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW : 1931 – 1954), p. 10. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla. news-article248229570. This source is an article, ‘Ate Food with Chopsticks’, that recorded the extraordinary moment where high profile Australians were eating and being served food with chopsticks at the Consul-General of China’s dinner party. Drawing on accounts from guests at the part, the unknown author emphasises the novelty of seeing people such as diplomats and dignitaries eat food with chopsticks, which gives the reader a clear insight the way mainstream society viewed the Chinese community their food as lowclass and unfitting for such esteemed people. I used this article in my fourth argument that discusses how Chinese food was a platform for the Chinese community to combat Orientalist assumptions. In regards to this source’s reliability, although the article has no named author, due to the format of older newspapers, The Daily Telegraph is a well-established newspaper in Australia, and, at this time, was not in its current tabloid and popular form.

Pymble Ladies’ College

National History Challenge

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOOTNOTES

Anderson, Lara, and Heather Merle Benbow. “Cultural Indigestion in Multicultural Australia: Fear of “Foreign” Foods in Australian Media.” Gastronomica 15, no. 1 (2015): 34-43. Accessed August 20, 2021.

1 “Australian Food: Evolution of Cuisine”. Undated. Taste Magazine. Accessed August 13, 2021. https://www.taste.com.au/articles/howaustralian-food-has-evolved/tafz0txs.

The Australian Women’s Weekly, A feast of Chinese food’, 22 March, 1978 ‘p. 87. Viewed 15 Mar 2021. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article53250139.

2 Huntley, Rebecca. 2019. “Sure, Australians Love Multicultural Food. That Doesn’t Mean We’re Not Racist – ABC Everyday”. abc.net.au. https://www.abc.net.au/everyday/australia-can-have-a-racismproblem-and-multicultural-food/11636756.

The Australian Women’s Weekly, Chinese Food (1948, November 6). p. 33. Retrieved March 22, 2021., from http://nla.gov.au/nla.newsarticle55466967. The Australian Women’s Weekly “Here’s To The Children! – Party... – (1933 – 1982) – 6 Jan 1945”. 1945. Trove. https://trove.nla.gov.au/ newspaper/article/47117697. The Australian Women’s Weekly ‘We take you to the magic East’, 16 February 1972, p.42. Viewed 15 Mar 2021. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article46241948. Cairns Morning Post, “Chinese Food.” 21 Dec 1907”. 1907. Trove. http:// nla.gov.au/nla.news-article39448588. Catholic Weekly, “Home Cooking of Chinese Food “, 16 Dec 1948”. 1948. Trove. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article146661073. The Daily Telegraph, “Ate Chinese Food With Chopsticks”, 20 Jan 1940”. 1940. Trove. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article248229570. The Canberra Times (ACT : 1926 – 1995) “GOOD Times – A Sophisticated Chinese Meal | The Good Times Gastronomic Correspondent Reviews A Chinese Restaurant Which Has Departed From The Usual Decor And Menu”,-1 Jul 1988”. 1988. Trove. http://nla. gov.au/nla.news-article102033706. Heanue, Siobhan. 2016. “Story of Chinese Food Down Under Mapped By Historians”. abc.net.au. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-21/ humble-chinese-diner-mapped-by-food-hist orians/7187218. Huntley, Rebecca. 2019. “Sure, Australians Love Multicultural Food. That Doesn’t Mean We’re Not Racist – ABC Everyday”. abc.net.au. https://www.abc.net.au/everyday/australia-can-have-a-racismproblem-and-multicultural-food/11636756. Maxabella, Bron. 2018. “A (Brief) History Of Australian Food”. SBS Food. Accessed August 13, 2021.https://www.sbs.com.au/food/ article/2018/06/21/brief-history-australian-food. Noone, Yasmine. 2018. “Why Does Every Town In Australia Have A Chinese Restaurant?”. SBS. Accessed August 13, 2021, https://www. sbs.com.au/food/article/2018/11/22/why-does-every-town-australiahave-chinese-restaurant. O’Connell, Jan. Undated. “A Timeline Of Australian Food: From Mutton To Masterchef – Australian Food Timeline”. Australian Food Timeline. Accessed August 13, 2021. https://australianfoodtimeline.com.au/mutton-masterchef/. Schofield, Leo, Good Weekend Asked the Sydney Morning Herald’s Restaurant Critic One of the Two Restaurant Critics of the Age, to Switch Cities and Review Four Restaurants Each. – the Canberra Times (ACT : 1926 – 1995) – 6 Oct 1985.” 2014. Trove. Trove. 2014. https:// trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/132369392. South China Morning Post, “Australians avoid Chinese restaurants amid coronavirus fears, fake news”, 13/02/2020, https://www.scmp. com/news/asia/australasia/article/3050529/coronavirus-chineserestaurants-shut-doors-australians-shun.

3 Ibid. 4 Anderson, Lara, and Heather Merle Benbow. “Cultural Indigestion in Multicultural Australia: Fear of “Foreign” Foods in Australian Media.” Gastronomica 15, no. 1 (2015): 34-43. Accessed August 20, 2021. 5 The Australian Women’s Weekly, A feast of Chinese food’, 22 March, 1978 ‘p. 87. Viewed 15 Mar 2021, http://nla.gov.au/nla.newsarticle53250139. 6

he Australian Women’s Weekly CHINESE Food (1948, November T 6). p. 33. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla. news-article55466967.

7 The Australian Women’s Weekly ‘We take you to the magic East’, 16 February 1972, p. 42. Viewed 15 Mar 2021, http://nla.gov.au/nla. news-article46241948. 8 Heanue, Siobhan. 2016. “Story of Chinese Food Down Under Mapped By Historians”. abc.net.au. https://www.abc.net.au/ news/2016-02-21/humble-chinese-diner-mapped-by-foodhistorians/7187218. 9 Maxabella, Bron. 2018. “A (Brief) History Of Australian Food”. SBS Food. Accessed August 13, 2021. https://www.sbs.com.au/food/ article/2018/06/21/brief-history-australian-food. 10 O’Connell, Jan. Undated. “A Timeline of Australian Food: From Mutton to Masterchef – Australian Food Timeline”. Australian Food Timeline. Accessed August 13, 2021. https://australianfoodtimeline. com.au/mutton-masterchef/. 11 C airns Morning Post Chinese Food. (1907, December 21). p. 6. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.newsarticle39448588. 12 The Daily Telegraph Ate Chinese Food With Chopsticks (1940, January 20). p. 10. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from http://nla.gov. au/nla.news-article248229570. 13 S outh China Morning Post, “Australians avoid Chinese restaurants amid coronavirus fears, fake news”, 13/02/2020. https://www. scmp.com/news/asia/australasia/article/3050529/coronaviruschinese-restaurants-shut-doors-australians-shun 14 Webb, Caroline, “Beloved Chinatown restaurant closes as customers stay away over coronavirus fears”, The Age 12/2/2020., https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/beloved-chinatownrestaurant-closes-as-customers-stay-away-over-coronavirusfears-20200212-p54076.html

Taste Magazine. “Australian Food: Evolution of Cuisine”. Undated. Accessed August 13, 2021. https://www.taste.com.au/articles/howaustralian-food-has-evolved/tafz0txs. Webb, Caroline, “Beloved Chinatown restaurant closes as customers stay away over coronavirus fears”, The Age 12/2/2020, https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/belovedchinatown-restaurant-closes-as- customers-stay-away-overcoronavirus-fears-20200212-p54076.html. Zakharov, Jennie, “FOOD & WINE – GOOD TIMES | Breaking From The Tradition Of The Male Indian Chef | Canberra Is Home To A Rarity — A Female Tandoor Chef., The Canberra Times (ACT : 1926 – 1995) – 30 Mar 1989”. 1989. Trove. http://nla.gov.au/nla.newsarticle120919503.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Indigenous Australian soldiers in the First World War and their place in Australian history BY AMY ZHANG, YEAR 8, 2021 In this essay, I examine the significance of Indigenous Australian soldiers within WWI and the circumstances behind their absence from the pages of Australian history. Through this, I prove that history matters, as I argue an understanding of this aspect of Australian history is necessary to advance the reconciliation process. The ANZAC has immense significance in the Australian national story. Many believe Australia was born at Gallipoli1. Indeed, the image of the ANZAC is fairly uniform: a young man, stoic but selfless, with discipline and a sense of humour, who is, overwhelmingly, white. Many people may not realise that over 1000 Indigenous Australians served in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) during the First World War2. Their contributions have been forgotten and erased from Australian history, and only recently have been recognised.

Knight was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for Conspicuous Gallantry during the war, receiving an honour and recognition, at the time, equal to other ANZACs (See: Appendix B)8. This demonstrates that the contributions of Indigenous Australian soldiers were not marginal or arbitrary, but instrumental to Australia’s war effort. Indeed, Indigenous soldiers offered unique contributions to the successful execution of military strategy. The Charge of the Light Brigade, one of Australia’s biggest successes in the war, would have been impossible without the horsemanship skills of Indigenous Australians. Former Australian Ambassador to Israel, Chris Cannan9, and Australian Light Horse Director, Barry Rodgers10 have recently acknowledged this. One such contributor was William Rawlings, who led a bayonet charge in Morlancourt and received the Military Medal (See: Appendix C)11. This indicates Indigenous Australians were offered leadership

This essay argues Indigenous Australians provided unique

roles in the war due to their unique skills. Therefore, history

tactical and military contributions to Australia’s war efforts

matters, as revisiting history helps unveil the contributions

in WWI and were not sufficiently recognised. Indeed,

of Indigenous Australians to the Australian national story.

sufficient recognition is necessary to aid the reconciliation process today, as only a truthful account of history will assist in reckoning with the errors of the past. It is for this reason, I argue, that history matters: the revision of history is significant, as historical knowledge allows us to challenge Australia’s dominant narrative and dismantle the structures of white supremacy.

1. CONTRIBUTIONS MADE While the war efforts of Indigenous Australians have been erased from the dominant narrative of the ANZAC, their service within the AIF had demonstrable impacts. As Indigenous Australians were present in almost every branch of the AIF3, it is clear these soldiers conquered the significant barriers imposed upon their capacity to serve. The discrimination meant that many soldiers had to claim to be ‘half-caste’ to be permitted to enlist (See: Appendix A)4. Indeed, as many Indigenous Australians were refused entry to the First AIF5 hundreds served in the Second AIF6 as well as militias later in the war, when Imperial reinforcements were depleted7. Indigenous Australian soldier Albert

2. CONTRIBUTIONS IGNORED The absence of Indigenous stories from the dominant record of Australian history can be attributed to two factors: the prejudices established in the community; and the political effort to minimise their achievements and uphold the unjust norms of White Australia. Despite the valency Indigenous soldiers showed, the structural injustices within their home states ensured their contributions were insignificant to wider society. For many Indigenous soldiers, the chance to serve in the AIF offered an escape from the prejudice in the homefront12. A nurse who served in the war recalled there was “no discrimination on the battlefield [nor] in the military hospitals,”13 and a veteran claimed an Indigenous soldier from his unit “was his brother still.”14 This suggests Indigenous Australians were often considered equal to other ANZACs during their service; however, the cultural attitudes of wider Australian society guaranteed their efforts were ignored. These attitudes can be traced in the parliamentary acts of the time: the Aboriginals Ordinance Pymble Ladies’ College

National History Challenge ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1918 Act, for example, increased police powers over

Mara, Darren. “‘Incredible mystery’: The Indigenous

Indigenous peoples and land.15 Therefore, Australia at

soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Accessed

the time was not fertile territory for the recognition of

July 22, 2021. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/incredible-

Indigenous Australians’ contributions to WWI.

mystery-the-indigenous-soldiers-of-the-light-horsebrigade.

Indeed, there was a calculated effort to conceal the significant service of Indigenous soldiers. Indigenous

Darren Mara’s article for SBS News offers an interview with

soldiers received medals and positions of honour, but were

the grandson of an Indigenous soldier who fought in the

not allowed to participate in commemorations. Wounded

charge of the Light Horse Brigade. The interviewee, Ray

and fallen soldiers were not identified, and Indigenous

Minniecon, reveals the truth of his grandfather’s service, as

Australians were not noted on the list of soldiers who had

he details the reasons why Indigenous Australians joined

served.17 As a result, they were denied the money and land

the national war effort and processes involved in their

provided to non-Indigenous soldiers for their service.

enlistment. This proved useful for my research project as

Thus, the political institutions of White Australia conspired

the story Minniecon told sparked my interest in this issue,

to keep society oblivious to the impact of the Indigenous

and prompted me to look further into this particular part

soldiers who fought in the war. Therefore, as the systematic

of Australian history. Whilst consulting this source, I was

erasure of the stories of Indigenous soldiers was designed

exposed to the notion that these stories had been hidden

to uphold the structures of white supremacy, the revision

from Australia, which helped shape my investigation into

and study of history matters if we are to unravel the

the significance of understanding the truth of Australia’s

injustices of White Australia.

past. Indeed, as this source contained other primary

3. CONTRIBUTION TO RECONCILIATION

sources, including photographs of Indigenous Australian soldiers, it was clear that Indigenous soldiers formed a

Though the stories of Indigenous Australian soldiers have

significant part of the AIF.

not been widely told within the classrooms of our nation,

“Australian Indigenous service during World War I.”

on history’s page, or on the screen, appreciating their

Anzac Portal. Accessed July 24, 2021. https://

stories is a prerequisite for reconciliation. This has been

anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/

recognised by current and past national leaders. In his Sorry

personnel/indigenous-service.

Speech in 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd claimed that the first step toward reconciliation is taken by acknowledging the past.19 20This is because progress cannot be possible

This page on the ANZAC Portal website provided an abundance of information on the enlistment of Indigenous

without addressing and redressing wrongs.

Australians, documenting the struggles they overcame

The State of Reconciliation in Australia Report states that

page also provided specific examples of many Indigenous

a lack of appreciation of historical and cultural injustice

soldiers who had fought in the War and received

suffered by Indigenous Australians must be addressed

honourable awards and positions. This was particularly

for Australia to reconcile.21 In the wake of Rudd’s Sorry

important to my research as it helped me understand that,

Speech, discovering lost parts of history gives Australia the

not only did Indigenous soldiers serve and fight in the

opportunity to acknowledge the sacrifice of Indigenous

war, but they had great importance in the AIF. Through

soldiers, and give them the recognition they deserve.

understanding the significance of Indigenous soldiers

Indeed, it is just as important that we learn about the

to the Charge of the Light Horse, I was able to research

historiography of Indigenous Australians’ contribution to the

further into the unique contributions these soldiers

war, as it is to learn about the history of their contributions.

brought to the battlefield, allowing me to measure their

By understanding why their contributions were erased from

contributions to the AIF. I also learnt more about the way

history, we can acknowledge the way prejudiced cultural

they were treated equally within the AIF, and this revealed

attitudes can infiltrate the writing of history, and ensure this

to me many of the reasons Indigenous soldiers were so

is not repeated. History matters, and the learning of lost

keen to enlist.

and freedom they gained through service in the war. This

truths from history matters, because only then can amends be made and mistakes be fixed. Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIAN SOLDIERS

Gall, Sally. “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers.” North Queensland Register. Accessed July 27, 2021. https://www.northqueenslandregister.com.au/ story/5039523/indigenous-soldiers-honoured-in-israel/ Sally Gall’s news article provided specific information focusing on the impact Indigenous Australians had in the Charge of the Light Horse. Her article details the unique horsemanship skills of these soldiers, which made them so valuable in this particular part of the war, and the success it brought to the Allies. This was significant to my research process as it helped to demonstrate that, not only did these Indigenous soldiers serve in the War, but they had skills that other ANZACs did not. Thus, I was able to understand that certain military strategies may not have been executed without the contributions of these soldiers, validating their significance in the AIF. Furthermore, there were quotations from prominent figures with expert knowledge on Australian military history: figures, like Australian Light Horse Director Barry Rodgers, who recognised the contributions of Indigenous soldiers. This revealed to me that cultural change is occurring, as the efforts of these soldiers are being more widely recognised and appreciated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Bean, Charles. “Commonwealth of Australia Gazette No 39.” Commonwealth of Australia Gazette. May 17, 1915. Retrieved from: “Charles Bean’s first report from Gallipoli 1915.” Anzac Portal. Last modified July 23, 2020. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/where-australians-served/gallipoli/landin g-anzaccove/beans-first-report. Distinguished conduct medal (DCM). c. 1916. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved from: “Albert Knight.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified August 25, 2020. https://www.awm.gov. au/learn/schools/resources/anzac-diversity/aboriginal-anzacs/ albert-knight. “Five half-caste brothers enlist,” The Warrnambool Standard, 6 October, 1917. Retrieved from: Trove: National Library of Australia. Accessed August 5, 2021. https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/ article/73969102#. Home and Territories Department. An Ordinance Relating to Aboriginals. Ordained by the Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia, R. C. M. Ferguson. No. 9 of 1918. The Northern Territory of Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, 1918. Accessed August 12, 2021. https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/ resources/transcripts/nt5_doc_1918.pdf. Mara, Darren. “Incredible mystery: The Indigenous soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Last modified October 31, 2018. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/incredible-mystery-theindigenous-soldiers-of-the-light-horse-brigade. Rudd, Kevin. “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous People.” Speech, Parliament of Australia, February 13, 2008. Australian Government. https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/ourpeople/apology-to-australias-indigenous-peoples. Secondary Sources: Journal Articles Phelps, Claire. “Aboriginal Contribution to Australian War Efforts: Proving Their Citizenship?” MHIS201 Indigenous Settler Relations from 1750, vol. II, no. 1 (2014): 81-89. Secondary Sources: Websites “Albert Knight.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified August 25, 2020. https://www.awm.gov.au/learn/schools/resources/anzacdiversity/aboriginal-anzacs/albert-knight. “Australian Light Horse in World War I.” Anzac Portal. Last modified August 24, 2021. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/military-organisation/australian-imperial-f orce/ australian-light-horse. “Charles Bean’s first report from Gallipoli 1915.” Anzac Portal. Last modified July 23, 2020. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/ww1/where-australians-served/gallipoli/landin g-anzaccove/beans-first-report. Crotty, Martin. “The birth of a nation? Gallipoli, trial and trauma.” ABC. Last modified April 24, 2020. https://www.abc. net.au/religion/the-birth-of-a-nation-gallipoli-trial-andtrauma/10094786. Dow, Coral and Gardiner-Garden John. “Overview of Indigenous Affairs: Part 1: 1901 to 1991.” Parliament of Australia. Last modified May 10, 2011. https://www.aph.gov.au/about_parliament/ parliamentary_departments/parliamentary_library/pub s/bn/1011/ indigenousaffairs1. Gall, Sally. “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers.” North Queensland Register. Last modified November 11, 2017. https://www.northqueenslandregister.com.au/story/5039523/ indigenous-soldiers-honoured-in-israel/.

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National History Challenge

BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONTINUED)

FOOTNOTES

Hirst, John. “Anzac Day: the curious notion of Australia’s ‘birth’ at Gallipoli.” The Sydney Morning Herald. Last modified April 24, 2014. https://www.smh.com.au/opinion/anzac-day-the-curious-notion-ofaustralias-birth-at-gallipoli-201 40424-zqyll.html.

1 John Hirst, “Anzac Day: the curious notion of Australia’s ‘birth’ at Gallipoli,” The Sydney Morning Herald, accessed August 16, 2021.

“Indigenous Defence Service.” Australian War Memorial. Last modified March 10, 2021. https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/ indigenous. Lee, Tim. “‘They were back to being black’: The land withheld from returning Indigenous soldiers.” ABC News. Last modified April 24, 2019. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-14/land-withheld-fromindigenous-anzacs/10993680. Mara, Darren. “Incredible mystery: The Indigenous soldiers of the Light Horse Brigade.” SBS News. Last modified October 31, 2018. https:// www.sbs.com.au/news/incredible-mystery-the-indigenous-soldiersof-the-light-horse-brigade. McCulloch, Amber. “Indigenous Australian soldiers in First World War.” British Council. Last modified December 3, 2014. https://www. britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/indigenous-australian-soldiersfirst-world-war. Powell, Marg. “Queensland’s Indigenous Light Horse Men.” State Library of Queensland. Last modified October 31, 2017. https://www. slq.qld.gov.au/blog/queenslands-indigenous-light-horse-men. Rudd, Kevin. “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous People.” Australian Government. https://info.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/ our-people/apology-to-australias-indigenous-peoples. “Serving their country.” AIATSIS. https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/servingtheir-country#:~:text=More%20than%201000%20Aborigina l%20 and,in%20the%20 Second%20World%20War. “World War I: Indigenous Anzacs.” National Archives of Australia. https://www.naa.gov.au/learn/learning-resources/learning-resourcethemes/war/world-war-i/worl d-war-i-indigenous-anzacs.

2 “Serving their country,” AIATSIS, accessed July 24, 2021. 3 Sally Gall, “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers,” North Queensland Register, accessed July 27, 2021. 4 “Five half-cast brothers enlist,” Warrnambool Standard, 6 October, 2021. 5 Coral Dow and John Gardiner-Garden, “Overview of Indigenous Affairs: Part 1: 1901 to 1991,” Parliament of Australia, accessed July 27, 2021. 6 “Indigenous Defence Service,” Australian War Memorial, accessed July 22, 2021. 7

“Indigenous Defence Service,” Australian War Memorial.

8 “Albert Knight,” Australian War Memorial, accessed July 24, 2021. 9 “Light Horse highlights role of Aboriginal soldiers,” North Queensland Register 10 On a recent commemorative tour of the Middle East, Rodgers argued, “It took us some time to realise how good horsemen they were… That [made] them good soldiers too.” 11 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal, accessed July 24, 2021. 12 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 13 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 14 “Australian Indigenous service during World War I,” Anzac Portal. 15 R C M Furguson, “Aboriginals Ordinance No. 9 of 1918”, Northern Territory, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918. Accessed July 15, 2021. 16 “World War One’s forgotten Anzacs: The Indigenous Army,” BBC News, accessed July 20, 2021. 17 JOL Admin, “WW1 Indigenous Roll of Honour,” State Library of Queensland, accessed July 24, 2021 . 18 Tim Lee, “They were back to being black: The land withheld from returning Indigenous soldiers,” ABC. News, accessed July 26, 2021. 19 In the Sorry Speech, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd stated, “We today take this first step by acknowledging the past and laying claim to a future that embraces all Australians.” 20 Kevin Rudd, “Apology to Australia’s Indigenous peoples,” Australian Government, accessed August 5, 2021. 21 The State of Reconciliation in Australia. Reconciliation Australia, 2016. Accessed July 30, 2021.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Hanna Cheung 1. Where did the inspiration for your work come from? Having lived in a world where everything seemed stagnant – culture, social norms, and everything else – I’ve always been interested in exploring what ‘culture’ meant in Australia. Theoretically, the hybrid culture in Australia should make it an ideal society for everyone yet, as a cultural minority, I struggled to truly

This taught me that guidelines are helpful, but it

understand this ‘diversity’ and find my place in

takes time for us to learn how to utilise them in

this community. Through my discursive piece,

the most effective ways.

I wanted to encapsulate the complexity of Australia’s culture. 2. What was the most memorable thing learned from researching your topic/project? The most memorable thing was coming

4. How did you overcome the challenges? Talking to friends and teachers about their opinion has always been helpful and enlightening. It strengthened my attempt to portray a more vivid image of Australia. In

to accept the fluidity of culture and the

addition to using the guidelines, I also got

imperfection it contains. Initially, I tried to

a few trusted friends to read over my work

portray Australia as a country of diversity (as

and provide some feedback. I discussed the

we have been taught), but through researching

feedback with them and then made changes

different perspectives and reflecting upon my

accordingly.

own experience, I realised that there are still many hidden flaws in our society that needs to be represented. I could only present a holistic

5. Complete this line. Research is… an exploration of the world and yourself.

picture by displaying a delicate balance between the flaws and beauty of Australia’s diversity. 3. What challenges did you come across in your research? As this was my first discursive essay, I tried to ‘tick all the boxes’ in my first draft — using humour, anecdotes, etc. But when I reviewed the importance of the criteria, the result was a piece that did not reflect my opinion. Working on my second draft, I paid less attention to meeting the rubric by just going with my flow. After the draft, I used the guideline to adjust certain sections, ensuring that my writing still aligned with the form of a discursive essay.

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Creative writing Australia: breaking the boundaries of culture BY HANNA CHEUNG, YEAR 10, 2021 I remembered seeing ‘The Balcony’ by Brett Whitley in an art gallery. The large canvas was spread with ultramarine blue, with a few casual boats resting like quills on the water that undulated with the wind. I thought, is this us? In Australia, more than 7.5 million more yachts travelled from abroad, floating mindlessly on the ocean, pretending that we have found our harbour of rest, when really, we are lost. Everything in sight has become a synecdoche of Australia, a mix, a conglomeration of no definition. Looking on the surface, Australia’s multiculturalism is flourishing more abundantly than ever, but how do we define culture, when the passing of a second can instantaneously change the shape of the water? It has always been accepted that culture can only be created under the presence of time. New York Times’

We arrived at an unprecedented era where technology and communication can re-write how culture should be depicted. Why do we have to be confined by the restriction, that culture must be singular? Eventually mankind will have to accept that globalisation will force us all to view humanity as one entity. Regardless of what perspective, globalisation is inevitable, and perhaps it is time for the world to learn from our country. Australian economist Dr Henry Ken argues, “Throughout…history, Australia has benefited greatly from its generally internationalist orientation across economic, financial, social and inter-governmental dimensions… we will continue to benefit from being an open economy.” We should no longer be confined by the restriction that culture is singular; that we must fit into a certain shape to be defined as “someone”.

Australia Bureau Chief, Damien Cave expresses: “What I

Australia’s political interactions and economic vitality is

experienced there suggests that this [Australia] is a country

evidence of their active global engagement. Its success to

where the demand for culture is greater than the supply.”

attract immigrants and multinational corporations displays

When culture becomes a commodity, a quantifiable

that it is not impossible to encapsulate multiple cultures.

object, Australia is considered inferior compared to the

So, what caused the polarised opinions on Australia’s

other nations. The equation of history told us that culture

cultural diversity?

can only be formed under traditions, rituals, and a social structure firmly consolidated and imprinted into the local populations. So, is Australia too “young”?

Perhaps it is Australia’s diversity that made it difficult for individuals to relate to the collective multiculturalism. Scattered across the sky, our culture is yet to find

“Authenticity”, “independence” and “completion” seemed

an astronomer to connect the stars to plot the true

to be the essence of every culture. As Harari referred to

constellation of Australia.

in Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind: “cultures left to their own devices and did not change”. Indeed, during the past centuries, culture developed and blossomed, and the vast difference between isolated different regions is what made them identifiable and distinctly unique. And where does Australia stand? Out of the boundaries of what culture should be.

In isolation I float in Australia’s water, made of molecules too complex and diverse for me to combine with. As we proceed to become an increasingly diverse community, we question the necessity of moulding “culture” into the shape that it must be. Culture is a dynamic concept, that respond to changes in through its interaction with the external environment

The history of civilisation is too long, and our nation is too

and can transition internally from developments and

“young” for a culture to be manifested.

revolutions. The acceptance and concept of culture will

Yet Australia is different. Australia is an embodiment, a microcosm of globalisation in the 21st century. Change, as it appears, has always been inevitable.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

never stay still. Instead, it is determined by a range of factors, that will amalgamate all traditions as one. We are all yachts that travel on the Earth’s ocean, finding our directions through the journey of time.

Open your eyes and see what you can with them before they close forever BY HELENA TANG , YEAR 7, 2021 So little time left. Storm clouds gathered all around her like a pack of wolves surrounding their prey. The threat of thunder echoed through the night air, as streaks of silvery lightning illuminated the darkness. The storm was far away, for now, but it still filled her heart with fear. “Nera.” She heard it. It was barely a whisper, but she turned

straight in the eyes. “No.” it was all she said. Noah sighed in frustration and whispered again, this time she could see him trying to control his temper, “Listen here, they have guns they can shoot us, if we both run, we both will die! If they catch me, I could save you time! For God’s sake, run!”

around and saw her brother Noah looking at her, pale

Before Nera could even protest, he ran towards the Nazis.

faced. “We need to go.” He spoke in a rush, putting his

“No!” she shrieked, but somehow, she couldn’t move.

hand on his forehead as if it hurt, “The storm will come,

“Move, you idiot! Move and help him!” she thought angrily

and they will find us. Besides, they could tell that we are

to herself.

Jews.” He glared at the azure darkness engraved onto his arm – tattoos. Nera winced at the reminder of being Jewish and nodded without saying anything, after all, there was nothing to say.

The Nazis looked surprised at the bravery of Noah; perhaps they had never seen anyone so brave running towards them. Under a different circumstance, Nera would’ve been proud, she would’ve smiled and felt

Suddenly, a loud bang pierced in the air. Nera turned

grateful that he was her brother. But things have changed,

around immediately and widened her eyes as two

and right now she could do nothing. Tears were already

silhouettes grew bigger and bigger – Nazis. “Stop right

threatening to spill down her cheeks. She stared at Noah

there!” one of them barked loudly. Noah grabbed Nera’s

and saw him look back one last time, and the look on

hand and began to run. Terror stabbed Nera hard in the

his face almost broke her heart. There was no fear, only

chest and panic flared in her eyes. The thought of that

pure sadness; that he was sorry that this had to happen,

wretched concentration camp began to regrow in her

but there was also love. His hazel eyes were so kind, it

mind as the Nazis came closer and clenched her jaw.

was like the radiated sun with inner gold, they were the

Paris was supposedly a beautiful place, the city of love it is

softest brown infused with green, as if he held the new

named, but there was not much love there for her. She left

spring growth inside. There was something in his eyes that

her ill mother all alone just for a slim chance of survival.

brought Nera home, it reminded her of the good old days

Her face flushed red of guilt and anger, contemplating

when she was little.

whether she could take it anymore.

There was so much to say, but Nera knew there wasn’t

Panting, Nera tried her best to keep up with Noah’s pace.

time. She could not believe that the hardest thing she

Gut-wrenching, heart pumping— after several thrusts

would ever do was to do nothing at all. Tears shimmered

forward her legs became tired. But she knew she mustn’t

in her eyes, and with one last look, she turned and started

stop. Bang! The Nazis continued to chase them and shot

running, without any thoughts of where she was running.

in the air. “Stop or I’ll shoot!” Nera wasn’t planning to stop,

She wiped her tears and bit her lip hard, trying not to burst

but Noah suddenly stopped running and turned around.

into tears while running. Nera’s shoes pounded heavily

“What are you doing!” Nera hissed. “Go!” he whispered urgently in a hard tone, “I’ll save time, you run while I let them catch me. You can escape!” Nera’s eyes welled up with tears. How could he ask her something like this? Just to abandon him like they were strangers?

She shook her head stubbornly and looked at Noah

across the ground causing mud to splash up her leg. She was going to climb up to a tree but her actions were stopped when a loud bang echoed. Nera turned around as quickly as a cheetah, and saw something that almost killed her. It was Noah, and the Nazis were nowhere to be seen.

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Historical fiction Noah was lying on the ground, blood streaming down his

Suddenly, Nera felt something drop onto her skin. She

chest. He was not moving. People would have thought

looked up and saw gray clouds over her head. Rain was

that he was sleeping, but the wounds made it impossible

dripping from the trees, whooshing as the heaven opened.

to think that. The colour drained from Nera’s face, and a nameless dread engulfed her, and she felt something disappear in her – the hole in her heart was almost as real as the hole on Noah’s chest. He was gone. Gone forever. Realising that she will never see his smiles again, Nera’s world collapsed, the light turned into shadows, and pain came and went like waves on an icy beach. Ever since the beginning, Noah had been by her side. If she looks back to the roads and paths they’ve traveled, there will always be one pair of footprints next to her. And now, even though she called Noah’s name, the connection had disappeared... he disappeared… Finally, she knew that the time had come for her to travel alone.

Nera curled up into a ball and settled herself against a tree, knowing that this time no umbrella would go up and cover the rain, no Noah would draw her closer and try to protect her from the rain. Nera sat there for hours, lost in sadness and memories. Her skin was so pale because the rain had kissed it too hard. But she was not even cold anymore, for her heart was empty already. The rain had stopped, but the emptiness and pain were still there. A silhouette of a person interrupted her thoughts, it was a woman walking towards her. Nera scrambled up from the ground and stared at the woman with intensity. She put her hand on the tree trunk to steady herself, as if she had already lost the strength to stand

Nera sat on the ground, staring endlessly into the cold

properly. “Who are you?” Nera demanded, surprising herself

grounds of Earth as if her whole world had been torn in

with her steady voice. The woman looked at her back, and

half. Pain and hatred burned in her heart. The brightest

let a moment of silence pass between them, then said

star in her sky had disappeared, like a meteor, disappeared

gently with a heavy French accent, “My name is Mary. I live

in the blink of an eye. She loved Noah more than anything

in the white house over there,” she pointed at a house upon

in the world, but it looks like heaven loved him even more.

the hill, “I am sorry for what has happened, I saw everything

In Nera’s life, there were four people that she loved and would have done anything for. Her Papa was one of them. She remembered that his laugh was always full of

from my bedroom. Please come with me, for I have food and I could hide you under my cellar. And you also need new clothes,” she added.

happiness, she could almost see his face in her mind:

But Nera could see that her eyes were already set on the

greying hair, hazel eyes like Noah’s. She also thought

tattoo on her arm. She didn’t say anything at first and her

of her Mama, the kind, selfless mother who had done

face went blank. Another choice to make. Could she trust

everything she could for her children, her blue eyes that

this woman who she knew nothing about, now that the

always reminded Nera of freedom, and her smile warmer

woman knew her identity? She stayed standing for a long

than the sun. Then there was little James, the little boy

time, looking at the woman as if trying to read a book. The

who was always in his room, playing with his toys and

woman looked nice enough. She had scruffy, brown hair

treating them like they were his most precious treasures,

and blue eyes with a lighter shade than her mother’s, but

and Nera loved the way his face would brighten up

Nera had learned the lesson where you can’t see people

whenever he heard the doorbell ring, which meant that

from the way they look. In the end, she decided to trust

his parents had come back from work. At last, there was

this woman, after all she was exhausted, hungry and

Noah, the older brother who was always protective of

desperate for new clothes. Nera gave Mary a firm nod and

her. Many of Nera’s friends had complained about their

mumbled a quick “Thank you”.

annoying brothers, but she never did. Her brothers were angels sent from God to her.

“There is an organisation where people come and help Jewish children”, Mary told her. “We are trying our best to

Four people she loved so fiercely, and the Nazis had taken

save as many as possible, but it’s hard to do something

them all away. Now, all that was left was pain.

good when there are people watching your every move.” Nera didn’t reply, instead she just nodded and looked back at the place where Noah fell, one last time…

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

OPEN YOUR EYES AND SEE WHAT YOU CAN

When she arrived at Mary’s house, she was scared and

And Noah would walk in the front, leading the way. Nera

cautious, afraid that Mary could betray her and hand her in

could often hear girls who walked past giggling and

to the Nazis. But after a few days of living under the cellar,

pointing at him. He was quite handsome at the age of

she began to trust the woman. Mary was very kind to her,

fifteen, with his shoulders broad and looking like a young

she gave Nera enough food and water and sometimes

man. Nera was proud of him, proud that he was her older

came up to clean the cellar.

brother. She might be homeless now, but there was a time

The actions of giving her food and cleaning up the cellar meant something. It didn’t make Nera trust her completely, but it was a start. The cellar was dirty, sometimes under the moonlight she could see rats and cockroaches. Every night, at first it usually seemed pitch black inside, but a tiny, barred window near the ceiling would always admit a sliver of light. Then Nera would get used to the dark, she sometimes would be woken up by the noise of running, then she would realise in the end that it was a large rat. But Nera learned to be grateful for what she had – a hiding place. Every day around six o’clock, Mary or her husband would come up and give her some water and bread. The bread wasn’t as good as the ones at home, but again, Nera wondered if she still had one. Each night Mary would come and tell her things she had read from the newspaper. A group of people called the Judenrat are causing problems for the Jewish people, and people are being removed from the ghettos to go to the concentration camp. The ghettos weren’t so pleasant with

no running, no crying, no loss. Nera remembered the start of the war. There had been rumours, but who knew that war could start so quickly? She could almost remember what it smelled like in the ghettos, the crying and the yelling. Nera thought of James’s dead body, lying on the floor like an abandoned doll, unwanted. She thought of Papa’s smiles that were taken away, the Nazis had taken away the sparkle in his eyes and left them a sober grey. They have also taken the red in Mama’s lips and cheeks. The labour was too harsh. Everyday people came back from work and collapsed on the floor, never to move again. One day, Nera and her family saw a cart coming into the ghettos and took many Jewish men with them, papa was one of the taken men. The following day, her family were taken to a concentration camp in Paris. They all suffered hunger and desperation, and unfortunately, little James did not make it to the end.

hard work every day, but there’s always something worse

Nera looked up to the night sky many times and counted all

for the Jews. “The Nazis are cunning,” Mary sighed. “They

the stars, she counted the times where people were kind,

organised a group of Jewish people called Judenrat like the

so that she could remember what it’s like to be grateful.

rabbis and tried to create conflicts and hatred between the Jews, so they don’t have the ability to fight back or start an uprising. Isn’t it awful?” Mary was not a Jew, but she was a kind-hearted woman. She told Nera that last year she rescued another Jewish girl, but unfortunately they were caught and the girl was killed. Luckily, she and her husband escaped and moved to the edge of the border in France in the unoccupied zone. Often, when Nera felt a huge sense of longing in her heart of her family and past, she would reminisce about them in Paris, walking down the streets, her Papa laughing and saying ‘hello’ to even strangers. Mama would usually hold little James’ hand while he begged and begged for her to let go, so he could run around. Nera always looks around and sees what’s going on. Sometimes they would pass her best friend Sona’s house and she would open her eyes trying to see if she could see Sona from the window.

for her where happiness glowed inside her, where there’s

Sometimes things cannot be fixed, they can only be carried; grief and loss are one of them. You cannot let all the hatred and pain inside you wrap you around. It’s like an old saying of drinking – “At first a man takes a drink, then the drink takes the man”, It is sad but true. We do lose ourselves in pain and sadness – it prevents us from loving again. And what’s the point of a life without love? What is humanity? It is a word for the qualities that make humans humans. During the war, Nera has seen so many horrible things. People were being selfish, cruel and unkind. But even in the darkest of times, there’s light in it. After all, like what her favourite quote always said, “Stars can’t shine without darkness”. Nera had seen so many beautiful things, she has seen someone treat people kindly like Mary who helped her who no one else could. She has seen her own brother, who was the kindest person she’d ever known, sacrifice himself just to give her time.

Pymble Ladies’ College

Historical fiction

She saw people being cruel, like when the Nazis shot

And if I can tell my younger self one thing, I would say,

Noah without hesitation. She had seen people being

“Open your eyes and see what you can with them before

greedy like when Hitler was trying to take over the whole

they close forever – for there are so many great things

of Europe, even the whole world. But isn’t that what

in our lives even in the dark, waiting to be discovered.

humanity is? And isn’t that what life is about? Trying to

“Because after all, it’s what makes humans different from

find light in the darkness. Trying to be the light. War really

other organisms on Earth – humans have the ability to see”.

brings out the best and the worst from people. Nera remembered one day her mother asked her, “Do you know why I named you Nera?” She had shaken her head, puzzled. And then her mother told her the answer, “In Hebrew the name Nera means light and candle. I want you to be the light and also be able to see the light even when days are dark and stars don’t shine”. Those words had followed her since. So just like this, she hid in the cellar after days and days, weeks and weeks, months and months. During the time, Nera cried for her family, but she smiled when she thought of the gifts God had made her, her family, her friends and Mary. After years of living together, Nera felt great love for Mary, without her she would not be here, hiding in a cellar, with bread and water. Even though she had lost so many things, Nera was willing to love. Slowly and slowly, Nera even began to call Mary “mother”. In the end, Nera wrote what she had thought and learned in her life on a piece of paper. When she wrote it, she felt like she just gained all the pieces she lost in her life. “My family would be proud,” she thought to herself as she wrote on the paper. When she finished, she kneeled down on the floor and said softly, but clearly, “Mama, Papa, Noah, Jamie. I realised something important, so important that I need to tell you this now”. Nera took a deep breath, and began, “I realised that as humans, we should all love, and try to see that there are so many great things right in front of our eyes, even when times are dark. We as humans should open our hearts and eyes wide, and try to find the beauty in life. We should look at the beauty of nature like the blossomed flowers and the gentle whispers of the forests as the wind dances past. We should look at the beauty of words when someone just comes and says hello and smiles that beautiful, bright smile. Look at the good side of humanity, even though sometimes we are drawn to the darkness”.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Assess the curatorial processes at the National Museum of Australia in response to changing attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia BY ALICE DIXON, YEAR 12, 2021 Attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia have changed dramatically throughout history and the National Museum of Australia (NMA), Canberra, is currently the leading institution reflecting contemporary attitudes. The NMA was constructed to represent the culture and history of First Nations people, an element of history that was silenced until the emergence of post-colonial thought in the 1970s. Repatriation of human remains, and sacred objects of First Nations people is the first stage of the NMA’s curatorial process and is fundamental in showing society’s greater acceptance and empathy towards First Nations people. To further reflect today’s increasingly respectful attitude towards First Nations people, the NMA includes First Nations people in the process of curating the displays at the NMA and deciding what is and what is not to be included. However, although the NMA’s curatorial process is inherently well-meaning, it causes harsh complications within the communities of First Nations people. Public attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia have been fluid since Captain James Cook’s 1770 voyage on the Endeavour, Britain’s first contact with Australia, and particularly since the colonisation of Australia in 1788. During colonisation, the British colonisers developed prejudices about the First Nations people they encountered and formed a highly dehumanising attitude towards them. First Nations people were traditionally disregarded as humans and rather viewed as “flora and fauna”.1 This is demonstrated by Sydney Parkinson, the botanical artist on the Endeavour, who included drawings of First Nations people in his collection of illustrations dedicated to plants and animals in Australia.2 As Australia’s colonisation progressed, First Nations people were included in public history, albeit through the dehumanising

of the dehumanising attitude toward First Nations people and as stated by Alice Procter, it demonstrated how “institutions were complicit in the dehumanisation of colonised and racialized communities”.4 The colonisation of Australia caused the development of the dehumanised attitude towards First Nations people that once included in public history, museums further amplified. Post-colonialism, a movement that began in the late 1970s and continues to develop today, has been a driving force in the movement away from the dehumanising view of First Nations people, and a transition to a more inclusive and culturally sensitive attitude. A dramatic increase in advocacy and activism by First Nations people challenged the views of British Australians and their voices started being heard. Post-colonial historians began constructing histories that offered a voice to population groups that were typically marginalised throughout history. According to Dr Michael Pickering, Senior Repatriation Advisor at the NMA, the 1990s was the first time museums demonstrated this sense of cultural sensitivity towards First Nations people, specifically with the redevelopment of the Melbourne Museum in 1997.5 The increased consideration for First Nations people and recognition of their culture provoked new expectations of public history institutions. First Nations communities have been regarded as having a “Treasure Box” which involves the “heritage and history of the community”, and that public history has an obligation to uphold the “protection and celebration of this Treasure Box”.6 This post-colonial expectation of public history is explicitly seen in the NMA that opened on 11 March 2001, which aimed to respectfully recognise and represent the “Treasure Box” of First Nations people. With post-colonial attitudes gaining immense popularity by the 1990s, the NMA adopted this and became more culturally sensitive towards First Nations people, in comparison to museums during Australia’s colonial period.

lens of the colonists. The First Nations people were treated

Despite the prevailing positive post-colonial attitude

as natural history, resulting in their human remains and

towards First Nations people at the inception of the

sacred objects being predominantly included in natural

NMA in 2001, large controversy surrounded the NMA’s

history museums.3 This acted as a physical representation

construction. The design and construction of the NMA Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History were led by Dawn Casey, a First Nations woman whose

organisations and both Australian and overseas

work was criticised by John Howard, the Australian Prime

museums.15 The NMA’s recognition of the cultural

Minister at the time. One of the NMA’s three primary

significance that these materials have for First Nations

aims was, and still is, to represent “Aboriginal and Torres

people shows that the acceptance of changing attitudes

Strait Islander history and culture”, recognising First

towards First Nations people has led to a culturally

Nations people as having a past rich in heritage and

sensitive repatriation process at the NMA. Furthermore,

culture, a direct shift from the traditional notion that

the NMA has repatriated over 350 sacred objects and 1700

First Nations people were animalistic and insignificant.

individual remains to First Nations people,16 demonstrating

The original architectural design of the NMA featured a

that the NMA has been active in its written commitment

large braille design spelling out ‘sorry’, in reference to the

to repatriation. The Repatriation Unit at the NMA is funded

Stolen Generations, reflecting society’s more empathetic

by a multitude of organisations including the museum

attitude towards First Nations people. However, Howard

itself, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission

heavily criticised this design, claiming it “privileged” First

and the Return of Indigenous Cultural Property.17 This is

Nations people,9 and he ordered it be removed. This act

highly significant as it shows repatriation is a priority for

exemplifies Howard’s refusal to apologise for the Stolen

the NMA in respecting First Nations People and it suggests

Generations and it contributes to the ‘Black armband’ view

that the NMA has a desire to gain support to improve the

of history that he previously condemned in his 1996 Sir

repatriation process for First Nations people. Repatriation

Robert Menzies Lecture.10 Geoffrey Blainey, in his Sir John

plays a fundamental role in demonstrating the NMA’s

Latham Memorial Lecture, first used the ‘Black armband’

active acknowledgement of the spiritual and cultural

term to describe perspectives on history that view the

beliefs of First Nations people and therefore, reflects the

historical treatment of marginalised groups as “a disgrace”,

NMA’s adoption of the dominant post-colonial attitude

sparking the ‘Black Armband History Wars’.11 Howard

towards First Nations people.

encouraged this view by not supporting the NMA’s attempt to explicitly reflect the empathetic attitude towards First Nations people that dominated society at the time, making the construction of the NMA highly controversial. Therefore, although the prevailing post-colonial attitudes towards First Nations people were empathetic, inclusive, and more culturally sensitive, Howard’s controversial perspective limited the extent to which the NMA could reflect the prevailing societal attitudes.

Although repatriation is a highly effective means of reflecting the NMA’s acceptance of changing attitudes towards First Nations people, it poses significant ethical issues within First Nations communities. Burying the deceased is an important spiritual practice that is traditionally undertaken and involves cultural practices such as sprinkling the body with ochre, putting the body in a tree or wrapping it in bark to rest for several months before burying it.18 However, traditional practices were

The first step of the NMA’s curatorial process, repatriation,

disrupted by historical events of grave robbing and the

successfully demonstrates the NMA’s acknowledgement

development of body farms.19 Many of these displaced

of the contemporary notion that First Nations people

human remains and sacred objects are now located at

are the custodians of their communities’ human remains

the NMA because under the Aboriginal and Torres Strait

and sacred objects. Major Sumner, a First Nations Elder,

Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984, the NMA is the

asserts that “Our [First Nations people’s] belief is that

legally prescribed authority of remains and objects.20

when our people’s remains are not with their people and

As the NMA will not display these materials, they are

in our country then their spirit is wandering”.12 Michael

repatriated, placing First Nations people in an incredibly

Mansell, a First Nations lawyer, further added, “The spirits

uncomfortable position as they are left to decide what is

of our [First Nations people] dead are disturbed by being

the ethically appropriate way to handle human remains

separated from their bodies.” To respect these spiritual

and sacred objects.21 Concerning human remains,

beliefs, the NMA “does not actively seek to acquire” human

communities have had to consider whether the bodies

remains or sacred objects and no remains that it holds will

should be buried but, this would technically be a ‘reburial’,

be used in its collections and displays.14 Any remains or

a ceremony lacking tradition and process. This requires

sacred objects that the NMA currently has, even those not

communities to discuss what the ceremony should

displayed, have been donated from various communities,

involve so that it remains respectful to the deceased and

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

FIRST NATIONS PEOPLE IN AUSTRALIA

their culture. This occurred in 2002 when 21 remains of

This suggests that the NMA’s repatriation process lacks

First Nations people were repatriated to La Perouse in

consideration for the objects and remains once they have

Sydney and reburied by their descendants. A particular

left the museum and the risk they pose to communities.

ethical issue that arises is the location of the ‘reburial’

Although repatriation is highly successful in reflecting the

because often the remains cannot be buried in their

contemporary attitudes towards First Nations people, it

original location due to urban development. Therefore,

is limited in its effectiveness as it sparks concern for the

the repatriation process raises concerns for First Nations

protection of the repatriated materials and creates a social

people around the ethical treatment of their repatriated

divide between community members.

items.

Reflecting the increasingly accepting attitudes towards

The NMA recognises that First Nations people require

First Nations people, the NMA has been significantly

additional support during the repatriation process as

progressive in relation to the representation of First

their communities are typically disadvantaged, reflecting

Nations people in their displays. Traditionally, museum

the museum’s incorporation of an empathetic attitude.

curators included whichever objects or human remains

Often First Nations people call for materials to be

they wished to showcase, whereas contemporary attitudes

repatriated, despite not having the facilities or capacity

towards First Nations people have shifted tremendously

to reclaim them. For example, in Appin, NSW, they are

and this is no longer ethically acceptable.30 Procter

currently seeking repatriation of human remains from

describes the holding of ancestral remains by public

the 1816 Appin Massacre despite lacking the facilities to

history institutions as an “act of violence” because it “sends

accommodate the thousands of remains.24 Twenty years

a clear message of valuing the body over the person”.31

ago, the NMA addressed this by recognising the Appin

The NMA upholds this view by being highly selective in

community as custodians of the remains and holding

the curation of its displays. During the curation process,

them until the community can reclaim them. This

the NMA deals directly with the relevant descendants and

ongoing agreement demonstrates the NMA’s commitment

custodians of human remains and sacred objects and will

to long-term plans with First Nations people and the

only include them if approved.32 This shows the NMA’s

adoption of society’s more empathetic attitude towards

development of a more complex and culturally sensitive

them. However, repatriation can cause further harm to the

curatorial process in response to the progressive post-

communities of First Nations people that the NMA does

colonial attitudes towards First Nations people. Pickering

not address. Pickering believes the acknowledgement of

commends the NMA’s development by expressing that

the community as the owner of the remains, is recognition

by not including materials of First Nations people in NMA

of the First Nations people’s cultural rights and “an act of

displays, it is in fact, providing a more culturally authentic

empowerment” for the community.26 However, although

experience for its consumers of history.33 This is because

the return of objects is tremendously empowering for the

numerous objects within First Nations communities

communities, it increases the potential for conflict and

were sacred and only able to be used or seen by certain

unrest. Once numerous sacred objects were returned

members of the community such as men or women.

to the Kimberley, Western Australia, a smaller group felt

Therefore, by the NMA accepting the knowledge of First

overpowered by the Elders and so left the community.

Nations communities and not including these items in its

In this case, although the NMA’s intent for the repatriation

displays, the consumers of history gain an experience with

process was culturally sensitive, it negatively impacted the

increased cultural authenticity.

community of the First Nations people by creating a social hierarchy and divide.

Finally, the predominant ‘voice’ of displays at the NMA is carefully developed by curators to uphold the post-

In addition, repatriated materials can remain highly

colonial focus on providing a voice to historically

vulnerable to being stolen or destroyed. The NMA is

marginalised groups. The NMA diminishes the voice of

currently inquiring into a situation (the location cannot yet

the curator and elevates that of First Nations people as

be publicly disclosed) where a box of remains was stolen

seen in the 2015/16 Encounter exhibition which was

from a Land Council Office and left on a nearby park

predominantly the perspective of Shayne Williams, a

bench, vulnerable.29

Dharawal Elder.34

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History

This increased focus on elevating the voice of First Nations people reflects the significant shift in the way First Nations people are represented in museums. According to Procter, the elevation of the voices of First Nations people in displays such as the Encounter exhibition and its text panels creates an “overall tone [that] is personal, emotional, rather than detached and academic” as museums traditionally were.35 The predominant use of the First Nations voice in NMA displays rather than the voice of the curator, combined with the involvement of First Nations people in the curation of materials, allows the NMA to explicitly reflect the increasing acceptance of First Nations people into contemporary society. The NMA makes deliberate choices in its curatorial process to ensure it consistently reflects societal attitudes towards First Nations people. Traditionally First Nations people were included in natural history museums as they were disregarded as humans and perceived as animals. The development of post-colonial thought, and attitudes has been fundamental in the significant shift whereby museums began to provide a platform for First Nations people whose voice were silenced throughout history. Following this, the NMA developed a primary focus on displaying the history of First Nations people, though at first it was limited in this venture due to Howard’s heavy criticism. Despite this, the NMA persisted in its attempts to be culturally sensitive, particularly through placing a strong emphasis on the repatriation of human remains and sacred objects of First Nations people. However, the repatriation process is flawed as it continues to have adverse effects on the communities of First Nations people such as social divides and increased conflict. In contrast, the NMA is successful in creating explicitly post-colonial and highly culturally sensitive displays through strict guidelines for curating displays. Therefore, the curatorial process at the NMA successfully reflects the changing attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia, though at the compromise of First Nations communities.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

FIRST NATIONS PEOPLE IN AUSTRALIA

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984 (1984). https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00937. Augustat, Claudia. ‘Colonising Memory: Indigenous Heritage and Community Engagement’. In Mobile Museums, edited by Felix Driver, Mark Nesbitt, and Caroline Cornish, 283. Collections in Circulation. UCL Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv18kc0px.18. Chynoweth, Adele. ‘The History Wars Are over, Now It’s Time to Get Politics Back in Our Museums’. The Conversation, 2013. http:// theconversation.com/the-history-wars-are-over-now-its-time-toget-politics-back-in-our-museums-12575. Clarke, Philip A. Aboriginal People and Their Plants. Rosenberg, 2011. ‘Ethical Conduct in Research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Communities: Guidelines for Researchers and Stakeholders.’ National Health and Medical Research Council, August 2018. https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/resources/ethicalconduct-research-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-andcommunities.

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Pickering, Michael. A Repatriation Handbook: A Guide to Repatriating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ancestral Remains. 1st ed. Canberra, 2020. https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-2819639431.

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Pickering, Michael. ‘“Dance through the Mineﬁeld”: The Development of Practical Ethics for Repatriation’. In The Routledge Companion to Museum Ethics, 1st Edition., 256–74. Routledge, 2011.

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ABC News. ‘Howard Nearly Got Away with His Protest, until an Eagle-Eyed Engineer Decoded the Writing on the Wall’, 6 March 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-07/national-museum-ofaustralias-secret-message-in-braille/13221782. Infrastructure, Transport, Regional & Comms. Indigenous Repatriation, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4zNLXOCzGOY&feature=emb_logo. Janke, Terri. ‘First Peoples: A Roadmap for Enhancing Indigenous Engagement in Museums and Galleries’. Warralang Projects, 2018. https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/f76062_ c67539d5b2e2433181f66b15ec499d89.pdf. Kaus, David. ‘The Management of Restricted Aboriginal Objects by the National Museum of Australia’, March 2008. https://recollections.nma. gov.au/issues/vol_3_no_1/notes_and_comments/the_management_ of_restricted_aboriginal_objects. Korff, Jens. ‘Aboriginal Remains Repatriation’. Creative Spirits, 2020. https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginalremains-repatriation. Lambert-Pennington, Katherine. ‘What Remains? Reconciling Repatriation, Aboriginal Culture, Representation and the Past’. Oceania 77, no. 3 (2007): 313–14. McCarthy, Greg. ‘The “New” Cultural Wars: “Constructing” the National Museum of Australia.’ Parliament of Australia, 2004. Click here to view. McKenna, Mark. ‘Different Perspectives on Black Armband History’. Parliament of Australia, 1997. Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/ About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/ pubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05. National Museum of Australia. ‘National Museum of Australia – Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ancestral Human Remains Management and Repatriation Policy’, 2019. https://www. nma.gov.au/about/corporate/plans-policies/policies/aboriginal-torresstrait-islander-human-remains.

National Museum of Australia. ‘National Museum of Australia – History of Our Museum’. Accessed 2 June 2021. https://www.nma.gov.au/ about/history.

Pickering, Michael. ‘“The Big Picture”: The Repatriation of Australian Indigenous Sacred Objects’. Museum Management and Curatorship 30, no. 5 (20 October 2015): 427–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/096477 75.2015.1054418. Pickering, Michael. ‘The Supernatural and Sensitive Indigenous Materials: A Workplace Health and Safety Issue?’ Museum Management and Curatorship 35, no. 5 (2 September 2020): 532–50. https://doi.org /10.1080/09647775.2020.1803113. Pickering, Michael. ‘Up Close and Personal. The Management of Sensitive Indigenous Objects at the National Museum of Australia: Sensible Dinge in Museen Und Universitären Sammlungen’. In Nicht Nur Raubkunst!, 273–90, 2017. https://doi. org/10.14220/9783737008082.273. Pickering, Michael. ‘Where Are the Stories?’ The Public Historian 32, no. 1 (2010): 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1525/tph.2010.32.1.79. Pickering, Michael, and Phil Gordon. ‘Repatriation: The End of the Beginning’. National Museum of Australia. National Museum of Australia, 8 June 2011. https://nma.gov.au/research/understandingmuseums/MPickering_PGordon_2011.html. Procter, Alice. The Whole Picture: The Colonial Story of the Art in Our Museums & Why We Need to Talk about It. Octopus Books, 2020. Sculthorpe, Gaye. ‘Same objects, different stories: Exhibiting “Indigenous Australia”’. Journal of Museum Ethnography, no. 30 (2017): 88–89. State Library of NSW. ‘Sydney Parkinson | Captain Cook’s Voyages of Discovery’, 25 January 2016. https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/ captain-cooks-voyages-discovery/sydney-parkinson. PM Transcripts. ‘Transcript 10171 | PM Transcripts’, 1996. https:// pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-10171. Tyrrell, Katherine. ‘About Sydney Parkinson’. Botanical art & artists. Accessed 3 June 2021. https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/ sydney-parkinson.html.

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FOOTNOTES 1. M ichael Pickering, Interview, Discussion with the author, 18 March 2021. 2. ‘ Sydney Parkinson | Captain Cook’s Voyages of Discovery’, State Library of NSW, 25 January 2016, https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/ stories/captain-cooks-voyages-discovery/sydney-parkinson.

23. David Kaus, ‘The Management of Restricted Aboriginal Objects by the National Museum of Australia’, March 2008, https:// recollections.nma.gov.au/issues/vol_3_no_1/notes_and_ comments/the_management_of_restricted_aboriginal_objects. 24. Pickering, Interview.

3. Pickering, Interview.

25. Pickering, Interview.

4. Alice Procter, The Whole Picture: The Colonial Story of the Art in Our Museums & Why We Need to Talk about It (Octopus Books, 2020), 134.

26. Pickering, Interview.

5. Pickering, Interview. 6. D avid Neufeld, ‘Ethics in the Practice of Public History with Aboriginal Communities’, The Public Historian 28, no. 1 (2006): 118–19, https://doi.org/10.1525/tph.2006.28.1.117. 7. G reg McCarthy, ‘The “New” Cultural Wars: “Constructing” the National Museum of Australia.’, Parliament of Australia, 2004, https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display. w3p;query=Id%3A%22media%2Fpressrel%2FZY1F6%22;src1=sm1. 8. ‘ National Museum of Australia – History of Our Museum’, National Museum of Australia, accessed 2 June 2021, https://www.nma.gov. au/about/history.

27. Lambert-Pennington, ‘What Remains?’: 313-14. 28. Pickering, Interview. 29. Pickering, Interview. 30. Claudia Augustat, ‘Colonising Memory: Indigenous Heritage and Community Engagement’, in Mobile Museums, ed. Felix Driver, Mark Nesbitt, and Caroline Cornish, Collections in Circulation (UCL Press, 2021), 283, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv18kc0px.18. 31. Procter, The Whole Picture, 161. 32. Pickering and Gordon, ‘Repatriation: The End of the Beginning’. 33. Pickering, Interview. 34. Procter, The Whole Picture, 134. 35. Procter, The Whole Picture, 134.

9. A dele Chynoweth, ‘The History Wars Are over, Now It’s Time to Get Politics Back in Our Museums’, The Conversation, 2013, http:// theconversation.com/the-history-wars-are-over-now-its-time-toget-politics-back-in-our-museums-12575. 10. ‘ Transcript 10171 | PM Transcripts’, PM Transcripts, 1996, https:// pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-10171. 11. M ark McKenna, ‘Different Perspectives on Black Armband History’, Parliament of Australia, 1997, Australia, https://www.aph.gov.au/ About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_ Library/pubs/rp/RP9798/98RP05. 12. J ens Korff, ‘Aboriginal Remains Repatriation’, Creative Spirits, 2020, https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/ aboriginal-remains-repatriation. 13. Korff, ‘Aboriginal Remains Repatriation’. 14. ‘National Museum of Australia Annual Report 2015-16’, 2016, 120. 15. M ichael Pickering and Phil Gordon, ‘Repatriation: The End of the Beginning’, National Museum of Australia (National Museum of Australia, 8 June 2011), https://nma.gov.au/research/ understanding-museums/MPickering_PGordon_2011.html. 16. Pickering, Interview. 17. ‘ National Museum of Australia – The Return of Indigenous Human Remains and Sacred Objects’, National Museum of Australia, 2002, https://www.nma.gov.au/about/corporate/annual-reports/02_03/ part_2/performance_commentaries_output_group_1.1/the_ return_of_indigenous_human_remains_and_sacred_objects. 18. ‘ Fact Sheet: Aboriginal Burials | Aboriginal Victoria’, Aboriginal Victoria, 2019, http://www.aboriginalvictoria.vic.gov.au/fact-sheetaboriginal-burials. 19. Pickering, Interview. 20. ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984’ (1984), https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00937. 21. K atherine Lambert-Pennington, ‘What Remains? Reconciling Repatriation, Aboriginal Culture, Representation and the Past’, Oceania 77, no. 3 (2007): 313–14. 22. Lambert-Pennington.: 313-14.

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To what extent has the rise of secularism in popular history depictions of Joan of Arc challenged traditional historiographical perceptions of her? BY ALEX JOHNSON, YEAR 12, 2021 Joan of Arc has traditionally been seen through a religious lens, yet due to the gradual decline of religious influences on historical writing in Western democracies, these interpretations of her have been, according to historian Timothy Thibodeau, “refabricated by pop culture”1 and reflect growing secularity in the historiography of Joan of Arc. This has allowed modern audiences to see Joan outside of the religious sphere as a child, a political rebel, and a vulnerable girl. Joan’s status as a “pliable legend”2 has allowed producers of history to represent her according to their own purpose, methodologies and context. Mark Twain’s 1896 biography, The Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc,3 examined the relationship of Joan’s youth and her actions and valour during the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), a historically neglected aspect of her life. George Bernard Shaw superimposed his own socio-political rebellion onto Joan of Arc in his 1923 play, Saint Joan,4 portraying her as a revolutionary opposing the Catholic Church and the feudal system. Examining Joan’s crises of faith, Carl Theodor Dreyer in his biopic, The Passions of Joan of Arc (1928),5 used a humanist perspective to dismantle the religious perspective of Joan. In the film duology, Jeannette (2017)6 and Joan of Arc (2019),7 Bruno Dumont challenged modern French usage of Joan as a right-wing, monarchist icon through forming his secular interpretation. Due to the popularity and the accessibility of these secular popular interpretations, they have eclipsed the traditional portrayal of Joan as a religious figure, allowing for greater variety and nuance to emerge within depictions of her.

Joan of Arc (1412-1431) has long been considered a religious martyr and a nationalistic symbol of French victory in the Hundred Years’ War against England. In these orthodox interpretations which formulate the traditional historiography, medieval and early modern European writers defined Joan of Arc through their religious characterisation of her, utilising her religious affiliations to explain her military victory, the Battle of Orléans (1428-1429). However, this traditional view of Joan, observed in texts such as French Philippe-Alexandre de Charmettes’ Histoire de Jeanne d’Arc (1817)8 and Italian Christine de Pizan’s poem, Le Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc (1429),9 has been challenged in modern popular culture— a change prompted by the contemporary emergence of secularism in society. Secular producers of history, such as American author Mark Twain, Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw, and directors Danish Carl Theodor Dreyer and French Bruno Dumont have formulated revisionist, humanist depictions of Joan, resulting in a shift towards secular portrayals of her in the modern age. These portrayals have gradually become prominent in popular culture, challenging the traditional, orthodox views held by French and English writers, due to their accessibility and modern popularity. Thus, secularism has encouraged alternative perspectives of Joan, contesting the orthodox interpretations of her. Joan’s youth was a facet of her life that was predominantly exempt from traditional historiography, yet Twain, in his novel, The Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc, found himself compelled to examine the relationship between Joan’s youth and her actions in the Hundred Years’ War. While The Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc is hagiographic, Twain was taught at a young age to foster a scepticism towards the Catholic worship of saints,10 which culminated in Twain’s emphasis on her youth and her humanity in this text. From the beginning of the “selective biography,”11 Joan is characterised through her childhood nicknames to be “the Brave,” but also “the Bashful,”12 forming a partial divergence from traditional French and English historiography. The intrinsically

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History human quality of bashfulness was never ascribed to her,

an instrument with which he sought to instigate societal

displaying Twain’s scepticism of Catholic sainthood.

change; just as she rebelled against the Catholic Church

Further, Twain’s interpretation of Joan was intimately

and the feudal system in France,21 he too rebels against

shaped by his first interaction with her history, “it never

capitalism and conservatism in England. In the play,

seemed to [Twain] that the artists and the writers gave

Shaw rhetorically questions the role and intentions of the

us a true picture of her,” due to the degradation of her

societal elites, such as “kings and captains and bishops

character into singular aspects, such as her peasantry or

and lawyers and the like…they just leave you in the ditch to

religion.13 This solidified “his sympathy for the oppressed,

bleed to death,”22 which reveals the extent of his political

rebellion against tyranny and scorn for the divine right

purpose in constructing Saint Joan as he critiques the

of kings,”14 which is embodied in Twain’s depiction of

French 15th Century feudal system. This criticism of

Joan’s youthful characteristics. In a further digression

Medieval feudal society was, by extension, also a critique

from traditional accounts, Twain proposed no one, not

of his own hierarchical capitalist society. However, whilst

even his virtuous Joan, should be able to access divine

he moved away from the orthodox depiction of Joan

honours,15 echoing Twain’s “scorn for the divine right

by representing her as an agent of reform against the

of kings.” Twain reckons with Joan of Arc’s divinity,

Catholic Church and feudal society, his interpretation was

portraying her simultaneously as a channel for divine

contextually influenced by religion, as he was inspired by

power, and a spokesperson for the people, as her “vast

Pope Benedict XV’s canonization of Joan in 1920, despite

powers and capacities were born in her,”18 not gifted to

his “atheism [that] was early ingrained.”23 In constructing

her on the eve of battle like in orthodox interpretations.

Saint Joan, Shaw did not disclose his methodologies in

In the context of its sources, The Personal Recollections

how he selected evidence and constructed his image of

of Joan of Arc was thoroughly researched and sourced

Joan. However, Brian Tyson in his text, The Story of Shaw’s

by Twain, as evidenced by the biography’s reference list

Saint Joan (1982), managed to discover the methods by

and the annotated sources which are today are part of

which Shaw formulated his Joan, revealing that Shaw used

the Mark Twain Papers, which reside at the University of

correspondence with the British Library and miscellaneous

California, Berkeley. Due to this methodology, Twain’s

private collections, finding vignettes that featured Joan—

Joan was predominantly orthodox, although his purpose

such as Shakespeare’s Henry IV—and the documents

of exploring Joan holistically and his scepticism of saints

from her trial.24 Further, this variety of historical sources

has allowed a secular divergence from the historical

gave Shaw an array of perspectives, ranging from de

canon. Twain’s work has not become part of the dominant

Charmettes’ sympathetic perception to Shakespeare’s

discourse in Joan of Arc’s historiography, since he used his

negative depiction of her. However, Saint Joan was crafted

pure, youthful Joan to counter the suffragette movement,

as a piece of historical fiction, and Shaw’s purpose was not

with her being the “paragon of Victorian girlhood.”20

strict historicity. The popular nature of historical fiction

However, by the time of her beatification in 1909, Joan

allowed Shaw to greater challenge traditional perceptions

was rapidly becoming a symbol of the movement. Thus,

of Joan, due to the substantial reach his communicative

Twain’s youthful, humanly virtuous Joan has only subtly

form and the genre afforded him. Poet T. S. Eliot, in his

challenged traditional portrayals of Joan in orthodox

1924 criticism of the play, argued the depiction of Joan

historiography, yet his rendering of her childhood has

in Shaw’s play was revolutionary at the time, stating that

inspired other thought-provoking works, such as Bruno

Shaw had “turned her into a great middle-class reformer”

Dumont’s film diptych.

which was “the greatest sacrilege,”25 due to the sheer

George Bernard Shaw’s secular depiction of Joan in his play, Saint Joan, intrinsically departs from the orthodox depictions due to the transference of Shaw’s socialist

extent of Shaw’s radical revisionism. Thus, despite Shaw’s mercurial sources, his rebellious depiction of Joan transcended and challenged the orthodoxy.

beliefs onto his work. Shaw’s membership with the

The silent biopic, The Passion of Joan of Arc, directed by

Fabian Society, a socialist group that aimed to gradually

Carl Theodor Dreyer, has become an important part of

permeate the social, political, and intellectual spheres

the popular historical discourse in the historiography of

of English society, influenced his transcendentally

Joan, due to its timeless mutability and unconventionality.

rebellious interpretation of Joan. Shaw wielded Joan as

In his autobiographical notes, Dreyer wished to “penetrate

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

JOAN OF ARC

through the gilding on the legend to the actual human

Thus, Dreyer’s empirical source material has allowed

tragedy…I wanted to show that the heroes of history are

modern recognition and affirmation of The Passion of

people, too,” such views forming the humanist lens

Joan of Arc as a historically accurate portrayal, and the

through which he portrays his Joan. As such, Dreyer

mutability of Dreyer’s holistic delineation has encouraged

investigates and challenges Joan’s faith, seeking signs of a

its popular significance, with its unconventional

crisis of devotion to God, a representation that had not yet

reading extensively challenging her traditional, religious

been explored by modern producers of history. However, in

historiography.

moving away from the traditional religious narrative, Dreyer used historical imagination to build his representation of Joan, such as the interactions she had with individuals outside what had been recorded in documentary evidence relating to her trial. Yet, aside from his use of historical imagination, Dreyer adhered to an empirical approach to history, relying primarily on government documents and the transcripts from her trial. The evidence which shaped The Passion of Joan of Arc permitted his “reconstruction of the past [to have been] in a strictly factual manner,”27 while fostering a secular, “highly personal interpretation,”28 as seen through the music score of the film. Rather than religious hymns, O Mortalis Homo, by Franchois Lebertoul, was played before Joan was martyred,29 which was a secular ballade that commented on the arrogance of human aspirations. Dreyer’s use of this secular ballade lends itself both to his biopic’s unconventionality and his own secularity, as it emphasises his purpose in “show[ing] that the heroes of history are people,”30 not saints, such as traditional depictions of Joan in orthodox historiography. In preparing for the film, Dreyer employed Pierre Champion, a French historian, as the “historical advisor”31 for the film to encourage a historically accurate adaptation. Dreyer was noted to be “highly respectful of his source material,”32 further allowing his interpretation to have historicity. His popular communicative mode, the historical film, permitted his reading of Joan to transcend time in its fame. This is further enhanced by the mutability which characterises Dreyer’s humanist interpretation. The Passion of Joan of Arc has been metamorphosed by its audiences into different socio-political contexts, allowing for Dreyer’s narrative to be read as one about sexuality, feminism or fascism.33 Charles O’Brien argued that the audience’s context intimately influences the ways in which the film “challenges the habitus of the viewer”—be it their view on gender, religion or nationalism—which thus lends itself to the mutable changeability that The Passion of Joan of Arc offers its viewers.34 The variability of his Joan has been one of the foremost reasons for its endurable and wellrenowned nature.

Dumont’s productions of history, the historical biopics, Jeannette and Joan of Arc, created images of Joan that have become important to the historiography of Joan of Arc, which seeks to destabilise the traditional, religious perspectives of her, specifically those presented by the nationalist French political group, the Action française, who have used her name to further their political agenda, with their popular Joan of Arc parades (one having been performed as recently as 2021).35,36 Dumont’s departure from traditional depictions of Joan began in his casting: the same actress, Lise Leplat Prudhomme, stars in both films, aged 8 in Jeannette and only 10 in Joan of Arc.37 This dramatic change in the physical portrayal of Joan, who was historically aged 17-19 during Joan of Arc’s timeline, further reveals Dumont’s secular portrayal of her, as he highlights the irrationality of Joan’s age in relation to her deeds and triumphs, as driven by the religious spirits sent to guide her. This forms a comment on his view of the irrationality of religion. In a 2010 interview with Filmmaker Magazine, Dumont states that he believed religion was “archaic,”38 thus presenting Joan to have theological doubts, as shown in the film when he has her questioning the presence of God during wartime. In response to her prayers at the beginning of the 2017 film, she notes, “and there is nothing; there is never anything,”39 highlighting the ubiquitous, silent question she asks throughout the film: if God truly existed, would there still be war and hate? One of Dumont’s foremost purposes was to resist and subvert the prevalent iconography of Joan by right-wing groups such as the Action Française’s political movement, established in 1899. Viewing Joan through the orthodox perspective, the Action française, a movement that stands for religious intolerance outside of Catholicism, believes Joan of Arc to embody “True France” with the values of patriotism, Catholicism, and monarchism.40 Therefore, Dumont’s interpretation of Joan sought to represent her as the opposite to the far-right’s presentation of her. Rather, he wanted to portray her as a child who followed her values, despite her disagreements with French aristocrats and generals which hindered her efforts. Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History

Indeed, in the second film, an unpatriotic Joan would rather have France lose the Hundred Years’ War than compromise her individual values—an example of her strength of character in resisting God’s instructions for her values. This digression from traditional historiographical representations further emphasises the original nature of Dumont’s films. Dumont’s only source—the French poet, Charles Péguy41—presents a severe limitation to the film, as Dumont’s historicity was challenged. Dumont’s modernisation of Joan’s narrative is reflected in his use of bathos rather than pathos throughout his films,42 which is demonstrative of his determination to challenge the orthodox view of the Action française, as he blended “religious ecstasy”43 with the contemporary world, weakening the traditional, religious perspective. While this does not give Dumont’s portrayal of Joan credibility in its historicity, it encouraged interest in Dumont’s films and thus his secular interpretation of Joan which undermined the politically motivated image of Joan promulgated by the Action française, which promoted the orthodox, Catholic interpretations of Joan to serve nationalistic purposes in the WWI era. The emergence of secularism in popular historical representations of Joan has added a vitally important range of new interpretations to her broader historiography, allowing distinctions and variance to appear in representations of her. In this departure from orthodox portrayals of her, Joan’s youth, political rebellion, and religious doubt have been explored by secular producers of history, such as Twain, Shaw, Dreyer and Dumont, in a variety of mediums. Marina Warner noted in 2016 that Joan now “lies outside the main current of medieval mysticism…[she] prefer[red] secular channels of power to religious ones”44—evidence of this growing secular perspective. As Western society has become more accepting of secularism, following the 1960s decline of post-war religious fervour, irreligious producers of history have departed further from Joan’s religious metanarrative.

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JOAN OF ARC

BIBLIOGRAPHY Barstow, Anne Llewellyn. ‘Joan of Arc and Female Mysticism’. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 1, No. 2 (1985): 29–42.

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Coll, Jerome B. ‘The Matter and Purpose of G.B. Shaw’s Saint Joan – A “Play of Ideas”’, 1953, 11-94. Constable, Giles. ‘Georges Duby (7 October 1919-3 December 1996)’. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 143, no. 2 (1999): 301–9. Crane, Susan. ‘Clothing and Gender Definition: Joan of Arc’. Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, Spring 1996, 298–320. Crown, Daniel. ‘The Riddle Of Mark Twain’s Passion For Joan Of Arc’. The Awl, 3 April 2012. https://www.theawl.com/2012/04/the-riddleof-mark-twains-passion-for-joan-of-arc/. Deshpande, Anirudh. ‘Films as Historical Sources or Alternative History’. Economic and Political Weekly 39, no. 40 (2004): 4455–59. DiSalvo, Jacqueline. ‘Milton and Shaw Once More: “Samson Agonistes” and “St. Joan”’. Milton Quarterly 22, no. 4 (1988): 115–20. Dorwart, Laura. ‘Dystopias Are for Girls: Lidia Yuknavitch’s The Book of Joan’. Dilettante Army, 7 December 2017. http://www.dilettantearmy. com/articles/dystopias-are-for-girls. Dreyer, Carl Theodor. ‘Realized Mysticism in The Passion of Joan of Arc’. The Criterion Collection, 8 November 1999. https://www. criterion.com/current/posts/69-realized-mysticism-in-the-passionof-joan-of-arc. Dreyer, Carl Theodor. The Passion of Joan of Arc. Silent Film, 1928. Drum, Jean, and Dale D. Drum. My Only Great Passion: The Life and Films of Carl Th. Dreyer. Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. Duby, Georges. ‘15. The Maid of Orleans’. In France in the Middle Ages 987-1460, translated by Juliet Vale, 288–97, 1987. Dumont, Bruno. Jeannette: The Childhood of Joan of Arc. Historical Fiction and Drama, 2017. Dumont, Bruno. Joan of Arc. Historical Fiction and Drama, 2019. Eleon. ‘In Paris, Action Française Manifested in Tribute to Joan of Arc – RT in French’, 2021. https://goodwordnews.com/in-paris-actionfrancaise-manifested-in-tribute-to-joan-of-arc-rt-in-french/, https://francais.rt.com/france/86449-paris-rassemblement-actionfrancaise-en-hommage-a-jeanne-d-arc/. Eliot, T. S. ‘A Commentary’. The Criterion, no. 3 (October 1924): 1–5. Foster, David. ‘On the Theme of Mark Twain’s Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc’. The Mark Twain Annual 13, no. 1 (2015): 43–62. https://doi.org/10.5325/marktwaij.13.1.0043. Fuller, Graham. ‘Joan of Arc Review – Tough Little Number’, 20 June 2020. https://theartsdesk.com/film/joan-arc-review-%E2%80%93tough-little-number. Gioia, Ted. ‘How Joan of Arc Conquered Mark Twain’. America Magazine, 12 April 2018. https://www.americamagazine.org/artsculture/2018/04/12/how-joan-arc-conquered-mark-twain. Hanna, Martha. ‘Iconology and Ideology: Images of Joan of Arc in the Idiom of the Action Française, 1908-1931’. French Historical Studies 14, no. 2 (1985): 215–39. https://doi.org/10.2307/286583.

Holroyd, Michael. ‘A Tragedy without Villains’. The Guardian, 14 July 2007. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2007/jul/14/theatre.stage. Jang, Keum-Hee. ‘George Bernard Shaw’s Religion of Creative Evolution : A Study of Shavian Dramatic Works’. Thesis, University of Leicester, 2006. Jenn, Ronald, and Linda A. Morris. ‘The Sources of Mark Twain’s “Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc”’. Mark Twain Journal 55, no. 1/2 (2017): 55–74. Kenny, Glenn. ‘Review: Joan of Arc Is a Young Headbanger in “Jeannette”’. The New York Times, 12 April 2018, sec. Movies. https:// www.nytimes.com/2018/04/12/movies/jeannette-the-childhood-ofjoan-of-arc-review.html. Kilgore, Jennifer. ‘Joan of Arc as Propaganda Motif from the Dreyfus Affair to the Second World War’. Revue LISA/LISA e-Journal. Littératures, Histoire Des Idées, Images, Sociétés Du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-Speaking World, no. Vol. VI – n°1 (1 January 2008): 279–96. https://doi.org/10.4000/lisa.519. Kinsey, T. A. ‘The Mysterious History and Restoration of Dreyer’s “The Passion of Joan of Arc”’. The Moving Image: The Journal of the Association of Moving Image Archivists 1, no. 1 (2001): 94–107. Knighton, Mary A. ‘Hearing Secret Voices in Twain’s “Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc”’. Mark Twain Journal 55, no. 1/2 (2017): 75–99. Kohn, Eric. ‘“Joan of Arc” Review: The Weirdest Franchise of the Summer Stars a Classic Movie Martyr’. IndieWire (blog), 20 May 2020. https://www.indiewire.com/2020/05/joan-of-arc-review-brunodumont-1202232374/. Kohn, Eric. ‘Bruno Dumont Explains Why His Cannes-Bound Medieval Saga “Joan of Arc” Is Nothing Like “Game of Thrones”’. IndieWire (blog), 6 May 2019. https://www.indiewire.com/2019/05/bruno-dumontjoan-of-arc-trailer-1202131502/. Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Erik von. Liberty or Equality. Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1952. Larson, Stephen. ‘Risen from the Ashes: The Complex Print History of Carl Dreyer’s The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928)’. The Moving Image: The Journal of the Association of Moving Image Archivists 17, No. 1 (2017): 52–84. https://doi.org/10.5749/movingimage.17.1.0052. Leary, Daniel J. ‘Shaw on Religion’. Edited by Warren Sylvester Smith. The Shaw Review 10, no. 2 (1967): 73–76. Lindsay, Vachel. ‘Mark Twain and Joan of Arc’. Poetry 10, no. 4 (1917): 175–175. Luft, Herbert G. ‘Carl Dreyer: A Master of His Craft’. The Quarterly of Film Radio and Television 11, no. 2 (1956): 181–96. https://doi. org/10.2307/1209839. Martin, Jennifer Grek. ‘Will the Real Joan of Arc Please Stand Up? Problems of Preservation and Restoration’. Revue Canadienne d’Études Cinématographiques / Canadian Journal of Film Studies 25, no. 2 (2016): 104–17.

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HSC Extension History

McWilliams, Wilson Carey. ‘Divine Right: Mark Twain’s “Joan of Arc”’. The Review of Politics 69, no. 3 (2007): 329–52.

Twain, Mark. ‘Letter from Mark Twain to H. H. Rogers’, 1895.

Meltzer, Françoise. ‘Joan of Arc in America’. SubStance 32, no. 1 (2003): 90–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/3685703.

Tyson, Brian. The Story of Shaw’s Saint Joan. McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP, 1982.

Miller, Allison. ‘Joan of Arc, for Fascists and Feminists’. JSTOR Daily, 14 May 2020. https://daily.jstor.org/joan-of-arc-for-fascists-andfeminists/.

Van Ness, Wilhelmina. ‘Joseph Delteil: “The Passion of Joan of Arc”’. Literature/Film Quarterly 3, no. 4 (1975): 292–98.

Nissen, Dan. ‘Carl Theodor Dreyer Extended Biography’, n.d. https://www.carlthdreyer.dk/en/carlthdreyer/about-dreyer/biography/ biography-extended. O’Brien, Charles. ‘Rethinking National Cinema: Dreyer’s “La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc” and the Academic Aesthetic’. Cinema Journal 35, no. 4 (1996): 3–30. https://doi.org/10.2307/1225715. Paine, Albert Bigelow. Mark Twain: A Biography. New York: Harper and Bros, 1912. Pipolo, Tony. ‘The Spectre of “Joan of Arc”: Textual Variations in the Key Prints of Carl Dreyer’s Film’. Film History 2, no. 4 (1988): 301–24. Pizan, Christine de. ‘Le Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc’. France, 1429.

Twain, Mark. Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc. Harper, 1896.

Visvanathan, Susan. ‘Representing Joan of Arc’. India International Centre Quarterly 24, no. 4 (1997): 22–32. Warner, Marina. Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism. Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 2016. Wilson, James D. ‘In Quest of Redemptive Vision: Mark Twain’s Joan of Arc’. Texas Studies in Literature and Language 20, no. 2 (1978): 181–98. Yervasi, Carina. ‘The Faces of Joan: Cinematic Representations of Joan of Arc’. Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies 29, no. 3 (1999): 8–19. Zwarg, Christina. ‘Woman as Force in Twain’s “Joan of Arc”: The Unwordable Fascination’. Criticism 27, no. 1 (1985): 57–72.

Rickman, Catherine. ‘From Joan of Arc to La Marianne: France’s Impossible Feminist Icon Evolution’. Frenchly (blog), 8 March 2019. https://frenchly.us/frances-two-impossible-feminist-icons/. Romney, Jonathan. ‘Why France’s God of Grim Made a Knockabout Clouseau-Style Comedy’. The Guardian, 8 July 2015. http://www. theguardian.com/film/2015/jul/08/bruno-dumont-ptit-quinquincomedy-. Rotha, Paul, and Roger Manvell. Movie Parade, 1888-1949: A Pictorial Survey of World Cinema. Studio Publications, 1950. Russell, Susan Frances. ‘The Personal Is Political: Performing Saint Joan in the Twenty-First Century’. Shaw 38, no. 1 (2018): 88–112. https://doi. org/10.5325/shaw.38.1.0088. Sackville-West, Vita. Saint Joan of Arc, 1936. Saraswat, Dr Niraja. ‘Historical vs Shavian Woman: A Study of Cleopatra and St. Joan’ 3 (2015): 9. Scalia, Bill. ‘Contrasting Visions of a Saint: Carl Dreyer’s “The Passion of Joan of Arc” and Luc Besson’s “The Messenger”’. Literature/Film Quarterly 32, no. 3 (2004): 181–85. Shaw, George Bernard. Saint Joan. Penguin Classics, 1923. Smith, Damon. ‘Bruno Dumont, “Hadewijch”’. Filmmaker Magazine | Publication with a Focus on Independent Film, Offering Articles, Links, and Resources. (blog), 22 December 2010. https://filmmakermagazine. com/16909-bruno-dumont-hadewijch/. Sproles, Karyn Z. ‘Cross-Dressing for (Imaginary) Battle: Vita SackvilleWest’s Biography of Joan of Arc’. Biography 19, no. 2 (1996): 158–77. Stone, Albert E. ‘Mark Twain’s Joan of Arc: The Child as Goddess’. American Literature 31, no. 1 (1959): 1–20. https://doi. org/10.2307/2922648. Stoppel, Hans. ‘Shaw and Sainthood’. English Studies 36, no. 1–6 (1 January 1955): 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/00138385508596941. Thibodeau, Timothy M. ‘Apocalypse Then, Apocalypse Now: Rethinking Joan of Arc in the Twenty-First Century’. Quidditas 38 (2017): 163–89. Travers, James. ‘Biography and Filmography of Bruno Dumont’. frenchfilms.org, 1 January 2017. http://www.frenchfilms.org/ biography/bruno-dumont.html. Tushnet, Eve. ‘“Joan of Arc” Is One Weird Work of Hagiography’. America Magazine, 20 June 2020. https://www.americamagazine.org/ arts-culture/2020/06/20/joan-arc-one-weird-work-hagiography.

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JOAN OF ARC

FOOTNOTES 1 Timothy M Thibodeau, ‘Apocalypse Then, Apocalypse Now: Rethinking Joan of Arc in the Twenty-First Century’, Quidditas 38 (2017): 175. 2 Martha Hanna, ‘Iconology and Ideology: Images of Joan of Arc in the Idiom of the Action Française, 1908-1931’, French Historical Studies 14, no. 2 (1985): 217. 3 Mark Twain, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc (Harper, 1896). 4 George Bernard Shaw, Saint Joan (Penguin Classics, 1923). 5 Carl Theodor Dreyer, The Passion of Joan of Arc, Silent Film, 1928. 6 Bruno Dumont, Jeannette: The Childhood of Joan of Arc, Historical Fiction and Drama, 2017. 7 Bruno Dumont, Joan of Arc, Historical Fiction and Drama, 2019. 8 Philippe-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes, Historie de Jeanne d’Arc, 4 vols (Paris: Artus Bertrand, 1817). 9 Christine de Pizan, ‘Le Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc’ (France, 1429). 10 Ted Gioia, ‘How Joan of Arc Conquered Mark Twain’, America Magazine, 12 April 2018. https://www.americamagazine.org/artsculture/2018/04/12/how-joan-arc-conquered-mark-twain. 11 David Foster, ‘On the Theme of Mark Twain’s Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc’, The Mark Twain Annual 13, no. 1 (2015): 43. 12 Mark Twain, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc (Harper, 1896): 53. 13 Daniel Crown, ‘The Riddle Of Mark Twain’s Passion For Joan Of Arc’, The Awl, 3 April 2012. 14 Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography (New York: Harper and Bros, 1912): 81-82. 15 Wilson Carey McWilliams, ‘Divine Right: Mark Twain’s “Joan of Arc”’, The Review of Politics 69, no. 3 (2007): 329–52. 16 Ibid.: 82. 17 Albert E. Stone, ‘Mark Twain’s Joan of Arc: The Child as Goddess’, American Literature 31, no. 1 (1959): 18. 18 Twain, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc: 340. 19 Ronald Jenn and Linda A. Morris, ‘The Sources of Mark Twain’s “Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc”’, Mark Twain Journal 55, no. 1/2 (2017): 55. 20 Crown, ‘The Riddle Of Mark Twain’s Passion For Joan Of Arc’. 21 Michael Billington, ‘Saint Joan’, the Guardian, 12 July 2007, http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2007/jul/12/theatre2. 22 George Bernard Shaw, Saint Joan (Penguin Classics, 1923): 160. 23 Michael Hardwick and Mollie Hardwick, The Bernard Shaw Companion (J. Murray, 1973): 176.

32 Jean Drum and Dale D. Drum, My Only Great Passion: The Life and Films of Carl Th. Dreyer (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000): 126. 33 Laura Dorwart, ‘Dystopias Are for Girls: Lidia Yuknavitch’s The Book of Joan’, Dilettante Army, 7 December 2017, http://www. dilettantearmy.com/articles/dystopias-are-for-girls. 34 Charles O’Brien, ‘Rethinking National Cinema: Dreyer’s “La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc” and the Academic Aesthetic’, Cinema Journal 35, no. 4 (1996): 21. 35 Eleon, ‘In Paris, Action Française Manifested in Tribute to Joan of Arc – RT in French’, 2021, https://goodwordnews.com/ in-paris-action-francaise-manifested-in-tribute-to-joan-ofarc-rt-in-french/, https://francais.rt.com/france/86449-parisrassemblement-action-francaise-en-hommage-a-jeanne-d-arc/. 36 Jennifer Kilgore, ‘Joan of Arc as Propaganda Motif from the Dreyfus Affair to the Second World War’, Revue LISA/LISA e-Journal. Littératures, Histoire Des Idées, Images, Sociétés Du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-Speaking World, no. Vol. VI – n°1 (1 January 2008): 279–96. https://doi.org/10.4000/lisa.519. 37 Graham Fuller, ‘Joan of Arc Review – Tough Little Number’, https://theartsdesk.com/film/joan-arc-review-%E2%80%93-toughlittle-number. 38 Damon Smith, ‘Bruno Dumont, “Hadewijch”’, Filmmaker Magazine | Publication with a Focus on Independent Film, Offering Articles, Links, and Resources. (blog), 22 December 2010, https:// filmmakermagazine.com/16909-bruno-dumont-hadewijch/. 39 Dumont, Jeannette. 40 Martha Hanna, ‘Iconology and Ideology: Images of Joan of Arc in the Idiom of the Action Française, 1908-1931’, French Historical Studies 14, no. 2 (1985): 216. 41 Eve Tushnet, ‘“Joan of Arc” Is One Weird Work of Hagiography’, America Magazine, 20 June 2020, https://www.americamagazine. org/arts-culture/2020/06/20/joan-arc-one-weird-workhagiography. 42 Kevin J. Harty, Medieval Women on Film: Essays on Gender, Cinema and History (McFarland, 2020): 191. 43 Glenn Kenny, ‘Review: Joan of Arc Is a Young Headbanger in “Jeannette”’, The New York Times, 12 April 2018, sec. Movies, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/12/movies/jeannette-thechildhood-of-joan-of-arc-review.html . 44 Marina Warner, Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism (Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 2016): 93.

24 Brian Tyson, The Story of Shaw’s Saint Joan (McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP, 1982). 25 T. S. Eliot, ‘A Commentary’, The Criterion, no. 3 (October 1924): 1–5. 26 Dan Nissen, ‘Carl Theodor Dreyer Extended Biography’. 27 Paul Rotha and Roger Manvell, Movie Parade, 1888-1949: A Pictorial Survey of World Cinema (Studio Publications, 1950): 74. 28 Ibid. 29 Dreyer, The Passion of Joan of Arc. 30 Nissen, ‘Carl Theodor Dreyer Extended Biography’. 31 T. A. Kinsey, ‘The Mysterious History and Restoration of Dreyer’s “The Passion of Joan of Arc”’, The Moving Image: The Journal of the Association of Moving Image Archivists 1, no. 1 (2001): 96.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Priya Mehra 1. Where did the inspiration for your extension work come from? My focus on empathy stemmed from a discussion in Modern History about the initial support for Hitler’s leadership in the early days of Nazi Germany. To help us understand that dynamic, our teacher encouraged us to view the history through a lens of empathy: to try and connect with the desperation of many Germans during that period, in order to comprehend their willingness to support the Nazi regime. After that lesson, I became intrigued by the role of empathy in the construction of history, and its need to coexist with both logic and historical evidence. Inspired by our History Extension studies on R.G. Collingwood’s theory of historical imagination, and the flaws within Leopold von Ranke’s empiricist history, I began to see empathy as being able to contribute to a more holistic view of history, and the initial premise for my project was born! 2. What was your planning process? After forming an initial question – although it would change significantly over the next few months! – I worked on familiarising myself with my topic through broad research. Over the holidays, I sifted through journals and library databases, including the State Library, pulling together general ideas and key words to help me navigate the broad subject matter. After talking to my teacher, I then started looking into specific producers of history and their contributions to the debate on the role of empathy in history, which would form my paragraphs. As I collated quotes and references (to help with later footnoting!), I was able to begin putting together a very general essay plan which, although it looked quite different to my finished essay, helped me navigate and ground my research throughout the process. 3. What challenges did you come across? I was definitely challenged by the need to condense so many months of research into only 2,500 words, especially when every idea and quote seemed to add value to my argument.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

My first completed draft was about 4,000 words! While I really enjoyed the research process, having to decide what to prioritise and what to leave out was definitely one of my biggest challenges. I also found the transition from research to writing to be a difficult one, particularly because I felt that there was so much I still didn’t know. However, once I began the writing process, I quickly realised that there were barely enough words to encompass the research I had already done, let alone any more! 4. How did you overcome them? Working with my teacher definitely proved to be invaluable in overcoming these challenges. As part of the feedback on my first draft, whole paragraphs were crossed out for being overly repetitive or going on too much of a tangent, and while it was a bit of a shock at first, it was beyond helpful in the long run. In relation to making the leap from research to writing, realising that the two weren’t mutually exclusive really helped! Any time I found a knowledge gap while writing, my extensive record of references allowed me to quickly refer to articles and book chapters to consolidate my understanding. 5. What advice would you give future students? I ’d definitely recommend utilising your teacher throughout the project, whether it be for content, advice, or just to work through ideas you have. While they may not already be an expert in your chosen topic, their skills and willingness to explore and engage with your project is really helpful. I also encourage you to take advantage of the holidays to commit to your research, as I found I was most productive when I was able to immerse myself deeply in the content, which often required several hours at a time.

Assess the role of historical empathy in challenging Leopold von Ranke’s empiricism in the construction of history BY PRIYA MEHRA, YEAR 12, 2021

Historical empathy is a potential solution to the limitations of German historian Leopold von Ranke’s empiricist history, particularly von Ranke’s large-scale omission of the lower-class from the historical record. With connections to English historian R.G. Collingwood’s theory of historical imagination, historical empathy can be exercised to address this limitation, with historians such as Natalie Zemon Davis reflecting how it can be utilised to amplify often silenced voices in history. The value of historical empathy is also reflected in pieces of public history, such as Paul Keating’s 1992 Redfern Speech. However, historical empathy itself is limited, evident in the works of ancient Athenian historian Thucydides, and Australian selfproclaimed ‘storian’, Peter FitzSimons. Ultimately, in order to constitute a holistic construction of history, the notion of historical empathy must coexist with elements of von Ranke’s empiricist ideas.

As English historian John Cairns argues, “we cannot

Intended to facilitate a deeper understanding of history,

The primary concern of Rankean history is a continual

historical empathy exists as a possible bridge between

progression towards ‘truth’, with the historian being as

historians and the world of the past. The term ‘empathy’ is

objective as possible when utilising primary sources to

defined as “the ability to understand and share the feelings

construct history. However, although this definition is

of another”, but becomes more complex in the context

ascribed to von Ranke, it emerged largely posthumously,

of history, thus leading to the term ‘historical empathy’.

with many of his ideas continuing to remain ambiguous

This concept can be traced to the late 18th century, when

today, including the phrase “wie es eigentlich gewesen”.

German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)

Taken from von Ranke’s History of the Latin and Teutonic

formally applied the notion of einfühlen, or empathy, to

Nations (1824), the meaning of the phrase, as discussed

historiography. While there is continued debate, historical

by 20th century American historian Felix Gilbert, varies

empathy is generally the ability to view past events and

through nuanced translations, such as ‘what actually

people as a product of their respective context, using

happened’, compared to ‘what essentially happened’.

available evidence to understand societal and individual

Despite this definition-based debate, the essence of von

perspectives, values and beliefs. Especially when used

Ranke, as advocating for ‘truth’ and objectivity, is largely

alongside R.G. Collingwood’s theory of historical

agreed upon. Regarding methodology, von Ranke was

imagination, historical empathy undermines von Ranke’s

heavily reliant on predominantly written primary sources,

empiricist history, in offering a method to gain insight into

although he did use Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić as a

the social, emotional and cultural aspects of history, rather

source of oral history when writing The History of Servia

than the rational. Despite this benefit, historical empathy

and the Servian Revolution (1829). A crucial element

is inherently limited, as it is impossible for historians to

of Rankean history, von Ranke’s insistence on primary

empathise with an ultimately irrecoverable past.

sources as the basis of historical method was highly

re-enact the actual thought of individuals in the past. We can try … to construct what we think that event was like … but the full re-enactment is beyond us”. Historical empathy is consequently limited in this sense, although it is still considered valuable in challenging elements of von Ranke’s empiricist history. The origins of this debate lie in the flaws of traditional empiricist history, which was formally established by German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886). Born in Wiehe, in now Germany, von Ranke was encouraged to pursue historical study in the hope that, driven by his Lutheran beliefs, he would find the presence of God in past versions of humanity. Studying at the University of Leipzig in 1814, von Ranke experienced a 19th century Europe characterised by a divide between upper class élites and a largely illiterate lower-class. This context significantly influenced von Ranke’s writings as a historian, especially the formation of his theory of empiricist history.

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HSC Extension History significant, with the majority of historians today, including

discipline of history with aesthetic pursuits like literature,

postmodernists, continuing to begin historical study by

where ‘empathy’ was increasingly being applied during

referring to primary sources.

the period. In the Idea of History, Collingwood describes

Although idealistic in its notions of ‘truth’ and objectivity, and valuable in its use of primary sources, Rankean history is limited in its ability to facilitate a holistic construction of history. Writing in the 19th century, von Ranke was reliant on the upper class for his income and reputation. Coupled with a methodology based on mainly written primary sources, and a largely illiterate lower-class, von Ranke’s history consequently focused on the upper class, specifically diplomatic and governmental history. This omission of the lower-class ultimately weakened von Ranke’s methodology. Historical empathy has the potential to address this flaw of Rankean history, in allowing for the inclusion of the lower-class in the historical record, despite limited written primary sources being available.

the historical imagination as “bridging the gaps between what our authorities tell us, [giving] the historical narrative … its continuity”. Collingwood thus proposes using primary sources as “authorities” in the construction of history, with imagination, based on sources, filling gaps within the historical record, until new evidence surfaces. Through introducing the subjective notion of imagination, Collingwood, ahead of the postmodern movement of the late 20th century, undermines von Ranke’s view of history as a purely scientific pursuit. Historical imagination is typically used alongside historical empathy, with the historian needing to understand the contextual attitudes and beliefs behind available sources, before attempting to fill gaps in the historical record. As a result, the two terms are often conflated within a contemporary context. In this

Responding to von Ranke, English historian R.G.

way, Collingwood played a significant role in formalising

Collingwood (1889-1943) was a significant voice in

the notion of historical empathy.

beginning to formalise the notion of historical empathy, through his theory of historical imagination. Born in the English Lake District, Collingwood was well-educated, attending Oxford University in 1908, where he studied philosophy, literature and history. As a historian, Collingwood was influenced by German historian Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), whose theory of re-experience centred on the historian’s theoretical ability to recognise and ‘transfer’ themselves into the experiences and emotions of a past individual. This theory was largely based on the assumption that a historian would be able to emotionally re-experience the past, while remaining rational enough to offer a critical explanation of historical events. Collingwood challenged Dilthey’s assumption, instead arguing that “elements in experience whose being is just their immediacy (sensations, feelings …) cannot be re-enacted”. Collingwood’s theory of historical imagination eventually formed a bridge between Dilthey’s psychological approach and von Ranke’s empiricist ideas, thus establishing a solid foundation for the development of historical empathy as a component of methodology.

The interplay between historical empathy and historical imagination is evident in the work of Canadian-American historian Natalie Zemon Davis, who uses this methodology to amplify the voices of the lower-class in the historical record, thus undermining Rankean history. Born in 1928 to a Jewish immigrant family in Detroit, Davis’ society was dominated by white, upper-class Protestants, typically men. Influenced by this context, Davis’ construction of history is centred on the diminished voices of history: the menu peuple, or ordinary people, typically belonging to the lower-class. This is reflected in her book The Return of Martin Guerre (1984), where Davis explores the lives of 16th century French peasant Martin Guerre and his wife Bertrande in detail, utilising historical empathy and historical imagination to construct her representation of the period. Davis discloses this aspect of her methodology in the preface, with “what I offer you here is in part my invention, but held tightly in check by the voices of the past”, emphasising how Davis makes inferences based on available evidence. Davis’ methodology also constitutes elements of the French Annales school, established by

Historical imagination and historical empathy have

Lucien Febre and March Bloch in the early 1900s. By

inherent similarities, with both ideas intended to

invoking the Annalist idea of consulting interdisciplinary

undermine Rankean methodology by facilitating a holistic

sources, Davis challenges Rankean methodology,

construction of history in the absence of primary sources.

overcoming the problem of limited written primary

However, Collingwood deliberately avoided using the

sources relating to the lower-class.

term ‘empathy’, to prevent associating the rational Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

HISTORICAL EMPATHY

As she reflects in an interview, “historians are trained

Encouraged by White’s view of history as a pastiche of

to work mostly with written evidence … we need to be

constructed narratives representing the irrecoverable past,

careful not to become imprisoned by documentation”.

Jenkins questions the possibility of historical empathy. This

In her book Women on the Margins (1995), Davis utilises

is evident in Jenkins’ apprehension towards the idea of

these different aspects of methodology to construct

the historian transcending their context to empathise with

the histories of three 17th century lower-class women,

the past, with Jenkins arguing, “given that interpretations

drawing on historical empathy and historical imagination

of the past are constructed in the present, the possibility

to fill the gaps between available sources and produce a

of the historian being able to slough off his present to

cohesive narrative. By centring her historical narrative on

reach somebody else’s past on their terms looks remote”.

these women, Davis thus undermines traditional upper-

Jenkins also discusses the problem of “other minds”, in

class, male-dominated Rankean history. The book’s

questioning the ability of historical empathy to overcome

unconventional opening, of an imagined conversation

differences in ethnicity and culture. English historian

between the three women and Davis herself, reflects how

William V. Harris aligns with this view, arguing “what really

historical empathy enables intimacy between the historian

makes life difficult for historical empathisers … is the sheer

and people of the past, thus facilitating a more holistic

otherness of the people we are … trying to investigate”,

construction of history. Through this methodology, Davis

going on to ask, “can a modern American understand

is able to challenge von Ranke’s tendency to exclude the

an emperor of China, or of Rome?”. Although historians

lower-class from the historical record.

and public figures like Natalie Zemon Davis and Paul

While Collingwood and Davis challenge Rankean history within academic spheres, the value of historical empathy is applicable to public history as well, as is evident in

Keating attempt to challenge this perspective, Jenkins’ and Harris’ criticisms are ultimately a valuable contribution, in revealing how historical empathy is limited.

former Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating’s December

Historical empathy is also limited when used in a

1992 Redfern Speech, for the United Nations Year of the

generalised sense, as seen through the writings of

Indigenous People. Occurring within a context of social

Thucydides (c. 460BC – c. 404 BC), an ancient Athenian

change for Australian First Nations People, following the

historian and general. Thucydides believed that his role

Mabo Decision in June 1992, the speech encouraged the

as a general enabled him to use generalised historical

use of historical empathy to progress towards reconciliation.

empathy to write about the experiences of others of

By recognising how “we took the traditional lands … We

similar status during the period, due to similarities in

committed the murders. We took the children from their

context. This was evident in his record of speeches, such

mothers”, Keating encourages Australians to face their

as Pericles’ Funeral Oration, with Thucydides writing in

history. He then references the importance of historical

The History of the Peloponnesian War, “… my method

empathy, with “we failed to … enter into their hearts and

has been, while keeping as closely as possible to the

minds. We failed to ask – how would I feel if this were

general sense of the words that were actually used,

done to me”. Consequently, Keating’s Redfern Speech, as

to make the speakers say what, in my opinion, was

a form of public history, undermines Rankean history, in

called for by each situation”. This methodology limited

calling for the use of historical empathy to progress towards

Thucydides’ construction of history, with British historian

reconciliation with the First Nations community.

of the Classics, Moses Finley, arguing, “if all speakers said

While historical empathy is valuable in challenging Rankean history, it is also inherently limited in aiding an accurate construction of history. Postmodern British historiographer Keith Jenkins presents this view, arguing how “the past is never empathetically recoverable … you

what, in Thucydides’ opinion, the situation called for, the remark becomes meaningless”. This again highlights the limitations of historical empathy, with the generalised use of the concept potentially eroding individual experiences from the historical record.

[cannot] think yourself straight into the past”. Born in 1943, Jenkins is heavily influenced by postmodern historian Hayden White (1928-2018).

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HSC Extension History

A further caveat of historical empathy is its potential to be used in excess, as seen in the work of Australian popular historian Peter FitzSimons. A self-proclaimed “storian”, FitzSimons is known for his style of authoring best-selling non-fiction history books using techniques associated with works of fiction. This form is intended to bring the historical narrative to ‘life’, with FitzSimons reflecting in the introduction to his book James Cook (2019), “I have tried to bring the story part of this history alive, by putting it in the present tense, and constructing it in the manner of a novel”. Similar to R.G. Collingwood and Natalie Zemon Davis, FitzSimons’ methodology places significant weight on primary sources, with FitzSimons eventually using the sources to construct a version of events which reads similar to a piece of fiction, including dialogue and figurative language. This writing style is evident in Breaker Morant, with the onomatopoeia of “causing solid things to … smack, smash, thrash and slice”, coupled with the metaphor of “the cruel calculus of death”. This form has been criticised by academics, with Australian historian Peter Stanley arguing, “FitzSimons’ style is that of a graphic novel without the pictures”. In Breaker Morant, FitzSimons also alludes to his use of historical empathy, with “my goal has been to determine what were the words used, based on the primary documentary evidence presented, and what the feel of the situation was”. In this way, FitzSimons echoes Thucydides, in using historical empathy to justify the creation of dialogue. While FitzSimons’ approach brings history to the people through an engaging form, his representation of individuals is largely based in his historical imagination. Consequently, his work, at times, is a product of excessive historical empathy, and is therefore in danger of constituting an inaccurate construction of history. Ultimately, historical empathy has the potential to successfully challenge Rankean history, specifically von Ranke’s omission of the lower-class from his construction of history. However, while historical empathy has its benefits, it is also inherently limited. Consequently, in order to constitute a holistic construction of history, historical empathy and certain Rankean empiricist ideas, such as a methodology reliant upon primary sources, must co-exist, albeit with creative tension.

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HISTORICAL EMPATHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY ABC Australia. Paul Keating Speech on Impact of European Settlement on Indigenous Australia (1992) | ABC Australia, 2020. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=LAFaHP6w6tE. Adelson, Roger, and Natalie Zemon Davis. “Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis.” The Historian 53, no. 3 (1991): 405–22. AHA Staff. “Natalie Zemon Davis Awarded Holberg Prize.” Perspectives on History, April 1, 2010. https://www.historians.org/publications-anddirectories/perspectives-on-history/april-2010/natalie-zemon-davisawarded-holberg-prize.

Conze, Werner, and Charles A. Wright. “Social History.” Journal of Social History 1, no. 1 (1967): 7–16. Crane, Susan A. “Historical Subjectivity: A Review Essay.” The Journal of Modern History 78, no. 2 (2006): 434–56. https://doi. org/10.1086/505803. Curthoys, Ann, and John Docker. Is History Fiction? Sydney: University of NSW Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Ahlskog, Jonas. “R. G. Collingwood and the Presence of the Past.” Journal of the Philosophy of History 11, no. 1 (November 7, 2017): 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1163/18722636-12341375.

Curthoys, Ann, and Ann McGrath. “Character and Emotion.” In How to Write History That People Want to Read, 178–97. Sydney, Australia: University of NSW Press, 2009.

Ankersmit, Frank R. Meaning, Truth, and Reference in Historical Representation. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central.

– How to Write History That People Want to Read. Sydney: University of NSW Press, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations: Essays and Reflections. Translated by Harry Zohn. New York: HMH, 1968. Bentley, Jerry H. “The Task of World History.” In The Oxford Handbook of World History, 1–16. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction. London: Routledge, 1999. Berlin, Isaiah. Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas. London: Viking Press, 1976. Bernstein, Howard R. “Marxist Historiography and the Methodology of Research Programs.” History and Theory 20, no. 4 (1981): 424–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/2504791. Boldt, Andreas. “Ranke: Objectivity and History.” Rethinking History 18, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 457–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2 014.893658. Boldt, Andreas D. Leopold Von Ranke: A Biography. London: Routledge, 2013. Boucher, David. The Social and Political Thought of R. G. Collingwood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Braw, J. D. “Vision as Revision: Ranke and the Beginning of Modern History.” History and Theory 46, no. 4 (2007): 45–60. Briscoe, Luke. “Sorry Day Is about Empathy.” NITV, May 26, 2015. https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/2015/05/26/sorry-day-aboutempathy. Bryant, Darren, and Penney Clark. “Historical Empathy and ‘Canada: A People’s History.’” Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne de l’éducation 29, no. 4 (2006): 1039–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/20054210. Cairns, John. “Some Reflections on Empathy in History.” Teaching History 1, no. 55 (1989): 13–18. Canby, Vincent. “‘Martin Guerre.’” The New York Times, June 10, 1983, https://www.nytimes.com/1983/06/10/movies/martin-guerre.html. City of Sydney – News. “The Legacy of Paul Keating’s Redfern Speech,” December 8, 2017. https://news.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/articles/thelegacy-of-paul-keatings-redfern-speech.

Comaroff, John, and Jean Comaroff. Ethnography And The Historical Imagination. London: Routledge, 1992.

Daddow, Oliver J. “The Ideology of Apathy: Historians and Postmodernism.” Rethinking History 8, no. 3 (September 2004): 417–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364257042000247855. Davis, Megan. “Closing the Gap in Indigenous Disadvantage: A Trajectory of Indigenous Inequality in Australia.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 16, no. 1 (2015): 34–44. Davis, Natalie Zemon. “Decentering History: Local Stories and Cultural Corssings in a Global World.” History and Theory 50, no. 2 (2011): 188–202. – The Return of Martin Guerre. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984. – “Toward Mixtures and Margins.” The American Historical Review 97, no. 5 (1992): 1409–16. https://doi.org/10.2307/2165943. – “Who Owns History? History in the Profession.” Perspectives: The Newsletter of the American Historical Association 34, no. 8 (1996): 4–6. – “Women and the World of the Annales.” History Workshop Journal 33, no. 1 (March 1, 1992): 121–37. https://doi.org/10.1093/ hwj/33.1.121. – Women on the Margins: Three Seventeenth-Century Lives. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1995. – “‘Women’s History’ in Transition: The European Case.” Feminist Studies 3, no. 3 (1976): 83–103. https://doi.org/10.2307/3177729. Davis, Natalie Zemon, and Denis Crouzet. A Passion for History. Kirksville: Truman State University Press, 2010. Davis, Ozro Luke, Elizabeth Anne Yeager, and Stuart J. Foster. Historical Empathy and Perspective Taking in the Social Studies. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001. Davison, Martyn. “Developing an Historical Empathy Pathway with New Zealand Secondary School Students.” International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research 12, no. 2 (November 2014): 5–21. – “The Case for Empathy in the History Classroom.” Curriculum Matters 6, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 82–99. Dilthey, Wilhelm. The Formation of the Historical World in the Human Sciences. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Cochrane, Peter. “Exploring the Historical Imagination.” Griffith Review. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/ exploring-the-historical-imagination/.

– Wilhelm Dilthey: Selected Works, Volume IV: Hermeneutics and the Study of History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv39x6db.

Cohn, Dorrit. “Signposts of Fictionality: A Narratological Perspective.” Poetics Today 11, no. 4 (1990): 775–804. https://doi. org/10.2307/1773077.

D’Oro, Giuseppina, and James Connelly. “Collingwood, Scientism and Historicism.” Journal of the Philosophy of History 11, no. 3 (November 7, 2017): 275–88. https://doi.org/10.1163/18722636-12341374.

Collingwood, R. G. “The Limits of Historical Knowledge.” Journal of Philosophical Studies 3, no. 10 (1928): 213–22.

Dray, William H. “Collingwood’s Historical Individualism.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 10, no. 1 (1980): 1–20.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History

– History as Re-Enactment: R.G. Collingwood’s Idea of History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Gismondi, Michael A. “‘The Gift of Theory’: A Critique of the Histoire Des Mentalités.” Social History 10, no. 2 (1985): 211–30.

Duckworth, John. “Imagination in Teaching History.” Teaching History 2, no. 5 (1971): 49–52.

Gresham College. The Greatest Speech of All Time: Pericles’ Funeral Oration, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NzpRgD4H8V4&t=4s.

Dudash, Susan J. “Christine de Pizan and the ‘Menu Peuple.’” Speculum 78, no. 3 (2003): 788–831. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0038713400131549.

Griffin, Helga M. “Not the Way It Essentially Was.” The Journal of Pacific History 28, no. 1 (1993): 68–74.

Endacott, Jason, and Sarah Brooks. “An Updated Theoretical and Practical Model for Promoting Historical Empathy.” Social Studies Research and Practice 8, no. 1 (2013): 41–58.

Harrington, Austin. “Dilthey, Empathy and Verstehen A Contemporary Reappraisal.” European Journal of Social Theory 4, no. 3 (August 1, 2001): 311–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684310122225145.

Endacott, Jason L. “Negotiating the Process of Historical Empathy.” Theory & Research in Social Education 42, no. 1 (January 2014): 4–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2013.826158.

Harris, Roy. Linguistics of History. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019.

– “Reconsidering Affective Engagement in Historical Empathy.” Theory & Research in Social Education 38, no. 1 (January 2010): 6–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2010.10473415. Endacott, Jason L., and Sarah Brooks. “Historical Empathy: Perspectives and Responding to the Past.” In The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning, 203–25. New York: Wiley, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119100812.ch8. Fines, John. “Imagination & the Historian.” Teaching History 1, no. 18 (1977): 24–26. Finlay, Robert. “The Refashioning of Martin Guerre.” The American Historical Review 93, no. 3 (1988): 553–71. https://doi.org/10.2307/1868102. FitzSimons, Peter. Breaker Morant. Paris: Hachette UK, 2020. – Gallipoli. New York: Random House, 2015. – James Cook: The Story behind the Man Who Mapped the World. Paris: Hachette UK, 2019. Fleming, Grace. “The Importance of Historic Context in Analysis and Interpretation.” ThoughtCo, August 19, 2019. https://www.thoughtco. com/what-is-historical-context-1857069. Foster, Stuart. “To What Extent Does the Acquisition of Historical Knowledge Really Matter When Studying the Holocaust?” In Holocaust Education, edited by Stuart Foster, Andy Pearce, and Alice Pettigrew, 28–49. Contemporary Challenges and Controversies. London: UCL Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv15d7zpf.8. – “Using Historical Empathy to Excite Students about the Study of History: Can You Empathize with Neville Chamberlain?” The Social Studies 90, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 18–24. https://doi. org/10.1080/00377999909602386. Gallagher, Shaun. “Dilthey and Empathy.” In Interpreting Dilthey: Critical Essays, edited by Eric S. Nelson, 145–58. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. https://doi. org/10.1017/9781316459447.008. – “Empathy, Simulation, and Narrative.” Science in Context 25, no. 3 (September 2012): 355–81. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov. au/10.1017/S0269889712000117. Gardner, Philip. “Hermeneutics and History.” Discourse Studies 13, no. 5 (2011): 575–81. – Hermeneutics, History and Memory. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pymblelc/detail. action?docID=481083. Gilbert, Felix. “Historiography: What Ranke Meant.” The American Scholar 56, no. 3 (1987): 393–97. Giles, Steve. “Against Interpretation: Recent Trends in Marxist Criticism.” British Journal of Aesthetics 28, no. 1 (Winter 1988): 68–77.

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Harris, William V. “History, Empathy and Emotions.” Antike Und Abendland 56, no. 1 (December 2010): 1–23. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy. sl.nsw.gov.au/10.1515/9783110222685.1. Hause, Steven C. “The Evolution of Social History.” French Historical Studies 19, no. 4 (1996): 1191–1214. https://doi.org/10.2307/286669. National Museum of Australia. “Historical Milestones: Key Events in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History 1967–2005.” Accessed June 4, 2021. https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/off-the-walls/ historical-milestones. Hopkins, Keith. A World Full of Gods: Pagans, Jews, and Christians in the Roman Empire. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999. Hughes, Marnie T. E. “Re-Thinking Collingwood: A Reply to Keith Jenkins’s Rethinking History.” Teaching History 1, no. 80 (1995): 5–8. Hughes-Warrington, Marnie. Fifty Key Thinkers on History. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2014. – How Good an Historian Shall I Be?: R.G. Collingwood, the Historical Imagination and Education. London: Andrews UK Ltd., 2003. ProQuest Ebook Central. Huijgen, Tim, and Paul Holthuis. “‘Why Am I Accused of Being a Heretic?’ A Pedagogical Framework for Stimulating Historical Contextualisation.” Teaching History 1, no. 158 (March 2015): 50–55. Icke, Peter P. “Keith Jenkins: A Very Particular Perspective.” Rethinking History 17, no. 2 (June 2013): 211–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364252 9.2013.778124. Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the Twentieth Century. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1997. Jay, Martin. “Historical Explanation and the Event: Reflections on the Limits of Contextualization.” New Literary History 42, no. 4 (2011): 557–71. Jenkins, Keith. At the Limits of History: Essays on Theory and Practice. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central. – Rethinking History. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2003. https://doi. org/10.4324/9780203426869. – The Postmodern History Reader. London: Psychology Press, 1997. – Why History?: Ethics and Postmodernity. London: Psychology Press, 1999. Jenkins, Keith, and Peter Brickley. “Reflections On The Empathy Debate.” Teaching History 1, no. 55 (1989): 18–23. Jensen, J. “Developing Historical Empathy through Debate: An Action Research Study.” Undefined 3, no. 1 (2008): 55–67. Keynes, Matilda. “Empathy and History: Historical Understanding in Re-Enactment, Hermeneutics and Education.” History of Education Review 47, no. 2 (2018): 235–37. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov. au/10.1108/HER-10-2018-063.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONTINUED) Kogler, Hans Herbert. Empathy And Agency: The Problem Of Understanding In The Human Sciences. London: Routledge, 2018. Koopman, Colin. “Historicism in Pragmatism: Lessons in Historiography and Philosophy.” Metaphilosophy 41, no. 5 (2010): 690–713. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2010.01662.x. Koss, Juliet. “On the Limits of Empathy.” The Art Bulletin 88, no. 1 (March 2006): 139–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043079.2006.1078 6282. Krznaric, Roman. “Is Empathy the Hidden Motor of Human History?,” November 30, 2015. https://newhumanist.org.uk/4962/is-empathythe-hidden-motor-of-human-history. Kugler, Michael. “A Course in Empathy? Sympathy and Historical Training and Reflection.” Fides et Historia 51, no. 2 (June 2019): 60–74. Lacapra, Dominick. History and Reading: Tocqueville, Foucault, French Studies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central. LearncastNSW. Peter FitzSimons: Writing History, 2010. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=1yYQm0Oo1CE. Lee, P. J. “History Teaching and Philosophy of History.” History and Theory 22, no. 4 (1983): 19–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/2505214. Lee, Peter, and Denis Shemilt. “The Concept That Dares Not Speak Its Name: Should Empathy Come out of the Closet?” Teaching History 1, no. 143 (2011): 39–49. Levy, Jack S. “Too Important to Leave to the Other: History and Political Science in the Study of International Relations.” International Security 22, no. 1 (1997): 22–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539325. Lewis, Bernard. “Historiography: Other People’s History.” The American Scholar 59, no. 3 (1990): 397–405. Little, Vivienne. “What Is Historical Imagination?” Teaching History 1, no. 36 (1983): 27–32. Low-Beer, Ann. “Empathy and History.” Teaching History 1, no. 55 (1989): 8–12. Mann, Douglas. Structural Idealism: A Theory of Social and Historical Explanation. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2002. ProQuest Ebook Central. Megill, Allan. “Coherence and Incoherence in Historical Studies: From the ‘Annales’ School to the New Cultural History.” New Literary History 35, no. 2 (2004): 207–31. Moyn, Samuel. “Empathy in History, Empathizing with Humanity.” Edited by Carolyn J. Dean and Dominick LaCapra. History and Theory 45, no. 3 (2006): 397–415. Munslow, Alun. A History of History. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central. – “On Keith Jenkins.” Rethinking History 17, no. 2 (June 2013): 253–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2013.778125. – The Future of History. London: Macmillan Science and Eduction, 2010. – The New History. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2003. ProQuest Ebook Central. Munslow, Alun, and Keith Jenkins. “Alun Munslow: In Conversation with Keith Jenkins.” Rethinking History 15, no. 4 (December 1, 2011): 567–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2011.617124. Nitz, Julia. “History, a Literary Artifact? The Traveling Concept of Narrative in/on Historiographic Discourse.” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies 15, no. 1 (2013): 69–85. https://doi.org/10.5325/ intelitestud.15.1.0069.

Olsen, Mark. “Motives, Memory and Mind: Collingwood’s Theory of Actions and ‘Histoire Des Mentalités.’” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 19, no. 1 (1993): 35–62. Orwin, Clifford. “Thucydides’ Contest: Thucydidean ‘Methodology’ in Context.” The Review of Politics 51, no. 3 (1989): 345–64. Patterson, James. “The Politics of Sorry.” AQ: Australian Quarterly 81, no. 2 (2009): 19–25. SBS News. “Paul Keating’s Redfern Speech Still Powerful after 25 Years.” Accessed June 4, 2021. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/paul-keatings-redfern-speech-still-powerful-after-25-years. Paul, Laurie Ann. Transformative Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Pellauer, David. “Ricœur and White on the Historical Imagination.” Archivio Di Filosofia 81, no. 1 (2013): 261–70. Perrotta, Katherine Assante, and Chara Haeussler Bohan. “More than a Feeling: Tracing the Progressive Era Origins of Historical Empathy in the Social Studies Curriculum, 1890–1940s.” The Journal of Social Studies Research 42, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 27–37. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jssr.2017.01.002. Pihlainen, Kalle. “Escaping the Confines of History: Keith Jenkins.” Rethinking History 17, no. 2 (June 2013): 235–52. https://doi.org/10.10 80/13642529.2013.778126. – “Escaping the Confines of History: Keith Jenkins.” Rethinking History 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2013): 235–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529. 2013.778126. Portal, Christopher. “Debate: Empathy.” Teaching History 1, no. 58 (1990): 36–38. Prinz, Jesse. “Against Empathy.” The Southern Journal of Philosophy 49, no. 1 (September 2011): 214–33. R. G. Collingwood. The Idea Of History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946. Ranke, Leopold von, and Georg G. Iggers. “Preface to the First Edition of Histories of the Latin and Germanic Peoples (October 1824).” In The Theory and Practice of History. London: Routledge, 2010. Ranum, Morten. “Rethinking History. The Journal of Theory and Practice.” Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 25, no. 1 (2000): 171–77. Retz, Tyson. “A Moderate Hermeneutical Approach to Empathy in History Education.” Educational Philosophy and Theory 47, no. 3 (February 23, 2015): 214–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2013. 838661. – Empathy and History: Historical Understanding in Re-Enactment, Hermeneutics and Education. 1st ed. Making Sense of History 35. New York: Berghahn Books, 2018. – “Why Re-Enactment Is Not Empathy, Once and for All.” Journal of the Philosophy of History 11, no. 1 (November 7, 2017): 306–23. https://doi.org/10.1163/18722636-12341376. Robbins, Jane. “A Nation within? Indigenous Peoples, Representation and Sovereignty in Australia.” Ethnicities 10, no. 2 (2010): 257–74. Roitman, Jessica, and Karwan Fatah-Black. “‘Being Speculative Is Better than to Not Do It at All’: An Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis.” Itinerario 39, no. 1 (April 2015): 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0165115315000108. Samuel, Raphael. “What Is Social History?,” March 1985. https://www. historytoday.com/archive/what-social-history. Shuman, Amy. Other People’s Stories: Entitlement Claims and the Critique of Empathy. Baltimore: University of Illinois Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central.

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HSC Extension History

Siljak, Ana. “Adventure and Empathy.” Literary Review of Canada (blog), May 2011. https://reviewcanada.ca/magazine/2011/05/adventure-andempathy/. Skinner, Quentin. “Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas.” History and Theory 8, no. 1 (1969): 3–53. https://doi. org/10.2307/2504188. – “The Limits of Historical Explanations.” Philosophy 41, no. 157 (1966): 199–215.

Wilson, John. “What Does Thucydides Claim for His Speeches?” Phoenix 36, no. 2 (1982): 95–103. https://doi.org/10.2307/1087670. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. New Jersey: Wiley, 2010. Yilmaz, Kaya. “Historical Empathy and Its Implications for Classroom Practices in Schools.” The History Teacher 40, no. 3 (2007): 331–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036827.

Skolnick, Joan, Nancy Dulberg, and Thea Maestre. Through Other Eyes: Developing Empathy and Multicultural Perspectives in the Social Studies. Toronto: Pippin Publishing Corporation, 2003. ProQuest Ebook Central. Smith, R. B. “R.G. Collingwood’s Definition of Historical Knowledge.” History of European Ideas 33, no. 3 (2007): 350–71. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2006.11.010. Smith, Roger. “Reflections on the Historical Imagination.” History of the Human Sciences 13, no. 4 (2000): 103–8. https://doi. org/10.1177/09526950022120890. Snowman, D. “Natalie Zemon Davis.” In Historians, 175–86. New York: Springer, 2006. Snowman, Daniel. “Natalie Zemon Davis.” History Today 52, no. 10 (2002): 18–20. Soffer, Reba N. “The Conservative Historical Imagination in the Twentieth Century.” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 28, no. 1 (1996): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.2307/4051951. St Mary’s University, Twickenham. Interview with Professor of Historical Theory Keith Jenkins (University of Chichester), 2013. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=cu2znmjTgvM. – Professor Alun Munslow – The Gap Between the Past and History, 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHC3PAbpI1U. Stanley, Peter. “Three Great War Histories Review: Was the Slaughtering Really Worth It?” Sydney Morning Herald, November 7, 2016. Stueber, Karsten. Rediscovering Empathy: Agency, Folk Psychology, and the Human Sciences. Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central. – “The Psychological Basis of Historical Explanation: Reenactment, Simulation, and the Fusion of Horizons.” History and Theory 41, no. 1 (2002): 25–42. Tatz, Colin. “Australia: The ‘Good’ Genocide Perpetrator?” Health and History 18, no. 2 (2016): 85–98. https://doi.org/10.5401/ healthhist.18.2.0085. Tenembaum, Yoav. “Why Historians Need Imagination | History News Network,” 2016. https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/163280. Then & Now. Rethinking History: Keith Jenkins & Postmodernism, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJv0RsM5w40. Traverso, Enzo. “Marx, History, and Historians: A Relationship in Need of Reinvention.” Actuel Marx No 50, no. 2 (November 14, 2011): 153–65. Turberville, A. S. “History Objective and Subjective.” History 17, no. 68 (1933): 289–302. Usher, Abbott Payson. “The Significance of Modern Empiricism for History and Economics.” The Journal of Economic History 9, no. 2 (1949): 137–55. Verducci, Susan. “A Conceptual History of Empathy and a Question It Raises for Moral Education.” Educational Theory 50, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 63. Warren, John. History and the Historians. 1st ed. Access to History. London: Hodder, 1999.

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FOOTNOTES

28. Adelson and Davis, “Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis”: 412.

1. “ Empathy,” Oxford Dictionaries, accessed May 12, 2021, https://www.lexico.com/definition/empathy.

29. T. C. R. Horn and Harry Ritter, “Interdisciplinary History: A Historiographical Review,” The History Teacher 19, no. 3 (1986): 428, https://doi.org/10.2307/493382.

2. Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (London: Viking Press, 1976): 186. 3. K aya Yilmaz, “Historical Empathy and Its Implications for Classroom Practices in Schools,” The History Teacher 40, no. 3 (2007): 332, https://doi.org/10.2307/30036827. 4. V ivienne Little, “What Is Historical Imagination?,” Teaching History 1, no. 36 (1983): 28. 5. Little: 27. 6. J ohn Cairns, “Some Reflections on Empathy in History,” Teaching History, no. 55 (1989): 14. 7. John Warren, History and the Historians, 1st ed., Access to History (London: Hodder, 1999): 58. 8. A nn Curthoys and John Docker, Is History Fiction? (Sydney: University of NSW Press, 2009): 52, ProQuest Ebook Central. 9. J erry H. Bentley, “The Task of World History,” in The Oxford Handbook of World History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3. 10. H elga M. Griffin, “Not the Way It Essentially Was,” The Journal of Pacific History 28, no. 1 (1993): 68. 11. F elix Gilbert, “Historiography: What Ranke Meant,” The American Scholar 56, no. 3 (1987): 393. 12. Marnie Hughes-Warrington, Fifty Key Thinkers on History, 3rd ed. (London: Routledge, 2014): 262. 13. A ndreas Boldt, “Ranke: Objectivity and History,” Rethinking History 18, no. 4 (October 2, 2014): 466, https://doi.org/10.1080/1364252 9.2014.893658. 14. A ndreas D. Boldt, Leopold Von Ranke: A Biography (London: Routledge, 2013): 4. 15. David Boucher, The Social and Political Thought of R. G. Collingwood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003): 5. 16. Wilhelm Dilthey, The Formation of the Historical World in the Human Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002): 235.

30. Adelson and Davis, “Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis”: 419. 31. J essica Roitman and Karwan Fatah-Black, “‘Being Speculative Is Better than to Not Do It at All’: An Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis,” Itinerario 39, no. 1 (April 2015): 8, https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0165115315000108. 32. Natalie Zemon Davis, Women on the Margins: Three SeventeenthCentury Lives (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1995): 5. 33. “Historical Milestones: Key Events in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History 1967–2005,” National Museum of Australia, accessed June 4, 2021, https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/offthe-walls/historical-milestones. 34. ABC Australia, Paul Keating Speech on Impact of European Settlement on Indigenous Australia (1992) | ABC Australia, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAFaHP6w6tE. 35. ABC Australia. 36. Keith Jenkins and Peter Brickley, “Reflections On The Empathy Debate,” Teaching History 1, no. 55 (1989): 21. 37. A lun Munslow and Keith Jenkins, “Alun Munslow: In Conversation with Keith Jenkins,” Rethinking History 15, no. 4 (December 1, 2011): 570, https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2011.617124. 38. Keith Jenkins, Rethinking History, 3rd ed. (London: Routledge, 2003): 49, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203426869. 39. Jenkins: 48. 40. William V. Harris, “History, Empathy and Emotions,” Antike Und Abendland 56, no. 1 (December 2010): 10, http://dx.doi.org. ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/10.1515/9783110222685.1. 41. Roy Harris, Linguistics of History (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2019). 42. John Wilson, “What Does Thucydides Claim for His Speeches?,” Phoenix 36, no. 2 (1982): 96. 43. LearncastNSW, Peter FitzSimons: Writing History, 2010.

17. Dilthey: 235.

44. Peter FitzSimons, James Cook: The Story behind the Man Who Mapped the World (Paris: Hachette UK, 2019): ix.

18. R . G. Collingwood, The Idea Of History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946): 297.

45. FitzSimons: 186.

19. Hughes-Warrington, Fifty Key Thinkers on History: 38. 20. R. G. Collingwood, The Idea Of History: 241. 21. M arnie Hughes-Warrington, How Good an Historian Shall I Be?: R.G. Collingwood, the Historical Imagination and Education (London: Andrews UK Ltd., 2003): 256, ProQuest Ebook Central. 22. Jonas Ahlskog, “R. G. Collingwood and the Presence of the Past,” Journal of the Philosophy of History 11, no. 1 (November 7, 2017): 291, https://doi.org/10.1163/18722636-12341375. 23. Little, “What Is Historical Imagination?”: 30. 24. Daniel Snowman, “Natalie Zemon Davis,” History Today 52, no. 10 (2002): 18. 25. Roger Adelson and Natalie Zemon Davis, “Interview with Natalie Zemon Davis,” The Historian 53, no. 3 (1991): 411. 26. Robert Finlay, “The Refashioning of Martin Guerre,” The American Historical Review 93, no. 3 (1988): 553, https://doi. org/10.2307/1868102. 27. N atalie Zemon Davis, The Return of Martin Guerre (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984): 4.

Pymble Ladies’ College

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Sophia Mitchell 1. Where did the inspiration for your extension work come from? I was always very interested in researching an area of Indigenous history, so I started broad and then came across some interesting articles about the Myall Creek Massacre. After talking to my teachers, we decided to create some big questions that I could research before deciding on the topic. Once I had compiled a list of resources and websites, I became fascinated with the topic. Moreover, my passion for Visual Arts led me to research the depiction of colonial history through art, which was one of the most interesting parts of the essay for me. Whilst it was challenging at times to find secondary sources and other opinions as my essay was so specific, part of my interest in the project was researching deeply to uncover as much information as I could before forming my own opinion. 2. What was your planning process? The planning process involved a lot of brainstorming, talking to my teachers and classmates, saving the links of as many interesting articles that I could find and, most importantly, keeping an open mind for my project. I borrowed a few books from the library before the writing process so that I had a broad understanding of the period I chose to write about. 3. What challenges did you come across? One of the biggest challenges for all History Extension students is deciding on a final essay question, as it feels natural to choose that before researching your area. I initially compiled a list of

4. How did you overcome them? By doing such broad research and documenting it all in different documents, I found that deciding on my question was much easier, as I could write concisely and clearly from the beginning once I had chosen it. Talking to all the supportive teachers and my classmates was also extremely valuable as I could listen to the opinions of others and utilise their feedback. Keeping a comprehensive list of all websites, newspaper articles and books in a document was also very important as it allowed me to organise my research and refer to previous sources. 5. What advice did you give future Extension students? Don’t be scared! The essay can seem overwhelming at first, but if you keep up to date with the check-ins with your teachers and choose a topic that you are genuinely interested in, the rest will fall into place. This course gives you an amazing opportunity to research on a much deeper level than you would have previously, so make the most of it and have fun! Make sure to take advantage of the valuable resources your teachers and the school provides by talking to a librarian or other teachers for extra input.

five specific questions about my chosen area so, at times, my research felt slightly overwhelming, as this process of writing was different to what I was used to in previous assessments.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Why has the Myall Creek Massacre become a fixture in the Australian public memory? BY SOPHIA MITCHELL, YEAR 12, 2021

The Myall Creek Massacre of 28 Wirrayaraay people on 10 June 1838 was just one event in a long and shameful history of Australian frontier violence between colonial settlers and the First Nations people. In our contemporary context, its horrors are confronting, yet the pursuit of justice that followed has imprinted this event as a fixture in the public memory as a symbol of post-colonial efforts towards acknowledgement, accountability and reconciliation. The massacre involved the unprovoked killing of innocent men, women and children by 12 white settlers at Myall Creek Station in Northern New South Wales. Whilst the criminal atrocity was not unusual in its context of persistent frontier violence, it was unique in the sense that the white witnesses, officials and legal experts were prepared to actively seek justice, by ensuring that the laws of the colony were applied to white settlers. The emotional public response to reports of the massacre sparked a movement, which has led to a recent nationwide effort to revisit the past and recognise its many injustices. Moreover, recent efforts of post-colonial historians and artists to bring authentic light to the voices of those who have been silenced in the past, has effectively turned historical dialogue into a tool for political and social reconciliation. Public or collective memory refers to the circulation of recollections among members of society, in regard to specific events or incidents.1 The public’s understanding of the Myall Creek Massacre has been shaped over time,

scholarly truths, by enlarging the public’s collective understanding of Australian history.4 The significance of the Myall Creek Massacre lies in the conversations and dialogue that arose in its aftermath, as this has shaped our national narrative and placed the event firmly within the forefront of public memory. Although it would become the most acknowledged massacre of Australia’s Frontier Wars, the nature of the Myall Creek Massacre was not unique for its time. In the 1830s, frontier violence, a general sense of lawlessness, and government-sponsored massacres had become widespread. Historian Lyndall Ryan has defined a massacre as the killing of six or more undefended people and described its common characteristics; it is carried out in secret, the assassins make active attempts to remain undercover, and they often burn the bodies to achieve this.5 The perpetrators were usually comprised of groups of heavily armed stockmen on horseback, under the command of a white settler. Another horrific characteristic shared by these massacres was the abduction, rape and abuse of young Indigenous women during attacks. At Myall Creek, two innocent Wirrayaraay women were kidnapped by the perpetrators and raped for three days.6 In New South Wales, an estimated 270 similar frontier massacres occurred between 1794 and 1928, with particular prevalence in the Hunter Valley, Bathurst and Gravesend Mountain7. In Victoria, there were 68 massacres and an estimated 1,168 deaths.8 Evidently, the sheer prevalence of massacres consequently normalised the murder of Indigenous people by settlers, despite British law stating that it was a crime punishable by death.9

through a collaboration between traditional academic

In 19th century Australia and until the landmark decision of

history, popular history, oral history and the media.2 Whilst

the Mabo Case in 1992, the Government actively ignored

there were some initial press reports of the incident,

the connection of Indigenous people to their country,

accurate historical coverage was limited to biased white

and the settlement of land by white settlers was viewed

perspectives until the late 1970s, when Indigenous voices

as equivalent to ownership.10 Typical narratives of the time

began to emerge.3 It remains crucial for historians and

described ‘heroic’ white settlers defending themselves

members of the public to make an active effort to bridge

against bold Indigenous ‘warriors’ or ‘savages’ attempting

the gap between the national public memory and the

to attack colonial property and steal livestock.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History However, the contrasting reality is that there were

guilty and seven were sentenced to death by means of a

countless unprovoked attacks against unarmed groups

public hanging at the Sydney Gaol.17 It is evident that the

of elderly men, women and children who were simply

Station managers, Prosecution team and Attorney General

living on the land. At Myall Creek, the Wirrayaraay people

persevered to overcome the limitations of traditional

sought sanctuary on Henry Dangar’s property at the

British law procedures,18 to achieve both criminal and

station, and relations were initially peaceful between the

social justice.19 Furthermore, a wealth of information

Station men and proximate Indigenous groups. However,

and detail now exists within the court transcripts

interactions quickly escalated into a state of relentless

and documents of this trial, which can be utilised by

violence and hostile tensions. Consequently, these

contemporary historians in their research.

massacres progressively eroded Indigenous connections between kin and country. By turning a blind eye, the state was complicit in the systematic eradication of innocent lives and weakening of Indigenous voices. Accounts of the Myall Creek Massacre therefore represent only a fraction of the nation-wide, state sanctioned violence during the 19th century.

The diversity and controversy of public responses that arose in the aftermath of the legal trials indicates the conflicting and inconsistent attitudes of white settlers at the time. Because the seven perpetrators were the first British subjects to be executed for massacring Indigenous people, news of their conviction and punishment was shocking and confronting. Sensationalist media reports

Whilst many massacre stories died with their victims,

of the incident fuelled contentious reactions and public

what made the Myall Creek Massacre unique among

hostility, evident in articles of the Sydney Herald which

many similar incidents of frontier violence, was that it

described the “gross miscarriage of justice” and criticised

was reported to officials and the white perpetrators were

the government which “cannot protect the whites from

punished. Five days after the incident, Myall Creek Station

the aggression of the blacks”.20 The media also portrayed

Managers Thomas Foster and William Hobbs visited the

Plunkett as the agent of a severe misjustice, which

scene and made the pivotal decision to break the ‘code

was seen as worse than the massacre itself, as several

of silence’. In a lawless frontier, white settlers were

fundraising appeals and petitions were established for the

afraid of speaking out or reporting criminal activity. This

defendants.21 John Fleming, the perpetrators who escaped

is evident as William Hobbs, a respected Superintendent

trial, was even glorified by some and elevated to a criminal

of the Station, took three weeks to report the incident

hero through emphasis of the dramatic escape narrative.22

to the Police Magistrate on 9 of July 1838. Justice for

Unlike the perpetrators who hung for their crimes, Fleming

the Myall Creek Massacre victims was challenging for the

was able to exploit the reputation of his family as wealthy

Prosecution to achieve. At the time, Indigenous people

landowners in the Hawkesbury River Region, to escape

were not allowed to present evidence or provide court

a death sentence.23 Thus, the controversy that followed

testimony, and all members of the jury were white and

the legal trials sparked an important debate about the

therefore there was significant bias in judicial processes.14

admissibility of Indigenous evidence, and the inconsistent

In the two similar cases of the Charles Eyles at Argdowan

application of the law. Ultimately, a fundamental element

Plains in 1938 and Thomas Coutts at Kangaroo Creek

of achieving change is the spark of public dialogue and

in 1947, perpetrators were arrested and charged, but

conversation. In this way, the Myall Creek Massacre

the cases were dismissed due to a lack condemning

controversy was an important catalyst for social, legal and

evidence. In the initial Myall Creek trial of 1838, the jury

political change.

initially declared all eleven accused not guilty, after just twenty minutes of supposed deliberation in the NSW Supreme Court.16 The speed of this decision reflects society’s complicity towards violence, driven by fear, and a tendency to prioritise status above justice for Indigenous Australians. However, Attorney General John Huber Plunkett was not satisfied with this blatant injustice and ordered a retrial, in which the accused were found

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

On an international level, initial responses to the Myall Creek Massacre were both polarised and contradictory. Many white colonists in Britain continued to dehumanise Indigenous people as ‘savage cannibals’ in an attempt to justify the prevalence of violence.24 Yet Humanitarians, influenced by the British antislavery movement which peaked during the 1830s, were outraged by the atrocity of the massacre. The anti-slavery movement effectively

MYALL CREEK MASSACRE

extended their rhetoric to narratives from countries

Indigenous people.31 Quilty illuminates the emotional

such as Australia, as they deployed emotive strategies

trauma and grief held in the land itself, through his use

through newspapers, poetry and art, which sought to

of vibrant colours, dark shadows, distorted shapes and

evoke empathy and compassion towards the Indigenous

ambiguous symbolism. His works are confronting and

people. Within three years of the massacre, an impactful

memorable, as his depiction of bloodshed amongst the

representation of the massacre circulated widely through

landscape is greatly contrasted to the traditional 19th

the British media in 1841. ‘Phiz’ Hablot Knight Brown’s

century paintings of a romanticised and peaceful bush

engraving ‘Australian Aborigines Slaughtered by Convicts’,

landscape. Quilty affirms in an interview that “I can’t make

published in the newspaper ‘The Chronicles’ attracted

paintings about the beauty of the landscape, without

widespread public attention in London.27 This artwork was

acknowledging the history of the human experience

one of the first to visually represent the brutality of frontier

of this landscape”.32 By depicting the residual trauma in

violence and innocence of the victims thus recognising

both a literal and metaphorical reflection of landscape,

Indigenous humanity. Immense suffering and struggle is

Quilty’s paintings encourage his audience to identify not

portrayed through emotive imagery, with its emphasis on

only with Indigenous sorrow but also its reflection, ‘white

the tying of the victims’ hands, connoting the sympathetic

shame’. The popularity of Ben Quilty’s work attests to

anti-slavery rhetoric. However, there remained a deep

the power of art in conveying history and challenging

political and social divide between white free settlers, and

the public’s perception of the past through an accessible

emancipated ex-convicts, who were viewed as second-

medium, aligning with the postmodern belief that history

class citizens and thus blamed for all criminal activity.

can be communicated to the public through a range of

This is evident in the engraving’s negative depiction of

vehicles.33 It is apparent that both ‘Phiz’ Brown’s engraving

the perpetrators as ruthless convicts, which indicates that

and Ben Quilty’s Rorschach paintings have the ability to

society tended to frame criminal activity as merely ‘convict

elicit emotions such as fear, sorrow and trauma in ways

crime’, in an attempt to enshroud their own contribution

that extend history beyond forensic analysis and written

and complicity with the government’s policy of systematic

evidence. These powerful mediums have thus imprinted

discrimination and violence. Thus, on an international

a more wholistic depiction of the Myall Creek Massacre

level, society chose to ignore the contradicting and grim

within the public memory over time.

logic of frontier violence, and this prevented them from truly recognising or sympathising with Indigenous suffering.

methodology advocated by historian Elazar Barkan,

Recent efforts of contemporary and post-colonial artists

whereby the acknowledgement of multiple perspectives

such as Ben Quilty has been essential in raising public

of a political conflict can develop historical dialogue

awareness by conveying the horrors of frontier violence

and debate into an effective tool of reconciliation and

in a visual way to provoke an emotional and impactful

healing.34 Professor Barkan is a highly trained, academic

response from the audience. Quilty’s Rorschach ink blot

historian from Brandeis University in the USA, whose

paintings of massacre sights including Myall Creek are

research focuses on the role of history in contemporary

explored in the 2019 ABC documentary Quilty: Painting

society and politics.35 Barkan seeks to resolve conflict

the Shadows. Ben Quilty’s methodology is important

and achieve reconciliation by employing historical

as he pursued information from oral history, through

methodology and cooperation to create shared narratives

his travel to the site and conversations with local elders

between distinct social and political divides. The ‘difficult

including Aunty Sue Blacklock and Uncle Lyall Munro.

historical truth’ of frontier massacre stories is now being

In the aftermath of massacres, news of violence spread

communicated through new artistic mediums, such as

quickly through Indigenous communities, and oral

the recent film ‘High Ground’ released in 2021, which

history was passed down each generation for over

explores the confronting violence of Australian history and

140 years.30 In contrast to Hablot’s engraving, which

its massacres.36 Thus, recent efforts of artists, historians

focuses on human emotions and the cruelty of the

and producers have effectively expanded the nation’s

perpetrators, Quilty focuses on the landscape itself to

collective understanding of the past, allowing for similar

acknowledge the inextricable link between the land and

atrocities to be brought to light.

Quilty’s work is a contemporary example of the

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History

The Myall Creek Massacre has enduring relevance as the public’s understanding and memory of the past continues to evolve. An emphasis on acknowledgement and recognition is evident in the establishment of community-based memorial sites, annual ceremonies and education programs. These seek to confront Australia’s traumatic past in a way that recognises the Indigenous connection between story and place, history and land. To acknowledge the site’s importance for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, in 2008 the Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site was created and added to the National Heritage List.37 The bronze plaque at the memorial site is an important source of information which acknowledges the atrocity and affirms that the Wirrayaraay people were ‘murdered on the slopes of this ridge in an unprovoked but premeditated act’.38 An annual ceremony at this site also facilitates continued grieving, healing and reconciliation. In this way, the memorial site acts not only as a site-specific reminder of the atrocity, but also as a national monument to represent and preserve the memory of past massacres, and the Indigenous voices which have been persistently silenced in the past. Moreover, in the past decade, the Myall Creek Massacre has become a part of the syllabus within the Indigenous Studies curriculum at high schools in New South Wales.39 This will facilitate continued storytelling through the generations, so that unheard voices reverberate these past injustices, to allow for acknowledgement and acceptance of the sorrow and trauma of Indigenous Australians. Ultimately, despite its horror, the Myall Creek Massacre has been an opportunity for the public to address and reconcile with some of the shadows in Australian history. While the Myall Creek Massacre was unique in some aspects, its narrative was largely shaped by pre-existing and prevailing patterns of tense relations between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. The ensuing trials and public debates indicate that this incident catalysed the nation-wide movement which advocates for Indigenous rights and reconciliation. Ultimately, the perennial impacts of this massacre have become imprinted within the fabric of society to lay the foundation for national-wide healing. Thus, the defining event was not the massacre itself, but the conversations and artistic responses that took place in its aftermath.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

MYALL CREEK MASSACRE

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Steven. “Punishment as Pacification: The Role of Indigenous Executions on the South Australian Frontier, 1836-1862.” ANU Press: Aboriginal History 39 (2015): 3–26.

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Furniss, Elizabeth. “Imagining the Frontier:: Comparative Perspectives from Canada and Australia.” In Dislocating the Frontier, edited by Deborah Bird Rose and Richard Davis, 23–46. Essaying the Mystique of the Outback. ANU Press, 2005.

Australian Government – Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. “National Heritage Places – Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site,” 2008. http://www.environment.gov.au/. Baldry, Hannah, Ailsa McKeon, and Scott McDougall. “Queensland’s Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up To Genocide.” QUT Law Review 15, no. 1 (November 2, 2015). Barker, Bryce. “Massacre, Frontier Conflict and Australian Archaeology.” Australian Archaeology 64, no. 1 (June 1, 2007): 9–14. Burke, Heather, Ray Kerkhove, Lynley A. Wallis, Cathy Keys, and Bryce Barker. “Nervous Nation: Fear, Conflict and Narratives of Fortified Domestic Architecture on the Queensland Frontier.” ANU Press: Aboriginal History 44 (2020): 21–58. Burke, Heather, Amy Roberts, Mick Morrison, and Vanessa Sullivan. “The Space of Conflict: Aboriginal/European Interactions and Frontier Violence on the Western Central Murray, South Australia, 1830–41.” River Murray Mallee Aboriginal Corporation 40 (2016): 145–79. Carrington, Kerry, Alison Mcintosh and John Scott. “Globalisation, Frontier Masculinities and Violences:Booze, Blokes and Brawls.” The British Journal of Criminology, Oxford University Press 50, no. 3 (2010): 393–413. Clark, Ian D. “The Convincing Ground Aboriginal Massacre at Portland Bay, Victoria: Fact or Fiction?” ANU Press: Aboriginal History 35 (2011): 79–109. Columbia School of International and Public Affairs. “Elazar Barkan.” Accessed June 11, 2021. https://www.sipa.columbia.edu/facultyresearch/faculty-directory/elazar-barkan. Confino, Alon. “Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method.” The American Historical Review 102, no. 5 (1997): 1386–1403. Crawford, Keith. “Constructing Aboriginal Australians, 1930-1960: Projecting False Memories.” Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society 5, no. 1 (2013): 90–107.

Grieves, Vicki. “Windschuttle’s Fabrication of Aboriginal History: A View from the Other Side.” Australian Society for the Study of Labour History, Inc., no. 85 (2003): 194–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/27515935. Lydon, Jane. “Anti-Slavery in Australia: Picturing the 1838 Myall Creek Massacre.” John Wiley & Sons Ltd 15, no. 5 (2017). Jane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan. “Remembering the Myall Creek Massacre,” 85–90. Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018. John Harris. “Hiding the Bodies: The Myth of the Humane Colonisation of Aboriginal Australia.” Aboriginal Histories, ANU Press 27 (2003): 79–82. Foye, Jonathan. “Artwork Sheds a Light on Myall Creek Massacre.” Insights Magazine (blog), November 14, 2019. https://www.insights. uca.org.au/artwork-sheds-a-light-on-myall-creek-massacre/. Korosy, Zsofia. “Native Title, Sovereignty and the Fragmented Recognition of Indigenous Law and Customs.” Australian Indigenous Law Review 12, no. 1 (2008): 83–90. Lester, Alan. “Humanism, Race and the Colonial Frontier.” Ransactions of the Institute of British Geographers 37, no. 1 (2012): 132–48. Litser, Mirani, and Lynley A. Wallis. “Looking for the Proverbial Needle? The Archaeology of Australian Colonial Frontier Massacres.” Archaeology in Oceania 46, no. 3 (2011): 105–17. Lorena Allam and Nick Evershed. “The Killing Times: The Massacres of Aboriginal People Australia Must Confront.” The Guardian, March 4, 2019. http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/mar/04/ the-killing-times-the-massacres-of-aboriginal-people-australia-mustconfront. Lyndall Ryan. “‘A Very Bad Business’: Henry Dangar and the Myall Creek Massacre 1838.” University of Newcastle, 2017

Jefferson, Dee. “Ben Quilty Paints Trauma of Myall Creek and Other Australian Massacre Sites in Rorschach Landscapes.” ABC News, 2019. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-19/artist-ben-quilty-paintingdark-australian-history-myall-creek/11707954#.

Macquarie Law School. R. v. Kilmeister (No. 2) (NSW Supreme Court 110 1838). McCalman, Janet, and Len Smith. “Family and Country: Accounting for Fractured Connections under Colonisation in Victoria, Australia.” Journal of Population Research 33, no. 1 (2016): 51–65.

Moses, Dirk . “Genocide and Holocaust Consciousness in Australia.” Australia History Compass, Wiley Online Library, 2003.

MCulloch, Judie. “Welfare to Warfare: Police Militarisation and Fortress Australia.” Australian Quarterly 92, no. 1 (2021): 3–11.

Docker, John. “Epistemological Vertigo and Allegory:: Thoughts on Massacres, Actual, Surrogate, and Averted – Beersheba, Wake in Fright, Australia.” In Passionate Histories, edited by Frances Peters-Little and Ann Curthoys, 21:51–72. Myth, Memory and Indigenous Australia. ANU Press, 2010.

Sentance, Nathan . “Genocide in Australia.” The Australian Museum, May 26, 2020. http://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/genocidein-australia/.

Hurwitz, Edith F. Politics and the Public Conscience: Slave Emancipation and the Abolitionist Movement in Britain. 23. London: Barnes & Noble Books, 1973. ResearchGate. “Figure 1. ‘Australian Aborigines Slaughtered by Convicts’ (Phiz)” Accessed June 10, 2021. https://www.researchgate. net/figure/Australian-Aborigines-Slaughtered-by-Convicts-PhizChronicles-of-Crime-1841-VII-472_fig2_281620231. Frances Peters-Little, Ann Curthoys, and John Docker. Passionate Histories: Myth, Memory and Indigenous Australia. Aboriginal History Monographs. ANU Press, 2010.

Glassberg, David. “Public History and the Study of Memory.” The Public Historian 18, no. 2 (1996): 7–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/3377910.

National Museum Australia. “Defining Moments – Myall Creek Massacre,” 2021. https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/ resources/myall-creek-massacre. Nettelbeck, Amanda. “‘Equals of the White Man’: Prosecution of Settlers for Violence Against Aboriginal Subjects of the Crown, Colonial Western Australia.” Law and History Review 31, no. 2 (2013): 355–90. – “The Australian Frontier in the Museum.” Journal of Social History, Oxford University Press 44, no. 4 (2011): 1115–28. Withycombe, Patricia and Ryan, Lyndall. “The Twelfth Man: John Fleming and the Myall Creek Massacre.” The University of Newcastle, October 30, 2015, 19–20.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension History

Patsy Withycombe and Jilian Barnes. “Representation and Power: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words – ‘Australian Aborigines Slaughtered by Convicts’ 1841 (Myall Creek Massacre).” Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues 18, no. 2 (2015): 62–67. Reid, Teela. “It’s beyond Time for Truth-Telling, but at Least There’s a Move in Our Schools.” The Sydney Morning Herald, 2021. https://www. smh.com.au/national/it-s-beyond-time-for-truth-telling-but-at-leastthere-s-a-move-in-our-schools-20210429-p57nko.html. Russell Smandych. “Contemplating the Testimony of ‘Others’: James Stephen, the Colonial Office, and the Fate of Australian Aboriginal Evidence Acts, circa 1839-1849.” Australian Journal of Legal History, AustLIII, 2004, 1–5. Ryan, Lyndall. “‘Hard Evidence’: The Debate about Massacre in the Black War in Tasmania.” In Passionate Histories, edited by Frances Peters-Little, Ann Curthoys, and John Docker, 21:39–50. Myth, Memory and Indigenous Australia. ANU Press, 2010. Bunbury, Stephanie. “Tough Truths: A New Movie about a Massacre of Indigenous People in the 1920s Packs a Punch.” The Sydney Morning Herald, January 23, 2021. Sturma, Michael. “Myall Creek and the Psychology of Mass Murder.” Journal of Australian Studies, Taylor & Francis Group, May 18, 2009, 62–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443058509386904. Tedeschi, Mark. Murder at Myall Creek. Simon & Schuster, 2016. The Sydney Herald. “Sworn to No Master, of No Sect Am I.” National Library of Australia, December 10, 1838. Wu, Duncan. “‘A Vehicle of Private Malice’: Eliza Hamilton Dunlop and the ‘Sydney Herald.’” Oxford University Press, The Review of English Studies 65, no. 272 (2014): 890–93. Smith, Zoe. “Sexual Violence and Colonial Anxieties in Australian Literature.”, Australian National University Journals, 2020, 29–33.

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MYALL CREEK MASSACRE

FOOTNOTES 1. D avid Glassberg, “Public History and the Study of Memory,” The Public Historian 18, no. 2 (1996): 7–23. https://doi. org/10.2307/3377910.

1. D uncan Wu, “‘A Vehicle of Private Malice’: Eliza Hamilton Dunlop and the ‘Sydney Herald,’” Oxford University Press, The Review of English Studies 65, no. 272 (2014): 890–93.

2. A lon Confino, “Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method,” The American Historical Review 102, no. 5 (1997): 1386–1403, https://doi.org/10.2307/2171069.

2. L yndall Ryan, “‘A Very Bad Business’: Henry Dangar and the Myall Creek Massacre 1838,” University of Newcastle, 2017, 2-3.

3. J ohn Harris, “Hiding the Bodies: The Myth of the Humane Colonisation of Aboriginal Australia,” Aboriginal Histories, ANU Press 27 (2003): 79–82.

3. J ane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan, “Remembering The Myall Creek Massacre” (Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018), 83–84.

4. Glassberg, “Public History and the Study of Memory.”

4. E dith F. Hurwitz, Politics and the Public Conscience: Slave Emancipation and the Abolitionist Movement in Britain, 23 (London: Barnes & Noble Books, 1973).

5. J ane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan, “Remembering The Myall Creek Massacre” (Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018), 7–8.

5. S ee Appendix (1) (Editor note: Appendix has been removed for this publication)

6. Z oe Smith, “Sexual Violence and Colonial Anxieties in Australian Literature,” Australian National University Journals, 2020, 29–33.

6. P atsy Withycombe and Jilian Barnes, “Representation and Power: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words – ‘Australian Aborigines Slaughtered by Convicts’ 1841 (Myall Creek Massacre),” Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues 18, no. 2 (2015): 62–67.

7. “ The Killing Times: The Massacres of Aboriginal People Australia Must Confront,” the Guardian, March 3, 2019, http://www. theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/mar/04/the-killing-timesthe-massacres-of-aboriginal-people-australia-must-confront. 8. I an D Clark, “The Convincing Ground Aboriginal Massacre at Portland Bay, Victoria: Fact or Fiction?,” Aboriginal History 35 (2011): 79–81. 9. A manda Nettelbeck, “‘Equals of the White Man’: Prosecution of Settlers for Violence Against Aboriginal Subjects of the Crown, Colonial Western Australia,” Law and History Review 31, no. 2 (2013): 355–90. 10. Z sofia Korosy, “Native Title, Sovereignty and the Fragmented Recognition of Indigenous Law and Customs,” Australian Indigenous Law Review 12, no. 1 (2008): 83–90. 11. L yndall Ryan, “‘A Very Bad Business’: Henry Dangar and the Myall Creek Massacre 1838,” University of Newcastle, 2-3.

7. D irk Moses, “Genocide and Holocaust Consciousness in Australia,” Australia History Compass, Wiley Online Library, 2003, https:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1478-0542.028. 8. “ Ben Quilty Paints Trauma of Myall Creek and Other Australian Massacre Sites in Rorschach Landscapes – ABC News,” accessed February 25, 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-19/ artist-ben-quilty-painting-dark-australian-history-myallcreek/11707954. 9. F rances Peters-Little, Ann Curthoys, and John Docker, Passionate Histories: Myth, Memory and Indigenous Australia, Aboriginal History Monographs (ANU Press, 2010). 10. S ee Appendix (2) (Editor note: Appendix has been removed for this publication)

12. H eather Burke et al., “Nervous Nation: Fear, Conflict and Narratives of Fortified Domestic Architecture on the Queensland Frontier,” Aboriginal History 44 (2020): 23–24.

11. “ Ben Quilty Paints Trauma of Myall Creek and Other Australian Massacre Sites in Rorschach Landscapes – ABC News,”, Nov 20, 2019, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-19/artist-ben-quiltypainting-dark-australian-history-myall-creek/11707954.

13. M ichael Sturma, “Myall Creek and the Psychology of Mass Murder,” Journal of Australian Studies, May 18, 2009, 62–64, https://doi. org/10.1080/14443058509386904.

12. K eith Crawford, “Constructing Aboriginal Australians, 1930-1960: Projecting False Memories,” Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society 5, no. 1 (2013): 97–98.

14. R ussell Smandych, “Contemplating the Testimony of ‘Others’: James Stephen, the Colonial Office, and the Fate of Australian Aboriginal Evidence Acts, circa 1839-1849,” Australian Journal of Legal History, AustLIII, 2004, 1–5.

13. J ane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan, “Remembering The Myall Creek Massacre” (Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018), 11.

15. J ane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan, “Remembering the Myall Creek Massacre” (Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018), 99. 16. M acquarie Law School, R. v. Kilmeister (No. 2) (NSW Supreme Court 110 1838). 17. N ational Museum Australia, “Defining Moments – Myall Creek Massacre,” 2021., https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/ resources/myall-creek-massacre. 18. P atricia Mary Withycombe and Lyndall Ryan, “The Twelfth Man: John Fleming and the Myall Creek Massacre,” The University of Newcastle, October 30, 2015, 19–20. 19. Macquarie Law School, R. v. Kilmeister (No. 2). 20. The Sydney Herald, “Sworn to No Master, of No Sect Am I,” National Library of Australia, December 10, 1838.

14. C olumbia School of International and Public Affairs, “Elazar Barkan,”, https://www.sipa.columbia.edu/faculty-research/facultydirectory/elazar-barkan. 15. S tephanie Bunbury, “Tough Truths: A New Movie about a Massacre of Indigenous People in the 1920s Packs a Punch,” The Sydney Morning Herald, January 23, 2021. 16. S ee Appendix (3) (Editor note: Appendix has been removed for this publication) 17. A ustralian Government – Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, “National Heritage Places – Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site,” 2008, http://www.environment.gov.au/. 18. T eela Reid, “It’s beyond Time for Truth-Telling, but at Least There’s a Move in Our Schools,” The Sydney Morning Herald, April 29, 2021. https://www.smh.com.au/national/it-s-beyond-time-for-truthtelling-but-at-least-there-s-a-move-in-our-schools-20210429p57nko.html.

21. J ane Lydon and Lyndall Ryan, “Remembering The Myall Creek Massacre” (Australia: NewSouth Publishing, 2018), 96–97.

Pymble Ladies’ College

STUDENT PERSPECTIVES

Why you need to know about academic journals

Lucy Clark and

Charlotte Hartin The following article is the script of a speech

program at Pymble which enabled students to

delivered at the Pymble Research Conference,

immerse themselves in their chosen ‘passion’

October 2021 by Lucy Clark and Charlotte Hartin

projects. Students were able to develop unique and

for their presentation on academic journal

insightful presentations – which were later shared

articles. The original article documenting Lucy

in a showcase format. We both participated in this

and Charlotte’s investigation this topic was

program in both Years 8 and 9. In fact, for the Year

published in the College’s research and innovation

9 project, we worked together to formulate our

journal, Illuminate Edition 5, 2020, 64-67.

own academic article based around the study of sports psychology.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW THE ARTICLE ONLINE About the authors

Our reference list from the project is quite enlightening as one of the first links is “what goes into a scholarly article”. Considering this, at the end

In 2020, Charlotte and Lucy developed their own

of the three months we had co-written a 10,000-

original research and, throughout that process,

word paper. After its completion, we were invited

learned the importance of students’ understanding

into the Pymble Ethics Committee, due to the data

of research and how to enter the world of

collection associated with our paper.

academics. Lucy is also an artistic gymnast and coach and her interest is in the area of sport and how people can better develop their sporting skills. Charlotte loves digging deeper into research and learning more about topics in depth. She enjoys rowing for Pymble and playing tennis. The speech I’m Lucy and this is Charlotte, and we began Pymble’s student-led academic journal club, the Junior Journal Club. In our presentation today, we will address our personal experience, the importance of student academic literacy, and how

In our classes, we are constantly advised to use academic articles for our research – specifically those found on JSTOR. Yet, due to the sheer length, confusing structure and language utilised, the vast majority of students find them incredibly daunting. We then revert to the powers of Google, which is significantly easier, yet limited in its credibility. With the abundance of information, it is vital to navigate relevance. There is an untapped potential for academic writing within secondary education – if only we were taught to fully understand its use and application within our learning.

we have applied this within our own community

This experience and newfound knowledge sparked a

– creating the Junior Journal Club. We hope our

passion, as we strove to enable others to understand

student perspective provides insight into our views

and recognise the importance of the academic

of the academic world.

world. Following our Sokratis research project, we

We embarked on this journey with the Sokratis

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

had the opportunity to interview Professor Mockler for Pymble’s Illuminate journal. This experience

enabled us to extend our understanding of how the

Due to the diversity of the subjects that we take within

world of academia functions. We then wondered how

schools, this elite scholarly world can feel inaccessible.

we could apply and share this newfound knowledge

For this reason, we believe that students must improve

with our peers. Our interview with Professor Mockler

their academic literacy.

was conducted through a series of emails, providing us with insight into the role of an editor. This opportunity furthered our understanding in this field and opened up a new area of interest. We learnt how to refine and

So, as students, what would we find helpful to improve our academic literacy? 1. Introduce students to academia from a younger

review articles and how the acceptance process is

age – making the field and the process appear less

conducted. This opportunity taught us to understand

daunting.

the various tiers of journals and the hierarchy which exists within academia. This experience with Professor Mockler was an eye-

2. Integrate it into the everyday classroom by providing academic articles to assist with teaching. 3. Educate students on how to comprehend these

opener. It raised several questions regarding how this

articles, by learning how to navigate their structure

profound knowledge can be shared amongst our

and identify their importance.

fellow peers. This knowledge was revolutionary, as we finally recognised its expansive applications in our daily studies – ranging from first learning the content, to the day of handing in the assessment.

We now obtained this knowledge and wanted to share the importance of academia with students to complement what is being taught in the classroom. The idea for the Junior Journal Club (JJC) occurred

We have had the opportunity to learn a lot in these

during a conversation with Dr Loch regarding

last few years. The importance of academic literacy to

our experience with Professor Mockler. Dr Loch’s

students is often underestimated. It is essential for the

mentorship and encouragement enabled us to develop

next generation to immerse themselves in credible,

a pathway for other students to dive into research.

and comprehensive information. From our experience, access to academic papers is becoming easier, and increasingly important.

In the first term of JJC, we had to adapt to an online format. Recently, we were able to invite Dr Hadwen to speak to the members about her experience in

With information at our fingertips, it is both the greatest

academia. In the future, we hope to invite more guests

gift and challenge of this generation. We hope that you

to share their unique experiences. If any of you are

will take the time to equip students with the skills that

interested in sharing, you are more than welcome.

are required to understand and interpret this world.

We want to empower students in academia. We

From personal experience, we believe that the phrase

want to lay the foundations to enable students to

we have heard most when researching is “do not use

understand these articles. In the early days of the JJC

Wikipedia”. Whilst it is important to be educated in the

we have explored abstracts, null hypotheses, and the

reliability of sources, and how to find useful research

purpose of academia, with the future hope of looking

platforms. It is important to educate students on how to

into the process of publication and review, as well as

understand and navigate research articles. It is no use

tiers of journals. While much of the knowledge that we

finding the article, if you have no idea of how to use it.

hope to teach is not taught within the curriculum, we

The biggest takeaway from this presentation is that

hope that it can provide passionate students with the

as a student, learning how to understand academia

ability to extend themselves and get a head start in the

is extremely valuable. It is simply assumed that all

academic world.

students can read an academic article, as we can all

In a world of information overload, being able to

read a book, yet it is a new skill, a new language that

interpret academic research leads to better outcomes,

requires practice to develop. If a student attempts to

and a better future for students.

read and comprehend every single word of a paper they will be there for hours. Students are not experts.

Pymble Ladies’ College

What is an academic journal? A discussion with Associate Professor Nicole Mockler BY LUCY CLARK AND CHARLOTTE HARTIN, YEAR 10 Year 10 students Lucy Clark and

WHAT IS A JOURNAL?

Charlotte Hartin were inspired to find

An academic journal provides access

out more about the world of academic

to reliable research articles. The articles

journal articles following their Sokratis

have been curated and selected by the

project investigations in 2020. Lucy and

editor, following a peer-review process

Charlotte interviewed Dr Nicole Mockler

by fellow academics. This process of

through a series of email conversations in

selection means that only journal specific

2020 and the beginning of 2021.

articles are published.

INTRODUCTION

Journals are a form of presentation

Dr Nicole Mockler is an Associate Professor at the Sydney School of Education and Social Work, within the University of Sydney. She is also known for her work as the editor of the journal, The Australian Educational Researcher. Dr Mockler’s interest areas include education policy, pedagogy and continuing professional development for teachers – enabling them to support

Dr Nicole Mockler 64

facilitating the discussion of research. There is a tiered system amongst academic journals, due to the hierarchy within the academic world. The highertiered journals are significantly more selective with the articles they publish, creating levels of prestige. Academic journals are vital as they enable researchers to share their opinions, whilst challenging those of others.

their students through curriculum

Unfortunately, many people struggle to

development and thorough research to

access or interpret scholarly articles. This

provide reliable information regarding the

is due to the elite nature of the academic

enhancement of educational strategies.

community. To delve into this world

Dr Mockler has worked in education

of information and pressing opinions,

for more than 25 years, beginning as a

we must educate people in the skills of

classroom teacher, providing valuable

analysis, interpretation and application of

input as an education consultant, and

the research presented and encourage

eventually as a teacher educator and

the use of academic journals as valuable

educational researcher.

resources to our learning development.

Illuminate Research and Innovation

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Lucy Clark and Charlotte Hartin

Q&A Professor Mockler, why were you interested in becoming involved in academia? In the last three years before I left

PhD after that as I set up an education

teaching, I was in a school leadership

consultancy focused on helping schools

role leading teacher professional learning. to support teacher learning, and working I became very interested in how good

across independent, Catholic and public

teacher learning could support teachers

schools, as well as with some of the

to best support the learning of their

systems such as the Association of

students. I began working part time

Independent Schools, the Department

on my PhD at the University of Sydney

of Education and the Catholic Schools

and was investigating how teachers’

Office of Broken Bay. After finishing my

professional identity is formed and the

PhD, I decided to move into academia

role of professional learning in that.

full time, and spent six years as a Lecturer and then Senior Lecturer in the School of

After three years of working very, very

Education at the University of Newcastle.

part time on the PhD, I decided to leave

I moved to take up my current role at the

teaching so that I could concentrate

University of Sydney in 2015.

on getting it finished. I ended up taking a few more years to complete the Pymble Ladies’ College

Pymble Ladies’ College

What is an academic journal?

What does it mean to be What does the submission the editor of The Australian process look like? Educational Researcher Journal?

What does the review process look like?

Before submitting their paper, authors

If we decide that the paper should

As Editor-in-Chief of The Australian

prepare an anonymised version of the

go for review, then we look for two

Educational Researcher, I lead a team

paper, which includes neither their name,

reviewers who have a good level of

of eight Associate Editors, so I don’t act

nor anything else that might identify

expertise in the area of the paper and

alone, but that said, the final decision

them. All papers submitted to the journal

invite them to review it. If they accept the

over what we publish rests with me.

are subject to double blind review,

invitation, we give them four weeks to

When a paper is submitted to the journal,

meaning that the reviewers don’t know

read the paper, write some constructive

our Co-ordinating Associate Editor will

who the author is (although if the paper

feedback to the author and make a

allocate it to a member of the team to

is published they eventually find out!)

recommendation to the Editorial Team.

‘manage’ (as we call it) over its life with

and the authors don’t know who the

Their recommendation can be ‘Accept’,

the journal. She tries to allocate papers

reviewers are.

‘Request Minor Revisions’, ‘Request Major Revisions’ or ‘Reject’.

according to our own areas of expertise – the team includes people with many different research interests, including educational psychology, educational sociology, education policy studies, curriculum and pedagogy, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education, mathematics education, literacy education and so on – but sometimes we are also called upon to manage papers outside of our areas. She makes sure that she avoids any known conflicts of interest for the editorial team. So, for example, we don’t manage papers submitted by people who work at the same university as we do, or with whom we have

The first thing we do upon receipt of a manuscript is to read it closely and make

In my time as a journal editor, I have

a decision about whether it should go

never known one paper to be accepted

out for review. We make this first decision

without any revisions, and I could count

on the basis of whether we think the

on one hand the number that are

paper is a good fit for our readership and

accepted after only minor revisions.

the aims of our journal, and whether

The majority of published papers would

we think the quality of the research

have been through a round of major

and writing makes the paper a potential

revisions and then a further round of

candidate for publication. If we decide at

minor ones, and sometimes more.

that point that the paper should not be sent to reviewers, we write the authors

When the reviews come in, the editor

some feedback, to give them an idea of

managing the paper makes an on-

what they might do to improve the paper

balance decision, based on their own

to get it ready for submitting elsewhere.

reading of the paper and the comments

research partnerships, but we also keep a keen eye on that individually.

and recommendations of the reviewers. Sometimes it’s a relatively straightforward matter – for example where both reviewers recommend major revisions and their suggestions for improvement are similar – but sometimes it’s more complex, for example if one reviewer has recommended minor revisions and the other has recommended the paper be rejected. In those difficult cases, especially if the paper isn’t directly in an area where the managing editor or I have great expertise, we will go to a third

Illuminate Research and Innovation

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

reviewer to help us make the decision.

“Rejection is never easy and while in the academic world we tend to grow a ‘thick skin’ relatively quickly – there’s generally a lot of rejection to contend with! In my experience, the sting never really goes out of it. ” What happens if a paper is rejected?

How do people deal with rejection?

Rejection is never easy and while in the

I don’t think there’s an academic alive

academic world we tend to grow a ‘thick

who hasn’t had at least one paper

skin’ relatively quickly – there’s generally

rejected at some point in their career.

a lot of rejection to contend with! In my

The trick is to then build on the feedback

experience, the sting never really goes

that comes along with it and not let

out of it. One of the biggest challenges

yourself lose momentum with the work.

for early career researchers (which is

Putting it ‘in the bin’ is hardly ever the

the name we give to people who are

right response, but it can be hard not

within their first five years post-doctorate)

to sometimes.

is to not let the critique and rejection undermine their confidence in themselves Rejection from one journal doesn’t preclude you from reworking the paper as researchers and academics. and resubmitting it somewhere else It is really important for early career

– and it’s not always the case that the

academics to be well supported as

‘somewhere else’ is a lesser journal,

they establish themselves, and good

as sometimes it’s more about the fit

mentoring is a really important part of

between the paper and the journal and

this. As a journal editor, I can’t prevent

the community of readers the journal

people from having their work rejected,

has. The more experienced we are as

but I can ensure that, as far as possible,

academics the better we tend to get at

rejection comes with constructive

pitching our work to the right journal.

FROM THE AUTHORS We feel extremely privileged to share this opportunity to learn about Dr Mockler’s work in academia, as well as developing a deeper understanding of the process involved in developing the highest quality academic journals. The opportunity to research this paper and interview Dr Mockler taught us about the submission, review and rejection process. It enabled us to gain further insight into the elite world of academia, and how it is relevant to our everyday experiences. This project has inspired us to begin our ‘Junior Journal Club’, where we are able to explore the world of academia and further develop inquiring minds alongside our peers. We hope to encourage a generation that is well informed and educated regarding academic journals, as they are often inaccessible or difficult to understand for the vast majority of the population.

feedback that both affirms what’s good about the work and provides some tangible and practical advice for how to improve it. That’s one of the things that occupies a lot of time and headspace for me as an editor.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science A comparative study on the emissions from black and brown coal power plants and their 100-year impact on global warming BY CHARLOTTE ARMSTRONG, YEAR 12, 2021 ABSTRACT Australia’s power is predominately generated from the non-renewable resource of coal, either black or brown. Brown coal is perceived as more impactful towards global warming compared to black coal due to its greater emissions of greenhouse gases.

The natural greenhouse effect can be described as the

This comparative study attempts to fill a gap in research by taking into account the quantity of the greenhouse gases released and their relative impact to carbon dioxide levels. This was achieved through the evaluation of emissions from black and brown coal power plants and their 100year impact on global warming using the Global Warming Potential [GWP] index.

(Easterbrook, 2016). On the other hand, the anthropogenic

Here we show that when the emissions of greenhouse gases from each type of observed coal power plant was multiplied by its respective GWP value, black coal power plants were in fact more impactful towards global warming compared to brown coal power plants despite having a lower amount of total emissions. Multiple chisquared tests were used to determine the independence of emissions and emissions multiplied by GWP from each type of coal power plant, as well as, the type of coal and its effect on the output and output multiplied by GWP. This study could have an immediate implication on the perception of coal power plant emissions as the type of greenhouse emission as well as the quantity needs to be taken into account for a meaningful comparison.

solar energy from the sun that warms the earth’s surface temperature where the surface radiates infrared radiation upward into the atmosphere which is then absorbed by greenhouse gases [GHGs] as represented in figure 1 greenhouse effect is “the impact on the climate from the additional heat retained due to the increased amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases” as seen in Figure 1 (Geoscience Australia, n.d.) [Figure 1 removed for publication]. The greenhouse effect is a natural process which warms the surface of Earth (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, n.d.). Global warming is described by NASA as “the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere” (Shaftel et al., 2021).

Image removed for publication

LITERATURE REVIEW This report identifies the 100-year effect of greenhouse gas emissions from black and brown coal power plants, and their impact on global warming by way of the Global Warming Potential [GWP] index. There was a need to compare these two types of coals as together, they were the energy source that produced 62 per cent of Australia’s electricity in 2017 as seen in figure 6 (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2019). This report attempts to fill

Figure 1 – Comparison of natural and anthropogenetic greenhouse, practical explanation of global warming (Conservation in a Changing Climate, 2021).

a gap in the scientific research. Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

COAL POWER PLANTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL WARMING The GHGs in the atmosphere includes carbon dioxide [CO2], methane [CH4] nitrous oxide [N2O] and some artificial chemicals called fluorinated gases [F-] (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, n.d.). CO2 is the GHGs emitted in the largest quantity from human activity and it stays in the climate system for thousands of years (US EPA, 2016). CH4 is emitted in large

Type of greenhouse gas

GMP

CO2

CH₄

N₂O

298

F-

5930

Figure 2 – the values of the 100-year GWP index (EPA, 2018a)

amounts by natural and anthropogenetic sources (Sabljic, 2009), and lasts about a decade, it absorbs more solar a centenary (Trottier, 2015) and is the third most abundant GHG after CO2 and CH4 (Sabljic, 2009). F- consists of chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs], hydrofluorocarbons [HFCs], hydrochlorofluorocarbons [HCFCs], perfluorocarbons [PFCs], and sulphur hexafluoride [SF6] and can last thousands or tens of thousands of years (Trottier, 2015). The EU has taken regulatory action to control F- gases to combat global warming as they can be 23,000 times more impactful than CO2 in terms of their greenhouse effect

TYPE OF GREENHOUSE GAS

radiation than CO2 (Trottier, 2015). N2O on average lasts

5930

Fluorinated gases (F⁻)

298

Nitrous Oxide (N ₂O)

Methane (CH₄)

Carbon diox ide (CO2)

0.1

100

1000

10000

GWP VALUE

Figure 3 – relative GWP values per greenhouse gas (EPA, 2018a). As can be seen in figure 3, this graph uses a logarithmic scale. In this report, F-gases are 5930 times more impactful than CO2.

(European Commission, 2016). There is a clear relationship between the change in global temperatures and a corresponding change in the amount of atmospheric GHGs (Humlum et al., 2013). The concentration of atmospheric CO2 has augmented from 227 parts per million [ppm] in 1750 (Joos & Spahni, 2008)

This report looks at the GHG emissions of black and brown coal power plants in Australia. The quality of coal depends on its formation, the pressure and heat the sediment was subject to, the more pressure and heat, the higher the carbon content (Geoscience Australia, 2019) as

to 409.85 ± 0.1 ppm in 2019 (Dlugokencky & Tans, 2020).

represented in Figure 4 [Figure 4 removed for publication].

GWP is an index intended to quantify and measure the

process determining its overall carbon content and

“capturing and re-radiating outgoing infrared radiation

properties seen in Figure 5.

Hence the type of coal is categorised by its formation

in the atmosphere” influenced by particular GHGs (EPA, 2018b). “It is defined as the cumulative radiative forcing – both direct and indirect effects – integrated over a specific period of time from the emission of a unit mass of gas relative to some reference gas” (EPA, 2018a). The capacity for capturing and re-radiating outgoing infrared radiation is different depending on the GHG (Trottier, 2015).

Image removed for publication

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] publishes updated GWP values regularly and this report uses the 2018 values. Additionally, there are different time frames: 20, 100 and 500 years, however, the 100-year GWP is the mostly widely used (Trottier, 2015), the values can be found in Figure 2. The best application of the GWP values dictates it should be used with emission calculations

Figure 4 – The formation of coal and its relation to heat and pressure.

(Trottier, 2015). The IPCC found that GWP values have an uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent (EPA, 2018a). Figure 3 is a graphical representation of the values on a logarithmic scale where the uncertainty stated above was included.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science Sub-category

Approximate carbon content ( per cent)

Properties

Brown coal

An organic sediment. It is considered to be a precursor of coal.

< 60

Black coal

Usually yellow to dark brown in colour and can have a woody appearance or recognisable plant structures in it.

60–70

Sub-bituminous coal

Dark brown to black in colour. It does not have a woody appearance and often has alternating bands of dull and bright material.

70–76

Bituminous coal

A dense, usually black, but sometimes dark brown rock, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. The dull bands can contain sedimentary mineral grains.

76–86

Anthracite

A harder, glossy black coal. It is the highest rank of coal meaning the carbon content is highest.

> 86

Thermodynamic efficiency

Type of coal

Figure 5 – table with the different types of coals, their properties and the carbon (Geoscience Australia, 2019).

Black and brown coal are generally used in Australia as a source of fuel for power plant stations (Geoscience Australia, 2019). Brown coal used to create power is perceived as problematic because of its high water content, meaning it crumbles easily when it is exposed to air therefore requiring specialised storage (Geoscience Australia, 2019). Black coal can also be used to make petroleum coke, a porous fuel with high carbon content (Tikkanen, 2008). Brown coal can also be treated to remove the moisture increasing its efficiency as a fuel and decreasing the emissions of GHGs when burned whereas black coal is generally used without processing (Geoscience Australia, 2019). The powerplants from which the data was extracted did not specify whether the coal used had undergone any pre-treatment. “Climate change is happening and accelerating” (Manoa, 2021). According to Professor Stuecker, “the latest IPCC report shows clearly that if we do not drastically curb our emissions, we will head towards temperatures that Earth has not seen in millions of years” (Manoa, 2021). Professor Ed Hawkins, lead author of the IPCC, believes that “we are experiencing climate change, including more frequent and extreme weather events, and for many of these impacts there is no going back” (Harvey, 2021). These extreme events include the 2019/20 Australia bushfire season, the 2021 fires in Greece, the 2021 floods in West Germany and Belgium and the 2021 fires in California (Harvey, 2021). Therefore, the anthropogenetic emissions of GHGs, specifically coal power plants, need to be drastically reduced to decrease global warming and the consequences of climate change. Australia’s electricity generation in 2017 relied on coal as an energy source for 62 per cent of its needs; 47 per cent is black coal, and 15 per cent is brown coal as seen in Figure 6 [Figure 6 removed for publication]. Hence, it is essential to study the impact of the two main coal types used in Australia by comparing the GHG emissions using the 100-year GWP index. Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Image removed for publication

Figure 6 – graph illustrating the ways Australia produces electricity divided by generation type (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2019).

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION How do the emissions of greenhouse gases for black and brown coal power plants differ in terms of their potential 100-year impact on global warming?

HYPOTHESIS The emissions of greenhouse gases from a brown coal powerplant will have more impact on global warming over a 100-year period compared to the emissions of greenhouse gases from black coal power plant.

METHODOLOGY Data from five power plants was used for this report all originating from the same source being the Australian National Life Cycle Inventory Database [AusLCI] but from different datasets. The datasets that were used are as follows: Brown coal SA, Brown coal VIC, Black coal NSW, Black coal QLD and Black coal WA. Each of the datasets represents a different power plant with different universally unique identifiers [UUID] that can be found in the appendix.

COAL POWER PLANTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL WARMING

In the name of the datasets, the black or brown describes

value for all observed coal power plants in that specific

the type of coal use in that power plant, and the second

chi-squared test. The chi squared tests performed were

word specifies, in which state this power plant is located in

as follows: output of GHGs brown [OR], output of GHGs

Australia. The datasets were able to be compared as they

black [OA], output of GHGs brown x GWP [OR x GWP],

originated from the same source meaning that a similar

output of GHGs black x GWP [OA x GWP], output of GHGs

method was used to gather each dataset. Furthermore,

for black and brown coal [OR & OA] and output of GHGs

the same researcher gathered and formatted each

for black and brown coal x GWP [OR x GWP & OA x GWP].

dataset ensuring the data, on the whole, is assumed to be consistent. The comparison of power plants within different states increases uncertainty due differences in climatic conditions, however given that the power plants surveyed come from the same country the variation is not expected to be significant.

To perform the chi-squared test, the chi-square statistic formula [as per E1 below] was used. The exemplar chisquared table for ‘OR’ below demonstrates the format used in excel to perform all chi-squared tests can be seen in Figure 9.

The information recorded from each dataset was the output quantity of the following GHGs: CO2, CH4, N2O, and F−. The GWP index values were extracted from the most recent EPA report published in 2018 (EPA, 2018a). For the F− there is a large range of values for CFCs, HFCs, HCFCs, PFCs and SF6 from 22,800 to 0.003, therefore the median value, 5930, was used for all fluorinated gas data (EPA, 2018b). According to the IPCC, GWP values have an uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent (EPA, 2018b). To see the GWP values used in this report, refer to Figure 2. To prepare the data for analysis, as mentioned above, data was extracted from each dataset, and the GWP value for CO2, CH4, N2O, and F− was gathered into tables outside of this report. The first table was created to record the outputs of GHGs for each power plant and converted to the same unit of measurement, g/kWh, to facilitate a meaningful comparison, and a second table was created by multiplying the outputs in first table by the GHGs’

To find the uncertainty for the emissions of black and brown coal power plants observed, the range was found by deducting the minimum from the maximum and then dividing it by two. Since the GWP index value has an uncertainty of +/35 per cent, error bars were included, when possible, for figures 11, 13 and 16. Graphs from 17 – 19 use the same range in order to facilitate comparison. Due to the application used for the graph, the written proper format for the GHGs with the subscript and superscript could not be used. Chi squared statistical tests

respective GWP values to see the relative significance of

Observed frequency

the emissions on its GWP impact.

Expected frequency

The datasets Natural gas TAS, and Natural gas SA were

Figure 7 – formula used to perform the chi-squared test

used in some graphs as a relative comparison, however, they were not the main focus of the study. The same procedure was applied as seen in Table 1 and Table 2, however no statistical tests were performed on this set of information.

Brown SA

Brown VIC

Grand Total

CO2

392.3056459

1171997.011

1172389.316

CH₄

0.153071727

337611.7278

337611.8809

N₂O

647.075685

1018.492876

1665.56856

F-

0.013607272

3.362478451

3.376085722

Chi statistic [CS]

1511670.142

The statistical test chosen for the main dataset was the chi-squared independence test used to investigate six different hypotheses listed in Figure 8. In all instances, the

α value was 0.05. For the output for black and brown coal

Critical value (CV)

7.814727903

chi test and the output for black and brown coal x GWP

Figure 8 – an example of the chi squared test format used in Excel.

chi test, the expected value in each test was the median

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The brown coal power plants have the same emissions of GHGs.

The brown coal power plants don’t have the same emissions of GHGs.

The black coal power plants have the same emissions of GHGs.

The black coal power plants don’t have the same emissions of GHGs.

The brown coal power plants x GWP have the same emissions of GHGs.

The brown coal power plants x GWP don’t have the same emissions of GHGs.

The black coal power plants x GWP have the same emissions of GHGs.

The black coal power plants x GWP don’t have the same emissions of GHGs.

The type of coal doesn’t affect the output of GHGs from the power plants.

The type of coal affects the output of GHGs from the power plants.

The type of coal doesn’t affect the output of GHGs from the power plants multiplied by the GWP value.

The type of coal affects the output of GHGs from the power plants multiplied by the GWP value.

OR x GWP

OA x GWP

OR & OA

OR x GWP & OA x GWP

1000000

1200000

100000

1000000

10000

800000

1000

600000

100

400000

200000

Brown SA

CO2

Brown VIC Bl ack NSW Black QLD COAL POWER PLANT CH4

N2O

F-

Black WA

TOTAL QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

1400000

1000000

1200000

100000

1000000

10000

800000

1000

600000

100

400000

200000

Brown SA

CO2

Brown VIC Bl ack NSW Black QLD COAL POWER PLANT CH4

N2O

F-

Black WA

Total emissions

Figure 11 – Emissions of greenhouse gases x GWP per coal power plant, the left-hand y-axis uses a logarithmic scale. The left y-axis is for the bar lines, and the right y-axis is for the black line. This graph includes an uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent due to the inclusion of the GWP index values. As can be seen in Figure 11 overall, black coal power plants are more impactful towards global warming compared to the brown coal power plants. The three most impactful gases in all power plants are CO2, N2O and F-. 1400000

Figure 9 – Chi-squared test table summary of null and alternate hypotheses as well as the statically favoured hypothesis. OA = output for black coal, OR = output for brown coal, GWP = Global Warming Potential index. Above, in Figure 9, the favoured hypotheses are in yellow as critical stat > critical value, however, this does not mean that they are confirmed, they simply cannot be rejected. 10000000

1400000

QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

10000000

TOTAL QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

Hypotheses

Total emissions

Figure 10 – Emissions of greenhouse gases per coal power plant, the left-hand y-axis uses a logarithmic scale. The left y-axis is for the bar lines, and the right y-axis is for the black line. As can be seen in Figure 10 overall, black coal power plants emit less GHGs than brown coal power plants.

1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0

Bro wn SA

Bro wn VIC

CO2

Black NSW COAL POWER PLANT CH4

N2O

Black QLD

Black WA

F-

Figure 12 – Relative emissions of GHGs per coal power plant. As can be seen in Figure 12, the quantities of CH4, N2O and F- are minute in comparison to CO2 and therefore the cluster bar representing GHGs other than CO2 are scarcely visible. QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr X GWP

Chi-squared test

QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

RESULTS

3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

Brown SA

Brown VIC

CO2

Bl ack NSW COAL POWER PLANT CH4

N2O

Black QLD

Black WA

F-

Figure 13 – Relative emissions of greenhouse gases x GWP per coal power plant. In this format, the uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent could not be included for GWP index values. As can be seen in figure 13, the trend highlighted in figure 11 is continued, where the most impactful gases towards global warming are CO2, N2O and F-. This graph uses the same format as seen in Figure 12.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

COAL POWER PLANTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL WARMING

4000000

Chi-squared test

3500000

QUANTITY RELEASED IN g/mWhr

3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

OR x GWP

500000

Bro wn SA

Bro wn VIC

Bro wn mean

Black NSW

Black QLD Black WA POWER PLANT Output

Black mean

Natural gas SA Natural gas TAS

Gas mean

Output x gwp

Figure 14 – Relative comparison of emissions and emissions x GWP for black coal, brown coal and natural gas. The uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent for the GWP values was included where necessary. As can be seen in Figure 14, the type of fuel in energy production from most to least impactful in terms of their mean is: black coal, brown coal and natural gas.

QUANTITY OF GHGs RELEASED IN g/mWhr

2500000

OR & OA OR x GWP & OA x GWP

Conclusion

1511670.142

H0 rejected

3 / 7.815 (3dp)

H0 rejected

8024. 231 (3dp)

H0 rejected

df/CV

6 / 12.592 (3dp)

H0 rejected

59348451415

H0 rejected

df/CV

3 / 7.815 (3dp)

H0 rejected

268234.391 (3dp)

H0 rejected

CS df/CV

6 / 12.592 (3dp)

H0 rejected

1884.195 (3dp)

H0 rejected

df/CV

2 / 5.991 (3dp)

H0 rejected

36566123712

H0 rejected

df/CV

2 / 5.991 (3dp)

H0 rejected

Figure 17 – the results of the chi-squared tests, includes chi squared statistic, degrees of freedom, critical value and test conclusion.

2000000

DISCUSSION

1500000

Overall, in the observed data, this report found that black 1000000

coal power plants were more impactful towards global warming compared to brown coal power plants when the

500000

GHG emissions were multiplied by their respective 1000

Output

Output x gwp BROWN COAL POWER PLANT

Brown SA

Brown VIC

Brown mean

year GWP values. However, brown coal power plants had higher emissions of GHGs than black coal power plants. These results don’t align with the common scientific

Figure 15 – Total of observed brown coal power plant output and output x GWP. As can be seen in Figure 15, this graph compares the overall values for each brown coal power plant in terms of their output and output X GWP while demonstrating where the mean lies and uses the same range as Figure 16.

view. Brown coal has less carbon content than black coal, meaning it is of a lower quality and is less thermodynamically efficient (Geoscience Australia, 2019). Despite brown coal emitting more GHGs, when observed, it had less impact towards global warming compared

2500000 QUANITY RELEASED IN G/MWHR

OA x GWP

Values

to black coal. Therefore, it can be theorised that the 2000000

quantity of GHGs isn’t as significant as the types for global warming. Conversely, the datasets did not specify if the

1500000

brown coal used had undergone any treatment ultimately

1000000

resulting the thermodynamic efficiency of the coal to increase as well as a decrease in its emissions of GHGs

500000 0

(Geoscience Australia, 2019). Brown coal is problematic Output

Output x gwp BLACK COAL POWER PLANT

Black NSW

Black QLD

Black WA

Black mean

in its usage due to its high water content requiring specialised storage or treatment (Geoscience Australia, 2019). Hence, there could be several different unknown

Figure 16 – Total of observed black coal power plant output and output x GWP. As can be seen in Figure 16, this graph compares the overall values for each black coal power plant in terms of their output and output X GWP while demonstrating where the mean lies and uses the same range as Figure 15. Figure 16 highlights the significant difference between the black coal power plants when output is multiplied by GWP.

factors contributing to the unforeseen results. The GWP index used in this investigation is known to have an uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent according to the IPCC (EPA, 2018a). Additionally, it was founded that the uncertainty

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for the emissions of GHGs for brown coal power was ±

plants. Furthermore, this graph highlights the meaningful

20,629.8 (1dp) compared to ± 53,205.3 (1dp) for black coal

difference between the output values and output x GWP

power plants. The uncertainty being higher for black coal

values where all black coal power plants had a higher and

power plants signifies that the data was less consistent

more important difference between both values compared

that for black coal power plants. However, a level of

to brown coal and natural gas.

uncertainty was expected due to the power plants being located in different geographical areas in Australia, hence the climatic conditions would be different. Furthermore, the power plants may not have been operated in the same manner, possibly altering their performance, hence decreasing the precision of the study.

Figures 15 and 16 allow for more accurate comparison of each power plant for black and brown coal. Figure 15 demonstrates there is a difference between the emissions of the two brown coal power plants, especially after the output had been multiplied by the GWP, where Brown VIC has a value 40,000 more than Brown SA. Figure 16,

Figures 10 and 11 highlight the overall composition of

highlights that in the output, Black WA has the lowest

GHGs for each coal power plant, brown and black, as

quantity of emissions, however, after multiplying the output

well as the total amount of emissions where Figure 10 has

by the GWP, Black QLD has the highest score followed by

the emissions values and figure 11 the emission values

Black WA and Black NSW. The graph clearly demonstrates

multiplied by the GWP. Figure 10 highlights that brown

the large uncertainty between the scores which is

coal power plants, overall have more emissions that

augmented when the output is multiplied by the GWP.

black coal power plants. When comparing the two types, the most significant difference is that black coal power plants emit more F- gases than brown coal power plants. Figure 11 demonstrates that brown coal power plants tend to have a lower impact than black coal power plants, however, Brown VIC and Black NSW appear to have a similar impact. Additionally, the graph shows that the main GHGs of concern are CO2, N2O and F- given that they have the highest score for all power plants in Figure 11. Figures 12 and 13 comparatively show in a cluster bar for the total emissions in each power plant, where Figure 12 has the emissions values and Figure 13 the emission values multiplied by the GWP. Figure 12 highlights the trend as seen in Figure 10 where brown coal power plants are seen to emit more GHGs than black coal power plants. However, the graph also displays the minimal quantities of CH4, N2O and F- in comparison to CO2 given that they are not apparent on the graph. Figure 13 shows a similar trend found in Figure 11, where black coal power plants are more impactful, however, there seems to be a more significant difference between the levels of N2O which was not as visible in Figure 11. Figure 14 uses data from the observed black and brown coal power plants as well as data from a natural gas power plant as a relative evaluation of the emissions. When comparing the mean of black coal, brown coal and natural gas, black coal power plants are significantly more

In total, six chi-squared tests were performed where the null hypothesis was rejected, and the alternate hypothesis is statistically favoured in each. Theses hypotheses that can be found in Figure 9 and include a test for independence between the observed coal power plants for the emissions of GHGs and the emissions of GHGs x GWP. Furthermore, a test was conducted to find if the type of coal affects the output of GHGs as well as the output of GHGs x GWP. The methodological approach used for this report did not limit the analysis of data, however, the small sample size limited the reliability of the report and therefore, the overall application of the results and conclusion. Since the data was collected from a secondary online source, there was only a limited amount of information that could be extracted, and no information was presented on the exact type of coal used and its treatment to ensure consistency. This report does not pose any ethical issues in terms of the research itself and the use of the results. This study could immediately alter the perception for the emissions of GHGs from coal power plant as it was found that the overall quantity of emissions released isn’t as essential as the type when it comes to the 100-year impact on global warming. Therefore, for a comparison of GHG emissions to be meaningful, the 100-year GWP index should be taken into account.

impactful than brown coal and natural gas power

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

COAL POWER PLANTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL WARMING CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Overall, brown coal power plants emit more GHGs

Conservation in a Changing Climate. (2021). Carbon

than black coal power plants as seen in Figure 10 and

Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, and the Greenhouse

12. However, when multiplying the emissions by their

Effect. Conservation in a Changing Climate. https://

respective 100-year GWP values, black coal power plants

climatechange.lta.org/get-started/learn/co2-methane-

were found to be more impactful than brown coal power

greenhouse-effect/

plants as seen in Figure 11 and 13. When analysing Figure 14 with the lower part of the error bar, it demonstrates that the mean for black coal power plants has a score approximately 25,000 above that for the brown coal power plants. This therefore means that the hypothesis is not supported, and the null hypothesis is favoured. Hence, the emissions of greenhouse gases from a brown coal powerplant will have less impact on global warming over a 100-year period compared to the emissions of greenhouse gases from black coal power plant. In total, six chi-squared statistical tests were performed where the null hypothesis was rejected each time and the alternate hypothesis favoured. The chi-test tested the

Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. (n.d.). Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. Retrieved November 6, 2020, from http:// www.environment.gov.au/ Department of the Environment and Energy. (2019, March 1). Australian Energy Statistics, Table O Electricity generation by fuel type 2017-18 and 2018, https://www. energy.gov.au/publications/australian-energy-statisticstable-o-electricity-generation-fuel-type-2017-18and-2018 Dlugokencky, E., & Tans, P. (2020, November 16). Global Monitoring Laboratory—Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases. https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global.html

independence between the coal power plants for their

Easterbrook, E. (2016). Evidence-Based Climate Science:

emissions and emissions x GWP as well as independence

Data Opposing CO2 Emissions as the Primary Source of

between the type of coal for their emissions and emissions

Global Warming.

x GWP. The hypotheses of each chi-test can be found in

EPA. (2018a). Annexes to the Inventory of U.S. GHG

Figure 9, and the results in Figure 17.

Emissions and Sinks. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/

For brown coal power plants, the uncertainty was ±

files/2020-04/documents/us-ghg-inventory-2020-

20,629.8 (1dp) whereas the uncertainty for black coal

annexes.pdf

power plants was ± 53,205.3 (1dp), meaning that the data

EPA. (2018b). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions

from the black coal power plants was less consistent.

and Sinks: 1990–2018. https://www.epa.gov/sites/

However, this could be expected due to the power plants

production/files/2020-04/documents/us-ghg-inventory-

most likely operated differently as well as the power

2020-chapter-executive-summary.pdf

plants being located in different geographical regions in Australia, meaning that climate conditions could have alternated their performance. The GWP index used in this investigation is known to have an uncertainty of +/- 35 per cent according to the IPCC (EPA, 2018a). This investigation was successful in testing the hypothesis and answering the research question, however, the sample size was not sufficient for the data analysis in the report to be reliable and precise ultimately leading to the high uncertainty in the results and conclusion.

European Commission. (2016, November 23). Fluorinated greenhouse gases [Text]. Climate Action – European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/f-gas_en Geoscience Australia. (2019, September 1). Coal (Commonwealth of Australia). c\=AU\;o\=Australian Government\;ou\=Geoscience Australia. https://www. ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/mineralsenergy/australian-energy-facts/coal Geoscience Australia, (n.d.). The enhanced greenhouse effect. OzCoasts. Retrieved February 10, 2021, from https://ozcoasts.org.au/indicators/coastal-issues/ greenhouse_effect/

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HSC Extension Science

Harvey, F. (2021, August 9). Major climate changes

GHGs

Greenhouse gases

inevitable and irreversible – IPCC’s starkest warning

GWP

Global warming potential

yet. The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/

Null hypothesis

science/2021/aug/09/humans-have-caused-

Alternate hypothesis

unprecedented-and-irreversible-change-to-climate-

HCFCs

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons

scientists-warn

HFCs

Hydrofluorocarbons

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

N2O

Nitrous oxide

NSW

New South Wales

Output for black coal

Joos, F., & Spahni, R. (2008). Rates of change in natural

Output for brown coal

and anthropogenic radiative forcing over the past

PFCs

Perfluorocarbons

20,000 years. Proceedings of the National Academy of

South Australia

Sciences, 105(5), 1425–1430. https://doi.org/10.1073/

TAS

Tasmania

pnas.0707386105

UUID

Universally unique identifier

University of Hawaii at Manoa. (2021, August 26). Climate

VIC

Victoria

change is accelerating, according to comprehensive study.

Western Australia

Humlum, O., Solheim, J.-E., & Stordahl, K. (2013). The phase relation between atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperature.

https://phys.org/news/2021-08-climate-comprehensive. html

Chi-squared test

Sabljic, A. (2009). Environmental and ecological chemistry

– Volume I. EOLSS Publications. Shaftel, H., Callery, S., Jackson, R., & Bailey, D. (2021,

August 9). Overview: Weather, Global Warming and Climate Change. Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet.

OR x GWP

https://climate.nasa.gov/resources/global-warming-vsclimate-change Tikkanen, A. (2008, August 28). Coke – coal product. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/coke Trottier, S. (2015). Understanding the Changes to Global Warming Potential (GWP) Values. 9. US EPA. (2016, January 12). Understanding Global Warming Potentials [Overviews and Factsheets]. US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understandingglobal-warming-potentials

APPENDIX List of abbreviations: AusLCI

Australian National Life Cycle Inventory Database

CFCs

Chlorofluorocarbons

CH4

Methane

CO2

Carbon dioxide

Critical statistic

Critical value

F-

Fluorinated gases

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

OA x GWP

OR & OA OR x GWP & OA x GWP

CS df/CV CS df/CV CS

Values

Conclusion

1511670.142

H0 rejected

3 / 7.815 (3dp)

H0 rejected

8024. 231 (3dp)

H0 rejected

6 / 12.592 (3dp)

H0 rejected

59348451415

H0 rejected

3 / 7.815 (3dp)

H0 rejected

268234.391 (3dp)

H0 rejected

df/CV

6 / 12.592 (3dp)

H0 rejected

df/CV CS

1884.195 (3dp)

H0 rejected

df/CV

2 / 5.991 (3dp)

H0 rejected

36566123712

H0 rejected

df/CV

2 / 5.991 (3dp)

H0 rejected

Figure 17 – the results of the chi-squared tests, includes chi squared statistic, degrees of freedom, critical value and test conclusion.

Power plant name

UUID

Brown VIC

84822c2d-1c9d-33b1-ae10-bf695af47385

Brown SA

f618c48e-80f3-361e-b746-6da8482095ec

Black NSW

95450cd6-d1ba-34ba-afc6-00873c4283ea

Black QLD

f6ec38a3-0f7e-3398-8be3-e6850a01a873

Black WA

bcb84b70-f79a-3669-b6d6-eef51e6a48e7

Figure 18 – a table that records all of the UUID in the brown and black coal power plants datasets used in this report.

COAL POWER PLANTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL WARMING APPENDIX E2 E3 E4 E5 Figure 19 – formulas used in Microsoft excel to perform the chi-squared test

Figure 22– a graph representing the relative distribution of different emissions used for ‘Output of GHGs brown X GWP’ The x-axis scale ranges from 0 – 100 per cent. As can be seen in figure 22, the trend highlighted in Figure 11 and 13 is continued, where the most impactful gases towards global warming are CO2, N2O and F-.

Figure 20 – a graph representing the relative distribution of different emissions used for ‘Output of GHGs brown.’ The x-axis scale ranges from 98 – 100 per cent due to the large quantities of CO2 compared to all other GHGs.

Figure 23 – a graph representing the relative distribution of different emissions used for ‘Output of GHGs black X GWP.’ The x-axis scale ranges from 0 – 100 per cent. As can be seen in figure 23, the trend highlighted in Figure 11, 13 and 22 is continued, where the most impactful gases towards global warming are CO2, N2O and F-.

Figure 21 – a graph representing the relative distribution of different emissions used for ‘Output of GHGs black.’ The x-axis scale ranges from 98 – 100 per cent due to the large quantities of CO2 compared to all other GHGs.

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HSC Extension Science Substance use and mental health co-occurrence in adolescents BY ISABELLE JIMINEZ, YEAR 12, 2021 ABSTRACT This Scientific Report highlights the statistically significant

both the development of substance abuse addiction and

difference between adolescents’ substance use in

trigger occurrence of mental illnesses, mental health

individuals with mental Health disorders like Mental

issues resulting in excessive substance use and cause

Depressive Episodes (MDE) compared in individuals

addition, and excessive substance use contributes to the

without MDE. There is an evident co-occurrence of

development of mental health conditions. (NIH, 2020)

compulsive substance use and mental health disorders prevalent in the adolescent population present in America. Data was collected from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables from 2004 to 2019. Individuals with MDE and individuals without MDE were compared by selected specific substances for analysis to compare their means. The statistical test made it evident that there was a significant difference in the means of the two groups, as individuals with MDE across all examined substances displayed a larger, statically significant different, mean than individuals who use substances that don’t have MDE; thus confirmed that there is a larger proportion of individuals that have an associated mental health disorder alongside their substance use. This conclusion was important

Associated mental health issues can contribute to the development of substance abuse disorders. This can result from individual’s using these substances as selfmedicators, to relieve the symptoms of mental disorders such as anxiety and depression. In using these drugs as self-medicators they unintentionally exacerbate symptoms both immediately and in the long term, this can worsen or contribute to the development and progression of the pre-existing conditions. The excessive use of substances reduces the individual’s awareness to the negative effects it is having on their body, as brain activity causes them to become more vulnerable to succumb to the enhancing effects of the drugs (NIH, 2020).

to be drawn due to the significance mental disorders

Initial substance use without prior mental conditions can

and subsequent substance use has on adolescents in

contribute to the development of these mental illnesses,

disrupting proper development of neurological pathways

as there can be a disruption in properly functioning brain

and present negative impacts in the individual’s life.

activity caused by the contents in drugs (NIH, 2020). This makes the individual susceptible to developing mental

LITERATURE REVIEW

health issues.

Adolescences are more susceptible to the comorbidity

The co-occurrence of mental illnesses and substance

of substance abuse and mental health problems.

abuse overlaps with genetic and epigenetic vulnerabilities

This co-existence is thought to have a distinguished

and surrounding environmental pressures (NIH, 2020).

correlation with people who are already in a vulnerable

Stress is considered as an epigenetic factor with a

state as specific mental disorders can trigger addiction to

significant role in initiating and continuing compulsive

occur. While compulsive drug use can have the ability to

drug use patterns. Epigenetic factors change gene activity

exacerbate mental health conditions. Many adolescences

and expression. Exposure to a specific environmental

utilise this substance abuse in an attempt to alleviate

influence, like trauma, can induce changes in gene

psychiatric symptoms, especially during Mental Depressive

expression and alter functioning of neural circuits which

Episodes. In doing so they are more inclined to exacerbate

impact behaviour and make individuals more susceptible

their mental disorder as well as developing an addiction to

to develop these disorders. Due to the substances

these substances. (NIDA, 2020c).

interactions with neurochemistry of the brain in producing

There are three main pathways that result in the comorbidity of mental health disorders and substance abuse, these consist of: risk factors that contribute to Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

feelings of euphoria, which alleviates adolescents mental issues, a decrease in their stress levels can be experienced. (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2015).

SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Alternately, specific genes can make an individual more

The tables provided the opportunity to conduct an analysis

susceptible to the development of a mental disorder or

of measuring the co-occurrence of mental disorders

addiction of substances. Furthermore, genes also have an

with substance use in adolescents, allowing the trends in

influence on how an individual will respond to a drug or

prevalence or other correlations to be identified. This data

mental disorder. (NIDA, 2018)

provided estimates of substance use and mental health

Stress is a neurobiological link between the causation of substance use disorders and co-existing mental health disorders. As stress responses to stressors are mediated through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis it is altering the brains’ ability to function. It is evident that increasing stress levels reduced activity is the prefrontal

issues at the national level. Furthermore, the data assisted in the identification of the extent of substance use and mental illness among adolescents to estimate trends over several years. Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health Detailed Tables: Section 9: Youth Mental Health Tables – 9.1 – 9.11 were used (SAMHSA, 2019b).

cortex and increase responsivity in the striatum (NIH,

The survey was carried out anonymously, through both

2020). This leads to a decrease in behavioural control and

face-to-face interviews and with a computer-assisted

impulsivity and causes long term implications. Dopamine

interviewing program (CAI). NSDUH collects information

pathways derived from stress increase vulnerability to

from residents of households, non-institutional quarters

substance disorders as the HPA axis alters dopamine

like shelters, and civilians living on military bases. However,

signals which enhance properties of drugs to become

the survey excludes those without a fixed address, those

more addictive (NIDA, 2020b).

in jail or juvenile detention centres, and mental institutions are excluded from the survey (SAMHSA, 2019a). Dwelling

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION

units with up to two residents who are at least 12 years old

How is compulsive substance abuse impacted by

are to be selected for an interview.

the severity of comorbid mental health problems on

This data source used sophisticated techniques, the survey

adolescents in America?

had a large sample size of 70,000 individuals, and there

HYPOTHESIS As there is an increase in severity of prior mental health problems in adolescents, the adolescent becomes more vulnerable and more likely to become a compulsive substance abuser. It is more common for adolescents with mental health issues to have a direct correlation to compulsive substance abuse in attempts to alleviate symptoms of their mental health disorders.

METHODOLOGY

dataset. This allowed easy selection of specific variables to be analysed and for appropriate trends to be made. It was important to refine the dataset to remove irrelevant responses so only relevant variables were selected. The Detailed Tables with responses were selected that contain data of substance use in Adolescents with Mental Depressive Episodes (MDE) and substance use in Adolescents without Mental Depressive Episodes. Cleansing operations were utilised, including filtering, removing, splitting, and re-grouping to isolate the desired

The collected data was extracted from the National

data to analyse. The responses were compiled into three

Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables contain

sections: Illicit Drug use, Alcohol use and Cigarette use.

the respondents survey results from 2004 up to 2019

In each sub-sheet, the data collected was the prevalence

(SAMHSA, 2019b). The Detailed Tables is comprised of

of people using these substances in the years 2004-2019,

data representing national estimates from the survey, and

with two columns of MDE or no MDE.

were retrieved from the NSDUH data archive platform. The contents contain anonymous adolescents, aged between 12 and 17 years, responses on drug, alcohol, and substance use disorders (SUD), including additional topics about the youth experience, measures of mental health and their impact, Major Depressive Episodes (MDE) and treatment implications.

were 16 years of survey data made available in the one

An unpaired, two-tailed t-test was performed for each sub-sheet to determine if the means are significantly different between the two groups of data. The t-test used data from a selected drug from both individuals with MDE and without MDE. The t-test was the most effective test as it enabled the hypothesis to be tested taking into account the changes in survey data collection each year as a result Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science

of the data presented having a different proportion of adolescents surveyed each year. The t-test allows the comparison of the means from the two independent groups, substance abuse with MDE and substance abuse without MDE, to determine the extent their means are statistically different from one another. The t-test allowed

Figure 2 shows the null hypothesis is rejected as |t stat| > t-critical since 4.84 > 2.0 and p-value < α as 3.608E-05 < 0.05. Showing a statistically significant difference in the means of Substance Use of Cocaine among Adolescents with diagnosed mental health issues (MDE) to those without diagnosed mental health issues.

the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis to

Substance Use of Illicit Drugs (Marijuana) in Adolescents in America

be concluded. The rejection of the null hypothesis was determined by the conditions of the absolute value of

30.0

the t-statistic being greater than the critical value, or

25.0

of 0.05. The data in each sub-set was then graphically represented in a bar chart, this allowed the comparison of the two variables, MDE and no MDE, to be visually presented.

RESULTS

Percentage of indivduals used marijuana during the year (%)

alternately the p value being less than the alpha value

27.0 24.6 22.3

25.2 24.6 24.0

20.0

15.0

13.3 12.625 11.84375 11.9 11.1 10.1

10.0 5.0

0.0 MDE

No MDE

Illicit Drug usage – Cocaine Substance Use of Illicit Drugs (Cocaine) in Adolescents in America

Percentage of indivduals used cocaine during the year (%)

4 3.5 3

2.09375

2.3

1.5 1

Figure 3 Box and whisper plot comparing the mean and range of occurrence of Substance Use of Marijuana with mental health issues (MDE) and without mental health issues (no MDE). Data collected from the NSDUH annual survey.

3.4

2.5

1.5 1.1 0.8

0.79375

0.5

0.3

1.25 0.65 0.4

0 MDE

Illicit Drug usage – Marijuana

No MDE

In Figure 3 the mean of the percentage of individuals that used Marijuana during the year is 24.6 per cent for MDE, and 11.8 per cent for no MDE, the populations of individuals with MDE have a larger percentage of marijuana use than those without MDE.

Figure 1 Box and whisper plot comparing the mean and range of occurrence of Substance Use of Cocaine with mental health issues (MDE) and without mental health issues (no MDE). Data collected from the NSDUH annual survey.

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances Figure 4 T-test results using the results from table 2 for Marijuana usage, with an α value of 0.05

Figure 2 T-test results using the results from table 1 for Cocaine usage, with an α value of 0.05.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Figure 4 shows the null hypothesis is rejected as |t stat| > t-critical since 33.3 > 2.0 and p-value < α as 3.2724E25 < 0.05. Showing a statistically significant difference in the means of Substance Use of Marijuana among Adolescences with diagnosed mental health issues (MDE) to those without diagnosed mental health issues.

SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH

Illicit Drug usage – Heroin

Alcohol usage

Substance Use of Illicit Drugs (Heroin) in Adolescents in America 0.5

0.5

0.4

0.5 0.4

0.4 0.3 0.2

0.2

0.1

0.10.1

0.1

0.0

0.0 MDE

0.2

Percentage of indivduals who drank Alcohol during the year (%)

Percentage of indivduals used Heroin during the year (%)

0.6

Substance Use of Alcohol in Adolescents in America 30

28.4

25 20 15

26.225 23.3

22 16

16.5 11.9

7.8

14.775 12.15 8.675

5 0 MDE

No MDE

Figure 5 Box and whisper plot comparing the mean and range of occurrence of Substance Use of Heroin with mental health issues (MDE) and without mental health issues (no MDE). Data collected from the NSDUH annual survey.

Figure 7 Box and whisper plot comparing the mean and range of occurrence of Substance Use of Alcohol with mental health issues (MDE) and without mental health issues (no MDE). Data collected from the NSDUH annual survey.

In Figure 5 the mean of the percentage of individuals that

In Figure 7 the mean of the percentage of individuals that

used Heroin during the year is 0.4 per cent for MDE, and

drank alcohol during the year is 22 per cent for MDE, and

0.1 per cent for no MDE, the populations of individuals

11.9 per cent for no MDE, the populations of individuals

with MDE have a larger percentage of heroin use than

with MDE have a larger percentage of alcohol use than

those without MDE.

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

Figure 6 T-test results using the results from table 3 for Heroine usage, with an α value of 0.05.

Figure 8 T-test results using the results from table 4 for alcohol usage, with an α value of 0.05.

Figure 6 shows the null hypothesis is rejected as |t stat| >

Figure 8 shows the null hypothesis is rejected as |t stat| >

t-critical since 6.4 > 2.0 and p-value < α as is 6.2941E-07

t-critical since 7.5 > 2.0 and p-value < α as 2.6239E-08 <

< 0.05. Showing a statistically significant difference in the

0.05. Showing a statistically significant difference in the

means of Substance Use of Heroin among Adolescents

means of Substance Use of Alcohol among Adolescences

with diagnosed mental health issues (MDE) to those

without diagnosed mental health issues.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science DISCUSSION Cigarette usage

The data collected and its consequential analysis supports

Substance Use (Cigarettes) in Adolescents in America Percentage of indivduals who used Cigarettes during the year (%)

22.8 20 15

without mental health disorders. This could be in response

18.75 13.375

to attempting to alleviate the symptoms of their mental

14.3 10.7

10 7.85 5

4.4

6.11875 1.8

0 MDE

the notion that adolescents with mental health disorders have a higher substance usage percentage than those

health disorders and other psychiatric symptoms (NIDA, 8.825 6.4

2020c). The comorbidity of substance use and mental

2.925

health disorders that results supports the pathway of

No MDE

mental health issues resulting in the excessive substance use, as those individuals who have mental health disorders are already in a vulnerable state (NIH, 2020). Therefore,

Figure 9 Box and whisper plot comparing the mean and range of occurrence of Substance Use of Cigarettes with mental health issues (MDE) and without mental health issues (no MDE). Data collected from the NSDUH annual survey.

adolescents are more attracted to the drug enhancements

In Figure 9 the mean of the percentage of individuals that

Many of those with mental disorders (MDE) use substance

used cigarettes during the year is 13.4 per cent for MDE, and

as self-medicators, with the most influential substance

6.1 per cent for no MDE, the populations of individuals with

that is used as a self-medicator in adolescents being

MDE have a larger percentage of cigarette use than those

marijuana. Marijuana as shown in Figure 3, having the

without MDE.

largest difference in means with its t-stat value being 33.2

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

and therefore more inclined to continuous substance use which ultimately exacerbates their disorders.

compared to the t-critical of 2.0 from Figure 4. Marijuana is considered a self-medicator as it is effective at relieving the psychotic symptoms, however, unintentionally exacerbates their co-occurring disorders (NIDA, 2021). The excessive use of self-medicators like marijuana reduces the adolescent’s awareness and decision making, thus enhancing the effect of the drugs by making them feel more euphoric and therefore counteracting the loss of pleasure that their mental disorders bring. The brain’s involvement is heavily impacted when an individual succumbs to mental and substance disorders, thus negatively affecting the individual to mediate decision making, impulse control, reward, and emotions. The

Figure 10 T-test results using the results from table 5 for Cigarette usage, with an α value of 0.05.

pathway becomes more susceptible to disruption, leading

Figure 10 shows the null hypothesis is rejected as |t stat|

substance use and mental health disorders (NIH, 2020).

> t-critical since 4.4 > 2.0 and p-value < α as 0.0001221 < 0.05. Showing a statistically significant difference in the means of Substance Use of Cigarettes among Adolescents with diagnosed mental health issues (MDE) to those without diagnosed mental health issues.

to a higher proportion of individuals with co-occurring

Substances interactions with the individuals neurochemistry contribute to the production of a euphoric state that alleviates the adolescent’s psychiatric symptoms (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2015). As shown, there was a higher percentage of those using cocaine, drinking alcohol, and smoking cigarettes with mental health disorders. Substances like cocaine, alcohol and cigarettes cause individuals to experience a state of euphoria, due to these substances being psychoactive and impacting the striatum.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

SUBSTANCE USE AND MENTAL HEALTH

This releases a powerful burst of dopamine, and the

Using both the t-stat and p-value from the t-test rejected

individual becomes addicted to the state of euphoria it

the null hypothesis, and lead to the acceptance of the

causes as it alleviates their negative emotions caused

hypothesis. The results from this research all supported

from mental disorders (NIDA, 2020c), thus why the mean

the understanding that there is a significant difference in

of individuals with MDE is significantly higher than those

the usage of substances consisting of cocaine, marijuana,

without MDE. The reward sensation of drug intoxication

heroin, alcohol, and cigarettes for those with mental

establishes a rapid and strong response in the brain and

health disorders (MDE) and those without mental health

creates a subsequent association with feelings of pleasure.

disorders (no MDE). Those with mental health disorders

Leading to higher and more frequent drug administrations

consistently had higher usage of the substances compared

as individuals are trying to recreate that reward response,

to those without mental health disorders. Therefore,

further leading to a compulsive use of drugs (Butler Center

adolescents with mental health conditions are notably

for Research, 2015).

more susceptible to compulsive substance use.

The National Survey on Drug Use and Health used a

It is identifiable that there is a prevalent comorbidity of

method that has been consistent throughout several

substance use and mental illnesses among adolescence,

years, including applying the same survey conditions and

this consequently shows the importance for a treatment

parameters like how they source individuals for the survey,

and prevention plan. Due to the associated negative

which individuals are excluded from being surveyed, and

impacts the co-occurring disorders have, it is pivotal that

the same survey program and questions that are used.

appropriate and comprehensive methods of treatments

The responses are based on self-report drug use, this self-reporting is not necessarily accurate as the value depends on the respondent’s truthfulness and memory, resulting in scientific bias. Individuals might not necessarily recall if they have used specific substances within that year, thus the data points are not of an accurate representation of the percentage of the population that has used a substance. For the mental illness questions about individuals with Major Depressive Episodes (MDE), the data consisted of those who have been diagnosed professionally. Those without Major Depressive Episode may have an unaccounted or undiagnosed mental illness and are classified in the group of individuals without Mental Depressive Episodes. This can create discrepancies in responses as data exclusion can adhere to the possibility

and prevention are explored. Therefore, further directions of research should be revolved around the analysis of current treatment and prevention methods. This can be done by distinguishing the individuals who have received or are receiving appropriate treatment, and the impact it has had on the reduction of the co-occurrence of both substance use and mental health disorders shown through reducing substance use. This data would then to be compared to those who haven’t received the appropriate treatment and prevention methods for a clear comparison of the individual’s usage of substances to be made. Additionally, further research is important to decide how effective treatment and prevention methods are in helping those with co-occurring substance use and mental health disorders.

that individuals in these situations will have higher rates of substance use and mental health disorders compared to the general population. The survey data collected is cross-sectional rather than longitudinal; therefore, each year’s survey provides an overview of the prevalence of drug use at that specific point in time, rather the drug use changes over time in specific individuals. Aspects of the study have the possibility to effect conclusions, for example, each drug has its own legal implications which change over time, this might impact the usage of the drug and accessibility in certain areas of America.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science CONCLUSION The findings of this report highlights that there is a statically significant co-occurrence of adolescents with mental health disorders like Mental Depressive Episodes (MDE) and substance abuse. This was made evident by the consolidation of data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health from 2004 to 2019. Data was withdrawn from the NSDUH detailed tables with the drugs cocaine, marijuana, heroin, alcohol, and cigarettes selected for statistical analysis. The paper records the statistical difference between the means of individuals with substance use in individuals with mental health disorders and substance use in individuals without mental health disorders. The study concluded that on average a significantly higher percentage of adolescents in America, that have used substances within the year, are more likely to have a diagnosed mental health issue MDE. This confirmed the hypothesis that there is a higher proportion of adolescents with mental health issues as substance users. The research has found that adolescents that are diagnosed with a mental health issue are more vulnerable to developing a compulsive substance abuse. As examined through further research this co-occurrence is common as compulsive substance abuse allows individuals to alleviate their psychiatric symptoms which are associated from their mental health conditions. Ultimately, this study was important to examine substance use and mental health issues among adolescents and their impact on the individual being more prevalent in society, highlighting the need for treatment and prevention methods to be implemented.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

American Quarter Horses (AQH): The prevalence of genetic diseases, IMM + GBED, across AQH disciplines BY ISABELLA PIPPIA, YEAR 12, 2021 ABSTRACT Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM) and Glycogen

There are a variety of different disciplines (types of riding)

Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) are two genetic

practised by equestrians on a global scale. This research

diseases present in American Quarter Horses (a breed

paper focuses on the disciplines participated in frequently

of equine). This study aimed to conduct an investigation

by the American Quarter Horse breed. These riding types

into the prevalence of these two diseases across different

are primarily what’s known as ‘Western Riding’, with

riding disciplines commonly partaken by the American

disciplines such as cutting, reining, barrel racing and

Quarter Horse breed.

western pleasure. Additionally, this research includes halter

The study found that the Working Cow and Cutting disciplines shared the same highest total percentage of infected individuals (17 per cent), followed by the Reining discipline with a prevalence of 13 per cent. The Racing discipline had no individuals with either of the genetic diseases within the tested population (0 per cent for both

(conformation class), racing, and working cow (general working farm horses), which are also common AQH disciplines (AQHA Disciplines Overview – AQHA, n.d.). This spread of different disciplines provides a sample of the whole AQH population registered with the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA).

IMM and GBED). Disease prevalence in other disciplines

It is important to note the genetic concerns regarding

included Halter (7 per cent), Western Pleasure (4 per cent)

halter American Quarter Horses. Disappointingly, many

and Barrel Racing (4 per cent).

‘champion’ halter horses used as breeding stock are

The results of this study allow for further insight into the prevalence of these two diseases, which guides breeders in selecting their breeding stock wisely and prevents the transmission of these genetic mutations into the new generations of American Quarter Horses.

carriers or even openly express genetic diseases, but breeders have little to no regard for the health of these horses or their offspring. For example, the palomino halter champion stallion by the name of Influentual, owned by Terry Bradshaw QHs, is proudly proclaimed as an AQHA Open Reserve World Champion, Amateur Reserve World

LITERATURE REVIEW

Champion, and holds multiple Palomino World Champion

The American Quarter Horse (AQH) is one of the oldest

has tested heterozygous positive for Hyperkalemic

American equine breeds. The modern AQH ranges in

Periodic Paralysis (HYPP) and homozygous positive for

body type but is typically short and stocky, ranging from

Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy Type 1 (PSSM1) (Bellone,

14.3hh-16hh. They have a short but broad head, large and

2020). Although these genetic diseases are not the ones

wide hindquarters and a deep chest with a typical downhill

explored in this study, there is an established – and highly

build. Originating in the 1660s, these horses were initially

controversial (Goldsmith, 2011) – relationship between

bred for racing, with their name originating from their

halter AQHs and other genetic diseases, which could

ability to race successfully over distances of a quarter-

prove to be significant in the results.

mile. However, in the 19th century, the introduction of Thoroughbreds to the American horse racing scene reduced the popularity of AQH racers (though there are still some remaining to this day). As such, the breed found itself migrating into the world of stock horses, Western Riding and its subsequent disciplines (American Quarter Horse | Breed of Horse, n.d.; History of the Quarter Horse – AQHA, n.d.).

titles (Bradshaw, n.d.). This horse is a prized stud yet

Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM) is one of the two variants of the genetic muscle disease Myosin-Heavy Chain Myopathy (MYHM) that is present in the American Quarter Horse population. It causes severe muscular atrophy across the top-line of the horse, with the resulting decrease in the animal’s wellbeing occasionally leading to euthanasia. Horses will generally experience a period of weakness and lack of appetite before rapidly losing around 40 per cent of their muscle mass within a span of 72 hours.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science IMM is an autosomal codominant missense

Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) within American Quarter

mutation on the Myosin Heavy Chain 1 (MYH1) gene

Horse disciplines, the study will determine the extent

(chr11:52,993,878T>C) that alters the produced protein.

of the relationship between discipline and disease

Due to the variable penetrance, affected individuals

prevalence. It is hypothesised that there will be a discipline

within the population may not be susceptible to the

with a higher rate of diseased individuals compared to

potentially fatal symptoms associated with the mutation.

the other disciplines within the tested population.

IMM generally requires an immune system trigger (for example, a respiratory infection) prior to symptoms being presented. It has been found that heterozygous horses are typically affected more severely by IMM than homozygous individuals (Gianino et al., 2019, Immune Mediated Myositis, 2018). The presence of IMM is important information to be known to decrease the prevalence of disease within the AQH population and improve upon the wellbeing of these horses.

Based on known information regarding the state of conformation-bred AQHs (halter horses), it is suspected that this discipline will have the highest disease prevalence.

METHODOLOGY Due to the nature of the research question, it is unrealistic for a high school student living in a suburban setting to conduct an appropriate experiment to test the prevalence of equine genetic diseases to attain primary data. As

Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a

such, secondary data has been collected from two recent

genetic disease present primarily in American Quarter

pivotal research papers, located via Google scholar:

Horses. The disease is a lethal autosomal recessive

“Prevalence of the E321G MYH1 variant for immune-

nonsense mutation that is present in the glycogen

mediated myositis and nonexertional rhabdomyolysis in

branching enzyme (GBE1) gene. It is a single base change

performance subgroups of American Quarter Horses”

(c.102C>A) that shortens the produced protein and results

(Gianino et al., 2019) and “Prevalence of the Glycogen

in a lack of a glycogen branching enzyme, which is crucial

Branching Enzyme Deficiency Mutation in Quarter Horses

for organ function and without it, the horse dies. Fatality

in Brazil” (Araujo et al., 2018). The methodology of this

generally occurs within eighteen weeks from birth due to

project follows the DNA collection and analysis process

severe muscle and organ weakness. Heterozygous carriers

presented in these papers, with the addition of further

have the mutated gene but are not affected physically by

analysis and data visualisation to evaluate the correlation

the disease. Carriers have a 50 per cent chance of passing

between disease prevalence across American Quarter

on the carried gene to their offspring and, when bred with

Horse (AQH) disciplines.

other carriers, have a 25 per cent chance of producing offspring who are homozygous lethal for GBED (Araujo et al., 2018; Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED), n.d.; Wagner et al., 2006; Young, 2019). It is important to know the presence of the disease within the AQH population as this knowledge can help guide the future of the breed by increasing awareness of GBED’s presence and so reducing the likelihood of homozygous GBED offspring being produced.

5.1 DNA samples for Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM). Gianino et al. (2019) investigated a total of 307 horses randomly selected from registered American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) horses. The subjects were drawn from a variety of different disciplines: barrel racing (42), cutting (45), halter (50), racing (44), reining (37), western pleasure (48), and working cow (41). Mane hair samples were taken from these horses for analysis by the Veterinary Genetics Laboratory (VGL), University of

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION

California (Gianino et al., 2019).

This study aims to identify and explore the prevalence of

5.2 Genotyping + DNA sequencing and analysis to

genetic diseases – Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM) and

identify E321G MYH1 mutation. Refer to methodology

Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) – within a

outlined in Gianino et al. (2019).

population of American Quarter Horses.

5.3 Data analysis of IMM test results. Data was collated

HYPOTHESIS

and organised into a table categorised by the variables of equine discipline. Every component of their raw data

Due to the already-proven existence of Immune-

was used, as it was all relevant to the research question.

Mediated Myositis (IMM) and Glycogen Branching

As such, the number of horses affected by the IMM mutation (E321G) was compared between disciplines.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

AMERICAN QUARTER HORSES

This was performed by presenting the data in the form of

5.6 Genotyping + DNA sequencing and analysis to

a bar graph as well as a decimal (to two decimal places, as

identify GBE1 mutation. Refer to methodology outlined in

these values are more accurate than rounded percentage

Araujo et al. (2018).

values, for calculation purposes). This facilitated the

5.7 Data analysis of GBED test results. Refer to analysis

evaluation of IMM prevalence within the population both visually and numerically.

outlined in 5.3, as the same form of analysis was consistent across both sets of data. 5.8 Significance of prevalence of GBED across AQH disciplines. Refer to the method of statistical analysis to find the significance of prevalence discussed in 5.4. 5.9 Collating data. The analysed GBED data was combined with the IMM data to compare the prevalence

5.4 Significance of prevalence of IMM across AQH

of equine genetic diseases in general across different

disciplines. Using these datasets, the expected affected

disciplines within the AQH population.

values and expected unaffected values were calculated

5.10 Prevalence of equine genetic diseases (GBED + IMM)

using the formulation:

across AQH disciplines. Repeat analysis used in 5.4. This

Data was analysed using chi squared test (p ≤ 0.05),

facilitates examination of the prevalence of equine genetic

resulting in a chi critical value found using a chi critical

diseases in general to be compared across AQH disciplines.

table, relevant to the degree of freedom. This statistical

The importance of the chi squared test lies in its ability to

test was conducted using spreadsheet software (Microsoft

show whether there is a correlation between the two sets

Excel), where the expected range is compared to the actual

of data. Depending on whether chi stat > chi critical, the

range in order to identify whether there is a significant

chi squared test indicates whether disease prevalence is

correlation between discipline and disease prevalence.

independent of discipline or not. Visual data comparison

5.5 DNA samples for Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED). Blood samples were taken from 742 American Quarter Horses across 42 participating Brazilian stud farms with the sample including horses of both genders that were older than six months of age and competing in a range of disciplines: cutting (162), halter (100), racing (160), reining (160) and barrel racing (160). The published GBED carrier frequency is 8.3% (Wagner et al., 2006). According to César E.T. Araujo and his research

error bars on the bar graphs is an unfortunate limitation as the raw data contained no margins of error, no error values were included in the results.

RESULTS 6.1 Prevalence of Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM) Table 1. Raw IMM Data Discipline

Affected

Unaffected

TOTAL

Cutting

Reining

size was calculated under a margin of error of 2% and

Barrel Racing

95% confidence interval.” Due to the nature of GBED,

Halter

horses who are homozygous (carry two copies of the

Racing

allele) for the nonsense mutation in codon 34 of the GBE1

Western Pleasure

gene die within the first few months after birth, so for the

Working Cow

277

307

team, a “sample of at least 731 horses would be needed to estimate the prevalence of the GBED heterozygosity (carry one copy of the allele) in Brazil where the sample

paper to look at heterozygosity, it can be safely assumed

was achieved using two stacked bar graphs. The absence of

that horses over six months are not homozygous for

The raw data collected by Gianino et al. (2019) and

GBED. The DNA was purified from the blood sample and

organised by discipline. This allows for easier calculations

preserved by freezing at -80°C (Araujo et al., 2018).

within the spreadsheet software (Microsoft Excel).

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science

Figure 1. Representation of Table 1 data.

Discipline

Prevalence of IMM Across AQH Disciplines Null 10% Working Cow 17% Western Pleasure 4% Racing 0% Halter 16% Barrel Racing 0% Reining 24% Cutting 9% 0%

90% 83% 96% 100% 84% 100% 76% 91% 20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Prevalence (%) Affected

Unaffected

Table 2. Expected Affected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Western Pleasure

Working Cow

Expected Affected

4.40

3.62

4.10

4.89

4.30

4.69

4.01

O-E

-4.31

-3.37

-4.10

-4.73

-4.30

-4.65

-3.84

(O-E)

18.56

11.37

16.84

22.34

18.49

21.61

14.71

((O-E)2)/E

4.22

3.15

4.10

4.57

4.30

4.61

3.67

28.62

The expected AFFECTED value is calculated by using the equation outlined in the methodology (5.4). The numbers in the bottom right of each table are the sum of the ((O-E)2)/E row and can be added together to create the chi stat value for the affected population, which is a critical component for a statistical chi squared test. Table 3. Expected Unaffected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Western Pleasure

Working Cow

Expected Unaffected

40.60

33.38

37.90

45.11

39.70

43.31

36.99

O-E

-39.69

-32.63

-36.90

-44.27

-38.70

-42.35

-36.16

(O-E)

1575.42

1064.56

1361.30

1960.19

1497.72

1793.62

1307.85

((O-E)2)/E

38.80

31.89

35.92

43.45

37.73

41.41

35.35

264.55

The expected UNAFFECTED value is calculated by using the equation outlined in the methodology (5.4). The numbers in the bottom right of each table are the sum of the ((O-E)2)/E row and can be added together to create the chi stat value for the unaffected population, which is a critical component for a statistical chi squared test. Table 4. Chi Squared Test p ≤ 0.05 Chi Stat

293.1756576

Crit. Value

12.592

p value

7.172E-05

Chi stat (293.18) > chi critical (12.592 from table) so null hypothesis is rejected. Additionally, the p-value (7.172E-05) < α (0.05) so null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, discipline does affect prevalence of IMM in AQH disciplines.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

AMERICAN QUARTER HORSES

Table 8. Chi Squared Test

6.2 Prevalence of Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED)

p ≤ 0.05

Table 5. Raw GBED Data

Chi Stat

732.03708

Discipline

Affected

Unaffected

TOTAL

Cutting

130

162

Crit. Value

9.488

Reining

144

160

p value

6.765E-12

Barrel Racing

152

160

Halter

100

Racing

160

683

742

Chi stat (732.04) > chi critical (9.488 from table) so null hypothesis is rejected. Additionally, the p-value (6.765E-12) < α (0.05) so null hypothesis is also rejected. Therefore, discipline does have an effect on the prevalence of GBED in AQH disciplines.

The raw data collected by Araujo et al. (2018) and organised by discipline. This allows for easier calculations within the spreadsheet software (Microsoft Excel).

6.3 Prevalence IMM and GBED Table 9. IMM and GBED Combined Data

Figure 2. Representation of Table 5 data. Prevalence of GBED across AQH Disciplines

Discipline

Null

92%

Racing 0%

100%

Halter 3% Barrel Racing

97% 95%

Reining

90%

10%

Cutting

80%

20% 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

9 0%

100%

Prevalence (%)

Affected

Discipline

Affected

Unaffected

TOTAL

Cutting

171

207

Reining

172

197

Barrel Racing

194

202

Halter

139

150

Racing

204

Western Pleasure

Working Cow

960

1049

Unaffected

The collated data collected by both Gianino et al. (2019) and Araujo et al. (2018), organised by discipline. This allows for easier calculations within the spreadsheet software (Microsoft Excel).

Table 6. Expected Affected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Expected Affected

12.88

12.72

7.95

12.72

O-E

-12.68

-12.62

-12.67

-7.92

-12.72

160.88

159.32

160.59

62.75

161.86

12.49

12.52

12.62

7.89

12.72

(O-E)

((O-E) )/E 2

58.25

Refer to Table 2 for explanation of Expected Affected Values. Table 7. Expected Unaffected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Expected Unaffected

149.12

147.28

92.05

147.28

O-E

-148.32

-146.38

-146.33

-91.08

-146.28

21997.67

21426.41

21411.78

8295.30

21397.14

147.52

145.48

145.38

90.12

145.28

(O-E)

((O-E) )/E 2

673.79

Refer to Table 3 for explanation of Expected Unaffected Values.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science

FigurePrevalence 3. Representation of Table 9 data. of AQH Genetic Diseases (IMM + GBED) Across Disciplines

Null

Discipline

Western Pleasure

92%

Working Cow

83%

17% 96%

Racing 0% Halter

100% 93%

Barrel Racing 4% Reining

96% 87%

13%

Cutting

83%

17% 0%

10%

20%

3 0%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Prevalence (%) Affected

Unaffected

Cutting and Working Cow disciplines appear to have a high percentage of affected individuals within the tested AQH population. Figure 4. Representation of Table 9 data with components.

Prevalence of AQH Genetic Disease (IMM + GBED) Across Disciplines Null

10%

17%

Working Cow

83%

Discipline

Western Pleasure 4%0%

96%

Racing 0% Halter

100%

5% 2%

93%

Barrel Racing 0%4%

96%

Reining 5% 8% Cutting 2%

15%

10%

87% 83% 20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Prevalence (%) IMM

GBED

Unaffected

Table 10. Expected Affected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Western Pleasure

Working Cow

Expected Affected

17.56

16.71

17.14

0.10

17.31

4.07

3.48

O-E

-17.39

-16.59

-17.10

-0.03

-17.31

-4.03

-3.31

302.36

275.13

292.36

0.0009

299.56

16.25

10.94

17.22

16.46

17.06

0.01

17.31

3.99

3.15

(O-E)

((O-E) )/E 2

75.19

Refer to Table 2 for explanation of Expected Affected Values. Table 11. Expected Unaffected Values Discipline

Cutting

Reining

Barrel Racing

Halter

Racing

Western Pleasure

Working Cow

Expected Affected

189.44

180.29

184.86

137.27

186.69

43.93

37.52

O-E

-188.61

-179.41

-183.90

-136.35

-185.69

-42.97

-36.69

35574.30

32188.99

33819.71

18590.48

34481.55

1846.35

1346.32

187.79

178.54

182.95

135.43

184.70

42.03

35.88

(O-E)

((O-E) )/E 2

947.32

Refer to Table 3 for explanation of Expected Unaffected Values.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

AMERICAN QUARTER HORSES

6.3 Prevalence IMM and GBED (continued) Table 12. Chi Squared Test p ≤ 0.05

explored are not exceedingly prominent (in comparison to the other results), perhaps this discipline has a higher prevalence of other genetic diseases present in the

Chi Stat

1022.504149

American Quarter Horse. For example, Hyperkalemic

Periodic Paralysis (HYPP), a disease that causes high

Crit. Value

12.592

potassium in the blood which results in uncontrollable

p value

3.51073E-14

muscle spasms (Bowling et al., 1996; Georgescu et al., 2007; Sj et al., 1993) and Polysaccharide storage myopathy

Chi stat (1022.50) > chi critical (12.592 from table) so null hypothesis is rejected. Also, the p-value (3.51073E-14) < α (0.05) so null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, discipline does have an effect on the prevalence of genetic diseases in AQH disciplines.

(PSSM), which causes abnormal glycogen production and

DISCUSSION

This study tested the significance of the results by using

The research conducted proves a strong correlation between disease prevalence and American Quarter Horse disciplines. This means that the hypothesis has been accepted, as a relationship between the variables has been discovered. As can be seen in Figure 3 and Figure 4, horses from the cutting and working cow disciplines generally have the highest presence of genetic disease with both having a total of 17 per cent, followed by the reining discipline with a total disease prevalence of 13 per cent, which is a significantly large percentage of the

results in exertional rhabdomyolysis after exercise (Baird et al., 2010; Corte et al., 2002; Young, 2020) both of which are also prominent in AQHs as seen in the stallion Influentual (Bradshaw, n.d.; Bellone, 2020).

a chi-squared test (statistical analysis). This test was conducted using the standard value of α ≤ 0.05, where the degrees of freedom (df) = no. of disciplines (independent variable) – 1. The chi squared test was conducted using spreadsheet software (Microsoft Excel), where the actual range is compared to the expected range in order to confirm the acceptance of the hypothesis. The expected and unexpected ranges and the chi stat. values are calculated using the sequence of equations outlined in Tables 2 + 3, Tables 6 + 7, and Tables 10 + 11.

AQH population. The racing discipline has a prevalence

The results of the chi-squared tests can be seen in Table

of no genetic disease (0 per cent for both IMM and

4, Table 8 and Table 12, where both methods of checking

GBED), meaning it has the smallest presence of genetic

for statistical significance proved the null hypothesis

disease in reference to Immune-Mediated Myositis and

incorrect, and so affirmed the significance of disease

Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency. This indicates

prevalence across AQH disciplines. In Table 12, the chi

that due to the high prevalence of genetic disease, AQH

stat (1022.50) > chi critical (12.592 from a chi critical

breeding stock within all disciplines (except racing) should

table). Additionally, the p-value (3.51073E-14) < α (0.05).

be genetically tested as a means to reduce the spread

As such, the null hypothesis is rejected, meaning that

of these genetic diseases and avoid producing affected

discipline does relate to the prevalence of genetic diseases

offspring. It may be plausible to consider breeding across

in AQH disciplines. The use of statistical analysis allowed

disciplines (particularly to the racing discipline as the

the significance of the prevalence of IMM across AQH

diseases were not present in this discipline) in order to

disciplines to be tested and improved the reliability of the

breed out the genetic mutations for IMM and GBED in as

results through statistical confirmation (McHugh, 2013).

few generations as possible.

It is plausible that although the two genetic diseases

Though the results produced would be considered as

Surprisingly, Figure 3 and Figure 4 show that the prevalence

reliable as they come from a large sample population of

of genetic disease within the halter discipline is lower than

American Quarter Horses (Araujo et al., 2018; Gianino et al.,

what was hypothesised. Due to the notoriously mutation-

2019), the discrepancy between the number of horses per

riddled state of most halter-bred AQHs, it was thought that

discipline could limit the results, causing the experiment

this discipline would have the highest disease prevalence

to become less reliable. For example, for the IMM dataset

for IMM and GBED. However, with a combined disease

there were only 37 horses tested who participated in

prevalence of 7 per cent (Figure 4), that is not the case.

Reining, whereas there were 50 Halter horses. Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science CONCLUSION This difference of 13 horses could have a small effect

The study found that there was a relationship between

on the results if, say, each of those 13 horses missing

discipline and prevalence of IMM and GBED. The Working

from the Reining discipline all had the MYH1 mutation.

Cow discipline and Cutting discipline both had the same

However, even if this is the case (which is unlikely), the

highest prevalence in the population (17 per cent). The

data would be altered by 4.23 per cent, which, in the terms

Reining discipline had a prevalence of 13 per cent. The

of statistical analysis, would likely not affect the end result

Racing discipline had no individuals with either of the

by a significant degree as the hypothesis would still be

genetic diseases within the tested population (0 per cent

accepted. Because the raw data contained no margins of

for both IMM and GBED). Disease prevalence in other

error, no error values were included in the results, and no

disciplines included Halter (7 per cent), Western Pleasure

error bars were present on the graphs (Figure 1, Figure 2,

(4 per cent) and Barrel Racing (4 per cent).

Figure 3 and Figure 4).

The results of the study suggest that there is a significant

Though the merits of this study are not to be ignored,

prevalence of IMM and GBED within the AQH population.

it is important to consider limitations to the study and

This indicates that something must be done to halt the

its design. For example, only two genetic diseases (IMM

spread of the mutation, such as conducting genetic

and GBED) were discussed within this study. Although

disease tests on all horses and preventing affected

they provide information regarding disease prevalence

individuals from reproducing.

across AQH disciplines, the reliability of the paper could be improved by repeating the methodology across more genetic diseases, which would also increase the sample size. Additionally, while the data used in this study was sourced from current, peer-reviewed papers, it would have been beneficial to conduct the methodology firsthand by collecting primary data rather than relying solely on secondary data. This would increase reliability as the experiments conducted by Gianino et al. (2019) and Araujo et al. (2018) would be repeated. The data generated could then be proven to be accurate (or not) by comparing results to secondary data, such as that obtained by Gianino et al. (2019) and Araujo et al. (2018). Additional studies could explore the prevalence of all the disease in the “five-panel test” in AQH populations. These genetic diseases include Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED, which has already been covered in this study), Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis (HYPP), Malignant Hyperthermia (MH) and Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM) (5 Panel Genetic Testing: What to Know – AQHA, n.d.). This future direction could not only improve upon the limitations outlined above but would likely provide further relevant information on disease prevalence across AQH disciplines, which can be useful to breeders. Additionally, the exploration of disease prevalence could further support a relationship between genetic disease and discipline.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Linking movement and stress amongst Year 12 female students BY ALEXANDRA WHITTINGHAM, YEAR 12, 2021 ABSTRACT This paper reveals the relationship between stress and

experienced by people who take on more responsibility

movement in order to discover if a Year 12 female student

and projects than they can handle (Fry & Dimitriu, 2021).

is experiencing stress through simple observations. It

Chronic stress is a prolonged and constant feeling of

was determined that there is a strong positive correlation

stress accounted by multiple factors, including poverty,

between a female Year 12 student’s stress score and

abuse, and trauma (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2021b).

their percentage of body movement in five minutes. This notion was founded in the study of the 22 participating students who sat a perceived stress questionnaire. Their subconscious body movements were then observed in order to determine if there was a relationship between the two variables. It was founded that the higher the level of stress experienced by the female students, the larger their stress score, therefore, presenting more subconscious body movement when being asked to sit down. The data collected was converted into a correlation table producing an overall R-value of 0.872153824 which is close to 1 confirming a strong positive relationship between the two variables, the stress score and the percentage of body movement. This conclusion is important as chronic stress experienced in early life can lead to students developing health issues in the future. Understanding the strong relationship between stress and movement gives one the skills to determine if a peer or stranger is experiencing high levels of stress, allowing for intervention before their levels reach a critical or detrimental point.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Following stress reactants is then a recovery process, where the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis is in charge of regulating body hormones in response to stressful situations (Smith & Vale, 2006). The Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to signal the adrenal glands to produce steroid hormones glucocorticoids, made up of cortisol and adrenaline (Smith & Vale, 2006). This added cortisol regulated by HPA releases the feeling of being hyper-alert during stressful situations. Scientist Chiang proposed that school is a main source of stress among adolescents, from homework, unsatisfactory academic performance, and preparation for tests (Chiang, 1995). These stress reactants among students are a major problem in higher education, as the triggers result in cortisol levels spiking in bloodstreams. Although most students cortisol levels will drop back to normal over a couple of days, for others it may stay elevated as they remain fixated on the setback and have difficulty moving forward. These high cortisol levels increase blood sugar, metabolism, memory function and can provide a temporary boost in cognitive ability, assisting student

Stress is an integral part of human lives, positive or

motivation and decision-making skills allowing one to

negative, it can ultimately impact one’s ability to perform.

achieve their goals (Terada, 2018). However, when cortisol

Neuroendocrinologist Bruce McEwen states that “Stress is

levels remain too high they can impair brain functioning,

a word used to describe experiences that are challenging

supress the immune system and result in long-term

emotionally and physiologically” (McEwen, 2007) and

damage, such as rewiring the brain to become overly

is a prominent emotion in one’s everyday life. Stress is

reactive or too slow to react to threats (Mayo Clinic Staff,

made up of many forms and generally falls into one of

2021a). Therefore, continual stress can disrupt the normal

three categories: Acute stress, a short-term stress often

brain development through childhood and increase the

associated with moments of panic and dread like overdue

risk of disease in adulthood (National Scientific Council on

assignments, job interviews or having financial problems

the Developing Child, 2014).

(Mayo Clinic Staff, 2021b). Episodic acute stress, an accumulation of individual moments of acute stress often

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION These experiences of raised levels of academic-related

How does the amount of subconscious body movement

stress elevate the risk of young people developing physical

correlate with stress scores for Year 12 female students?

health problems as they mature. For example, some students who experience stress during examination periods

HYPOTHESIS

are less likely to be physically active. This contributes to

There is a strong positive correlation between a female

future non-communicable diseases including but not

Year 12 student’s stress score and their percentage of body

limited to obesity, reduced insulin sensitivity, and metabolic

movement in five minutes. It is predicted that as female

syndrome, resulting from unhealthy lifestyle habits and

students experience more stress, they will increase their

stress system dysregulation (Stults-Kolehmainen & Sinha,

stress score and, therefore, present more subconscious

2014). During these examination periods, high stress levels

body movements. Girls not experiencing as much stress,

are nearly twice as common in females, 41.3 per cent,

by comparison, will receive a smaller stress score and

than in males, 21.8 per cent (Pieh et al., 2021) and overall

present little to no subconscious body movements.

83.2 per cent of students feel that stress has impacted their ability to study and enjoy school (Headspace, 2017). Academic-related stress contributes to the development of current and future health issues, including discontent within schools and the education system.

METHODOLOGY To test the proposed hypothesis, quantitative data was collected primarily given that secondary data did not exist. In order to achieve this, the study was first presented to

Stress also internally affects people, resulting in symptoms

the school’s Ethics Committee for approval, ensuring

and characteristics which can be identified by one’s

every female student had full autonomy, confidentiality

community as stress. For instance, stress can affect the

and were not exposed during the process. This included

bodies cardiovascular system as the body goes into ‘fight

preparing an information sheet and consent letter for

or flight’ mode in response to stressful situations, causing

parents to read and sign. The study was also conducted

one’s heart rate and blood pressure to spike (Mayo Clinic

as a blind study to prevent potential bias from personal

Staff, 2021c). This results in increased contractions on the

friendships and protect the students’ anonymity. Year 12

heart muscles, pumping blood around the body at a faster

female student groups were then randomly chosen by a

rate with a higher pressure, provide the body with a burst

teacher, replacing their names with a number. Thus, this

of energy so that it can respond to perceived dangers

teacher was able to ensure the psychology of students

(Harvard Medical School, 2020). There is then an increase

post results if stress scores were considered too high.

in breathing rate, and the extra oxygen is sent to the brain, increasing alertness, sight, hearing and sharpening other senses, preparing the body to either fight or flee from the danger at hand (Harvard Medical School, 2020). Moreover, stress also affects the musculoskeletal system as dilating blood vessels in the arms and legs cause muscles to tense up in order to protect you body from potential pain or harm (McEwen, 2007). This persistent muscle tension can turn into migraine headaches, body pain and overall discomfort, leading to an uncontrollable urge to move to subside the tension (McEwen, 2007).

On the day of the study, the girls who decided to take part were asked to meet in a classroom, in the Year 12 building, and sit silently on their numbered chair. At the back of the room were three volunteers who filmed the back of the labelled chairs, neck down of the students, to be replayed later in order to calculate movement. After five minutes of silent sitting, students were then asked to take a ‘Perceived Stress Questionnaire’ (PSQ), based on the questionnaire designed by the Medical Centre at the University of Pennsylvania. Adjustments were made to the questionnaire as the Ethics Committee requested

Therefore, it is expected that one will be able to determine

personal questions be simplified to reduce the chance of

if someone is stressed based on their observation of the

triggers. Respondents indicated on a scale from 1 “almost

victim performing these subconscious body movement to

never” to 4 “usually” how frequently they experienced

subside the tension. If so then teachers, parents and peers

certain stress-related feelings throughout Year 12. After

will be able to observe the subtle signs of early stress

the questionnaires were handed back anonymously, with

allowing them to intervene before stress levels reach a

student assigned numbers labelled on top, papers were

critical or detrimental point.

scanned, and calculated to form a PSQ index (stress score). This was calculated by adding up the total score

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

LINKING MOVEMENT AND STRESS

of the questionnaire then subtracting 30 (lowest possible

Table 1

score) and dividing the result by 90 (highest possible Stress Range

score (120) – lowest possible score (30)), yielding a score between 0 and 1.

Stress Range

Scores ranging from 0.0≤x<0.1

Percentage of movement in five minutes

0.9000155

would be considered low stress. Scores ranging from 0.1≤x<0.6 would be considered moderate stress. Scores ranging from 0.6≤x≤1.0 would be considered high stress.

Percentage of movement in five minutes

Correlation table of results from Table 4, Group 1, without the outlier (0.47, 5.67) R=0.9000155 is close to 1 and therefore there is a strong positive correlation between Stress Score and Percentage of Movement in five minutes. Figure 2

Movement observation was then calculated by watching the videos and timing how long, in seconds, the students moved within the five minutes. Movement involved foot tapping, body re-arrangement, swinging legs, arms and neck. After the PSQ result was assigned to the matching seconds of body movement, the percentage of timed movement was determined. This was calculated as a fraction over 300 (five minutes is 300 seconds). This study was then repeated in two groups, with nine students followed by 13 students. The data collected was placed within a table for a correlation test to take place on Excel. A correlation is a statistical measure describing the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables. This correlation (R) coefficient will then fall in between -1 and 1. The closer R is to 1, the stronger

Graphical representation of results in Table 5. Shows the correlation between the student’s Stress Score and their percentage of movement in five minutes. The Stress Scores ranging from 0 ≤x<0.1 would be considered low stress, 0.1≤x<0.6 would be considered moderate stress and 0.6≤x≤1.0 would be considered high stress. The blue dots (0.26, 8.67) and (0.81, 53.67) are possible outliers compared to the orange dots. Which is proven as the orange linear line of best fit (without outlier) produces an R-value of 0.98 whereas on the blue linear line of best fit (with outlier) the R-value is 0.92. Table 2

and more positive the correlation is. If R is closer to -1, a Stress Range

negative correlation can be determined.

RESULTS Figure 1

Stress Range

Percentage of movement in five minutes

0.985821

Percentage of movement in five minutes

Correlation table of results from Table 5, Group 2, without the outliers (0.26, 8.67) and (0.81, 53.67). R=0.985821 is close to 1 and therefore there is a strong positive correlation between Stress Score and Percentage of Movement in five minutes.

Graphical representation of results in Table 4. Shows the correlation between the student’s Stress Score and their percentage of movement in 5 minutes. The Stress Scores ranging from 0 ≤x<0.1 would be considered low stress, 0.1≤x<0.6 would be considered moderate stress and 0.6≤x≤1.0 would be considered high stress. The blue dot (0.47, 5.67) is a possible outlier compared to the orange dots. Which is proven as the orange linear line of best fit (without outlier) produces an R-value of 0.90 whereas on the blue linear line of best fit (with outlier) the R-value is 0.83.

Pymble Ladies’ College

HSC Extension Science

Figure 3

the stress score increases so does the percentage of movement in five minutes. This relationship is further proven in the correlation Table 1 as the R-value is 0.9000155, without the outlier, which is close to 1, meaning there is a strong positive correlation between stress score and percentage of movement. Group 2 follows the same trend as Group 1. This is seen in Figure 2 which highlights two linear lines of best fit, with the blue line including the outliers (0.26, 8.67) and (0.81, 53.67), determining a proportional relationship between the stress

Graphical representation of results in Table 4 and 5 combining both Group 1 and Group 2, without the 3 outliers (0.47, 5.67), (0.26, 8.67) and (0.81, 53.67). Shows the correlation between the student’s stress score and their percentage of movement in 5 minutes. The Stress Scores ranging from 0 ≤x<0.1 would be considered low stress, 0.1≤x<0.6 would be considered moderate stress and 0.6≤x≤1.0 would be considered high stress. The blue dots and line of best fit showcase group 1 results with an R-value of 0.90. The orange dots and line of best fit showcase group 2 results with an R-value of 0.98. Finally, the grey line of best fit, includes both group 1 and group 2’s results with an overall R-value of 0.87.

score and percentage of movement in five minutes. This is even further pronounced in the correlation of Table 2 where the R-value is closer to 1, R=0.985821, confirming a strong positive correlation between these two variables. Group 2’s R-value is larger than group 1’s R-value by 0.0858055, which could be due to the timing of when each groups study took place. Group 1’s study took place before an English exam, which

Table 3

was compulsory for the whole year group, therefore all Stress Range

Stress Range

Percentage of movement in five minutes

0.872153824

Percentage of movement in five minutes

girls would be experiencing a base level of stress in the environment. Whereas Group 2’s study took place in the middle of the term, after the English exam, meaning there was not a base level of stress and instead students faced

Correlation table of results from Table 4 and Table 5 combining both Group 1 and Group 2, without the 3 outliers (0.47, 5.67), (0.26, 8.67) and (0.81, 53.67. Overall R=0.872153824 which is close to 1 and therefore there is a strong positive correlation between Stress Score and Percentage of Movement in five minutes

DISCUSSION The data collected alongside its analysis supports the hypothesis that there is a strong positive correlation and relationship between a female Year 12 students stress score and their percentage of body movement in five minutes. This was demonstrated in both study groups’ results as the female students who experienced more stress had a larger stress score and higher percentage of subconscious body movement. In contrast, girls who were not experiencing as much stress received a smaller stress score and presented little to no percentage of subconscious body movement. This notion was proven in Study 1 with group 1 as the results showed a positive relationship between stress and body movement. This trend is shown in Figure 1 where both lines of best fit are linear, despite the blue line including the outlier (0.47, 5.67) illustrating that when Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

their own personal internal or external factors of stress. This could have led to a bigger variation in stress levels across the students in Group 2, allowing a larger range of stress levels to be analysed, which could account for the larger R-value received in Group 2. Despite the difference in R-values, both datasets granted a total R-value of 0.872153824, as seen in the correlation Table 3, which is close to 1 confirming a strong positive correlation between these two variables. This trend is also continued in Figure 3 as the graph demonstrates through the grey linear line of best fit, that there is still a proportional relationship between the stress score and percentage of movement in five minutes for both Groups 1 and 2 when combined. This verifies the hypothesis that there is a strong positive correlation between a female Year 12 students stress score and their percentage of body movement in five minutes. The results suggest that there is a relationship between stress and movement which may be due to the body’s internal response to stress reactants. Students may feel stress from homework, unsatisfactory academic performance, preparation for tests or non-school related stress like at home life.

LINKING MOVEMENT AND STRESS

These stress reactants trigger the hypothalamus to release

The future direction for this study involves repeating this

adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH) from the pituitary

methodology with more Year 12 female students, from

glands, signalling the adrenal glands to produce large

a broader population across Sydney or globally. With

volumes of cortisol and adrenaline hormones (Smith &

collection of repeated data, more consistent results and

Vale, 2006). Adrenaline puts the bodies cardiovascular

conclusions on the correlation of stress and movement

system into ‘fight or flight’ mode, spiking heart rate and

would be achieved. This is extremely important for the

blood pressure (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2021c). The effect on

future of the education system, as there will be a clear

the musculoskeletal system is blood vessels dilate and

indicator to how educators and peers could identify

pump blood at a faster speed to aid the increase of the

stressed individuals. Thus, bystanders could intervene,

heart rate (McEwen, 2007). This leads to more tense

helping someone that shows the signs of subconscious

muscles and with persistent muscle tension one will fell

body movement, before their stress levels reach a critical

an overall discomfort, causing a subconscious urge to

or detrimental point.

move the body relieving tension and pain (McEwen, 2007). Results from Groups 1 and 2 showed that an increase in

CONCLUSION

stress in female Year 12 students, ultimately increased their

In this study it has been concluded that there is a strong

percentage of movement.

positive correlation between a female Year 12 student’s

Whilst the methodology allowed for an in-depth analysis

stress score and their percentage of body movement.

of the relationship between stress and movement,

Female students who experience stress, gained a larger

ultimately it had its limitations. For instance, on top of

stress score and therefore their percentage of movement

the timing at which each study was conducted, the Year

increased. This was determined from the methodology

12 female students selected were chosen through their

as Year 12 female students were required to sit silently

pastoral care groups rather than individually, reducing the

for five minutes, while their movements were monitored,

‘chosen at random’ element. Despite this, it should not

calculated as a percentage, and then reflected on a stress

significantly influence the data collected as the groupings

questionnaire, allocating a stress score. The study was

were not based on academics, social grouping or subject

repeated with different groups granting a total R value

choices. Moreover, as seen in Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure

of 0.872153824 which is close to 1 and therefore there is

3, 100 per cent of the students in the study had a stress

a strong positive correlation between the two variables,

score above 0.1, meaning they had moderate to high

stress score and percentage of body movement. The

levels of stress. Nobody within the two studies presented

conclusion is important as chronic stress experienced in

a stress score from 0 ≤x<0.1, which would be considered

early life can lead to students developing health issues in

low stress. Therefore, this dataset cannot prove that

the future. In conclusion, a strong relationship between

people with low stress would follow the trend of moving

stress and subconscious body movement enables one to

less, compared to people with moderate to high levels

determine when a peer or stranger is experiencing high

of stress. To improve this an increase of test groups and

levels of stress, allowing intervention before stress levels

studies would be needed to validate the methodology and

reach a critical or detrimental point.

create a more reliable conclusion. Overall, the methodology and collected data has allowed for the hypothesis to be accepted. In order to grant a more accurate conclusion, students should have been interviewed after the test to receive qualitative data, which would provide a richer understanding as to how stressed the students may feel as well as to understand why there were three students who were outliers. These three students should be asked to join the study again in the future to see if they are consistently outliers or were just outliers in the first study.

Pymble Ladies’ College

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Maya Hu 1. Where did the inspiration for your work come from? My research essay on the history of chopsticks was part of a Big History assessment, with the first part of the task done in a group. The inspiration came from our everyday lives, as the usage of chopsticks is an essential part of our lives as Chinese, and it is incontrovertible

that much history is behind the development

shallow and, sometimes even generalised,

of chopsticks. At first, we had several options

information. I believe that this challenge is

of items of research and write about, however,

highly common in the 21st century due to the

after a bit more research on chopsticks, we

rapid development of the internet and the lack

immediately became keen on writing about

of care in the management of information on

it. The thought of exploring the history of

the internet.

something that we use every single day heartened us and drove us deeper into research. We were absolutely fascinated by everything that we found, and I am particularly proud of this research essay which explores the Chinese culture and its links with the development of chopsticks. 2. What was the most memorable thing learned from researching your topic/project? The most memorable thing that I learned from researching the history of chopsticks is how the invention and usage of one small thing created interactions between people from around the community and civilisation. This reminded me of the power of communication and collective learning, something that we continuously explored in the Big History course. 3. What challenges did you come across in your research?

4. How did you overcome the challenges? Luckily, all three of us in the team can read Chinese, hence, we were able to gather information from sources that were written by Chinese authors, whom we believed were more credible since chopsticks were first invented in Ancient China. Furthermore, after garnering large amounts of information, we were able to decide on certain areas to focus on and dwelled into them, paying more attention to unique and useful information. 5. Research is…. Research is the process of questioning, exploring, discovering, analysing, critically thinking and, finally, producing. Every step is as important as any other, and with all these combined, research is such a wonderful process that inspires meaningful thoughts and enlightens learning minds.

The biggest challenge that my team and I came across in our research process was the overwhelming yet limited information available on the internet. It was overwhelming in a way as there were so many different sources, limited in a way as most of these sources stated the same,

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Evaluate the impact of superstitions on the development of chopsticks in China BY MAYA HU, YEAR 10, 2021 As the most common utensils on the Chinese dinner table, Chinese chopsticks have developed over thousands of years to its form in the present day. During this long period of development, superstitions had a large impact in shaping the current chopsticks, including its shape, length, and various practices and traditions related to it. However, towards the future, the focus on resolving environmental concerns will largely impact the development of chopsticks rather than superstitions. The influence of these two factors, together with the complication of the Chinese civilisation and the knowledge of collective learning, chopsticks have evolved to its current form with more forms to come.

shape of chopsticks to be blunt, rather than having sharp ends like those in other Asian cultures.3 Additionally, out of the two ends of each chopstick, one is circular, and one is rectangular. This symbolises the Ancient Chinese’s belief that “the sky is circular, and the ground is rectangular”.4 Traditional and authentic Chinese chopsticks are strictly 7.6 inches long, symbolising the seven emotions and six senses that humans are believed to have.5 These numerous links of chopsticks’ characteristics to superstitions demonstrate the large impact superstitions had on the development of chopsticks in the early periods. The long-lasting impact of superstitions on the development of chopsticks was made possible by the powerful idea of collective learning, where ideas and practices of Chinese people in relation to the usage of chopsticks were passed down through generations by a variety form of texts.

Shortly after the invention of chopsticks, superstitions had a clear and major impact on the development of chopsticks in Ancient China. The spreading of the usage of chopsticks across Ancient China was a key stage of chopsticks’ development. When chopsticks were first created, most Chinese people only used it for cooking and reaching into pots of hot oil and water.1 On the dinner table, sharp utensils such as forks and knives were used. The gradual but significant shift from cooking to eating with chopsticks occurred with the courtesy of Confucius, an influential politician and philosopher in Ancient China. According to Stephanie Butler from History.com, Confucius believed that “sharp utensils at the dinner table would remind eaters of the slaughterhouse”, and that “knives’ sharp points evoked violence and warfare”. Due to his popularity and the people’s desire for peace, this idea of Confucius spread across Ancient China, and eventually everyone started to use chopsticks instead of forks and knives at the dinner table.2 These are clear evidence that superstitions affected the development of chopsticks as it influenced Confucius, later all Chinese people to change their usage of chopsticks, marking the significant development stage of chopsticks in the ancient times, which continues into modern day. Furthermore, the shape and length of traditional Chinese chopsticks was determined by superstitions as well. Confucius’ idea also influenced the

As the Chinese civilisation continued to develop and become more complex, so did the names and rules behind the usage of chopsticks. The change in name for chopsticks throughout history was another important aspect of the development of chopsticks, and once again cultural superstitions largely impacted this.6 According to extracts from The Book of Rites, in the Ming dynasty the name “kuai-zi (快字)” for chopsticks was formed, literally meaning “fast”. This version of the name was developed because the previous version of zhu (箸) is “a homophone to stay and decay, seen as a bad connotation (to) the fisherman of the central-Chinese region”.7 This shows that superstitions impacted the way people named chopsticks, in doing so hoping that it would “bring good fortune”8. The changing of names purely because of superstitions beliefs highlights the high importance they have in the Chinese civilisation, and in the development of chopsticks. The change in name of chopsticks reflects the complication of the Chinese civilisation throughout its thousands of years of history. In addition, superstitions have since the ancient times, leading into today, influenced the way Chinese people use chopsticks, which is another aspect of the development of chopsticks. There are many taboos related to using chopsticks, and these are largely linked to superstitions.

Pymble Ladies’ College

History and Culture For example, one prominent taboo in the Chinese culture

Therefore, despite the Chinese cultural superstitions’

is to stick chopsticks vertically right up into rice or other

continued presence and impact in the development

foods. The reason behind this taboo is again, superstition

of chopsticks, the more important factor will be

believes. In Chinese culture, sticks like chopsticks are “stuck

environmental concerns and the appropriate actions taken

into rice on an altar at funerals and burned to worship the

to resolves these, although these might come as cost for

dead”10, hence sticking chopsticks vertically into rice at

the Chinese culture.

the dinner table is seen as a curse that would bring bad luck.11 This strict rule regarding the usage of chopsticks obeyed by most Chinese people proves the importance of superstitions in the Chinese culture and on the development of chopsticks. Hence, superstitions to a great extent impacted the development of chopsticks in China.

Thus, superstitions impacted the development of chopsticks in China to a large extent, having influenced the characteristics of chopsticks and the practices related; yet the future of chopsticks’ development will be hugely impacted by the current environmental issues, which will cause the transition to chopsticks made from more

As the Chinese civilisation leaps into the future threshold,

sustainable materials or even the shift away from using

superstitions continue to play a crucial role in traditional

chopsticks, but its negative consequences must be noted.

practices related to chopsticks, however, further development of chopsticks are and will be heavily dependent on the environmental issues around the globe. As Ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian stated in his book Historical Records, “the use of ivory to make chopsticks for the wealthy”,12 this conveys that materials from living animals such as ivory were used to make chopsticks for the upper social class. In the present days, the material of chopsticks varies and ranges from bamboo and plastic to stainless steel and silver, sometimes even gold. Like it has always been, the material of chopsticks determines social status of the person using it and/or the meaning behind it if given as a gift. However, as Chinese people advance into the future, the material of chopsticks used by the public would need to develop in a way which aims to respond to the ever-growing sustainability focus. The Chinese government has imposed restrictions including a “5 per cent tax on disposable chopsticks”13. This is one of the many evidence that illustrate the future of chopsticks’ development, which will be mainly focused on resolving the global environmental crisis. Consequently, chopsticks will be forced to become more sustainable to maintain planet Earth; for example, manufactures will need to develop chopsticks with more sustainable materials. Some have even proposed the shift from disposable chopsticks to forks and knives, however, according to Audra Ang from The Guardian, forks and knives “don’t have the same rich traditions and legacy of elegance and delicacy”.14 It would be wrong to argue against this statement, because within the Chinese culture, chopsticks are just as important as tea and rice, and its possible disappearance would mean great loss to the Chinese people and their culture.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

SUPERSTITIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHOPSTICKS IN CHINA

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOOTNOTES

“Baidu.” 2020. Kuai-Zi. 2020. https://baike.baidu.com/ item/%E7%AD%B7%E5%AD%90/249194.

1. “ Stephanie Butler”, History.com, accessed September 1st, 2021, https://www.history.com/news/a-brief-history-of-chopsticks

Bilingualbees. “Why Are Traditional Chinese Chopsticks 7.6 Inches Long?” bilingualbees, May 31, 2020. https://www.bilingualbees.co.uk/ post/why-are-traditional-chinese-chopsticks-7-6-inches-long

2. “Stephanie Butler”, History.com

Bramen, Lisa. 2009. “The History of Chopsticks.” Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Magazine. August 5, 2009. https:// www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-history-ofchopsticks-64935342/. Butler, Stephanie. 2013. “A Brief History of Chopsticks.” HISTORY. HISTORY. March 8, 2013. https://www.history.com/news/a-briefhistory-of-chopsticks.

3. “Stephanie Butler”, History.com 4. B aidu.com, “Why are chopsticks 7.6 inches?”, accessed September 3rd, 2021, https://baike.baidu.com/tashuo/browse/ content?id=954bc47ea1f5fb8667d5a041 5. Baidu.com 6. O livia Ma, Maya Hu, Christy Xue, “LBH of Chopsticks” (Unpublished paper, Pymble Ladies’ College, 2021) 7. Dai Sheng, Book of Rites: Little Dai Li Ji (Western Han, c. 8AD)

Cameron, Esther. 2000. “Chopsticks.” Poetry 176 (2): 93–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20604982

8. Dai sheng, Book of Rites: Little Dai Li Ji

Dang Foods. “7 Superstitions in Asia.” Accessed September 7, 2021. https://dangfoods.com/.

10. “Jake Leary”, Edodyssey

EdOdyssey. “Five Tips For Proper Etiquette with Chopsticks in China.” Accessed September 7, 2021. https://www.edodyssey.com/ blog/2019/2/4/five-tips-for-proper-etiquette-with-chopsticks-inchina. “From Wood to Steel: The Evolution of Chopsticks in Asia.” Posco Newsroom. 2015. https://newsroom.posco.com/en/from-wood-tosteel-the-evolution-of-chopsticks-in-asia/. Hewitt, Geof. 1975. “CHOPSTICKS.” JSTOR, no. 4: 28–28. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23006627 “Introduction to the Chinese Chopsticks Culture.” Accessed September 6, 2021. https://www.chinaculturetour.com/culture/chinesechopsticks-culture.htm.

9. “Jake Leary”, Edodyssey, accessed September 1st 2021,

11. P opular Science China, “How much do you know about chopsticks”, accessed Sept 4, 2021, http://www.xinhuanet.com/ science/2019-06/13/c_138132582.htm 12. B aidu.com, “Kuai Zi (Chopsticks)”, accessed September 6th 2021, https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%AD%B7%E5%AD%90/249194 13. “ Quartz”, China is stripping its forests to make 80 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks a year, accessed 21 Aug 2021, https://qz.com/62367/china-is-stripping-its-forests-to-make-80billion-pairs-of-disposable-chopsticks-a-year/ 14. A udra Ang, “Dispose of chopsticks and China loses part of its identity”, The Guardian, March 19, 2013

Loewe, Michael. n.d. “Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide.” Accessed August 21, 2021. https://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/Students/ Loewe%2C%20Michael/Early%20Chinese%20Texts%2C%20A%20 Bibliographical%20Guide%20%281993%29.pdf. Ma, Olivia; Hu, Maya; Xue, Christy. “LBH of Chopsticks”. Unpublished paper, Pymble Ladies’ College, August 26 2021 Pang, Kelly. 2021. “Chinese Chopsticks – Legends, How to Use Them, and Taboos.” China Highlights. China Highlights. 2021. https://www. chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/chopsticks.htm. TED. Why 1.5 Billion People Eat with Chopsticks | Small Thing Big Idea, a TED Series. Accessed August 21, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tSciinXdGhI. the Guardian. “Dispose of Chopsticks and China Loses Part of Its Identity | Audra Ang,” March 18, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/ commentisfree/2013/mar/18/dispose-chopsticks-china-lose-identity. “The History & Impact of Chopsticks | Sandra Wagner-Wright,” February 3, 2020. https://www.sandrawagnerwright.com/the-historyimpact-of-chopsticks/. RADII | Stories from the center of China’s youth culture. “Just For Luck: How Does Young China View Classic Superstition?,” March 11, 2020. https://radiichina.com/young-china-classic-superstitions/. South China Morning Post. “Superstitions Toughened Me up, but Are Today’s Hong Kong Children Overprotected?,” November 13, 2020. https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3109749/ chinese-superstitions-toughened-me-what-do-hong-kong. “关于筷子，你知道多少？-科普中国.” Accessed September 7, 2021. http://www.xinhuanet.com/science/2019-06/13/c_138132582.htm. “筷子（中国传统餐具）_百度百科.” Accessed September 5, 2021. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%AD%B7%E5%AD%90/249194.

Pymble Ladies’ College

History and Culture Evaluate the impact of the invention of paper on collective learning BY HAYLEY ZHOU, YEAR 10, 2021 The invention of paper has caused a significantly profound impact on collective learning. Prior to the invention of paper, homo-sapiens effectively maintained a steady rate of collective learning, consistently accumulating knowledge to be passed onto succeeding generations. However, China’s invention of paper in 105CE sparked a revolutionary turning point in the communication and distribution of information, critically accelerating the rate and level of collective learning within the human population. Its impacts towards collective learning are seen through the advantageous physical and communicative qualities of paper compared to previous methods; greatly cultivating learning. Undeniably, the mass printing of paper, coupled with arising technology including the printing press, allowed a greater distribution of imperative knowledge and information throughout society. The permanence of paper also enabled the preservation of information, which was further utilised by following generations to further accumulate knowledge. The invention of paper resulted in physical qualities which crucially impacted collective learning, as it provided an effective medium for the documentation and communication of increasingly complex knowledge, which was significantly advantageous towards learning. Throughout earlier periods of humanity, prior to the threshold of agricultural development, oral communication was the primary form of sharing knowledge and newfound information between populations and generations. Although advantageous in its incorporation of non-verbal gestures, the lack of permanency frequently resulted in misinterpretation, and communicative impreciseness through the tendency of changes in detail throughout translation.1 Moreover, initial methods of conveying knowledge through writing within major civilisations, including ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, involved engraving and painting cuneiform characters onto mediums including papyrus, clay tablets,

intensive, and time-consuming. Additionally, resource restrictions limited the abundance of documented information, resulting in learning limitations. The emergence of paper successfully resolved these pressing concerns, due to its effectiveness in written communication. Physical qualities of paper, including fine texture and light weight, minimised misinterpretation by enabling the writer to select specific vocabulary to precisely convey complicated and lengthy information. Furthermore, Dr Naomi Baron, a professor of linguistics, stated: “the convenience and tangibility of paper allowed people to fathom concepts and contemplate the significance of the content.”2 She argues that, with further retention, recipients could provide appropriate judgement to develop knowledge. Approaching the threshold of the modern revolution, these advantages of paper in documentation were recognised and utilised within disciplines ranging from literature to science3. Thus, paper was used as a tool in learning, particularly in early educational institutions ranging from China to the Arab world, where its capabilities allowed students to accumulate knowledge, which was later distributed in a cycle of collective learning. For example, historical paintings from the Tang Dynasty revealed Chinese students consistently writing on paper.4 In modern-day, coined by cognitive psychologist Robert Bjorka, learning remains profoundly successful and efficient on paper, seen through the psychological phenomenon, ‘desirable difficulty’; a counterintuitive concept explaining how the qualities and tangibility of paper lead to longterm absorption of knowledge, compared to other communication forms. Furthermore, a study conducted by Richard Light concluded students processing material through paper became more nuanced readers and writers, effectively improving critical analysis and communication skills.5 Evidently, paper’s impact on educational learning greatly accelerated collective learning. Therefore, paper has held a profound contribution towards collective learning, through how its physical qualities and capabilities allowed for effective written documentation and communication, which was significantly advantageous towards learning.

and vellum. However, this was inconvenient, labour Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

INVENTION OF PAPER AND COLLECTIVE LEARNING

Furthermore, the mass printing of paper allowed humanity

Furthermore, historian Elizabeth Eisenstein’s 1980 book

to share and communicate knowledge throughout

regarding the scientific impact of the printing press,

society at previously unseen levels, provoking intellectual

noted how the accuracy at which original data was

advancements, thus compounding, and greatly accelerating

printed onto paper greatly contributed towards the

the rate of collective learning. Following the invention of

advancement, as printed formulas and tables allowed

paper, constructing texts were exceedingly inconvenient.

scientists to prioritise research, as they could easily access

Laborious handwriting and high costs meant written

and trust the fidelity of existing data.10 This was seen

knowledge was selectively available to wealthy citizens,

in Copernicus’ development of the heliocentric model

residing with scholars or clergy, confining the level of

in the 16th century, which relied on printed tables of

collective learning.6 However, the invention of the printing

planetary movements. Furthermore, it was through the

press in China during 1040CE, and the Gutenberg press in

mass printing of paper that newfound scientific theories

1450CE, provided the revolutionary ability to commercially

were widespread throughout society. Hence, paper and

print innumerable uniform copies of text onto paper.

its ability to be mass printed heavily accelerated and

Newspapers, books, and encyclopaedias could be mass-

compounded the rate of collective learning, as it allowed

produced, immediately leading to a far more efficient and

the effective distribution of knowledge throughout society

accurate distribution of information throughout society.

at intensively increasing levels, stimulating intellectual

For example, distinguished philosophers including Voltaire

advancements and revolutions.

and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were widely read during the Enlightenment, encouraging an increasingly literate populace, compounding the level of collective learning.7 Additionally, the machine’s accessibility extensively broadened the spectrum of people eligible to publish research. In turn, mass distribution of paper allowed wider dissemination of knowledge amongst the general population, spurring critical intellectual movements throughout the following centuries. Notably, shared knowledge through print fuelled the fundamental curiosity which drove the Renaissance, and decreased costs enhanced accessibility, seen in how texts by Cicero in 1490CE costed a teacher’s monthly salary, contrasting the small fortune required in the 14th century.8

Moreover, the invention of paper critically impacted collective learning, as it allowed humanity to securely preserve crucial knowledge throughout history, allowing following generations to utilise and reference information accurately, contributing to the accumulation of knowledge. The permanency of paper allowed the physical preservation of documented knowledge and information over time. An abundance of written documents such as manuscripts, were commonly preserved in archives and libraries. These were unparalleled resources for human history and culture, containing the insurmountable wealth of accumulated human knowledge, intellectual information, and artistic expression. For example, a major library and archive,

Previously, censorship was easily executed, seen through

the Egyptian National Library, preserves knowledge

Emperor Qin’s burning of written work throughout the

regarding human society, including education, healthcare,

Qin Dynasty. However, mass-produced texts meant

architecture, academia, and genealogical research.11

controversial ideas opposing the ‘status quo’ were

This allowed the following generations to develop socially,

strenuous to eliminate, democratising societal knowledge,

culturally, and intellectually from the past. Archival

which was highly beneficial for advancements such as

records also hold evidence of historical events, theories,

the scientific revolution. Specifically, the printing press’

and unfinished research, which are intrinsically essential

ability to publish findings and data, fuelled monumental

towards collective learning. This extensive value was

progression towards a scientific society. For example, prior

seen in a major project of the Renaissance, which was to

to mass printing, science was a largely solitary pursuit,

uncover and republish works by figures such as Plato and

with exceptional mathematicians and scientists separated

Aristotle. Italian emissaries spent years in the Ottoman

by geography and the protracted pace of hand-writing,

Empire learning Ancient Greek and Arabic, aiming to

restricting collective learning. However, with published

translate rare texts into Latin, demonstrating

research extensively distributed on paper regardless of

the importance of preserving written work.12

distance, academics could refer to work conducted by others, galvanising a collective build in knowledge.

Pymble Ladies’ College

History and Culture

Preserved knowledge on paper provided greater

Alternatively, perhaps digitalisation and its respective

accessibility, allowing people to extend on previously

advantages will, in time, become another catalyst in

documented theories and research. Evidence of

accelerating collective learning, trumping paper, in a

emerging generations utilising knowledge from paper

similar manner to how the emergence of paper proved

documents to develop research and theories is most

to be superior against previous communication methods.

notable in academia. For example, in the field of physics,

Hence, the invention of paper has held an incredibly

‘Classical Mechanics’, developed by Isaac Newton in

compelling impact on collective learning.

the 1600s, involved written mathematical equations explaining phenomena regarding the movement of objects throughout space. However, following Newton’s research, the original theory was later improved upon by Albert Einstein, into ‘Special Relativity’, which was recently utilised and developed into ‘General Relativity’, which considered newfound observations on gravitational forces.13 Furthermore, developments on the atomic model were based on preserved research papers, evident in how Rutherford’s model in 1911 was an advancement from Dalton’s early 1800s configuration.14 Ergo, current information that has been preserved is expected to influence the advancements of future generations, sustaining the accelerated rate of collective learning. Therefore, the invention of paper allowed the preservation and accumulation of knowledge throughout human history, which was utilised by following generations to develop modern research, and thus, clearly demonstrates paper’s vital impact on collective learning. Conclusively, the invention of paper has indefinitely provoked a phenomenal impact towards collective learning, evidently accelerating the rate and level of collective learning through the compounded communication and distribution of knowledge. Paper’s impact in accelerating collective learning was seen through its superior physical capabilities as opposed to previous primary methods of communication. Moreover, this was extended through the mass printing of paper, which efficiently and accurately distributed knowledge throughout a wider audience at unprecedented rates. Paper also allowed the preservation of knowledge that was utilised by following generations to further accumulate knowledge. However, as humanity progresses into a less paper-dependent society, in an age of digitalisation, the long-term consequences of this rapid and pivotal change within human history is yet to be uncovered. The vitality of paper on collective learning suggests digitalisation will severely implicate or compromise the learning of future generations.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

INVENTION OF PAPER AND COLLECTIVE LEARNING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOOTNOTES

Berkeley.edu. 2021. “Even Theories Change.” Understanding Science. 2021. https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/howscienceworks_20.

1. R . Prabavathi, P C Nagasubramani, “Effective Oral and Written Communication.” ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate. net/publication/325087759_Effective_oral_and_written_ communication.

Cartwright, Mark. “Paper in Ancient China.” World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, September 15, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1120/paper-in-ancient-china/. Castillo, M. 2009. “Preservation of Knowledge, Part 1: Paper and Microfilm.” American Journal of Neuroradiology 30 (9): 1627–28. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.a1655. Ducey, M. E. 2021. “Preservation and Conservation of Information | Encyclopedia.com.” Encyclopedia.com. 2021. https://www. encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-andmaps/preservation-and-conservation-information. Freeman, James. 2018. “The Transmission of Knowledge in the Early Middle Ages.” Cambridge University Library Special Collections. January 24, 2018. https://specialcollections-blog.lib.cam. ac.uk/?p=15763. History.com Editors. 2018. “Printing Press.” HISTORY. May 7, 2018. https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/printing-press. Inc. Editorial. 2020. “Written Communication.” Inc.com. Inc. 2020. https://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/written-communication.html. Jay, John. 2015. “How Writing Improves Student Learning.” John Jay College of Criminal Justice. December 17, 2015. https://www.jjay.cuny. edu/how-use-writing-your-classes-improve-student-learning. Kazmeyer, Milton. 2018. “How Does Paper Have an Impact on Society?” Science. 2018. https://sciencing.com/paper-impactsociety-12303511.html. King’s College. 2020. “What Are Archives?” King’s College Cambridge. 2020. https://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/archive-centre/introduction-toarchives/a/1. R. Prabavathi, P C Nagasubramani. 2018. “Effective Oral and Written Communication.” ResearchGate. Phoenix Research Publishers. May 10, 2018. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325087759_ Effective_oral_and_written_communication Roos, Dave. 2019. “7 Ways the Printing Press Changed the World.” HISTORY. August 28, 2019. https://www.history.com/news/printingpress-renaissance. Somarajan, Sarita, and Mohamed Esmail. 2021. “Manuscripts: Preservation in the Digital Age,” February 11. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2021. “Burning of the Books | Chinese History | Britannica.” In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/burning-of-the-books.

2. Anonymous. “The List: Paper’s Impact on Learning.” Paper and Packaging. https://www.howlifeunfolds.com/learning-education/ list-papers-impact-learning. 3. I nc. Editorial. “Written Communication.” Inc.com. https://www.inc. com/encyclopedia/written-communication.html. 4. Comuseum. “Tang Dynasty – China Online Museum.” Comuseum, https://www.comuseum.com/painting/history/tang-dynasty/. 5. J ay, John. “How Writing Improves Student Learning.” John Jay College of Criminal Justice. https://www.jjay.cuny.edu/how-usewriting-your-classes-improve-student-learning. 6. F reeman, James. “The Transmission of Knowledge in the Early Middle Ages.” Cambridge University Library Special Collections. https://specialcollections-blog.lib.cam.ac.uk/?p=15763. 7. H istory.com Editors. “Printing Press.” HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/printing-press. 8. R oos, Dave. “7 Ways the Printing Press Changed the World.” HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/printing-pressrenaissance. 9. E ditors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Printing Press | History, Types, & Facts.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ technology/printing-press. 10. R oos, Dave. “7 Ways the Printing Press Changed the World.” HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/printing-pressrenaissance. 11. C astillo, M. “Preservation of Knowledge, Part 1: Paper and Microfilm.” American Journal of Neuroradiology 30 (9): 127–28. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.a1655. 12. R oos, Dave. 2019. “7 Ways the Printing Press Changed the World.” HISTORY, https://www.history.com/news/printing-pressrenaissance. 13. Berkeley.edu. “Even Theories Change.” Understanding Science., https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/howscienceworks_20. 14. E ditors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Atomic Model.” In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/ atomic-model.

Unknown. 2019. “The List: Paper’s Impact on Learning.” Paper & Packaging. 2019. https://www.howlifeunfolds.com/learningeducation/list-papers-impact-learning. Wendorf, Marcia. 2019. “The Long and Complex History of Paper.” Interesting Engineering. Interesting Engineering. April 20, 2019. https://interestingengineering.com/the-long-and-complex-historyof-paper.

Pymble Ladies’ College

History and Culture

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

Notes

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Notes

Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 2, 2021

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Perspective Student Research Journal, Edition 2 2021

Articles inside

Evaluate the impact of superstitions on the development of chopsticks in China

Linking movement and stress amongst Year 12 female students

Why you need to know about academic journals

Why has the Myall Creek Massacre become a fixture in the Australian public memory?

Assess the role of historical empathy in challenging Leopold von Ranke’s empiricism in the construction of history

From the Editors

To what extent has the rise of secularism in popular history depictions of Joan of Arc challenged traditional historiographical perceptions of her?

Assess the curatorial processes at the National Museum of Australia in response to changing attitudes towards First Nations people in Australia

Open your eyes and see what you can with them before they close forever

Diversity in cuisine

Indigenous Australian soldiers in the First World War and their place in Australian history

From the Principal

Australia: Breaking the boundaries of culture