Perspective - Student Research Journal, Edition 3 by Pymble Ladies' College

Contents From the Editor.............................................................................................................................4 From the Students........................................................................................................................5 ENGLISH Voice................................................................................................................................................8 Why destruction?..........................................................................................................................8 In gardens of childhood............................................................................................................10 Which literary features do you find to be most powerful and why?............................. 12 Year 10 Da Vinci Decathlon Art and Poetry Submission................................................... 13 HISTORY To what extent can Machiavelli be considered the Father of Modern Political Philosophy and Political Science?.......................................................................................... 14 Evaluate the feasibility of the construction of a collective memory around Franco’s legacy.............................................................................................................19 To what extent were archaeological excavations in the Ottoman region throughout the 19th and 20th centuries religiously motivated? ................................... 24 Explain how the understanding of shell shock in Britain post-WWI came to a more nuanced interpretation in the contemporary world .........................................28 Women’s Etiquette.....................................................................................................................36 Diary entries of a WWI nurse...................................................................................................38 Causes and consequences of Australia’s involvement in the Pacific conflict............. 41 Who owns the Crown Jewels?...............................................................................................44 Shang Yang’s legal reforms: The four words that would raise an empire, the four words that would seep into a 3,000 year-old culture......................................48 Revolution in an Industry: What were the causes for the shift in Australia’s attitudes and policies toward whaling, which consequently transformed the nation into a global critic of the practice?....................................................................................................52 Evaluate the success of the methods used by the American Civil Rights Movement, during the 1950s and 1960s, in achieving meaningful change in rights...................... 57

An evaluation of Voltaire’s contribution towards the French Enlightenment............ 60 With natural beauty and tasty street food, Wuhan is wonderful.....................................63 POLITICS, PHILOSOPHY AND ECONOMICS Jew-ish – Legacy Public Speaking Competition Speech Transcript.............................65 Does a good philosopher need to be a good person?.....................................................66 Would the legal system benefit from the termination of juries in court?.....................70 What are the leading causes of international war and how can they be avoided?... 71 Human Rights Essay – Distribution of income and wealth in your country............... 73 Renewable energy – UN Voice of Youth Speech Transcript........................................... 77 What is the ideal form of government?................................................................................78 The disturbing reality behind India’s missing daughters...................................................83 Does determinism, agent-causal libertarianism or compatibilism best describe modern views on free will and moral accountability?......................................................85 How is democracy flawed?.....................................................................................................89 SCIENCE The effects of amoxicillin, ginger and tea tree oil in treating the bacterial infections of Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections......................................................................................................................................92 Asexual propagation of herbaceous plants..........................................................................99 Arsenic in drinking water and the development of urinary bladder cancer in California, United States of America....................................................................................106 Student Posters......................................................................................................................... 112 Impact of participation in gymnastics during ages 12 to 18 on the development of knee osteoarthritis.................................................................................................................... 114 The efficacy of vaccinations in reducing the severity of the COVID-19 Omicron outbreak...................................................................................................................................... 121 Student Posters.........................................................................................................................128 The influence of COVID-19 policy’s stringency on the level of excess mortality in different countries during the COVID-19 2021/22 Omicron variant outbreak.........130 Student Posters.........................................................................................................................136

From the Editor

I am extremely proud to welcome readers to the third edition of the Pymble Ladies’ College Student Research Journal, Perspective, where you will find a dynamic range of student articles and essays within. This edition oozes passion and enthusiasm for research and inquiry from so many fields of scholarly endeavour. When Perspective was first launched in 2020, my plan was to build to full student ownership so it could become a true platform for students using research to raise their voices about issues that mattered to them. The Perspective editorial team has already done a sterling job in their editorial of walking readers through the edition and has also mentioned the editorial process. Can I simply affirm what a joy this process has been? It is not often in life that a teacher has the delight of sitting with a group of secondary students and planning the journal they’d like to produce. It is surely an even rarer – and even more special – experience when the students step forth with their vision for the edition and back it up with outstanding organisational and editorial skills. My sub-editors, assistants and designers worked through every aspect of project management to bring the edition to fruition, including setting up submission drives, communicating with authors, editing with fine tooth combs and liaising with the wonderfully

supportive Community Engagement team. I loved working on this edition with the team and learning from such impressive young women. Like myself, readers will also learn from the fifty-plus authors whose work appears within these covers. We will learn about the importance of reading, writing, visualising and learning; the respect young people have for the world; their depth of thought and skilful ability to craft words and images into creative, scientific and dialogic forms. We will learn that young Australians, like our Pymble students, have much to say and are willing and able to dedicate time and effort to their scholarship. Schools play such an important role in their education, and it is very important that they provide avenues to support what young people are saying. We will learn from their perspectives and, in many cases, especially regarding global environments, justice, equity and care, it is vital we do so. Julie Sheng (Year 11 2023), a driving force of this edition, wrote the following line in the students’ editorial which I wish to celebrate: “Editing does not feel like work, but rather like sophisticated recreation.” I could not agree more! Thank you Julie, Hanna, Maya, Ayana, Sophia, Ang-Ya and Isabella for embodying the joy in the process of creating an academic journal. This edition reflects your passion and commitment for loving what you do and for allowing others to see what Pymble students want to share. DR SARAH LOCH DIRECTOR – PYMBLE INSTITUTE

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

From the Students As an innovative pioneer in academic research and student engagement, the Pymble Institute – spearheaded by Dr Loch – continues to expand research to include and reflect student voice. From the Ethics Committee, where students are able to evaluate tertiary research applications, to the annual Pymble Research Conference, where they can share their scholarship with the community, Pymble girls are extremely fortunate to be involved in the College’s robust research culture.

of an editor is like. Editing does not feel like work, but rather sophisticated recreation. Tasks were delegated fairly amongst the team to ensure that everyone had an equal role, and articles were grouped based on their theme. Each member of the committee played a crucial part in the making of the final product whether they organised the files or edited a section, interviewed the authors or contacted writers for final details. It is safe to say that everybody on the committee had a thoroughly enjoyable time. Below, let’s hear from the section editors about what editing was like for them:

This year has marked the exciting establishment of the Perspective student research journal editorial committee; a team of secondary students who were responsible for editing the articles submitted to this edition of the journal. Julie Sheng, one of our editors, writes: “When I first heard that positions on the committee were open, I wasted no time in signing up. I had always yearned to gain an insight into academia from the eyes of an editor, and this was the perfect chance to immerse myself in the captivating world of research’. Fellow editors were also brimming with such enthusiasm and dedication and together formed an efficient and dynamic group.

ANG-YA KOO YEAR 9 (2022), ENGLISH SECTION The English submissions for this year’s Perspective have been phenomenal. The high standard of submissions demonstrates the hard work and meaningful thought that has gone into the creation of each piece. Personal voice has been a major theme in the English submissions. Arabella Hoang (Year 5) has written two outstanding poems exploring human impact on the ecosystem and our precious wildlife. Arabella’s strong personal voice has shone through as she discusses the destruction of our natural world and the ignorance of humans.

Editing this issue of Perspective has been incredibly rewarding for all involved. There have been over thirty submissions across a wide range of year groups, from talented Junior School writers only just embarking on their Pymble journey to Year 12 students diligently preparing for the Higher School Certificate. Each author, staying true to the title of this journal, brought a fresh and unique perspective to research, enriching the already vibrant academic environment here at the College. It was a pleasure to witness firsthand the excellent standard of the work that Pymble students have produced throughout the year. Whether these pieces had first taken shape as a class assessment task or a submission for a competition, the time and effort invested into each and every one of them is apparent. Pymble boasts many brilliant scholars, and the editorial team cannot wait to see what they will achieve in the future.

Lakshi Rajeev (Year 4) has written an incredible poem regarding First Nations peoples’ connection to the earth and environment. Lakshi submitted this poem in the My Place Competition and was awarded first place in the Year 3/4 category. We are taken on a journey through cultures with Nethuki (Year 9) producing a wonderful, in-depth story about her own Sinhalese heritage. Another poem from Julie Sheng and Anna Ward (Year 10) explores the endless facets of culture. The poem was awarded first place in the Art and Poetry section in the Da Vinci Decathlon. Finally, an essay from Julie Sheng discusses her favourite literature techniques and

The editing process itself has been an exceptionally valuable experience. The team has cherished the opportunity to collaborate with talented peers and have now had a delightful taste of what a day in the life

provides insight into how symbolism, allegory and satire influence the opinions and perspectives of readers. It has been a pleasure to edit the Perspective English submissions and to observe the strong and powerful voices each student possesses.

dived into the convoluted history behind the British royal family’s prized crown jewels, Yuki Wang (Year 10) gave us all an insight into the culture of her hometown and Thinara Siriniwasa (Year 9) studied the African American civil rights movement. Penned by a group of talented students from a diverse range of year groups and focusing on intriguing topics that all hold significance in today’s society, these works are truly reflective of the passion that Pymble has towards historical research. We are extremely grateful to every author who contributed to this edition, and we encourage them in their future pursuits.

JULIE SHENG AND MAYA GARG YEAR 10 AND YEAR 9 (2022), HISTORY SECTION This year, we have received a wealth of engaging and sophisticated submissions under the topic of History. Some examples include Amy Zhang (Year 9) who stunned us with a comprehensive essay exploring Australia and its whaling industry, whilst Elizabeth Tang (Year 9) delved into Australian wartime experiences during the Pacific conflict. Both of their works were entered into the National History Competition. Other submissions for this contest included Jenny Xu’s (Year 8) superb essay concerning women’s etiquette and its social impact, as well as Julie Sheng’s (Year 10) piece investigating the importance of Shang Yang’s legal reforms in ancient Chinese history. Nethuki (Year 9) put a creative spin on history by writing fictional diary entries from the perspective of a nurse from the Second World War. Year 12 History Extension students also showcased their inspirational work; Gianna Ariston immersed us in the political significance of Machiavelli, Harriet Shaw provided a detailed essay on how understandings of shell shock and masculinity have shifted over time and Lauren Barnes scrutinized the conflicted memories surrounding Franco’s legacy. Nina Breckenridge, also from Year 12, examined how religious factors motivated archaeological excavations in the Ottoman region, whilst Hayley Zhou (Year 11) evaluated the significance of Voltaire in the French Enlightenment. Tara Sharma (Year 10) 6

AYANA SAPRA YEAR 9 (2022), POLITICS, PHILOSOPHY AND ECONOMICS SECTION Our Pymble girls have voiced both their interests and well-founded views on the highly relevant spheres of politics, economics and philosophy. Many girls undertook the challenge of exploring complex themes including humanities, law, social justice and ethics. The sophistication and meticulous detail poured into crafting these exceptional pieces stand as a testament to the passion that drives our Pymble writers. We are delighted to share the young talent for research-based writing that our school’s academic community holds, and hope that through the inspiring nature of Perspective, more up-and-coming Pymble writers can have their pieces celebrated. In this section, you will both sample and explore the scholarly talents that Perspective has curated from across many cohorts. As part of the Legacy Public Speaking Competition, Emily (Year 9) challenged contemporary antisemitism through a factual – yet also personal – lens, whilst in the UN Voice of Youth Competition, Isabelle Port (Year 7) critiqued the lack of sustainability in Australia’s fossil fuel usage - achieving the noteworthy place of state finalist! Two of our Year 9 students, Lauren Korenblyum and Sabrina Cooke, impressed us with their short and

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

From the Students sophisticated pieces on the controversial topic of international war (integrating the detrimental impacts of post-modern examples such as the dire RussiaUkraine situation) and the effects of the termination of juries in court with a thought-provoking set of arguments, respectively. Year 10 Philosophy allowed students to deep dive into areas of relative interest. From this course, Julie Sheng surfaced the subjective reality of achieving an ‘ideal’ form of governance, Emma Parsons investigated the notion of free will and moral accountability against the backdrops of determinism, agent-causal libertarianism and compatibilism, June Yoon analysed both the benefits and cavities of democracy and Olivia Clifford tested the characteristics of a ‘good philosopher’. In other areas of the College, Amy Zhang (Year 9) conducted a study into the distribution of wealth and income relevant to the nationwide socio-economic disparity, while Jiya Tanna (Year 10) explored both the inhumane nature of female infanticide in India and the patriarchal pressures that push people to make this cruel decision.

HANNA CHEUNG YEAR 11 (2022), SCIENCE SECTION The Science submissions contained many outstanding pieces of research from 2022 Extension Science students, who leveraged their own scientific knowledge and data from institutions within Australia and overseas to provide sophisticated insights on various topics. In addition to research tasks within the classroom, this year’s Science section also features five BioTech Futures Challenge Finalists’ research posters. I believe that the high quality and diverse submissions reflect Pymble girls’ passion of STEM, and we are excited to see more innovative contributions to future editions.

The outstanding quality of these articles, essays, speeches and posters signify that the future of research at Pymble is hugely promising. The growth that each author has undergone and the potential that they hold is evident upon viewing their conscientious work. Research is an art that fuels creativity and critical thinking, but it is also a process that requires commitment and patience. Perspective aims to illustrate the whole picture behind research - the joys and the challenges, the sweat and the smiles - not just showcase the polished final product. We, as the editorial committee, hope that this edition successfully lives up to our intent and authentically communicates the experiences of all who were involved in its publication. We will end on a note of thanks. Firstly, the committee wishes to express its gratitude towards every author who was courageous enough to submit their work. They should be rightfully proud of their achievements, and we have been honoured to collaborate with them. We are also deeply indebted to all the teachers who encouraged students to put forward their compositions for publication. Their ardour for academia, which they have clearly passed on to their students, has contributed greatly to the stimulating research environment that we boast at the College. And of course, how could we possibly forget Dr Loch, the director of the Pymble Institute, who has overseen this project with the utmost warmth and kindness? We owe her our deepest appreciation for leading us on this editing adventure with her foresight and passion. Her love of research is certainly infectious, and she inspires us every day to push ourselves ever onwards. At the exact moment in time when a student takes their first step through the gates of Pymble, a seed of academic learning is planted within them. The Pymble Institute nurtures this precious seed, cultivating it with care and giving it plentiful opportunities to develop, so that every Pymble girl can blossom into a keen scholar of the future. We are confident that research at the college will continue to flourish in the years to come, and we hope that you enjoy this edition of Perspective. THE PERSPECTIVE STUDENT EDITORIAL COMMITTEE ISABELLA CAMERON, HANNA CHEUNG, MAYA GARG, ANG-YA KOO, AYANA SAPRA AND JULIE SHENG

Voice

Why Destruction?

BY ARABELLA HOANG (YEAR 5)

I thought that I could change the world, But now I see that I can’t. Although we’re the smartest species, We fail to see our patterns.

You threw away our hearts like a piece of useless paper. You tossed our words

The government has failed To keep our footprint down, And big companies Refuse to give up palm oil. I have lost my voice. I have lost my voice to them. The world keeps changing With ecosystems crumbling. I learn about it at school. I learn about it everywhere. Yet I keep my mouth shut. I have lost my voice to them. Pollution gets worse by the day. Ice caps shrink - floods occur. Anger bottles up My mouth begins to move Breaks its seal My mouth begins to move I have found my voice All loud and forceful I can change our view of climate change. I can change our view of palm oil. I can change the world.

deep in the bin of your cold heart. You pull the dagger out, and you kill the innocent animals Being the sly sneaky fox. Why do you do this? Is it to create a burden on your power? Is it to make life easier for just you? The world keeps changing with ecosystems crumbling. Habitats are falling. Endangerment inches closer to animals that don’t deserve it. Think about the people people who need support. Think about the animals animals you are depending on humans. Think about the world our lives depend on the world.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

English

Home BY LAKSHI RAJEEV (YEAR 4) Ancient souls linger in the dust Swaying like columns in an earthquake. Familiar. Spirited. Vivacious. The untamed creatures amble Through intervening roots Wind, furiously hurling Spherical, transparent droplets. Dense, wild roots. Reside in the undergrowth. Gum, eucalyptus, banksia. It is not ours to take In a time where we do not belong Our wildlife. Our people. Generations of fallen ancestors roam the barren landscape. They forage and scavenge. Unaware of prying eyes. The ways of nature, followed through. In unending chain. The leaves are crisp and golden. Satisfaction under my bare feet. Laughing, dancing. Singing, storytelling. Unwritten, the words still linger. Culture lives on. Tradition cuts through. Boomerangs whirl relentlessly Crisply, slicing matted fur. We have been through conflict. Standing as one in a storm. Delicate as a windswept petal in a hurricane. Strong as the surface of concrete. Ochre tans the warm of my skin. Patterns radiate in blinding beams. Colourful. Tranquil. Cultured. Historical artefacts blaze proudly in

the radiant sun. Food. Weapons. Tools. Daunting. Dazzling. Blinding my eyes. The desire for freedom. Hope for culture. The unwrinkled bark of ancient gum Lush, flourishing leaves. It welcomes newcomers to rest in the crook of a branch. Decade after decade. It has seen the past. Heralding the presence of children. All across the globe. Bare feet patter. What is in the past will never be resurrected. But culture forever lives on. Clapsticks beat continuously. Chanting echoes serenely. A fire in my eyes. As I imitate the movement of kangaroo. Quokka. Platypus. Wallaby. Flora and fauna, healing to my soul. A circular group of clan mates. Smiles upon their faces. Terror breaks out unexpectedly. Story-the life of our culture. Cautiously, I aim the intricate spear. Patterned with the stars above. Stalking the unsuspecting wallabyAlas! The hunt is finished. Farms Orchards. Rich soil abounds. All is left nowAn endangered community of blue gum-standing strong.

Forever. Turramurra Big hill Eastern Road. Many names drape the close-knit community. The only traces of our clan Terramerregal Engraved kangaroo footprints. Meandering through rock holes. We were the first Sri Lankans. A multi cultured community Diverse in all its history. Ever changing. Always growing. Inching into the widespread branches I eye the footprints of children. Holding the vast secrets of this land. I will always remember that I was not the first here.

In gardens of childhood BY NETHUKI (YEAR 9) “There is a garden in every childhood, an enchanted place where colours are brighter, the air softer, and the morning more fragrant than ever.” – ELIZABETH LAWRENCE I gazed as two crimson bikes tore through the dirt road; a blur imprinted in the air as the sand was uplifted in a golden blaze. How I craved to feel the wind dance around me on a bike like that. “Akkā, why can’t I ride a bike?” I ask. She laughs, “Nanga, are you a boy?” “No, but I don’t see why I can’t. All you have to do is push those pedals, right? I’ve seen the village boys ride them a thousand times,” was my response. She laughs again, “Nanga, you can never understand, can you?” It was the end of that argument. I guess I never could understand. But the bicycles were soon forgotten as I reached the mandarin tree in my family’s estate: tiger orange opposing an ultramarine sky. The cool summer heat clung to me, and the citron scent of the fallen fruit hung in the air as I scaled its familiar branches. I stared off into the heart of Maha Nuwara, glimpsing the ivory and terracotta steeples of the Sri Dalada Maligawa from the silken depths of the dark viridian mandarin leaves. Suddenly I felt something driving into my back like a knife as I lay against the branches. I carefully took the object from behind me. It was a box. I couldn’t contemplate how I had missed it as I climbed, but the box was more ornate than any I had ever seen. Its polished wood matched the dark umber of the mandarin branches whilst a delicate filigree pattern wrapped around its base and a silver clamp held it shut. I tried opening it, but the clamp had rusted, and my childish hands didn’t have the strength to open it. As dusk came draped in pale violet muslin folds, I ran through the tea fields that stood in effortless rows against the growing mist, with my new precious object in hand. I flew by Indian mango trees, overflowing bushes of Jungle Flame, gossamer bamboo orchids and fuchsia garden balsams to nivasa, ‘home.’ I grew up, childhood fled me, but the box stayed. I never could open it, and I never tried to. I didn’t want to destroy any last remaining childhood fantasy about its contents. It was most likely empty; it was too light to be anything. So, I delicately hid it in the folds of my favourite sari, a 10

Japanese georgette I had rare occasion to wear. I had a job, a home, children, and a husband. It seemed so perfect. Too perfect. But then the world descended into chaos. A divorce. A civil war. A tsunami. All too painful and cutting to see in apathetic black and white type font. If you could only see the original manuscript; tear stained. In childhood I had wanted so much. Colourful glasslike sweets, jewellery that glittered against my skin, vividly patterned dresses and to ride a bicycle. I have a motorbike now that I ride to work almost every day. At least that part was every bit as exciting as my childish mind had imagined. Now, as a mother alone, I want my children to have an education, to see them married, to see them shine bright in their futures. Decades pass. Memory now flees me too. I can feel my memory waning, like the rælla ‘waves’ that keep taking and taking, yet glisten against the sand, while my hourglass of life ebbs as I write. It is time to open the box. I walk towards its delicate frame and take it from the folds of my sari, still in the same condition as I had found it in childhood and holding the same allure of mystery. The childhood sense of curiosity came back as I finally drew out its clamp and closed my eyes in expectation. Inside is a dark velvet interior that contains glass beads. Each shone a different jewel tone, each a different shape. I picked up a citrine bead that shone like the sun in the dark veils of my room. It felt heavy in my hand. The air began to fill with the glorious scent of citron, and a breeze danced around me as I closed my eyes and those stolen childhood memories became imprinted in my mind. The sour taste of mandarin I had mixed with salt, the branches that held me against the sky and Maha Nuwara below me. I soon discovered each bead was a different memory in my past. The bottle-green bead reminded me of the tea fields that echoed in green waves, the lapis of my days by the river as the sun became golden fish in its mirror, the red of those crimson painted bikes that had torn through the air.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

English

Eventually I made them into a bracelet, its colours bringing back days I had thought long gone. I had no more goals, nothing left to do in life. I felt pain, but also happiness. I was finally at peace; serene like the tranquil panes of water on a lily pond, stained exquisitely with the pond scenery and the nil mahanel ‘blue water lily’ above.

SINGHALESE AND ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS Akkā - older sister Nanga - younger sister Nivasa - home Nil mahanel - blue water lily (‘nil’ meaning blue and ‘mahanel’ meaning water lily) Maha Nuwara is a city in Sri Lanka which is called Kandy in English and the Sri Dalada Maligawa is a famous Buddhist temple located there.

Which literary features do you find to be most powerful and why? BY JULIE SHENG (YEAR 10) Literary features are plentiful in English literature. The most impactful devices not only add a deeper layer to a text by integrating themselves with the reader’s reality, but also produce an insightful critique of society, ultimately provoking change. Symbolism immediately comes to mind as a feature that fulfills this purpose, since it can link fictional plotlines to prevalent concepts in society. The animal symbolism which essentially underpins Yann Martel’s Life of Pi uses various creatures to embody the facets of human nature, with an orangutan representing a motherly, nurturing force whilst a tiger typifies the wildness that lies within the human psyche.1 This symbolism illustrates the fine line between man and beast, forcing the reader to examine their own understanding of what it means to be human - a profound, spiritual task that has the potential to advance the intellectual and cultural mindset of humanity as a whole. In this way, symbolism’s value in stimulating critical thought is proven to render it a powerful technique.

satire, which relentlessly attacks traditional politics. Because of this compelling feature, Catch-22 became instrumental in shifting the popular mindset of Americans from hailing war as a glorious pursuit to recognising it as a devastating waste of youth.3 Satire is therefore observed to be a piquant literary feature that can galvanise political and ideological change. Literature is most powerful when it is bound to reality and serves as a catalyst for social change. The most influential literary features are symbolism, allegory and satire, since they have the ability to imbue the story that they are a part of with meaning applicable to the human world.

In the field of politics, one must consider how allegory can reveal the true nature of authority systems around the world. It is employed in the iconic Animal Farm to reflect the hypocrisy and oppression of the Russian revolution. Character archetypes that featured heavily in the actual events of the Soviet Union, like the indoctrinated worker and the charismatic tyrant, are manifested in humanoid animals (Boxer and Napoleon, respectively), concisely summarising the human mechanisms that were at play when Russia descended into totalitarianism. In addition to a historical recount, Orwell’s political allegory also delivers a dire warning to ordinary citizens, urging them to be both mindful of their government’s control and conscious of their right to freedom.2 Even today, the idea of liberty that is behind the allegory of Animal Farm drives humanity’s quest to attain true democracy, as seen in the form of public protests and legal reforms. An allegory can therefore enmesh itself with prominent real-world ideas to provoke social and political growth. Satire is another literary device which can uncover reality and elicit progress. It is best utilised by Heller in Catch-22, where it exposes the absurdity of war through its sharp cynicism. The premise of a paradoxical ‘catch’ that forces soldiers to suffer a futile death captures the meaninglessness of war, whilst humorous irony lends the novel a tragi-comedic tone. Throughout the book, the reader is torn between laughing at the inanity of wartime America and mourning the lives so needlessly lost. Heller’s work is a more poignant piece of anti-war literature than its harsher counterparts due to its charming yet aggressive 12

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

BIBLIOGRAPHY Darmastuti, Sri Aji. ‘Animal symbolism in Yann Martel’s Life of Pi’. Litera Kultura: Journal of Literary and Cultural Studies 3, no. 1 (16 January 2015): 10. https://doi.org/10.26740/lk.v3i1.10382. Letemendia, V. C. ‘Revolution on Animal Farm: Orwell’s Neglected Commentary’. Journal of Modern Literature 18, no. 1 (1992): 127–37. Pinsker, Sanford. ‘Reassessing “Catch-22”’. The Sewanee Review 108, no. 4 (2000): 602–10.

English

Year 10 Da Vinci Decathlon Art and Poetry Submission BY JULIE SHENG AND ANNA WARD (YEAR 10) CONTEXT The Da Vinci Decathlon is a prestigious inter-school competition where a team of eight students are selected to compete in the academic subjects of English, Maths, Art and Poetry, Science, Engineering, Ideation, Code-Breaking, Cartography, Creative Producers (Drama) and Legacy (History). Each student specialises in one or two disciplines. This year, the Year 10 team placed third overall in the state, with their English, Art and Poetry and Code-Breaking papers winning first place and their Engineering paper receiving second place. Shown below is the work produced for the contest by the Art and Poetry students, Julie Sheng and Anna Ward. They responded to the set question of creating a piece based on the topics of ‘culture’ and ‘patterns’ with a colourful 3D mandala. The artwork features many multicultural symbols that reflect Australia’s diversity, such as Chinese dragons, Thai Buddhas, Japanese cherry blossoms, Indian elephants, Turkish eyes and more. The poem, which also reflects upon the rich cultural heritage that this nation is proud to possess, is integrated within the artwork through strips of paper upon which it is written. Psychedelia, Paraphernalia, Shooting stars bursting through The shell of my existence. Spinning scarlets, gawking greens, Flashes of colour Sizzling in my dreams. Curry yellows from my hometown, The spices in the air hanging heavy in a saffron mist. A shimmering dragon, coiled around my chest, Puffing good fortune on the East and the West. Elephants clad in gold and turquoise, Cherry blossoms exploding through the snow. Many faces grinning back at me Everywhere I go… The colours of my family, The stories of flowing in our blood, The merging of past and future. The quirks and prides of history, The luring scent of home, The threads of our inheritance Embroidered on this tapestry. A melting-pot of cultures, Spanning across the globe. A potpourri of heritage, A kaleidoscope of hope.

To what extent can Machiavelli be considered the Father of Modern Political Philosophy and Political Science? BY GIANNA ARISTON (YEAR 12) This essay was originally written as a Year 12 History Extension task. Machiavelli’s political writings have sparked intense controversies in Western history, raising fundamental questions regarding political theory due to his revolutionary subversion of ancient political thought. This has caused many commentators to consider Machiavelli the Father of Modern Political Philosophy and Political Science, leading some to ordain him as the Founder of Modernity itself. Writing within the politically unstable climate of Renaissance Florence, Machiavelli developed his political treatises The Prince1 and Discourses on Livy2, with considerations on gaining, holding and expanding political power in what constituted a self-conscious progress beyond tradition. However, the dispute encompassing Machiavelli’s place in the history of Western ideas remains a growing avenue of discourse with increased debate surrounding his responsibility for the spirit of modernity. This is especially in connection with The Prince, from which the diffusion of his thought has been traced throughout the so-called Atlantic world with arguments that his political morality and religious views are a distinctive base for the originality of his contribution to modern political thought.3 Although debate still remains on the degree between his innovation and adherence to tradition, Machiavelli’s ‘scientific’ methodology and treatment of ethics and philosophy in relation to politics mark a clear contradistinction between the classical and modern periods, therefore allowing him to be constituted as the father of modern political philosophy and political science. Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469 during the Italian Renaissance, was a political philosopher and statesman of the Florentine Republic. Contextualised within a Florence that had transformed into a great Italian power by the 1400s, Machiavelli matured during a tumultuous period in Italian history of warring states, principalities, and irreconcilable factions. Florence itself faced a fluctuating political climate characterised by an on-and-off Republic since 1115 that culminated in the rule of the Medici who eventually gained a monopoly over the state in the 1430s. During a brief transient period, Machiavelli worked as a minister in the newly restored Florentine Republic, however, following the return of the Medici to Florence, he was tried for conspiracy for his connection to the nowdeposed republican regime. During this political exile, he wrote arguably his most notable work, The Prince, in 14

what was supposedly an attempt to regain the goodwill of the Medici family. Published in 1532, The Prince fell into the genre of speculum principis (mirrors for princes) as a short treatise on how to acquire power, create a state and maintain it, representing Machiavelli’s guide for political action based on lessons of history and his own diplomatic experiences. Analysing historical examples for imitation, Machiavelli seemingly endorses the genre’s concern for glory as the result of virtue,4 however, is subversive in his ‘realistic’ approach and orientation towards the ‘effectual truth’ of political life5. This led to controversial teachings such as “the ends justify the means” and the general consensus that “politics have no relation to morals.”6 This consequentialist approach has therefore caused Machiavelli to be considered as the main initiator of the modern tradition of political realism, variously known as the doctrine of raison d’etat (reason of state) or Realpolitik. This holds the fundamental conception that politics is a matter of promoting the security and greatness of the state by any means necessary, allowing the justification of immoral acts when undertaken on behalf of the state.7 As such, this idea has formed the basis of Machiavelli’s works, marking a distinctive break with previous political doctrines that were anchored in substantively moral and religious systems of thought, thereby constituting the break from the so-called great tradition of political philosophy. In this regard, Machiavelli’s conviction to brutally “realistic” advice marks a new era of thought, distinctly subverting traditional ideals with a contravention of all previously socially respectable forms of political reflection. This consequently sparked enormous controversy and the popular perversion of his character with the negative epithet ‘Machiavellian’, which in turn now generates debate over the extent of his true influence.8 Regarding his reputation, with many thinkers trying to understand the changing political scene and Machiavelli’s extreme political realism, The Prince procured a vast array of interpretations, generally due to misrepresentation and maxims being taken out of context.9 This was largely perpetuated by religious indignations during the turbulent years of the reformation where Machiavelli was perceived as an irreligious heretic, threatening the supremacy of the papacy.10 As such, by the end of the 1500s, Machiavelli’s satanic reputation was almost undisputed with his teachings attaining popular blame for violence and tyrannical government. However, following a surge of revisionism with figures such as Rousseau, Machiavelli’s reputation was rehabilitated

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History

with a new wave of thinking. This concluded that the fundamental opinion of Machiavelli came from an Elizabethan dependence on secondary writers who ‘failed’ to engage with his historical perspective and understand the limited circumstances to which his works applied as an impassioned tract of Renaissance Italy.11 With this consideration of his retrospective significance, American political philosopher Harvey Mansfield argues that due to the expanding acknowledgement of the misconstrued notion of Machiavellianism, revisionist sentiments have caused many scholars to dismiss Machiavelli’s reputation as false, resulting in a depreciated consideration of his influence which they view as misunderstood and therefore negligible.12 In this sense, with the denial of his power to influence radical change, Machiavelli has been depreciated by many to only be a harbinger of later developments of nationalism, science, and liberalism. This has resulted in the interrogation of his responsibility for modernity to not be implemented in sufficiently broad and uncompromising terms.13 Influenced by Leo Strauss and the Straussian approach, Mansfield’s methodology stresses the importance of studying the history of political philosophy and the tradition handed down the centuries to understand modern political science fully. In this regard, with his saturation in humanism and immersion in the Renaissance with the rebirth of the ancients, Machiavelli alone profoundly emphasises the realism and dynamism of modernity.14 This is supported by Pocock’s judgement that Machiavelli’s influence was considerable with many of the English republicans of the seventeenth century, leading figures of the Enlightenment such as Montesquieu, as well as some of the American revolutionaries, having learned from reading the Discourses on Livy.15 Mussolini himself even claimed that The Prince and Machiavelli’s realist approach was a great inspiration for him in his aspiration to restore the glory of the Roman empire.16 As such, although the shadow of his ‘false’ reputation has long impacted the consideration of his subsequent influence, it is evident that Machiavelli’s doctrines have been extensively diffused throughout Western reflection forming the foundations of modern political thought. Machiavelli’s principles have arguably further propelled the program of modernity through distinctive epistemological and ‘scientific’ advancements with his development of generalisations explicated from historical fact and experience. Machiavelli’s aspiration to construct a secular “science” of politics derived from his view of history as repetition,17 where he claimed that the virtue of similar occurrences would allow those who study the past to easily envisage the future.18 Italian philologist Leonardo Olschki supports that Machiavelli possessed a detached, impartial, scientific mind, and anticipated Galileo in applying inductive methods to social and historical material, therefore laying the foundations of modern political science.19 Although Machiavelli’s method was not the developed inductive system of the seventeenth century and applied a combination of observation and

general sagacity to draw historical parallels, Leo Strauss asserts that many adherents of the “scientific” approach to society trace back to Machiavelli with his abstraction from moral distinctions.20 With his preference for examples from classical antiquity over general historical analysis, for some such as Hebert Butterfield, Machiavelli’s attention to classical authors has rendered him encumbered by the past and unable to escape his intellectual confines, causing his political maxims to be deduced in a dogmatic and a priori manner.21 However, in actual effect, Machiavelli employs the authority of tradition to uncover the timeless nature of politics and condemn the failures of his own era. Joshua Kaplan argues that in drawing conclusions from past events and developments, Machiavelli utilised ancient examples to reproach ancient thinking, therefore emancipating politics from theology and conventional moral philosophy.22 Thus, Machiavelli presents his new political science in opposition to classical political science with his rejection of his classical predecessors who based their political bearings on divinely sanctioned conceptions of justice.23 Machiavelli instead oriented himself toward the “effectual truth” of politics, placing emphasis on realism with his rejection of utopian philosophical schemes and the unrealistic idealism of the imaginary republics and principalities of classical antiquity, namely Plato’s Republic and St. Augustine’s City of God.24 In contrast with the classical vision of a virtuous political science, Machiavelli’s distinguishment between the “facts” of political life and the “values” of moral judgement characterises the foundation of ‘modern’ political science, even emerging in the context of the scientific revolution more generally. As such, with his exclusive goal to explain how politicians deploy power for their own gain, Machiavelli anticipated the scientific spirit where the primary motive is to discover the truth rather than question its morality. Therefore, despite his lack of a concrete methodology, Machiavelli’s emphasis on the incongruity between historical circumstance and intellectual possibility thereby sparked an unprecedented intellectual transformation, allowing him to be constituted as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist. Analysing the concept that modernity emerges as an act of dissociation, Machiavelli marks the foundations of modernity with his break from the Great Tradition. This rejection of classical, medieval and Renaissance traditions of political thought can be seen in Machiavelli’s rhetoric of novelty expressed at the opening of ‘The Discourses’ in his claim to ‘find new modes and orders [modi e ordini],’25 and ‘to take the path as yet untrodden by anyone’.26 Departing “from the orders of others”, Machiavelli criticised his predecessors, the civic humanists, for dogmatically adhering to traditionally accepted and convenient views rather than drawing logical conclusions from their own assumptions.27 However, with a methodology of historical and linguistic analysis, British historian Quentin Skinner (1940) emphasised the importance of placing texts, in this case, The Prince, in their historical setting.28 This was a departure from the traditional method in political theory 15

TO WHAT EXTENT CAN MACHIAVELLI BE CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF MODERN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE?

which examines each work in relation to the canon of Western political thought, tracing the progression of classic texts. In setting Machiavelli within the correct intellectual context which was characterised by a return to contemplation and political concern, Skinner proposes the argument that The Prince is actually characteristic of the genre with commonalities to its quattrocento humanist predecessors.29 However, while Machiavelli did not originate the notion of raison d’état, it can be argued that Machiavelli’s originality instead derives from his separation of political discourse from metaphysics and the theological world picture.30 Particularly, rather than the complete emancipation of politics from ethics, Isaiah Berlin specifies that Machiavelli institutes a differentiation between two incompatible moralities, based on contradictory premises. As a historian of ideas and the most prominent endorser of the idea of value pluralism, Isaiah Berlin dictates that there is a whole post of equally rational and fundamental, yet incommensurable values. Berlin first locates this idea of value pluralism as Machiavelli’s cardinal achievement with his juxtaposition of two mutually exclusive systems of morality: the morality of Christianity where the belief in the salvation of the individual soul surpasses any socio-political or economic consideration; and the morality of the pagan world which aims at the promotion of glory, power and self-assertion.31 As such, Machiavelli distinguishes between two worlds of private virtue and public organisation with the fundamental idea that the state is governed in a different way from an individual.32 This is therefore not the division of politics from ethics, but the revelation of two ethical systems and the choice for either a good individual life of virtue or a noble and glorious society, stressing the incompatibility of moral systems in what Berlin considers marking the first irreparable fracture in the Western belief of a single universal structure of values.33 As such, through his revolutionary treatment of politics and ethics, Machiavelli exemplifies a large shift in the conceptual bedrock of Western thought, marking the onset of modern political philosophy. In a similar sense to his critical consideration of the relation between politics and ethics, Machiavelli presented another unprecedented intellectual transformation with his conversion of philosophy into a servant of politics. In converting philosophy into an instrument of political practice for the gradual subversion of the current situation, Machiavelli’s political and philosophical thought definitively confined itself within the immanence of the city, subordinated to suit the pragmatic purposes of the demos. As such, Strauss identifies Machiavelli as the first thinker in Western intellectual history to reject the traditional ancient ideal of philosophy as an essentially contemplative activity.34 This coincides with Robert Hariman’s conception of modernity as less of a process of empirical discovery, and more as a process of invention and the generation of the means of persuasion.35 As a professor of rhetoric and public communications, Hariman challenges the conception of the modern age as an epoch 16

of increasingly clear vision, and instead takes the stance that modernity begins with new strategies of writing rather than new ideas.36 In this regard, Machiavelli constituted an inaugural landmark of modernity as the first thinker to recognise the publicization of philosophy as the radical change of society required to establish ‘new modes and orders’. This unprecedented politicisation of philosophy constituted the suppression of the ancient esotericism and the dissemination of philosophic teaching among the masses to influence the mind of the demos.37 Specialising in classical political philosophy, Strauss held the view that philosophers of antiquity wrote esoterically, hiding the highest truths with an “art of writing” to both protect philosophy from the hostility of citizens and to protect political life from subversion by philosophy.38 As such, Machiavelli can be regarded as the first philosopher to recognise that the coincidence of philosophy and political power can be achieved by propaganda for the actualisation of the best regime. Therefore, in consciously proposing the strategic union of philosophy with propaganda, Machiavelli breaks with the exclusively contemplative tradition of philosophy and can be constituted as the initiator of the new politicised philosophy that came to prominence in the modern world. In analysing various interpretations of Machiavelli’s methodology and treatment of ethics and philosophy in relation to politics, it becomes evident that Machiavelli’s writings marked a distinctive break with previous political doctrines, thereby constituting a momentous break from tradition. Although questions still remain surrounding his originality of thought and inductive reasoning, Machiavelli was able to discover general laws and precepts with his development of a ‘scientific’ methodology, marking an unprecedented intellectual transformation. Similarly, with his politicisation of philosophy in subversion to the contemplative tradition, and his condemnation of classical utopian idealism with his early conception of value pluralism, Machiavelli made significant departures from classical political tradition. Fundamentally, issues with ‘modernity’ and ‘originality’ cannot entirely be resolved due to historical ambiguities causing the unavoidable lack of an objective foundation and conceptual tensions between innovation and tradition. However, with his evident contemporary contributions to modern political discourse, Machiavelli is deserving of his fundamental stance as the father of modern political science and political philosophy.

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History

BIBLIOGRAPHY

McShea, R.J. Leo Strauss on Machiavelli. University of Utah, 1963.

Anglo, S. The Reception of Machiavelli in Tudor England. Rubbettino Editore, 1966.

Murray, G. Anti-Machiavellianism and Roman Civil Religion in the Princely Literature of Sixteenth-Century Europe. Sixteenth Century Journal, 2014.

Bawcutt, N.W. The “Myth of Gentillet” Reconsidered: An Aspect of Elizabethan Machiavellianism. Modern Humanities Research Association, 2004.

Myers, E. From Pluralism to Liberalism: Rereading Isaiah Berlin. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Beiner, R. Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Rousseau on Civil Religion. Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Namazi, R. The Question of Esoteric Writing in Machiavelli’s Works. Renaissance and Reformation, 2017.

Berlin, I. The Originality of Machiavelli. Viking Press, 1980.

Oliveira, R.R. The Subversion of Ancient Thought: Strauss’s Interpretation of the Modern Philosophic Project. Federal University of São João del-Rei, 2020.

Berlin, I. Three Turning-Points in Political Thought. The Isaiah Berlin Literary Trust, 2005. Champlin, J.R. Machiavellian Moment. Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Peacey, J. Against Throne and Altar: Machiavelli and Political Theory under the English Republic by Paul A Rahe. University of Chicago Press, 2009.

Davis, J.C. ‘Epic Years’: The English Revolution and J.G.A Pocock’s Approach to the History of Political Thought. Imprint Academic Ltd, 2008.

Pocock, J. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton University Press, 1975.

Fleisher, M. The Ways of Machiavelli and the Ways of Politics. Imprint Academic Ltd, 1995. Frazer, M.L. The Ethics of Interpretation in Political Theory and Intellectual History. Cambridge University Press, 2019. Freyer, G. The Reputation of Machiavelli. Trinity College Dublin, 1940. Geerken, J.H. Machiavelli Studies since 1969. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976. Giorgini, G. Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli’s “Prince”. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Hariman, R. Composing Modernity in Machiavelli’s Prince. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Harris, P. Machiavelli and the Global Compass: Ends and Means in Ethics and Leadership. Springer, 2010. Hochner, N. A Ritualist Approach to Machiavelli. Imprint Academic Ltd, 2009. Hösle, V. Morality and Politics: Reflections on Machiavelli’s “Prince”. Springer, 1989.

Peterman, L. Gravity and Piety: Machiavelli’s Modern Turn. Cambridge University Press, 1990. Rahe, P.A. Machiavelli’s Liberal Republican legacy. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Scott, M. Machiavelli and the Machiavel. The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Skinner, Q. Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas. Wiley, 1969. Strauss, L. Thoughts on Machiavelli. University of Chicago Press, 1958. Tarcov, N. Quentin Skinner’s Method and Machiavelli’s Prince. The University of Chicago Press, 1982. Triandafillidis, N. From Prince to Duce: An in-depth study about Machiavellianism in the Fascist Doctrine. Modern Diplomacy, 2020. Ward, I. Helping the Dead Speak: Leo Strauss, Quentin Skinner and the Arts of Interpretation in Political Thought. University of Chicago Press, 2009. Yoran, H. Machiavelli’s Critique of Humanism and the Ambivalences of Modernity. Imprint Academic Ltd, 2010.

Jurdjevic, M. Machiavelli’s Hybrid Republicanism. Oxford University Press, 2007. Kristellar, P.O. Between the Italian Renaissance and the French Enlightenment: Gabriel Naudé as an Editor. Cambridge University Press, 1979. Lien, A.J. Machiavelli’s Prince and Mussolini’s Facism. Pi Gamma Mu, International Honor Society in Social Sciences, 1929. Machiavelli, N. The Discourses. Penguin, 2000. Machiavelli, N. The Prince. Penguin, 2004. Maddox, G. The Secular Reformation and the Influence of Machiavelli. University of Chicago Press, 2002. Mali, J. et al. Isaiah Berlin’s Counter-Enlightenment. American Philosophical Society, 2003. Mansfield, H.C. Machiavelli’s Political Science. American Political Science Association, 1981. Mansfield, H.C. Strauss on “The Prince”. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Mansfield, H.C. Strauss’s Machiavelli. Sage Publications Inc, 1975. McCormick, J.P. Machiavelli’s The Prince at 500: The Fate of Politics in the Modern World. The John Hopkins University Press, 2014. McCoy, C.N.R. The Place of Machiavelli in the History of Political Thought. American Political Science Association, 1943. McIntosh, D. The Modernity of Machiavelli. Sage Publications, Inc, 1984.

FOOTNOTES 1

Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, (Penguin, 2004).

Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, (Penguin, 2000).

John Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, (Princeton University Press, 1975): 63.

4 Donald McIntosh, The modernity of machiavelli, (Sage Publications Inc., 1984): 185.

John P. McCormick, Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’ at 500: The Fate of Politics in the Modern World, ( The John Hopkins University Press, 2014): 24.

Machiavelli, (2004): 129.

Paul A. Rahe, Machiavelli’s Liberal Republican legacy, (Cambridge University Press, 2006): 36. 7

8 Phil Harris, Machiavelli and the Global Compass: Ends and Means in Ethics and Leadership, (Springer, 2010): 131.

Sydney Anglo, The Reception of Machiavelli in Tudor England: A ReAssessment, (Rubbettino Editore, 1966): 131.

10 Grattan Freyer, The Reputation of Machiavelli, (Trinity College Dublin, 1940): 155.

Margaret Scott, Machiavelli and the Machiavel, (The University of Chicago Press, 1984): 153.

TO WHAT EXTENT CAN MACHIAVELLI BE CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF MODERN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE?

12 Harvey C. Mansfield, Strauss’s Machiavelli, (Sage Publications Inc, 1975): 373. 13

Ibid. 374.

Harvey C. Mansfield, Machiavelli’s Political Science, (American Political Science Association, 1981): 294. 14

15 Paul A. Rahe, Machiavelli’s liberal republican legacy, (Cambridge University Press, 2006): 21.

Nikita Triandafillidis, From Prince to Duce: an in-depth study about Machiavellianism in the Fascist Doctrine, (Modern Diplomacy, 2020).

Mansfield, (1981): 295

Machiavelli, (2000): XVII

Ibid. 5.

Hanan Yoran, Machiavelli’s Critique on Humanism and the ambivalences of modernity, (Imprint Academic Ltd, 2010): 250.

McIntosh, (1984): 193.

Ibid. 195.

Isaiah Berlin, The Originality of Machiavelli, (Viking Press, 1980): 50.

Berlin, (2005) 28.

17 Joseph Mali, et al. Isaiah Berlin’s Counter-Enlightenment, (American Philosophical Society, 2003): 136.

Ibid. 20. Mali, (2003): 40

Machiavelli, (2004): 33.

Harris, (2010): 136.

34 Richard R. Oliveira, The Subversion of Ancient Thought: Strauss’s Interpretation of the Modern Philosophic Project, (Federal University of São João del-Rei, 2020): 30.

Leo Strauss, Thoughts on Machiavelli. (University of Chicago Press, 1958): 11. 20

Isaiah Berlin, Three turning points in political thought, (The Isaiah Berlin Literary Trust, 2005): 6. 21

Joshua Kaplan, Political Theory: The Classic Texts and Their Continuing Relevance, (Recorded Books, 2005): 22

McCormick, (2014): 24.

35 Robert Hariman, Composing Modernity in Machiavelli’s Prince, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989): 27. 36

Ibid. 27.

Oliveira, (2020): 31.

Ibid. 4.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

History

Evaluate the feasibility of the construction of a collective memory around Franco’s legacy BY LAUREN BARNES (YEAR 12) This essay was originally written as a Year 12 History Extension task. The history of Franco’s rule has been continually manipulated to satisfy the purpose of various interest groups within the highly polarised Spanish society, inhibiting the formation of an accepted collective memory. Collective memory is a group’s interpretation of events, informed by the prominent symbols, memorials and narratives present in society. History under Franco’s rule was substantially influenced by historians participating in state-enforced censorship, including radio and film, resulting in an inaccurate narrative of Franco’s regime. Anti-Franco interpretations, such as Paul Preston’s The Spanish Holocaust, manipulated history using selective methodology and highly emotive language to present a critical view of Franco’s rule. After Franco’s death in 1975, the Pact of Forgetting (1975) banned historical debate and denied political accountability, manipulating history to downplay the recollection of Francoist repression, as argued by Professor of Political Studies, Omar Encarnación. The history of Franco’s regime has also been significantly influenced by the recent rise of Populist movements in Spain, with the highly entrenched, emotional perspective of right-wing figures, including Franco Foundation member Juan Chicharro Ortega, preventing a cohesive collective memory. Ongoing polarisation across Spanish society has softened the history of Franco’s rule to satisfy the varying experiences of these groups, with the government taking ineffective measures to revise Franco’s narrative. Professor of Public International Law and International Relations Dr Victor Luis Gutiérrez Castillo argues this forces the individual to search for their own memory, further fragmenting society and undermining collective memory formation. The history of Franco’s rule is still manipulated by sectors of contemporary society, from adulation of the leader to harsh criticism, with extreme polarisation continuing to impede the formation of a cohesive collective memory. Between 1936 and 1939, an estimated 700,000 people died in the Spanish Civil War, a military uprising by the fascist Nationalists against Spain’s leftist Republican government.1 The Nationalists were led by General Francisco Franco and supported by the conservative Catholic Church, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Republicans received support from the Soviet Union, and American and European volunteers through the International Brigades. Franco’s victory on 1 April 1939 triggered strict censorship over the historical record and a propagandised memorialisation of the war. Death tolls in ‘official’ state-produced

documentaries such as the 1959 El Camino de la Paz (The Road to Peace), were exaggerated at ‘one million dead’, to portray Franco as saving Spain from anarchy. The figure is debated among modern historians, however, is generally agreed at less than 700,000 dead. Franco’s regime harnessed strong religious imagery referring to the Civil War as “The Crusade”, manipulating public perception of the war by portraying it as an act of national salvation.2 Franco’s death in 1975 marked an end to his regime, with the reinstatement of political parties and the dismantling of dictatorial structures. Collective memory was established in the 1930s, by sociologist Maurice Halbwachs and art historian Aby Warburg, separately developing theories that a “collective” or “social memory” results from socialisation and customs.3 Sociologist Jeffrey Olick argues collective memories are largely determined by “the symbols and narratives available publicly,” prompting a group to remember selectively.4 Psychology professor Alin Coman explores the power dynamics within conversations which transform mutual shared memories into cultural collective memories, with distinct individuals or groups emerging as ‘narrators’, ‘mentors’ and ‘monitors’. Dominant ‘narrators’ significantly influence these discussions, with their perspective most commonly emerging as the collective memory. The ‘monitors’ assessment of the narrative’s accuracy is largely coloured by the ‘narrators’ political and social agenda, propagating a collective memory which serves their purpose, aided by the ‘mentors’ additional details.5 Psychology professors Hirst and Echterhoff argue that those taking the role of a ‘perceived expert’ are “more successful at imposing their memories onto others” through manipulation, further distorting the collective memory’s accuracy.6 These power dynamics are highly applicable to dictatorial Spain, with Franco’s regime acting as ‘narrator’ and ‘perceived expert’, attempting to create an ideologically centred collective memory through propaganda and censorship enforced by ‘mentors’, such as the media. Coman stresses these silences within the public discourse are significant in creating a ‘collective forgetting’.7 In theory, a collective memory is usually formed and widely accepted by a society, such as Australia’s ANZAC myth. However, in Spain a cohesive collective memory is unattainable due to the polarising experiences of the Spanish Civil War and Franco’s rule. The history of the Civil War and portrayal of Franco were significantly manipulated during the Franco regime, with highly subjective and emotional portrayals creating an inaccurate collective memory. Public perception of Franco 19

EVALUATE THE FEASIBILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF A COLLECTIVE MEMORY AROUND FRANCO’S LEGACY

was manipulated by the “myth of the Caudillo”, creating a collective memory of him as a charismatic leader through national media coverage. Established in 1937, Radio Nacional de España (RNE) became a propaganda machine, acting as a ‘mentor’ to the collective memory by adding detail and pushing the ‘dominant narrative’ of Franco as a skilled general and strategist, the ‘saviour’ of Spain, and a loved leader, legitimising his rule of the new state. In 1942, the RNE broadcast the “brilliant events” of the third anniversary of Spain’s liberation, recording “the jubilation of the crowd” and the “constant cheer(ing)”, successfully creating admiration for Franco within the collective memory.8 Encarnación (2008) argues that manipulation of the collective memory was derived from Francoist emphasis of the War as an act of “national salvation from chaos and destruction,” as seen in stateproduced documentaries providing the ‘official’ history of the Civil War, such as the 1959 El Camino de la Paz (The Road to Peace). The documentary’s exaggeration of death tolls as ‘one million dead’ is argued by Encarnación to have “the very calculated purpose of supporting the claim that the Nationalist uprising had saved Spain from anarchy.”9 This manipulation of history allowed the regime to justify its political establishment as a reactive measure against widespread chaos, creating a positive collective memory of Franco, ignoring the regime’s use of repressive and brutal methods. The left’s manipulation of the collective memory is seen in Paul Preston’s 2011 book The Spanish Holocaust, with his selective methodology and personal context significantly influencing his revisionist interpretation. Preston is an English historian, specialising in the Civil War and the Franco regime. Born in Liverpool in 1946, Preston is influenced by his working-class family’s left-wing political views, culminating in sympathy for the Republicans, and described “an element of indignation about the Republic’s defeat, solidarity with the losing side” in his interview with The Volunteer.10 This is evident in The Spanish Holocaust, through Preston’s argument of Nationalist terror as the intentional elimination of those opposing Nationalist ideology. He defends Republican violence as spontaneous acts occurring “despite, not because of, the Republican authorities,” being indirectly caused by the Nationalist removal of societal order.11 Preston’s involvement in the Spanish democratic transition as a translator for antiFranco opposition group Junta Democrática (1974 to 1976) influenced his criticism of Francoist policy, asserting the “huge moral difference” between the Republican and Nationalist repression, such as the Francoist enforcement of policy through rape. Preston acts as a ‘monitor’, rejecting the collective memory of Franco, arguing the regime’s extreme brutality and meticulously planned state terror caused the Republican reactive violence, assassinations and “systematic mass murder.” Preston justifies the use of the term ‘holocaust’ as describing a collective violence enacted by “brutal perpetrators against 20

undeserving victims.”12 However, Preston has been highly criticised within academic circles. History professor Rob Stradling critiques the intentionally disproportionate assessment of Republican and Nationalist terror, with 30 per cent of Preston’s book dedicated to Republican oppression, which is overpowered by 54 per cent of the narrative recording Nationalist atrocities. Stradling also criticises Preston’s selective methodology, arguing he ignores some left-wing sources about atrocities, describing Republican plans of extermination similar to those of the Nationalists, asserting Preston’s “personal hatred of a longdeceased dictator” influenced his interpretation. 13,14 Poststructuralist theory argues that in a text, an individual’s personal relationship with the language used constructs meaning. The modern audience’s connection of the Nazi regime, with the term ‘holocaust’, means they could apply this emotionally laden term to Franco’s rule, influencing the reader through language to have a highly negative perception of Franco’s regime. Thus, Preston manipulates the collective memory of the Spanish Civil War, influenced by his personal context, intentionally applying highly emotive words, and predominantly emphasising Nationalist violence. The collective memory of Franco’s repression and brutality was significantly manipulated by the 1975 Pact of Forgetting, a societal agreement across Spain to forget the atrocities of the Spanish Civil War after Franco’s death. To complete a successful democratic transition and avoid reigniting Civil War tensions, historical debate was banned and political and legal redress of Franco’s government was outlawed through the 1977 Law of Political Amnesty, removing the public’s ability to ‘monitor’ the collective memory. Encarnación (2008) argues that the democratic government’s manipulation of the collective memory in the mid 1970s resulted in an “institutionalised collective amnesia.”15 Encarnación asserts this minimised the significance of Francoist brutality, hiding Franco’s “vicious attack by a reactionary minority upon a popularly elected government,” along with the human devastation, and failures of Francoist policy.16 The complexities within the collective memory are exemplified in studies conducted by Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, which found that 46.2 per cent of the public (1985), 48.9 per cent (1995) and 46.4 per cent (2003), recognised “both positive and negative” aspects to Franco’s dictatorship.17 Encarnación argues societal fear increased complicity in the Pact of Forgetting, “lessen(ing) the societal impetus to punish the old regime for its political crimes,” as many had actively participated in Francoist repression.18, 19 The absence of historical debate and lack of political liability for Francoist crimes, because of the Pact of Forgetting, substantially manipulated the collective memory, lessening and removing the narrative of Franco’s repression. The history of Franco’s rule is still manipulated to satisfy the differing experiences of largely polarised groups in Spanish

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society, blocking the construction of a collective memory by forcing the individualised search of memory, further fragmenting society. This is seen through the continuing debate over the implementation of the 2007 Law of Historical Memory and the draft 2020 Democratic Memory Bill. The 2007 Law of Historical Memory, introduced by the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, attempts to recognise the rights of the regime’s victims, to recover personal and family memory.20 The Law caused substantial historical debate among ‘monitors’ of the collective memory, receiving criticism from both the left and right. Professor of Public International Law and International Relations, Dr Victor Luis Gutiérrez Castillo (2013), argues the Law is largely ineffective, failing to make a moral assessment of Franco’s military rebellion and subsequent atrocities. It does not revoke the 1977 Amnesty Law, sustaining the protection of Franco officials, with Castillo arguing it “excludes any official apology that might restore the reputation and rights of the victims and persons closely related to the victims.” Thus, the Law fails to revise the Francoist narrative of the Civil War as a moral “crusade”.21, 22 He also argues the Law places the responsibility of searching for unrecorded dead victims on families, “privatise(ing) the memory, the search and the reburial of direct victims,” forcing relatives to exhume mass graves supported by non-government organisations such as the Association for the Recuperation of Historical Memory (2000). 23, 24 Seeking to avoid further social divide, the government has neglected its responsibility to conduct truth investigations, such as those established by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa, thereby failing to facilitate an accurate collective memory. Therefore, by its own definition, no cohesive collective memory can be formed, as it cannot be institutionalised through public memorials and school curriculums.25 In an attempt to strengthen the 2007 Law, the draft 2020 Democratic Memory Bill, introduced by the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, would see the government take legal accountability for identifying victims of the regime buried in mass graves, convert the ‘Valley of the Fallen’ into a civil cemetery, and prohibit public exaltation of Franco.26 However, the Bill has not passed, as its implementation was criticised by ‘monitors’ of the collective memory. One such monitor is Professor of Hispanic Studies Dr Sebastian Faber, whose close association with the Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives, an organisation dedicated to researching the legacy of American anti-Fascist activism, has influenced him to be more critical of the Bill’s failures.27 Faber argues that the development of urban infrastructure over mass grave sites prevents the identification of victims and creation of a DNA bank.28 While the Spanish government has budgeted 5 million euros towards the exhumation of 300 mass graves since 2019, only 19,000 of 114,000 victims have been recovered since Franco’s death. The government estimates only 20,000 more bodies are logistically able to be found, meaning the memory of Franco’s brutality and terror cannot be entirely restored through evidence and documentation.29

The history of Franco’s rule has been further manipulated by the rise of Populist movements, with the highly entrenched pro-Franco view of the right wing hindering the formation of a cohesive collective memory. Populism has risen to prominence across the world, notably in the USA, France and Brazil. In Spain, far-right parties, such as Vox and People’s Party, have emerged as ‘defenders of Spanish integrity’. This context inflames issues of historical memory, with highly emotional appeals to nationalism by ‘monitors’ preventing the objective investigation of the truth of Franco’s rule to form an accurate collective memory. The historical memory legislation has become controversial among the resurgence of Populist figures in Spain. President of the Franco Foundation, General Juan Chicharro Ortega (2020), criticised the Law “It says you can only think one way and negates what half of Spaniards are thinking.”30 The Franco Foundation is a group devoted to creating propaganda to promote Franco’s legacy.31 Ortega rejects the draft bill’s provisions and its attempt to enable a collective memory as he is influenced by his role in the Foundation and as a former Francoist general, reducing his willingness to comply with the legislated attempts to create a cohesive collective memory. The continued extreme polarisation of different groups over Franco’s regime prevents any left-leaning governments from enforcing effective legislation to revise the narrative of Franco’s rule, inhibiting the formation of a consistent collective memory. The history of Franco’s rule has been repeatedly manipulated to achieve the purpose of different groups within the deeply polarised Spanish society, thereby preventing the formation of a cohesive collective memory. History under Franco’s regime was significantly manipulated, creating an inaccurate ‘dominant narrative’ of the regime. Anti-Franco interpretations, such as Preston’s The Spanish Holocaust, have manipulated history using selective methodology and heavily emotional language to criticise Franco’s rule. Following Franco’s death, the Pact of Forgetting led to a ban of historical debate and a refusal to pursue political criminal accountability, minimising the memory of Francoist brutality and repression, according to Encarnación. The rise of Populism has substantially impeded the construction of a balanced memory of Franco’s regime, due to the deeply ingrained emotional perspective of the right-wing. Castillo argues the historical memory laws have led to the individualised search for memory, causing further fragmentation of society and collective memory. The history of Franco’s rule is still manipulated by divisions of society, from his exaltation to condemnation, with harsh polarisation ultimately preventing the formation of a streamlined collective memory.

EVALUATE THE FEASIBILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF A COLLECTIVE MEMORY AROUND FRANCO’S LEGACY

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aguilar, Paloma and Humlebæk, Carsten. “Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War.” History and Memory 14, No. 1 – 2 (Spring – Winter 2002): 121 - 164. ALBA. “The Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives.” Accessed May 28, 2022. https://alba-valb.org/. Assman, Jan and Czaplicka, John. “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity.” New German Critique, No. 65 (Spring – Summer 1995): 125 – 133. Beim, Aaron. “The Cognitive Aspects of Collective Memory.” Symbolic Interaction 30, No. 1 (Winter 2007): 7 – 26. Black, Jeremy. A Brief History of Spain. England: Little Brown, 2019. Britannica School. “Francisco Franco.” Accessed April 6, 2022. https:// school-eb-com-au.pymblelc.idm.oclc.org/levels/high/article/ Francisco-Franco/35146

Fernández, Manu and Wilson, Joseph. “Spain faces its past in mass graves bill. Will it be enough?” ABC News. Last modified November 19, 2021. https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/spain-facespast-mass-graves-bill-81271412. Ferrándiz, Francisco. “Francisco Franco is Back: The Contested Re-emergence of a Fascist Moral Exemplar.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 64, No. 1 (2022): 208 – 237. Folch-Serra, Mireya. “The Internet as a Site of Memory: Beholding Franco’s Repression in the 21st Century.” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 36, No. 1 (Autumn 2011): 227 – 242.

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Frayer, Lauren. “Finding a Long-Lost Father as Spain Exhumes Decades-Old Mass Graves.” NPR. Last modified February 26, 2016. https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/02/26/466008901/ finding-a-long-lost-father-as-spain-exhumes-decades-old-massgraves.

Burgen, Stephen. “Spain launches truth commission to probe Franco-era crimes.” The Guardian. Last modified July 2018. https:// www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/12/spain-to-establish-truthcommission-for-franco-era-crimes

Gómez-García, Salvador, Martín-Quevedo, Juan and QuevedoRedondo, Raquel. “The Sound Portrait of a Dictator: A Study of Franco’s Image in Radio Nacional de España.” Media History 28, No. 2 (2022)

Campos, Ismael Saz. “Fascism, Fascistization and Developmentalism in Franco’s Spain.” Social History 29, No. 3 (August 2004): 342 – 357.

Graham, Helen. The Spanish Civil War: A Very Short Introduction. England: Oxford University Press UK, 2005.

Castillo, Victor Luis Gutiérrez. “The Victims of the Spanish Civil War: Reparation without Truth and Justice?.” Connecticut Journal of International Law 29 (January 2013): 227 - 254.

Graham, Helen. “The Spanish Civil War, 1936 – 2003: The Return of Republican Memory.” Science and Society 68, No. 3 (Fall 2004): 313 – 328.

Coman, Alin, Brown, Adam D. Koppel, Jonathon and Hirst, William. “Collective Memory from a Psychological Perspective.” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 22, No. 2 (June 1009): 126 – 141.

Keely, Graham. “Law Giving Redress to Franco Regime Victims Divides Spain.” VOA. Last modified September 2020. https://www.voanews. com/a/europe_law-giving-redress-franco-regime-victims-dividesspain/6195949.html.

Delgalo, Maria M. “Memory, Silence and Democracy in Spain: Frederico García Lorca, the Spanish Civil War, and the Law of Historical Memory.” Theatre Journal 67, No. 2 (May 2015): 177 – 196.

La Moncloa. “Government approves draft bill of Democratic Memory Act.” Last modified September 15, 2020, https:// www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/gobierno/councilministers/ Paginas/2020/20200915council.aspx.

Deshmukh, Vishwajeet and Parekh, Devansh. “The Spanish Democratic Memory Law: Theory and Implementation.” Jurist. Last modified October 21, 2020, https://www.jurist.org/ commentary/2020/10/deshmukh-parekh-spanish-democraticmemory-law/. Doolan, Paul M. M. “Collective Memory and Unremembering.” In Collective Memory and the Dutch East Indies: Unremembering Decolonisation, edited by Ihab Saloul and Rob van der Laarse, 15 – 26. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2021. Echterhoff, Gerald and Hirst, William. “Creating Shared Memories in Conversation: Toward a Psychology of Collective Memory: Collective Memory and Collective Identity.” Social Research 75, No. 1 (2008): 183 – 216. Encarnación, Omar G. “Forgetting, in Order to Move On.” The New York Times. Last modified January 22 2014. https://www.nytimes. com/roomfordebate/2014/01/06/turning-away-from-painfulchapters/forgetting-in-order-to-move-on. Encarnación, Omar G. “Pinochet’s Revenge: Spain Revisits Its Civil War.” World Policy Journal 24, No. 1 (Winter 2007/2008): 39 – 50. Encarnación, Omar G. “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain.” Political Science Quarterly 123, No. 3 (Fall 2008): 435 – 459. Esteban-Chapapría, Julián. “The Spanish Civil War and Cultural Heritage.” Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory and Criticism 14, No. 1 (Summer 2017): 79 – 92.

Faber, Sebastian. “The man who can’t say no: Preston is working harder than ever.” The Volunteer. Last modified June, 2013. https:// albavolunteer.org/2013/06/the-man-who-cant-say-no-paulpreston-is-working-harder-than-ever/.

MacKay, Ruth. “The Good Fight and Good History: The Spanish Civil War.” History Workshop Journal 70 (Autumn 2010): 199 – 206. Marco, Jorge. “Francoist Crimes: Denial and Invisibility, 1936 – 2016.” Journal of Contemporary History 57, No. 1 (January 2017): 157 – 163. Nash, Elizabeth. “Spanish ‘memory law’ reopens deep wounds of Franco era.” Independent. Last modified October 10, 2007, https:// www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/spanish-memory-lawreopens-deep-wounds-of-franco-era-394552.html. Nizkor, Equipo. “Full text of the aberrant impunity law known as the “Memory Law.” Last modified December 26 2007, http://www. derechos.org/nizkor/espana/doc/lmheng.html. Olick, Jeffrey K. “Collective Memory: The Two Cultures.” Sociological Theory 17, No. 3 (Nov 1999): 333 – 348. Pineda, Emma and Carreño, Belén. “Spain’s Democratic Memory bill to honour dictatorship victims.” Reuters. Last modified July 2021. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/spains-democratic-memorybill-honour-dictatorship-victims-2021-07-20/ Preston, Paul. The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain. New York: W. W. Norton, 2013. Rosi-Song, H. “Visual Fictions and the Archive of the Spanish Civil War.” MLN 129, No. 2 (March 2014): 367 – 390. Ruiz, Julius. “Seventy Years on: Historians and Repression during and after the Spanish Civil War.” Journal of Contemporary History 44, No. 3 (July 2009): 449 – 472.

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Santana, Andrés, Zanotti, Lisa, Rama, José and Turnbull-Dugarte, Stuart. “The radical right populist Vox and the end of Spain’s exceptionalism.” The Loop. Accessed December 2021. https:// theloop.ecpr.eu/the-radical-right-populist-vox-and-the-end-ofspains-exceptionalism/. Share, Donald. “Popular Party.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified June 5, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Popular-Party-Spain. Stradling, Rob. Review of The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain, by Paul Preston. The English Historical Review, December 2013. Tremlett, Giles. “Trial of judge Baltasar Garzón splits Spain still suffering civil war wounds.” The Guardian. Last modified February 2012. https:// www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/05/baltasar-garzon-trialfranco-crimes Vázquez Santiago, Julia. “Spanish Populism Is On The Rise.” The Perspective. Last modified January 2019. https://www.theperspective. se/2019/01/22/article/spanish-populism-is-on-the-rise/. Vidal-Beneyto, José. “The Construction of Collective Memory: From Franco to Democracy.” Diogenes 51, No. 1 (February 2004): 17 – 26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0392192104041688

FOOTNOTES Omar G. Encarnación, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, Political Science Quarterly 123, No. 3 (Fall 2008): 445 - 446 2 Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 445 - 446 3 Jan Assman and John Czaplicka, “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity”, New German Critique, No. 65 (Spring – Summer 1995): 125 1

4 Jeffrey K. Olick, “Collective Memory: the Two Cultures”, Sociological Theory 17, No. 3 (Nov 1999): 335

Alin Coman, Adam D. Brown, Jonathon Koppel and William Hirst, “Collective Memory from a Psychological Perspective”, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 22, No. 2 (June 1009): 133 135

Preston, The Spanish Holocaust, xii – xiii.

Rob Stradling, Review of The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain, by Paul Preston. The English Historical Review, December 2013.

Stradling, Review of The Spanish Holocaust.

15 Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 437 – 8. 16 Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 446. 17 Paloma Aguilar and Carsten Humlebæk, “Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War”, History and Memory 14, No. 1 – 2 (Spring – Winter 2002): 131. Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 445 – 446.

Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 444. 19

20 “Full text of the aberrant impunity law known as the “Memory Law”, Equipo Nizkor, Last modified December 26 2007, http://www. derechos.org/nizkor/espana/doc/lmheng.html. 21 Victor Luis Gutiérrez Castillo, “The Victims of the Spanish Civil War: Reparation without Truth and Justice?”, Connecticut Journal of International Law 29 (January 2013): 242. 22 Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 445. 23

Castillo “The Victims of the Spanish Civil War”, 243.

Lauren Frayer, “Finding a Long-Lost Father as Spain Exhumes Decades-Old Mass Graves”, NPR, last modified February 26, 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/02/26/466008901/ finding-a-long-lost-father-as-spain-exhumes-decades-old-massgraves.

6 Gerald Echterhoff and William Hirst “Creating Shared Memories in Conversation: Toward a Psychology of Collective Memory: Collective Memory and Collective Identity”, Social Research 75, No. 1 (2008): 195

Olick, “Collective Memory”, 335.

Vishwajeet Deshmukh and Devansh Parekh, “The Spanish Democratic Memory Law: Theory an Implementation”, Jurist, Last modified October 21, 2020, https://www.jurist.org/ commentary/2020/10/deshmukh-parekh-spanish-democraticmemory-law/. “The Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives”, ALBA, accessed May 28, 2022, https://alba-valb.org/.

Coman, Brown, Koppel and Hirst, “Collective Memory from a Psychological Perspective”, 137.

8 Salvador Gómez-García, Juan Martín-Quevedo and Raquel Quevedo-Redondo, “The Sound Portrait of a Dictator: A Study of Franco’s Image in Radio Nacional de España”, Media History 28, No. 2 (2022)

29 Manu Fernández and Joseph Wilson, “Spain faces its past in mass graves bill. Will it be enough?”, ABC News, Last modified November 19, 2021, https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/spainfaces-past-mass-graves-bill-81271412.

Encarnacion, “Reconciliation after Democratization: Coping with the Past in Spain”, 446

30 Graham Keely, “Law Giving Redress to Franco Regime Victims Divides Spain”, VOA, last modified September 2020, https://www. voanews.com/a/europe_law-giving-redress-franco-regime-victimsdivides-spain/6195949.html.

10 Sebastian Faber, “The man who can’t say no: Preston is working harder than ever”, The Volunteer, last modified June, 2013, https:// albavolunteer.org/2013/06/the-man-who-cant-say-no-paulpreston-is-working-harder-than-ever/.

Paul Preston, The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain, (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013), xii – xiii.

Deshmukh and Parekh, “The Spanish Democratic Memory Law”, Jurist

Francisco Ferrándiz, “Francisco Franco is Back: the Contested Re-emergence of a Fascist Moral Exemplar”, Comparative Studies in Society and History 64, No. 1 (2022): 221.

To what extent were archaeological excavations in the Ottoman region throughout the 19th and 20th centuries religiously motivated? BY NINA BRECKENRIDGE (YEAR 12) This essay was originally written for a Year 12 History Extension task. While the archaeological community aimed to explore the history and culture of ancient civilisation, excavations in the Ottoman region throughout the 19th and 20th centuries were significantly influenced by religious motivations. The emergence of biblical archaeology in the early 20th century saw the increased interest in archaeological endeavours of the ‘holy sites’ in Jerusalem, Palestine and Iraq. Using a combination of archaeological technique and analysis of biblical texts, many biblical archaeologists, including William Albright (1891-1971), aimed to empirically re-establish the intellectual credibility of Christianity amidst the rising secularism and rationalism of the period. The consequential public interest in Palestinian excavation undoubtedly influenced the selection and interpretation of evidence, ensuring that historical conclusions affirmed the biblical narrative. However, excavations in the Ottoman region were also considerably influenced by the imperial rivalries that defined the political climate. The presence of both formal and informal colonialism resulted in powerful nations exerting dominant control over territory. Thus, the archaeology in territories vulnerable in the interwar period, such as the Ottoman Empire, became the arena for imperialism and rivalry between Britain and France. Governments sponsored organisations such as the British Palestine Exploration Fund to gain influence in the Ottoman region, in hopes of having a stronger claim to territory after its anticipated collapse. Under the guise of ‘systematic investigation’, archaeological and historical interpretation of artefacts and sites was heavily influenced by nationalism and imperialism in the 19th and 20th century. Biblical archaeologists excavated in the Ottoman region throughout the 19th and 20th centuries in response to the increase of secularism that was challenging the intellectual validity of Biblical texts. However, many of the excavations conducted by these archaeologists, particularly in Palestine and Israel, intended to explore the value of religion in ancient politics and societies rather than simply affirming or refuting biblical accounts in the region. Leading American biblical archaeologist of the ancient Near East and biblical scholar William Albright (1891-1971) wrote that his discoveries in Jerusalem in 1919 were instrumental in defining his attitude towards the accuracy of biblical texts. Writing that discoveries “confirmed the historicity of details” which had been considered “legendary,” 24

Albright began to use his archaeological endeavours as a means to insist or ‘prove’ the substantiality of Christian tradition. Albright was aware of the social and intellectual climate of Jerusalem, focusing his efforts on revising the chronology of the decades between the stories of Moses and Samuel. Albright described himself as a “quiet crusader” of “scientific agon” against the Christian conservatives who dismissed the value of his empirical and scientific foundations despite his intentions to revive the intellectual credibility of the bible. He writes that although Christianity cannot be generalised into material observations, the employment of certain principles and the disciplined archaeological study of holy sites allows for “legitimate belief [to be] distinguished from sheer superstition.” Albright contradicted the discourse of biblical criticism by bringing forth supposedly objective data to rescue the historical underpinning of biblical events from “the assured results of higher criticism.” American historian Peter Machinist echoes this sentiment, suggesting that rather than embracing biblical literature mythologically and using archaeology as a means to verify his faith, Albright employed a more historical appreciation that characterised the majority of his work. Thus, utilising his disciplined methodology, Albright was motivated to dismantle the Christ-myth rationalism that was dominating the theological discourse. Furthermore, in 1922 Albright wrote of his planned excavation in Ashkelon, hoping to extend his knowledge of the site, and “illustrate many a passage of holy writ.” Albright’s excavations undoubtedly were influenced by his religious views, however, they did contribute to the epistemology of Ottoman history and the emergence of discipline archaeological methodology. Conscious of the interdependency of ancient and modern religious phenomena as vital for the accurate construction of historical conclusions, he viewed ancient history as a rational foundation for Christianity. This intention to explore biblical narratives via the discovery and study of ancient artefacts was a significant motivation for archaeologists when excavating Babylon. Archaeologists sought to investigate Babylon as a city of sin, captivity and exile, described in Revelation 18:2 as a “habitation of devils, and the hold of every foul spirit, and a cage of every unclean and hateful bird.” Many events within the Old Testament and Jewish scriptures centre around the city Babylon, meaning that the exploration into the site is of enormous symbolic value in Judaism and Christianity and thus contributed heavily to the public popularisation of Ottoman archaeology. Books published

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on the excavations of Babylon incite popular interest in biblical archaeology, shifting academic awareness regarding the relevance and significance of the ancient city in theology and the cultural evolution of the area. After investigations of the ruins of ancient Babylon and other Mesopotamian regions, dominant British archaeologist Henry Layard (1817-1894) published his book Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon (1853). The work was heavily promoted by Christian Evangelical groups who sought confirmation of the traditional Western discourse of Nineveh as a lawless and evil city. However, this popularity sparks dispute regarding the historical conclusions and the Biblical relevance of his findings. When describing one site, Layard writes that “the great tide of civilization had long since ebbed, leaving scattered wrecks on the solitary shore” and as an archaeologist, he was “seeking what they had left behind” as a child would “gather up the coloured shells.” Such romantic embellishment of his archaeological findings undermines his supposed empirical approach, ultimately suggesting his proclivity to appropriate evidence to suit his popular form of history. Despite this, it is irrefutable that Layard’s discoveries in Babylon and Nineveh, including the identification of kings and cities mentioned in the Old Testament, had a significantly positive impact in understanding society and culture in the region. The excavation of Babylon and subsequent popularised communication of historical findings suggests that religion and public fascination, played an extremely important role regarding the interest of archaeologists in the Ottoman region. Established and disciplined methodology provides structures for archaeologists to understand the context of their discovery and present transparent justification of interpretation, allowing them to determine the plausibility of their historical claims. Within the Ottoman region, variation between the objective, rigorous assessment of “methodological rhetoric” and the actual execution of these practices impacted the value and reliability of historical interpretation. Reverend Archibald Henry Sayce’s assured attitude towards archaeological interpretation in Palestine suggested that via a “single blow of the excavator’s pick,” theological theory of the Old Testament would be “soon replaced by fact” establishing a “solid foundation of truth.” Hebrew scholar Samuel Rolles Driver challenges this generalisation, warning of the ambiguity of archaeological discoveries in the Ottoman region, exposing the somewhat questionable and illogical interpretations of some biblical archaeologists. He argues that, although findings confirm the existence of key Assyrian rulers mentioned in the Old Testament, archaeology did not have the capacity to empirically verify the truth of the bible. Scholar of the Old Testament and biblical archaeologist G. Ernest Wright (1909-1974) further demonstrates this ambiguity within his excavation of Israelite city Shechem (1956-1974). Intending to re-establish theological credibility within the academic sphere, Wright investigated the historical artefacts of the

region against the backdrop of the “will and purpose of God.” Stressing an objective approach to his data, Wright claimed that biblical archaeologists are “no less rigorous” in their use of historical methods than other archaeologists. Despite using Albright’s reputable comparative methodology when excavating a temple in the city, Wright interpreted a menhir as “the stone erected in the sanctuary of the lord” as in Joshua 24:26. Amidst the demise of biblical archaeology in the 1960s, biblical scholar James Barr questions Wright’s approach to the construction of his history, suggesting that he exploited biblical stories to “establish and validate the revelatory function” of ‘history’. By ‘placing’ the biblical story in the context of Shechem, Wright conforms to the “equivocal and disingenuous” attempt of orthodox theologians to classify the narrative of the Old Testament. Thus, the motivation to substantiate the truth of the Old Testament influences the consistency of methodology and transparency of historical conclusions. Archaeology within the Ottoman region also appealed to the colonial narrative of protection and heroism, allowing world powers to attain hegemonic knowledge and an authoritative position in constructing the past. The study and mapping of territory completed by archaeologists confirmed their hidden imperialist intentions, allowing powerful nations to have extensive knowledge of, and unofficially lay claim, to the region. The surveys conducted by British archaeologists in Palestine during the 1870s provided comprehensive knowledge of terrain and cultural history. Anticipating the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, British diplomats used the extensive mapping and study of the region to gain colonial advantage over the territory. Such intention requires a re-examination of the institutional and imperialist discourses that archaeologists promoted in the 19th and 20th centuries. American Roman Catholic priest and archaeologist Philip J. King (1925-2019) criticises the influence of institutionalised colonialism on archaeology, arguing that it is “an unwritten law in the Mideast” that archaeology and politics should be mixed, as it is always “to the detriment of archaeology.” Therefore, King demonstrates the lasting influence that politics and colonialism has on archaeology, suggesting that the history produced by such excavations imposes the imperial power as hegemonic, rather than prioritising excavation on discovery of ancient history. Layard’s work within Mesopotamia is a key example of the nature of archaeology within the politically charged imperial atmosphere for Victorian England. Though his writings are of substantial value when investigating the cultural development of the region, they fail to include the importance of archaeology in gathering evidence and establishing the English colonial in the Ottoman empire. Frederick Bohrer argues that the process by which archaeologists exotified the artefacts and sites allowed for the rationalisation of European informal imperialism within the Ottoman region on ethnological grounds. Layard’s findings in Nineveh and Babylon allowed England to legitimise their imperialism by constructing history 25

TO WHAT EXTENT WERE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN THE OTTOMAN REGION THROUGHOUT THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES RELIGIOUSLY MOTIVATED?

in a politically advantageous manner and the Ottoman region as without impetus and hence, inferior. Before its collapse, informal colonialism in the Ottoman region had considerable impact on the motivations of archaeologists, necessitating the search for cultural information to lay claim to and exert dominance within the region. Increasing archaeological importance within the colonial sphere sparked the institutionalisation of the discipline through government sponsorships and archaeological schools. Despite most territory still being under Ottoman rule, westernisation in the region had begun as early as 1789 with trade imbalances under the axis of British informal colonialism, and free trade treaties in 1838 designed to curb Ottoman control over markets. Thus, the emergence of archaeology as a tool of further imperial and economic domination in the 19th century heralded the interest of British political elites. In 1865, the establishment of the British Palestine Exploration fund under the patronage of Queen Victoria and the Archbishop of Canterbury saw the increase of funding to archaeologists in the Ottoman region. However, with the fund aiming to provide for the “accurate and systematic investigation of archaeology, topography…manners and customs of the Holy land for biblical illustration.” motivations for excavations were undoubtedly characterised by affirming the dominant biblical and imperialist discourse. Thus, religion and politics were inextricably linked in dictating the motivation of excavation and interpretation of archaeological evidence. The British fund launched a “somewhat premature” excavation of Jerusalem and the study of western Palestine between 1871 and 1877, soon attracting attention from international sponsorships and archaeological schools, including the German Society for the Exploration of Palestine (1877) and Archaeological Institute of America (1879). Excavating in Palestine in 1919, American archaeologist James Montgomery sought financial support, urging to American institutes that that “all lovers of the bible are earnestly urged” to come to the aid of his excavation, in order to maintain America’s “honourable place in the international plan for archaeological work”. This combination of religious and patriotic motive created a climate for international possessiveness and competition that fuelled a rise in excavations within the culturally rich Ottoman region. The institutionalisation and sponsorship of archaeology in the Ottoman region saw many excavation sites become the arena for imperialist rivalries, particularly between Britain and France. New archaeological excavations mirrored the political and cultural ‘penetration’ of the Middle East imposed by European nations; each endeavouring to expand their colonial presence and influence. Between 1864 and 1914, British interest increased the ideological value of artefacts, dominating the archaeology of Palestine. Responsible for ten excavations and two predominant surveys of the region, they accelerated the somewhat vain efforts of France 26

to secure a monopoly. As a tool for such rivalry, the excavation of modern-day Mosul by French archaeologist Paul-Émile Botta (1802-70) and English Henry Layard was tainted by their respective nations vying for influence in the collapsing Ottoman empire. Layard’s writings reveal his view of archaeology as a means to bring prestige to his nation. This nationalistic competition was urged by British politician George Canning via the sponsorship of Layard in hopes to “beat the Louvre hollow.” In a letter to Canning, Layard urges that the need to “transmit some sculptures to Europe as soon, if not sooner than the French” is vital for England’s “reputation” as assertive imperial competition. Furthermore, by defining his motives as a “patriotic desire to secure to the nation any relics of information of value,” Layard’s colleague Alexander Hector also recognised the significance of archaeology in imperialistic hostilities, opportunistically identifying a market for reliefs found in Khorsabad (1845). As the artefacts were too large for transportation, Hector “sawed off” elements, selling 50 fragments to the British museum in 1847. This acquisition of artefacts and Assyrian art treasures became a symbol for national prestige, and their expropriation to national museums such as the Louvre and British museum satisfied the imperialist craving that dominated the archaeological digs. In the race to gain influence The expansionist and colonialist goals of influential nations such as Britain and France in the 19th century had a significant impact on the motivation of archaeological excavation and treatment and transportation of artefacts in the race to gain influence in the Ottoman empire and dominance over their colonial competition. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeological excavations in the Ottoman region were significantly dominated by the intention to re-establish the intellectual credibility of biblical texts. By uncovering the cultural history of biblical ‘holy sites’, public interest in archaeology increased, impacting the interpretation of evidence and reliability of historical conclusions. However, by identifying the value of archaeology in providing national prestige and opportunity for unofficial colonial influence over territory, the discipline became institutionalised. Appealing to dominant colonial narratives of the period, sponsorships from governments and the wealthy elite foretold the shift of archaeology from uncovering the ancient past into an arena of imperialist rivalry. Such an arena saw world powers vying to attain hegemonic knowledge and influence both to dominate each other, and have greater claim on Ottoman territory after its collapse.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Albright, W.F. 1932. “Palestine in the Light of Archaeology.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 164 (1): 184–89. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1018970. Albright, William F. 1959. “ARCHAEOLOGY and RELIGION.” Cross Currents 9 (2): 107–24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24456813. Alter, Stephen G. 2012. “From Babylon to Christianity: William Foxwell Albright on Myth, Folklore, and Christian Origins.” Journal of Religious History 36 (1): 1–18. https://discovery.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/ plink?id=b482409c-6de2-3fb7-b55e-25afa86d7271. Barr, James. 1976. “Story and History in Biblical Theology: The Third Nuveen Lecture.” The Journal of Religion 56 (1): 1–17. https://www. jstor.org/stable/1201505. Burke, O. Long. 1993. “Mythic Trope in the Autobiography of William Foxwell Albright.” The Biblical Archaeologist 56 (1): 36–45. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/3210359. Cline, Eric H. 2009. Biblical Archaeology : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. Collins, Paul. 2012. “From Mesopotamia to the Met: Two Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 47 (1): 73–84. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/670140. Davis, Thomas W. 2004. Shifting Sands: The Rise and Fall of Biblical Archaeology. USA: Oxford University Press. https://ebookcentral. proquest.com/lib/pymblelc/detail.action?docID=3052020.

Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pymblelc/detail. action?docID=415052. Finkelstein, Louis. 1948. American Spiritual Autobiographies: Fifteen Self-Portraits. Harper. Glock, Albert. 1994. “Archaeology as Cultural Survival: The Future of the Palestinian Past.” Journal of Palestine Studies 23 (2): 70–84. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2537961. Kasaba, Reşat. 1993. “Treaties and Friendships: British Imperialism, the Ottoman Empire, and China in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of World History 4 (2): 215–41. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078561. King, Philip J. 1983. American Archaeology in the Mideast: A History of the American Schools of Oriental Research. American Schools of Oriental Research. King James Bible. (1611) 2020. https://thekingsbible.com/Bible/66/18. Layard, Austen Henry. (1853) 2010. Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. Cambridge University Press. Malley, Shawn. 2008. “Layard Enterprise: Victorian Archaeology and Informal Imperialism in Mesopotamia.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40 (4): 623–48: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40206011. Marozzi, Justin. 2018. “Lost Cities #1: Babylon – How War Almost Erased ‘Mankind’s Greatest Heritage Site.” The Guardian, August 8, 2018.

Delnero, Paul. 2008. “Babylon: Myth and Truth, an Exhibit at the Pergamon Museum.” Near Eastern Archaeology 71 (3): 181–84. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20361372.

Murray, Tim. 2017. “The Origins of Culture History in Prehistoric Archaeology: Rethinking Plausibility and Disciplinary Tradition.” World Archaeology 49 (2): 187–95. https://discovery.ebsco.com/ linkprocessor/plink?id=cfbee073-6820-367c-b9f1-58ee385dc22f.

Dever, William G. 1998. “Archaeology, Ideology, and the Quest for an ‘Ancient’ or ‘Biblical’ Israel.” Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (1): 39–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210675..

Scholch, Alexander. 1992. “Britain in Palestine, 1838-1882: The Roots of the Balfour Policy.” Journal of Palestine Studies 22 (1): 39–56. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2537686.

Diaz-Andreu, Margarita. 2008. A World History of NineteenthCentury Archaeology Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Past.

Seymour, Michael John. 2006. The Idea of Babylon: Archaeology and Representation in Mesopotamia. London: University of London.

Explain how the understanding of shell shock in Britain post-WWI came to a more nuanced interpretation in the contemporary world HARRIET SHAW (YEAR 12) This essay was originally written as a Year 12 History Extension task. Trigger warning: This paper involves information relating to suicide and self-harm. Social and cultural change has enabled the continual revision of the historical narrative around shell shock from WWI. Preliminary classifications of the shell-shocked soldier by masculine norms and social class produced an ineffective and destructive narrative of cowardice and malingering. The continual presentation of symptoms, as identified by physician Lord Moran, along with the emergence of Freudian psychiatry allowed for the initial breakdown of masculinity, thus revising the narrative. Further social change from the women’s and gay liberation movement of the 1960s redefined masculinity, enabling historians to view the shell-shocked soldier through a more sophisticated lens, thus refining the historical narrative. Increased medical knowledge following conflicts such as the Vietnam and Gulf wars allowed for the acknowledgement of the universality of war trauma, thus further revising the narrative. Further access to repatriation and medical sources following the centenary of WWI, gave historians access to increasingly authentic and detailed accounts of shell shock, thus producing increasingly informed accounts of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The study of this condition by historians has been fundamental in the development of its refined narrative, anthropologist Allan Young commenting that PTSD is a “historical product” which is “glued together by the practices, technologies, and narratives with which it is diagnosed, and represented, and by the various institutions, and moral arguments that mobilized these efforts and resources.” 1 Neurotic symptoms had been noticed in previous conflicts such as the American Civil War, however, it wasn’t until the development of industrialised total warfare in WWI, in which soldier’s bodies were viewed as machines produced the highest rates of trauma-related injuries, thus, calling shell shock into serious medical consideration. Charles S. Myers, a Royal Army Medical Corps officer and consulting psychologist coined the term ‘shell shock’ in The Lancet2 in 1915, describing three soldiers who had suffered vision and memory loss, hearing and smell changes. This diagnostic term gave physicians greater recognition of soldiers presenting with these symptoms, however, diagnosis during the early 1900s was based on class and masculinity, due to Edwardian influence of heroic duty of the time. Over 250,0003 men suffered from shell shock during 28

WWI alone, with more than 3004 soldiers shot and killed for cowardice, malingering or desertion. On 16 August 2006, Des Browne, the UK defence secretary at the time issued a statement that the UK Government intended to ‘introduce an amendment to the current Armed Forces Bill’5 to ‘pardon all those executed [for]… desertion, cowardice, mutiny, … from 1914 to 11 November 1918’.6 Thus, historical research around the debate of shell shock/ PTSD is essential in creating considerable changes in the contemporary world. Breakdown of Edwardian codes of masculinity has allowed for the shell-shocked soldier narrative to become increasingly nuanced as historians develop the understanding that the condition is caused by war trauma, rather than a failure of a man’s heroic duty. Soon after the beginning of WWI, large numbers of soldiers of all ranks started to present with neurological symptoms, such as dizziness, amnesia, weakness, and headache despite no physical injury.7 Physicians concluded the intensity of shelling, constant sight of dead comrades, and uncertainty of coming out alive produced the reactions.8 A WWI physician, Lewis Yelland commented that shell shock was “personal failure regarding a man’s masculinity,”9 which led to military doctors dismissing shell shock patients as cowards, hinting at homosexuality, with people believing they had acquired this “venereal disease”10 from being in close sexual contact to each other. This perception was attributed to character weakness, as Edwardian values of masculinity were widely taught in schools in the 1900s, effectively militarising the construct of masculinity. Through military training, recreation programs, and propaganda,11 many British men believed that “the male character … could only be released in war.”12 Historian Tracey Loughran explains that by creating this “cult of aggressiveness,”13 ‘militarized’14 masculinity set expectations for male behaviour in which heroic manliness was viewed as the “prize offered by society to counteract the natural urge for self-preservation.” 15 Loughran’s research was driven by the “way pain involuntarily expressed itself in the silences and the physical symptoms of soldiers”16, encouraging her to explore the shell-shocked soldier through the lens of masculinity. Further, ‘muscular Christianity’ was a prevalent movement initiated by British and American Protestant ministers that emphasised a man’s patriotic duty by Christ. According to the Bible, masculinity was ‘humble leadership,’ and going to war was the highest honour. During the early 1900s, the national psyche treated soldiers as a body or a machine, not a

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person, and soldiers were expected to maintain a ‘stiff upper lip’ attitude on the battlefield, responding with high levels of courage to the most distressing events. Thus, shifting paradigms of masculinity have allowed a more empathetic understanding of PTSD, leading to a revision of the narrative. British class structure and rank were also initially used in classification of shell shock, as it significantly defined the characterisation of symptoms and sanctioned the ‘type and extent of treatment’.17 In preliminary medical reports, identical symptoms were divided into socialclass-appropriate diagnoses: ‘hysteria’, ‘assigned to working-class soldiers due to its seemingly ‘uncontrollable nature,’18 or ‘neurasthenic symptoms,’19 reserved for upper-class officers to avoid disgrace.20 Historian Ben Shephard recounts a soldier’s 1917 diary, in his text (2001), arguing class was a critical discriminant in the preliminary treatment of soldiers as “the issue of class is never explicitly mentioned in the millions of words about Northfield,21 [a mental hospital repurposed in 1916 to treat ‘neurotic’ soldiers], but its presence is not hard to detect.”22 By April 1917, one in six23 of those in hospital for war neurosis were officers, compared to the 1:6 ratio of officers to common soldiers at the front, challenging the assumption that officers, as members of the British elite, were mentally and genetically superior. These accounts more easily entered national literature, as reflected by historian Peter Leese in his 2002 book, arguing that officers have been able to better describe their ‘experiences of combat’, such as Owen and Sassoon’s war poetry, allowing class to significantly dictate the narrative of the shell-shocked soldier. Soldiers presenting with similar symptoms in WWII began to influence the initial narrative surrounding PTSD. Lord Moran, writing in WWII, reflected on his time as a physician during WWI, and began to question the influence of masculinity on the classification of the shell-shocked soldier in his text The Anatomy of Courage (1945). He drew on “newer languages of the self in his explanations of how fear affected men”24 and argued that battle was “corrosive of a man’s courage.”25 This change in practice reflects the influence of psychological developments by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud during the 1900s, which provided answers to unexplained psychological states. Moran’s treatment during WWI was fundamentally influenced by ‘militarised masculinity’, detailing how he sent a soldier “back to duty’ as there was “nothing wrong with him physically … He was simply tired. The next day he was killed.”26 This WWI treatment reflected the lack of medical and cognitive understanding of the condition, leading to multiple “second breakdown[s], or suicide”27 as detailed by war physician WHR. Rivers. Freud’s concepts widened public psychiatric discourse as by 1922, Daily News commented “we are all psycho-analysts now.”28 This enabled physicians such as Moran, to adopt Freud’s principles, revising the narrative away from malingering,

cowardice, effeminacy, class, or “physical injury of the brain.”29 In 1918, Freud proposed the concept of ‘war neurosis’ commenting “the old ego protects itself from danger by flight into traumatic neurosis”30, highlighting the physiological nature of the condition. These principles led to psychiatrists beginning to believe that Shell Shock was “psychological in origin and involve unconscious motives,”31 relating to Freud’s 1915 theory that the unconscious mind was the primary source of human behaviour. The emergence of psychiatry identified class influence and therefore heredity and education were not significantly influential in the prevalence or severity of the condition, nor proximity to shelling, thus revising the narrative of the shell-shocked soldier. The understanding of shell shock was further influenced by the women’s and gay liberation movement32 of the 1960s and 1970s, creating a context that recognised the social nature of masculinity. Theorists and historians developed increasingly sophisticated accounts of masculinity, leading to the questioning of gender norms, and a revision on the classification of the shell-shocked soldier. Interpretations of homophobia surfaced in the 1960s in academic discourse, made popular by Jewish-American psychologist George Weinberg’s book Society and the Healthy Homosexual in 1972.33 This led to “an explosion of writing about ‘the male role,”34 sharply criticizing role norms as the “source of oppressive behaviour by men”35 both towards others and in shaping ‘masculine identity’. Elaine Showalter, an American writer and feminist published The Female Malady36 (1985), describing shell shock as ‘male hysteria,’37 redefining a ‘female only’ condition, and highlighting the ‘effeminacy’ of the human condition, regardless of gender. Raewyn W. Connell, an Australian sociologist developed a theory of ‘hegemonic masculinity’38 (1982), challenging the stereotype of a ‘real man’, which considered the ‘ideal type of masculinity, hierarchical ranking of self and others and a man’s patriarchal dominance’, thus, reformed expectations about the thoughts and actions of a ‘true’ man. This social redefinition enabled historians to begin to recognise shell shock was not a breakdown of a soldier’s masculinity, but an innate human reaction to traumatic events. Simultaneously, increased medical knowledge about trauma and the nervous system, further informed historical discourse, while the continual presentation of symptoms during the Vietnam war encouraged psychiatrists to persistently explore the changing diagnosis of Shell Shock, thus allowing the narrative to become increasingly nuanced. Historian Edgar Jones’ doctorate in history at Oxford University and diploma of clinical psychopathy39 informed his historical methodology when exploring Shell Shock. Jones’ text (2006) notes that during the initial phases of the Vietnam war, a psychiatric program was in place, with abundant mental health resources and psychiatrists. Thus, cases of combat stress “failed to materialise,”40 with less than 5 per cent41 of casualties placed in this category. However, combat stress presented 29

EXPLAIN HOW THE UNDERSTANDING OF SHELL SHOCK IN BRITAIN POST-WWI CAME TO A MORE NUANCED INTERPRETATION IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

in untypical ways because of alienation soldiers felt about the war. Unlike WWII, where the soldier’s average age was 26, Vietnam soldiers were on average 19, and did not always serve with the same unit.42. Without the security of mateship, feelings of displacement and disconnection were heightened, increasing their susceptibility to war trauma and PTSD. Consequently, high rates of substance abuse and behaviour disorders43 concealed initial psychiatric battle casualties44 with a survey conducted by Research Triangle Institute for Vietnam Veterans concluding 31 per cent of male and 27 per cent45 of female Vietnam veterans had PTSD after returning.46 Jones and other historians were significantly influenced by American psychiatrists Chaim Shatan and Robert J. Lifton’s findings (1970s). Shatan coined the term ‘post-Vietnam syndrome’ to highlight the differences between these ‘neurotic symptoms’ - a later or long term mental paralysis rather than an inability to fight on the battlefield, with this new term leading ‘directly to the acceptance of a diagnostic category of post-traumatic stress disorder’47 in the DSM III (1980), which validated that psychiatric symptoms could appear several years after the initial trauma. These findings and adoption of the PTSD diagnosis critically revised the historical narrative of shell shock as historians recognised the intrinsic reaction to war trauma could arise long after initial conflict. The Gulf War (1990-91) and conflicts in Iraq (2003-2011) and Afghanistan (2001-2021) provided further examples of ‘neurotic’ symptoms, encouraging continual research and revision around the historical narrative of shell shock. After the conclusion of the Gulf War, the media focused on Gulf War syndrome, which presented the same symptoms as Shell Shock, however “gave relatively little attention to PTSD.”48 Edgar Jones in 2002 compared the symptoms of nearly 1500 veterans who received pensions for postcombat disorders from 1900 to the Gulf War, concluding “no syndrome specific to any war could be identified,”49 thus highlighting the universal human reaction to any war trauma, best defined as PTSD, rather than classifying symptoms due to class (‘shell shock’), masculinity (‘war neurosis’), or the nature of specific conflicts (‘post-Vietnam syndrome’ or ’Gulf War syndrome’). The recognition of post-war trauma was furthered in historical discourse with the access to repatriation files and primary medical accounts in many countries following the centenary of WWI. Access to technology and government funding increased individuals’ and historians’ access to primary sources, “democratis[ing] the archive”50 and “placing the past”51 in the “public domain,”52 argued historian Bruce Scates in his book (2019). These files allowed historians to recognise “the private battles that continued well after the fighting had ended”, thus obliged them to “revise the ways in which past histories have been written,”53 acknowledging that post-stress disorders are equally as important as initial sufferings in the narrative of PTSD. The UK website ‘The National Archives’54 allows individuals to explore repatriation and medical records 30

of WWI. Similarly Project Albany, (National Archives of Australia 2015), involved digitising repatriation records from the Great War, providing accurate and detailed information that previously would have been missing from historians’ writing of shell shock. Personal cases files from Berklee Private Hospital for the Mentally Ill in 1938, detail war nurse Rachel Pratt’s, “mental outlook worsening,”55 her being ‘suicidal’ with “intentions of opening a vein in her wrist,”56 which contrasts with the nationalistic narrative in the Australian Dictionary of Biography as Pratt being “a most charming lady, highly regarded by all who came under her care”. This narrative details no mention of ‘Pratt’s collapse, her attempts to self-harm … her extent of medical treatment … or reduction to a state of sad dependency’57 reflecting how increased access has enabled a more authentic, informed, and sophisticated narrative around shell shock. The increased access to sources in Britain, specifically the ‘archives of the Ex-Services’ Welfare Society’58 allowed Historian Fiona Reid ‘to find the voice of the shell-shocked soldier and to move away from the focus on representation which was dominating much discussion at the time’59. Although medical records inevitably ‘reflect the biases of the respective institutions and their practitioners’60, they are crucial in providing insight to the initial practices and attitudes towards shell shock, thus significantly adding sophistication to the narrative of shell shock. The historical narrative of shell shock has become increasingly refined over a century. The initial classifications of shell shock as a ‘social disease’ by class or masculinity have been proven inadequate in historical discourse by the continuation of symptoms in WWII, Vietnam and the Gulf War, aided by the emergence of psychiatry (Freud 1900s). Increased knowledge about masculinity due to social change in the 1960s and historical research by Ben Shephard, Fiona Reid, and Tracey Loughran, have allowed for a deeper understanding of shell shock/ PTSD as an intrinsic human reaction to war, rather than the shortcomings of a man, class, education or heredity, thus critically revising the historical narrative. Increased access to repatriation and medical sources following the centenary of WWI (2015), provided authentic and detailed recounts of medical treatment and understanding of the post impact of the condition, allowing historians to produce comprehensive accounts of the change in understanding around shell shock, rather than nationalistic narratives. This has brought about a more holistic understanding of both the initial and longterm implications of war trauma, hence leading to an increasingly nuanced historical narrative of the shellshocked soldier.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, Caroline. “The Shock of War.” Smithsonian Magazine, September 2010. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/theshock-of-war-55376701/. Andersen, H. S. “[The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorders].” Ugeskrift for Laeger 160, no. 51 (December 14, 1998): 7408–13. Anderson, Eric. “Homophobia - Contemporary Attitudes toward Homosexuality | Britannica,” November 22, 2016. https://www. britannica.com/topic/homophobia. Anderson, Julie. “Book Review: Broken Men: Shell Shock, Treatment and Recovery in Britain, 1914-1930 By Fiona Reid.” War In History 20, no. 1 (January 2013): 131–32. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/0968344512461778e. Archives, The National. “The National Archives.” Text. The National Archives. The National Archives. Accessed June 4, 2022. https://www. nationalarchives.gov.uk/. ———. “The National Archives - ‘Shell Shock’ Cases.” Text. The National Archives (blog). The National Archives. Accessed June 15, 2022. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/ medicine-on-the-western-front-part-two/shell-shock-cases/. Bentley, S. “Short History of PTSD: From Thermopylae to Hue Soldiers Have Always Had a Disturbing Reaction to War.” In Vietnam Veterans of America: The Veteran., 16–23, 2005. https://historyofptsd. wordpress.com/early-history/.

Burnham, John C. Psychoanalysis and American Medicine, 18941918. 4th ed. Vol. 5. Medicine, Science, and Culture. New York: International Universities Press, 1967. https://psycnet.apa.org/ record/1972-03087-001. Carden-Coyne, Ana. “Masculinity and the Wounds of the First World War: A Centenary Reflection.” Revue Française de Civilisation Britannique. French Journal of British Studies 20, no. 1 (January 15, 2015). https://doi.org/10.4000/rfcb.305. Collins, Jodie. “Class & Shell Shock,” 2015, 12. Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59. Connell, Raewyn. “Hegemonic Masculinities, Gender and Male Health.” In The Palgrave Handbook of Social Theory in Health, Illness and Medicine, edited by Fran Collyer, 535–49. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137355621_34. ———. “Masculinities,” 2012. http://www.raewynconnell.net/p/ masculinities_20.html. Crocq, Marc-Antoine, and Louis Crocq. “From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A History of Psychotraumatology.” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 2, no. 1 (March 2000): 47–55. Crouthamel, Jason. “Broken Men: Shell Shock, Treatment and Recovery in Britain, 19114-1930.” Reviews in History, 2010. https:// reviews.history.ac.uk/review/997.

Bergen, Leo Van. “Aid.” In Before My Helpless Sight - Suffering, Dying and Military Medicine on the Western Front, 1914-1918, 372–92. The History of Medicine in Context, 2009.

Dan. “Pardons – Des Browne’s Statement.” Great War Fiction (blog), September 21, 2006. https://greatwarfiction.wordpress. com/2006/09/21/pardons-des-brownes-statement/.

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Ltd, 2013, 730–34. 15 Michael Roper, “Between Manliness and Masculinity: The ‘War Generation’ and the Psychology of Fear in Britain, 1914–1950,” Journal of British Studies 44, no. 2 (2005): 343–62, https://doi. org/10.1086/427130.

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17 Peter Leese, “Patients: The Other Ranks,” in Shell Shock: Traumatic Neurosis and the British Soldiers of the First World War, 2022nd ed. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 85. 18

FOOTNOTES Tracey Loughran, “Shell Shock, Trauma, and the First World War: The Making of a Diagnosis and Its Histories,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 67, no. 1 (2012): 94–119.

Charles S Myers, “A contribution to the study of shell shock: Being an account of three cases of loss of memory, vision, smell, and taste, admitted into the Duchess of Westminster’s War Hospital, Le Touquet”, The Lancet 185, no. 4772 (February 13, 1915): 316–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)52916-X.

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4 “Desertion and Shell Shock,” espritdecorps, accessed June 15, 2022, http://espritdecorps.ca/moir/2015/4/22/desertion-and-shell-shock.

“World War I: Pardons - Hansard - UK Parliament,” accessed June 16, 2022, https://hansard.parliament. uk//Lords/2006-10-09/debates/0610055000032/ WorldWarIPardonshighlight=pardons+des+browne+statement.

“World War I.”

José Luiz Pedroso et al., “The Relationship between the First World War and Neurology: 100 Years of ‘Shell Shock,’” Arquivos de NeuroPsiquiatria 75 (May 2017): 317–19, https://doi.org/10.1590/0004282X20170046. 7

Stefanie C. Linden, Volker Hess, and Edgar Jones, “The Neurological Manifestations of Trauma: Lessons from World War I,” European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 262, no. 3 (2012): 253–64, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-011-0272-9. 8

Lewis R. (Lewis Ralph) Yealland and E. Farquhar (Edward Farquhar) Buzzard, Hysterical Disorders of Warfare (London : Macmillan, 1918), http://archive.org/details/hystericaldisord00yealuoft.

Richards, 2.

Lauren Wilcox, “Gendering the Cult of the Offensive,” Security Studies 18 (2009): 232.

David M. Kennedy, “Over There - And Back,” in Over Here: The First World War and American Society, vol. 452 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 217. 12

Jennifer D. Keene, Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America (John Hopkins University Press, 2001), 36.

14 Tracey Loughran, “A Crisis of Masculinity? Re-Writing the History of Shell-Shock and Gender in First World War Britain,” John Wiley & Sons

Bourke, 110.

Joanna Bourke, “Dismembering the Male : Men’s Bodies, Britain, and the Great War,” in Dismembering the Male : Men’s Bodies, Britain, and the Great War (London: Reaktion Books, 1996), 112. 19

Bourke, 112.

“Lost_Hospitals_of_London,” accessed May 27, 2022, https://ezitis. myzen.co.uk/cassel.html. 21

22 Ben Shephard, “A Tale of Two Hospitals,” in A War on Nerves (Harvard University Press, 2001), 269. 23

Bourke, 112.

Roper, “Between Manliness and Masculinity.”

Charles McMoran Wilson Moran, “The Anatomy of Courage: The Classic WWI Account of the Psychological Effects of War,” in The Anatomy of Courage: The Classic WWI Account of the Psychological Effects of War (England: Constable and Company Ltd., 1945). 25

Moran, 50.

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Wilbur J. Scott, “PTSD in DSM-III: A Case in the Politics of Diagnosis and Disease,” Social Problems 37, no. 3 (1990): 294–310, https://doi. org/10.2307/800744. 29

30 Sigmund Freud, “Beyond the Pleasure Principle,” no. 4 (1920): 45–46.

John C. Burnham, Psychoanalysis and American Medicine, 18941918, 4th ed., vol. 5, Medicine, Science, and Culture (New York: International Universities Press, 1967), https://psycnet.apa.org/ record/1972-03087-001.

32 R. W. Connell and James W. Messerschmidt, “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept,” Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59.

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34 R. Brannon, Men and Masculinity, 11th ed., vol. 21, Contemporary Psychology (London: Macmillian Publishing Co., 1976). 35

Connell and Messerschmidt, “Hegemonic Masculinity.”

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Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, “Post 1945: Korea, Vietnam, Falklands,” in Shell Shock to PTSD: Military Psychiatry from 1900 to the Gulf War, 1st ed. (London: Psychology Press, 2005), 128–32. 41

Betty H. Zisk, review of Review of ‘Home from the War: Vietnam veterans, neither victims nor executioners’ by Robert Jay Lifton, International Journal on World Peace 2, no. 4 (1985): 132–34.

2132–42, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.090910. Edgar Jones et al., “Post-Combat Syndromes from the Boer War to the Gulf War: A Cluster Analysis of Their Nature and Attribution,” BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 324, no. 7333 (February 9, 2002): 321–24, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7333.321.

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Scates, How War Came Home, 190.

Scates, “How War Came Home”, 201.

Jones and Wessely, “Shell Shock to PTSD, 130.”

44 J.A. Renner, The Changing Patterns of Psychiatric Problems in Vietnam, vol. 14, Comprehensive Psychology, 1973.

Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, “‘Forward Psychiatry’ in the Military: Its Origins and Effectiveness,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 16, no. 4 (August 2003): 411–19, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024426321072.

46 Research Triangle Institute, “Contractual Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study,” San Diego State University 1 (November 7, 1988), https://www.ptsd.va.gov/ professional/articles/article-pdf/nvvrs_vol1.pdf. 47

Scott, “PTSD in DSM-III.”

48 Hans Pols and Stephanie Oak, “WAR & Military Mental Health,” American Journal of Public Health 97, no. 12 (December 2007):

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Reid.

Stefanie Caroline Linden and Edgar Jones, “‘Shell Shock’ Revisited: An Examination of the Case Records of the National Hospital in London,” Medical History 58, no. 4 (October 2014): 519–45, https://doi. org/10.1017/mdh.2014.51.

Women’s Etiquette BY JENNY XU (YEAR 8) Taking an intersectional approach, this essay argues that etiquette has been used in Australian history to oppress, control and exclude certain women, with worse effects felt by those in the working class. Though it may seem trivial, etiquette has complex historical causes and profound social consequences. This essay was originally written as an entry for the National History Competition. Etiquette is a series of social rules and ‘manners’, often framed as a way of being ‘respectable’ or properly acculturated. These rules, however, also allow individuals to portray themselves as a member of the upper class. Etiquette rules have changed across history but were particularly consolidated at the time of Australia’s colonisation. It was at this point that they were especially important for women: for men, status was defined by their wealth, however, for women their status could only be defined through their behaviour. Middle-class women who wanted to distinguish themselves from the working class followed strict etiquette. This reflects Bourdieu’s notion of cultural capital,1 or the use of knowledge, practises, and qualifications to signal social status. In this sense, aspects of etiquette that might seem trivial such as which fork to eat with, have complex historical causes and profound social consequences. Taking an intersectional approach, this essay argues that etiquette has been used in Australian history to oppress, control and exclude certain women, with worse effects felt by those in the working class. Etiquette was used in colonial Australia to control and ‘civilise’ middle class women. Across the world from the late 18th century, etiquette was increasingly used as a tool for the ‘old money’ to distinguish themselves from the nouveau riche. Indeed, new rules were invented by the aristocracy to keep the newly wealthy capitalists’ groups out. Colonial Australia, however, had a slightly different and more complex relationship to etiquette. It was a society without a local aristocracy. Rather, the colonial elite used etiquette to distinguish themselves from convicts and reject their colonial status by being ‘more English than the English’. European Australians also used etiquette to justify colonisation and the supposed superiority of British culture and refinement. The Australian colonies were dominated by men; while women used etiquette to assert and status, they were often also constrained and controlled by these social standards. Historian Penny Russell2 refers to the case of Jane Franklin, the wife of the Governor of Tasmania, who was scrutinised for her attempts to ‘civilise’ the population of her colony. Franklin’s attempts were met with ridicule as they “transgressed the boundaries of proper female conduct.” She toured the state to advise on matters of marriage and family, but these were traditionally topics that were more appropriate for male authority figures such as priests. Unlike other colonial 36

women who were faulted for failing to meet standards of etiquette, Franklin was criticised for exceeding them. Indeed, her poor reputation was the likely result of lack of sufficient colonial elite to confirm and reflect her moral standards. Russell contrasts the case of Franklin with a very different woman who transgressed etiquette: Annie Britton, a Melbourne prostitute who donned the uniform of a soldier in public, thus scandalising colonial society. Russell tellingly notes that Britton was never featured in the press for her occupation or private sexuality, but only for “parading” in public in an “unwomanly” manner. Etiquette even influenced the transition between life and death. Australian women were prohibited from showcasing basic emotions such as grief, but were also tied to their deceased husbands, and instructed to showcase their loss by wearing black for two years after his death. These standards were even harsher than in imperial Britain, reflecting the way that etiquette had stricter consequences for women in the colonies. Etiquette continued in the supposedly more relaxed and egalitarian 20th century Australia. Taking the mid-20th century as our case study, this essay now turns to the way that gender and class informed public manners in Australia. In ‘Your Table Manners’,3 published in the Australian Women’s Mirror in 1938, the author lectures the reader about the seemingly infinite rules surrounding food. With an overly ornate and unnecessarily complicated writing style, the writer manages to convey the different forms of etiquette surrounding food in 1938. For instance, “Never serve oysters as the ‘fish course’, which comes after the soup. Oysters are eaten with a dinner fork unless you possess special oyster forks”. This advice demonstrates superiority and insecurity and reinforces the image of bourgeois womanhood. Ironically, in another article, ‘Etiquette in 1845’,4 Rhoda Glover critiques the 19th century as sexist, mocking the idea of women being forced to wear corsets and present as “correct, quiet and reserved in the streets.” Glover’s analysis reveals that although etiquette varies as society becomes more progressive, etiquette writers can be somewhat hypocritical in their condemnation of previous rules. Etiquette also directed choices in terms of personal grooming and presentation. In the 20th century, corporations realised that they could make more profits promoting cosmetics rather than condemning it. Magazines and flyers praised those who ‘took care’ of their appearances (often using a variety of cosmetic products) and threatened social isolation for those who did not. A 1955 advertisement for antiperspirant5

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that features an image of a woman in silhouette, leaving a movie theatre, being stared at by men. The text concludes by stating, if you apply the deodorant, “you can be sure of your social acceptance.” This advertisement is a forerunner of the kinds of pressuring media that exists today, enforcing beauty norms on women as a matter of etiquette; what is so explicit and stark in this text, has now become subtle and nuanced. In modern Australia, etiquette may appear to be modern and progressive, it continues to be a method of social control. For instance, Ita Buttrose’s etiquette book, A

Guide to Australian Etiquette6 continues to emphasise the implicit role of class and gender. Whilst the contents of A Guide to Australian Etiquette do not explicitly assign roles, it is painfully obvious that Buttrose’s grooming and presentation duties are more likely a task assigned for women to complete. Her examples of social settings such as opera events, golf lunches and winter skiing retreats also reflect the role of etiquette in maintaining class distinctions. Her advice might seem trivial, but as this essay has shown, etiquette has complex causes and serious consequences.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

19/01/1955, p 2

Buttrose Ita, A Guide to Australian Etiquette, Penguin, 2011

Russell, Penny, Savage or Civilised? Manners in Colonial Australia, UNSW Press, 2010

Cole Nicki, “What is Cultural Capital? Do I have It?”, ThoughtCo., 23 September 2019 Desai, Rajvi, “Etiquette has always been used to control women”, The Swaddle, 17 July 2019 Desai, Rajvi, “Manners Don’t Encourage Good Behavior, Just Class Discrimination”, The Swaddle, 8 July 2019 Elder, John, “Forget etiquette, now it’s Itaquette”, The Sydney Morning Herald, 6 February 2011

The Inverell Times, “Etiquette for Women”. The Inverell Times, 29 April 1905 The Sunday Sun, “Theatre-going etiquette”, The Sunday Sun, 11 August 1907

FOOTNOTES Nicki Lisa Cole, “What is Cultural Capital? Do I have It?”, ThoughtCo., 23 September 2019

Glover, Rhoda, “Etiquette in 1845”, The Australian Woman’s Mirror, 22 November 1938

Jane, Emma, “June Dally-Watkins’s take on etiquette may seem outdated but there’s a lot to like about being polite”, ABC News, 25 February 2020

Lyon, Rome-Mary, “Etiquette Decrees…Your Table Manners”, The Australian Woman’s Mirror, 5 July 1938 Manstead, Antony, “The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour”, The British Psychological Society, 28 February 2018 Mum, “They’ll Whisper About You”, Australian Women’s Weekly,

Penny Russell, Savage or Civilised? Manners in Colonial Australia, UNSW Press, 2010 Rose-Mary Lyon, Etiquette Decrees…Your Table Manners, The Australian woman’s mirror, 5 July 1938

4 Rhoda Glover, “Etiquette in 1845”, The Australian Woman’s Mirror, 22 November 1938

Mum, “They’ll Whisper About You”, Australian Women’s Weekly, 19/01/1955, p 2

Ita Buttrose, A Guide to Australian Etiquette, Penguin, 2011

Diary entries of a WWI nurse BY NETHUKI (YEAR 9) This work was originally written for a Year 9 creative historical fiction assessment task. DIARY ENTRY 1 (17 JANUARY TO 22 JANUARY 1915) 17 January I have decided to make a short diary to recall my experiences here in Egypt and to keep up some semblance of routine, writing here in the chaos of war. Alexandria is a striking city. It is nothing like Melbourne. Money seems to flee from us as we take in the exotic sights. We visited the museum and the catacombs. The latter disturbed me extremely - the skulls have endless charcoaled eye sockets, and the skeletal remains of the dead encase you, on display like some form of morbid gallery - even though as a nurse I should be familiar with death by now. How many soldiers I meet will turn to bones like these? The catacombs are also elaborately carved so that they are irrigated by Nile water, which brings me to the conflict in Gallipoli. There are currently 42,000 Turks within two days march of the canal. They have 36,000 camels which they have commandeered from the Arabs on the way and 37,000 sacks which they intend to fill with sand and cement to attempt to block the canal. But the canal is well guarded. It pains to write only to remind myself of these war-torn thoughts, so I will include some more blissful memoirs. We visited the Alexandria Gardens, they are rapturous, its delicate scents and the soft jewel tones of the blossoms intoxicated me, unburdening me from the turmoil of war until I heard the harsh, jarring mourning voices passing by a native funeral. This is war, so I don’t suppose there will be many blissful memories, only slightly happier ones. 18 January I am one of the chosen ones. Picked out of the volunteers. I could almost see the green tint of envy on Tessa and Pat’s faces when they realised; but I had to be accepted. I knew I’d become a nurse; I knew even before I could start training to become one - obediently assisting the matron back at A.H in Melbourne. 22 January I thought I had known the war, but I hadn’t - now it has arrived at the hospital doors in the form of 500 wounded Indians who came by the hospital boat. Here I’ve inserted 38

a photo to capture the chaos on the Canal. They came shrouds of the men they once were - that is war. Trench foot, dysentery, shell shock, lice and flies crawling in the heat. I think that is when I understood the true extent of war - and why the newspapers chose to show a different image. DIARY ENTRY 2 (22 FEBRUARY TO 16 DECEMBER 1915) 22 February A ballroom has been transformed into my new ward, it will soon become a theatre to death and war’s detriments. But albeit being such a luxurious setting, we only received one insufficient sardine for supper after 15 hours of duty. 1 March Claude - one of our patients in one of the tents has caught gonorrhoeal conjunctivitis. His eyes are running with pus, and he is almost sure to lose the sight of both. The tragedy comes that his nurse (Miss Samsing) objected to nursing him for the fear her own eyes would become infected. I yearn to nurse him and perhaps return sight to his eyes. That woman’s act was borne from insensitivity and cruelty. ‘I could slay her.’ 6 March We have one very sick pneumonia patient. I’m scared we shall lose him. 7 March Lost a pneumonia patient - he was only 24. He told me in the morning that when he left Sydney, he did not know that his people were coming over here - but that they came by a quick sailboat and were here to meet him when he arrived. I only realised today that was delirium; there was no one waiting for him. At least he died in the bliss of a lie ‘believing that his mother was beside him all the time. 4 April Not allowed to leave the camp yet again and last night there was a brawl at Heliopolis. Amongst other things the boys broke into the big hotel across the way and stole all the ice cream and pastry they had prepared for Sunday’s dinner. You can’t fully convict them though - they are going to war; they know they are going, and they know they might not return. 5 April The sky has been ravaged by a sandstorm and there are 1,500 Turks on the canal again. When will it stop? 6 June A large engagement came through: 2,000 Australians have

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been wounded and are lying in transport near Alexandria. 8 June The injured from Alexandria came like hordes in the trams. All the big schools and hotels have been turned into hospitals. The hospital I am at has 1,500 beds. I’ve inserted a photo to document the conditions. 9 June Went to hospital number 15 in the morning, there are only 20 nurses for 1,200 patients and typhoid is sweeping through them. Each time the Matron finally seizes more nurses they are stolen away for transport duty in the dards. The ward was plastered with the metallic scent of blood and overpowering antiseptic. Bodies lay shattered in those beds, covered in the filth of the trenches. Amputations, surgeries, dressings, and injections. I learnt then that it could take several hours for a soldier to die from a shell, many became addicted to drugs like morphine and opium; and sometimes that was best for them -no pain. I shut the eyes of the dead over and over again, as if they were only in deep sleep. 14 November I haven’t written for a while - with reason. I believe I have found that phenomenon of ‘true love’ with Harry. Everything centres around him now. I went down to see him the other day and he is thin but looking very well. Dear old beautiful boy! He has my heart.

That once a sudden tempest came And swept my garden bare, And then you passed, and in your place Stood silence with her lifted face. Not always shall this parting be, For though I travel slow I too may claim eternity And find the way you go, And so I do my task and wait The opening of the outer gate. 4 December I will always remember this night because of the bombs. I was in the head injuries hut when Wilson came for me. Gilmore - a pneumonia patient – was extremely delirious and I was suggested to give him sedative enemata. Wilson was walking, swinging his lamp, throwing its light - that’s when we heard the deadly mechanical whirr of the dropping bomb. I remember the noise as it fell. Like thunder. My skull cracked as it struck us down like lightning. The sound reverberating in my head. I flew through the chest and abdo wards asking the boys if they were alright, “don’t bother about us” was the general response. Then I met a patient running in his pyjamas shouting, “I’ve got my paybook sister” as he passed.

16 December The Anzacs are evacuating Gallipoli. We have lost. All those broken soldiers led up to this. I am destitute to emotion.

Then I pitched into a dark hole, a bomb crater. I grappled with my hands and feet out of the greasy clay and caked blood.

DIARY ENTRY 3 (19 JULY 1916 TO 11 NOVEMBER 1918)

I finally crawled out in front of Gilmore’s tent. The tent had fallen in and my shouts were left unanswered. It was as if everything had died around me.

19 July ‘Harry Killed in Action’ The Battle of Fromelles, Fleurbaix 29 July Well, my world has ended. Harry is dead. God, what should I do? I feel so cold even in this Armentières’ summer heat. My heart shivers, my bones shiver, my skin crawls with the thought of his lifeless body. So much for true love, all I’m left with now is a decrepit loveless existence. I’m hoping each day that the news will be contradicted. 6 September I shall not cry, Nor weep my years away, But just as long as the sunset burns And dawn makes no delay, I shall be lonesome; I shall miss Your hand, your voice, your smile, your kiss. Not often shall I speak your name, For what would strangers care,

I tore along to the theatre; the lights were out - and the doors shut. Again, my shouts hung in the frosted air unanswered. Finally, I met Padre, who told me to get under cover. I tried to get into the tent again and got hold of a stretcher handle under the fly. The stretcher handle must have been splintered, and I pitched back into the darkness of the crater. All I remember is calling and calling for Wilson. He never came. Later, I discovered the poor boy had been blown to bits. I crawled out again and found Gilmore crouched on the ground at the back of his stretcher. He would not listen as I pleaded with him to return to bed, so I tried to lift him with one hand around him and the other on his leg. Only, to realise in blank horror that it was one of the orderlies’ legs which had been blown off and landed on Gilmore’s bed. 39

DIARY ENTRIES OF A WWI NURSE

I still managed to carry on till I saw the burnt orange of early daylight. 11 November 1918 It has come to an end. We won, but those words don’t bring any joy. I know this is a bleak perspective, but the underlying truth is that we’ve lost, the world has lost.

mass graves, those fractured soldiers, the lucky ones, the stolen youth, landscapes marred by war, the red-cross medal shining in its gold and crimson (inserted a photo); a memory of the 20 dead I couldn’t save in the bombing the silent dead. And Harry, of course. War has ravaged my heart and mind, and I know it will never cease.

I’m forced to confront the fact that this trauma will veil every happy moment, every single one. The blood, the

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alice Ross-King. (n.d.). in Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Alice_Ross-King Australian War Memorial. (n.d.). Transcript of diaries of Alice Ross-King, 1915-1919. https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/ RCDIG0000976?image=1 Bruce, C. (2020). Romance, Heartache and Courage: The Story of ANZAC Nurse, Alice Ross-King Comes Alive for Children. https:// hope1032.com.au/stories/life/news/2020/romance-heartachecourage-on-the-battlefield-the-story-of-anzac-nurse-alice-rossking/

April 2022, https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/ military-organisation/medical-treatment Finnie, L. (n.d.). Ross-King, Alice (1887-1968). https://adb.anu.edu.au/ biography/rossking-alice-8276 Nursing in World War I (n.d.). Centenary of Anzac: Tasmania Remembers (2014-2018). https://www.centenaryofanzac.tas.gov.au/ history/women_and_war/nurses#:~:text=Life%20after%20the%20 war&text=The%20experience%20of%20working%20during,as%20 surgery%20and%20administering%20anaesthetics Scates, B., Wheatley, R., & James, L. (2015). World War One: A History in 100 Stories. Viking Australia.

DVA (Department of Veterans’ Affairs) (2020), Australian Army Nursing Service in World War I, DVA Anzac Portal, accessed 1 April 2022, https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/militaryorganisation/australian-imperial-force/australian-army-nursingservice

Straw, L. (2017). After the War: Returned Soldiers and the Mental and Physical Scars of World War I. UWAP.

DVA (Department of Veterans’ Affairs) (2021), Medical treatment of Australian soldiers in World War I, DVA Anzac Portal, accessed 1

WikiTree. (2019). Alys (Ross-King) Appleford MM AARC (1887 - 1968). https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Ross-King-1

The wharf at Alexandria, showing ambulances waiting to take from the steamship. (1915). [Photograph]. Australian War Memorial. https:// www.awm.gov.au/collection/C203658

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Causes and consequences of Australia’s involvement in the Pacific conflict BY ELIZABETH TANG (YEAR 9) This essay was originally written for the National History Competition. The theme was ‘Causes and Consequences’. It was entered in the Year 9 Section and under the special category of ‘Australian Wartime Experiences’. The twenty-first century has seen momentous events that have changed and shaped people’s views and perspectives about history. Reflecting upon causes and consequences of historical events can be helpful when trying to analyse actions of the past. The comparison and connections that people can draw from these events will help them determine whether aspects of history should be repeated. Consequences include impacts on people, societies, and beliefs. One incredibly significant event, with obvious causes and consequences, was Australia’s wartime experiences. Key events triggered Australia’s involvement in the Pacific conflict during World War Two. One consequence of the well-known Japanese expansion during World War Two was the entrance of Australia into this war. On the third of September 1939, the Australian Prime Minister, Robert Gordon Menzies, declared that Australia would join World War Two. He famously stated, “Fellow Australians, it is my melancholy duty to inform you officially, that in consequence of a persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her and that, as a result, Australia is also at war. No harder task can fall to the lot of a democratic leader than to make such an announcement.” The cause of that decision was due to the rapid Japanese expansion in the Pacific region, and thus Australia feared invasion. Japan was one of the Axis powers during World War Two, alongside Nazi Germany and Italy. While Germany and Italy mainly focused on combat in Europe, Japan started their conquest in the Pacific. During the 1920s, there was a sense of extreme racism and xenophobia within the world, and non-white cultures were discriminated against. During World War One, Japan was on the side of the Allies and when the Allies claimed victory over the Axis powers, they shared the resources they had acquired. However, Japan received close to nothing, consequently insulting them, and at the start of World War Two, they challenged the status quo and embarked on their conquest heading south. The consequence of this was rapid and destructive Japanese expansion. A further cause of concern for Australia was when Japan invaded Manchuria and moved toward Indochina. They occupied 26 Chinese provinces, taking large cities like Shanghai, Nanjing and Wuhan in the process. A visual cartoon from the time reveals a large tiger and a small person labelled as “China.” This source conveys how

difficult it was for Japanese forces to invade China and they never succeeded in doing so. Consequently, this triggered further Japanese expansion. As a result, the Japanese forces made rapid progress, bombing Pearl Harbour on the eighth of December 1942, causing the United States to enter the war. Consequently, the entrance of America into World War Two would prove crucial for Australia’s protection and ultimately resulted in Japan losing the Pacific conflict. Japanese forces continued southward, taking over the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. From the eighth of February until the fifteenth of February, Japan would overtake Singapore. This was a huge blow to the Allies’ morale as they were stunned that Japan could take over British-occupied land. Australia then realised that there was no way Britain would be able to protect them. Consequently, Australia began to strengthen its defence force, seeking help from America, thus consolidating their alliance. Japan launched their attack on Darwin on 19 February and this was both unexpected and shocking. The Australian troops were not prepared for this surprise attack and Japanese forces targeted supply lines, army bases with important machinery and civilian neighbourhoods. Consequently, this raid killed at least 243 people and between three and four hundred people were wounded. Another consequence is that the bombing left families grieving the loss of their loved ones. Approximately half of Darwin’s population fled; the Australian population did not know about this, and the government used censorship to cover it up. Sources also reveals how the government used censorship to hide the true catastrophe. Importantly, the Australian government was not prepared for the consequence of their actions. The attack on Sydney happened from the thirty-first of May until the eighth of June. Japanese troops had been planning this attack for a while and had been keeping track of activity in Sydney. On the thirtieth of May, the day before the attack, Japanese troops sent out a lone seaplane to the north coast of Sydney. A battery spotted this plane but thought it was an American plane and did not pay attention to it. This would prove to be a massive mistake as Allies could have identified the Japanese. When exploring the land, Ito quickly realised that Sydney was not ready for battle. American tankers, munition ships, minesweepers, mine-layers and warships were gathered closely together. The vessels were also silhouetted against the city. Ito’s observer also took note of the position of the USS Chicago in the harbour. Importantly, the Battle of the Coral Sea 41

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AUSTRALIA’S INVOLVEMENT IN THE PACIFIC CONFLICT

occurred just before this from 4 May 1942 until 8 May 1942. This was key as it was the first battle that the allies won against the Japanese since the start of the war. When Australians heard the news of the Allied victory, the public was out celebrating the win. Even the officer in charge, Rear Admiral G.C. Muirhead Gould, held a party to celebrate the win. With Japan now privy to this information, they deployed three midget submarines, each carrying two torpedos. Their goal was to destroy and bomb allied vessels parked in Sydney Harbour, however the attack did not go exactly to plan. One vessel failed to explode, one got trapped in the net and the last one managed to get to the destination, however it exploded below the HMAS Kuttabul and later sank. The explosion caused the death of nineteen Australian and British sailors and left ten people wounded. A useful source from the time is a statement from a man on the HMAS Kuttabul about this event. One awful consequence of this attack was the innocent sailors and citizens who lost their lives. Another significant battle that occurred from 21 June 1942 until November 1942 was the Kokoda Campaign. The cause of this battle was to prevent Japanese troops from capturing the main Australian base at Port Moresby. The base was situated across rugged mountains and on a jungle pathway known as the Kokoda Track Both sides were unprepared and had not fought under rainforest conditions before. Overall, their attire was inappropriate for jungle fighting. Consequently, soldiers suffered diseases like dysentery, malaria and diarrhea. After harsh fighting from both sides, the Allied forces managed to reach Port Moresby and push the Japanese troops back; it was considered more of a Japanese loss than an Allied win. This was because the Japanese forces used up their resources before they started fighting, thus having nothing left when the conflict started. As stated by the Anzac Portal, “they had been forced to fight hard to cross the mountains and had run out of many supplies.” Resources were crucial in the Kokoda Campaign and without weapons, or enough food to feed the men, it was impossible to succeed. However, the Allies had the “biscuit bombers,” planes that would drop off resources at the Kokoda Terrain. The food that was usually provided consisted of rationed Bully Beef and hard biscuits. After four months of vigorous fighting, more than six hundred Australians were killed and around one thousand six hundred and eighty were injured. Few soldiers that fought in this war were part of the Citizens brigade and were volunteers. During World War Two, the Japanese had captured around thirty thousand Australian prisoners of war. Australian POWs were living under extremely gruesome conditions. Australian POWs were forced into laborious work and were responsible for building places like the Thai-Burma railway, which they worked on from day until night using their own bare hands. If they did not work fast enough, they would be severely punished. Adding to this exhausting work and 42

harsh treatment, they were not given scarce amounts of food to eat and would often starve. Women and Indigenous people made crucial contributions during World War Two, however during the 1930s, these were minority groups and discriminated against. During World War One, women mostly stayed in their houses, occasionally helped with fundraising and organised care packages for men on the front line. This changed during World War Two because more Australian men were needed on the front line and in the war effort generally; consequently, men had to abandon their jobs. The need for female workers increased and women accepted new roles, for example, work in factories, banking, and welding. Thus, women were given the opportunity to serve in the war effort too, however few went to the front lines. Approximately 27,000 women joined the ‘WAAAF’, which was formed in February 1941. ‘WAAAF’ were engaged in technical work, cooked for men, and despite their arduous work, they were only paid two-thirds of the men’s wage. There was also ‘AWAS,’ which hired 24,000 women and to join, a woman could not be married. Women served as mechanics, drivers, cooks, telecommunication officers, typists, and dozens of other occupations. Also, women were attached to defence positions and oversaw radar and searchlights attached to anti-aircraft gun positions. ‘WRANS,’ formed in October 1942, involved women in secret agency work and approximately three thousand women joined this organisation. ‘WRANS’ were engaged as technical specialists (top secret work), however most women occupied traditional jobs such as typists’ clerks, cooks, stewards and orderlies. Consequently, men were unhappy and felt threatened and worried they would not have employment when they returned. Consequently, the involvement of Australia in World War Two meant that Indigenous people also had to join in the war effort and were desperately needed for many roles in society. Another consequence of this was that the Australian economy would have rapidly declined if Australia’s Indigenous people did not support the war effort on the Homefront. When it came to fighting on the front line, some military groups had a “colour ban” policy, meaning there were certain policies or rules for people of colour to join the force. Consequently, Indigenous people, with enormous potential, were not allowed to serve on the front line. However, the Air Force did not have a colour ban and Indigenous people were able to fly and thus serve. In the Northern Territory, a group of Indigenous people formed their own land force to protect Australia and their thorough knowledge of the Australian landscape and combat skills proved to be a hugely significant contribution regarding the patrol of the Northern Australian coastline. At the conclusion of World War Two, Australian women and Indigenous peoples were given due credit for their contributions, and consequently Australian society shifted and changed by offering equal jobs and opportunities for

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everyone. Another consequence of Australia’s involvement in World War Two was tremendous resentment towards Japan, which lingered long after the war. Also, Australia was reluctant to rely on England for help, instead developing a stronger relationship and military alliance with the United States.

War Two, however, there were also positive impacts. For example, the number of work opportunities in Australia increased, and more people entered the workforce. However, the number of Australian people who suffered because of World War Two was devastating and this is recognised as a significant period in Australia’s history.

There were considerable consequences because of Australia’s involvement in the Pacific conflict during World

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ii-1939-1945/events/japanese-advance-december-1941-march-1942.

Australia and the Second World War (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https:// anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/ australia-and-second-world-war.

Kokoda (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-andmissions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/events/coral-sea-kokoda-andmilne-bay-may-september-1942/kokoda.

Australia under attack 1940-1945 (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https:// anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/ events/australia-under-attack-1940-1945.

Lloyd, S. (2009). The Missing Years – A POW’s Story from Changi to Hellfire Pass. Rosenberg Publishing.

Australians at war (n.d.). Australian War Memorial. https://www.awm. gov.au/articles/atwar. Burma-Thailand Railway and Hellfire Pass 1942 to 1943 (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/burmathailand-railway-and-hellfire-pass-1942-1943. Coral Sea, Kokoda and Milne Bay (May-September 1942) (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/worldwar-ii-1939-1945/events/coral-sea-kokoda-and-milne-bay-mayseptember-1942. Fall of Singapore (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov. au/wars-and-missions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/events/japaneseadvance-december-1941-march-1942/fall-singapore Japanese advance (December 1941-March 1942) (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/world-war-

McKinlay, D. (2004). A people’s experience of the 20th Century Australia: Case studies. McGraw-Hill. Sydney Harbour (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/ wars-and-missions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/events/australia-underattack-1940-1945/sydney-harbour. The Bombing of Darwin (n.d.). Library & Archives NT. https://lant. nt.gov.au/explore-nt-history/bombing-darwin. The defence of Moresby (n.d.). Anzac Portal. https://anzacportal.dva. gov.au/wars-and-missions/world-war-ii-1939-1945/events/japaneseadvance-december-1941-march-1942/defence-moresby. WW2 - OverSimplified (Part 1). (2018, March 16). [Video file]. https:// www.youtube.com/watch? v=OzCb86C2O0s. WW2 - OverSimplified (Part 2). (2018, March 16). [Video file]. https:// www.youtube.com/watch? v=fo2Rb9h788s.

WHO OWNS THE CROWN JEWELS?

Who owns the Crown Jewels? TARA SHARMA (YEAR 10) Renowned globally for its wealth of precious gems and diamonds, the Crown Jewels, notably the Imperial State Crown, symbolise British Colonial and royal history spanning centuries. Each famed jewel in the collection has its own story, some muddled with legend and folklore, others with stories hidden in the folds of time, and some hidden behind the sensationalised appearance of the Crown and its history. The real question, however, is who has the right to claim these jewels? The Stuart Sapphire is a stone which, by most accounts, actualised in Britain. This sapphire has unverified tales of origin, but the alleged story of this 104-carat stone worth upwards of £500,000 divulges tales of revolution and exile. When King Charles II ascended to the throne in 1660 following the turbulent time that saw the execution of his father, he set about rebuilding the Crown Jewels. It is speculated that he acquired this sapphire (among others) during this period. King Charles II’s successor and younger brother King James II “the Old Pretender” inherited the stone, while his reign continued an unsettled period. The new king’s leadership brought the country to the Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) and established a parliament as the ruling power. King James II was banished into exile in France, and while leaving, he allegedly smuggled the sapphire out of the country. The gem remained in his family line, ending up with James’ grandson Henry Stuart, Cardinal York. When the Cardinal passed away in 1807, his property was placed under the care of Monsignor Angelo Cesarani, along with instructions to distribute them equally. A number of his jewels were gifted to the then Prince of Wales (later anointed as King George IV). However, the sapphire was not a distributed item. Reportedly, King George IV engaged Italian dealer Angioli Bonelli to collect the remaining Stuart property. He met a Venetian merchant who produced a large sapphire he claimed belonged to the now-extinct Stuart Crown. Bonelli bought the gem and returned it to Britain. George IV believed it was the Stuart Sapphire and promptly had it set in the front of the band on the Imperial State Crown by Queen Victoria’s coronation, where it remained until it was moved to the rear of the crown in 1909, making way for the Cullinan II. Despite its true heritage being questioned to this day, it has consistently been among the Crown Jewels for two centuries. This stone is one of the few elemental jewels that may be reliably accredited to the Royal family line. However, this cannot be said for the Cullinan II (or The Second Star of Africa). It is, as previously mentioned, set in the front band of the Imperial State Crown. This diamond is 317.4 carats and is the second largest stone cut from the great Cullinan Diamond. This diamond, the largest ever discovered, is purported to be mined in 1905 by Frederick G.S. Wells in the Premier Mine, about 20 miles from 44

Pretoria, South Africa. The stone weighed 3106 carats, and its namesake was Thomas Cullinan, the owner of the presiding mining company, Premier Diamond Mining Company. It is important to note that while the discovery of the diamond was at a time before apartheid, the use of ‘cheap, black labour’ and segregation policies were rife. The mine workers, and the person who most likely discovered this diamond, would have been underprivileged South African people of colour. However, the diamond remained simply that: a diamond. It eventually gained symbolic significance through its use as an offering to King Edward VII in 1907, as a symbol of good relations following the Boer War (1899-1902). This war was fought between Britain and two Boer republics (descendants of the Dutch and German) over disagreements with the level of British influence in South Africa, namely the abolishing of slavery. The Boer people often used the native people as slaves to work on their newly established farms. The Boer justification was their belief in the order of races set out by God. Their religious allegiance led to the war and resulted in the death of twenty-five thousand Afrikaners (Dutch settlers), twentytwo thousand British, and twelve thousand African lives. Neglecting the people that discovered it, the diamond was formally gifted to the King on his 66th birthday (1907) at Sandringham as a symbol of peace and good relations. The stone’s cut resulted in nine stones, ninety-seven brilliants and some unpolished fabrics. This process took three men of the Asscher’s of Amsterdam – a famed diamond-cutting company, even today – eight months to complete. The largest of the cut stones, named Cullinan I or The Star of Africa, is currently in the Sovereign’s Sceptre. The Cullinan II is currently in the front band of the Imperial State Crown, while all other pieces do not contribute to the official Crown Jewels. All jewels produced from this diamond belong to the miners in South Africa who were not only taken advantage of but fought over in the Boer War. While the rift between South Africa and Britain healed, an apology or symbolic gesture in the form of a precious stone was not and has not been offered to the native people of South Africa. No other Crown gem has as much of a complicated history as the Black Prince’s Ruby. Its story is intertwined with tales of violent wars, betraying coups, and messy alliances. The first complication begins within its name. The stone is not a ruby, but a semi-precious stone named a spinel. The spinel was named this way due to the late invention of the technology needed to differentiate the two in 1783. While its accurate origins and story are difficult to prove, descriptions of a similar large stone have been discovered in records of historic royal jewels, and there is somewhat corresponding evidence of the jewel

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being re-set numerous times. Its story most likely begins in the Himalayan Mountains of Central Asia, a region known for its spinels. The stone’s first recording was as one of the Sultan Muhammad VI of Granada (Spain)’s riches, held at Granada’s iconic palace, Alhambra. In 1362, a conflict between the Sultan and his cousin rapidly escalated. Muhammad was deposed, and in search of an ally, he travelled to Castile to ask King Pedro the Cruel of Castile for assistance. This plan foundered, and as Pedro supported the new Sultan, he murdered Muhammad. As the story goes, Pedro searched his corpse, found the massive spinel, and kept it for himself. His reign went unchallenged until, similar to Muhammad, his authority received a threat from his half-brother Enrique in 1367. Pedro turned to his old friend King Edward III of England in search of an alliance, and in response, King Edward sent his son Edward of Woodstock or the ‘Black Prince’ (named for his brutality in battle). The two won, defeating Enrique in the Battle of Nájera, however, Edward reportedly spent a large sum of money hiring soldiers to help Pedro retain his power. Pedro either couldn’t or wouldn’t repay him, a decision that severed the alliance, but Edward did manage to gain one thing: the spinel. This being said, the war proved to be pointless as Pedro was murdered by Enrique two years later. Upon the Black Prince’s return to England, the spinel gained the name The Black Prince’s ruby. He died shortly after, and one year later, King Edward III, his father, passed away too. The throne was inherited by King Richard II at the age of ten, and supposedly the spinel remained in the Crown jewels. It remained undocumented until Henry IV ascends to the throne in 1399, following Richard’s deposition. The spinel is then recorded in 1415, with King Henry V on the throne and immersed in war with France. At the Battle of Agincourt, his forces rode into battle, with Henry himself wearing a helmet crowded with precious stones, including the Black Prince’s Ruby. On this October day, the story goes that Henry’s helmet was struck with a battle axe, and miraculously, both Henry and the spinel survived. The next mention of the jewel comes in 1521 when an inventory of the Crown Jewels under the ownership of King Henry VII mentioned ‘a great balas ruby’ set in his crown. Presumably, the jewel remained with the Crown, but its exact movements are indiscernible. Following this, the stone was rediscovered and placed back into the royal treasury with the restoration of King Charles II to the throne in 1660. Queen Victoria had it set into the centre of her Imperial State Crown in 1838, and it has remained there on the front through the different versions of this crown. The stone’s ownership is unclear. Based on the written evidence and the corroborated versions of events, the rightful owner is the Black Prince, and by extension, the current royals. This being said, the spinel has been drilled at some point, most likely to be worn as a pendant, and the hole filled with a smaller cabochon ruby edged in gold. There is no place for this in the suggested version of

events, implying that there are aspects of the story that are misplaced or concealed by the passing of time. The infamous Koh-i-Nûr diamond is internationally known for its size and brilliance, but the truth of its bloody past is seemingly concealed by the Tower of London itself. Its true story is notably absent from many writings that seem to skim over the crimes of the British, instead focusing on its appearance. It is one of the most considerable cut (and uncut) diamonds to ever exist, weighing 105.6 carats after its cut in 1852, but 793 carats previously. Its origins trace back to thousands of years ago when it is said to be discovered in alluvial mines (sifting gems out of river sands). Ancient Indian courts used jewellery to denote hierarchy, in which certain gems could only be worn by people of a certain rank, and the oldest gemology books are Indian. In this way, India was the world’s best and only source of diamonds, up until the discovery of riches in Brazil in 1725. This diamond’s story begins with the invasion of India by the Turco-Mongol leader Zahir-uddin Babur. He travelled through the Khyber Pass, between modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, and established the Islamic Mughal Dynasty, lasting three-hundred and thirty years. Over twenty-two years, Babur conquered most of Northern India. Beginning in 1504, he conquered Kabul and Ghazni, then captured Samarkand (1511), refocused on Punjab and invaded Bhera, Sialkot and Lahore by 1524. Babur was clear with his intentions to conquer Hindustan (renamed India in 1949 by the British colonists), which Delhi nobles backed. In 1526, Babur diverted two of the Sultan of Delhi’s army contingents to fight against him in the First Battle of Panipat. By April of that year, Babur controlled Delhi and Agra, providing a chance to conquer Hindustan. However, the Rajput confederacy threatened to revive their power, and in response, Babur led a successful expedition against them. Further threatened by forces in the east, Babur was forced to start another expedition, but both were left unfinished due to his death in 1530. Throughout his time as ruler, he had pillaged thousands of gems from across Hindustan, an idea followed by all future Mughal rulers, who all seemed to have an infatuation with gems. The empire fell into the hands of an emperor named Humayun, who left it in ruins. When Akbar the Great came to power, he proved himself to be a capable ruler, and is currently remembered for his vast expansion of the dynasty, the participation and integration of Hindus (specifically Rajput princes) in the government and the decrease in discrimination against non-Muslims in a Muslim run-state. Although the Koh-i-Nûr is said to have passed down through the rulers, this remains unproven. The first written record of it in 1628 tells the story of Mughal ruler Shah Jahan, who commissioned a gemstoneencrusted throne that took seven years to construct and cost four times as much as the Taj Mahal. As described by court chronicler Ahmed Shah Lahore, the throne would have “two peacocks thick set with gems, and between each of the two peacocks a tree set with rubies and 45

WHO OWNS THE CROWN JEWELS?

diamonds, emeralds and pearls.” The diamond was lodged at the top of this throne, set in the head of a jewelled peacock. For a century after this throne, the Mughal empire remained undisturbed, and its jewels were along with it. That is, until Persian ruler Nader Shah invaded Delhi in 1739, purging the city’s population, killing thousands, and stealing millions of treasures, for which he required seven hundred elephants, twelve thousand horses and four thousand camels to pull back to his home, including the throne. He removed the Koh-i-Nûr to wear on an armband along with the Timur Ruby. The diamond remained in Afghanistan for years, through an ensanguined period, in which power and jewels transferred from hand to hand. Families turned against each other, and great shows of wealth and power dominated the time. The British, noticing their opportunity, came to take advantage of the open position of power. At the beginning of the 19th Century, the British East India Company extended their control over India, keeping their eye on nature reserves and trading colonies, as well as the Koh-i-Nûr. Finally, in 1813, the diamond returned to a Sikh ruler named Ranjit Singh in India, whose love of the gem fostered its ambience of privilege and authority. The British found the idea of owning a country and its jewel captivating. In 1839, Ranjit Singh passed away, and he planned to give the diamond to a sect of Hindu priests. The British press, ever commentating, flooded with anger, saying that “The richest… has been committed to the trust of a profane, idolatrous and mercenary priesthood,” The British were desperate to move in, but a period of volatile leadership following Singh’s death forced them to wait. At the end of four years of bloodshed, the last person in line was ten-year-old Duleep Singh and his mother Rani Jindan. The British swooped in, imprisoning Rani Jindan, forcing Duleep into solitude. They coerced him into signing a legal document amending the Treaty of

BIBLIOGRAPHY Asscher Diamonds [What Every Buyer Must Know] | Lumera n.d., www.lumeradiamonds.com, viewed 18 October 2022, <https://www. lumeradiamonds.com/diamond-education/asscher-cut-diamond>. BBC News 2010, ‘Second Boer War records database goes online’, 23 June, viewed 18 October 2022, <https://www.bbc.com/ news/10390469>. Boissoneault, L. 2017, The True Story of the Koh-i-Noor Diamond— And Why the British Won’t Give It Back, Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Magazine, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://www. smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-koh-i-noor-diamondandwhy-british-wont-give-it-back-180964660/>.

Lahore, an agreement between the British and the Sikhs that notably transferred ownership of Kashmir to Britain (amongst other things). Instead, the document now stated that Duleep had a legal obligation to give away the Koh-i-Nûr and his claim to sovereignty. The diamond, as a special possession of Queen Victoria, was exhibited at the 1851 Great Exposition in London, but the British public expressed visceral disappointment at its simplicity. In reaction to public opinion, Prince Albert had the stone recut, reducing its size significantly, but making the light reflect more brilliantly. Initially, Queen Victoria wore the diamond as a brooch, but then it formed a part of the Crown Jewels, moving between crowns until it landed in the Crown of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother in 1937. The issue with the ownership of this diamond lies within the fact that the rulers and nations of the people that once owned these gemstones are extinct, as author William Dalrymple says. The diamond, however, was exchanged through morally corrupt means of blood and extortion, namely of a child. The diamond belongs to whoever is descended from the rulers of the Mughal empire, or at the very least, India herself. The stories of the precious stones of the Crown Jewels are riddled with violence, wars, instability, alliances, and colonisation. The British claim all their jewels despite their ownership forever being under questioning until they can do the impossible and prove their origins. Based on the stories and evidence, the right to the gems falls here: The Stuart Sapphire belongs to the Crown, the Cullinan I and II belong to the native South Africans, the Black Prince’s Ruby belongs to the Black Prince and royal family, and the Koh-i-Nûr belongs where it began, in Hindustan, or as the British dubbed it, India. While the stories of the jewels have been long disputed and concealed, and we may never know the truth, the diamonds and sapphires and rubies will never forget the atrocities committed in their names.

youthkiawaaz.com/2017/05/india-bharat-and-hindustan-meaningsand-connotations/>. Crown Jewels n.d., Historic Royal Palaces, viewed 17 October 2022, <https://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/crownjewels/?id=6209#?id=6209>. Crown Jewels (Hansard, 16 July 1992) 1992, hansard.millbanksystems. com, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://hansard.millbanksystems. com/written_answers/1992/jul/16/crown-jewels#column_944w>. Garrard & Co - The Imperial State Crown n.d., www.rct.uk, viewed 17 October 2022, <https://www.rct.uk/collection/31701/the-imperialstate-crown>.

Casey, J. 2019, History of mining in South Africa, Mining Technology, viewed 18 October 2022, <https://www.mining-technology.com/ analysis/history-of-mining-in-south-africa/>.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2008, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Google Books, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., viewed 19 October 2022, <https://books.google.com.au/books?id=eabAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1046&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false>.

Chopra, S 2017, Bharat, Hindustan and India, What Is the Official Name?, Youth Ki Awaaz, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://www.

India - The determination of policy | Britannica n.d., www.britannica. com, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://www.britannica.com/place/

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India/The-determination-of-policy#ref486213>.

History of the Sikhs, pp. 211–223.

Kenyon, J. 2019, James II | Biography, Religion, Accomplishments, & Facts, Encyclopædia Britannica, viewed 20 October 2022, <https:// www.britannica.com/biography/James-II-king-of-England-Scotlandand-Ireland>.

St Edward’s Sapphire in the Maltese Cross n.d., www.stonemania. co.uk, viewed 20 October 2022, <https://www.stonemania.co.uk/ glossary/articles-s/st-edwards-sapphire-1>.

Macleod, J. & Internet Archive 2000, Dynasty: The Stuarts, 1560-1807, Internet Archive, London : Sceptre, viewed 20 October 2022, <https:// archive.org/details/dynastystuarts150000macl_t9s9/page/370/ mode/2up>. Muhammad V | Real Academia de la Historia n.d., dbe.rah.es, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6554/ muhammad-v>. Saint Edward’s sapphire | gem | Britannica 1998, www.britannica.com, viewed 20 October 2022, <https://www.britannica.com/topic/SaintEdwards-Sapphire>. Singh, K. 2004, ‘British Annexation of Malwa: Treaty of Lahore, 1809’, A

The Black Prince’s Ruby 2021, The Court Jeweller, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://www.thecourtjeweller.com/2021/08/the-blackprinces-ruby.html>. The Boers - South African ‘Boer’ War | NZHistory, New Zealand history online 2018, Govt.nz, viewed 18 October 2022, <https://nzhistory. govt.nz/war/south-african-boer-war/the-boers>. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica 2018, Mughal dynasty | History, Map, & Facts, Encyclopædia Britannica, viewed 19 October 2022, <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty>. The Stuart Sapphire 2017, The Court Jeweller, viewed 20 October 2022, <https://www.thecourtjeweller.com/2017/09/the-stuartsapphire.html>.

Shang Yang’s legal reforms: The four words that would raise an empire, the four words that would seep into a 3,000 year-old culture BY CHENGJIA (JULIE) SHENG (YEAR 10) This essay will examine a cause-and-consequential relationship in Chinese history by investigating the direct impact that Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms had on the Qin state’s politics, agriculture, economy and military. It will then explore how the long-term ramifications of these reforms contributed to Chinese society, morality and culture. This essay was written as an entry in the National History Competition. It received a Bronze Award. From approximately 475 BCE to 221 BCE, China was divided into Seven sovereign states, which competed against one another in a brutal power struggle. Peppered by violent confrontations, this chaotic era of ancient Chinese history is known as ‘the Warring States’. When the full-fledged battles of the Warring States first erupted, the Qin state appeared to be relatively unremarkable. It boasted neither expansive terrain nor a booming population.1 It had little abundance in natural resources and was not particularly wealthy.2 In all regards, the Qin state showed no early signs that it was going to become the strongest contender for the throne of all China. However, over roughly 130 years, it suddenly experienced a period of intense growth in the strength of its military, the effectiveness of its government and the loyalty of its citizens, allowing it to emerge from the Warring States as the ultimate victor. This essay will explore how the Qin managed, against all odds, to build itself from a modest border state into a ruthless conqueror. The main catalyst for the Qin’s rapid, almost exponential advancement was the introduction of Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms in 359 BCE. These reforms, developed by the eminent statesman Shang Yang (c. 390 – 338 BCE), were a set of radical new laws that challenged former notions surrounding political hierarchy and citizen participation in the Qin state, forming the backbone of a completely fresh mode of governance. Although it took some years for their impacts to be fully felt, Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms would come to crucially influence the direction in which Qin was progressing.3 Shang Yang was a Chinese poet, philosopher and politician. He rose to power as the chief advisor to the leader of the Qin state at the time: Duke Xiao (reigning from c.361–338 BCE). The political landscape of Qin at the beginning of Shang Yang’s career was heavily dominated by Confucianism. This philosophy promoted an unyielding caste system where every citizen’s place in life was 48

determined by his birth status.4 Politicians were appointed to their positions solely based on familial ties, feudal lords passed down their power through direct primogeniture - essentially consolidating their power within their family alone - and citizens from the lower classes had little opportunity to advance their political careers.5 Unfortunately, Confucianism proved to be an ineffective mode of government for the Qin. Its class-conscious notions justified the complacency of the nobility as well as their self-interested policies, which in turn eroded the faith of the common people in the state and diminished their patriotic morale.6 It also produced an inconsistent legal system, which was easily manipulated by the aristocracy to generate biased results.7 By the time Duke Xiao ascended to the throne, the Qin state was poisoned by corruption amongst the noble elite and had thus suffered losses in wars with rival states.8 Sensing the situation was dire, Duke Xiao recognised the urgent need for a reformation. Soon after he was proclaimed ruler, he issued a nation-wide announcement calling forth ‘men of talent’ from other states to migrate to Qin and advise him on how best to reform his state, promising high offices and land ownership in return. This attracted Shang Yang to his service. Unlike most of his Qin contemporaries, Shang Yang was a stout Legalist. Legalism differed greatly from Confucianism. It maintained that humans were inherently self-centred (Chinese: 人性本恶), and that this immoral nature could only be tempered by severe laws, which would instil a fear of authority in the general populace and generate an environment where all people conducted their duty responsibly.9 Legalists believed that only through nomocracy could a state be governed optimally. Being an avid proponent of Legalism, Shang Yang aimed to inject its core ideas into Qin policy in order to address the aforementioned issues with the Confucianist government system. He achieved this through implementing the reforms, which substantially diminished aristocratic influence in politics and increased citizen participation in the leadership of their state.10 Although his reforms were initially met with opposition from more conservative

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officials since they stripped power away from the noble classes, they were strongly supported by Duke Xiao and were hence implemented rapidly throughout the state.11 One of the key changes to the Qin administration under Shang Yang’s reformation was the abolishment of the hereditary system of official nobility and the institution of a meritocracy in its stead. Shang Yang terminated the practice for aristocrats to inherit their titles and lands via direct primogeniture, introducing an alternate system of military merit, where those who had demonstrated courage in battle would be rewarded with land ownership and a position of nobility regardless of their original background.12 This method of appointing social prestige proved to be extremely popular with the general population as it provided them with a fair opportunity to advance their positions in life.13 It also strengthened the combat power of Qin’s military.14 In accordance with the ideal of meritocracy, Shang Yang also proposed incentives for farmers to increase their agricultural output by exempting those who had exceeded their harvest requirements for the year from corvee duty. This encouraged civilians to invest more effort into farming and food production, which generated prosperity under the primarily agricultural economy.15 Paramount to Shang Yang’s reformation, however, and holding true to the principles of Legalism, was the formation of a strictly impartial justice system. This legal structure issued punishments that were applied to criminals from all classes, regardless of their wealth or political influence. It was one of the first instances in history where concrete law preceded status or reputation, thus marking it as a noble example of equality in ancient China.16 However, Shang Yang faced an obstacle when first implementing his reforms. They were so revolutionary that he was unsure whether the common citizens, who had long lost their trust in the state after decades of government corruption, would believe and accept them.17 To combat this issue, Shang Yang resorted to an unconventional yet fruitful method. His actions would be chronicled by Sima Qian and known to many by the saying “立木建信” (English: placing wood to build trust). The recount begins with Shang Yang ordering for a wooden pole measuring ten metres long to be placed at the southern gate of the capital city. He then issued to all civilians an official announcement that promised anyone who could move the pole from the southern gate to the northern gate ten coppers (a substantial sum at the time). Shang Yang’s pronouncement was initially greeted with scepticism by the populace. Moving a wooden pole did not appear to be a difficult task to them – certainly not worthy of ten coppers. The majority of people concluded that this strange message from the government was a hoax. Nobody shifted the pole. Much to their curiosity, however,

the citizens were greeted the next day by a new bulletin: the reward had been increased from ten coppers to fifty. This enticing amount provoked one person to rise to the challenge, since he concluded that he had little to lose if the government retracted its promise. He completed this basic task, and as guaranteed, received his due reward of fifty coppers. By honouring this simple commitment to its citizens, the government delivered the clear message that it had now undergone a transformation: it was no longer the vessel through which the nobility furthered their own interests, but a fair and just administration defined by the principle of mutual trust. The citizens could now confidently place their trust in the state to protect them from harm, and in return, they were also expected to remain loyal when called upon to provide service for their state. The overarching importance of trust in establishing an effective government would come to define Chinese politics and influence the way rulers treated their subjects many generations to come.18 Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms left a deep imprint on the future of the Qin, as well as the entirety of Chinese civilisation. They advanced the effectiveness of their state’s military, agricultural, economic and political systems by incentivising citizen participation and diminishing aristocratic corruption, allowing Qin to flourish and eventually evolve into the strongest member of the Seven Warring States. Legalism, the key philosophy behind Shang Yang’s reformation, would later integrate alongside Confucianism into Chinese politics and come to actively determine the nature of leadership in China more than 2,000 years. The stringent justice system became the foundation upon which the Qin state constructed its highly competent autocracy.19 This was the first centralised government to successfully unite all of China. It was also an inspiration for the administrations of later Emperors.20 Shang Yang’s reforms can be seen to have hugely – and positively - impacted China’s historical progress and political landscape. The reforms also served to cultivate the morality of the common people by creating a relatively harmonic environment, where law presided over all citizens and unified them under one ruler. The draconian punishments issued for offences of all natures deterred civilians from committing serious crimes, and over time, abstinence from felonious behaviour became naturally ingrained into their moral codes.21 Self-discipline matured into a normal expectation for any person deemed to be of good character, and the concept of social responsibility was internalized by many law-abiding citizens.22 After the reforms were introduced, a dramatic shift in morality began to occur amongst the inhabitants of the Qin state: no one pocketed anything found on the road (Chinese: 道不拾 49

SHANG YANG’S LEGAL REFORMS: THE FOUR WORDS THAT WOULD RAISE AN EMPIRE, THE FOUR WORDS THAT WOULD SEEP INTO A 3,000 YEAR-OLD CULTURE

遗).23 The social atmosphere had changed for the better, and the people were content to live with integrity. In addition to the effects that Shang Yang’s reforms had on human morality, the principle of trust that was cemented by the incident of the wooden pole (立木建信) managed to fuse into Chinese culture. Trust came to be attached with the utmost importance in Chinese life throughout later Imperial dynasties, whether in the daily interactions between ordinary citizens, or the government’s approach to state affairs. In Sima Guang’s ‘Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance’, he claims that “a country’s treasure is its people, a people’s treasure is trust; without trust there is no control over the people, without people there is no control over the country” (Chinese: 国宝于民，民宝于信，非信无以使民，非民无以守国).24 This accentuates the gravity of trust in politics. In modern times, the Chinese value system continues to revolve around trust. The emphasis on being a trustworthy person is a common notion in the Chinese community, which is traditionally

These four words: ‘Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms’ - are now heavily connotated with the idea of exceptional and alacritous change. Without exaggeration, they embody how an idea like Legalism can be so similar to a seed – it can first be planted and nourished by a far-sighted individual. It can then germinate and eventually bloom into fruition, spreading like wildfire through society. It can finally leave the political and cultural environment that it touches drastically altered. Truly, the four words of Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms have guided the destiny of a state; truly, they have raised an empire; truly, they have seeped into a 3,000-year-old culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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‘Key Points | Asia for Educators | Columbia University’. Accessed 16 August 2022. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/main_pop/kpct/ kp_4000bce-1000ce.htm.

Liu, Xiang, 战国策，秦书 (Stratagems of the Warring States, Book of Qin), Jilin: Jilin Literature and History Press, 1996.

‘Legalism - World History Encyclopedia’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.worldhistory.org/Legalism/. ‘Qin Dynasty | History, Facts, & Achievements | Britannica’. Accessed 17 August 2022. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qin-dynasty. ‘Shang Yang - New World Encyclopedia’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Shang_Yang. ‘Shang Yang | Chinese Statesman | Britannica’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shang-Yang. ‘The Role of Shang Yang’s Reforms in the Transition from the Old to the New Society’. Chinese Studies in History 9, no. 3–4 (1 April 1976): 88–99. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSH0009-463309030488. ‘Warring States Period - World History Encyclopedia’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/. ‘Read: Confucianism (Article) / Khan Academy’. Accessed 17 August 2022, http://www.khanacademy.org/_render ChinaFetching.com. ‘Shang Yang - Great Reformer of Qin State | ChinaFetching’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.chinafetching. com/shang-yang. Cremer, de David, ‘Understanding Trust, in China and the West’, Harvard Business Review, 11 February 2015, http://hbr.org/2015/02/ understanding-trust-in-china-and-the-west Haitas, Daniel, ‘SHANG YANG 商鞅 AND LEGALIST 法家 REFORM IN THE ANCIENT CHINESE STATE OF QIN 秦’. Challenges of the Knowledge Society 12, no. (1 May 2018): 524–31. Keats School. ‘The Reformation of Shang Yang in Qin State’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://keatschinese.com/china-culture-resources/ the-reformation-of-shang-yang-in-qin-state/. Li, Cunshan, 商鞅评传 (Comprehensive Study on Shang Yang), Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2021, ISBN-10: 7520386236. Li, Qi, 向商鞅变法问使民之道（Making Reference to Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms for Governance）, 2007, https://wh.cnki.net/article/

defined by tight social networks and deep interpersonal connections.25 The popular idiom of “立木建信” remains in usage amongst the Chinese to highlight the importance of honouring trust.26 It is therefore clear to the observer that the principles behind Shang Yang’s reforms have been thoroughly embedded into Chinese culture.

Pines, Yuri. ‘Legalism in Chinese Philosophy’. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2018. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2018. https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/chinese-legalism/. Qian, Mu, 先秦诸子系年考辨 (Study on Philosophies before the Qin Dynasty), Shanghai: Shanghai Book City, 1992, ISBN: 7805694745. Qiu, Guangming, 中国古代度量衡：第七章从商鞅变法到秦始皇统一度量衡 (Weights and Mesaures in Ancient China: Chapter 7 From Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms to the Unification by Emperor Qin Shi Huang), Beijing: China International Radio Press, 2010, ASIN: B004KJEDRS. Shang, Zi, 商君书 (The Book of Lord Shang), Shanghai: Yiya Publishing House, 2018, ASIN: B07BHNNS5J. Shui, Zhongyu & Yu, Yuan, 中华成语故事大全集 (The Collection of Ancient Chinese Wisdom), 1st ed., Beijing: Enterprise Management Publishing House, 2010. Sima, Guang, 资治通鉴（全四册）(Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance (4 Volumes), 1st ed., Vol. 1, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2007. Sima, Qian, 史记（全十册）(Records of the Grand Historian (Ten Volumes)), vol. 7, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1999. ThoughtCo. ‘How the Qin Dynasty Unified Ancient China’. Accessed 16 August 2022. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-qin-dynastyunified-ancient-china-117672. Tie, Shu, 智者商鞅 (Shang Yang, the Sage), ASIN: B099NWV7GW Wu, Han, 中国历史常识 (Common Knowledge about Chinese History), 1st ed., vol. 1. Beijing: Jiaye Printing House, 2009. Yang, Kuan, 战国史料编年辑证 (Research on Historical Records of the Warring States), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Publishing House, 2001. ISBN: 7208031851. Zhang, Xuelin, ‘General Arguments in Shang Yang’s Reform’, Open Access Liabrary Journal 9, No 1 (4 January 2022): 1-8, http://doi. org/10.4236/oalib.1108146

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FOOTNOTES 1. Wu, Han, 中国历史常识 (Common Knowledge about Chinese History), 1st ed., vol. 1. Beijing: Jiaye Printing House, 2009.

12 Liu, Xiang, 战国策，秦书 (Stratagems of the Warring States, Book of Qin), Jilin: Jilin Literature and History Press, 1996. 13 Tie, Shu, 智者商鞅 (Shang Yang, the Sage), ASIN: B099NWV7GW

2 Wu.

14 Liu.

3 Zhang, Xuelin, “General Arguments in Shang Yang’s Reform”, Open Access Library Journal 9, No 1 (4 January 2022): 1-8, http://doi. org/10.4236/oalib.1108146

15 Li, Qi.

4 ‘READ: Confucianism (Article) | Khan Academy’, accessed 17 August 2022, https://www.khanacademy.org/_render.

18 Tie.

5 Sima, Qian, 史记（全十册） (Records of the Grand Historian (Ten Volumes)), vol. 7, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1999. 6 Qian, Mu, 先秦诸子系年考辨 (Study on Philosophies before the Qin Dynasty), Shanghai: Shanghai Book City, 1992, ISBN: 7805694745. 7 Li, Qi, “向商鞅变法问使民之道 (Making Reference to Shang Yang’s Legal Reforms for Governance)”, 2007, https://wh.cnki.net/article/ detail/BLQS202202007 8 Yang, Kuan, 战国史料编年辑证 (Research on Historical Records of the Warring States), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Publishing House, 2001. ISBN: 7208031851. 9 Qian. 10 Shang, Zi, 商君书 (The Book of Lord Shang), Shanghai: Yiya Publishing House, 2018, ASIN: B07BHNNS5J. 11 Shang.

16 Zhang. 17 Sima, Qian.

19 Li, Cunshan, 商鞅评传 (Comprehensive Study on Shang Yang), Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2021, ISBN-10: 7520386236. 20 Li, Qi. 21 Sima, Guang, 资治通鉴（全四册） (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance (4 Volumes), 1st ed., Vol. 1, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2007. 22 Sima, Guang 23 Shui, Zhongyu & Yu, Yuan, 中华成语故事大全集 (The Collection of Ancient Chinese Wisdom), 1st ed., Beijing: Enterprise Management Publishing House, 2010. 24 Sima, Guang 25 Cremer, de David, “Understanding Trust, in China and the West”, Harvard Business Review, 11 February 2015, http://hbr.org/2015/02/ understanding-trust-in-china-and-the-west 26 Shui & Yu.

Revolution in an Industry: What were the causes for the shift in Australia’s attitudes and policies toward whaling, which consequently transformed the nation into a global critic of the practice? BY AMY ZHANG (YEAR 9) In this essay, I argue that sufficient economic and societal pressures were a prerequisite for the Australian government to reposition its stance on the issue of whaling. In doing so, I prove that such conditions were what caused Australia to become the staunch critic of whaling it is today. This essay was originally written for the National History Competition. Introduction The modern Australian may be confounded by the prominence of whaling in the early colonial era. It was the pillar of much economic activity, consisting of hundreds of ships and thousands of sailors which supported the fledgling nation.1 The industry was thriving between 1820 and 1855 when it provided NSW with over 50 per cent of its exports.2 The whaling industry prospered until the Gold Rush in the mid 1800s was popularised and whaling became less profitable.3 This seems inconceivable to the modern Australian given Australia’s disapproving attitude towards whaling on the international stage; in fact, Australia is one of the staunchest advocates for cetacean conservation and the cessation of all forms of whaling.4 This essay explores the historical causes for this radical transformation in the nation’s attitudes towards the practice and investigates the long-term consequences of this shift. I will first establish the factors that contributed to the ultimate prohibition of commercial whaling in Australia in 1979, positing that it was the confluence of both economic conditions and public outcry that shaped the decision to outlaw the practice. Secondly, I will consider the consequences of the moratorium on whaling on the Australian economy and culture, and the causes for Australia’s vocal opposition to whaling in the present day. In doing so, I argue that the historical dependence on whaling and actions in the past have influenced Australia to adopt its current attitude. What factors caused the whaling industry in Australia to fail? The eventual cessation of whaling in Australia came in 1979 after the last whaling station in Western Australia closed in the previous year.5 But what actually influenced the decision to abandon this historically significant industry? The collapse of the whaling industry due to declining cetacean numbers in the 1800s,6 which prevented the demand for products sourced from whales being 52

met, initiated the circumstances that would eventually culminate in the banning of whaling in Australia. Especially in the early days of the colony’s establishment, Australia profited from large scale commercial whaling.7 Dozens of whaling stations were set up across the country to produce highly sought out goods for consumers.8 Over 40,000 humpback whales had been killed in Australian waters by these whaling stations during their migration from the Antarctic Ocean.9 High demand for Australian whaling in places such as England had great economic benefits and generated a majority of Australia’s exports for many years.10 However, by 1840, about 50 years after the introduction of commercial whaling in Australia, whale numbers began to decline rapidly.11 This was because whales were taken at too quick a rate for them to recover and soon, many species were endangered.12 A significant shortage of whales meant that large-scale commercial whaling was no longer possible or effective for Australia, manifesting in a precarious industry that could be banned without incurring larger economic damages. Indeed, the economic failure of commercial whaling was not as a result of decreased whale numbers alone. The Second Industrial Revolution commenced in the mid 19th century,13 around the time when whaling in Australia was beginning to struggle. Oil from Australian whales was highly prized in Europe and North America as a transmission fluid and lubricant.14 The replacements that emerged, such as petroleum,15 were extremely detrimental for the economy, as Australia’s main trade partners were no longer reliant on their whaling. This left the whaling industry with little profit, further supporting the argument that economic conditions, at the very least, initiated the process that would culminate in outlawing the practice. At the same time, when gold was discovered in NSW, there was a socioeconomic shift which diverted the nation’s attention from whaling toward precious metals, which provided further impetus for the eventual prohibition of whaling. By 1855, whaling was providing NSW with less than 1 per cent of its exports: a stark contrast to the 52

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per cent it provided in 1832.16 The sailors who were aware that the industry was becoming less profitable deserted their ships to become miners.17 The Gold Rush brought substantial wealth to Australia and gold, along with other precious metals, swiftly became one of the colonies’ biggest exports.18 With a shortage of sailors manning the whaling stations and boats, whaling became very difficult to continue - economic conditions that may have required government subsidisation, for which there was no incentive to provide. Thus, a chain of economic circumstances guaranteed the industry was not one which would prosper for long. Such economic pressures were a prerequisite for the public outcry that followed more than a century after the initiation of whaling in Australia, which generated awareness of the environmental problem and thus increased the urgency to outlaw the practice. In the 1970s a surge in environmental activism across the world led to the establishment of organisations such as Greenpeace.19 The first protests against whaling in Australia were under a Greenpeace flag and led to widespread boycotts of the industry.20 This pressure saw several whaling stations close: the Cheynes Beach Whaling Company, for example, was already struggling to support their businesses as little profit meant that they could not repair ships and produce goods.21 However, as Operations Manager of Cheynes Beach Whaling Station Museum, Peter Bell, recounts, when sailors were also followed and chased by angry civilians, they felt pressured to announce their closure.22 Indeed, a change of attitude from the general public caused political figures to act upon the issue, providing an urgent political mandate. In 1979, Malcolm Fraser, then Prime Minister of Australia, admitted he found whaling “abhorrent” and responded to the concerns of the general public.23 He appointed Sir Sydney Frost to conduct an inquiry into whaling.24 Soon after, the Fraser government accepted the recommendations to repeal the Whaling Act, prohibiting all forms of whaling in Australian waters.25 They also introduced the Government Protection Act, which revealed that the government was committed to protecting whales and preventing similar practices in the future.26 Thus, the decision to outlaw the practice of whaling in Australia was set in motion by twin factors: the economic unviability of the industry and the burgeoning public dissent to the practice. Indeed, such factors were instrumental in the transformation of Australia from a nation once economically dependent on whaling to one of the world’s leading voices of opposition to whaling. But why is Australia such a staunch critic of whaling on the global stage, and is this a consequence of the nation’s history? What is the legacy of Australia’s history on political attitudes toward whaling today?

As established, the prohibition of whaling was a consequence of the inability to continue large-scale commercial whaling; the emergence of alternative products; and a socioeconomic shift, through which the whaling industry lost its commercial appeal. However, the mining industry in Australia, which has accelerated environmental damage but also contributed $202 billion dollars to the nation’s economy in FY2019-20, is thriving with government support.27 This suggests that economic factors drive Australia’s environmental decisions. Australia’s insistence on the protection of whale populations is partly a consequence of the economic need to maintain a prosperous whale-watching industry. The popularity of whale-watching began to rise from the late 1960s,28 which was also around the time when large-scale whaling was depreciating. As whale watching and whaling are mutually exclusive industries, the government not only decided to cease whaling altogether, but immediately pushed for cetacean conservation around Australian waters, as greater whale numbers contribute to the success of the whale-watching industry. Humpback whale numbers in Australian waters are increasing at 10 per cent annually – significantly higher than anywhere else in the world29 – and Professor Lars Bejder of Murdoch University claims Australia’s West Coast has recovered almost 90 per cent of their prewhaling numbers.30 The whale-watching industry attracts 1.5 million whale watchers and contributes around $300 million dollars to the national economy each year,31 and is growing by 15 per cent annually.32 Thus, the emerging economic possibilities of the whale-watching industry informed the decision to not only end whaling, but vocally advocate for whale protection. Additionally, Australia’s staunch stance against whaling can be perceived as a consequence of Australia’s very own history, wherein the nation’s vocal opposition to whaling may be a form of reparations for its past complicity in the practice. As a press release from the Prime Minister’s Office on 18 December 1978 noted, Frost’s ‘Inquiry into Whales and Whaling’ concluded “that Australian whaling should cease and that internationally Australia should pursue a policy of opposition to whaling”33 – a finding that marked the beginning of what would be decades of political opposition to the practice on the global stage. In the last ten years, Australia released a statement which encouraged Japan to acknowledge the International Whaling Convention, led by former Foreign Minister Marise Payne;34 applied to the Federal Court of Australia to cease Japanese whaling in an Australian sanctuary in the Antarctic region;35 and has fought in the International Court of Justice to ban whaling in Antarctica.36 Indeed, Australia’s own history in large-scale commercial whaling, which drove many species to the brink of extinction, sets a moral obligation for the country to restore whale populations. The Campaigns Manager with the Australian 53

REVOLUTION IN AN INDUSTRY: WHAT WERE THE CAUSES FOR THE SHIFT IN AUSTRALIA’S ATTITUDES AND POLICIES TOWARD WHALING, WHICH CONSEQUENTLY TRANSFORMED THE NATION INTO A GLOBAL CRITIC OF THE PRACTICE?

Marine Conservation Society, Tooni Mahto, claims that the Japanese Government’s failure to end the global moratorium on whaling in 2018 was “a win for the whales”37 and its unethical practices had been “condemned to history.”38 Australia’s firm attitude on this issue shows its unwillingness to allow history to repeat itself, as the nation knows first-hand of the dire consequences the countenance of whaling can have. Australia’s stance on the issue of Japanese whaling, which has little impact on Australia’s whale-watching industry and economy,39 reveals that its decision to oppose the practice has shifted from one focused on commercial interest, to one of authentic environmental protection. Australia has proven that it does not condone the whaling activities in which Japan participates, despite their cooperative, diplomatic relationship. The two nations not only are international partners, but their economic and strategic decisions are closely tied together.40 Australia’s decision to press charges against the Japanese whaling program in the court of International Law reveals its passion for the conservation effort and how far it is willing to go to protect whale species. As Charlotte Epstein and Kate Barclay posit, Australia risks political tension with Japan solely for protection of the whales as many of the measures it has taken have been ‘non-public’ and therefore “its posturing was [not] ‘just for show’.”41 Perhaps, as Australia is making amendments for the damage they have caused with their own whaling industry, they are preventing the Japanese whale ‘research’ industry from making the same mistakes.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Fraser, Malcolm. “‘INQUIRY INTO WHALES AND WHALING.” Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Australia. Accessed July 22, 2022. https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/ original/00004649.pdf. The Prime Minister’s Office’s press release on 19th March, 1978, contains a speech made by Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser regarding Australia’s plans for an inquiry into whales and whaling as well as the Terms of Reference for the inquiry. In the transcript of Fraser’s speech, he reveals that the government is in the process of deciding whether to cease or continue the practice of whaling by consulting international experts and conducting an inquiry through Sir Sydney Frost. This proved useful for my research project as the comprehensive terms of reference suggests that the investigation was extremely thorough. Whilst consulting this source, I was exposed to the notion that there was existing political will to conserve whale populations -- the Inquiry was the final push for the whaling industry, rather than something that turned popular and political opinion completely around. This helped me to understand the reason why the practice was banned so swiftly once the details had been revealed. Thus, this source divulged to me the importance of cetacean protection to the Fraser Government and the details of the inquiry which influenced the ultimate decision to ban the practice. Fernandes, Aaron. “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes.” ABC News. Accessed August

As Australia has ensured Japan does not encroach upon whale species within its own waters, Australia’s consistent dedication to the issue cannot simply be understood through a cynical lens; instead, there is an authentic environmentalist motivation that complements the new economic interests. Ultimately, the twin forces of economic pressures and public backlash caused not only the prohibition of whaling in Australia, but led Australia to become one of the leading voices against whaling on the global stage. Indeed, the changing status of whales in Australian history reveals the consequences of the past on decisions made in the present. Perhaps, if not for Australia’s historical complicity within the industry, Australia might not be incentivised to oppose whaling to such a large scale, as it can be inferred the nation feels an obligation to atone for the damage it has caused. The issues pursued by governments; the policies debated within international platforms; and the changes implemented into our societies are all shaped by the events of the past. Acknowledging these such events mean that we are able to reflect on our mistakes and not only prevent similar situations from occurring in the future, but ameliorate and heal any damages. Thus, reflecting on the causes of events in history, and their consequences, helps us gain a better understanding of the past, and consequently, our future.

6, 2022. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-20/40-years-sincewhaling-stopped-in-australia-cheynes-beach-closes/10384120 Aaron Fernandes’ article on ABC News offers an interview with the former Operations Manager of the last whaling station in Australia, Peter Bell. Bell recalls some of the events which took place in 1978 as whaling in Australia threatened to come to a halt. This article includes photographs taken decades ago of whales being processed at the beach, which provides evidence of how large-scale whaling was before its cessation. Bell’s first-hand recount of the history of Cheynes Beach Whaling Company provided an insight into the public pressures which were one of the two major contributors that informed the decision to outlaw the practice. I was able to understand how political attitudes of the general public were shifting and the backlash which the industry faced, not only through public protests under the Greenpeace Flag, but also initiatives taken by civilians through independent action. Epstein, Charlotte and Barclay, Kate. “Shaming to ‘green’: Australia– Japan relations and whales and tuna compared.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, vol. 13, no. 1 (2012): 95-123. The journal article written by Charlotte Epstein and Kate Barclay provides a unique perspective on the relationship between Australia and Japan concerning the issue of whaling. The article explores Australia’s conservationist beliefs, as well as the political strategies and campaigns in which it has been involved in an attempt to end the Japanese whaling program. As this article provides academic

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and peer-reviewed insights into the present-day stance Australia takes on whaling, I was provided with an accurate perspective on the causes for this stance. After reading this article, I understood that Australia has invested great amounts of money, time and energy in advocating for international cetacean conservation. Perhaps even more importantly, the article also speculates on the reason for why Australia is so willing to oppose one of its closest bilateral allies. This article helped me to prove that Australia’s shift in attitude towards whaling was one of genuine environmental concern, rather than due to economic factors or international attention.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Fraser, Malcolm. “INQUIRY INTO WHALES AND WHALING.” Speech transcript, Prime Minister’s Office Australia, March 19, 1978. https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/ original/00004649.pdf.

cetaceans/international. “Great whales are still recovering from a history of whaling.” World Wide Fund for Nature. https://wwf.panda.org/discover/ knowledge_hub/endangered_species/cetaceans/threats/whaling/ #:~:text=Japan%20and%20Iceland%20are%20the,their%20 commerical%20hunt%20in%20200 6. Whaling | WWF. Hinchliffe, Jessica. “Humpback whale population growth shows no sign of slowing down, says Queensland researcher.” ABC News. Last modified August 27, 2015. https://www.abc.net.au/news/201508-27/humpback-whale-population-shows-no-sign-of-slowing -down/6728660. Howard, Mark. “Sydney’s whaling fleet.” State Library New South Wales. Last modified 2011. https://dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/sydneys_whaling_fleet. “Japan country brief.” Australian Government DFAT. https://www. dfat.gov.au/geo/japan/japan-country-brief#:~:text=The%20 Australia%E2%80%93Ja pan%20partnership%20is,common%20 approaches%20to%20international%20security.

Fraser, Malcolm. “REPORT OF INQUIRY INTO WHALES AND WHALING.” Speech transcript, Prime Minister’s Office Australia, December 18, 1978.

“Outrageous bid to end whaling ban fails at International Whaling Commission.” Australian Marine Conservation Society. Last modified September 15, 2018. https://www.marineconservation.org.au/ outrageous-bid-to-end-whaling-ban-fails-at-international-

https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/ original/00004930.pdf.

whaling-commission/.

Secondary Sources: Journal Articles Epstein, Charlotte and Barclay, Kate. “Shaming to ‘green’: Australia– Japan relations and whales and tuna compared” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, vol. 13, no. 1 (2012): 112-114. Secondary Sources: Websites “About – Bondi to Manly Walk.” Bondi to Manly. Last modified 2022. https://www.bonditomanly.com/sydneys-whaling-history. “An oil and blubber economy.” The National Museum of Australia. https://digital-classroom.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/startwhaling#:~:text=Whaling%20had% 20made%20up%2052,whaling%20 industry%20became%20even%20smaller. “Australian Whaling History.” Big Volcano. Last modified February 26, 2022. https://www.bigvolcano.com.au/human/whalinghistory. htm#:~:text=Whaling%20Stations%20in% 20Australia,-On%20the%20 east&text=However%2C%20by%201956%20whaling%20stations,pr ocessed%20along%20the%20east%20coast. “Australia’s Whaling Industry.” https://www.whales.org.au/history/aust. html. Carroll, Emma L. and Jackson, Jennifer A. and Paton, Devid and Smith, Tim D. “Two Intense Decades of 19th Century Whaling Precipitated Rapid Decline of Right Whales around New Zealand and East Australia.” Plos One. Last modified April 1, 2014. https://journals.plos. org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0093789. Evans, Kathryn. “Whaling.” Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies. Last modified 2006. https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_ history/W/Whaling.htm.

Fernandes, Aaron. “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes.” ABC News. Last modified November 20, 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-20/40-years-since-whalingstopped-in-australia-cheynes-beach-closes/10384120. “Global protection of cetaceans.” Australian Government DCCEEW. Last modified July 21, 2022. https://www.awe.gov.au/environment/marine/marine-species/

Readfearn, Graham. “‘An unpleasant business’: the last Australian whale hunt.” The Guardian. Last modified November 21, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/21/the-lastaustralian-whale-hunt-in-pictures. “Start of whaling.” The National Museum of Australia. Last modified August 12, 2022. https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/start-ofwhaling. Tarzia, Marguerite and McCormick Bill. “International whaling.” Parliament of Australia. Last modified October 12, 2010. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_ Departments/Parliamentary_Library/p ubs/BriefingBook43p/ internationalwhaling. Wallace, Anthony F.C. “Industrial Revolution.” Britannica. Last modified August 23, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution. “Whaling.” Australian Government DCCEEW. Last modified October 10, 2021. https://www.awe.gov.au/environment/marine/marinespecies/cetaceans/whaling#:~:text=Comme rcial%20whaling%20 in%20Australia%20ceased,ending%20whaling%20in%20Australian%20 wa ters. “Whaling in Albany, 1963”. July 31, 2019. ABC Great Southern, 5:52. https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=357865271814854. “1805 Whaling industry begins in Australia.” Australian Food Timeline. https://australianfoodtimeline.com.au/1805-whaling-industry-beginsin-australia/. “Whaling: Why Litigation?” Australian Institute of International Affairs. Last modified 2022. https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/whaling-why-litigation/

FOOTNOTES “Start of whaling,” National Museum Australia, accessed July 2, 2022, https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/ start-of-whaling#:~:text=Whaling%20in%20the%20e arly%20 colony&text=Whaling%20was%20Australia’s%20first%20 major,could%20survive%20months%20 at%20sea.

“An oil and blubber economy,” National Museum Australia, accessed

REVOLUTION IN AN INDUSTRY: WHAT WERE THE CAUSES FOR THE SHIFT IN AUSTRALIA’S ATTITUDES AND POLICIES TOWARD WHALING, WHICH CONSEQUENTLY TRANSFORMED THE NATION INTO A GLOBAL CRITIC OF THE PRACTICE?

July 2, 2022, https://digital-classroom.nma.gov.au/definingmoments/start-whaling. Jessica Hinchliffe, “Humpback whale population growth shows no sign of slowing down, says Queensland researcher,” ABC News, accessed July 13, 2022, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-27/ humpback-whale-population-shows-no-sign-of-slowing-down/67 28660.

“Global protection of cetaceans,” Australian Government DCCEEW, accessed July 5, 2022, https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/ marine/marine-species/cetaceans/international 4

Aaron Fernandes, “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes,” ABC News, accessed July 5, 2022, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-20/40-years-sincewhaling-stopped-in-australia-cheynes-beach-clo ses/10384120.

“Whaling,” Australian Government DCCEEW, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/marine/marinespecies/cetaceans/whaling#:~:text=Commercial% 20whaling%20 continued%20in%20Australian,Whaling%20Company%2C%20in%20 Western%20Australia 6

7 “Australia’s Whaling Industry,” accessed July 2, 2022, https://www. whales.org.au/history/aust.html. 8 “Australian Whaling Industry,” Big Volcano, accessed July 6, 2022, https://www.bigvolcano.com.au/human/whalinghistory.htm. 9

“Whaling,” Australian Government DCCEEW.

Mark Howard, “Sydney’s whaling fleet,” State Library New South Wales, accessed July 13, 2022, https://dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/ sydneys_whaling_fleet. 10

Emma L. Carroll, Jennifer A. Jackson, Devid Paton and Tim D. Smith, “Two Intense Decades of 19th Century Whaling Precipitated Rapid Decline of Right Whales around New Zealand and East Australia,” Plos One, accessed July 20, 2022, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/ article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0093789.

12 Olivia Lai, “Humpback Whale No Longer Listed as ‘Threatened’ in Australia,” Earth Organisation, accessed July 11, 2022, https://earth. org/humpback-whale-no-longer-listed-as-threatened-in-australia/.

Joel Mokyr and Robert H. Strotz, “The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870-1914,” The Lever of Riches (1990), (1998).

14 “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes,” ABC News. 15

“Start of whaling,” NMA.

“An oil and blubber economy,” NMA.

Tom Goodwin, “Gold’s influence on Australian economic development in the nineteenth century,” The ANU Undergraduate Research Journal

19 Fernando Pereira, “How it all began,” Greenpeace, accessed August 11, 2022, https://www.greenpeace.org.au/about/how-it-all-began/.

“25 years of whale protection in Australia,” Australian Antarctic Program, accessed July 23, 2022, https://www.antarctica.gov.au/ magazine/issue-6-autumn-2004/feature/25-years-of-whaleprotection-in-aus tralia/. “25 years of whale protection in Australia,” Australian Antarctic Program.

Tania Constable, “Mining is the largest contributor to Australian economy in 2019-20,” Minerals Council of Australia, accessed August 12, 2022, https://www.minerals.org.au/news/mining-largestcontributor-australian-economy-2019-20#:~:text=Despit e%20 the%20overall%20economy%20contracting,cent%20share%20of%20 the%20economy.

Martin Gibbs, “From whaling to whale watching,” Queensland Historical Atlas, accessed August 10, 2022, https://www.qhatlas.com. au/content/whaling-whale-watching.

29 Helen Davidson, “Humpback Whales Make a Comeback in Australian Waters as Numbers Rebound,” United Nations University, accessed August 15, 2022, https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/humpback-whalesmake-a-comeback-in-australian-waters-as-numbers-rebou nd#:~:text=The%20review%20of%20scientific%20research,shows%20 no%20indication%20of%20diminishing. 30 “Humpback Whales Make a Comeback in Australian Waters as Numbers Rebound,” United Nations University. 31

“Whale Watching,” Whales Alive, accessed August 3, 2022,

https://www.whalesalive.org.au/whale-watching/. 32

“Whale Watching,” Whales Alive.

Malcolm Fraser, “REPORT OF THE INQUIRY INTO WHALES AND WHALING,” Prime Minister’s Office Australia, Accessed July 23, 2022, https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/ original/00004649.pdf. https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/ default/files/original/00004930.pdf.

34 Grant Wyeth, “Australia Unhappy About Japan’s Return to Whaling,” The Diplomat, accessed August 1, 2022, https://thediplomat. com/2019/07/australia-unhappy-about-japans-return-to-whaling/. 35 “Japanese Whaling case,” Environmental Law Australia, accessed August 1, 2022, http://envlaw.com.au/japanese-whaling-case/.

Andrew Darby, “International Court of Justice upholds Australia’s bid to ban Japanese whaling in Antarctica,” The Sydney Morning Herald, accessed August 1, 2022, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/ international-court-of-justice-upholds-australias-bid-to-ban-japane se-whaling-in-antarctica-20140331-35ude.html#:~:text=The%20 International%20Court%20of%20Justice, under%20International%20 Whaling%20Commission%20rules.

“Outrageous bid to end whaling ban fails at International Whaling Commission”, Australian Marine Conservation Society, accessed August 3, 2022, https://www.marineconservation.org.au/outrageousbid-to-end-whaling-ban-fails-at-international-whaling-commission/. 37

20 “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes,” ABC News.

21 “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes,” ABC News.

39 Marise Payne, “Japan to exit from International Whaling Commission and cease Southern Ocean whaling,” Australian Government, accessed July 28, 2022, https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/ marise-payne/media-release/japan-exit-international-whaling-c ommission-and-cease-southern-ocean-whaling.

22 “Remembering Australia’s whaling industry 40 years after last whaling station closes,” ABC News. 23 Graham Readfearn, “‘An unpleasant business’: the last Australian whale hunt”, The Guardian, accessed 15 August, 2022, https://www. theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/21/the-last-australianwhale-hunt-in-pictures.

Malcolm Fraser, “INQUIRY INTO WHALES AND WHALING,” Prime Minister’s Office Australia, Accessed July 23, 2022, https:// 24

pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00004649.pdf. 25

“Outrageous bid to end whaling ban fails at International Whaling Commission”, Australian Marine Conservation Society.

“Japan country brief,” Australian Government DFAT, accessed July 28, 2022, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/japan/japan-country-brief.

41 Charlotte Epstein and Kate Barclay, “Shaming to ‘green’: Australia– Japan relations and whales and tuna compared,” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, vol. 13, no. 1 (2012): 112-114.

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Evaluate the success of the methods used by the American Civil Rights Movement, during the 1950s and 1960s, in achieving meaningful change in rights BY THINARA SIRINIWASA (YEAR 9) This essay was originally written for a Year 9 History Civil Rights assessment task. African Americans used methods to try and seek equality and create long-lasting change to their circumstances during the 1950s and 60s of America. The most prominent methods used were non-violent and violent protests. These methods attempted to restore legal, social, and ethical principles known as rights, for African Americans, whilst simultaneously creating change that has been vital to the history of the Civil Rights Movement. The success of each method has been measured by historians understanding and analysis of its short term and long-term effects. Despite both methods producing various degrees of success, a historical interrogation of the effects of Little Rock Nine and the Black Panther Movement shows that non-violent protests were less successful than violent protests in the long term. The non-violent protests of the Civil Rights Movement were highly successful in achieving short-term success, whilst having some positive long-term effects on society. The particular events of Little Rock Nine planted a significant milestone for the achievement of equality and desegregation for African Americans. In President Eisenhower’s speech addressing the nation on desegregation in Little Rock, he says that he “…Intend[s] to pursue this course until the orders of the Federal Court at Little Rock can be executed without unlawful interference.” His speech conveys the truthful support that he would consistently provide to not only Little Rock Nine, but also the African American Little Rock community until desegregation could occur. The Supreme Court’s legal aid and this statement by the President, coupled with the nine and their persistence through the oppression they faced, provided a beacon of courage, and hope inspiring other African Americans to take a stand and continue the nine’s ideals of peaceful protests. The President’s speech also alludes to how desegregation was rejected nation-wide by the white community. This point is further reinforced by a photograph where the hostility and anger between the surrounding mob and the African American in the middle is clearly visible. Likewise, Martin Luther King Jr., conducting his peaceful protests which entailed the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Selma to Montgomery Marches, reinforced the nine’s ideals. With two powerful civil rights groups participating in non-violent protesting, it became clear to

African Americans that civil disobedience and peaceful protests were becoming an increasingly popular method of protesting and was highly effective upon the legal and political systems. Thus, causing the method to become more successful as other African Americans joined. Historian Soumyajit Mazumder’s research has found that, “Using…historical data on U.S. civil rights protests during 1960-65 … I find that whites from counties that experienced civil rights protests tend to be more liberal today, especially with respect to racial attitudes”. This evidences how protests during the movement, like the Little Rock Nine, have been the primary cause for shaping our treatment of the black society into what it is today one in which majority of our society respects them, and no longer strips them of their rights or labels them as inferior. Whilst there are white supremacist groups, they are a small minority whose impact has been insignificant in comparison to Little Rock Nine. Therefore, the actions of the peaceful protest led by nine African American students, dubbed Little Rock Nine, was highly successful in the short term, as it created hope for African Americans, and sparked desegregation for public schools nationwide. However, the protest has also been a crucial event in guiding our society towards overcoming its white supremacist beliefs which it has successfully done today, thus demonstrating how peaceful protests during the 1950s and 60s were highly successful in creating meaningful change. As opposed to peaceful protests, violent protests have presented more significant and long-lasting effects. The Black Panther Movement was one of the most violent, yet vital protests in the history of the Civil Rights Movement. Historian Peniel E. Joseph stated in an article that, “Black Power grew out of … the decade of the 1960s … possibilities of American democracy seemed unlimited. Black Power activists tested America’s willingness to extend citizenship to blacks with a robust call for selfdetermination”. His statement showcases how Black Power, which originated from the Black Panther Movement and alike, has tested the American government’s laws and regulations for equality. This testing of the system has further refined and reinforced it, as the movement exposed its flaws and corrupted nature. Due to the Black Panther Movement, American justice systems have evolved to the positive state they are at today. Furthermore, the courage of which the movement took to challenge the American government instilled bravery and determination into the African American race. 57

EVALUATE THE SUCCESS OF THE METHODS USED BY THE AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, DURING THE 1950S AND 1960S, IN ACHIEVING MEANINGFUL CHANGE IN RIGHTS

This point is further reinforced by a photograph of the two founders of the Black Panther Movement, in which the stances of the men, the positioning of the sign and the guns in their hands emanates an aura of black power, strength and empowerment. This was further reflected through their bravery and fearlessness for violent responses towards law enforcement. In addition to this, both men are wearing black berets, a symbol of resistance during the Movement which further enhances their image as a dangerous yet morally driven group. This image has become a source of motivation and empowerment for African Americans to continue to fight for equality, as was demonstrated through the recent Black Lives Matter Movement. The co-founder of the movement said that “They [the Black Panthers] exist as a continual barometer to measure ourselves against”, which showcases the impact of the Black Panther Movement’s operations results, as it has constructed an almost unattainable standard through its violent means of removing social inequality. As such, the violent protests of the Black Panther Movement have been highly successful in empowering and motivating the

BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources The American Civil Rights Movement. (2018). The American Civil Rights Movement. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/ the-american-civil-rights-movement/content-section-11#:~:text=The%20Civil%20Rights%20Act%20of,rights%20movement%20 was%20less%20revolutionary Anderson, K. (2014). Little Rock: Race and resistance at Central High School. Princeton University Press. The Black Panther Party: Challenging Police and Promoting Social Change. (2020, August 23). National Museum of African American History and Culture. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/black-panther-party-challenging-police-and-promoting-social-change#:~:text=The%20Black%20Panthers%20and%20the,in%20Africa%20and%20 Southeast%20Asia. The Black Panther Party. (2016, August 25). National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/black-power/ black-panthers Brown, Racial Change, and the Civil Rights Movement on JSTOR. (2014). Jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073592?searchText=historian+interpretation+civil+rights+movement+peaceful+protest&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhistorian%2Binterpretation%2Bcivil%2Brights%2Bmovement%2Bpeaceful%2Bprotest%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_ gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3Ab0e8b9f530a76a6dc5b68727864e1a3d&seq=18#metadata_info_tab_contents Chow, A. R. (2021, February 12). How The Black Panther Party Inspired a New Generation of Activists. Time; Time. https://time. com/5938058/black-panthers-activism/ http://www.facebook.com/594115351. (2016, October 20). The Difference Between “Change” and “Meaningful Change.” George Couros. https://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/6785#:~:text=Meaningful%20change%20goes%20beyond%20the,what%20we%20were%20 doing%20before

African American race to continue their push for justice and equality to-date and influencing our society’s ideals on how to perform protests with effective outcomes. Therefore, this displays how violent protests have created long term meaningful change in African American rights. In conclusion, the methods of non-violent and violent protests which African Americans have used in an attempt to create a meaningful change in rights have been heavily successful. The peaceful protests of Little Rock Nine inspired African Americans, created desegregation nation-wide and evolved our treatment of African Americans significantly. However, the violent protests of the Black Panther Movement have provided strength and empowered African Americans through the instances of racial injustice and discrimination that they have faced and continue to face to-date. Therefore, the Civil Rights Movement has been greatly successful in developing the treatment and the rights, not only in America but globally, of African Americans to the standard that we hold them at in our society today.

Dwight Eisenhower - Speech to the Nation on Segregation in Little Rock Arkansas. (2022). Americanrhetoric.com. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/dwighteisenhowerlittlerock.htm Encyclopedia of Arkansas. (2022, March 23). Encyclopedia of Arkansas; CALS. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/ lost-year-737/#:~:text=Southern%20state%20legislatures%20 passed%20resolutions,students%20from%20entering%20Central%20 High. Gaiter, C. (2015, November 6). Black Panthers and Black Lives Matter: Parallels and progress. The Conversation. https://theconversation. com/black-panthers-and-black-lives-matter-parallels-and-progress-48313 Historians and the Civil Rights Movement on JSTOR. (2014). Jstor. org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27555365?oauth_data=eyJlbWFpbCI6InRzaXJpbml3YXNhMjAyNUBweW1ibGVsYy5uc3cuZWR1LmF1IiwiaW5zdGl0dXRpb25JZHMiOlsiNWI5NTgyNzctZjI4Yy00MjIwLWJmZDAtMmFhZmFhZDllMzJjIl19&seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis on JSTOR. (2014). Jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2080994#metadata_info_tab_contents How Did Little Rock Nine Impact Society, (2015). Ipl.org. https://www. ipl.org/essay/How-Did-Little-Rock-Nine-Impact-Society-PJTXVPBZDSM#:~:text=Little%20Rock%20Nine%20inspired%20many,background%2C%20impact%2C%20and%20contributions Joseph, P. E. (2008). Historians and the Black Power Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 22(3), 8–15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25162180#metadata_info_tab_contents Legal Control of the Southern Civil Rights Movement on JSTOR. (2014). Jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095468?searchText=civil+rights+peaceful+protests+historians&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dcivil%2Brights%2Bpeaceful%2Bprotests%2Bhistorians%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A08df-

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fe44223a7478a2e2ee5dfd7264f2&seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents The Little Rock Nine History & Protest (2022). Who were the Little Rock Nine? - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com. Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-little-rock-nine-facts-history. html The Little Rock Nine (U.S. National Park Service). (2021). Nps.gov. https://www.nps.gov/people/the-little-rock-nine.htm#:~:text=Significance%3A,Little%20Rock%20Central%20High%20School Little Rock Quotes. (2022). Upper Grade Social Studies Center. http://197sscenter.weebly.com/little-rock-quotes.html Local Protest and Federal Policy: The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the 1964 Civil Rights Act on JSTOR. (2015). Jstor. org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654404?searchText=historian+civil+rights+peaceful+protest&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhistorian%2Bcivil%2Brights%2Bpeaceful%2Bprotest%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_ search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A6793f4f42d65d6d7a1d379274df53137&seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents On Violence and Nonviolence: The Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi - 2002-02. (2022). Ms.gov. https://www.mshistorynow.mdah. ms.gov/issue/the-civil-rights-movement-in-mississippi-on-violence-and-nonviolence

The Persistent Effect of U.S. Civil Rights Protests on Political Attitudes on JSTOR. (2018). Jstor.org. https://www. jstor.org/stable/26598792?searchText=civil+rights+peaceful+protests+historians&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dcivil%2Brights%2Bpeaceful%2Bprotests%2Bhistorians%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A08dffe44223a7478a2e2ee5dfd7264f2&seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents Press, A. (2017). 60 Years On, A Look Back at the Little Rock Nine [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ym8rdtq-KBE Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions on JSTOR. (2014). Jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073565?searchText=historian+civil+rights+peaceful+protest&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhistorian%2Bcivil%2Brights%2Bpeaceful%2Bprotest%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_ search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A6793f4f42d65d6d7a1d379274df53137&seq=5#metadata_info_tab_contents Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement. (2022). Crmvet.org. https:// www.crmvet.org/faq/faqfail.htm#:~:text=The%20biggest%20failure%20of%20the,markets%2C%20financing%2C%20and%20capital

An evaluation of Voltaire’s contribution towards the French Enlightenment BY HAYLEY ZHOU (YEAR 11) This essay was originally written for a Year 11 Modern History research assessment. Voltaire, among the most profound and revolutionary of the 18th-century philosophers, held a momentous impact in shaping the events and outcomes of the French Enlightenment, cultivating the period’s defining cultural movement against religious fanaticism, and toward rationality and social reform. Voltaire’s ability to popularise the controversial ideologies of intellectuals influenced society’s movement towards empirical reason over traditional optimism in understanding the natural world. His advocation for religious tolerance through his widespread publications also contributed to the Enlightenment’s cultural movement towards rationality, and against the domination of Catholicism and religious dogmatism in France. Moreover, Voltaire’s criticism of France’s political structure, by advocating for the separation of church and state, and the abolishment of the absolute monarchy, greatly underpinned the ideals of radical revolutionaries, influencing the birth of the French Revolution. Thus, Voltaire significantly contributed towards the periods defining philosophies and its shifting cultural attitudes, greatly impacting the Enlightenment. Voltaire contributed towards the Enlightenment through spreading and popularising the works of progressive but initially controversial intellectuals into France, moulding society’s movement towards empirical science and rationality, which also indirectly influenced other philosophers of the Enlightenment. The most notable of such popularisation was Voltaire’s advocation for Newtonianism in the 18th-century Newton Wars over traditional, complacent ideals of Leibniz’s religious optimism.1 In decades prior to 1734, controversies had erupted within France regarding the value of Newtonian science in understanding the natural world, criticising theories of gravitational attraction compared to accepted metaphysics and humanism; philosophical perceptions of science revolving around spiritual revelation.2 Historian Nicholas Cronk argues that Voltaire’s “skilful choice of literary genre and captivating writing styles allowed him to promulgate ideas of reason and epistemology, which prior to 1740, had been clandestine.”3 Cronk suggests that the centrepiece of Voltaire’s public campaign was his ‘Éléments de la Philosophie de Newton’ (1738), as it offered an accurate and accessible account of Newton’s scientific philosophy suitable for the general populace.4 Such publications, although initially opposing the French Academy of Sciences, were a major cause for Newton’s widespread dissemination and acceptance in French society. Subsequently, by the 1750s, Voltaire 60

had successfully established Newtonianism as the new scientific orthodoxy, causing the widespread perception that through Voltaire’s efforts, France had progressed beyond archaic scientific understandings.5 Specifically, Pierre Louis Maupertuis, a mathematician who had advised Voltaire on his writings, suggested that by promoting a rational society, Voltaire ultimately launched the Enlightenment’s cultural movement towards reason.6 The accessibility of Voltaire’s publications caused the rejection of science as an impractical, aristocratic luxury, and society’s newfound value for knowledge as means of societal progression was evident in 1793, with the establishment of a national system of secondary schools with an emphasis on mathematics.7 Consequently, historian J.B. Shank, in ‘The Newton Wars and the French Enlightenment’ suggests that Voltaire was indirectly, “the initiator of the Enlightenment’s philosophical tradition of empirical reason that was adopted by intellectuals such as Auguste Comte and Immanuel Kant,”8 since Newtonian science provided the foundation for further progression into rationality Hence, through Voltaire’s popularisation of initially controversial, rational philosophies of intellectuals through his literary works, Voltaire held a momentous impact on the French Enlightenment, and the societal acceptance of empirical reason. Moreover, Voltaire heavily contributed towards progressive societal attitudes in the Enlightenment, through the continuous advocation for religious tolerance and liberty, and his cynicism of the Catholic Church’s domination. Since 511CE, Roman Catholicism had been France’s state religion, holding extensive societal influence with such radical, organised religion leading to religious intolerance, including historical persecution against religious minorities, or heretics. Following his residence in England, which although majorly protestant, was a religiously tolerant society, Voltaire’s 1734 publication, ‘Lettres philosophiques’ (Letters on the English), emphasised the benefits of religious liberation in achieving ideals such as social order and equality, by stating “if one religion were allowed in England, the government would very possibly become arbitrary, but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.”9 Through this exceedingly influential publication, Voltaire condemned societal attitudes of religious superiority, objecting against organised religion as means of religious fanaticism, which he argued, clouded individuals’ natural capacity for reason. Voltaire’s campaign for religious freedom was most widespread through Candide (1759), which opposed the church by glorifying deism and satirically ridiculing religious intolerance, including its superstition and

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fanaticism.10 Historian Henri Peyre suggests that “despite its initial censorship for religious blasphemy and political sedition… Candide caused the perception of religious freedom to be more palatable,”11 arguing that Voltaire’s spread of such liberating ideologies within the minds of individuals held an integral aspect of the cultural movement beyond religious dogma. Furthermore, Voltaire advocated against religious discrimination within France’s judicial system, particularly through the Calas case of 1762, where the Toulouse court unfairly found a protestant merchant, Jean Calas, guilty of murder and sentenced to death. Through vigorous campaigning, including his publication, ‘Treatise on Toleration’ (1763), Voltaire states, “it was religious fanaticism that led to the death of Jean Calas,”12 highlighting the bloody consequences of religious prejudice. He utilised the First Crusade as historical evidence of the absurdity of religious dogma, criticising Christians who had persecuted religious minorities in the name of religious fanaticism. Eventually, Jean Calas’ name was cleared in 1765 due to overwhelming public pressure, and increasing awareness led to the marginalisation of Catholicism, and the secularisation of French society.13 Thus, Voltaire greatly contributed towards the French Enlightenment through his influence on attitudes towards religious tolerance, which was integral in the period’s cultural shift from religious dogma, towards liberty and rationality. Among Voltaire’s most renowned impacts on the Enlightenment, was his criticism of France’s political structure, advocating against an absolute monarchy and for the separation of church and state, which underpinned the ideals of radical revolutionaries, galvanising civil change through the French Revolution. Specifically, Voltaire’s political critique of the French crown was evident within Lettres philosophiques, which highlighted the success of England’s constitutional monarchy. Specifically, with the 1749 introduction of a ‘Vingtieme’ tax of 5 per cent annual income, Voltaire criticised the French government’s corruption and hypocrisy in exempting aristocrats, stating, “no one is exempted in England from paying taxes because he is a Nobleman or a Priest.” 14 Voltaire also highlighted the monarchy’s incompetence, including King Louis XVI’s inability to resolve growing socioeconomic discontent. Furthermore, publications including ‘Essays on Universal History’ (1757), advocated for the separation of church and state, through its expose into the corruption of both political authorities.15 Voltaire articulated ideals of individual liberalism by arguing that existing political authority was founded in religious myth, and that the church’s truthful role was to cement the monarchy’s power through tithes, as means of oppression. Historian François Furet stated that ultimately, “Voltaire argued that

no authority, no matter how sacred, should be immune to challenge by critical reason,”16 with such reformist scepticism moulding cynical political attitudes in society. Moreover, in his The Spirit of the Revolution, Pierre Louis Roederer, a politician during the French Revolution, characterised the revolution as the radicalisation of popularised Enlightenment ideologies.17 This was directly seen through Voltaire’s influence on the Third Estate, which was vital to the revolution, consisting of 621 of 1214 members in the Estates-General of 1789. Among them were revolutionaries engrossed by Voltaire’s social criticisms, such as “Dictionnaire Philosophique” (1764), which revealed the dishonesty of church officials.18 Consequently, radical changes in the church’s administrative system were executed during the revolution, seen in July 1790 when the French National Assembly passed a law titled Civil Constitution of the Clergy, effectively separating church and state by making the Catholic church a civil institution, dissolving religious tax. Furthermore, the extent of Voltaire impact was evident with his 1791 re-burial in the The Panthéon,19 as a tribute to his philosophical campaigns on political reform as a major cause of the revolution, and its characteristic ideals of liberation and equality, leading to the abolishment of the monarchy in 1792. Thus, Voltaire significantly contributed towards the Enlightenment through his condemnation of France’s political structure, including the advocation for the separation of church and state, influencing revolutionaries and leading to political reform seen in the French revolution. Conclusively, Voltaire was a consequential figure in the French Enlightenment during the 18th century, greatly contributing to the cultural movement of rationality over religious dogma, which underpinned civil change. Voltaire’s popularisation of initially controversial ideologies, particularly during the Newton Wars, fostered the societal shift towards empirical reason over traditional ideologies of optimism. His continuous advocation for religious tolerance also led to the cultural movement of rationality, against the Catholic Church and religious fanaticism. Moreover, Voltaire’s criticisms of France’s absolutist political structure held an immense influence on the ideals of revolutionaries, defining the period of social reform, and contributing towards the French Revolution. Thus, Voltaire had a notable contribution towards his time, holding a profound role in the events and ideologies of the Enlightenment, particularly regarding the cultural movement towards rationality and social reform.

AN EVALUATION OF VOLTAIRE’S CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE FRENCH ENLIGHTENMENT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Voltaire, Letters on England. Edited by Henry Morley, 2000.

Adkins, G. Matthew. The Idea of the Sciences in the French Enlightenment: A Reinterpretation. New Brunswick, University of Delaware Press, 2013.

Voltaire, and Burton Raffel. Candide: Or Optimism. New Haven, Yale University Press, 2005.

Bristow, William. “Enlightenment.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2017. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2017. https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/fall2017/entries/enlightenment/. Cronk, Nicholas. “Essai What Voltaire Did.” Voltaire Foundation of Oxford, 2021. https://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/essai-what-voltaire-did/. Feingold, Mordechai, and J. B. Shank. “The War on Newton.” Isis 101, no. 1 (2010): 175–86. https://doi.org/10.1086/652697. Force, Pierre. “Voltaire and the necessity of modern history.” Modern Intellectual History 6, no. 3 (November 2009): 457–84. https://doi. org/10.1017/S147924430999014X. Harvey, David Allen. “Religion(s) and the Enlightenment.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, no. 2 (2014):

FOOTNOTES John B Shank, “The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment,” Bibliovault OAI Repository, the University of Chicago Press, January 1, 2008, https://doi.org/10.7208/ chicago/9780226749471.001.0001.

J.B. Shank, “Voltaire,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2022 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/ entries/voltaire/.

Nicholas Cronk, “Essai What Voltaire Did,” Voltaire Foundation of Oxford, 2021, https://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/essai-what-voltaire-did/.

Israel, Jonathan. “Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?” Journal of the History of Ideas 67, no. 3 (2006): 523–45.

Mostefai, Ourida, and John T. Scott. Rousseau and L’Infâme: Religion, Toleration, and Fanaticism in the Age of Enlightenment. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.

Noyer, G. K. Noyer, and G. K. Noyer. Voltaire’s Revolution: Writings from His Campaign to Free Laws from Religion. Amherst, United States: Prometheus, 2015. Peyre, Henri. “Voltaire and the Enlightenment.” Edited by Robert A. Wagoner, Gustave Lanson, and Peter Gay. The Massachusetts Review (1967) Reinhard, Marcel. Review of Review of The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern History, by Alfred Cobban. Annales Historiques de La Révolution Française 33, no. 163 (1961): 106–7. Roderer, Pierre Louis. The Spirit of the Revolution of 1789. Edited by Murray Forsyth. Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989. Shank, J.B. “Voltaire.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2022. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ sum2022/entries/voltaire/. Shank, John B. “The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment.” Bibliovault OAI Repository, the University of Chicago Press, January 1, 2008. https://doi.org/10.7208/ chicago/9780226749471.001.0001.

Cronk.

Shank, “The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment.”

6 Mordechai Feingold and J. B. Shank, “The War on Newton,” Isis 101, no. 1 (2010): 175–86, https://doi.org/10.1086/652697. 7 G. Matthew Adkins, The Idea of the Sciences in the French Enlightenment: A Reinterpretation (New Brunswick, UNITED STATES: University of Delaware Press, 2013). 8 Shank, “The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment.” 9

(1694-1778) Voltaire, Letters on England, ed. Henry Morley, 2000.

Voltaire and Burton Raffel, Candide: Or Optimism (New Haven, UNITED STATES: Yale University Press, 2005), 10

Henri Peyre, “Voltaire and the Enlightenment,” ed. Robert A. Wagoner, Gustave Lanson, and Peter Gay, The Massachusetts Review 8, no. 4 (1967): 762–66.

12 Voltaire, Voltaire: Treatise on Tolerance, trans. William F. Fleming (Musaicum Books, 2017).

Ourida Mostefai and John T. Scott, Rousseau and L’Infâme: Religion, Toleration, and Fanaticism in the Age of Enlightenment (Amsterdam, NETHERLANDS, THE: BRILL, 2009)

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Voltaire - Exile to England,” 2022. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Voltaire/Exile-toEngland.

14 William Bristow, “Enlightenment,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2017 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2017),

The Editors of New World Encyclopedia. “Voltaire - New World Encyclopedia.” Accessed June 9, 2022. https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/voltaire#Voltaire_and_the_ Enlightenment.

Shank, “Voltaire.”

Peyre, “Voltaire and the Enlightenment.”

Trevor-Roper, Hugh, and John Robertson. History and the Enlightenment. New Haven, Yale University Press, 2010. Voltaire. Voltaire: Treatise on Tolerance. Translated by William F. Fleming. Musaicum Books, 2017.

Yasmin, Lukna. “Voltaire’s Influence in the Mind of the Revolutionaries of the French Revolution.” Philosophy and Progress, 2019. https://doi. org/10.3329/pp.v65i1-2.55958.

Pierre Louis Roderer, The Spirit of the Revolution of 1789, ed. Murray Forsyth (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989). 17

Lukna Yasmin, “Voltaire’s Influence in the Mind of the Revolutionaries of the French Revolution,” Philosophy and Progress, 2019, 145–62, https://doi.org/10.3329/pp.v65i1-2.55958.

Yasmin.

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History

With natural beauty and tasty street food, Wuhan is wonderful BY YUKI WANG (YEAR 10) Yuki Wang is a junior reporter with Youth Journalism International. This article was originally published in https:// youthjournalism.org/author/yuki-wang/ on December 7, 2021.

as the ‘virus factory.’ “So, this is where coronavirus came from,” or “the home of Covid,” you might say. Yes, it is potentially where everything started, but it wasn’t a city full of viruses, it was a city with love and spirit. It was a city where all its people were united in annihilating the virus. It was where people sacrificed in order to provide better lives for the people of Wuhan, China and the world. The people, the spirit and the sacrifices are the moments that make the city so magnificent, splendid and heroic.

SYDNEY – Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province and the industrial hub of central China, is home to 11 million people. To people outside of China, Wuhan sounded like a rural town out in the universe. It feels like I should be embarrassed when people asked where I am from. But I am proud of this city and, to me, I belong in Wuhan. You probably hadn’t heard of the city until last year when coronavirus was spotted in my hometown. It was a shocking moment for all the world, as social distancing and wearing masks became mandatory in our lives.

It is tough handling the virus, but I have seen how strong the city was in combatting this deadly virus. From healthcare workers to small businesses and neighbours, everyone was working together, doing the right thing until it was over. The virus destroyed this city, but I know that this is not a fearful city. The community and each individual are powerful and determined to take on initiatives. Wuhan is a city that is well known for its rivers. It is located where the Yangtze and Hanjiang rivers meet. The city is surrounded by water and lakes, and the Hubei province alone has more than a thousand lakes. Growing up in Jiangan suburb, I remember spending my weekends at the Wuhan River Beach Park, always riding a bike along the Yangtze River.

Night life in the central district. (Yuki Wang/YJI)

Of course, people criticized and blamed this city and its people, saying it all started with my hometown – the vibrant city of Wuhan. News swept around the world as this city became known

A Street in Wuhan in the fall (Yuki Wang/YJI)

From morning to late night, the River Beach Park is always alive. You can see people dancing, biking, exercising and walking with their friends in view of the Yangtze River and 63

WITH NATURAL BEAUTY AND TASTY STREET FOOD, WUHAN IS WONDERFUL

Wuchang, the suburb on the opposite-bank. Its crystal lakes are beautiful and, at night, all the high-rise buildings lighting up the darkened sky is a vivid sight. Wuhan is famous for its morning street food and is known for its breakfast food countrywide. When you wake up, there will be always a street full of food. You can find everything from hot dry noodles and beef noodles to fried Chinese doughnuts and Siumai. For me, Wuhan is the taste of my grandma’s food and my comfort foods. I love waking up early and wandering on the streets. Every bite has my own stories. It is also a way of supporting struggling local businesses, especially during the pandemic.

The ways people viewed Wuhan didn’t affect me much. I was always thrilled to tell everyone about life in my city. But the pandemic made everything worse. Googling ‘Wuhan’ always results in ‘coronavirus’ or ‘where coronavirus originated.’ The excitement and proud moments I felt for my hometown slowly transformed into guilt and anger. So, is it where I belong, this place filled with viruses? Though I live in Australia now, I love to talk about my life in Wuhan because it is a city where everyone feels loved and that they belong. I tried not to let it affect me much, remembering that Wuhan is – and always will be – a city full of life. The moment I set foot into the city, I feel I belong. For me, Wuhan is where my memories were established. It was where I could be myself and where I feel comfortable. More than home to me, Wuhan is a place that I want to be, a place that I can find myself and feel like I belong. I cannot feel embarrassed about my city. I am proud of the fact that my hometown is Wuhan – a futuristic city where the economy, technology and infrastructure of the world will thrive.

Wuhan is famous for its morning street food: hot dry noodles, tofu skin outside glutinous rice with mushroom, meat and bamboo shoots, egg and rice wine soup and siumai (Yuki Wang/YJI)

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Politics, Philosophy and Economics

Jew-ish – Legacy Public Speaking Competition Speech Transcript BY EMILY (YEAR 9) Although I don’t remember the first time that I heard about the Holocaust or antisemitism, discussion around my Jewish background was often distant or not spoken about with people outside of my family. Whenever people ask what my religion is, I often say, “Well, I’m kind of, technically Jew-ish,” because the prospect of being hated for my blood and ancestry is really scary, but really real.

threat to the Jewish population. For example, how do you think the American population reacted when President Trump called himself “the least anti-Semitic person that you’ve ever seen in your entire life,” but continued to post Hilary Clinton as the ‘most corrupt candidate ever’ next to the Star of David, and refused to condemn neo-Nazis. For the most part, they were unbothered.

Nearly one in four young people dispute the indisputable fact that six million Jewish lives were taken during the Second World War. The Holocaust is the most prolific example of antisemitism, which is defined as hostility or prejudice against Jewish people. There are at least 6.8 million articles online referring to antisemitic acts that have occurred in our modern society. It has become such a common and casual concept that people subconsciously condone these hateful actions.

Neo-Nazis aspire to restore Nazi regimes. They promote white supremacy, attacks against racial minorities and homophobia. These groups, located all over the world, are famously known for their motive of ‘breeding out the Jewish race’. Social media and chat rooms are bringing these fascist views to a whole new generation of followers, some as young as thirteen. Neo-Nazis are notoriously violent, and many believe that their ideologies could fuel terror attacks. Is it a surprise that fewer and fewer people are choosing to identify as Jewish?

How would you react if you heard someone say that Jewish people are stingy with their money? Super rich? Sneaky? Have big noses? Are greedy? I’d like you to think about the portrayal of villains in fairy tales. Mother Gothel from Tangled, Ursula from The Little Mermaid and Cinderella’s stepmother are only a few examples of Disney characters who are portrayed with a big, hooked nose. This is no coincidence. You don’t need to look hard at Mother Gothel to see that she is being portrayed as a Jew. The dark curly hair and eyes, and the hooked nose. Why is it that the common or stereotypical features of a Jewish person are deemed evil looking or ugly and these messages are being injected into children from a young age? Why is no one stopping this? Additionally, our social media pages provide an uncensored platform for hateful comments to be shared and, effectively, flourish. A 2021 report from The Center to Counter Digital Hate, shared how trending comments on TikTok and Twitter such as #fakejews and #killthejews, can be viewed over three million times before being taken down. The report also shared a study that states that TikTok fails to remove 95 per cent of accounts that share antisemitic content. Although this hate is taking place online, its repercussions are not limited to the digital world. One of the, if not the most prominent, reasons for antisemitism in our society is a misrepresentation of important Jewish historical events within educating sectors and the media. This lack of education is such a defining factor in terms of Holocaust denial, neo-Nazism, and antisemitism as a whole. This ideology and negative fabrication of historical events and cultures poses a huge Perspective – Student Research Journal – ISSUE 3, 2023

According to a poll in 2014 by the Anti-Defamation League, over one billion people in the world have antisemitic views. That is more than one in every eight people. We too often hear about unprovoked hate crimes happening against the Jewish population. One of the sole reasons for this is that Jewish people are scapegoats in our society. We wonder how these hate crimes keep happening. We wonder why Jewish people feel unsafe at Synagogue. We wonder why Jewish people are the target of so much negativity and have been for all of time. But really, there is no wonder. Society has a ready-made opinion on how Jewish people should be treated and unless we step up, this opinion won’t change. In a fifty-state survey by NBC news, 10 per cent of people under the age of forty had never heard the word ‘Holocaust’. Sixty-three per cent didn’t know that over six million Jewish people were murdered in World War Two. Eleven percent thought that Jewish people caused the Holocaust. Is it any wonder antisemites are making their presence felt around the globe?

“I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; as a Christian does? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?”. Everybody could learn a lesson from Shakespeare’s Shylock. Everybody should learn more about Judaism. Everybody would do well to embrace charity, compassion and love, for these are the key tenets of Judaism. 65

Does a good philosopher need to be a good person? BY OLIVIA CLIFFORD (YEAR 10) How deep does the idea of an evil genius really go? The connection between being a good person and being talented at any one occupation is not inherently clear, or consistent. For jobs in the healthcare sector, e.g., nursing or psychology, research has shown that a person with a high level of empathy and human understanding is best suited for the job,1 due to their proximity to people, especially those going through hard times. On the other hand, people working the more superior jobs centred around heavy capitalism are conventionally classified as evil or ‘bad’. Both ends can easily be regarded as exceptionally talented at their jobs. Many people consider Jeff Bezos to be corrupt or immoral; he is one of the richest people on earth. The question begins, is it possible to be a bad person, but a good philosopher? To define a good person, one must consider millions of different cultures, personal philosophies, opinions, religions, and billions of lived experiences. The most prominent philosophical definitions of a ‘good person’ fall into two main ideas - the means of actions, and the intentions behind them. The Divine Command Theory and Kantianism/Deontology both regard how someone acts, maintaining that goodness comes strictly from actions themselves. Kantianism, or Deontology, states that there are set rules to be followed in order to be a good person, revolving around actions and duty, rather than emotions like happiness. Similarly, The Divine Command Theory characterises morality as dependent upon God, where moral obligation lies in obedience to God and his commands, e.g., the ten commandments, the bible, other religious works.2 Following set rules or ideas that have been defined as good is the key to goodness; to being a good person. Aristotle’s definition of a virtuous person, utilitarianism and hedonism fall under the second idea, arguing that goodness is governed by intentions behind an action. Aristotle clearly defines a truly virtuous person as someone who “acts and feels as he should.” There is no one single way to act, but instead, the guiding idea that one must act in accordance with their beliefs. Utilitarianism dictates that having the greatest positive outcome for the largest number of people is what makes someone a good person. John Stuart Mill3 defines the righteousness of a person through utilitarianism, stating “The Greatest Happiness Principle holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.”4 Comparably, hedonism emphasises that one can and should live a good life based on how much pleasure they experience, and how much suffering they don’t, irrespective of other people.5 Acting with intention to pursue pleasure is the guiding light of goodness, no matter the means. 66

Aristotle’s virtue ethics and the cardinal virtues are a clear example of both ideas working together. They are described as means yet acting them out with authentic intention is just as important. Aristotle’s virtue ethics surrounds the notion of virtues lying between two vices, or otherwise, two extremes. In this way, virtue changes between different people, irrespective of social customs and ideals prevalent in an area. This change expands as the geographical distance of people do. Throughout this difference, the four cardinal virtues remain consistent and triumph in importance. There are endless virtues one might possess, kindness, patience, supportiveness, to name a few. The four cardinal virtues are the decidedly main ones that direct a person towards total moral goodness. These virtues are prudence (practical wisdom, a central focus in Aristotle’s ideology), temperance (moderation or self-control), courage (acting with respect to fear or excitement, usually in the context of warfare) and justice (acknowledging what is good for the community and undertaking action in alignment of that). If one is to align themselves with these four virtues, they may be considered a ‘good person’.6 Although consistently different, similarities between theories lie in the importance of intentions behind actions and how they impact others. Namely, believing in the actions you are taking, regardless of one’s stance in life, and having a positive impact on some, if not all the people you are affecting, yourself including. Additionally existing across all these ideas is the concept that there are good and bad actions. To murder others is an unjust action, producing the reverse of happiness and often shunned in religious texts (Thou shalt not kill).7 Although deontology does not leave room for relativism, the central distinctions provide a strong framework, not unlike the way legal systems function. Intentionally killing someone is generally seen as a bad action, as opposed to failing to prevent their death - e.g. a motor vehicle accident. With consideration to circumstance it is clear actions lie on a spectrum between good and bad, and bad people are the product of intentional and repeated bad actions, especially outweighing any good actions or intentions. Hence, to be a good person, one must act in ways they maintain to be good, respect the basic actions deemed as good or bad, and have a positive effect on some, if not all, of the people, cultures or environments involved. An important question to ask now is what makes a good philosopher? It is easy to say that, to an extent, everybody is a philosopher. If you engage in philosophical thought processes, questioning morality or the likelihood of your own existence, the passage of time, or other philosophical questions, you are engaging in philosophy. The terms philosopher and philosophy come from the Ancient

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Politics, Philosophy and Economics

Greek work ‘φιλοσοφος’, translating to lover of wisdom (to love ‘philein’ + wise ‘sophos’). Observing the origins of philosophy, it is understood that academia is inherent to the practice, involving studying the fundamentals of our world - knowledge, nature, existence, reality, ethics etc. A large part of being a philosopher is also living by the philosophical principles or ideas that one advocates. What elevates being a philosopher to being a good philosopher, even a great one, is knowledge and practical application. Ultimately, the quality of a philosopher lies within their learned knowledge of philosophy as an academic discipline, their thorough and nuanced logical reasoning of ideas (new or continuing), and the degree to which they act in accordance with what they say. As is the case with any field, to be good at something, you must have a deep understanding of the basics, have further developed a comprehension of the matter holistically, and have experience in your specific area. Applying this to philosophy might look like understanding each of the pillars,8 having a certain area of expertise (e.g. ethics, existentialism, metaphysics), a nuanced understanding of pre-existing theories and ideas in that area, and even developing one’s own theories, ideas and even thought experiments. Looking at some of ‘the greats’ such as Aristotle, we see that they clearly follow these parameters. Aristotle is widely renowned for his theories on ethics and metaphysics.9 He has refined them to a nuanced extent, developed from other pre-existing ideas and created pillars to understand. More modern philosophers such as Jean Paul Sartre also align themselves similarly. Sartre has built off pre-existing existentialist ideas, poked holes and extended his own theories to explain, in a nuanced way, why his theories are accurate. He has a deep understanding of other theories around him and has spent much time educating himself in his field, even going on to teach others. Therein lies the question, what is the correlation between the morality of a philosopher, and the quality of his work? This can be further broken down into the different pillars of philosophy. A key example is the ethics branch, concerning the morals of one’s actions, theories such as deontology, utilitarianism, rights, and virtues. When this is considered alongside the definition of a good philosopher, a philosopher who is a ‘bad person’ is not equipped to define what is good. Ethics is the pursuit of what is good, and by definition, a philosopher who is a bad person takes bad actions, which they must believe in to be a good philosopher. As such, they are unable to prove that these actions are ethical, ultimately making them a bad philosopher following a bad philosophy. When we reach other areas of philosophy such as metaphysics or aesthetics, the correlation blurs significantly. Because bad people are considered ‘wrong’, they are often shunned, ignored, or held accountable. Their perception of reality is considered unrealistic, warped

or tainted. Because of this, trust is lost, and the amount of weight a ‘bad person’s’ argument holds in any situation is significantly lessened. In certain circumstances, this may turn into argumentum ad hominem; disregarding a person’s arguments by making an attack at their character, an ignorant tactic not unlike closed-mindedness. The difference between saying a bad person is a bad philosopher, and saying a bad person always lies is that philosophy is significantly more subjective, and ethics or perception of reality have a greater part in philosophical theorising, as opposed to statements that are much more objective, and can be detached from ethics. For example, two plus two will still equal four, whether a good or bad person proved it, but if a serial killer comments on laws around murder, their argument will automatically be considered questionable. Does this automatically deem a bad person’s argument incorrect? With substantial evidence, reasoning and revision, a truth will always be a truth. In the process of philosophical inquiry, there exists the practice of peer revision. This ensures that arguments are looked at from a range of perspectives, allowing for proof of concept and thorough consideration, so that an idea is not developed with unreasonable bias that takes away from the points themselves. Therefore, it is important to consider the nature of philosophical inquiry, and a philosopher’s ability outside of their morality, then in the context of it afterwards. Separating the argument from the morality of the philosopher allows for a less biased evaluation of their ability as a philosopher. A ‘good philosopher’ will have advanced understanding and nuanced arguments, something a ‘bad philosopher’ will not. The arguments will be subject to philosophical inquiry, reinforcing the validity of any ideas and therefore the ability of the philosopher themselves. Furthermore, the hypothetical good philosopher will live by what they say, whereas the opposite is true for a bad philosopher. These defining features exist outside of the morality of philosophers and must be considered. Martin Heidegger is a clear example of this argument. Heidegger is well known as one of the most influential philosophers in the 20th century. He has written several notable texts, such as Being and Time (1927) and Introduction to Metaphysics (1935), and his work has influenced many, including Jean-Paul Satre and Simone De Beauvoir, and he introduced Heideggerian terminology into philosophy. Furthermore, he reintroduced the concept of Dasein into the core of existentialism, just one more part of all the foundational contributions he has made to the study of philosophy. The issue lies with the fact that Heidegger joined the Nazi Party in 1933. Before being considered a ‘Mitlaufer’ (someone who passively goes along with radical social trends) by the French after the denazification trials, Heidegger was banned from teaching for several years. He was considered an extremely controversial case at the time, with his silence about the 67

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holocaust after 1945, and some of his writings in the famous Black Notebooks.10 Although there are instances where Heidegger expresses criticism of anti-semitism, the fact remains that he is widely considered a bad person for following Nazism. Nazism caused significant harm to an entire race of humans, and by following it, Heidegger was enabling it, making him a part of the problem. Despite being considered a bad person, his work is incredibly influential, and he is indeed a good philosopher.

BIBLIOGRAPHY “Be Your Own Person – Be a Philosopher | Issue 20 | Philosophy Now.” n.d. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://philosophynow.org/ issues/20/Be_Your_Own_Person_-_Be_a_Philosopher. “Bible Gateway Passage: Exodus 20:13 - King James Version.” n.d. Bible Gateway. Accessed November 11, 2022. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2020%3A13&version=KJV. “Branches of Philosophy.” n.d., 4. “Can a Bad Person Be a Great Philosopher. Pdf: 10 Philosophy 022022.” n.d. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://pymblelc.instructure. com/courses/8198/files/1504102?module_item_id=427336. Cohen, Patricia. 2009. “An Ethical Question: Does a Nazi Deserve a Place Among Philosophers?” The New York Times, November 8, 2009, sec. Books. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/books/09philosophy.html. “Composition (Parts and Wholes).” n.d. The Metaphysicist. Accessed September 16, 2022. https://metaphysicist.com/problems/composition/. “Definition of Philosopher | Dictionary.Com.” n.d. Www.Dictionary. Com. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.dictionary.com/ browse/philosopher. “Divine Command Theory | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2022. https://iep.utm.edu/divine-command-theory/. Driver, Julia. 2022. “The History of Utilitarianism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman, Winter 2022. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/utilitarianism-history/. Engle, Jeremy. 2020. “Are You a Good Person?” The New York Times, March 4, 2020, sec. The Learning Network. https://www.nytimes. com/2020/03/04/learning/are-you-a-good-person.html. Escudero, Jesús Adrián. 2015. “Heidegger’s Black Notebooks and the Question of Anti-Semitism.” Gatherings: The Heidegger Circle Annual 5 (July): 21–49. https://doi.org/10.5840/gatherings201552. “How To Be A Good Philosopher | Modern Mojo.” 2017. October 6, 2017. http://modern-mojo.com/good-philosopher/, http://modern-mojo.com/good-philosopher/. Hursthouse, Rosalind, and Glen Pettigrove. 2022. “Virtue Ethics.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman, Winter 2022. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/ethics-virtue/. “Hylomorphism | Philosophy | Britannica.” n.d. Accessed September 16, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/topic/hylomorphism.

If a philosopher is to be considered good, they must have a deep understanding of philosophy as an academic discipline, use nuanced logical reasoning in ideas (new or continuing), and must act in accordance with what they say or argue. This is the case irrespective of the morality of a philosopher, however, instances where a bad person is a good philosopher are still rare, due to the general understanding that doing harm is bad, deterring people from doing bad things, therefore leading them to do good, argue goodness, and be a good person.

Winter 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/metaphysics/. Leng, Lu. 2020. “The Role of Philosophical Inquiry in Helping Students Engage in Learning.” Frontiers in Psychology 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00449. Macleod, Christopher. 2020. “John Stuart Mill.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2020. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/mill/. “Mereology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” n.d. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed September 16, 2022. https:// plato.stanford.edu/entries/mereology/. Mitchell, Andrew J., and Peter Trawny, Eds. 2017. Heidegger’s Black Notebooks: Responses to Anti-Semitism. Columbia University Press. Moore, Andrew. 2019. “Hedonism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2019. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ win2019/entries/hedonism/. Moudatsou, Maria, Areti Stavropoulou, Anastas Philalithis, and Sofia Koukouli. 2020. “The Role of Empathy in Health and Social Care Professionals.” Healthcare 8 (1): 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8010026. “Oxford Languages and Google - English | Oxford Languages.” n.d. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/. Pieper, Josef. n.d. “The Four Cardinal Virtues,” 24. Shields, Christopher. 2022. “Aristotle.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Spring 2022. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ spr2022/entries/aristotle/. SpanaEspanaEspa. 2014. “What Makes a Person ‘Good’ at Philosophy, and What People–Who Are Currently Working–Are Really Good?” Reddit Post. R/Askphilosophy. www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/ comments/2fowb5/what_makes_a_person_good_at_philosophy_ and_what/. “The Philosophy Foundation - Part and the Whole.” n.d. Accessed September 16, 2022. https://www.philosophy-foundation.org/enquiries/view/part-and-the-whole. “What Makes a Person a Good Philosopher?” n.d. Quora. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.quora.com/What-makes-a-person-agood-philosopher. Wheeler, Michael. 2020. “Martin Heidegger.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2020. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford. edu/archives/fall2020/entries/heidegger/.

Inwagen, Peter van, and Meghan Sullivan. 2021. “Metaphysics.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta,

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FOOTNOTES 1 https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?KNHyv3Maria Moudatsou et al., “The Role of Empathy in Health and Social Care Professionals,” Healthcare 8, no. 1 (January 30, 2020): 26, “Divine Command Theory | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,” 2022

Christopher Macleod, “John Stuart Mill,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020),

Julia Driver, “The History of Utilitarianism,” The Stanford Encyclo-

pedia of Philosophy, (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022). Andrew Moore, “Hedonism,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of P hilosophy, (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2019),

Josef Pieper, “The Four Cardinal Virtues,” n.d., 24.

“Bible Gateway Passage: Exodus 20:13 - King James Version,” Bible Gateway 7

“Branches of Philosophy,” n.d., 4.

Christopher Shields, “Aristotle,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022)

Would the legal system benefit from the termination of juries in court? BY SABRINA COOKE (YEAR 9) The legal system was created to govern and regulate the ways in which citizens behave in society, and the jury system served to inject current social attitudes and perspectives into these regulations through community participation. However, over time the system has developed key flaws in the areas of partiality, and fairness. These flaws act as a barrier to achieving fairness in our legal system, and detrimentally impact outcomes for both defendants and plaintiffs. For that reason, the system should be removed. The termination of the jury system could improve defendant outcomes, in terms of improving fairness. It could be argued that jurors lack of legal education and understanding often leads to an inability to interpret and critically analyse laws. Furthermore, with the complexity and nuances of modern law, it could be said that jurors make their decision ‘blindly’, following judge directions on the implications for certain actions but being completely unaware of the complex legal mechanisms and regulations that underpin these consequences. Therefore, by eliminating juries, defendants will have their cases heard and argued by highly trained legal professionals, who are able to critically assess and understand the mechanism that should be underpinning their decision in the first place. The second glaring flaw in the jury system is objectiveness, as juries are often seen to be susceptible to bias and preformed opinions. One historical example of this is the 1931 American Scottsboro trials, whereby a jury reflective of society at the time chose to interpret the case through an interpersonal lens of racism, bias, and incorrect notions of gender relationships. That jury’s failure to apply the current law correctly and adequately, and instead revert

to a ‘decision of the heart’ based on personal bias displays exactly the objectivity problem with the jury system. This could be combatted by removing the jury system and reverting decision-making power to a judge, who is both answerable (to the court of appeal) and highly trained to be objective. On the other hand, it could also be said that removing juries all together could be extremely problematic. Firstly, the risk of making the community feel ‘too far removed’ from the legal process could reduce general support for laws and judicial decisions, and breed resentment in the system. However, this could be combatted by another vehicle, such as changing the requirements for the appeal process. Furthermore, the perceived risk of judicial rulings being ‘out of touch’ with current social values and attitudes due to a lack of community participation should be noted. However, it should be recognised that the legislature which underpins judicial rulings is supposed to be a proper reflection of society in the first place, and that all appeal and higher courts are capable of making a decision based on social attitudes, this follows the theory of ‘judicial activism’, and is shown clearly in the Australian Mabo cases for example. The jury system is clearly a complicated and nuanced issue, but it is not one that should simply be acquiesced. The discussion above illustrates many serious problems with the current jury system, and it could be argued it’s termination would be effective in upholding the ‘rule of law’ standards and further refining our justice system. However, the many benefits of the jury system would need to be considered and potential alternatives implemented.

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Politics, Philosophy and Economics

What are the leading causes of international war and how can they be avoided? BY LAUREN KORENBLYUM (YEAR 9) The formation of International Humanitarian Law aimed to re-shape the principles behind international relations, and to come to an agreement over the appropriate ethical policies countries must abide by. This motion is governed by, as Hans Peter-Gasser states, one key idea: “War is forbidden.” The law emphasises that the threat or use of force against other States is unlawful,1 and yet the destructive nature of mankind continues to pave a way for opportunism, channelled through brutality. Though global relations are more regulated, loopholes exist, and with these loopholes arrives an increasing need to discover what can be done to placate these opportunists and prevent warfare.

institutionalised religious and political propaganda5, there is an interconnection with its origins and this theory. While the primary causes of war can be identified, it leads to the question of whether these conflicts can be avoided in the first place. What must first be recognised is that war is inevitable – there is no peace in a condition of anarchy.6 The potential for war cannot be eradicated for disputes and inter-state frictions abide human nature and will forever continue to do so. However, this does not negate the courses of action that can be further instilled into global relations, most notably the need to strengthen diplomacy.

Though the number of wars is decreasing,2 there is still much potential for them to spiral and cause irreparable damage. The Russia-Ukraine conflict proves to be an example of this, with an escalation in its severity leading to questioning of what caused it to happen. Russia claims that its objective lies in the need to “demilitarize and deNazify” Ukraine,3 and though it has arisen from unique circumstances, there remains a correlation between the base origins of this dispute and all global conflicts: sociocultural dissimilarity, cognitive imbalance, status difference, and coercive state power.4

Diplomatic reasoning between states is the foundation of laws, policies, and the main principles behind the lives and wellbeing of each person. And yet it is also its failure which is the cause of wars and conflicts – a lack of negotiation and communication allows the aforementioned origins to thrive. Without being able to strengthen diplomatic ties, the rate of brutality will worsen. The main hindrance within diplomacy lies with the critical importance of making changes in the major United Nations bodies.7 These changes stem from the need for nuance and the strengthening of multilateral agreements. Without progressive collaboration, growing and future global conflicts will fail to be resolved.

Breaking these concepts down, there is a visible theme of oppression, forming a sort of chronological pattern – a sociocultural dissimilarity followed by failed diplomatic relations, resulting in a larger, militarised state demonstrating a supposed higher cognitive capability through warfare. Wars throughout history have sprouted in a similar manner, be it a result of extremism, political disputes, residual violence2 or global disagreements. Even tracing as far back as the crusades, triggered by a mix of

The world will likely never diverge from its state of calamity. Potential for opportunistic idealists and dispute-fuelled conflicts are deeply entrenched into the systemic functionality of all nations, irreversibly so. And yet if all states can mutually accept the need to reinforce multilateral ties and relations, the risks of international war can be assuaged.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Amonson, Kyle. “Causes of War: A Theory Analysis.” Small Wars Journal (2018). Cartwright, Mark. “The Crusades: Causes and Goals.” World History Encyclopedia (2018). Downing, Samuel. “How to Strengthen Human Rights Diplomacy.” American Foreign Service Association (2019). Freeman Jr, Chas. “How Diplomacy Fails.” Middle East Policy Council (2014). Gasser, Hans-Peter. International Humanitarian Law: An introduction. Bern: Paul Haupt Publishers. 1993, updated 1998. Kirby, Paul. “Why has Russia invaded Ukraine and what does Putin want?” BBC News (2022).

Layton, Peter. “The hazards of opportunism: Rebalancing policy pivots in an Asian Century.” Australian Strategic Policy Institute (2012). Maurer, Peter. “What are the triggers for global conflicts, and what can we do about them?” International Committee of the Red Cross (2016). Petrovsky, Vladimir. “Diplomacy as an instrument of good governance.” DIPLO (1998). Repucci, Sarah. “Democracy and pluralism are under assault.” Freedom House (2020). Rummel, Rudolph. Understanding Conflict and War: Volume 4 Chapter 16. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. 1976. Rutgers University Archive. Ed. Professor Jack S. Levy. Spring 2022. [https://fas-polisci.rutgers.edu/levy/syllabi/2022sCausesofWar.pdf] United Nations Chronicle. Ed. Leena Srivastava. December 2014.

[https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/strengthening-multilateral-diplomacy-and-sustainable-development] University of Minnesota. Social Problems: Continuity and Change. Chapter 16 Section 4. Minnesota: Libraries Publishing. eBook. Waltz, Kenneth. Man, the state, and war: A theoretical analysis. New York: Columbia University Press. 2001. Wu, Joanne. “The ‘Rules of War’ are Being Broken. What Exactly are They?” National Public Radio (2018).

FOOTNOTES Gasser, Hans-Peter. International Humanitarian Law: an introduction. Bern: Paul Haupt Publishers. 1993, updated 1998.

Maurer, Peter. “What are the triggers for global conflicts, and what can we do about them?” International Committee of the Red Cross (2016).

Kirby, Paul. “Why has Russia invaded Ukraine and what does Putin want?” BBC News (2022).

4 Rummel, Rudolph. Understanding Conflict and War: Volume 4 Chapter 16. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. 1976.

Cartwright, Mark. “The Crusades: Causes and Goals.” World History Encyclopedia (2018).

6 Waltz, Kenneth. Man, the state, and war: A theoretical analysis. New York: Columbia University Press. 2001. 7 Petrovsky, Vladimir. “Diplomacy as an instrument of good governance.” DIPLO (1998).

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

Politics, Philosophy and Economics

Human Rights Essay – Distribution of income and wealth in your country BY AMY ZHANG (YEAR 9) You are a university student in Australia, still in your 20s, but nearing the end of your education. You know you have to find your own property soon, as prices are only going to rise drastically every year. However, your bank account is unpromising with the savings from the minimum pay job you work after classes. Perhaps, as millionaire Tim Gurner suggested, if you had chosen to cook at home instead of going out to a nice cafe to eat in the morning, you would already be on the path to owning your own property.1 Nonetheless, even saving the thirty dollars they spend on avocado toast and coffee every day at cafes, young people in Australia will still find it difficult to afford property. The demand for housing in Australia is comparatively more competitive than the markets in other parts of the world. In Sydney, the average house price has risen to about 14 times the average salary whereas in comparative countries like the US, the average house price is around seven times the average salary.2 3 While there is already an inflation of prices in property markets and land, further structural problems disadvantage certain individuals when purchasing property. Groups such as younger people, immigrants, and low SES families will find it extremely difficult to compete with the wealthy for property. This can be attributed to two main issues: income inequality, and wealth inequality. While the income distribution in Australia is more even than the wealth distribution, there is a relationship between income inequality and wealth inequality. The top ten per cent of households own almost half of the private wealth in Australia while the lowest 60 per cent, whose demographic is made up of a large number of younger people, own only 16 per cent.4 In Australia, the main drivers of wealth inequality are income inequality and, consequently, an inequitable housing market. So why is this the case? Why is the housing market so thoroughly orchestrated to advance economic inequality and exacerbate the gap between rich and poor progressively over time? 1. How does the housing market in Australia exacerbate income and wealth inequality? While it is true that the income gap for Australians is less severe than the wealth gap, there is still an evident separation between the different socioeconomic classes on the basis of income. The top 20 per cent of households earnt more than five times the bottom 20 per cent of households in 2018, and this amount only rises every year.5 Those with low incomes are trapped in the poverty cycle where it is difficult for them to grow their wealth due to

their comparatively low salaries. On the other hand, those with higher incomes, who therefore spend a comparatively lower percentage of their income on necessities like food, shelter and utilities, are able to accumulate wealth over time. The initial disadvantages suffered by the poor means that relatively small disparities in income manifest in enormous discrepancies in wealth over time. In addition to this cycle, there are structural problems which come with income inequality. Groups of Australians who are already struggling to support themselves are more vulnerable to being exploited by companies and employers. Wage theft is an example of one of these problems. Up to 13 per cent of Australians in the workforce are underpaid each year.6 Large corporations have been found to deliberately underpay their workers. Coles admitted to underpaying its staff by $20 million and Woolworths by $300 million just last year.7 These large corporations often pay workers less than the minimum wage and create huge financial struggles for them – struggles which the rich will never have to face in their lives, hence, putting them at an even greater advantage. In the past, Australian farm workers were only paid through piecework payments which meant that they were very often severely underpaid.8 As temporary migrants make up more than half of harvesting workers, they become even more susceptible to exploitation.9 Only this year, there has been action taken to protect farmers and a minimum wage has been introduced. However, it is these loopholes, of which corporations actively try to take advantage, that are concerning. Wealth inequality is even more explicit in Australia. The reason for this is because the rich are able to take their wealth and grow it very easily. One of the ways they do this is through property ownership. Richer Australians are able to purchase multiple properties – properties, which they do not necessarily need for living purposes unlike the poor. By taking the taxable loss from their negatively geared property, the rich can reduce the tax payable on their salary.10 Using this means to avoid taxes helps the rich to accumulate their wealth and produce more capital for themselves. This provides them with the incentive to continue purchasing property and growing their wealth, while the poor do not have the option to use this strategy to their advantage. Income and wealth inequality prohibits entry into the housing market. The inability to access this market leads to greater wealth inequality over time simply because of the ability to easily grow wealth through a property portfolio. 73

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Intergenerational wealth inequality is another factor which contributes to wealth inequality. The rich are able to avoid millions of dollars in capital gains tax by holding onto their assets until they pass it on through gifting.11 This is a system that benefits the rich and offers them privileges which are unavailable to others. Indeed, intergenerational wealth inequality contributes to housing affordability issues, as inherited wealth can be used to purchase investment properties, lowering supply for less privileged Australians and further growing the wealth of already-privileged groups. Thus, it is demonstrable that income and wealth inequality exist to a great extent in Australia, and there are various factors that exacerbate these inequalities. This disproportionately affects younger and already-vulnerable Australians. But does this status quo violate human rights? And if so, which human rights are violated? 2. Which human rights are violated by the current distribution of income and wealth? As I have established the nature of income and wealth distribution in Australia, and its consequences and causes, it is now possible to evaluate the extent to which human rights are violated as a result. The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets out various rights to which all human beings are entitled12 - some of which can be understood to be compromised by the economic status quo in Australia. The first human right stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that is violated in Australia is Article 17. This article states that ‘everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others’.13 In Australia, this is violated because, though the right is notionally enjoyed by everyone, in practice the ability to own property and enjoy the fruits of this human right are unavailable to many. While ‘equality’ when it comes to property ownership is, technically, existent, there is little ‘equity’ when it comes to this. All adult Australians supposedly enjoy equal access to the property market, as there is no legal discrimination on the basis of factors such as race, religion, and gender. However, this market is not equitably distributed. People of different socioeconomic classes are competing for the same properties, undermining the right for everyone to have an equal chance of ownership. Those with a greater capital have an advantage over others when entering the housing market. This means that while the right to own property ceases to truly be a ‘right’ at all, as it would more accurately be considered a privilege enjoyed on the basis of class. Another human right that is violated by the current, uneven distribution of wealth and income in Australia is Article 23. Article 23 claims that ‘everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work’.14 This human right does not necessarily exist in the status 74

quo, especially when it is violated through means such as wage theft. There are more subtle violations of this right, one of which is unpaid domestic labour. Women not only face more discrimination when joining the workforce due to their parental duties, but they are not paid when they take time off their jobs to raise their children. As a result, women are more than two and a half times more likely than men to be unemployed.15 Work that is stereotypically ‘women’s work’ is not financially valued to the same extent as stereotypically ‘men’s work’. Although a man and woman working the same exact same job will earn the same income, income inequality comes from the gender inequality norms in society. The gig economy also violates this right as individual workers who are employed casually by companies are a lot more likely to not receive equal pay. This is especially true for services like Uber and Deliveroo where there are no minimum pay requirements.16 For many of these companies, their workers aren’t technically employees, they are simply signed on a temporary contract. When this human right is violated, wealth inequality continues to balloon and only widens the wealth gap issues in the country. Accordingly, it is clear that both income and wealth inequality in Australia is in violation of certain established human rights. While Australia is indeed a far more prosperous nation than most others on the globe, with a strong social safety net for the most vulnerable, there is an imperative for action to be done to resolve these inequities. So what should be done to solve these issues and, on a more pragmatic level, what can be done? 3. What should and can be done to solve the problem? In response to these violations of human rights, I will examine both idealistic and practical solutions: both what should be done and what can be done. A) ARTICLE 17 In order to ensure property ownership is indeed a human right, not merely a privilege, in Australia, I propose two solutions: TAX REFORM The Australian government views the progressive tax system as the primary remedy for economic inequality in the status quo.17 However, this alleviates income inequality more than wealth inequality, and promotes equality over equity. As part of the solution, the government should pursue taxation that promotes equity over equality. Capital gains tax is one area ripe for reform. Capital gains tax is the tax people pay on profits when selling assets, which can limit the accumulation of wealth. I propose that the government abolish capital gains tax for those in the lowest tax bracket and for the sale of assets under $50,000 and tax those in richer income tax brackets and

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Politics, Philosophy and Economics

those selling more valuable assets at substantially higher rates. This ensures lower SES families and individuals are not disproportionately impacted by forms of taxation, while closing the gap between the rich and poor by ensuring higher SES individuals cannot build wealth as easily through the sale of property. In addition, the government should reform the wealth transfer tax. This directly targets the problem of wealth inequality as it redresses intergenerational wealth, ensuring the distribution of wealth is more fair. This would work similarly to a wealth tax where the tax is calculated based on an individual’s accumulated wealth, but would apply to assets and gifts. Both of these tax reforms ensure that loopholes in the system are closed to the rich, and the distribution of wealth is significantly more even. FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR FIRST HOME BUYERS The government has the moral responsibility to support more vulnerable groups of people who are struggling to find their own property. For many of these people, buying a property by themselves is simply unachievable as there are many financial barriers which stand in their way. Young people find themselves shut out from the housing market because house prices have risen in the last few decades at a rate far greater than wage growth.18 Currently, when people are buying their first home, they are exempt from stamp duty, but only if the property is worth less than $600,000.19 However, the average house price in Australia is now $1 million, and the average unit price in Sydney is $755,360.20 This proves how the stamp duty limit does not actually benefit a great number of people as most properties are more expensive. This is something that should be reformed. The government should eradicate stamp duty on all first home purchases to provide more financial support. This ensures that there are fewer financial burdens on people looking to enter the property ladder. There should also be a government-subsidised mortgage repayment and deposit scheme. This would be funded through the higher capital gains taxes and stricter wealth transfer taxes. With this money taken from the rich, the government could contribute half the required deposit on a property valued under the median Australian house price for first home buyers. Indeed, the government could use these funds to provide mortgage repayment relief for struggling Australians. B) ARTICLE 23 In order to ensure Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which promotes equal pay for equal work, is no longer violated in Australia, I propose two responses: AWARD WAGES Award wages are essential to ensuring that people are receiving equal pay for equal work. As established, there

are many pay discrepancies across industries that require an equal level of vocational training. The government should establish a more reliable system that determines the level of skill in a job, and hence allows for suitable payments to be made. Aside from the federal minimum wage, there is no system established to determine the financial value of certain work, leaving some people in certain industries plausibly underpaid. This can be reformed by imposing equal award wages for jobs that require an equal level of skill, measured by education and qualification levels - for example, assessing the number of years someone studied at university or TAFE in their field, how much training they received, and the comparative difficulty and risk of their industry. Looking at education levels from Certificate I to Doctorate, those with the same levels of education should be earning similar incomes. This reform to award wages not only evens income distribution, but also reduces opportunities for companies to exploit their workers, as employers will have no choice but to pay their workers appropriately. CLOSING LOOPHOLES With the severity of wage theft in Australia, the government must hold companies and employers accountable for their actions and stop them from paying workers unfairly. Workers should be paid a liveable wage to support themselves and their families, and the exploitation which exists throughout industries in the status quo inhibits this. Indeed, there are loopholes companies exploit and it is the role of the government to protect workers by closing these loopholes. The government must ensure there are no industries able to escape minimum wage payments to all their workers, including farmers and gig workers who are not paid a minimum wage. The government has recently introduced a minimum wage for farmers,21 but must monitor the system to make sure that they continue to be paid fairly. Corporations that continue to pay their workers under the minimum wage must be severely punished through significant fines or, in extreme cases, a 100 per cent profit tax or even ending the company’s right to trade. This is a moral imperative as much as a practical riposte, as the wellbeing of workers should be valued greatly and their labour remunerated appropriately. Therefore, it is apparent that Australia has both the moral obligation and financial means to significantly improve the fairness of income and wealth distribution. Now that the government has made some significant changes to support you as a recent graduate, entering the workforce and hopefully the property market. You live in your own apartment, your first ever property, and only paid for half the mortgage. You work a job that is fairly remunerated through equitable award wages. And you are able to eat at the local cafes every day, spending $30 on coffee and avocado toast without stressing about what it is 75

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doing to your bank account. FOOTNOTES “Millionaire tells millennials: if you want a house, stop buying avocado toast,” The Guardian, accessed November 18, 2021, https://www. theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/may/15/australian-millionaire-millennials-avocado-toast-house

“House price growth three times faster than wages over four decades,” The Sydney Morning Herald, accessed November 18, 2021, https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/house-price-growth-threetimes-faster-than-wages-over-four-decades-20211102-p595dr.html

“Home Price to Income Ratio (US & UK),” Long Term Trends, accessed November 23, 2021, https://www.longtermtrends.net/ home-price-median-annual-income-ratio/

“The rich are getting richer – wealth inequality in Australia,” Property Update, accessed November 25, 2021, https://propertyupdate.com. au/the-rich-are-getting-richer-wealth-inequality-in-australia/ 4

“Income and wealth inequality in Australia was rising before COVID-19,” UNSW Sydney, accessed December 3, 2021, https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/social-affairs/income-and-wealth-inequality-australia-was-rising-covid-19

“Corporate underpayments: is it by accident, or deliberate?,” The Sydney Morning Herald, accessed November 24, 2021, https:// www.smh.com.au/business/companies/corporate-underpayments-is-it-by-accident-or-deliberate-20200220-p542k4.html 6

7 “Corporate underpayments: is it by accident, or deliberate?,” The Sydney Morning Herald, https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/corporate-underpayments-is-it-by-accident-or-deliberate-20200220-p542k4.html

“Australian farm workers entitled to minimum wage in major industry shake-up,” The Guardian, accessed November 18, 2021, 8

https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/nov/04/australian-farm-workers-entitled-to-minimum-wage-in-major-industry-shake-up “Closing the loophole: a minimum wage for Australia’s farm workers is long overdue,” The Conversation, accessed November 21, 2021, https://theconversation.com/closing-the-loophole-a-minimumwage-for-australias-farm-workers-is-long-overdue-171291

10 “How does negative gearing work?,” Mortgage Choice, accessed December 4, 2021, https://www.mortgagechoice.com.au/guides/ property-investment/tax-and-gearing/negative-gearing-and-positive-gearing/

“Intergenerational Wealth Transfer,” Merideon, accessed December 4, 2021, https://www.merideon.com.au/intergenerational-wealth-transfer/

12 “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations, accessed November 11, 2021, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights 13

“Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations.

“Most poor people in the world are women. Australia is no exception,” The Guardian, accessed november 21, 2021, https://www. theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/may/07/most-poor-peoplein-the-world-are-women-australia-is-no-exception

“Sydney Uber Eats drivers earn less than minimum casual wage during peak times, gig economy inquiry told,” ABC News, accessed November 26, 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-12/ubereats-drivers-earn-less-than-minimum-wage-inquiry/100062900

17 “How does Australia’s tax and transfer system redistribute income?,” Australian Government Productivity Commission, accessed November 2021, https://www.pc.gov.au/news-media/articles/pc-news/pcnews-march-2016/tax-and-transfer-incidence

“House price growth three times faster than wages over four decades,” The Sydney Morning Herald.

19 “Understanding Stamp Duty: State-by-State Guide,” Conveyancing, accessed November 27, 2021, https://conveyancing.com.au/articles/ understanding-stamp-duty-state-by-state-guide 20 “Unit prices rise in Australia’s ‘international’ cities, despite rental slump,” ABC News, accessed December 1, 2021, https://www.abc.net. au/news/2021-05-01/apartment-prices-rise-despite-rents-fallingsydney-melbourne/100100796 21 “Closing the loophole: a minimum wage for Australia’s farm workers is long overdue,” The Conversation.

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

Politics, Philosophy and Economics

Renewable energy – UN Voice of Youth Speech Transcript BY ISABELLE PORT (YEAR 7) How can the government encourage a fair transition into renewable energy for Australian industries? As of the financial year ending in 2021, Australia’s electricity generation was made up of around 51 per cent coal, 18 per cent gas, 2 per cent oil and 29 per cent renewable energy. The change from fossil fuels to renewable energy is already happening. There are four main types of renewable energy sources: solar, wind, hydro and geothermal. As of right now, the most accessible and easy to implement renewable energy sources for Australia would be solar systems, hydro energy plants and wind turbines. All of these are not only already being used in Australia, but all the technology is readily available. Australia has a natural advantage because of our climate and land availability. In fact, in 2021 hydro energy made almost 80 per cent of Tasmania’s electricity generation. A commonly faced challenge when attempting to convert is that fuels used now (coal, oil and gas) have proven to be consistent and reliable. No matter the weather - rain, hail or shine - they work. We need to work to a point where power supply is more predictable leading to better stability in pricing. How can the government encourage a smooth and fair transition? We can do this through my five-step process. Step one, incentives. Through a levy on fossil fuel generation that is used to fund subsidies on renewable generation, aim to make renewable energy the cheaper and more lenient option. The government can further encourage this by offering incentives that decrease the price of things like solar panel installation for Australians. Step two, invest. Invest in an Australian owned renewable

energy industry. Instead of viewing this transition from traditional fuels to renewable energy sources as an inconvenience, see it as a business opportunity. An opportunity for profitable investment and mass employment. Once the necessary investments and funding have been made, as well as incentives offered, there is nothing stopping this industry to build into something worth far more than Australia’s existing non-renewable energy industry. Incidentally, this could have significant positive financial impacts on Australia’s economy. Step three, pull out. Pull out your investments and gradually shut down the domestic fossil fuel industry. Step four, support. Support the more than 10,000 people now unemployed after the discontinuation of the domestic non-renewable energy industry. With the uprise of the new renewable energy industry some of these workers could find work in that business if retrained or if their skill sets would justify. Support the growing demands and needs of Australians for renewable energy and support the industry providing it. But most importantly, support and encourage Australians into a fair transition into renewable energy. Finally, step five. Stabilise. Stabilise the power network by implementing large scale power storage mechanisms that can store power when prices are low and release power when prices are high. Existing examples of this include the Hornsdale power reserve in South Australia and the Snowy Mountains Scheme in New South Wales. In conclusion, although transitioning from oil, coal and gas to renewables may be difficult, it is important that we do so in order to avert much larger problems in future. It provides an opportunity for profitable investments, economic growth and mass employment. Using my incentiviseinvest-pull-out-support-stabilise method the government

What is the ideal form of government? BY JULIE SHENG (YEAR 10) Cultivating the ideal form of political governance is a worthy pursuit central to humanity’s existence. Government plays a fundamental role in the lives of all people by maintaining law and order, ensuring stability and protecting citizen welfare. It accordingly follows that humans should strive to attain and implement the perfect political system in their societies. However, when critically engaging with this noble objective, one discovers that it is difficult to ascertain what mode of government is truly the ‘best’ for the human race. First, there is the question surrounding what the term ‘ideal’ actually entails when applied to the notion of government. In his dialogues, Plato proposes the existence of ‘ideal’ forms, which are found beyond the domain of the physical realm and are the perfect essences of everything that exists in reality.1 All matter in the physical world is merely an imperfect imitation of its ideal form. However, the quality of ‘perfection’ is highly subjective. Take, for instance, the ‘ideal’ form of a tree. For an individual who favours pine trees, an ideal tree would be a pine, whilst for an individual who prefers oak trees, an ideal tree would be an oak. Thus, different perspectives can yield different interpretations of the ‘ideal’ form of a specific object. If one applies this reasoning to more abstract ideas such as government, the same complication arises. The ‘ideal’ form of government could refer to the most efficient government, the most effective, or the one that produces the greatest amount of satisfaction amongst the general populace (do note, however, that these qualities are not mutually exclusive). For the purpose of presenting balanced arguments, this essay will consider the nature of political systems by engaging with all of these nuanced understandings. Whilst the above definition resolves some confusion regarding the subject of optimal governance, it by no means provides utter clarity. One cannot ignore how factors such as contextual and cultural influences can affect the suitability of certain political systems for particular regions or communities throughout the world. Although the predominance of Western ideology in philosophical studies can often overshadow the equally impactful political theories developed by Eastern thinkers, it is important to consider government as a universal concept, since it lies at the core of humanity’s collective survival. However, this essay must be constrained to a Western angle so that it is not overly complex. The mode of governance the Western world is most familiar with in the contemporary age is democracy. Simply defined, this form of government vests political power in the common people and allows them to participate in the leadership of their society through a system of representation, which usually involves free elections. 78

Democracy is highly prevalent in the West, coming to “embody the very idea of legitimate statehood” for many Western nations.2 The popularity of democracy is easy to understand, as the system does indeed bring many unique benefits to the field of government. Amartya Sen, an economist and philosopher, has posited that democracies never experience famines since even during agricultural crises, food could always be distributed relatively fairly under a democratic government.3 Other scholars support democracy by claiming that democratic administrations rarely commit internal genocides, plunge themselves into war or observe violent transitions of government.4 Hence, it can be seen that democracy frequently produces laudable results when applied practically to society. Democracy’s consistency in achieving positive outcomes can be explained through a closer inspection of how it operates. The chief favourable characteristic of democracy is that it is most effective at representing the interests of the general populace, giving power to the “many instead of the few”, according to Pericles.5 Under democracy, the average citizen is endowed with more political control than that afforded to them by any other system. They possess the ability to vote for an administration that best suits their needs. The common civilians are thus granted substantial influence in the direction in which their state is progressing. By vesting political power amongst the people, democracy maximises the satisfaction of the general population and ensures that the opinions of ordinary citizens are respected. Because the role of a government is to provide for its civilians and to address their concerns, the above aspect is crucial when evaluating whether a political system is ‘ideal’ or not. Citizens are those ultimately most affected by their government’s decisions and initiatives – this places them as the prime stakeholders in their state’s political progress.6 Therefore, from both a rational and a moral point of view, they should be able to take part in the leadership of their nation. Democracy also preserves transparency in the government, minimising the risk of systematic corruption. It fosters an atmosphere where freedom of speech presides, empowering the common people and the media to hold government officials accountable for the misdemeanour. Additionally, a true democracy separates the legislative, judicial and executive branches of the government from one another, thereby thwarting tyrants from seizing absolute power.7 Hence, democracy protects the liberty of the general public and prevents them from suffering under the oppression of autocrats. The above argument, however, is undermined by an

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assumption it has automatically made: that autocracy – or any form of governance that strays from bestowing power in the common people, for that matter – is inherently harmful to society and must be avoided. This notion is not necessarily correct. Whilst proponents of democracy claim that it is the only mode of government which is legitimately beneficial to the general populace, in truth, the validity of this political system as the ideal form of governance in the West has been – and continues to be - extensively contested. It is interesting to note how many of Western philosophy’s most prominent philosophers seem to have been deeply critical of this by-now widely accepted mode of government. Socrates was famously a staunch opposer of Athenian democracy. In Book 6 of The Republic, Plato describes how Socrates likens the democracy of his time to entrusting the success of a ship’s journey to the whims of simply anyone, rather than to the expert knowledge of someone educated in seafaring.8 He argues that if it is unreasonable to position a maritime vessel in the charge of the inexperienced, it should be similarly absurd to place society in such a situation by expecting any common civilian to be able to decide their nation’s ruler. Socrates asserts that democracy is wildly irresponsible, since voting in an election requires a certain level of skill and education that the majority of the Athenian population lacked.9 Giving power to people ill-versed in political matters would result in demagoguery, where charismatic leaders could easily exploit the basic desires of the largely ignorant voting population to further their own interests and hence corrupt the government administration. To demonstrate the dangers of demagoguery, Socrates implores his audience to imagine an election debate between a doctor and a sweet shop owner.10 The sweet shop owner would manipulate the voters to favour him over his rival by convincing them that the doctor forced bitter potions upon them and restricted their diets, whilst he, on the other hand, graced them with pleasant and varied treats. The doctor could respond truthfully to the former remark by enlightening the voters that he only acted against their desires and caused discomfort in order to help them, but such a seemingly contradictory statement would have been impossible for the voters to accept. Hence, the sweet-shop owner, who actually harms the health of the common civilians, would be elected instead of the wellmeaning doctor. Socrates’ above allegory serves to expose the flaws of a democracy in which the uneducated are given political power but are unable to use it intelligently. Socrates himself would later witness first-hand the incompetence of Athenian voters when he was sentenced to death by a jury composed of roughly 500 citizens for exaggerated charges of corrupting the youth of Athens - a tragedy for the world of philosophy and a harrowing example of the failure of democracy.11 The Greek historian Thucydides would also criticise democracy and the demagoguery it created

when he blamed “public orators” (i.e., demagogues) for eroding the intelligence of most Athenians and causing them to “believe silly things about their own past and the institutions of their opponents” during the Peloponnesian War.12 The demagogues he was referring to were most likely louche political figures like Alcibiades, who used his public appeal to catapult Athens into the disastrous Sicilian Expedition.13 From these instances of democracy producing severely regrettable results, Socrates’ warning against the system seems to be substantiated. The unfortunate scenarios that could spring from rampant demagoguery were exactly why Socrates (as represented by Plato in The Republic), believed that society would be governed most ideally under an epistocracy – a political system where only the educated and the rational would be allowed to assume power.14 This mode of governance is not strictly elitist, since it does not discriminate based on wealth or social standing - it only aims to ground politics in reason and safeguard the government against thoughtless voters. Socrates was of the opinion that the most effective epistocracy would be the rule of a ‘philosopher king’ – an exceedingly wise autocrat with both immense philosophical skill and abundant political knowledge.15 Although this king would maintain absolute control over his subjects, he would be selfless and benevolent, seeking only to improve the lives of his citizens by making sagacious decisions. Thus, his hypothetical administration would be the most effective - more so than a demagogical democracy. The idea of the philosopher king segues into the broader concept of autocracy – it also raises the question of whether concentrating power in the hands of one capable and responsible ruler would be more beneficial for society as a whole. Thomas Hobbes addressed such a concern in Leviathan when defending absolute sovereignty. He, alongside his predecessors Socrates and Plato, was a critic of democracy, labelling it as ineffective. In his work, he argued that “the sovereign in a democracy (i.e., the general populace) can only exercise its power when it is actually assembled together…Only in a monarchy is the capacity to govern always exercised.”16 This conveyed the argument that the reign of a responsible autocrat would bring increased prosperity and efficiency, since a single leader would be able to make decisions faster and with more resolve than an ununified public. Hobbes also supported the idea of a ‘social contract’, under which the people of a nation would willingly give up some of their freedoms and their political power to an autocrat in order to keep society as ordered and as lawful as possible.17 Democracy would undermine this harmonious social contract and breed social instability. Hence, Hobbes was of the firm conviction that autocracy in the form of a monarchy would be best for his society, since it would not only be the most efficient mode of governance, but would also keep the social contract intact. 79

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Such a claim, however, remains contested. Whilst the autocracy of a philosopher king or a responsible monarch appears to be perfect in theory, it has rarely been successful in reality. The closest example in history which illustrates the benefits of an absolute ruler is the reign of Emperor Augustus from 27 BCE to 14 CE, which facilitated the rapid expansion of the Roman Empire and was widely popular amongst the Roman population for bolstering the empire’s economy.18 However, the rewarding fruits of his rule can be negated by an examination into the reigns of the emperors who followed him. For instance, Emperor Nero severely oppressed the people of Rome through his cruelty and debauchery. Although accounts of him murdering strangers on the streets or instigating the Great Fire of Rome have been disputed by contemporary historians, Nero was documented to have persecuted Christians ruthlessly and lavished the resources of the empire on improving his own standard of life rather than that of his subjects.19 Despite his obvious incapacity to make effective and just decisions, his power remained secure for 14 years due to his status as the sole ruler. When he was finally driven to commit suicide by an enraged Roman Senate, his misrule had already embroiled Rome in a series of civil wars that resulted in widespread strife. The alarming realisation that can be come to by inspecting the character of Nero is that he did not start his reign in 54 CE as a despot. In fact, during the first five years of his rule, Nero was recorded as a conscientious and sensible leader. He ended the practice of capital punishment, lowered taxes for the common people and allowed slaves to make complaints against their masters if they were abused.20 However, it must be noted that in these years, he shared his political power with his two advisors, Seneca and Burrus.21 When he assumed full control in 59 CE, he descended into total, unchecked corruption.22 His decline into destructive tyranny reveals how human nature is flawed and inherently selfish. As Hobbes claims, humans are “nasty” and “brutish” by instinct.23 They need rules imposed on them by political authority to rein in their egocentric impulses.24 Following this logic, if they are given uncontested control over their society like Nero was, they will not selflessly lead their nation in the interest of their

BIBLIOGRAPHY Apperley, Alan. ‘Hobbes on Democracy’. Politics 19, no. 3 (1999): 165–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00101 Applebaum, Anne. ‘America Needs a Better Plan to Fight Autocracy’. , 15 March 2022. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/03/ russia-ukraine-senate-testimony-autocracy-kleptocrats/627061/. ‘Are We Born Good or Evil? | BBC Earth’. Accessed 11 September 2022. https://www.bbcearth.com/news/are-we-born-good-or-evil-naughty-or-nice. Bessel, Richard. ‘The Nazi Capture of Power’. Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 2 (2004): 169–88.

people and live as a virtuous philosopher king, but rather subjugate their subjects for the purpose of preserving their own authority and maximising their own pleasure. This is exactly why the idea of the philosopher king is unrealistic and impractical – it hinges on the naïve belief that a human being would remain altruistic even under the sullying influence of sheer power, which history proves is untrue. From the dictators of Soviet Russia to the repressive regime of Benito Mussolini in Italy, humanity’s annals are rife with instances of autocracies restricting the liberty of the people and even threatening their basic survival. Hence, whilst effectual autocracies like that of Emperor Augustus’ are indeed more efficient than the average democracy, such responsible autocracies are rare. Inhumane and draconian autocracies are far more commonly featured in both the past and the present. One, therefore, comes to the conclusion that democracy is the political system that is most consistent at producing safe and beneficial results for society when applied practically. Whilst it is not an unambiguous good, it is significantly better at representing the common citizens and protecting their fundamental human rights than any other form of government. Socrates’ critique against it principally revolves around the fact that the effectiveness of a democracy is dependent on the education system surrounding it – however, as human civilisation has advanced through the centuries, the intellectual standard of the masses has appreciably improved. The contemporary Western world is different from Socrates’ ancient context since the common people now receive a higher level of education and can hence be trusted to determine their country’s leadership. Humans are also constantly amending and strengthening their democracies by learning from past experiences, like that of Germany in World War II. Modern democracy is therefore observed to be more ideal and less demagogical than the Athenian democracy Socrates and Plato opposed. Thus, this essay will end with Churchill’s renowned quote: “Democracy is the worst form of government, except for all the others”,25 conveying the idea that when compared to all else, democracy – despite its flaws – emerges as the ideal mode of governance.

‘By the People, For the People | Issue 101 | Philosophy Now’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://philosophynow.org/issues/101/By_the_ People_For_the_People. ‘Caesar Augustus | National Geographic Society’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ caesar-augustus. Castelnovo, Walter. A Stakeholder Based Approach to Public Value, 2013. Champlin, Edward. ‘Nero Reconsidered’. New England Review (1990-) 19, no. 2 (1998): 97–108. Crain, Caleb. ‘The Case Against Democracy’. The New Yorker, 31

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October 2016. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/07/ the-case-against-democracy.

‘The Ship of Fools | Issue 101 | Philosophy Now’. Accessed 11 September 2022. https://philosophynow.org/issues/101/The_Ship_of_Fools.

‘Democracy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)’. Accessed 7 September 2022. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy/.

Thornton, M. K. ‘The Enigma of Nero’s “Quinquennium”: Reputation of Emperor Nero’. Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 22, no. 4 (1973): 570–82.

‘Democracy’s Fatal Flaw: Us | Classical Wisdom Weekly’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://classicalwisdom.com/politics/democracys-fatal-flaw-us/. ‘Does Democracy Avert Famine? - The New York Times’. Accessed 11 September 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/01/arts/ does-democracy-avert-famine.html. Estland, David M. ‘Democratic Authority’. In A Philosophical Framework, 206–22. Princeton University Press, 2009. https://doi. org/10.1515/9781400831548.206. Evangeliou, Christos C. ‘Political Ambition and Philosophic Constraint’: In Philosopher Kings and Tragic Heroes, edited by Heather L. Reid and Davide Tanasi, 1:111–26. Essays on Images and Ideas from Western Greece. Parnassos Press – Fonte Aretusa, 2016. https://doi. org/10.2307/j.ctvbj7gjn.10. Guleid, Mohamed. ‘What’s Wrong with Our Democracy’. The Standard. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ commentary/article/2000230870/whats-wrong-with-our-democracy.

‘Thucydides: Pericles’ Funeral Oration’. Accessed 12 September 2022. http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/education/thucydides.html. Vlastos, Gregory. ‘The Historical Socrates and Athenian Democracy’. Political Theory 11, no. 4 (1983): 495–516. ‘Why Do We Need Government Types And Importance Explained | Kidadl’. Accessed 7 September 2022. https://kidadl.com/facts/whydo-we-need-government-types-and-importance-explained. Wood, Ellen Meiksins, and Neal Wood. ‘Socrates and Democracy: A Reply to Gregory Vlastos’. Political Theory 14, no. 1 (1986): 55–82.

FOOTNOTES A. K. Rogers, ‘Plato’s Theory of Forms’, The Philosophical Review 45, no. 1 (1936): 61–78, https://doi.org/10.2307/2179618.

Christopher Hobson, ‘“Democracy as Civilisation”’, Global Society 22, no. 1 (1 January 2008): 75–95, https://doi. org/10.1080/13600820701740746.

‘Hobbes, Thomas: Methodology | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://iep.utm.edu/hobmeth/.

Hobson, Christopher. ‘“Democracy as Civilisation”’. Global Society 22, no. 1 (1 January 2008): 75–95. https://doi. org/10.1080/13600820701740746.

Holway, Richard. ‘Achilles, Socrates, and Democracy’. Political Theory 22, no. 4 (1994): 561–90.

Caleb Crain, ‘The Case Against Democracy’, The New Yorker, 31 October 2016, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/07/ the-case-against-democracy. Crain.

‘The Ship of Fools | Issue 101 | Philosophy Now’, accessed 11 September 2022, https://philosophynow.org/issues/101/The_Ship_ of_Fools.

Kellogg Insight. ‘Which Form of Government Is Best?’, 1 November 2012. https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/which_government_is_best.

6 Walter Castelnovo, A Stakeholder Based Approach to Public Value, 2013.

Lange, Stella. ‘Plato and Democracy’. The Classical Journal 34, no. 8 (1939): 480–86.

7 ‘Separation of Powers’, accessed 11 September 2022, https://www. parliament.nsw.gov.au/about/Pages/Separation-of-Powers.aspx.

Lloyd, Sharon A., and Susanne Sreedhar. ‘Hobbes’s Moral and Political Philosophy’. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2020. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/ hobbes-moral/.

‘The Ship of Fools | Issue 101 | Philosophy Now’.

Lofberg, J. O. ‘The Trial of Socrates’. The Classical Journal 23, no. 8 (1928): 601–9. ‘Nero | Biography, Claudius, Rome, Burning, Fate, Accomplishments, & Facts | Britannica’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://www. britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor. Ober, Josiah. ‘Thucydides’ Criticism of Democratic Knowledge’, 1 January 1993. Rogers, A. K. ‘Plato’s Theory of Forms’. The Philosophical Review 45, no. 1 (1936): 61–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2179618. ‘Separation of Powers’. Accessed 11 September 2022. https://www. parliament.nsw.gov.au/about/Pages/Separation-of-Powers.aspx. ‘Separation of Powers | We the People | CONSTITUTION USA with Peter Sagal | PBS’. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://www. pbs.org/tpt/constitution-usa-peter-sagal/we-the-people/separation-of-powers/. Steinberger, Peter J. ‘Hobbes, Rousseau and the Modern Conception of the State’. The Journal of Politics 70, no. 3 (2008): 595–611. https:// doi.org/10.1017/s002238160808064x. ———. ‘Ruling: Guardians and Philosopher-Kings’. The American Political Science Review 83, no. 4 (1989): 1207–25. https://doi. org/10.2307/1961665.

Mohamed Guleid, ‘What’s Wrong with Our Democracy’, The Standard, accessed 12 September 2022, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ commentary/article/2000230870/whats-wrong-with-our-democracy. 10

J. O. Lofberg, ‘The Trial of Socrates’, The Classical Journal 23, no. 8 (1928): 601–9.

12 Josiah Ober, ‘Thucydides’ Criticism of Democratic Knowledge’, 1 January 1993.

Christos C. Evangeliou, ‘Political Ambition and Philosophic Constraint: Alcibiades, Socrates and the Sicilian Expedition’, in Philosopher Kings and Tragic Heroes, ed. Heather L. Reid and Davide Tanasi, vol. 1, Essays on Images and Ideas from Western Greece (Parnassos Press – Fonte Aretusa, 2016), 111–26, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvbj7gjn.10.

14 David M. Estland, ‘Democratic Authority’, in A Philosophical Framework (Princeton University Press, 2009), 206–22, https://doi. org/10.1515/9781400831548.206. 15 Peter J. Steinberger, ‘Ruling: Guardians and Philosopher-Kings’, The American Political Science Review 83, no. 4 (1989): 1207–25, https:// doi.org/10.2307/1961665.

Alan Apperley, ‘Hobbes on Democracy’, Politics 19, no. 3 (1999): 165–71, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00101.

Peter J. Steinberger, ‘Hobbes, Rousseau and the Modern Conception of the State’, The Journal of Politics 70, no. 3 (2008): 595–611, https:// doi.org/10.1017/s002238160808064x.

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‘Caesar Augustus | National Geographic Society’, accessed 12 September 2022, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ caesar-augustus.

19 Edward Champlin, ‘Nero Reconsidered’, New England Review (1990-) 19, no. 2 (1998): 97–108. 20 ‘Nero | Biography, Claudius, Rome, Burning, Fate, Accomplishments, & Facts | Britannica’, accessed 12 September 2022, https://www. britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor. 21 M. K. Thornton, ‘The Enigma of Nero’s “Quinquennium”: Reputation of Emperor Nero’, Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 22, no. 4 (1973): 570–82.

Thornton.

Sharon A. Lloyd and Susanne Sreedhar, ‘Hobbes’s Moral and Political Philosophy’, in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2020 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/hobbes-moral/. 23

Lloyd and Sreedhar.

‘By the People, For the People | Issue 101 | Philosophy Now’, accessed 12 September 2022, https://philosophynow.org/issues/101/ By_the_People_For_the_People.

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The disturbing reality behind India’s missing daughters BY JIYA TANNA (YEAR 10) HER STORY - VIJAYA Vijaya Chellapandi from a small village one hour from Madurai is known as the girl born for the burial pit by locals. The second daughter of her family, it is no small miracle that she survived eighteen years. “When I had my second daughter, I can’t measure the sorrow that I felt. How was I going to bring them up? The neighbours were saying we should kill them off,” says Lakshmi, Vijaya’s mother. HER STORY - PARVATI Parvati has three children, but only two are living. Her husband killed their second daughter the day she was born. “It is difficult to bring up a daughter. You need a lot of money to raise her properly for a married life. We couldn’t have done that, so we killed her. My husband told me only after he killed her. He said we would have problems and that we didn’t have the assets or money to bring her up.” A HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSE: ETERNALLY SUPPRESSED There are now about 44 million more men than women in India. Every year, around two million women go missing. The reasons? Sex-selective abortion, disease, neglect and inadequate nourishment. Satish Agnihotri [Demographer, Indian Institute of Technology]: “In some cases, it had also been on account of infanticide. If the female child is born, I mean she’s killed. But now with the advent of technology, what has happened is that the girl is killed in the womb itself, and ironically, the womb is today one of the most unsafe places for a girl child.” Causes Punctuating a girl’s path to marriage in India, several rituals must be accounted for and financed by the parents, making a daughter a burden. The real killer, quite literally, is the dowry. Although illegal, it’s still demanded. And for the bride’s parents, it often represents their entire life’s savings. It’s little wonder, then, that one daughter is considered a burden, and two: an economic impossibility. The orthodoxical nature of Hindu Society also constitutes for a belief system that the birth of a son is a pathway to heaven, and the practical explanation resides in the fact that sons will stay with the family and carry the family name, so money spent on them is not a waste. Rajan Choudhary [Founder, SRKPS NGO]: “With the sonography technology becoming available in the 1990s, educated society, the ones who had both the understanding and the wealth, misused the technology to find out the gender of their child before birth and abort

the girl child in the womb. They would come to know in three or four months, and they would abort the pregnancy. Millions of girls were killed.” It’s not just the rich and educated who seek abortion of female foetuses. The demand for such services is spreading to towns and villages, as well. Ultrasound facilities are offered in big hospitals and narrow bylanes, and some of them are run by profit-seeking doctors and touts. Alarmed by the rising incidents of abortion of female foetuses, the government enacted a law making pre-natal sex determination illegal. But the practice has simply gone underground. ABORT THE PREGNANCY, PERIOD Impacts Dr. Meera Kosambi [Director, Women’s Research Centre]: “Female infanticide is just one manifestation, albeit shocking, of an all-pervasive discrimination against women”. “The society is predominated by men and this male supremacy means that women are treated not just as inferior, but also subservient. Very often as the legal or economic property of men, and definitely sexual property of men.” Due to the steep decline in female population as a result of female infanticide and foeticide, there are increased levels of women’s exploitation. The lack of female presence and voice in societies leads to increased sex disparity, lack of development (socially, economically, politically, etc.), and abuse and violence against women and children. In India, the number of girls per 1,000 boys is declining with each passing decade. From 962 and 945 girls for every 1,000 boys in the years 1981 and 1991, respectively, the sex ratio had plummeted to an all-time low of 914 girls for every 1,000 boys in 2011. Instances of rape, assault, violence and trafficking have also become more prevalent and widespread. In the backdrop of fewer available females, the surviving ones are faced with the reality of handling a society driven by a testosterone high. The legal system may offer protection, but as is the situation today, many cases might not even surface for fear of isolation and humiliation on the girl’s part. THE STRUGGLE TO SAVE UNWANTED GIRLS: PROGRESS OR REGRESS? Responses Tamil Nadu is home to some of the poorest people in India, the ideal breeding ground for female infanticide. Valli Annamalai [Indian Council for Child Welfare]: “When we stepped into the area, we thought it was just 83

a socio-cultural issue and just with a little awareness and counselling, we would be able to turn around, you know, the people. But once we came in, we knew that that was not the only thing.”

daughter in a family. Sometimes they killed the first daughter as well - it was that bad. But nowadays, we are counselling people to change their minds. We counsel often - it’s the only way to save the children.”

Valli works for the Indian Council for Child Welfare, and with Australian aid from Plan International, the Council is providing local women and girls with the education and skills needed to earn them not only an income, but independence and respect. When the Council began work here nine years ago, at least two hundred baby girls were being killed annually. Today, thanks in part to a range of economic incentives, the known infanticide rate is down to about thirty.

Valli Annamalai [Indian Council for Child Welfare]: “Unless we are able to create a sea change in their attitudes with these adolescent girls who are the mothers of tomorrow, I don’t think anything that we do will be sustainable.”

Maariammah [Nursery Supervisor]: “If there were four girls being born in a village, we could only save the first

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PartC/1-6-20.1-873.pdf.

Chatterjee, Ishita, n.d, ‘The Evil of Female Foeticide In India: Causes, Consequences And Prevention’, Legal Service India E-Journal https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-777-the-evil-of-female-foeticide-in-india-causes-consequences-and-prevention.html

Sharma, Jitendra, 2022, ‘Cultural and Social Bias Leading to Prenatal Sex Selection: India Perspective’ Frontiers in Global Women’s Health pg. 2-3 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgwh.2022.903930/full

Down to Earth, 2016, ‘India witnesses one of the highest female infanticide incidents in the world: study’ Down To Earth Webpage Archives https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/health/india-witnesses-oneof-the-highest-female-infanticide-incidents-in-the-world-54803

Killed In The Womb For Being Girls 2019, Youtube, CNA Insider. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8WHQ9Lp3l

Reshma, 2015, ‘Female Foeticide: Effects on Society’, International Journal of Applied Research pg. 2 https://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2015/vol1issue6/

The changes that have already taken place in India mean that the girls of tomorrow now have a future. Economic prosperity may remove the catalyst for female infanticide, and tough laws may prove a deterrent. But unless the patriarchal structures of Indian society are chipped away, there will be no lasting improvement for a lot of women.

The Disturbing Reality of Female Infanticide In India 2007, Youtube, Journeyman Pictures. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnmtKLQRh6g

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Does determinism, agent-causal libertarianism or compatibilism best describe modern views on free will and moral accountability? BY EMMA PARSONS (YEAR 10) The concept of free will - an individual’s capacity to choose between multiple courses of action that each result in a different outcome - has been disputed for centuries. Indeed, some argue that free will is at best an amorphous or ambiguous construct. The COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine provide salient reminders of the need to better understand the notion of free will and how individuals exercise choices in response to the hardship or conflict characteristic of the modern day. Concerns about issues of moral accountability and whether an individual should be confronted with praise, punishment, or neither, for their actions must also be addressed. Arguably, we need to better understand how an individual’s decisions might be determined by external agents and circumstance or are otherwise a reflection of one’s free will. The most prominent perspectives on free will and agents’ moral responsibility are determinism, libertarianism and compatibilism. Each perspective differs considerably in the influence they credit external causes as having on human decisions and behaviour. Determinist philosophers argue that free will is illusory and an artificial construct that provides us with a false sense of control over our lives.1 Agent-causal libertarians maintain that free will is evidenced when the choices we make can result in vastly disparate outcomes, hence demonstrating that these are a product of individual choice rather than external factors outside of one’s control.2 Compatibilists maintain the existence of causal determinism but rebuke the determinist claim that agents are devoid of free will.3 These profound differences result in each framework deriving a different perspective on an agent’s moral responsibility and accountability for their actions. All three perspectives require careful consideration when deciding the framework most applicable to modern society. Determinists instil that every decision made by an agent is a product of antecedent external and internal influence.4 Some argue that since atoms are governed by the natural laws of nature, such as Newton’s laws of motion, then we, as individuals comprised of atoms, are also subject to these laws. These laws and highly predictable atomic movements define the universe’s present and future states, including the behaviour of individuals. As Pierre-Simon Laplace postulated in his thought experiment, now referred to as ‘Laplace’s Demon’, if an omniscient observer viewed the origin of the universe, they would be capable of predicting its future state due to fixed causal laws that dictate its course and development.5 Determinists argue that free will is an illusory crutch that agents depend upon to avoid

acknowledging the futility of their existence, emotional state and behaviour.6 Conversely, libertarians believe that agents maintain autonomy in the absence of coercive external forces.7 This approach, specifically ‘agent-causal’ libertarianism, holds intuitive appeal due to its integration of empirical principles. All individuals have experienced the sensation of deliberation, wherein they contemplate multiple possible paths forward and exercise their autonomy to act on the most beneficial path that satiates their desires. If the universe were to be governed by deterministic principles, agents would be incapable of deliberation; one cannot, or would simply lack the inclination to, deliberate over decisions that are already predetermined.8 Thus, in contrast to determinism, libertarians maintain that free will is impervious to the causal chains and physical laws that govern the progression of the external world. Some argue that this definition of free will and autonomy is primarily the domain of Western society. Currently, the capacity for deliberation and self-determination continues to elude Chinese residents, as they confront harsh lockdown restrictions and strict rationing of food supplies.9 Indeed, residents of Hong Kong are experiencing mounting threats to their social and political freedoms.10 From a libertarian perspective, the agents subjected to these oppressive regimes do not possess free will due to the coercive control of their governments. Compatibilists attempt to reconcile libertarian and deterministic frameworks by claiming that agents continue to possess free will in a universe governed by causal chains of events and antecedent conditions.11 Hence, compatibilists believe that actions can be both free and causally necessitated by previous actions. As David Hume’s theory of ‘liberty of spontaneity’ asserts, compatibilists believe that agents are capable of acting on their desires and beliefs in the absence of any physical constraints upon their behaviour. Agents can maintain free will and the power of choice despite their desires, temperament and emotions being causally determined; these factors are not mutually exclusive.12 However, their free will is confined by physical laws of nature.13 Despite the strength of their will, a person’s behaviour cannot defy obvious external forces such as gravity. When an individual jumps, he or she will inevitably be pulled by gravity back to Earth, despite their desire to fly. When one applies these frameworks to modern social 85

DOES DETERMINISM, AGENT-CASUAL LIBERTARIANISM OR COMPATIBILISM BEST DESCRIBE MODERN VIEWS ON FREE WILL AND MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY?

issues, such as the war in Ukraine, we soon uncover the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective. Determinists would argue that none of the Russian soldiers participating in Putin’s war effort are responsible for the atrocities they commit, as the universe is governing their behaviour. Such behaviours are inevitable due to the behaviours of their superiors, whose decisions are also inevitable and governed by causal chains. In contrast, libertarians would propose that the Russian soldiers are capable of exercising free will under most circumstances and are morally reprehensible for their behaviour, unless participation was the only possible path available to them. Compatibilists believe that although the war itself may be predetermined or inevitable given centuries of simmering tensions, Russian soldiers are capable of exercising their free will and refusing to participate in the war effort, as seen by the hundreds of thousands fleeing Russia when conscription policies were implemented.14 Those who choose to participate in Putin’s invasion are considered to be morally responsible for their actions under the Russian regime. When evaluating the validity of these perspectives, it is important that we acknowledge their flaws. There are several shortcomings in the deterministic logic; namely, its focus on causal chains and disregard of future-oriented motivators.15 Determinism’s claim that all decisions are dictated by causal factors, including genetic predisposition, upbringing and temperament, fail to account for the role of reason in making human decisions. Though determinism can account for the initial premise of an agent’s decision, which may be influenced by pre-existing beliefs, desires, and external influences, it cannot truly account for how an agent would react were they to rely on circumstantial evidence to come to a final decision. Not all Russian soldiers have behaved in a consistent way in the war effort and many have revolted against totalitarian control, despite an often stereotypical Communist upbringing and indoctrination. In many instances, individuals have not had any prior exposure to certain circumstances and will perform out-of-character decisions that contradict their classic course of action. An agent may enter an unfamiliar restaurant intending to order a steak; however, after glimpsing the meal of the patron at the adjacent table, the agent may make a split-second decision to order the fish instead. Such inconsistencies in behaviour should largely be eradicated in a deterministic universe. Perhaps the most compelling arguments against determinism criticise its disregard for individual moral accountability.16 If all decisions and behaviours were predetermined by a causal chain of events, blame for immoral actions would shift from the perpetrator to the action itself,17 due to the mentality that the perpetrator was powerless to behave differently and should not be punished for decisions beyond their control.18 Though an action itself would be subject to moral condemnation, its perpetrator would be absolved of all responsibility and 86

considered to be the victim of a causal chain of events. Were this logic to be embraced by society, individuals would be liberated from their moral responsibility to act justly toward one another, as the threat of retribution would be removed. Even if a deterministic society were to punish someone for acting in a morally reprehensible manner, these measures would be futile unless it was predetermined that a person would undergo a change in character and behave differently in the future. Hence, determinism’s disregard for agent autonomy and moral responsibility does not align with our understanding of human behaviour, and the level of responsibility that an individual must possess in response to their actions. Conversely, moral responsibility in agent-causal theories of libertarianism arises from an agent’s capacity to exercise free will. An agent can only be held accountable for their behaviour if circumstances were conducive to making a moral decision without impediments or constraints upon their decision making, as outlined in the ‘principle of alternate possibilities’.19 For example, where a carer of an elderly citizen transmits her COVID-19 infection to the citizen, libertarians would argue that the carer is morally responsible for the resulting illness. Yet, this carer would be absolved from their moral responsibility if it was shown that in the absence of a carer, the patient would surely have died. In a more extreme circumstance, a Russian soldier forced into conscription would not be held accountable by libertarians for the atrocities they are coerced into committing. These agents do not possess free will, as agents are considered to be free and morally responsible for their behaviour as long as alternate possibilities exist. However, agent-causality is argued to be a logically incoherent framework. If an agent’s behaviour is not influenced or determined by past events, including tastes, prior experiences and circumstances, their actions and choices are unfounded and lack a rational basis. An agent’s choice is no longer a manifestation of their free will; rather, their decisions are nonsensical whims that do not align with preferences and personality.20 As rationality is regarded as a conscious decision dictated by reason and logic, the libertarian perspective on free will is irrational. All beneficial decisions made by an agent are merely a matter of ‘luck’ or ‘chance’, not choice. Compatibilists refute the validity of the ‘principle of alternate possibilities’ and the prerequisites it establishes for free will and moral responsibility, thereby distinguishing themselves from the agent-causal conditions for free will. ‘Frankfurt’s argument’ provides a counterexample to the principle, claiming that an agent can be held morally responsible for their choices, even if they are unwittingly incapable of behaving otherwise due to forces or causes beyond their control.21 Even if deterministic causal chains dictate an inevitable outcome, the agent still has some capacity to exercise free will until such time as external influences dictate the outcome. Hence, compatibilists

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argue that agents are capable of being held morally responsible in a universe governed by deterministic principles and causal chains. Hume further reinforces the compatibilist claim that moral responsibility proceeds from free will in a quasideterministic world and refutes agent-causality. His apt postulation demonstrates that even if an agent’s free will is influenced by predetermined inclinations and beliefs, society instinctively places blame for behaviour on an agent and not their actions.22 During COVID-19 lockdowns, Australians were advised to stay home and instructed that breaking isolation rules would result in criminal prosecution. In a deterministic world, those defying government mandates would not be held responsible for their behaviour, as it was predetermined that they would resist attempts to deny their normal freedoms due to their intuitive disregard for authority. However, in a compatibilist society, those breaking lockdown directives are held responsible, as their behaviour is an expression of their free will. In this and many other contemporary scenarios, the compatibilist views seem to

best reflect real life and how social standards and individual and moral accountability are viewed. Nevertheless, it can be argued that compatibilism’s popularity is attributed to its social utility and capacity to unite both deterministic and libertarian views, rather than a sound premise for claiming that these ideologies can coexist.23 Though no framework is capable of promoting a wholly convincing argument for the existence, or otherwise, of free will, it is more difficult to reconcile determinism and libertarianism than the compatibilist view with real life. Agent-causal libertarianism’s logic is inherently flawed, and despite its promotion of a sound framework for an agent’s moral responsibility, this does not resolve its logical inconsistencies. Though determinism poses a compelling case against the existence of free will, its interpretation of moral responsibility inherently contradicts societal function. Compatibilism, by default, remains the most helpful framework, as it allows the factors that govern our behaviour to coexist with our capacity for moral accountability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1902.

BBC News. “China Covid Lockdowns Leave Residents Short of Food and Essential Items,” September 12, 2022, sec. China. https://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-62830326.

Machina, Kenton. “Challenges for Compatibilism.” American Philosophical Quarterly 31, no. 3 (1994): 213–22.

Burkeman, Oliver. “The Clockwork Universe: Is Free Will an Illusion?” The Guardian, April 27, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/ news/2021/apr/27/the-clockwork-universe-is-free-will-an-illusion Clarke, R. “Agent Causation and the Problem of Luck.” Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 86 (2005). CNN. “Hong Kong Protests: Updates and Latest on City’s Political Unrest.” Accessed October 10, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/specials/ asia/hong-kong-protests-intl-hnk. Cocks, Richard. “The Illogicality of Determinism.” Voegel in View, November 20, 2019. https://voegelinview.com/the-illogicality-of-determinism/. D’Holbach, Baron. “Laws of the Moral and Physical World,” 1868, 6. Feldman, Gilad. “Making Sense of Agency: Belief in Free Will as a Unique and Important Construct.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 11, no. 1 (2017): e12293. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12293. Frankfurt, Harry G. “Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility.” The Journal of Philosophy 66, no. 23 (1969): 829–39. https://doi. org/10.2307/2023833. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, 1651. Hoefer, Carl. “Causal Determinism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Spring 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2016. https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/spr2016/entries/determinism-causal/. Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748. Jones, Martin. “Ukraine War: Why Russians Fleeing Conscription Should Be Treated as Refugees.” The Conversation, September 29, 2022. http://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-why-russians-fleeingconscription-should-be-treated-as-refugees-191450. Laplace, Pierre Simon. A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. First

Mandelbaum, Maurice. “Determinism and Moral Responsibility.” Ethics 70, no. 3 (1960): 204–19. McKenna, Michael, and D. Justin Coates. “Compatibilism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2021. https:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/compatibilism/. Pecorino, Philip. Introduction to Philosophy. Queensborough Community College. Accessed October 10, 2022. https://www.qcc.cuny. edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/intro_text/Chapter%207%20Freedom/ Freedom_Libertarianism.htm. Robb, David. “Moral Responsibility and the Principle of Alternative Possibilities.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2020. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/ alternative-possibilities/. Smilansky, Saul. “The Ethical Advantages of Hard Determinism.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 54, no. 2 (1994): 355–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/2108494.

FOOTNOTES Carl Hoefer, “Causal Determinism,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Spring 2016 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2016), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ spr2016/entries/determinism-causal/.

R Clarke, “Agent Causation and the Problem of Luck,” Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 86 (2005).

Michael McKenna and D. Justin Coates, “Compatibilism,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2021 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2021), https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/compatibilism/.

DOES DETERMINISM, AGENT-CASUAL LIBERTARIANISM OR COMPATIBILISM BEST DESCRIBE MODERN VIEWS ON FREE WILL AND MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY?

Hoefer, “Causal Determinism.”

Pierre Simon Laplace, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, First Edition (John Wiley & Sons, 1902).

Baron D’Holbach, “Laws of the Moral and Physical World,” 1868, 6.

Gilad Feldman, “Making Sense of Agency: Belief in Free Will as a Unique and Important Construct,” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 11, no. 1 (2017): e12293, https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12293. 7

8 Philip Pecorino, Introduction to Philosophy (Queensborough Community College), accessed October 10, 2022, https://www.qcc.cuny. edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/intro_text/Chapter%207%20Freedom/ Freedom_Libertarianism.htm.

“China Covid Lockdowns Leave Residents Short of Food and Essential Items,” BBC News, September 12, 2022, sec. China, https://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-62830326.

10 “Hong Kong Protests: Updates and Latest on City’s Political Unrest,” CNN, accessed November 9, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/specials/ asia/hong-kong-protests-intl-hnk. 11 12

McKenna and Coates, “Compatibilism.” David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, 1651.

Martin Jones, “Ukraine War: Why Russians Fleeing Conscription Should Be Treated as Refugees,” The Conversation, September 29, 2022, http://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-why-russians-fleeingconscription-should-be-treated-as-refugees-191450. 14

15 Richard Cocks, “The Illogicality of Determinism,” VoegelinView, November 20, 2019, https://voegelinview.com/the-illogicality-of-determinism/.

Maurice Mandelbaum, “Determinism and Moral Responsibility,” Ethics 70, no. 3 (1960): 204–19.

17 Saul Smilansky, “The Ethical Advantages of Hard Determinism,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 54, no. 2 (1994): 355–63, https://doi.org/10.2307/2108494.

Oliver Burkeman, “The Clockwork Universe: Is Free Will an Illusion?,” The Guardian, April 27, 2021, sec. News, https://www.theguardian. com/news/2021/apr/27/the-clockwork-universe-is-free-will-an-illusion.

19 David Robb, “Moral Responsibility and the Principle of Alternative Possibilities,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2020 (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/alternative-possibilities/. 20

Clarke, “Agent Causation and the Problem of Luck.”

Harry G. Frankfurt, “Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility,” The Journal of Philosophy 66, no. 23 (1969): 829–39, https://doi. org/10.2307/2023833. 21

Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.

Kenton Machina, “Challenges for Compatibilism,” American Philosophical Quarterly 31, no. 3 (1994): 213–22. 23

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How is democracy flawed? BY JUNE YOON (YEAR 10) What is democracy? It’s a way of ruling over a state where everyone has an equal voice through a selection of representatives. According to this political principle, all people have identical rights and the right to be spoken for. But is it truly so? From the early 20th century, democracy has been promoted as the best regime as its major alternative systems suffered from political, economic, and military setbacks after the First World War.1 However, for the first time since the rise of democracy, doubts have started to arise. Does it produce an effective government? Does it genuinely meet the expectations society has set for itself? Based on these ambiguities, this paper will argue that although prominent in the political world, democracy is flawed. This will be established by first presenting the possible benefits of the regime suggested by John Dewey’s theme of self-development and mode of associated life as well as Montesquieu’s concept of democratic representation, which will be challenged through the presentation of democracy’s vulnerable and unrepresentative nature based on the case of Socrates’ death and Plato’s principle of knowledge.

Furthermore, the French political theorist Montesquieu claimed that the ideal form of a government is when a group of people represent others based on fixed and established laws, which is, in essence, democracy.4 He states that the individuals who have the authority to represent the public must have the attribute of “public virtue,” which refers to the desire to promote common goods. In other words, he asserted that it is necessary to a significant extent in democratic republics for representative leaders to have a good sense of knowledge of ethics by heart and execute it. He asserts that only through democracy can people observe and choose the individuals they wish to act upon themselves through elective processes and maximise the possibility to elect leaders with such qualities. Such procedures provide individuals with the freedom and power to rule over the nationstate of their free will. Montesquieu also asserted that the state being ruled by democracy will produce numerous good outcomes, such as political solutions, and new legislations, as the public’s voice is heard and represented appropriately.5

John Dewey, an American philosopher, argued that democracy is the best type of government because it alone offers the kinds of freedom essential for an individual’s selfdevelopment and growth, such as the freedom to discuss ideas and opinions with others, the freedom to form groups with others to work towards shared objectives, and many more. Based on these productive advantages, democracy is more than just a system of government.2 It is also a ‘mode of associated life’ in which people work together to solve their problems in common by using rational methods (such as critical enquiry and experiment), in an atmosphere of respect and goodwill. Here, ‘the mode of associated life’ is a highly valued social ideal by the philosopher which he believed empowers the participation necessary for individuals in order to develop critical and inquiring thought patterns, and a desire to advance the common good. Only by achieving this principle through democracy would people be able to critique academics, intellectuals, and political figures who campaigned for incorrect and inaccurate ideals from the perspective of their own values. He also reasoned that such practice is crucial for residents to participate in conversation with one another for them to be able to make educated and responsible decisions about their common issues.3 As such, Dewey’s focus on conversation as a crucial democratic practice illustrates the significance of deliberation in such systems and demonstrates how it allows people to reach their full potential. Therefore, based on Dewey’s mode of associated life and individual development, democracy promotes the standard of education by initiating active discussions that produce critical thinking.

However, in contrast to such arguments, democracy actually exposes the gullible and “easily-influenceable” nature of the human populace, claiming that regardless of a population’s intelligence, the fatal flaw of popular influence still lies. This can be illustrated through the scenario of Socrates’ death which serves as evidence of such drawbacks of democracy. Socrates’ defence during the trial is described in Plato’s Apology, where he was sentenced to death starting from the fact that he was proclaimed by the Oracle of Delphi to be the wisest man alive. In order to confirm this, Socrates questioned the knowledge of the people considered to be the wisest in Athens. However, during the process, Socrates came to a solution that they were not all that knowledgeable since none of the individuals he spoke to were willing to admit they were ignorant. As Socrates spread the word of his realisation, it caused him to make enemies with significant social figures such as Athenian politicians and craftspeople. Thus, in the end, Socrates was accused of “corrupting the youth” by such people and the vote regarding his execution was completed with the majority voting in support of his death.6 This situation demonstrates how difficult it is for people to make the proper choice when they have the authority to rule and judge under the influence of a prominent voice. The citizens of Athens, the very people who were deemed to be known as the pioneers of the democratic system itself,7 failed to make rational decisions despite possessing high levels of standardised knowledge; seen in their fullest use of democratic activities compared to any other historical civilisations, such as initiating The Mytilenean Debate8 and the first-ever recorded voting system.9 Yet, they still 89

HOW IS DEMOCRACY FLAWED?

contradicted themselves by voting for one of the most influential philosophical figures amongst the youth without attempting to look at the truth and manipulated evidence provided. This treatment of Athens towards Socrates is represented through Plato’s well-known Allegory of the Cave (Book VI), where he depicts the moment when a man realises that the world is not as it appears to cave captives. The man goes back to the cave to tell his peers about the new world and is greeted with furious wrath. In addition to being a representation of how Athens treated Socrates in previous paragraphs, it also implies that wise leadership cannot endure in democracy as it is plagued with the popular opinion.10 Hence, the death of Socrates represents the overpowering presence of powerful influence that overshadows the knowledge and rationality of people’s decision-making skills in democratic activities. The writer also argues that Montesquieu’s ideal of virtue in democracy is practically not possible in many cases, which is demonstrated in Plato’s arguments regarding errors in the electoral process and its nominees. Plato asserts that democracy fails to achieve the kind of representation people want by producing leaders that do not meet the standards of an ideal model. According to the philosopher, a leader’s fundamental quality is to have expertise in their job, and he criticised democracy for being unable to generate people with such capabilities. As, instead, people choose popular figures who are good at impressing the public opinion and fail to identify the true leaders with such qualities, also known as demagogues.11 In Book VI of The Republic, Plato compares this to an allegory of a ship to illustrate his point. He argues, “the true navigator must study the seasons of the year, the sky, the stars, the winds, and all the other subjects appropriate to his profession

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anowai, Eugene. “Plato’s Concept of Democracy and Contemporary Political Scenario in Nigeria” 3, no. 4 (2019): 7. Axtmann, Roland. Democracy: Problems and Perspectives. Edinburgh, UNITED KINGDOM: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pymblelc/detail.action?docID=299548. Cartwright, Mark. “Athenian Democracy - World History Encyclopedia.” World History Encyclopedia. Accessed October 21, 2022. https:// www.worldhistory.org/Athenian_Democracy/. Dewey, John. “Democracy and Education, by John Dewey.” Gutenberg Organisation. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/852/852-h/852-h.htm. History, Alpha. “Montesquieu on Government Systems (1748).” French Revolution (blog), January 13, 2013. https://alphahistory.com/ frenchrevolution/montesquieu-on-government-systems-1748/. Liner, Douglas. “The Trial of Socrates.” Famous Trials. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.famous-trials.com/socrates/833-home. London, Scott. “‘Organic Democracy: The Political Philosophy of John Dewey’ by Scott London.” scott.London. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://scott.london/reports/dewey.html.

if he is to be really fit to control the ship.”12 Based on this notion, Plato thought that philosophers ought to be rulers. A true philosopher is passionate about learning and the pursuit of the truth and thus is an idealistic leader, as they seek expertise in their area of study.13 Therefore, like philosophers, the finest people to lead are those who are seeking truth since they have the most information at their disposal.14 However, in a democracy, leaders frequently choose to ignore uncomfortable facts. For instance, the leading UK politician Michael Gove declined to mention any economist who supported Britain’s withdrawal from the European Union during the Brexit campaign, claiming that “people in this country have had enough of experts.”15 In conclusion, according to Plato’s theory of true leadership, it is extremely difficult to reach the kind of leaders Montesquieu mentions due to the bias the public possesses when it comes to the selection of leaders. Therefore, as Socrates’ execution and Plato’s concept of leadership suggests, it is plausible to suppose that democracy, despite being widely used, consists of defects regarding its vulnerability towards established voices and the flawed representation of the public. In accordance with these errors, does the author really have practical solutions to suggest? Not really. However, the reader can learn that the system of Democracy has room for improvement; seen from the flaws of Dewey’s notion of self-growth and mode of associated life, along with Montesquieu’s ideal form of leadership, where these flaws serve as a base that enables modern democracy to evolve into the true form of justice and citizen representation. Hence, although democracy may seem as an open gateway to a fair and politically-idealistic paradise, the system is inevitably far from perfection in contrast to what theory suggests.

Mance, Henry. “Britain Has Had Enough of Experts, Says Gove.” Financial Times. June 3, 2016. https://www.ft.com/content/3be49734-29cb-11e6-83e4-abc22d5d108c. Ninian, Arc. “Why Plato Hated Democracy. The Republic’s Clues about Modern… | by Arc Ninian | A Philosopher’s Stone | Medium.” Medium. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://medium.com/the-philosophers-stone/why-plato-hated-democracy-3221e7dcd96e. Plato. “The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Republic, by Plato.” Gutenberg Organisation. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www. gutenberg.org/files/1497/1497-h/1497-h.htm. Roark, Dallas. “Introduction_To_Philosophy_Dallas_M_Roark_ch_1.” Unknown. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/ socialsciences/ppecorino/roark-textbook/Chapter-1.htm. Torcello, Lawrence. “Plato Was Right. Democracy Always Creates Tyrannical Leaders.” The Print. Accessed October 21, 2022. https:// theprint.in/world/plato-was-right-democracy-always-creates-tyrannical-leaders/323059/. Unknown. “Democracy - The Legitimacy of Government | Britannica.” Britannica. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/ topic/democracy/The-theory-of-democracy. ———. “Democracy - The Spread of Democracy in the 20th Century

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| Britannica.” Britannica. Accessed October 20, 2022. https://www. britannica.com/topic/democracy/The-spread-of-democracy-in-the20th-century. ———. “Epilogue: Securing the Republic: Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, Notes; Bk. 3, CHS. 1--9; BK. 4, CHS. 4--5; BK. 5, CHS. 1--7; BK. 7, CHS. 1--2; BK. 8, CHS. 1--3.” Uchicago Education. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/ v1ch18s3.html. ———. “Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers | Online Library of Liberty.” Part of the LIberty Fund Network. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://oll.libertyfund.org/page/montesquieu-and-the-separation-of-powers. ———. “Plato and Democracy on JSTOR.” JSTOR. Accessed October 21, 2022. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3291135. ———. “The Government of Ancient Athens - Building Democracy for All.” Building Democracy for All. Accessed October 21, 2022. https:// edtechbooks.org/democracy/athens. Wimberly, Cory and Binghamton University State University of New York. “Montesquieu and Locke on Democratic Power and the Justification of the ‘War on Terror’:” International Studies in Philosophy 40, no. 2 (2008): 107–20. https://doi.org/10.5840/intstudphil20084028.

New York, “Montesquieu and Locke on Democratic Power and the Justification of the ‘War on Terror’:,” International Studies in Philosophy 40, no. 2 (2008): 107–20, https://doi.org/10.5840/intstudphil20084028.“Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers | Online Library of Liberty,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://oll.libertyfund. org/page/montesquieu-and-the-separation-of-powers. para. 1,3,4 “Epilogue: Securing the Republic: Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, Notes; Bk. 3, CHS. 1--9; BK. 4, CHS. 4--5; BK. 5, CHS. 1--7; BK. 7, CHS. 1--2; BK. 8, CHS. 1--3,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://press-pubs. uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch18s3.html. para. 3

6 “The Trial of Socrates,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://www. famous-trials.com/socrates/833-home. p.11-16 7 “Athenian Democracy - World History Encyclopedia,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://www.worldhistory.org/Athenian_Democracy/. para. 10-14 8 “Thucydides: The Mytilenean Debate (427 B.C.),” accessed October 21, 2022, http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/readings/thucydides6.html. para. 25-35

“The Government of Ancient Athens - Building Democracy for All,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://edtechbooks.org/democracy/ athens. para. 1-3

“The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Republic, by Plato.” P. 489

Arc Ninian, “Why Plato Hated Democracy,” A Philosopher’s Stone (blog), February 23, 2022, https://medium.com/the-philosophers-stone/why-plato-hated-democracy-3221e7dcd96e. para. 12-13

FOOTNOTES “Democracy - The Legitimacy of Government | Britannica,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy/ The-theory-of-democracy. p. 4

“Democracy and Education, by John Dewey,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/852/852-h/852-h.htm. p. 1-4

“‘Organic Democracy: The Political Philosophy of John Dewey’ by Scott London,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://scott.london/reports/dewey.html. p. 6, 10, 11

Cory Wimberly and Binghamton University State University of

12 “The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Republic, by Plato,” accessed October 21, 2022, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1497/1497h/1497-h.htm. p.488

Eugene Anowai, “Plato’s Concept of Democracy and Contemporary Political Scenario in Nigeria” 3, no. 4 (2019): 7. p. 1

“The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Republic, by Plato.” p. 473

“Britain Has Had Enough of Experts, Says Gove,” Financial Times, June 3, 2016. para. 1 15

The effects of amoxicillin, ginger and tea tree oil in treating the bacterial infections of Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections BY AMI NAITO (YEAR 12) This paper was originally written as a task for Science Extension. ABSTRACT This investigation aimed to test whether traditional Indigenous medicines (tea tree oil) and traditional Chinese medicines (ginger) were an effective alternative, widespectrum treatment against Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections in comparison to wide-spectrum modern antibiotics (amoxycillin). Recent data highlighted that tea tree oil has antibacterial properties which have been capitalised for commercial use. Agar plates were used to grow bacterial cultures which were inoculated with antibiotic discs. The measured zone of clearance around each disc indicated the efficacy of the antibiotic. The results indicated that although modern antibiotics were drastically more effective than the tested alternates, tea tree oil proved to have antibacterial properties - confirming the current available data. LITERATURE REVIEW Since the development and widespread use of penicillin in 1940, the number of infections treated with antibiotics has drastically increased (Lowy, 2003). Consequently, over 70 per cent of widely used modern antibiotics are no longer 100 per cent effective due to the rapid growth of antibiotic resistant bacteria (FDA, Fighting Antibiotic Resistance, 2016). These bacteria are often resistant to multiple antibiotics, making treatment of such bacterial infections difficult (Angela H. A. M. van Hoek, Dik Mevius, Beatriz Guerra, Peter Mullany, Adam Paul Roberts and Henk J. M. Aarts., 2011). Conventional antibiotic treatments, as well as gradually becoming ineffective, have adverse side - effects, leading to the development of research into alternative, safe and economic options including traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) and Traditional Indigenous medicines (TIM) (Francesca Mondello, Flavia De Bernardis, Antonietta Girolamo, Giuseppe Salvatore and Antonio Cassone., 2003). Although the evidence for using TIM and TCM as alternative or complementary treatments for both common and severe bacterial infections is limited, the current available information suggests that they are a viable, effective alternative (Wong WCW, Lee A, Lam AT, Li KT, Leung CYM, Leung PC, Wong ELY and Tang JL 2006). Current evaluations of TCM and TIM highlight their 92

effectiveness in treating both uncomplicated infections as well as more severe bacterial infections, such as those associated with cancers (Wong WCW et al., 2006). Tea tree oil has been a popular TIM and used extensively due to its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-viral properties (Christine F. Carson, Brian J. Mee and Thomas V. Riley 2002). These properties are driven by the lipophilic nature of its components and its ability to penetrate cell membranes causing inhibition of bacterial growth and reproduction (Lynne BanesMarshall, Patrick Cawley and Carol A. Phillips., 2001). Research on the therapeutic properties of tea tree oil is significantly more established than other TIM such as eucalyptus oil and Witjuti grub, as well as TCM due to the long history of Indigenous use in Australia (Carson et al., 2002). Foundational research into both TIM and TCM is relatively dated due to a lack in research funds and general interest. The push for effective alternatives for infection control has led to renewed scientific interest, and this coupled with increased use of TIM in skincare and medications has shown potential for certain TIM as attractive therapeutic options. (Wong WCW et al., 2006). The current literature indicates that tea tree oil (TIM) has historically been capitalised for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties (Carson et al., 2002). The continued effort to validate the use of TIM has led to an increased understanding of the beneficial properties they hold. For example, tea tree oil has been shown to be equally effective as benzoyl peroxide in the treatment of acne and this is predominantly due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory action. (Ingrid B. Bassett, Ross St C Barnetson, Debra L. Pannowitz, 2010). The use of ginger as a TCM has been widespread throughout Asian countries since ancient times. Ginger, the rhizome of the Zingiber officinale, has played a therapeutic role in health management throughout history and is considered a promising potential treatment for some common bacterial infections (Arshad H Rahmani, Fahad M Al Shabrmi, Salah M Aly, 2014). It plays an important role in prevention of diseases however its exact mechanisms in disease management are not understood fully. The antibacterial and antimicrobial nature of ginger is accounted for by its many constituents, namely, gingerol, paradol, shogaols and zingerone (Kaul PN, Joshi BS 2013). The biological activities of these active ginger antioxidant and anti-

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cancerous activity (Figure 4) (Manjunatha JR, Bettadaiah BK, Negi PS, Srinivas P, 2013). However, it is noted that the key constituents such as gingerol and paradol show higher rates of antibacterial activity against a wider variety of bacteria (Aggarwal BB, Shishodia S. 2013). Although wide-spread utilisation of ginger’s medicinal purposes is scarce outside of Asian medical practices, available research would reflect that ginger and/or some of its constituents are viable, economic alternatives to modern antibiotics. The current status of tea tree oil and ginger as antibiotic alternatives is relatively under researched however, available information supports the proposition that TIM and TCM are suitable and equal alternatives for modern antibiotics (Wong WCW et al., 2006). However, the consistent and well recorded efficacy of modern antibiotics must also be noted, therefore, from the available research, modern antibiotics are hypothesised to be the most effective antibiotic in treating Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION Are traditional Indigenous medicines (tea tree oil) and traditional Chinese medicines (ginger) an effective alternative, wide-spectrum treatment against Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections in comparison to wide-spectrum modern antibiotics (amoxycillin)?

was then used as a negative control for the experiment; this plate had no bacteria plated, and no antibiotic discs. For each type of bacteria 12 plates were laid with the ‘antibiotic’ discs and one was a positive control – no ‘antibiotic’ discs. These positive controls demonstrated the bacteria was able to adequately grow. Of the 12 test plates for each bacterium, four had TTO soaked discs, four had GIN soaked discs and four had AMX soaked discs. Every test plate (12 for each bacterium) had four evenly spaced, soaked discs of the respective ‘antibiotic’ (TTO, GIN or AMX) labelled A, B, C or D. All plates were sealed and placed in the incubator at 37°C for 24 hours. Following overnight incubation, bacterial lawns were present on all lawned plates and zone of clearance (ZOC) was measured. ZOC was recorded by measuring the diameter of clearance (bacteria free) with a ruler from outside the plate and was then recorded in the results table. All ZOC measurements were taken in mm for greater accuracy. This methodology was used as it allowed for multiple variables to be tested, e.g., different bacteria as well as different types of ‘antibiotics’. RESULTS Table 1 shows the ZOC for each disc on the Staphylococcus epidermidis culture.

HYPOTHESIS Although TIM and TCM will be effective, modern antibiotics will be more effective in treating Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections. METHODOLOGY The antibiotics and antibiotic alternatives being tested were Tea tree oil (TTO), Ginger (GIN) and Amoxycillin (AMX). TTO used was full strength 100% Australian Tea Tree Oil and the AMX used was in syrup form. GIN was extracted from fresh ginger root – the ginger was chopped up into small pieces and then mashed using a mortar and pestle. The ginger was then strained, and the juice was collected into a beaker to be pipetted out. Equal concentrations of each ‘antibiotic’ were calculated to ensure consistency by ensuring that each ‘antibiotic’ had the same volume in mL’s.

Table 2 shows the ZOC for each disc on the Escherichia coli culture

Table 3 shows the ZOC for each disc on the Micrococcus luteus culture

Forty agar plates were used in this firsthand data collection. TTO, GIN and AMX soaked discs were made from 1 layer of filter paper. Forty-eight discs were soaked in AMX, 48 discs were soaked in ginger and 48 discs were soaked in TTO. Thirteen nutrient agar plates were plated with Escherichia coli, 13 agar plates were plated with Micrococcus luteus, and 13 plates were plated with Staphylococcus epidermidis. The final remaining plate 93

THE EFFECTS OF AMOXICILLIN, GINGER AND TEA TREE OIL IN TREATING THE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF ESCHERICHIA COLI, MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

DISCUSSION The data collected from both Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3, was entered into excel t-tests to identify trends and patterns within the data. For this statistical analysis the null hypothesis for these tests was that there would be no significant difference between the efficacy of AMX, TTO and GIN.

Micrococcus luteus t-tests Table 6 SEQ Table \* ARABIC 6 shows the t-test between AMX and TTO on the Micrococcus luteus culture

Staphylococcus epidermidis t-tests Table 4 shows the t-test between AMX and TTO on the Staphylococcus epidermidis culture

Table 7 SEQ Table \* ARABIC 7 shows the t-test between AMX and GIN on the Micrococcus luteus culture

Table 5 shows the t-test between AMX and GIN on the Staphylococcus epidermidis culture

Table 4: • P value < alpha value of 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected • T-stat value is very large thus, there is a significant difference between the AMX and TTO ZOC. Table 5: • P value < alpha value of 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected • T-stat value is very large thus, there is a significant difference between the AMX and GIN ZOC. However, it should be noted that there is less difference between AMX and GIN than there is between the AMX and TTO 94

Table 6: • P value < alpha value of 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected • T-stat value is very large thus, there is a significant difference between the AMX and TTO ZOC. Table 7 • P value < alpha value of 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected • T-stat value is very large thus, there is a significant difference between the AMX and GIN ZOC. • Highly significant difference between the AMX and GIN as all GIN results were 0

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Figure 1 SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 3 box plot of the data from the Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria

Table 9 shows the t-test between AMX and GIN on the Escherichia coli culture

THE EFFECTS OF AMOXICILLIN, GINGER AND TEA TREE OIL IN TREATING THE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF ESCHERICHIA COLI, MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

visual comparison. AMX had a range of four and a mean of 24.25 mm, TTO had a range of four and a mean of 8.31mm and GIN had consistent results of 0. Figure 3 SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 box plot of the data from the Escherichia coli bacteria

The above graph represents the ZOC for each type of ‘antibiotic’. Box and whisker plots were used to reflect the skew and spread of the data. The means of the data are represented by a cross. The box plots for each ‘antibiotic’ are shown together on the same graph to allow for visual comparison. AMX had a range of seven and a mean of 14.06 mm, TTO had a range of six and a mean of 2.25mm and GIN had consistent results of zero. The results obtained from this experiment aligned with the hypothesis ‘although both TCM and TIM will be effective, modern antibiotics will be more effective in treating Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections’. The firsthand data collected proves that AMX is consistently more effective than the two tested natural remedies across all three bacteria. TTO is also effective; however, it is less consistent and continues to only be effective for specific bacteria. GIN proved to be only effective in treating Staphylococcus epidermidis and did not treat either Micrococcus luteus or Escherichia coli. Whilst GIN proved to be effective in treating Staphylococcus epidermidis, TTO was consistently more effective in treating all tested bacteria. For both Micrococcus luteus and Escherichia coli, GIN had zero effect on the bacteria and produced no ZOC (Figure 1, Figure 2). Furthermore, GIN was noted to have contamination around the discs (Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8) on the Staphylococcus epidermidis; this is assumed

to be a fungal contamination rather than a bacterial contamination. Although this experiment concludes to favour AMX, across the board, further research into natural remedies will continue to prove important. The methodology utilised in this investigation was sufficient in answering the question; however, results were limited and did not explore the question in great enough detail. This can be attributed to the small number of antibiotics used. Furthermore, the concentrations of AMX, TTO and GIN would have had variation. Similarly, the GIN used was freshly juiced ginger. Ginger is a root plant and thus contamination in the soil may have been carried over from the soil into the juice. The methodology did not account for this contamination and used the most natural form of ginger to attribute any effective or ineffective activity to the pure ginger. However, when used as a TCM, ginger may have been used as the main ingredient of a TCM antibiotic. Overall, each antibiotic proved to be antibacterial to some degree. This can be further investigated by repeating this experiment with a wide range of AMX, TTO and GIN concentrations to determine whether the concentration of the antibiotic affects the activity observed. Similarly, a larger experiment, using a greater variety of modern antibiotics and more TIM or TCM compounds could be undertaken to further assess the efficacy of natural remedies. When undertaking further research, the bacteria’s sensitivity towards antibiotics should be noted – Staphylococcus epidermidis proved to be highly sensitive (more so than Escherichia coli and Micrococcus luteus) to the AMX. If research was continued, a wider variety of both natural remedies and modern antibiotics would potentially provide greater understanding. CONCLUSION This investigation aligned with the current available research and the hypothesis, ‘Although TIM and TCM will be effective, modern antibiotics will be more effective in treating Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial infections.’ AMX was significantly more effective in treating bacterial infections than both the tested natural remedies. GIN was consistently the least effective method in treating all bacterial infections and TTO continued to provide consistent results in its ZOC. TTO proved quite effective in treating Staphylococcus epidermidis which supports previous, peer-reviewed research. GIN was noted to have some form of contamination however overall, the results matched the findings of previous investigations into natural antibiotic remedies, confirming the hypothesis.

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APPENDICES Figure 4 Ginger and its constituent’s roles in disease preventionnatural antibiotic remedies, confirming the hypothesis.

REFERENCES Ahn, H., 7 best natural antibiotics: Uses, evidence, and effectiveness. (2020, January 1). https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ articles/321108 Australian Tea Tree Industry Association. (n.d.). All about Australian Tea Tree: Australian Tea Tree Industry Association (ATTIA) :: Retrieved 14 February 2022, from https://teatree.org.au/teatree_about.php Banes-Marshall, L., Cawley, P., & Phillips, C. A. (2001). In vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil against bacterial and Candida spp. Isolates from clinical specimens. British Journal of Biomedical Science, 58(3), 139–145. Bassett, I. B., Barnetson, R. S. C., & Pannowitz, D. L. (2010). A comparative study of tea-tree oil versus benzoylperoxide in the treatment of acne—Bassett—1990—Medical Journal of Australia— Wiley Online Library. The Medical Journal of Australia, 153(8), 455–458. Beristain-Bauza, S. D. C., Hernández-Carranza, P., Cid-Pérez, T. S., Ávila-Sosa, R., Ruiz-López, I. I., & Ochoa-Velasco, C. E. (2019). Antimicrobial Activity of Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) and Its Application in Food Products. Food Reviews International, 35(5), 407–426. https:// doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1573829

Food and Drug Administration. (2018). Battle of the Bugs: Fighting Antibiotic Resistance. FDA. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/informationconsumers-and-patients-drugs/battle-bugs-fighting-antibioticresistance Ginger Information | Mount Sinai—New York. (n.d.). Mount Sinai Health System. Retrieved 30 May 2022, from https://www.mountsinai. org/health-library/herb/ginger Larson, D., & Jacob, S. E. (2012). Tea Tree Oil. Dermatitis®, 23(1), 48–49. https://doi.org/10.1097/DER.0b013e31823e202d Lowy, F. D. (2003). Antimicrobial resistance: The example of Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 111(9), 1265–1273. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI200318535 Manjunatha, J. R., Bettadaiah, B. K., Negi, P. S., & Srinivas, P. (2013). Synthesis of quinoline derivatives of tetrahydrocurcumin and zingerone and evaluation of their antioxidant and antibacterial attributes. Food Chemistry, 136(2), 650–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. foodchem.2012.08.052 Mashhadi, N. S., Ghiasvand, R., Askari, G., Hariri, M., Darvishi, L., & Mofid, M. R. (2013). Anti-Oxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Ginger in Health and Physical Activity: Review of Current Evidence. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 4(Suppl 1), S36–S42.

Carson, C. F., Hammer, K. A., & Riley, T. V. (2006). Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Oil: A Review of Antimicrobial and Other Medicinal Properties. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006

Mondello, F., De Bernardis, F., Girolamo, A., Salvatore, G., & Cassone, A. (2003). In vitro and in vivo activity of tea tree oil against azolesusceptible and -resistant human pathogenic yeasts. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 51, 1223–1229. https://doi.org/10.1093

Carson, C. F., Mee, B. J., & Riley, T. V. (2002). Mechanism of Action of Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Oil on Staphylococcus aureus Determined by Time-Kill, Lysis, Leakage, and Salt Tolerance Assays and Electron Microscopy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. https://journals.asm.org/doi/abs/10.1128/AAC.46.6.1914-1920.2002

Morris, A. (October 20010). Investigation of Essential Oils as Antibiotics. University of California Press on Behalf of the National Association of Biology Teachers, 72(8), 499–500. Ott, J. A., & Morris, A. N. (n.d.). Homeopathic Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics on JSTOR. Retrieved 14 Febru-

THE EFFECTS OF AMOXICILLIN, GINGER AND TEA TREE OIL IN TREATING THE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF ESCHERICHIA COLI, MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

ary 2022, from https://www-jstor-org.pymblelc.idm.oclc.org/ stable/25433821?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=essential+oils+as+antibiotics&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dessential%2Boils%2Bas%2Bantibiotics%2B%26so%3Drel%26sd%3D2005&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A06a0acb2cf1071960a0eb460aa0457f4&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Rahmani, A. H., Shabrmi, F. M. A., & Aly, S. M. (2014). Active ingredients of ginger as potential candidates in the prevention and treatment of diseases via modulation of biological activities. International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology, 6(2), 125–136. Samuel Malu, & Nyong, B. (n.d.). Antibacterial activity and medicinal properties of Ginger (Zingiber officinale). Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. Swartz, M. N. (2009, August 20). Use of Antimicrobial Agents and Drug Resistance (world) [Editorial]. Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.1056/ NEJM199708143370709; Massachusetts Medical Society. https://doi. org/10.1056/NEJM199708143370709

Teles, A. M., Santos, B. A. dos, Ferreira, C. G., Mouchreck, A. N., Calabrese, K. da S., Abreu-Silva, A. L., & Almeida-Souza, F. (2019). Ginger (<em>Zingiber officinale</em>) Antimicrobial Potential: A Review. In Ginger Cultivation and Its Antimicrobial and Pharmacological Potentials. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/ intechopen.89780 Vau, A. Use Ginger as Antiseptic or Antibacterial Agent. (n.d.). VisiHow. Retrieved 30 May 2022, from https://visihow.com/Use_Ginger_As_ Antiseptic_or_Antibacterial_Agent van Hoek, A., Mevius, D., Guerra, B., Mullany, P., Roberts, A., & Aarts, H. (2011). Acquired Antibiotic Resistance Genes: An Overview. Frontiers in Microbiology, 2. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/ fmicb.2011.00203 Wong, W.C.W, Lee, A., Lam, A.T., Li, K.T., Leung, C.Y.M., Leung, P.C., Wong, E.L.Y., & Tang, J.L., (2006). Effectiveness of a Chinese herbal medicine preparation in the treatment of cough in uncomplicated upper respiratory tract infection: A randomised double-blinded placebo-control trial. Cough, 2(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/17459974-2-5

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Asexual propagation of herbaceous plants BY LAUREN SOLNESS (YEAR 12) This paper was originally written as a task for Science Extension. ABSTRACT This study investigated how moisture and nutrient levels affect the growth of roots and leaves of asexually propagated herbaceous plants, where one propagation method was chosen to investigate its effectiveness on succulents: leaf propagation. This method can be carried out year-round despite seasonality, unlike growing directly from seed. In this study, leaf propagation was tested in water, dilute fertiliser and air conditions to determine the impact of the different environments on plant growth. Various studies found that the main influence on root growth is environmental moisture, and that available nutrient supply is the main contributor to leaf growth. Thus, it was hypothesised that succulents supplied with water would show the most root growth, and the succulents supplied with nutrients would show the most leaf growth. This study found that the leaves propagated in the water and dilute fertiliser conditions had a substantially higher amount of root growth than the leaves with no supply of either, and that leaves propagated in the fertiliser condition had a substantially higher amount of leaf growth than the succulents in the air and water conditions. Additionally, it was found that the leaves propagated in the air and water conditions had similar leaf growth, and that leaves propagated in the water and Seasol conditions had similar root growth. LITERATURE REVIEW Current status of science in this field With the progression in the understanding of plant physiology, biochemistry and the environment in the last 70 years, there have been improvements in asexual propagation methods and techniques that have led to increased success in propagated plants (Mendel, 1992). These advancements in asexual propagation techniques have made commercial plant propagation more efficient and inexpensive (Preece, 2003). In agricultural and primary industries, sexual propagation methods are more commonly practiced due to most crops being annual varieties, and with this short lifecycle, asexual propagation is increasingly difficult to carry out successfully before the crop reaches the end of its growing season (Te Kura, 1999). In plant nurseries and distributors, asexual propagation methods are used more often as most ornamental plant varieties are perennial, meaning that propagation methods such as layering, cuttings, division, budding and grafting can be carried out successfully due to the plant’s ability to live through multiple season cycles (Prakash, 2009).

Furthermore, asexual propagation allows for a parent plant with desired characteristics to produce a genetically identical offspring. Asexual propagation is also desirable for some plants, such as varieties that do not produce viable seed, as it is the only feasible option to reproduce (Blazich & LeBude, 2022). Justification of the need for this research Although there has been extensive research on sexual propagation techniques and methods, asexual propagation has some grey areas in terms of how environmental variables, such as moisture and nutrient levels, can affect the outcome. The most commonly used method of asexual propagation is taking stem cuttings and planting the stem into moist soil, where a rooting hormone agent can be applied directly to the cut site prior to planting if necessary (Evans & Blazich, 1999). However, this method is mostly used in woody ornamental plants and there is little research that studies this method’s efficaciousness for perennial herbaceous plants with different plant physiology, such as succulents. Ideal moisture and nutrient levels vary greatly between woody and herbaceous plant stems due to variance in moisture retention and nutrient deficiencies, hence this method may prove ineffective for some herbaceous plants including succulents, which have high water retention due to their fleshy leaves and stems (Druege et al., 2016). Additionally, succulents, unlike most other perennial herbaceous plants, do not ‘die back’ as the dormant season begins and instead stop growing periodically and continue at the commencement of the growing season (Shefferson, 2009). Due to this abnormality in plant growth behaviour, there are minimal studies in terms of stem cuttings, as most other herbaceous perennial cuttings are recommended to be taken when the plant is dormant with minimal vegetative material on the stem (Sousa et al., 2013). Due to these physiological adaptations to their native arid environments, the high moisture levels associated with this propagation method may be ineffective for this plant species (Mihaela et al., 2011). Research into effective and cost-efficient asexual propagation methods of these types of plants is essential to the success of nursery plant propagation programs (Dogra et al., 2018). Relevance to Modern Science As the climate cycles and slowly becomes warmer and drier, water-conserving and heat tolerant plants are becoming increasingly important to both horticultural and agricultural industries. Succulents, drought-tolerant herbaceous plants, have several adaptations to suit these arid conditions such as fleshy leaves, nocturnal gasexchange and shallow roots. However, succulents also have a slow growth rate and, as the demand for this multibeneficial plant increases, efficient and effective ways of 99

ASEXUAL PROPAGATION OF HERBACEOUS PLANTS

growing them are becoming increasingly important. Grounds for Hypothesis According to this research, Gorelick found that fleshy succulent leaves with high water retention are capable of producing root and leaflet growth without additional moisture and nutrients when the leaves are separated from the stem (Gorelick, 2015). Mihaela et al. (2011) found that due to this high water retention, excessive moisture levels will result in stunted and inefficient growth, and potentially rot the parent leaf. However, as seen in Evans and Blazich’s (1999) propagation studies of other perennial plants, additional water will increase the growth of roots once they are developed, and additional nutrients will increase both root and leaflet growth once established. This 1999 study also concludes that succulent leaves that are not given any additional water or nutrients and are therefore reliant on their stored water and nutrients will produce less root and leaflet development but will have a decreased risk in rotting (Evans & Blazich, 1999).

a Graptosedum Glauca succulent were propagated in three different conditions to test how moisture and nutrient levels affect the growth of roots and leaves.

Figure 1 – Graptosedum Glauca

Figure 2 – Experimental Set Up SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION How does moisture and nutrient level affect the growth of roots and leaves of asexually propagated herbaceous plants? HYPOTHESIS The leaves propagated in the Seasol solution will have a higher amount of leaflet growth than that of the water and air (control) containers due to a higher nutrient supply which will stimulate a higher amount of leaflet growth. These leaves will also have a similar root growth to those in the water container as they have an equal amount of water, which is higher than the control container. This additional water supply will stimulate a higher amount of root growth than that of the control container. The leaves propagated in the water container will have leaflet growth similar to that of the control container as neither are supplied with additional nutrients to use for leaflet growth, unlike those propagated in the Seasol container. These leaves will also have a similar root growth to the Seasol container as they have an equal amount of water, which is a higher amount than the control container. This water will stimulate a higher amount of root growth than that of the control container. Root and leaflet growth is expected of succulent leaves propagated in the control container but as mentioned, relative to the Seasol and water containers it will be less. METHODOLOGY Data collection In this project a study was conducted in which leaves from 100

Figure 3 – Measurement Taking To reduce variables and ensure validity, 30 leaves with no visible damage (pest/fungal) and of similar size (+/- 1cm) were selected and separated from the central stem of a succulent branch by twisting and pulling gently to remove the entire leaf. These leaves were left indoors for 24 hours (no sunlight or moisture) so that a ‘scab’ could form at the separation site (base of leaf) to prevent rotting of leaves placed in the water or Seasol solution containers. Each of the three plastic containers were prepared by filling one with 500ml of water, one with 500ml of dilute Seasol solution (10ml Seasol:490ml water), and one container was left empty. Plastic cling wrap was applied on the open side of each container so that it sat flat and level with the top of the container and was secured with a rubber band around the lip of each container. Two parallel dotted lines six centimetres apart were marked and each of the five dots in each row was three centimetres apart. Small incisions (one centimetre long) were made on the pre-drawn dots with scissors, so that the horizontal incisions were parallel with the short sides of the container. These containers were then placed two centimetres apart from each other into

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the centre of a large Styrofoam box in a fixed position. The leaves (after 24 hours of drying) were selected at random and put into a hole of each container so that they faced up and the rest of the leaf sat away from the middle of the container, with approximately one centimetre of the leaf below the cling wrap. A grow light fixture was then clamped on the tabletop, and each of the three lamps were positioned flush with the top of the box, and directly above the centre of each container. These three containers were kept in this box for the entirety of the 25-day trial, positioned on the ground indoors, underneath the growing lights, receiving 12 hours of purple light (both red and blue) each day and 12 hours of no light. No additional sunlight or moisture was provided in the duration of the experiment.

The F-tests compare the variance of two conditions by comparing the P value with the alpha value. The alpha value is the threshold for statistical significance, and in this study was chosen to be 0.05. The P value is the probability that a given result is achieved (i.e. the chance within a probability distribution of achieving the mean value of the comparative probability distribution). When the P value lies outside of the alpha value (i.e. P value>alpha value), the difference in variance between the probability distributions is not significantly different and this difference is assumed to be due to chance. The result of the F-test determines which T-test is chosen (i.e. unequal variance or equal variance), which is used to determine whether the null hypothesis is rejected or not.

Photos were taken at the beginning of the trial and at the conclusion of the trial for observational data. A measuring tape was used to take measurements of each leaf’s root and leaflet length by laying it on a flat white surface and resting the leaf on top of it. The difference in the measurement values between the ends of the root/leaflets in mm were calculated and recorded at the conclusion of the trial in a raw results table.

The T-tests compare the means of two probability distributions by comparing the P value with the alpha value and comparing the T-statistic with the T-critical. When the absolute value of the T-statistic is larger than the T critical, there is a significant difference in means, and thus the null hypothesis (that the different conditions have no impact on the succulent growth outcome) is rejected.

Data analysis The data from this experiment was calculated, recorded, cleansed, and displayed in different data formats. Once the measurements of all 30 leaves were made and recorded, the data was first cleansed by removing outlying values within each container. These were the values that either lay below the lower bound, found by calculating Q1 - 1.5(IQR), or above the upper bound, found by calculating Q3 + 1.5(IQR). Most of these outliers were leaves that were affected by rot and had died during the experimental period, producing variable results. The remaining results were then put into two box and whisker plots to show the spread of the final measurements of the leaves, including the minimum, Q1, median, Q3 and maximum values of each treatment. F-tests of the data determined the variance (equal or unequal) between the treatments, and multiple T-tests were then produced from the cleansed data to show and compare the means and reliability of the data, as well as to determine whether the null hypothesis was rejected or not rejected. An F-test can be used to determine if the variance of the results for each experiment are significantly different from one another, and a T-test is required to determine if the means are significantly different from one another and therefore if the difference is likely due to chance or not. This will be most useful for both the root length data of the water and Seasol conditions and for the leaflet length data of the air and water conditions as the means and medians of these pairs of data are similar. These tests just include data values from leaf trials that lasted the entirety of the 35-day experimental trial period. Data from dead leaves are not included in these graphs.

RESULTS Table 1 – Summary of Raw Collected Data

To note: *Dead leaves produced no roots or leaves and gave a value of zero. These were not included in the cleansed data (graphs & data analysis). Some leaves produced roots but no leaflets (as shown by the higher amount of zero’s given in the leaflet data compared to the root data) Mean leaflet length is highest in seasol treatment Mean root length is highest in the water treatment (followed closely by seasol treatment)

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Graph 1 – Box and Whisker Plot; shows variation of root length (mm) in each treatment

Table 2a & 2b – Root Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of the root growth data of the Air treatment and the Water treatment

To note: Air data is positively skewed, showing that these leaves typically grew shorter roots. Water data and Seasol data is negatively skewed, showing that the leaves typically grew longer roots. As seen in graph, the mean root length for water is larger than the air data but similar to the seasol data. Graph 2 – Box and Whisker Plot; shows variance of leaflet length (mm) in each treatment

Table 3a & 3b – Root Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of the root growth data of the Water treatment and the Seasol treatment

To note: Air data is positively skewed, showing that these leaves typically grew shorter Water and seasol data are symmetrical, showing more consistent results (reflected by lower cleansed uncertainty seen in Figure 1). As seen in graph, the mean leaflet length for water is smaller than the seasol data but the same as the air data.

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Table 4a & 4b – Root Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of the root growth data of the Air treatment and the Seasol treatment

Table 5a & 5b – Leaflet Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of leaflet growth data of Air treatment and Water treatment

Table 6a & 6b – Leaflet Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of leaflet growth data of Water treatment and Seasol treatment

Table 7a & 7b – Leaflet Growth; shows statistical analysis (F-test & T-test) of leaflet growth data of Air treatment and Seasol treatment

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DISCUSSION Conclusion In this study, moisture level was found to affect the root growth of asexually propagated herbaceous plants. This was determined by the (higher) statistically significant mean root growth of the leaves that were given a water supply (a mean of 71.100mm in the water container and a mean of 65.250mm in the seasol container) in comparison to those that were not given a water supply (a mean of 20.875mm in the air container). Furthermore, the mean root length (65.250mm) in the seasol container was not found to be significantly different to that of the water container (71.100mm). In this study, nutrient level was found to affect the leaflet growth of asexually propagated herbaceous plants. This was determined by the (higher) statistically significant mean leaflet growth of the leaves that were given a nutrient supply (a mean of 19.200mm in the seasol container) in comparison to those that were not given a nutrient supply (a mean of 9.500mm in the air container and a mean of 13.889mm in the water container). Furthermore, the mean leaflet length (9.500mm) in the air container as not found to be significantly different to that of the water container (13.889mm). These findings agree with that found by Evans and Blazich as additional water was found to increase the growth of roots once they were developed, supporting the cleansed results of this investigation (dead leaf data that was not included in the cleansed results died before developing roots, thus water did not increase growth of roots as they did not develop in these leaves) (Evans & Blazich, 1999). Furthermore, these findings correspond to those found in Evans’ and Blazich’s propagation studies as additional nutrients were found to increased leaflet growth once established, supporting the cleansed results of this investigation (dead leaf data that was not included in the cleansed results died before developing leaflets, thus nutrients did not increase leaflet growth as they were unable to develop prior to rot) (Evans & Blazich, 1999). Additionally, these findings agree with those found by Gorelick as the succulent leaves propagated in the air (control) container were still capable of producing root and leaflet growth, but less than that of the conditions where the leaves were provided with additional water and nutrients (Gorelick, 2015). Justification of Choice of Methodology The methodology used ensured validity through randomisation of the leaves, standardisation of all of the controlled variables, including both environmental and experimental factors, having an independent variable (ie solution type in each container: water, dilute seasol solution and nothing), a dependant variable (ie root and leaflet length), and a control trial (no solution in a 104

container). Additionally, this methodology ensured validity through the consistent method of measurement in data collection. This methodology also allowed reliability to be tested through repetition as each container had 10 trials. Furthermore, this methodology ensured accuracy as the correct choice of measuring instruments were selected (measuring tape) and the appropriate measurement scale (mm) was selected. Limitations to these findings Since the rate at which the succulent leaves grew was not measured in this experiment, further research into this could be conducted to determine possible effects of these treatments on the growth rate. Additionally, data from leaves that rotted during the experiment were not included as their roots/leaflets were unable to be measured (both components separated from the leaf with any movement). Thus, further repeats of these experiments would allow the reliability of these results to be tested more thoroughly. Suggestions for future direction of scientific research Similar investigations involving the same treatments with other herbaceous plants may assist in expanding current scientific understanding of asexual reproduction, and may clarify whether the success of these propagative techniques has more dependence on other variables such as plant physiology or hormonal activity. Furthermore, investigation on how these treatments affect the growth rate of asexually propagated herbaceous plants can extend current scientific knowledge on plant physiology through observation of the plants responses to these conditions over time. CONCLUSION It can be concluded from the cleansed results (Graph 1 and Tables 2-4) that the water and seasol trials had a substantially higher amount of root growth than the control trial, confirming the suggestion that water stimulates root growth as according to Evans and Blazich (Evans & Blazich, 1999). Dilute seasol was found to stimulate a higher amount of leaflet growth, more than the water trial and control trial, as can be concluded from the cleansed results (Graph 2 and Tables 5-7) confirming the suggestion that nutrients stimulate leaflet growth as according to Evans and Blazich (Evans & Blazich, 1999). Succulent leaves propagated in the control container presented some root and leaflet growth but as hypothesised, relative to the seasol and water containers it was less as according to Gorelick (Gorelick, 2015). To conclude, the initial hypothesis of this investigation was supported, and the initial research question was answered.

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REFERENCES Blazich, F., & LeBude, A. (2022, February 1). 13. Propagation | NC State Extension Publications. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/13-propagation Cabahug, R. A. (2018). Review Paper—Propagation Techniques for Ornamental Succulents. https://doi.org/10.11623/frj.2018.26.3.02 Cactuses and Succulents | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.). Retrieved 15 February 2022, from https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/ plants/cactuses-succulents Chanana, Y. R. (n.d.). PROPAGATION AND NURSERY MANAGEMENT. 22. Dogra, K., Kour, K., Kuamr, R., Bakshi, P., & Kumar, V. (2018). Graft-Incompatibility in Horticultural Crops. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7, 1805–1820. https://doi. org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.702.218 Dormancy in plants—Discover | Candide Gardening. (n.d.). Candide. Retrieved 12 February 2022, from https://candide.com/GB/stories/356ed57d-c55a-4405-bd03-cc4cb696585e Druege, U., Franken, P., & Hajirezaei, M. R. (2016). Plant Hormone Homeostasis, Signaling, and Function during Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7. https://www.frontiersin. org/article/10.3389/fpls.2016.00381 Evans, E., & Blazich, F. (1999, January 31). Plant Propagation by Stem Cuttings | NC State Extension Publications. https://content.ces.ncsu. edu/plant-propagation-by-stem-cuttings-instructions-for-thehome-gardener Gorelick, R. (2015). Why Vegetative Propagation of Leaf Cuttings is Possible in Succulent and Semi-Succulent Plants. Haseltonia, 2015(20), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.2985/026.020.0109 Griffiths, H., & Males, J. (2017). Succulent plants. Current Biology, 27(17), R890–R896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.03.021 Idowu, P. E., Ibitoye, D. O., & Ademoyegun, O. T. (2009). Tissue culture as a plant production technique for horticultural crops. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(16), Article 16. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajb. v8i16.62060 Is A Succulent A Monocot Or Dicot? (Explained) | GardenSuperior. (n.d.). Retrieved 15 February 2022, from https://gardensuperior.com/ is-a-succulent-a-monocot-or-dicot-explained/ Mara. (n.d.). Herbaceous perennial plants, what are they, how to care for them and their role in organic gardens. Retrieved 15 February 2022, from https://villagedreaming.com.au/in-the-garden/herbaceous-perennial-plants-what-are-they-how-to-care-for-them-andtheir-role-in-organic-gardens/ Mendel, K. (1992). THE HISTORY OF PLANT PROPAGATION METHODS DURING THE LAST 70 YEARS. International Society for Horticultural Science. http://www.actahort.org/books/314/314_1.htm Mihaela, C., Doina, A., Manda, M., & Carmen, N. (2011). Study of leaves structures that determine the resistance to dryness at succulent plants. Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology, USAMVB, Timişoara, 14, 60–64.

Ogburn, R. M., & Edwards, E. J. (2010). Chapter 4—The Ecological Water-Use Strategies of Succulent Plants. In J.-C. Kader & M. Delseny (Eds.), Advances in Botanical Research (Vol. 55, pp. 179–225). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-380868-4.00004-1 Plant Propagation Methods. (2019, June 10). Resource Central. https://resourcecentral.org/plant-propagation-methods/ Prakash, J. (2009). MICROPROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PERENNIALS: PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS. ISHS Acta Horticulturae. https:// www.actahort.org/books/812/812_39.htm Preece, J. E. (2003). A Century of Progress with Vegetative Plant Propagation. American Society for Horticultural Science. PropagationStudyGuide.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved 12 February 2022, from https://www.fngla.org/res/images/PropagationStudyGuide.pdf Rajan, S. (2007). Propagation of Horticultural Crops. New India Publishing. Rajput, A. K. (2019). Plant Propagation—NCERT Unit 3. Sandor, F. (2007). Vegetative Propagation Techniques. Shefferson, R. P. (2009). The evolutionary ecology of vegetative dormancy in mature herbaceous perennial plants. Journal of Ecology, 97(5), 1000–1009. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01525.x Sorensen, D. C. (2011, December 2). Plant Propagation - Cooperative Extension: Garden & Yard - University of Maine Cooperative Extension. Cooperative Extension: Garden & Yard. https://extension.umaine. edu/gardening/manual/propagation/plant-propagation/ Sousa, C. M., Busquet, R. N., Vasconcellos, M. A. da S., & Miranda, R. M. (2013). Effects of auxin and misting on the rooting of herbaceous and hardwood cuttings from the fig tree. Revista Ciência Agronômica, 44, 334–338. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-66902013000200016 Te Kura. (1999). Producing more plants. Te Kura Horticulture. https:// horticulture.tekura.school.nz/plant-propagation/plant-propagation-1/ ht1091-plant-propogation-1-study-plan/producing-more-plants/ To retain water, succulents pump up leaves. (2013, April 12). Futurity. https://www.futurity.org/to-retain-water-succulents-pump-upleaves/

FOOTNOTES Asexual reproduction: type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction inherit the full set of genes of their single parent.

Vegetative Propagation: any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment or cutting of the parent plant or specialized reproductive structures (vegetative propagules).

Leaflet (foliole): a leaf-like part of a compound leaf. Though it resembles an entire leaf, a leaflet is not borne on a main plant stem or branch, as a leaf is, but rather on a petiole or a branch of the leaf.

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Arsenic in drinking water and the development of urinary bladder cancer in California, United States of America BY ELISA YANG (YEAR 12) This paper was originally written as a task for Science Extension. ABSTRACT Arsenic is a recognised carcinogen, prevalent at hazardous levels in the drinking water of both developed and developing communities across the world. Long-term exposure to the metal for five to 20 years has been linked to a number of serious health conditions such as cancers, particularly of skin, bladder, lung, kidney and liver. However, the exact effect it has on the human body is not well understood. Using public data from the California Water Board and the Centers for Disease Control, the median arsenic concentration (2011) was compared against the 5-year average age-adjusted incidence rate of urinary bladder cancer (2014-2018), by county of California. The results for this sample indicated no correlation between varying concentrations of arsenic and bladder cancer rates. A repeat was then conducted after splitting the data into a ‘low’ (2.4-6.5 µg/L) and ‘high’ (6.5-10 µg/L) group. Again, the results indicated no correlation, and was backed by a Pearson’s correlation test and a t-test that established that there was no statistical significance between the mean cancer incidence rate between the low and high arsenic groups. These results suggest that the concentration of arsenic exposure over a three-to-seven-year period is minimally significant towards the development of bladder cancer in California. LITERATURE REVIEW It is estimated that there are globally over 140 million people who are drinking water containing arsenic levels exceeding the World Health Organisation’s provisional guideline of 10 µg/L (WHO, 2018). Long-term arsenic exposure has been linked to numerous diseases and poor health effects, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and decreased cognitive development in children (WHO, 2018). Most significantly however, skin, bladder, kidney, liver and lung cancers have all been linked to long-term arsenic exposure (Hughes et al., 2011), of a minimum of five years( WHO, 2018). Furthermore, studies done in Northern Chile have found that arsenic exposures have been linked to higher mortality rates up to 20 years later (Fernandez et al., 2012). Arsenic-induced diseases are complex as symptoms vary greatly across individuals, population groups and geographical areas and there is currently no method to distinguish between arsenic-induced cancers and cancers resulting from other risk factors (WHO, 2018). For example, 106

urinary bladder cancers are associated with other risk factors including older age, gender, genetic predisposition, previous bladder infections and cancers, smoking and other chemical contaminants such as benzidine, and so on (American Cancer Society, n.d.). It is evident that arsenic exposure is a widespread problem of global concern (WHO, 2018). However, the complicated relationship arsenic shares with different disease endpoints are currently still being researched (Hughes et al., 2011). Continued research allows for greater understanding of the issue and therefore leads to the development of more effective solutions. As there is limited understanding about the extent of arsenic exposure as a risk factor for certain cancers such as urinary bladder cancer, this study first aims to quantitatively observe the relationship between the two variables to determine the extent of the problem. While arsenic-induced diseases are not currently wellunderstood, research supports that arsenic exposure cause cancers by inducing a deficiency in S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) enzymes that are normally involved in DNA methylation, an important epigenetic factor involved in DNA repair mechanisms (Sharavanan et al., 2019). SAM deficiencies therefore result in decreased DNA methyltransferase activity in DNA methylation, that may lead to genomic hypomethylation and the expression of oncogenes, or genomic hypermethylation and the suppression of tumour-suppressor genes, both of which increase the risk of gene mutations and the development of cancer cells (Sharavanan et al., 2019). SAM deficiencies occur as a result of arsenic exposures as trivalent (arsenites) and pentavalent (arsenates) arsenic is broken down by the body via methylation using SAM enzymes, into dimethylarsinic acid (CDC, 2017, Kenyon & Hughes, 2001). Rat and mice models have also found dimethylarsinic acid contaminated food and drinking water to be a complete carcinogen and promote urinary bladder, kidney, liver and thyroid gland cancers, as well as in vitro exposure to be linked to single-strand DNA mutations in mice, rats and human lung cells (Kenyon & Hughes, 2001). Arsenic is a naturally occurring metal in the earth’s crust that is widely spread throughout the environment via water, land and air (Ayotte et al., 2017, WHO, 2018). As a result, highly toxic inorganic forms of arsenic, such as arsenates, are naturally present in many developing and developed countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, China, India, Mexico and the United States of America (WHO, 2018). In the United States of America in particular, concerning levels of arsenic have been detected

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in over 25 states, with around 16 per cent of wells in the southwest exceeding the World Health Organisation’s ten µg/L recommended limit (Ayotte et al., 2017). This includes states such as California, Arizona and Nevada (AdEdge Water Technologies LLC., 2018). Arsenic is considered globally as the most threatening to public health as a groundwater contaminant (Ayotte et al., 2017, WHO, 2018). Arsenic drinking water contamination, and the contamination of water used for the irrigation of crops and the subsequent natural uptake of arsenic by plants such as rice and tobacco, are both key forms of exposure (WHO, 2018) and occur as a result of both natural geochemical processes and human activity involving arsenic such as using lead arsenate pesticides, arsenic animal feed additives, and industrial processing of glass pigments, textiles, arsenic metal alloying agents, wood preservatives, paper and ammunition. (Ayotte et al., 2017, Masuda, 2018, WHO, 2018). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION How does arsenic exposure via drinking water correlate with the incidence rates of certain cancers such as urinary bladder cancer? HYPOTHESIS Current science suggests that arsenic is carcinogenic, supporting the claim that areas with significant arsenic groundwater concentrations of close to ten µg/L or higher, such as in California, and their urinary bladder cancer rates should have a positive correlation. As arsenic groundwater concentrations increase, it is therefore expected that urinary bladder cancer rates also increase. Similarly, as arsenic groundwater concentrations decrease, it should be expected that urinary bladder cancer rates also decline. In areas with arsenic groundwater concentrations of less than ten µg/L, there should be minimal correlation between the two variables. METHODOLOGY External Data Collection Methodology To investigate the proposed research question, two publicly available datasets were accessed and compared. Arsenic data was obtained from a large dataset that was collected under the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) from January 1, 2011 through December 31, 2014 (California Water Boards State Water Resources Control Board, 2022). Water samples were collected from hundreds of sites across the state of California that varied in purpose, including city water, elementary schools, wineries, state prisons and so on (table 2). Water samples from different sources were collected and analysed for different contaminants, including arsenic, in labs based on a monitoring schedule.

site, county, population served, sampling date, analyte (contaminant) and concentration in µg/L, accurate to 0.1 µg/L. Cancer data was obtained from State Cancer Profiles (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Cancer Institute, 2021), which collates population-based cancer incidence data from metropolitan, regional and state cancer registries reported by medical facilities. Using registries from 2014-2018, the CDC calculated and published a dataset with the latest five-year average age-adjusted incidence rates for urinary bladder cancer by counties in California, accurate to one decimal place. As both datasets were collected and published by respected and specialised scientific organisations, the two datasets were chosen based on their relevance to the question and compatibility with one another, as the relevant variables could be matched by county. The analysis of these two datasets therefore allows for the research question to be tested. Data Cleansing Methodology Due to the large size of the SDWIS dataset, R Studio was used to filter the data by analyte and sampling date so as to show only arsenic relevant entries from 2011 only. This was necessary to allow for an assumed period of arsenic exposure and the onset of cancer. In Excel, the SDWIS dataset was then sorted by county in alphabetical order. Considering the size of this dataset, three pivot tables were created to better understand it. Table SEQ Figure_3 \* ARABIC 1: excerpt of pivot table showing the number of samples collected in order of ascending arsenic concentration, in intervals of 5 µg/L.

Published data has been reviewed by relevant authorities to ensure data quality, validating the dataset itself. For each entry, data was collected on variables such as sampling 107

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Table 2: excerpt of pivot table showing the average arsenic concentration detected at different sampling sites over 2014, by sample site in alphabetical order.

Table 3: excerpt of pivot table showing the number of samples collected for each county, in intervals of 5 µg/L. Highlighted in yellow are entries with less than 15 samples.

Data Analysis Methodology For each county, the mean and median arsenic concentration was calculated. Due to the presence of significant outliers in some counties caused by the positive skew of the dataset (table 1), the median was chosen to represent the centre over the mean, and a scatterplot was created to visualise and interpret the relationship between median arsenic concentration and the age-adjusted incidence rate of urinary bladder cancer. The arsenic values were than sorted into two groups ‘low’ (2.4-6.5 µg/L*) and ‘high’ (6.5-10 µg/L). Considering the different frequency of arsenic values in the original dataset (table 1) and hence different reliability of datapoints showing ‘low’ vs. ‘high’ concentrations, another scatterplot was created to investigate whether there was a different trend for each group. The categorisation into two groups also allowed for a two-sample t-test assuming equal variances to be conducted, in order to determine the statistical significance of the results. This t-test was chosen as an F-test was conducted to determine that the two groups had equal variance, and a two-sample t-test was appropriate as the two groups of data are independent of one another. For both statistical analyses, the alpha value was set as 0.05. Additionally, a Pearson’s product-moment correlation test (cor.test) was conducted on each group using R Studio to further check for the strength of the correlation of the relationship between the two variables. *Ideally, the ‘low’ group should refer to concentrations <10 µg/L and the ‘high’ group to concentrations >10 µg/L, however due to positive skew of data, using the median also eliminated most arsenic concentrations measured that would be considered ‘high’.

Minimal cleansing was required for the cancer data as incidence rates were already organised by county in alphabetical order. Counties for which data was suppressed due to there being less than 16 cases, or unavailable due to county legislation, were filtered out. Incidence rates were isolated and aligned with the relevant group of arsenic concentration values, based on county. From Table 3, counties with less than 15 samples were considered as unreliable. Once the two datasets were paired together, these counties were filtered out. 108

Dataset References California Water Boards State Water Resources Control Board. (2022, March 24). EDT Library and Water Quality Analyses Data and Download Page | California State Water Resources Control Board. EDT Library and Water Quality Analyses Data and Download Page. https://www. waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/certlic/drinkingwater/ EDTlibrary.html State Cancer Profiles > Incidence Rates Table. (n.d.). Retrieved 26 March 2022, from https:// statecancerprofiles.cancer.gov/incidencerates/index.

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RESULTS Scatterplot of Processed Data Figure 4: 2011 median arsenic concentration in Californian drinking water vs. 2014-2018 5-year average age-standardised urinary bladder cancer incidence rates, by county, represented in a scatterplot.

F-Test Two-Sample for Variances Table 6: F-test to statistically compare the variances of incidence rates between the ‘low’ and ‘high’ arsenic concentration groups.

The ‘low’ group has a variance of 4.90 (2 d.p.) while the ‘high’ group has a variance of 6.13 (2 d.p.), meaning that the ‘high’ concentrations are paired with a greater range of incidence rates. As 1.25 < 2.18, the F value is less than the F Critical value. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected and the F test shows the groups have statistically equal variance. Datapoints are evenly scattered across a concentration of 2.4 to 10 µg/L. The line of best fit shows a slight positive slope of 0.1319, suggesting an extremely weak positive correlation between the two variables. This is supported by the low R2 value of 0.0138, which indicates extremely weak to no correlation between arsenic concentration and urinary bladder cancer incidence rates in California for this time period.

t-Test Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances Table 7: t-Test to statistically compare whether the mean incidence rates between the ‘low’ and ‘high’ arsenic concentration groups are statistically different.

Scatterplot of Data Grouped by Low and High Median Arsenic Concentration Figure 5: 2011 median arsenic concentration in Californian drinking water vs. 2014-2018 5-year average age-standardised urinary bladder cancer incidence rates, by county, split into ‘low’ (2.4-6.5 µg/L, blue) and ‘high’ (6.5-10 µg/L, orange) groups, represented in a scatterplot. The ‘low’ group has a mean of 17.78 (2 d.p.) and the ‘high’ group has a mean of 18.34 (2 d.p.), meaning that ‘high’ arsenic concentrations have a higher mean incidence rate. However, as t Stat < t Critical (0.74 < 2.03) and p > 𝛼 (0.46 > 0.05), there is no statistically significant difference between the means. The null hypothesis is not rejected, there is no significant correlation between arsenic concentration in drinking water and the incidence rate of urinary bladder cancer.

For the ‘low’ group, a slight positive slope of 0.131 is shown with a low R2 value of 0.0036. This indicates an extremely weak or no correlation. For the ‘high’ group, a negative slope of -0.0155 is shown with an extremely low R2 value of 6e-0.5. This indicates no correlation between the two variables in California for this time period.

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Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Tests Figure 8: Pearson’s product-moment correlation test run in R Studio to quantitatively analyse the strength of correlation between ‘low’ and ‘high’ arsenic concentrations and their respective urinary bladder cancer incidence rates by county.

Figure omitted for publication

For the ‘high’ group, p > a (0.9772 > 0.05) and the correlation value was -0.0078. For the ‘low’ group, p > a (0.7921 > 0.05) and the correlation value was -0.060. Both these results indicate no correlation between the variables for either group. DISCUSSION As indicated and affirmed by Figures 4-8, limited to no correlation and a lack of statistical significance was found between arsenic concentrations of <10 µg/L and the incidence of bladder cancer in California over an exposure period of three to seven years, supporting the hypothesis and current provisional guideline for arsenic levels in drinking water (WHO, 2018). Smaller concentrations of arsenic appear less carcinogenic, however as seen by the slight positive slope of 0.1319 in Figure 4, an extremely weak positive correlation was observed, supporting current literature that increased exposure does lead to increased carcinogenic risk (WHO, 2018). Figure 5 indicates different slopes between variables for a ‘low’ and ‘high’ group. Both values indicate no correlation, the slope changes from positive to negative. It is unclear whether this change is significant as it may be due to assuming a linear model. Further research is required to determine whether a linear model is effective or not. It was assumed that the concentration of arsenic exposure is approximately uniform as the time period observed. By comparing 2011 against 2014 data within the SDWIS dataset, it is evident that this is not true (Appendix 1), impacting on the correlation observed. It is reasonable that a more complex model than a linear model may be required to better analyse the correlation using this methodology. The lack of correlation in this sample suggests that arsenic exposure is less significant in contributing towards the development of bladder cancer in Californian individuals. Instead, other more significant factors may be involved in this sample, such as male gender, Caucasian ethnicity, older age and so on (ACS, 2019). To test this, the study could be repeated with these variables in place of arsenic concentration. Areas with less prevalence of these factors could then be tested again for the significance of arsenic in developing bladder cancer, and then compared 110

against the Californian sample. The lack of correlation in the results could also arise from limitations in the methodology such as the datasets used. For instance, it is assumed that the presented data represents the concentration of contaminants served to the population of California, however importantly, the source states that sites may not use certain sources or may treat or blend them prior to service. i.e. The detected concentration of a contaminant in a raw water sample may not be indicative of the concentration of that contaminant in the water that was actually served to customers. This introduces uncertainty into this methodology, creating a possible point of error. Depending on the sample size (Table 1) and location of samples for each county (Table 2), there is differing reliability for each datapoint which may be affecting the correlation observed. As seen in Table 1, the dataset is positively skewed, with the majority of samples sitting within the bin interval of 0.006-5.006 µg/L arsenic concentration detected. Since there is a greater sample space for these lower concentrations, these points will be more reliable than points drawn from higher concentrations. i.e. it is unclear whether the incidence rate resulting from exposure to 100.006-105.006 µg/L arsenic concentration is an outlier or not. The size of the dataset is therefore valid for values up to around the 35.006-40.006 µg/L arsenic concentration (>100 values available). However, it loses reliability and hence validity as concentration increases. Moreover, Table 2 displays the various average concentrations sampled from different sites, even within the same county. For instance, the 60th Street Assoc. Water System and the Aerial Acres Water Company Inc. are both from Kern, however, their average arsenic concentrations have a difference of almost nine µg/L. In this methodology, the same urinary bladder incidence rate is assumed for the entire county despite varying arsenic concentrations. This is another point of error that may impact upon the validity of results obtained from this methodology. Literature suggests that a greater period of exposure may be required for arsenic to become a carcinogenic risk (WHO, 2018, Fernandez et al., 2012), however, this could not be tested due to the SDWIS dataset being only from 2011-2014. As more data is collected in future, the data will become more valid and the study can be repeated. Alternatively, it may also be useful to compare these results against other areas in the US as the results of this study are currently only limited to California and may not accurately reflect other samples and the general relationship between the two variables. Moreover, in certain clinical trials, arsenic compounds such as arsenic trioxide are being tested as chemotherapeutic drugs for cancers such as leukaemia (Cohut, M., 2018). Rather than increasing the incidence,

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Science these compounds, if present, could be decreasing the incidence. It is unknown what arsenic compounds were detected in the SDWIS dataset. However, if possible, it could be useful to access this data and create a more specific model of the relationship between the two variables.

CONCLUSION From the results of this study, no correlation was identified between the arsenic concentration in water sources and the incidence rate of urinary bladder cancer per 100 000 in counties of California, United States of America. In Figures 4 and 5, mathematical models for the relationship were constructed using scatterplots. In both, extremely minimal slopes (3: 0.03, 4 low: -0.39, 4 high: 0.02) and low R squared values (3: 0.01, 4 low: -0.13, 4 high: 0.01) were found, supporting the conclusion that there is no correlation between the variables. Similarly, in Figure 7, low correlation values were found (low: -0.36, high: 0.12), further providing evidence for this conclusion. Moreover, Figure 6 indicates the t Stat value of 1.52 is less than the t Critical value of 2.02, showing that the mean incidence rate produced from the low arsenic concentration group (18.87 per 100 000) and the high arsenic concentration group (17.52 per 100 000) were not statistically different enough to be considered statistically significant. The p value, 0.14, is also greater than the set alpha value of 0.05, suggesting that the values are more

REFERENCES AdEdge Water Technologies LLC. (2018). 5 States with High Levels of Arsenic in Groundwater. https://adedgetech.com/5-states-high-levels-arsenic-groundwater American Cancer Society. (2019). Bladder Cancer Risk Factors. https:// www.cancer.org/cancer/bladder-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/ risk-factors.html Ayotte, J. D., Medalie, L., Qi, S. L., Backer, L. C., & Nolan, B. T. (2017). Estimating the High-Arsenic Domestic-Well Population in the Conterminous United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(21), 12443–12454. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02881 ACS, Bladder Cancer Risk Factors. (2019). Retrieved 15 August 2022, from https://www.cancer.org/cancer/bladder-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Arsenic Factsheet | National Biomonitoring Program | CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/ biomonitoring/Arsenic_FactSheet.html Cohut, M. (2018, August 12). Poison or cure? Arsenic can help treat cancer, study finds. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322739 Fernandez, M., Lopez, J. F., Vivaldi, B., & Coz, F. (2012). Long-term impact of arsenic in drinking water on bladder cancer health care and mortality rates 20 years after end of exposure—PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22248521/

likely to be due to chance than to be correlated. This is further supported by the p-values from Figure 7 (low: 0.10, high: 0.62), which are both also greater than the set alpha value of 0.05. Hence, in this study, the alternate hypothesis was not accepted. There is no correlation between arsenic exposure and the incidence rate of urinary bladder cancer. The null hypothesis was not rejected. APPENDICES Appendix 1: t-test between 2011 and 2014 median arsenic concentrations recorded.

The mean for the 2011 data was 7.49 µg/L in comparison to a mean of 18.31 µg/L for 2014. As t Stat > t Critical (|9.49| > |2.08|), this difference is statistically different.

Hughes, M. F., Beck, B. D., Chen, Y., Lewis, A. S., & Thomas, D. J. (2011). Arsenic Exposure and Toxicology: A Historical Perspective. Toxicological Sciences, 123(2), 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfr184 Kenyon, E. M., & Hughes, M. F. (2001). A concise review of the toxicity and carcinogenicity of dimethylarsinic acid. Toxicology, 160(1–3), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0300-483x(00)00458-3 Masuda, H. (2018). Arsenic cycling in the Earth’s crust and hydrosphere: Interaction between naturally occurring arsenic and human activities. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science, 5(1), 68. https://doi. org/10.1186/s40645-018-0224-3 Pershagen, G. (1981). The carcinogenicity of arsenic. Environmental Health Perspectives, 40, 93–100. Sharavanan, V., Sivaramakrishnan, M., Sivarajasekar, N., Senthilrani, N., Ko, R., Dhakal, N., Sivamani, S., Show, P.-L., Awual, M., & Naushad, M. (2019). Pollutants inducing epigenetic changes and diseases. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311019-00944-3 Water Education Foundation. (n.d.). Arsenic Contamination. Water Education Foundation. https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia-background/arsenic-contamination World Health Organisation. (2018). Arsenic. https://www.who.int/ news-room/fact-sheets/detail/arsenic

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MD003

Restoring Touch Using Optogenetics and Bioluminescence Evelyn Zhu

BIOTECH FUTURES

Pymble Ladies’ College Mentor: Kate Pickard

2021 2022

THE ISSUE Across the globe, more than 1 million limb amputations occur annually. In Australia, more than 8000 lower limb amputations are performed each year. Limb loss is a life changing and traumatic event. Many amputees use prosthetic limbs, which help them regain mobility, and mimics the function and appearance of a biological limb. While prostheses have advanced greatly, prosthetic limbs are typically focused on movement and functionality, and one vital frontier is yet to be fully explored. Touch. The sensation of touch is a crucial part of life and human connection. Restoring touch to people with limb loss is a necessary and integral step in recreating a biological limb and helping millions of people around the world. My biotech solution combines optogenetics and bioluminescence to recreate somatosensation in prosthetic limbs.

ELEMENTS OF MY SOLUTION

By FDA - https://flic.kr/p/9gFr4x, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34550647

Optogenetics is a revolutionary technique of using light to excite or inhibit specific nerves. This is done through opsins, which are light sensitive proteins that can turn on or turn off nerves. Target neurons injected with opsins can be controlled by light. Optogenetics allows for incredibly precise spatial and temporal specificity, and has abundant, untapped potential. However, a major limitation is light delivery. Implanting fibre optic cables to deliver light is a highly invasive and damaging surgery, which also limits movement and poses risks for every day, practical use.

From the New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/17/science/17optics.html

Figure shows the luminescence-evoked responses in neurons with excitatory luminopsins. When exposed to the subtrate (CTZ) the luminescence increases and the cell depolarises. From Berglund K, Birkner E, Augustine GJ, Hochgeschwender U (2013) LightEmitting Channelrhodopsins for Combined Optogenetic and Chemical-Genetic Control of Neurons. PLoS ONE 8(3): e59759. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059759

By @yb_woodstock さん https://www.flickr.com/photos/yellow_bird_woodstock/ https://www.flickr.com/photos/yellow_bird_woodstock/7394335518/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26495560

MY BIOTECH SOLUTION Touch sensitive prosthetic § The prosthetic’s finger tips will contain an array of sensors (pressure, vibration, heat). § Within the prosthetic, there will be a reservoir of substrate. § Excitatory luminopsins will be injected via a viral vector into the specific nerves at the amputation site responsible for relaying touch sensations to the brain.

Have you ever seen fireflies at night? Their natural light (or bioluminescence) is the result of a chemical reaction. An enzyme (called luciferase) catalyses or speeds up the oxidisation of the chemical substrate, which creates the glow.

To conclude, my biotech solution utilises optogenetics and bioluminescence to restore touch to amputees. It has great potential to be a revolutionary, practical and effective method of restoring the sensation of touch.

An improved, touch-sensitive prosthetic hand Future applications This solution can be applied to other limbs and parts of the body that have been lost. It could also restore touch and mobility to people with paralysis. My idea can also be used to help people with congenital insensitivity to pain and anhidrosis (CIPA) feel pain and sense temperature. Again, this would bypass a prosthetic and might require a thin, glovelike apparatus with sensors. Luminopsins have great therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative disorders like multiple sclerosis, neurodevelopmental disorders like autism, and any disorders that are caused by imbalances in neural activity. Bioluminescence improves the feasibility of optogenetics within the brain.

Bibliography

15 Limb Loss Statistics that May Surprise You (2017). Access Prosthetic. https://accessprosthetics.com/15-limb-loss-statistics-may-surprise/ Artificial Limb Technologies (n.d.). Scheck and Siress. https://www.scheckandsiress.com/products-services/bionic-limbs-prosthetic-technology/ Australian Statistics (n.d.). Limbs 4 Life. https://www.limbs4life.org.au/australian-statistics Berglund K, Birkner E, Augustine GJ, Hochgeschwender U. (2013). Light-Emitting Channelrhodopsins for Combined Optogenetic and Chemical-Genetic Control of Neurons. PLoS ONE 8(3): e59759. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059759 (1) Bionic Prosthetic Arm Restores Sensation for Marine Veteran (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/patient-stories/253-bionic-prosthetic-arm-restores-sensation-for-marine-veteran First "Plug and Play" Brain Prosthesis Helps Paralysis Patient (2020). Technology Networks. https://www.technologynetworks.com/neuroscience/news/first-plug-and-play-brain-prosthesis-in-paralysis-patient-340207 Pickard, K. (2021). Optogenetics: how optogenetic methods have revolutionised brain research and their therapeutic potential. The University of Sydney. Pickard, K. (n.d.). Touch in Upper Limb Neural Prostheses. The University of Sydney. Strain, D. (2020). Now closer to reality: Prosthetics that can feel. https://www.colorado.edu/today/2020/05/21/prosthetics-can-feel-now-closer-reality Tung, J., Gutekunst, CA. & Gross, R. (2015). Inhibitory luminopsins: genetically-encoded bioluminescent opsins for versatile, scalable and hardware-independent optogenetic inhibition. Sci Rep 5, 14366. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14366 (2) Yong, E. (2016). Brain Prosthetic Allows Paralyzed Man to Move His Hand Again. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/04/brain-prosthetic-allows-paralyzed-man-to-move-his-hand-again/478026/

Contact Information

112

A study in 20131 showed that an excitatory luminopsin was able to activate neurons in vitro, in response to external light and the substrate (seen in the figure to the left). Similarly, a study in 20152 showed that an inhibitory luminopsin was able to suppress neural activity in vitro, and in anaesthetised and awake rats.

Creating sensation 1. When stimulated, the sensor will instruct a reservoir to release a dose of substrate. 2. When exposed to the substrate, the luminopsins will glow and activate the neurons. 3. The signal will travel along the neural pathway to the brain and convey the sensation.

Further research There are some aspects that require further research. 1. Recreating the complexity of sensations. A biological fingertip can feel pressure, vibrations, heat and respond to other tactile stimuli. My idea needs to activate the specific neural pathways to convey the modes of sensation. This would require precise research to determine which nerves to inject with opsins. 2. The amount of substrate and its metabolisation. If there is excess substrate, it may cause the amputee to continue feeling a sensation from the prosthetic. 3. The best way to deliver the substrate as fast as possible for immediate sensation. It could be intravenous or maybe some kind of dermal patch. 4. Making sure luminopsins and substrate are safe for the human body and don’t trigger an immune response. The impact A method of reliably and practically conveying the sensation of touch would be invaluable to amputees. With experimentation and refinement, this idea could be an integrated and usable solution to restore touch. Regaining touch would have a monumental impact on all aspects of an amputee's life, from performing sensitive and fine tasks with fingers, to feeling and expressing affection and human connection through touch.

Bioluminescence has amazing potential to be an improved method of light delivery. Research into combining luciferase (the enzyme) and opsins (the light sensitive protein) has shown it to be a promising and successful idea. These new bioluminescent opsins are called luminopsins.

Evelyn Zhu: EZhu2025@pymblelc.nsw.edu.au

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

Science EG009

COLLAGEN-CHITOSAN COMBINATION FOR ARTIFICIAL BLOOD VESSELS Rachel Chan, Angelina Lee, Young Cho Mentor: Dr. Steven Wise Pymble Ladies College, NSW, 2073

What material combination would allow for the most effective and sanitary artificial blood vessels that are tolerable to the human body?

DID YOU KNOW?

32%

of all global deaths are due to cardiovascular disease

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? Cardiovascular disease (CVD) refers to conditions that affect the heart and blood vessels, the most common being atherosclerosis (the buildup of fatty deposits, plaque, in the artery walls). Blockages can cause arteries to narrow (Coronary Artery Disease), which can lead to heart failure, heart attacks, and death.

CURRENTLY...

1 in 6 Australians struggle with CVD

CVD affects 2 in 3 Australian families

Arterial bypass is used as a solution for CVD. This entails surgery that redirects blood flow around a section of blocked artery. However, some issues include...

50%

chance of failure within 10 years.

30%

of cases where no autologous vessels are not available for the surgery.

COMMERCIAL PLASTICS NATURAL MATERIALS

Possibility of blood clots and thrombosis Neointimal hyperplasia: thickening of arterial walls Isolates endothelial cells which control blood clotting, immune function and platelet adhesion.

Material

Source

Strength, Degradation Resistance

Structural similarity to natural blood vessels

Low risk of complications such as thrombosis

Compatible with electrospinning

Accessible and abundant in supply

Flexible

Collagen

Bovine or porcine tissue

YES

Elastin

Bovine or porcine tissue

YES

Silk Fibroin

Spiders and silkworms

YES

Chitosan

Arthropod skeletons

YES

OUR SOLUTION REFS.

Wang, D., Xu, Y., Li, Q., & Turng, L.-S. (2020). Artificial small-diameter blood vessels: materials, fabrication, surface modification, mechanical properties, and bioactive functionalities. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 8(9), 1801–1822. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9tb01849b. Maleki, S., Shamloo, A., & Kalantarnia, F. (2022). Tubular TPU/SF nanofibers covered with chitosan-based hydrogels as small-diameter vascular grafts with enhanced mechanical properties. Scientific Reports, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10264-2 Public. (2015, July 23). Fig 1. Fabrication of biomimetic tissue-engineered blood vessels... Retrieved July 30, 2022, from ResearchGate website: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Fabrication-of-biomimetic-tissue-engineered-bloodvessels-bTEBV-A-The-scaffold-is_fig5_280313112 Key Statistics: Cardiovascular Disease | The Heart Foundation. (2019). Retrieved July 30, 2022, from Heartfoundation.org.au website: https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/activities-findingor-opinion/key-stats-cardiovasculardisease#:~:text=One%20in%20six%20Australians%20self,Australian%20population%20livin g%20with%20CVD. Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery. (2021, August 8). Retrieved July 30, 2022, from Hopkinsmedicine.org website: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-andtherapies/coronary-artery-bypass-graftsurgery#:~:text=Blood%20bypasses%20the%20blockage%20by,and%20temporarily%20stop s%20the%20heart.

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Impact of participation in gymnastics during ages 12 to 18 on the development of knee osteoarthritis BY OLIVIA HARVEY (YEAR 12)

This paper was originally written as a task for Science Extension. ABSTRACT Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is a prevalent issue worldwide. Certain sports have been shown to increase the risk of developing KOA, however to date, there has been no study examining the effect of gymnastics on KOA. This study evaluated the relationship between participation in gymnastics between ages 12-18 and the development of KOA later in life. This study was conducted using data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative, a multicentre, longitudinal study involving knee-Xray readings, symptom assessments and lifetime physical activity surveys. Of the 2,622 participants, 1,465 (56%) were women, mean age was 60.3 (± 9.0) years, mean BMI was 28.4 (± 4.7) and 215 (9%) reported a knee injury between ages 12-18. Results showed no association between the intensity of gymnastics and development of KOA, and that gymnastics does not pose a higher risk than other sports. However, significant difference was found between gymnasts and sedentary participants (21.2% vs 32.1%, p=0.0034). Of the confounders, being overweight/obese increased the odds of developing KOA, while females had lower odds. This study concludes that there is no evidence that gymnastics is a high-risk activity for developing KOA, whilst participation during the ages 12-18 may have a protective association when compared to those who are sedentary. LITERATURE REVIEW Osteoarthritis (OA) occurs when the protective cartilage layer at the ends of bones is worn down and can affect any joint, with knees being the major source of disability. In 2020, more than 22% of adults aged ≥40 years, an estimated 654 million individuals, were affected by knee osteoarthritis (KOA) worldwide (Cui et al., 2020). In 2021, around 2.1 million Australians (1 in 11 people) had KOA, a statistic that is expected to rise by 58% in 2032 due to the ageing population and obesity epidemic (Bennell et al., 2021). Likewise, in America, the prevalence of knee osteoarthritis is increasing with 40% of the adult population over the age of 55 reporting frequent knee pain or x-ray evidence of KOA (OAI, 2017a). These increases represent a significant public health challenge, with health and financial implications for the individual, health care systems and government. 114

Studies are being conducted to understand the risk factors for osteoarthritis to slow the increasing prevalence of KOA. A study by Snoeker et al has shown that knee injury was associated with a sixfold increased risk of KOA (Snoeker et al., 2020). However, to date, studies investigating the relationship between physical activity, knee injury and the development of KOA have been inconsistent. A recent study by Chang et al., investigating the association between long-term strenuous physical activity and extensive sitting on KOA in a longitudinal sample of 4,607 Americans found that there was no association between long-term engagement in strenuous activity nor extensive sitting on the development of radiographic KOA over a 10 year period (Chang et al., 2020). The study however raised the possibility of a protective association between low or moderately strenuous activity and the development of KOA. In contrast, studies exploring the impact of sporting activity on the knee in former athletes, suggest that different sport modalities have a different impact on KOA, finding that more intensive sports such as soccer, resulted in a higher prevalence of KOA in later life compared to lower intensity sports such as rifle shooting, (30% compared to 10% respectively) (Madaleno et al., 2018). Similarly, studies have shown that males who played American football had increased risk of KOA (Lo, McAlindon, et al., 2020), whilst swimming may be protective (Lo, Ikpeama, et al., 2020). Although not specific to KOA, a systematic review assessing the impact of sports on OA in general, found that OA was higher in those who were exposed to sports during their lifetime than not. Of the sports assessed, soccer, long distance running, weightlifting, wrestling, and skiing resulted in the highest prevalence of OA. However, it was unclear whether there is a difference in risk between elite and non-elite participant in sport (Tran et al., 2016). To support the association between higher intensity sports and KOA, research into other high intensity, high injury sports is required. In 2021 there were 4.8 million gymnasts in the U.S, with the most common gymnast injuries involving the knee and ankle (Jones et al., n.d). In addition, a study conducted by Deakin University, Australia, found women’s artistic gymnastics had the second highest prevalence of injury (6.1 injuries per 1000) after men’s American football (9.6 injuries per 1000) (Campbell et al., 2019). As well as a high injury rate, a study of 796 adults with OA in Hong Kong found that women who practised gymnastics were at an increased risk of developing osteoarthritis of the knee and hip (Lau et al., 2000). The paper also found that subjects

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Science

whose body mass index (BMI) were in the highest quartile were at increased risk of KOA. Although these studies support a link between gymnastics and osteoarthritis, there is a gap in evidence as to whether it is the specific movements of gymnastics or its intensity that is the cause of this increased risk. In addition, there is a lack of research as to the impact of the age of participation in gymnastics, as few studies have tracked the long-term development of OA over time. This study uses data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) (OAI, 2017b) which includes radiographs, self-reported surveys and other demographics, to determine the impact of high intensity gymnastics during the ages of 12-18 on the long-term development of KOA. By creating a visualisation that compares intensive competitive gymnastics with low intensity gymnastics and with other sports, the study can assess whether competitive gymnastics increases the risk of KOA in later life. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION Does participation in high intensity gymnastics from ages 12-18 years increase the risk of developing knee osteoarthritis later in life, compared to low intensity gymnastics and other high, moderate and low risk sports, and those who were sedentary? HYPOTHESIS The study hypothesis is that participation in high intensity gymnastics during the ages 12-18 years will result in a higher prevalence of KOA in later life, as measured by radiographic and self-assessed outcomes, than participation in low intensity gymnastics, other sporting activities or sedentary participants. METHODOLOGY Data source: The data used in this study was obtained from the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) (OAI, 2017b), a multi-centre, longitudinal cohort study that focuses primarily on KOA. The OAI was chosen as it is the largest free and publicly available dataset on KOA. Spanning 11 years, the study is a reliable and detailed resource for many aspects of research and offered a wide range of both self-assessed and radiographic variables. The cohort includes 4,796 American men and women aged between 45-79, from all ethnic groups. At baseline, participants were categorised into 3 cohorts, incidence (those with significant KOA), progression (those who are at risk of developing KOA) and control (no evidence of KOA). All cohort participants were assessed at baseline enrolment, and every 2 years following. Assessment included clinical evaluation, selfreported medical history, radiological (x-ray and magnetic resonance) images and collection of biospecimens. Creation of Study variables: Using the data dictionary, a range of demographic, sport

participation and outcome variables were identified from the 452 individual datasets that comprise the OAI data asset. Using SAS Enterprise Guide v8.2 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC), these variables were separated from their respective datasets, assessed using a PROC FREQ statement (Appendix 1), and merged into a single clean study dataset using the unique participant identification number. The cleaned and re-categorized variables were named ‘xxx_oh’ for easy identification. Variables included were: PRIMARY OUTCOME: The primary outcome was symptomatic KOA at baseline assessment, which combined self-reported assessment of pain, symptom frequency and x-ray evidence, coded as 0=neither knee, 1= right knee, 2=left knee and 3=both knees. This was recategorised into a binary variable Sympt_oh (0=no evidence of OA and 1=evidence of OA). SPORT STATUS: The Lifetime Physical Activity Questionnaire (Kriska et al., 1988) was used to define sport status. Participants selected which of 36 nominated sports they played at ages 12-18, 19-34, 35-59 and 50+. The age group of 12-18 for each sport was isolated from the base dataset and checked for frequencies. Further questions asked participants to identify their top 3 activities, and of those, whether they were involved competitively, how many times per month, and how many months per year they trained. These were combined to create the variable for intensive gymnastics, HighIntensity_gym_oh which included participants who participated in competitive gymnastics, trained more than 9 times per month, or 9 months per year. Low intensity gymnastics was defined as participants reported doing gymnastics but were not part of the previous category and was named LowIntensity_ gym_oh. Both high and low intensity gymnastics variables were then combined to create a composite variable indicating participation in gymnastics Gymnastics_oh. For the remaining sport types, the level of risk was categorised based on previous studies of links between certain high-risk sports and KOA (Tran et al., 2016). The 5 sports selected for the high-risk category were soccer, American football, skiing, ice-skating and weightlifting, combined to form the HighRiskSport_oh variable. The sports not proven to be high risk, but still requiring a high level of movement were classified into the ModerateRiskSport_oh variable. This included 14 sports; basketball, aerobics, badminton, baseball, bicycling, dancing, tennis, jump rope, Tai Chi, squash, rollerblading, stairclimbing, volleyball and elliptical trainer. All other sports were classified into the LowRiskSport_oh variable, which included: bowling, fishing, swimming, table tennis, water aerobics, handball, yoga, canoeing, sailing and golf. The sedentary sport variable, Sedentary_oh, combined those who responded that they were sedentary and did not play any sports during the ages 12-18. These variables were used to create a final variable called Sport_status2_oh (1=high intensity gymnastics, 2=low intensity gymnastics, 3=high risk sports, 115

IMPACT OF PARTICIPATION IN GYMNASTICS DURING AGES 12 TO 18 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNEE OSTEOARTHRITIS

4=moderate risk sports, 5=low risk sports, 6=sedentary). (Appendix 2) COVARIATES: The covariates of this study are variables that have been shown in the literature to impact on the development of KOA; age, sex, BMI and knee injury at 1218 years. While age and sex were not recategorised, BMI and history of knee injury were redefined and renamed. BMI scores were categorised to create the variable BMIcateg_oh according to the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2021) categories, (1=underweight, 2=healthy, 3=overweight, 4=obese). Participants undertook a self-reported assessment of their past history where they were asked the age of their 1st, 2nd and 3rd injury. Injuries during the age of 12-18 were combined and categorised to create the variable Age_inj_ oh (1= had a knee injury during 12-18 years and 0= no injury during 12-18 years). STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics were calculated to compare the demographic characteristics of the cohort, grouped by high versus low intensity gymnastics, and by sport status (gymnastics, high, moderate, low risk sports and sedentary). These were reported as frequencies (percentage) for categorical variables and means (standard deviation) for continuous variables. For the categorical variables of sex, BMI category and previous knee injury, the Chi-square test was used to assess differences in proportions between the groups, and p-value was reported. (Appendix 3). The assumptions made were that the variables are categorical, and the groups were independent and mutually exclusive. Where the expected cell size was too small for chi-square tests (20% of cells have expected value of <5), Fishers Exact Test was used. For the continuous variable of age, a T-test was used to assess the difference in mean age between high and low intensity gymnastics groups and an Analysis of Variance test (ANOVA) for difference in mean age between the five sporting groups, assuming a normal distribution given the large sample size. To assess difference in proportion of participants who developed KOA in later life by group, Chi-square tests were used, and to aid visualisation results presented as a comparative bar graph with p-values. Significance level was set at alpha of 0.05. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was carried out to assess whether participation in gymnastics was associated with development of KOA later in life even after adjusting for covariates that have been shown in previous studies to influence the prevalence of KOA. The primary outcome (KOA) was modelled as the dependent variable, whilst sporting groups and each covariate were included as independent variables, using a PROC LOGISTIC 116

statement. The resulting adjusted odds ratio (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) represents how strongly KOA is associated with each variable. When aOR >1, the covariate is associated with higher odds of developing KOA, and when aOR <1 it is associated with lower odds. The 95% CIs represent that we are 95% confident that the aOR lies between the precision bands. The aOR and 95% CI were graphed in a forest plot using GraphPad Prism v.7.0 (GraphPad software, San Diego, Ca). RESULTS Of the 4,796 participants of the Osteoarthritis Initiative, 2,637 participants were asked the Lifetime Physical Activity Questionnaire, and included in this study. Of these, 15 participants were excluded from the final sample as they had not undergone a radiographic scan for OA. Of the remaining 2,622 participants, 1,465 (55.9%) were women, the mean age was 60.3 years ± 9.0 (std), mean BMI was 28.4 ± 4.7 (std), and 215 (8.2%) of participants had received a knee injury during the age of 12-18. Table 1 summarizes baseline demographics for the sample by sport status to compare participants in each category. There were significant differences in baseline age, sex, BMI and record of previous knee injury between the groups. While most of the groups had a higher proportion of female participation, notably the high intensity gymnastics group (77.1%), high risk sports had a higher male participation (60.5%). The demographics also show a higher proportion of participants who did gymnastics or high-risk sports had knee injuries during ages 12-18 (9.4% and 10.4% respectively). Figure 1 compares the association between the intensity of gymnastics and the development of KOA later in life. There was no significant difference between the proportion of participants who developed KOA later in life between the high and low intensity gymnastics groups (21.3% vs 21.2%, χ2=0.0005, df=1, p=0.9828). These groups were then combined to form an overall gymnastics variable which was compared to the other sports to assess the risk of gymnastics. Similarly, there was no significant difference between gymnastics compared to high-risk sport (21.2% vs 23.2%, χ2=0.82, df=1, p=0.3635), moderate risk sport (21.2% vs 25.2%, χ2=2.45, df=1, p=0.1176) and low risk sport (21.2% vs 20.5%, χ2=0.01, df=1, p=0.9188). However, when gymnastics was compared to the sedentary group, a significant higher proportion of KOA was found for the sedentary group (21.2% vs 32.1%, χ2=8.55, df=1, p=0.00034). Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in proportion of participants with knee osteoarthritis between the sporting groups and sedentary participants, can be rejected. After adjusting for covariates known to be risk factors for KOA, the multivariate logistic regression (Figure 2) found no significant difference in KOA prevalence between gymnastics and high, moderate and low risk sporting groups. However, the sedentary group remained

Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

Science

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of participants: number of participants by sport group

Figure 1: Comparative bar graph of the proportion of participants with knee osteoarthritis, between those who played high intensity gymnastics and low intensity gymnastics (Box 1), Comparison of gymnastics between high, moderate and low risk sports, and those who were sedentary between 12-18 years of age (Box 2). Chi-square test used to calculate p-value.

Figure 2: Forest plot of logistic regression analysis of KOA development betweeb sporting groups adjusted for demographic variables. The reference variable used for the various risk level sports was gymnastics, while BMI was reference against a normal weight range. If confidence band crosses 1, the results are not significant.

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IMPACT OF PARTICIPATION IN GYMNASTICS DURING AGES 12 TO 18 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNEE OSTEOARTHRITIS

significantly more at risk, with 67% increased odds of developing KOA (aOR 1.67; 95% CI: 1.13-2.48) compared to gymnastics. The regression also showed that females were 35% less likely to develop KOA than men (aOR 0.65; 95% CI: 0.53, 0.79), and that overweight and obese participants were two to three times more likely to develop KOA than normal weight participants (Overweight: aOR 1.99; 95% CI: 1.51-2.62, Obese: aOR 3.23; 95% CI: 2.46-4.23 respectively). Baseline age, history of previous injury and being underweight were not significant risk factors. DISCUSSION This is the first large longitudinal epidemiological study investigating the impact of gymnastics during ages of 1218 on the onset of KOA later in life. The results showed that participation in gymnastics, both high and low intensity, during ages 12-18 did not pose a significantly higher risk than other sports and may have a protective association on the development of KOA when compared to sedentary participants. These results are valuable in reassuring parents questioning the lasting impact of gymnastics. Previous research into whether the intensity of sport impacts KOA development have been contradictory. A study by Tran et al., found there was little evidence to suggest an increased relationship between elite participation in a sport and KOA, while a more recent study by Madaleno et al., suggested that high intensity sports resulted in higher prevalence of KOA (Madaleno et al., 2018; Tran et al., 2016). This present study found there was no significant difference in prevalence of KOA between high intensity and low intensity gymnastics, supporting the findings of Tran et al. Previous research including a study by Lo et al., has shown certain sports have an increased risk of KOA compared to other less impactful sports (Lo, McAlindon et al., 2020). In the current study, gymnastics was compared with a variety of other sports to assess whether it should be categorized as a high-risk sport. As there were no significant differences in the likelihood of developing KOA between any of the sporting categories, the hypothesis that participation in gymnastics during the ages 12-18 years will result in a higher prevalence of KOA in later life and hence is a high-risk sport, was not supported. The gymnastics group was also compared to those who were sedentary during ages 12-18 in response to the study by Chang et al., which investigated the association between long-term strenuous physical activity and extensive sitting on radiographic KOA, raising the possibility of a protective association between moderately strenuous activity and the development of KOA, a finding that is supported by this current study (Chang et al., 2020). To assessing the impact of potential confounders on the long-term results, factors that have previously been identified as risk factors for KOA were included as covariates in the logistic regression. Age at baseline assessment was included as prior studies, including a 118

report from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), identifies that the prevalence of OA increases sharply from the age of 45, with over one-third of people over 75 experiencing the condition (AIHW, 2020). However, this current study found age at baseline assessment had no impact on the differences in prevalence between the groups. The AIHW study also reported that OA is more common among females, with a prevalence of 10% compared to 6% in males, statistics which are not supported by the finding of this study that being female has a lower risk of KOA. Another potential confounder, BMI was identified from the study of OA in Hong Kong by Lau et al., which found that subjects whose BMI were in the highest quartile were at increased risk (Lau et al., 2000). In this current study, being overweight and obese both had a significant impact in increasing the prevalence of KOA, supporting the link between increasing BMI and KOA. Considering the conclusion of several studies that knee injuries are an important risk factor for knee osteoarthritis, the confounder of previous injury was also considered in this current study, however no significance difference was found (Driban et al., 2014; Snoeker et al., 2020). Many of the project’s strengths lie in the validity and reliability of the data, utilising the best available data from the largest longitudinal study of KOA, the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Reliable due to the long assessment period of 11 years, and large cohort size of 4796 American men and women between ages 45-79, the data provides a strong foundation for the research. Another strength lies in the study addressing a topic not previously researched. As the first population-based study using longitudinal data looking into the impact of gymnastics at a young age on the later onset of KOA, this study provides a unique perspective. As the sporting groups had slight differences in the prevalence of KOA, multivariable logistic regression was used to determine if the differences still held after adjusting for the cofounders. The study also ensures that approximately 23% of the cohort are from ethnic minority groups, with an equal distribution of male and female participants. However, these participants were enrolled from specific clinic catchment areas limiting the spread of people selected. A chi-square test would be required to assess the distribution of ethnic groups to check the validity of the selection pool to ensure generalisability of results. As the participants were not randomly selected, other covariates had to be analysed to normalize the results. The variety of outcome variables enables the most accurate assessment of the presence of KOA. These include biochemical biomarkers, radiographical images, knee symptoms including pain, and clinical assessments, ensuring the fewest possible results are missed and minimises misclassification bias. An important limitation however is the retrospective ascertainment of the exposure of participants to gymnastics at a long time after the outcome and the

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potential for recall bias. This could lead to incorrect answers during the surveys or slight inaccuracies which could greatly impact the result. However, the use of a broad survey ensured that participants were not aware of the specific hypothesis being tested, thus reducing potential bias. There are also limitations within the classification of the sporting variables as high, moderate, and low risk. As only some sports such as soccer have been analysed for their long-term impact on the development of KOA, the risk level of the other sports was determined by the particular movements involved, rather than by tested data. With the category of high-risk sports having a lower risk than the moderate risk category, there is clearly a potential misclassification of certain sports. Future directions of the study could include assessing the impact of a participation in gymnastics at the ages of 5-11,19-25, 26-32, 33-39, 40-46, rather than just 12-18. This will establish whether gymnastics will cause more damage at an older age. Another area that should

REFERENCES Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2020, August 4). Osteoarthritis. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. https://www. aihw.gov.au/reports/chronic-musculoskeletal-conditions/osteoarthritis/contents/what-is-osteoarthritis Bennell, K. L., Bayram, C., Harrison, C., Brand, C., Buchbinder, R., Haas, R., & Hinman, R. S. (2021, Jul). Trends in management of hip and knee osteoarthritis in general practice in Australia over an 11-year window: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Lancet Reg Health West Pac, 12, 100187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100187 Campbell, R. A., Bradshaw, E. J., Ball, N. B., Pease, D. L., & Spratford, W. (2019, Sep). Injury epidemiology and risk factors in competitive artistic gymnasts: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med, 53(17), 1056-1069. https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/53/17/1056 Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, June 7). Body Mass Index (BMI). https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/index. html Chang, A. H., Lee, J. J., Chmiel, J. S., Almagor, O., Song, J., & Sharma, L. (2020, May 1). Association of Long-term Strenuous Physical Activity and Extensive Sitting With Incident Radiographic Knee Osteoarthritis. JAMA Netw Open, 3(5), e204049. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.4049 Cui, A., Li, H., Wang, D., Zhong, J., Chen, Y., & Lu, H. (2020, Dec). Global, regional prevalence, incidence and risk factors of knee osteoarthritis in population-based studies. EClinicalMedicine, 29-30, 100587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100587 Driban J., Eaton C., Lo G., Ward R., Lu B & McAlindon T. (2014, Nov). Association of knee injuries with accelerated knee osteoarthritis progression: data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken), 66(11), 1673-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.22359 Jones, G. L., & Wolf, B. R. (n.d.). Sports Medicine- Gymnastics Injuries. University of Rochester Medical Centre. https://www.urmc.rochester. edu/orthopaedics/sports-medicine/gymnastics-injuries.cfm

be considered is the length of time a participant did gymnastics and whether a prolonged exposure to the activity increases the risk of KOA. CONCLUSION Results from this study suggest that there is no association between the intensity of gymnastics during the ages 12-18 and the later development of KOA (21.3% vs 21.2%, p=0.9828). The findings also show no significant differences between participation in gymnastics compared to participation in high-risk sports (21.2% vs 23.3%, p=0.3635), moderate risk sports (21.2% vs 25.2%, p=0,1176) and low risk sports (21.2% vs 20.5%, p=0.9188) and the proportion of participants with KOA later in life. However, a significant difference was found between those who did gymnastics and those who were sedentary (21.2% vs 32.1%, p=0.00034), raising the possibility of a protective association between playing sport during ages 12-18 and the later development of KOA. These associations remained after adjusting for known risk factors.

Pambianco, G. (1988). The assessment of historical physical activity and its relation to adult bone parameters. American Journal of Epidemiology, 127(5), 1053–1063. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals. aje.a114881 Lau, E. C., Cooper, C., Lam, D., Chan, V. N., Tsang, K. K., & Sham, A. (2000, Nov 1). Factors associated with osteoarthritis of the hip and knee in Hong Kong Chinese: obesity, joint injury, and occupational activities. Am J Epidemiol, 152(9), 855-862. https://doi.org/10.1093/ aje/152.9.855 Lo, G. H., Ikpeama, U. E., Driban, J. B., Kriska, A. M., McAlindon, T. E., Petersen, N. J., Storti, K. L., Eaton, C. B., Hochberg, M. C., Jackson, R. D., Kwoh, C. K., Nevitt, M. C., & Suarez-Almazor, M. E. (2020, Jun). Evidence that Swimming May Be Protective of Knee Osteoarthritis: Data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Pm r, 12(6), 529-537. https:// doi.org/10.1002/pmrj.12267 Lo, G. H., McAlindon, T. E., Kriska, A. M., Price, L. L., Rockette-Wagner, B. J., Mandl, L. A., Eaton, C. B., Hochberg, M. C., Jackson, R. D., Kwoh, C. K., Nevitt, M. C., & Driban, J. B. (2020, Apr). Football Increases Future Risk of Symptomatic Radiographic Knee Osteoarthritis. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 52(4), 795-800. https://doi.org/10.1249/ mss.0000000000002189 Madaleno, F. O., Santos, B. A., Araújo, V. L., Oliveira, V. C., & Resende, R. A. (2018, Nov-Dec). Prevalence of knee osteoarthritis in former athletes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Braz J Phys Ther, 22(6), 437-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.03.012 OAI. (2017a, October 18). Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) Study Protocol. NIMH Data Archive. https://nda.nih.gov/oai/study-details.html OAI. (2017b, October 18). Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) About OAI. NIMH Data Archive. https://nda.nih.gov/oai/ Snoeker B., Turkiewicz A., Magnusson K., Frobell R., Yu D., Peat G. and Englund M. (2020). Risk of knee osteoarthritis after different types of knee injuries in young adults: a population-based cohort study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(12), 725-730. https://bjsm.bmj.com/ content/54/12/725

Kriska, A. M., Sandler, R. B., Cauley, J. A., Laporte, R. E., Hom, D. L.,

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Tran, G., Smith, T. O., Grice, A., Kingsbury, S. R., McCrory, P., & Conaghan, P. G. (2016, Dec). Does sports participation (including level of performance and previous injury) increase risk of osteoarthritis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(23), 1459-1466. https://doi.org/10.1136/ bjsports-2016-096142

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The efficacy of vaccinations in reducing the severity of the COVID-19 Omicron outbreak BY SOPHIE COUGHLAN (YEAR 12) This paper was originally written as a task for Science Extension. ABSTRACT In this scientific research investigation, the efficacy of vaccinations was tested in terms of reducing the severity of COVID-19 during the Omicron Outbreak. This was achieved through data analysis of hospitalisations, total infections, deaths, and peak percentage of population infected, and the duration of the shape of the outbreak for each vaccine type in Colorado. A vaccine which reduced the severity of the outbreak would reduce these factors to the greatest degree. Furthermore, an SIR model was created to predict changes in the shape of the outbreak for each vaccine type, under influence of factors regarding length of infectious period and infectivity. The outbreak shape which fit the variables changed in each model would explain how the vaccines are effective in reducing these variables. This research is pertinent to both the scientific community and society, as it determines the most efficacious vaccine in the longest held dominant period of COVID-19 (Omicron) but also for future vaccine development. Both the predictive model and data analysis are beneficial for determining the positive impacts on specific dynamics of disease transmission for future epidemics of infectious disease. LITERATURE REVIEW Current status of science in this field In a response to the initial outbreak of the viral COVID-19 pandemic, the search for a vaccine caused a mass global effort, prompting several scientific studies surrounding the efficacy of emergency approved vaccines. In January 2021, an agent-base model found that non-ICU hospitalisations decreased by 63.5% for 2-dose vaccination campaigns in the US. (Moghadas et al., 2021) Furthermore, the CDC states “Vaccines reduce the risk of COVID-19, including the risk of severe illness and death among people who are fully vaccinated … vaccine effectiveness against hospitalizations has remained relatively high over time” (CDC, 2021). In July 2021, Institut Pasteur conducted research surrounding the efficacy of 2-dose mRNA vaccines, concluded as 88% effective in protection against the non-variant COVID-19 virus and 86% and 77% efficacious against dominant Alpha and Beta variants respectively. (Institut Pasteur, 2021) Furthermore, on the 31st of May 2021 the Delta variant was declared a variant of concern

by the WHO due to the increased transmissibility and lack of research surrounding vaccine efficacy (Health, 2021; Katella, 2022) This prompted several studies regarding how the mRNA-1273 and BNT162b2 could perform against the Delta variant, with 2 test-negative control studies conducted in the US of veterans and nursing home residents. Both provided similar results with mRNA-1273 seen more effective with BNT162b2 having an excess risk difference of 6.54 events per 1000 persons in US Veteran Study. (Dickerman et al., 2022; Nanduri et al., 2021). SIR models are a simple epidemic model currently used to predict and simulate disease transmission, through a small number of parameters (Tolles & Luong, 2020). SIR models have been used for modelling COVID-19 transmission within a community, rather than the perceptive of these transmission parameters influenced by vaccine. A study conducted in 2020 concludes that SIR models are effective as a theoretical framework when assumptions are accounted for, for COVID-19 (Cooper et al., 2020). Justification of the need for this research Although there have been studies into approved vaccines efficacies against most variants, there is still limited research regarding the recent emergence of the Omicron variant. The variant was first reported in November 2021 in South Africa and has stimulated concern for the effectiveness of popular vaccines due to its numerous mutations causing an increased risk of reinfection, evasion of vaccine neutralisation and its amounting global presence (Haseltine, 2021; World Health Organisation, 2021a). In December 2021 a test negative design study was conducted using South African PCR tests to compare the effectiveness of BNT162b2 against the Omicron variant, concluding that in the proxy Omicron period the vaccine was 70% effective which is a 23% reduction compared to the Delta dominant period.(Collie et al., 2022). However, there has not been a complete study comparing adenoviral vector vaccines, Ad26.COV2.S and ChAdOx1-S, against mRNA vaccines, mRNA-1273 and BNT162b2, and their impact regarding the severity (percentage of infections) of the Omicron variant COVID-19. Grounds for Hypothesis mRNA code vaccines (Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech) have been seen to be more efficacious during previous periods of variants, with a test negative control study in December 2021 concluding that mRNA-1273 had a 97.5% effectiveness in reducing hospital admission (Bruxvoort et al., 2021). Additionally, a similar study in August 2021 found the efficacy of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 in 121

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preventing symptomatic and asymptomatic infection to reduce with each new dominant variant period, from 90% in the predominance Delta period to 66% within the Delta dominant period (Fowlkes et al., 2021). The adenoviral vector vaccine Ad26.COV2.S is not recognised as effective against Omicron by WHO however, a clinical study in September summarised that the vaccine was more likely to reward hospitalisations relating to COVID-19 than that of Moderna during Delta dominant periods (Manley et al., 2021; World Health Organisation, 2021b). ChAdOx1-S, a similar adenoviral vector vaccine was also stated by WHO as unknown in terms of effectiveness against Omicron (World Health Organisation, 2022b). The preventative measures and strategies implemented for the Omicron outbreak in Colorado complied with U.S. health recommendations from CDC. 17 days after Omicron was first tested in Colorado, the CDC released recommendations for “mask wearing, vaccinations, ventilation, testing and isolation… to slow transmission”, with Colorado Public Health complying and enforcing these measures (CDCMMWR, 2021; Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment, 2021). Furthermore, Colorado enforced employers to paying employees leave if due to COVID-19, increasing the compliance of employees to follow public health orders of isolation (Phillips, 2022). Similarly, Colorado schools as of January 20, 2022 require all students aged 12-17 to have 3 doses of vaccine to attend, supporting that many variables such as mask wearing, vaccination and isolation were controlled in the state (Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment, 2022). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION How effective is the impact of the vaccines, in particular BNT162b2, mRNA-1273, and Ad26COV2.S, on the severity COVID-19 Omicron Outbreak? HYPOTHESIS The mRNA-1273 vaccine manufactured by Moderna will have the greatest impact on the COVID-19 Omicron outbreak, reducing the severity through duration, infectious period, infectivity and total cases, deaths, and hospitalisations. METHODOLOGY Description of Data Collection Methodology Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. (2022). Vaccine Breakthrough Metrics [Data Set] The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment lists secondary data regarding vaccination status in respect to categories of COVID cases, hospitalisations and deaths per 100,000 in one-week periods dating back to the start of the pandemic in 2020. These are accessed from over 2804 sources listed as publicly available records, sourced by the US Government. These are uploaded daily on weekdays and then archived 122

as a total value for that week, labelled by the Monday date (e.g. 7/11/21). To cleanse the raw data for cases and population regarding vaccination status, the dates of interest being the 1/12/21 onwards for the Omicron Outbreak were separated from data, data from the beginning of November was utilised to account for previous behaviour in cases prior to Omicron Outbreak. This created the data range 7/11/21 to 27/3/22. The data for cases in this period were separated into individual data sheets by vaccination status (unvaccinated, vaccinated, Janssen Vaccine, Pfizer Vaccine and Moderna Vaccine). Data regarding hospitalisations and deaths were available for unvaccinated and vaccinated status and were separated and cleansed to the period 7/11/21 to 27/3/22. Furthermore, the data set includes explicit values regarding cases, hospitalisations and deaths for vaccination status for the population of Colorado. Data Analysis Methodology MEASURING DURATION The duration of an outbreak can be used as a measure of the severity of the outbreak. In this study, the duration of the Omicron Outbreak was measured and compared for both Vaccinated and Unvaccinated people and the different vaccine types of BNT162b2, mRNA-1273 and Ad26COV2.S, for Colorado. The peak case number was determined and halved, the time between both half peak case numbers on the rising and falling edge of the outbreak was measured. Figure 1 demonstrates the measurement of duration, with peak determined graphically from the maximum point. The peak number of cases is then halved to provide an estimate of time (days) between the rising and falling halve peak case numbers. MEASURING THE PEAK NUMBER OF CASES Additionally, the peak of the outbreak concerns a time where systems are under the greatest amount of pressure and allows for a delayed response between contracting COVID-19 and developing symptoms (approx. 5-6 days) (World Health Organisation, 2022a). The number of cases at the peak of the outbreak was determined by the maximum value for the time period of concern. PREDICTING IMPACT OF VACCINATION USING AN SIR MODEL An SIR model was chosen as a qualitative predictive theory, allowing a visualisation of the impact of the length of infectious period, and infectivity of COVID-19 on the shape of the Omicron Outbreak (duration and relative peak maximum). An effective reproductive value (R0) for Omicron of 3.6 was used to determine constants for both infectivity (b) and infectious period (T) for Omicron in the model, to assess the impact of changing these variables on the graphical

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Figure 1: Analysis and measuring of duration for outbreaks

Figure 2: Shape of Colorado Omicron Outbreak for percentage of Vaccinated and Unvaccinated populations affected

Figure 3: Shape of Omicron Outbreak for types of vaccinations by the percentage of population infected in Colorado

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shape of the outbreak. (Liu & Rocklöv, 2022) R0=bT In this model the value of T was varied between 4 and 8, based on symptom duration reports (Menni et al., 2022). To visualise the effect of the length of infectious period, the average value of 6 days and the R value of 3.6 were used to estimate infectivity. This value of b was then kept constant as length of infectious period was changed between 4 and 8 days to determine the shape and duration of the outbreak. 3.6=b(6) b=0.6 Next, the constant of T=6 was used, changing the infectivity b between 0.4 and 0.8 to assess the impact of disease infectivity of the shape and duration of an outbreak. The same process of measuring duration and peak was applied to this modelled data which allowed the impact of vaccinations on the length of the infected period and infectivity on the duration and peak case numbers to be identified. RESULTS Table 1: Comparison of the percent of the population who contracted COVID-19, died and were hospitalised for both Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Individuals

Unvaccinated statuses total cases, deaths and hospitalisations are larger than vaccinated as a percentage of population. Table 2: Total percentage of population contracting COVID-19 and number of cases at peak of Outbreak, and duration of Omicron Outbreak for type of vaccine in Colorado (US)

As can be seen in Table 2, unvaccinated individuals have the largest total cases for percentage of population as well as peak number of cases, whereas the Moderna vaccine has the lowest. Furthermore, the duration for the outbreak for all statuses are similar with a range of 27 to 31. Figure 2 shows that unvaccinated individuals have a 124

higher peak number of infections compared to that of vaccinated. Both vaccinated and unvaccinated have a similar duration however, vaccinated has a smaller width to indicate a lesser duration. As seen in Figure 3, unvaccinated status has the largest peak number of cases and the largest duration, whereas Moderna has the lowest. The duration of the peak outbreak remains approximately similar constant between the different types of vaccinations compared to that of unvaccinated status. The SIR model predicts that as the length of infectious period decreases both the peak number of infections and the duration of the outbreak decrease. The SIR model predicts that as the infectivity decreases the peak number of infections decreases, however, the duration of the outbreak lengthens. Furthermore, the onset of cases and growth of infections is more delayed and less sloped as infectivity decreases. DISCUSSION Results and Findings The hypothesis is supported in that the mRNA-1273 vaccine does have the greatest impact in reducing the severity of the Omicron Outbreak, specifically in Colorado. Overall, vaccinations are more efficacious in reducing the severity of Omicron compared to non-vaccinated, through vaccinations reduction of the duration and peak number of cases for outbreak and lesser percentage of population affected. As seen in Table 1 the percentage of vaccinated population affected by total cases of COVID-19 is 7.12, compared to unvaccinated of 12.25, a difference of 5.13%. Furthermore, Table 1 demonstrates the severity of the outbreak through percentage of population deaths and hospitalisations, recognised as severe side effects of the virus. The percentage of vaccinated population affected by total hospitalisations is 0.12, lesser than unvaccinated population by 0.27%. Similarly, total percentage of deaths for Omicron outbreak in vaccinated population 0.03% less than unvaccinated. This demonstrates both a reduction in infected individuals as well as percentage hospitalised and deaths, reducing the overall observed impact and severity of the outbreak on the vaccinated population. Moderna’s observed reduction of severity in the Omicron outbreak is evident in Table 2 through both peak and total percentage of population infected being 1.30 and 6.13 respectively, which are lesser than Pfizer, Janssen and Unvaccinated populations. The duration of the outbreak remains relatively similar between all 4 statuses however, the least duration was Pfizer, 2 days less than the Moderna vaccines duration of 29. In Figure 3: Shape of Omicron Outbreak for types of vaccinations by the percentage of population infected in Colorado (US) the percentage of population infected for Moderna has a lesser peak shape than the other vaccine types, and

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Figure 4: SIR Model demonstrating change in length of Infectious period (T) of individuals on the shape of an

Figure 5: SIR Model demonstrating change in Infectivity (b) on the shape of an outbreak, while T kept constant of 6 days

nonvaccinated population have a proportionately larger curve. The Pfizer vaccine has a larger peak percentage of population infected however, a similar size duration to Moderna. Figure 3 demonstrates that for the percentage of population infected Moderna has the smallest shape duration however, all populations of vaccinated individuals have similar durations when compared to unvaccinated. Moderna is the most efficacious in reducing the severity of COVID-19 by comparatively reducing both peak, total and duration for percentage of population infected.

The pattern observed in Figure 5 demonstrates a change in infectivity of disease and a constant length of infectious period, with infectivity reducing the duration increases by peak number of cases decreases. However, in Figure 4 the length of infectious period is changed whereas infectivity remains constant, as the length of infectious period decreases both peak number of cases and duration of outbreak decrease. This trend in Figure 4 corresponds with mRNA-1273 vaccine most, with both peak number of cases and duration decreasing, explaining that the vaccines vary in length of infectious period and the mRNA-1273 vaccine has the shortest infectious period. 125

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By reducing length of infectious period the outbreak is less severe, through a lesser chance of COVID-19 being spread in the shorter time period. Relation to Current Status of Science The conclusion of the mRNA-1273 vaccine having the greatest impact on reducing the severity of the Omicron outbreak resonates with both a 2021 and 2022 casecontrol study on US veterans and nursing home residents regarding that mRNA-1273 produces less events per 1000 in the Delta Variant (Dickerman et al., 2022; Nanduri et al., 2021). Furthermore, a 2021 comparative study between mRNA code vaccines of Pfizer and Moderna concluded that the Moderna vaccine more effective by reducing 97.5% of hospitalisation, reducing severity compared to Pfizer (Bruxvoort et al., 2021). Evaluation of Methodology The use of secondary data sourced directly from Government health bases and updated directly enhances the precision in data collection. The large data set used includes a wide array of variables in deaths, hospitalisations, and cases for the Colorado Omicron outbreak for the different types of vaccines administered and both vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals. This improves the validity of the data collection in a wide range of variables controlled, and for conclusions to be formed around the aim due to relationships between these variables and the vaccine administered. However, a large limitation of the dataset was a total value for the week displayed for cases and hospitalisations and total value for month for deaths, impacting the precision in estimating duration as no values for each day are shown. This caused a greater degree of estimations when measuring time between half of rising and falling peak cases, an improvement for future is sourcing data with daily figures for these variables. The mathematical model of SIR was limiting due to its oversimplification of key factors. The SIR model provides a simplified visualisation of factors impacted by vaccines, such as length of infectious period and infectivity. However, the model’s simplicity forces the assumption that once infected, individuals are removed from the susceptible population. This is an untrue assumption as previously infected individuals with Omicron are still

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susceptible to the variant.(Wise, 2022). Furthermore, a second limitation for the SIR model is its inability to predict shape when the population input exceeds one million. This poses the negative implication of accuracy; the model can only predict general shape trends rather than specific numbers for a population of 5.6 million in Colorado. Future Directions of Research An improvement of this research in terms of modelling vaccine impact on the Omicron Outbreak would be to create a more complex model. This improvement could stem from creating more sophisticated variables in the current SIR model, for example utilising current data for an outbreak such as Colorado to formulate a percentage of population reinfected or deaths. This would allow for previously infected population to be reinstated into the susceptible population of the model, proportional to the outbreak being modelled. A future direction for testing vaccinations impacts on the severity of the Omicron outbreak would be to observe the shape of the outbreak in other US states and/or countries. This would strengthen conclusions and reliability by displaying a global perspective of Omicron and the repeating trends observed of vaccines.

CONCLUSION The effectivity of a vaccines impact on the Omicron Outbreaks severity was measured through a reduction in peak number of cases, duration and total cases, hospitalisations and death. Whilst an SIR model predicted how vaccines could impact the peak number of cases and duration of outbreak by altering the infectivity and length of infectious period for the Omicron variant. Vaccines reduced the percentage of hospitalisations, deaths and overall cases for the population compared to the unvaccinated population of Colorado, all factors of severity. Furthermore, in Colorado the mRNA-1273 vaccine had the lesser shape in duration and peak for the percentage of the population infected, compared to unvaccinated, BNT162b2, and Ad26COV2.S. Similarly, the durations of the outbreaks for all vaccine types were within a 4-day difference. The SIR model displayed that as length of infectious period decreased both the peak number of cases and duration decreased, this trend was observed with the outbreak shape of the difference vaccine types.

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ABC. (2022). ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). ABC; ABC. https://www.abc.net.au

Liu, Y., & Rocklöv, J. (2022). The effective reproductive number of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 is several times relative to Delta. Journal of Travel Medicine, 29(3), taac037. https://doi.org/10.1093/ jtm/taac037

Bruxvoort, K. J., Sy, L. S., Qian, L., Ackerson, B. K., Luo, Y., Lee, G. S., Tian, Y., Florea, A., Aragones, M., Tubert, J. E., Takhar, H. S., Ku, J. H., Paila, Y. D., Talarico, C. A., & Tseng, H. F. (2021). Effectiveness of mRNA-1273 against delta, mu, and other emerging variants of SARSCoV-2: Test negative case-control study. BMJ, 375, e068848. https:// doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-068848 CDC. (2021, December 23). COVID-19 Vaccination. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/effectiveness/work.html CDCMMWR. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant—United States, December 1–8, 2021. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7050e1 CDHPE. (n.d.). CDPHE COVID19 Vaccine Breakthrough Metrics. Retrieved 31 August 2022, from https://data-cdphe.opendata.arcgis. com/datasets/CDPHE::cdphe-covid19-vaccine-breakthrough-metrics/about Collie, S., Champion, J., Moultrie, H., Bekker, L.-G., & Gray, G. (2022). Effectiveness of BNT162b2 Vaccine against Omicron Variant in South Africa. New England Journal of Medicine, 386(5), 494–496. https:// doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2119270 Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment. (2021). Enforcement of public health orders, Colorado COVID-19 Updates. https://covid19.colorado.gov/enforcement-public-health-orders Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment. (2022). Practical guide for operationalizing CDC’s school guidance, Colorado COVID-19 Updates. https://covid19.colorado.gov/practical-guide-for-operationalizing-cdc-school-guidance Cooper, I., Mondal, A., & Antonopoulos, C. G. (2020). A SIR model assumption for the spread of COVID-19 in different communities. Chaos, Solitons, and Fractals, 139, 110057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chaos.2020.110057 Dickerman, B. A., Gerlovin, H., Madenci, A. L., Kurgansky, K. E., Ferolito, B. R., Muñiz, M. J. F., Gagnon, D. R., Gaziano, J. M., Cho, K., Casas, J. P., & Hernán, M. A. (2021). Comparative Effectiveness of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 Vaccines in U.S. Veterans. New England Journal of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2115463 Fowlkes, A., Gaglani, M., Groover, K., Thiese, M. S., Tyner, H., Ellingson, K., & Heroes Recover Cohorts. (2021). Effectiveness of COVID-19 Vaccines in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Frontline Workers Before and During B.1.617.2 (Delta) Variant Predominance—Eight U.S. Locations, December 2020-August 2021. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(34), 1167–1169. PubMed. https://doi. org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7034e4 Haseltine, W. A. (2021, December 8). Understanding Omicron: Changes In The Spike Protein And Beyond And What They Portend. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/williamhaseltine/2021/12/08/omicronthe-sum-of-all-fears/ Australian Government Department of Health. (2021, December 22). COVID-19 Delta variant [Text]. Australian Government Department of Health; Australian Government Department of Health. https://www. health.gov.au/health-alerts/covid-19/symptoms-and-variants/delta Institut Pasteur. (2021, July 21). Effectiveness of mRNA vaccines against the Alpha and Beta variants in France. ScienceDaily. https:// www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/07/210721102257.htm Katella, K. (2022, January 6). 5 Things To Know About the Delta Variant. Yale Medicine. https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/5-things-to-

Manley, H. J., Aweh, G. N., Hsu, C. M., Weiner, D. E., Miskulin, D., Harford, A. M., Johnson, D., & Lacson, E. K. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 vaccine effectiveness and breakthrough infections in maintenance dialysis patients. MedRxiv, 2021.09.24.21264081. https://doi. org/10.1101/2021.09.24.21264081 Menni, C., Valdes, A. M., Polidori, L., Antonelli, M., Penamakuri, S., Nogal, A., Louca, P., May, A., Figueiredo, J. C., Hu, C., Molteni, E., Canas, L., Österdahl, M. F., Modat, M., Sudre, C. H., Fox, B., Hammers, A., Wolf, J., Capdevila, J., … Spector, T. D. (2022). Symptom prevalence, duration, and risk of hospital admission in individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 during periods of omicron and delta variant dominance: A prospective observational study from the ZOE COVID Study. The Lancet, 399(10335), 1618–1624. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01406736(22)00327-0 Moghadas, S. M., Vilches, T. N., Zhang, K., Wells, C. R., Shoukat, A., Singer, B. H., Meyers, L. A., Neuzil, K. M., Langley, J. M., Fitzpatrick, M. C., & Galvani, A. P. (2021). The impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outbreaks in the United States. MedRxiv: The Preprint Server for Health Sciences, 2020.11.27.20240051. PubMed. https://doi. org/10.1101/2020.11.27.20240051 Nanduri, S., Pilishvili, T., Derado, G., Soe, M. M., Dollard, P., Wu, H., Li, Q., Bagchi, S., Dubendris, H., Link-Gelles, R., Jernigan, J. A., Budnitz, D., Bell, J., Benin, A., Shang, N., Edwards, J. R., Verani, J. R., & Schrag, S. J. (2021). Effectiveness of Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna Vaccines in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Nursing Home Residents Before and During Widespread Circulation of the SARSCoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) Variant—National Healthcare Safety Network, March 1-August 1, 2021. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70(34), 1163–1166. PubMed. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr. mm7034e3 Phillips, K. R. B. W. (2022, April 22). Colorado Employers Still on the Hook for Paid COVID-19 Leave. Colorado Employers Still on the Hook for Paid COVID-19 Leave. https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/ legal-and-compliance/state-and-local-updates/pages/colorado-employers-still-on-the-hook-for-paid-covid-19-leave.aspx Tolles, J., & Luong, T. (2020). Modeling Epidemics With Compartmental Models. JAMA, 323(24), 2515–2516. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jama.2020.8420 Wise, J. (2022). Covid-19: Omicron infection is poor booster to immunity, study finds. BMJ, 377, o1474. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj. o1474 World Health Organisation. (2021a, November 26). Classification of Omicron (B.1.1.529): SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern. https://www. who.int/news/item/26-11-2021-classification-of-omicron-(b.1.1.529)sars-cov-2-variant-of-concern World Health Organisation. (2021b, December 9). The Janssen Ad26. COV2.S COVID-19 vaccine: What you need to know. https://www. who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/the-j-j-covid-19-vaccinewhat-you-need-to-know World Health Organisation. (2022, January 5). The Oxford/AstraZeneca (ChAdOx1-S [recombinant] vaccine) COVID-19 vaccine: What you need to know. https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/ detail/the-oxford-astrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-what-you-needto-know

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The Problem Chronic wounds (caused by bacterial infection) can severely hinder the healing process and delay cell regeneration since the human body fights the infection rather than healing its wounds. While they can affect all age groups, the elderly are most at risk. Chronic wounds: Often remain in the inflammatory stage for too long, causing it to never or take years to heal Fails to progress through proper phases of healing Approximately 450,000 Australians currently live with a chronic wound, directly costing the Australian healthcare system around AU$3 billion per year. This project aims to help reduce chances of infection through the release of nitric oxide in a bandage, thus significantly reducing the amount of time necessary for wound healing and potentially benefiting chronic wounds. We aim to provide people who suffer from chronic wounds, especially those living in rural areas with little access to healthcare, with an affordable and convenient option for treatment.

Why Nitric Oxide? Nitric oxide, a vasodilator, is produced by almost all types of cells in our bodies and assumes numerous applications in medicine. Researched benefits of nitric oxide in the bloodstream include improvements in cardiovascular health, and enhancements in exercise and recovery.

(1) 3D model of nitric oxide (NO)

NO plays a key role in wound repair, and its beneficial effects can be attributed to its regulation of inflammatory response, stimulation of endothelial proliferation and collagen formation increase, angiogenesis, and antimicrobial action during the wound healing process. NO impacts vascular homeostasis, which is disrupted in the event of an injury.

Diagram of CCMV virus nanocage swelling function

(2) 3D model of S-Nitrosoglutathione (GSNO)

GSNO GSNO (S-Nitrosoglutathione) is amino acid nitric oxide donor and an endogenous SNO (S-nitrosothiol). GSNO is regarded as a nitric oxide carrier and it sources bioavailable NO. It guarantees that the impacts of NO can be long-lasting and effective. It is a solid, and thus is able to be carried in a nanocage, unlike nitric oxide itself.

The solution

By placing nitric oxide in the form of GSNO into a nanocage, it can be applied to chronic wounds in a patch. Through the modification of the CCMV virus we can create a protein nanocage to put the gold nanoparticle in. The RNA is removed, and then the GSNO can be loaded into the CCMV capsid. The CCMV protein cage undergoes swelling based on pH changes - when pH levels are above 6.5, the pores expand. This mechanism is used to release the nitric oxide, as chronic wounds typically exhibit a pH level of 7.2 to 8.932.

Process of GSNO encapsulation in CCMV capsid

Benefits of a nanocage: 1. high loading-capacity (spacious interior) 2. porous structure 3. enabling smart release 4. low likelihood of unfavourable immune responses The continual application of NO to a chronic wound will result in favourable outcomes. There will be reduced chances of infection, better blood flow, efficientn tissue remodelling and in all a more enhanced, faster healing process. A supplementary supply of nitric oxide is also likely to improve cardiovascular health, by reducing arterial stiffness and lowering blood pressure, which assist the health of elderly patients and patients suffering from underlying chronic illnesses.

Image Credits (1) Wikipedia Contributors. (2022). File:Nitric-oxide-3D-vdW.png. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitric-oxide-3D-vdW.png (2) PubChem. (2022). S-nitrosoglutathione. @Pubchem; PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/S-nitrosoglutathione#section=Related-Records

Diagram of the Tech-NO-Patch

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Biodegradable Masks Ellie Beck, Julie Sheng, Jasmine Li, Elena Zhang. Team Code: EG026

2022

THE ISSUE Most masks used during the COVID-19 pandemic are not reusable or recyclable. When discarded after use, they can pollute waterways and contribute to landfill. They also contain the plastic polypropylene, which can break down into microplastics and block the digestive systems of animals who ingest it, causing death. Masks look like jellyfish and can be eaten by sea turtles and other marine animals. They also pose a risk to humans if they are not discarded properly, since they may contain pathogens and droplets from potentially infected people. However, we as a society can’t just stop using masks in the midst of a pandemic - we have to find more sustainable masks to use that are also safe. Masks can easily strangle wildlife, as seen in this photo of a bird being chocked by the elastic straps of a medical mask.

OUR GOAL

OUR RESEARCH More than 129 billion face masks are used globally each month (roughly 3 million masks a minute), most of which are disposable face masks made from plastic fibres (Prata et al., 2020). This is 3x the number of plastic bottles that are produced monthly (43 billion; 25% are recycled). Waste plastics were already one of the most prevalent environmental pollutants - before COVID, over 300 million tonnes of plastics were produced globally each year, most of which are disposable and end up as waste. Plastic products do not easily biodegrade - instead, they fragment into smaller plastic particles called microplastics and nano-plastics ingestion of these microplastics by organisms exposes them to toxic chemicals and fills their stomachs, preventing actual food from being digested properly and thus causing starvation. Disposed microplastics which are ingested by organisms such as fish and other aquatic life make their way through the food chain, eventually reaching humans. This poses adverse health effects for us. No official guidelines are provided by the government on the recycling of masks. Masks can be transported from land by surface runoff, river flows, ocean currents, wind and animals (via entanglement or ingestion) to freshwater and marine environments. Instances of wildlife entangled in the elastic straps of masks are becoming increasingly common. The RSPCA has urged people to cut the elastic straps of their disposable face masks. Disposable masks may accumulate and release harmful chemicals and biological substances such as bisphenol A (BPA), heavy metals and pathogenetic microorganisms. Uptake of small plastic particles cause harm to human and animal health via three primary means - particle toxicity, chemical toxicity, pathogenic microorganism vectors. Masks directly made from micro-sized plastic fibres (thickness ~1-10 micrometres) may release more micro-sized plastic particles easier and faster than other plastic products such as plastic bags. New-generation masks - nanomasks - directly use nano-sized plastic fibres (diameter < 1 micrometre) pose as a new source of nano-plastic pollution. Scientists from the University of Swansea have found high levels of dangerous chemical pollutants such as lead, antimony and copper released from disposable face masks when submerged in water and within the silicon and plastic fibres of disposable face masks. These substances have known links to cell death, genotoxicity (damage to the genetic information in cells by harmful substances) and cancer formation but the potential damage to human health must be studied further Major concerns were raised about how particles were easily detached from face masks and leached into the water without agitation - this suggests these particles were readily available to be detached

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Our goal is to create biodegradable masks that are affordable and safe for the use of the general public in order to protect the environment. Our masks will thus be 100% eco-friendly whilst also protecting their wearers from infectious diseases as any other mask would.

OUR FINDINGS To find out how to create biodegradable masks, we first researched how existing masks were made to better understand the science behind them. The structure of a normal, non-biodegradable mask consists of three layers, each with different materials. There is the: Outer layer - non-absorbent/hydrophobic material to protect against liquid splashes Middle layer - non-woven material that protects against droplets and aerosols Inner layer - absorbent, non-woven material to absorb vapour (most masks already use cotton for this layer, which is biodegradable)

OUR SOLUTION Our solution aims to replace non-biodegradable materials used in masks with biodegradable ones. After researching different types of plant-based and oil-based biodegradable plastics, we have decided to go with the following design: Composition of Mask: Outer layer - cellulose filter paper (this is an oil-based material made by replacing the petroleum oil in plastic manufactory with lour oil. It is hydrophobic and non-absorbent, proving useful against liquid splashes). Middle layer - cellulose acetate (this material has a filtration efficiency of 99.99%, allowing it to filter droplets and aerosols. It is created by dissolving wood pulp into purified cellulose. This purified cellulose then undergoes a reaction with acetic acid and acetic anhydride, using sulfuric acid as a catalyst). Inner layer - cotton (which is already proven to work in current masks). Ear flaps - eco-elastic (created from binding cotton fibres with natural rubber fibres to result in a material that has high elasticity yet is made organically). By being manufactures this way, our product will be fully biodegradable and functional, putting both health and the environment first.

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The influence of COVID-19 policy’s stringency on the level of excess mortality in different countries during the COVID-19 2021/22 Omicron variant outbreak BY JOY WANG (YEAR 12) ABSTRACT Since the global outbreak of COVID-19 from December 2019, the pandemic has caused countries to implement policies (non-pharmaceutical interventions) to limit the transmission of the virus. The influence of stringency level of COVID-19 policies on excess mortality during the initial Omicron outbreak was investigated. Understanding how policies affect excess mortality is crucial for future decision making on control strategies, as they can have significant impacts on global health and economies. This investigation can potentially provide valuable insight into policy making decisions when encountering future pandemics. Excess mortality per 100k/population and average stringency of COVID-19 policies for 171 countries was collected for 24/11/2021 – 12/01/2022 to investigate the relationship between the two variables during the onset of the Omicron outbreak. Statistical analysis (Pearson’s correlation testing) of the correlation was completed. Results found that there was a statistically significant, weak, positive correlation with a R value of 0.1783103 between the stringency index and excess mortality. It is concluded that, without the consideration of the many confounding variables, the small R value reveals that average stringency level of COVID-19 policies did not impact the level of excess mortality for the Omicron COVID-19 outbreak in 2021/22. LITERATURE REVIEW As of 26 August 2022, there have been over 596 million confirmed cases and over 6.4 million deaths globally due to COVID-19 infection, (WHOa, 2022). The impact of COVID-19 is usually assessed via national reporting of cases and deaths, often used to support interventions and judge the success or failure of different control measures (Dong et al., 2020). However, reporting is heavily affected by the processes of testings and reporting deaths in different (OxCGRTb, 2022). For example, there are varying definitions classifying ‘COVID-19 deaths’, with some countries (e.g. Norway) only counting PCR test confirmed deaths. While others (e.g. France) count clinically suspected COVID-19 deaths (Riffe et al., 2020). Other countries (e.g. Russia) are found to deliberately underreport Covid deaths (The World, 2020). These inconsistencies in testing and reporting deaths have led to uncertainty as to whether national reporting on COVID-19 deaths are directly comparable (Clarke et al., 2021). Due to these limitations, the indicator ‘Excess Mortality’ is considered a more objective, broader indicator measuring the pandemic’s impact (Beaney et al., 2020). 130

Excess mortality is the increase of all-cause mortality compared to expected mortality based on historical data (Helleringer et al., 2021). It has been used historically to measure the true death toll of pandemics (Boka, 2020). Excess deaths during the COVID-19 pandemic can account for deaths directly caused by COVID-19 infections and non-COVID-19 excess deaths, the latter demonstrating the deaths because of the medical system’s collapse due to COVID-19 (Karlinsky, 2021). In encompassing deaths from all causes, excess mortality effectively overcomes variation between countries in COVID-19 reporting and testing and the misclassification of cause of death on death certificates (Beaney et al., 2020). Excess mortality serves as an objective and summary measure of the pandemic’s whole system impact, capturing deaths caused directly and indirectly by COVID-19 (Beaney et al., 2020). Policy responses, including non-pharmaceuticalinterventions (NPIs – e.g. Lockdown), effectively slowed down virus transmission, lowered R rate, and lowered COVID-19 death rates for many countries as demonstrated by Sun et al (2020) in Japan at the beginning of 2020. Differences in COVID-19 cases and deaths for countries can be significantly attributed to differences in COVID- 19 response policies across countries (Flaxman et el., 2020), varying in strictness and timing (OxCRGTa, 2022). Robust evidence shows, under most conditions, early adoption of stringent COVID-19 responses are associated with a reduction in transmission, limiting hospital burden (Asahi et el., 2021). The stringency index is a composite measure, indicating the stringency of nine COVID-19 government policies namely school closures, workplace closures, public events cancellation, public gatherings restriction, public transport closures, stay-at-home requirements, public information campaigns, internal movements restrictions, and international travel controls allowing for comparison of extent of policy measures between countries (OxCGRTb, 2022). Transmission of COVID-19 occurs through contact made between infectious individuals and healthy individuals in school, workplace and community (WHOb, 2022). A healthy individual can contract the virus when droplets containing virus particles from an infected individual come in contact with the eyes, nose or mouth of a healthy individual. People may also be infected via indirect

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contact, when they touch their nose, eyes or mouth after touching contaminated surfaces (WHOb, 2022). The level of suppression of social contact in these settings measured by the stringency index reduces or prevents contact between the infectious and healthy people, thus reducing the transmission of the virus (WHOb, 2022). As COVID-19 cases increase, there has consequentially been a rise in hospitalisation, increasing burden on hospitals (Lu et al., 2022). There is a positive relationship between healthcare expenditure and health outcomes (Nixon, 2006). Countries with higher health care expenditure per capita generally encompass better hospital infrastructure and services and are more prepared to respond to pandemics. COVID-19 cases have stressed healthcare systems, causing resource limitations such as available hospital resources and staffing, leading to a degradation in standard of care provided (CDC, 2021). A country with low healthcare expenditure associated with poorer healthcare infrastructure and services is less prepared to respond to an increase in COVID-19 cases, recording higher excess mortality compared to the same setting with higher healthcare expenditure. Coupled with the impact of lockdown restrictions disincentivising individuals from seeking treatment, the hospital strain has led to the progression of serious conditions among individuals who would have benefitted from earlier diagnosis and intervention (CDC, 2021). A-binomial-regression-model-made-by-the CDC-showed-that-as-hospital-exceed-100%-ICU-bedcapacity, 90000-excess-deaths-would-be-expectedin-the-following-2-weeks-in-the-United-States (CDC, 2021). The pandemic has resulted in increased deaths from preventable causes due to a weakened healthcare system (inadequate care), increasing excess mortality (Ritchie et al., 2020). Conversely, the pandemic may result in fewer deaths unrelated to COVID-19 as COVID-19 interventions stop the spread of other respiratory diseases (Ritchie, 2020). Currently, there is no research comparing the relationship between COVID-19 policy responses in different countries and excess mortality during the Omicron outbreak. Minimal existing literature has examined the role of COVID-19 responses in averting or contributing to excess deaths. As excess mortality indicates the impact of COVID-19’s on overall health, the excess mortality of different countries’ excess mortality should be compared to assess the effectiveness of different public health policies on the whole health care system. With future pandemics forecasted to increase in frequency (UNESCO, 2020), assessing the relationship between policy responses of varying stringency with excess mortality can inform countries to implement more efficient pandemic responses in the future, thereby minimizing the total impact of pandemics on overall health.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION How has the stringency index of COVID-19 policy responses in different countries affected the excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic? HYPOTHESIS A negative correlation between the stringency of policies and excess mortality is expected. As the stringency index of COVID-19 policies adopted by a country increases, the level of excess mortality per capita is expected to decrease. Furthermore, as the health expenditure of a country increases, the level of excess mortality is expected to decrease. METHODOLOGY Three secondary data sets have been used. Figure 1: guideline of how numerical values are assigned to the response of school closures.

Figure 2: N=numerical values measuring stringency for individual countries. Max N = maximum possible numerical value for each individual response (e.g. for school closure = 3)

COVID-19 stringency index dataset The COVID-19 stringency index dataset (OxCRGTa, 2022) provides real-time, twice-weekly updated quantitative data. The stringency index is a composite measure (value from 0 (weakest) to 100 (strictest)) measuring the extent of nine COVID019 responses in a country since 2020, indicating the level of preventative measures in a country. Oxford University collects systematic information from more than 180 government sources on COVID-19 policy measures from government reports. These individual policies are assigned a whole number numerical value (between 0 – 4) according to guidelines set out in methodology (Hale, 2021) as in Figure 1. The methodology uses the formula in Figure 2 to calculate the index indicating a country’s overall COVID-19 responses’ stringency. Stringency index data was extracted for each country from 24/11/2021-12/01/2022 for the onset of the 131

THE INFLUENCE OF COVID-19 POLICY’S STRINGENCY ON THE LEVEL OF EXCESS MORTALITY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES DURING THE COVID-19 2021/22 OMICRON VARIANT OUTBREAK

Omicron outbreak. The mean stringency level for each country was found by dividing the sum of the stringency index reporting by the number of reporting. The quantitative value indicating policy stringency allows for investigation for a correlation with excess mortality. Countries which had no ‘stringency index’ were omitted.

RESULTS Figure 6: Relationship between average stringency of COVID-19 policies and excess mortality per 100k population between 24/11/2021-12/01/2022. The Pearson’s correlation test produces a R coefficient of 0.1783 and p-value of 0.01963.

Weekly excess mortality estimates “Weekly excess mortality estimates” provides weekly real/ estimated excess mortality figures for different countries from 2020 (Github, 2022). The Economist imports raw data for all-cause mortality and official COVID-19 death tolls from the World Mortality Dataset (Karlinsky, 2022) which draws on national statistical bureaus. Relevant variables such as population density and vaccination rates were collected for different countries. These available data are entered into the Gradient Boosting Machine algorithm which aims to make accurate excess mortality estimates through learning patterns from historical data. Excess mortality per 100k population data was extracted for available countries from 24/11/2021-12/01/2022 (Github, 2022). The mean level of excess mortality for each country in this period was found by dividing the sum of the excess mortality per 100k population by the number of data reportings. Countries which had no ‘weekly excess mortality estimates’ were omitted.

As seen in Figure 6’s trend, excess mortality increases as stringency level increases. However, the correlation is very weak, indicated by a very low R value 0.1783103). The Pearson’s correlation test giving a p-value of 0.01963 (less than alpha value of 0.05), suggests a statistically significant correlation between the two variables.

Health Expenditure Dataset The health expenditure dataset (World Bank, 2022) provides yearly, quantitative data on the level of healthcare expenditure on a per capita basis ($USD) for 170+ countries, including both public and private health expenditure. Latest yearly health expenditure data was extracted for each country. Analysing relationships: Statistical analysis – Pearson’s correlation test A graph was produced where each dot represents a country to investigate the relationship between stringency index and excess mortality (Figure 6) as well as health expenditure and excess mortality (Figure 7). However, drawing valid conclusions alone from graphs and the R value standalone is problematic, as a high R value near one can still have no statistical significance. To draw valid conclusions, Pearson’s correlation test was completed to determine whether the correlation between two variables were due to chance, or if it was statistically significant (p-value < alpha value). Two variables were input into Pearson’s correlation test in R studio, providing a R coefficient indication strength of correlation and a P value indicating the statistical significance of correlation. Using this method, the relationship between average stringency of COVID-19 policies and excess mortality/100k population and the relationship between health expenditure per capita and excess mortality/100k population were analysed. 132

Figure 7: relationship between health expenditure per capita and excess mortality per 100k population between 24/11/2021-12/01/2022. The Pearson’s correlation test produces an R coefficient of 0.06029 and p-value of 0.4334.

Figure 7 shows no trend between health expenditure and excess mortality. Pearson’s correlation test found R coefficient to be 0.06, indicating no correlation between the two variables. The p-value was found to be 0.4334 greater than the alpha value of 0.05, indicating no statistically significant correlation between the two variables. DISCUSSION A statistically significant, very weak correlation was observed between stringency index and excess mortality

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in Figure 6. It was found to be statistically significant, with p value (0.01963) less than the alpha value (0.05). An extremely weak, positive correlation is observed as the R value (0.1783103) is small. The alternate hypothesis that as stringency level of COVID-19 policies, excess mortality per 100k/population decreases, is not accepted as the R value is too small based on this analysis. Stringency level has no clear impact on the level of excess mortality. No relationship is apparent between health expenditure and excess mortality in Figure 7. Pearson’s correlation test shows no statistical significance as p value (0.4334) is greater than the alpha value (0.05). There is no correlation between the two variables as the R value (0.0502906) is very small. The alternate hypothesis that as the level of health expenditure per capita increases, excess mortality per 100k/population decreases, is not accepted. Health expenditure appears to have no impact on the level of excess mortality. The implementation of more stringent COVID-19 policies does not appear to have met the aim of reducing excess mortality. It is apparent that confounding factors are impacting the excess mortality. One example is that older adults are at a significantly increased risk of death following COVID-19 infection (WHOc, 2022) which can disproportionately affect countries with an ageing population. Contrarily, ageing populations are associated with higher income levels and ability to finance healthcare (Nicol, 2017). With higher health expenditure per capita, these countries have better medical facilities and technologies (e.g. vaccine development) to respond to the pandemic compared to lower health expenditure per capita and younger countries (Khan, 2020). No clear relationship between stringency level and excess mortality were found in the results due to these confounding variables. Additionally, higher income, ageing countries are associated with lower populations resulting in slower virus transmission compared to lower income countries with a higher population density as physical distancing is ultimately constrained by population density (Wong, 2020). These confounding factors led to no clear relationship found in the results. Poorer countries with lower health expenditure per capita are associated with lower testing capacity and accuracy of death reportings (OxCGRTb, 2022), limiting accuracy of excess mortality figures and ability to find clear relationship in results. Due to policies to reduce virus transmission, the US recorded substantial increases in deaths due to social isolation (drug overdoses and suicides) between 03/202008/2020 (Agrawal et al., 2021), contributing to higher excess mortality. COVID-19 policies reducing individual movement has also led to a reduction in non-COVID-19 healthcare, contributing to an increase in non-COVID-19 related deaths. For example, Australia-Bureau-ofStatistics-reported-a-12.6%-increase-in-2021-forDementia-deaths-compared-to-historical-averages-inAustralia (ABS, 2022).

The effectiveness of COVID-19 policies are conditional to a series of underlying factors and limitations. • population density: countries recording higher population densities are more sensitive to movement restrictions and lockdowns, whereas countries with lower population densities and more distributed populations are more likely to gain less benefits from lockdowns (Bhadra, 2020). • Compliance and enforcement: policy effectiveness depends on its enforcement and individual’s compliance. e.g. A country adopting highly stringent policies but with a low level of individual compliance hinders the effectiveness of policies in virus transmission. As result, records higher excess mortality compared to same setting with a high level of individual compliance (OxCGRTf, 2022). • Policy timing: slow enforcement of COVID-19 policies after virus transmission in the community significantly increases R and infected population. Modelling shows one week delay in lockdown implementation triples the number of infected individuals, placing higher burden on healthcare and increasing excess mortality (Elitzur, 2021). • Time lags: Not all country’s data is updated in each cycle. Methodology uses a “display” version to smooth data gaps, populating each date with last available data point and is not an accurate representation of a country’s most current policy stringency level (OxCGRTa, 2022). No relationship was found between health expenditure and excess mortality as health expenditure is one of many qualitative and quantitative factors contributing to health outcomes (Nixon, 2006). Inequities in healthcare access is a major confounding factor. Whilst United States records the highest health expenditure of $9402/person (World Bank, 2022), the US healthcare system’s private nature hinders equality in healthcare provision, this result in low socioeconomic individuals unable to afford and receive treatment (Korouse, 2020), thus recording high excess mortality of 146 deaths/100k population. In comparison, Australia has a lower level of health expenditure ($4357/ person), however Medicare and the public hospital system provides free or low-cost access for all Australians (DHAC, 2022), recording -29 deaths/100k population for the period investigated. The World Bank’s health expenditure dataset includes both private and public health expenditure, it does not indicate the level of equality in healthcare access for a country thus impacting excess mortality. Other confounding factors include infrastructure shortfalls, inadequate provision of personal protective equipment, shortage of healthcare works and limited access to COVID-19 screening tests (Korouse, 2020). The weekly excess mortality dataset was selected as it provides the most timely, recent figures (Github, 2022). Whilst some sources provide real excess mortality figures, 133

THE INFLUENCE OF COVID-19 POLICY’S STRINGENCY ON THE LEVEL OF EXCESS MORTALITY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES DURING THE COVID-19 2021/22 OMICRON VARIANT OUTBREAK

there are significant time lags in governments reporting excess mortality. Uncertainty in excess mortality estimates from real excess mortality figures arise due to its lack of clear relationship to variables such as health expenditure, policy stringency, population density, accuracy of national reporting. The uncertainty in excess mortality estimates limits data used in this study. As a result of the complex interplay between factors explained above, the findings of this study shows that there was no relationship between stringency index of COVID-19 policies and excess mortality as well as health expenditure and excess mortality. The expected findings that there would be a negative association between these variables does not take into account for these potentially confounding variables. No clear relationship between policy stringency and excess mortality were found reflects the complex interplay of confounding variables. Further research should be conducted to further understand specific confounding factors and how they influence excess mortality, such as investigating effect of different policy stringency levels impact on excess mortality for countries

CONCLUSION Following the statistical analysis of the relationship between stringency level and excess mortality for 171 countries, it is concluded that the small R correlation coefficient reveals that average stringency level of COVID-19 policies does not impact the level of excess mortality per 100k population for the Omicron wave. This is considered to have been hindered by the complex interplay of many confounding variables such as ageing populations, population density and human behaviour. Statistical analysis of the relationship between health expenditure per capita and excess mortality per 100k population also reveal no relationship between the two variables for the Omicron wave. Again, factors such as level of policy enforcement and compliance are likely to have limited the ability for a strong correlation expected to be visible.

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Perspective – Student Research Journal – Pymble Ladies’ College

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EpiLight

MD010

Claudia Chan, Hanna Cheung, Yi Ying Lim and Caitlyn Tan

Academic Advisors: Dr Glen Mccarthy (Pymble Ladies College), Ms Kate M. Pickard (University of Sydney) Pymble Ladies College

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Dr Glen Mccarthy gmccarthy@pymblelc.nsw.edu.au

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BIOTECH FUTURES

2021 2022

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Self harvesting rack for seaweed biofilters:

MD018

Choppy Currents Kelp Cutter 1

Jocelyn Mar, 1Grace Ho, 1Sophia Chen, 1Emma Geng, 1Jacqueline Wo Mentors: 2Rosemary Taouk, 2Amore Van Zyl BIOTECH FUTURES 1

Why seaweed biofilters? Why Kelp?

o A simple solution to many current issues damaging our coral reef systems today. o Growing seaweed where there is a surplus of nutrients helps to take up carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, which reduces ocean acidification. o Reduced ocean acidification = reduces coral bleaching. • Coral bleaching occurs when corals are stressed from changes in their environment such as imbalance of nutrients. o Kelp absorbs carbon dioxide and nitrogen compounds. • Grows as much as 60cm a day, meaning it absorbs large amounts of CO2 through photosynthesis. • The Estimated tons of carbon absorbed by marine macroalgae is 173 million tonnes. • Bleached corals can recover if they reclaim their food source within a few weeks. We aim to help this process with our idea. o Many additional medicinal and cosmetic beneficial uses of kelp. o Positive chain reactions in numerous other economic and agricultural sectors.

Medicinal benefits of kelp

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o Anti-inflammatory. o Releases hypertension. o Fights cancer and oxidative stress. o Nanocomposite containing seaweed restrains the growth of blood, colon and breast cancer cells. o Selectively kills cancer cells, sparing healthy cells.

Importance of coral reefs

o Corals provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms. o Coral reefs protect coastal areas by reducing the power of waves hitting the coast. o Without coral reefs, the ocean will not be able to absorb as much CO2, leaving much more in the atmosphere (enhanced greenhouse effect). o However, coral bleaching has the potential to wipe out entire ecosystems.

Our solution: Choppy Currents Kelp Cutter We have designed a never-seen-before self harvesting rack named the Choppy Currents Kelp Cutter. Our rack helps farmers in areas with an excess runoff of nutrients. All farmers need to do is put the rack into their desired area and wait until the kelp has grown to their desired length. After the growing process, the Kelp Cutter will seal itself into a box, ready for collection.

Rendered 3D models

Additional features • Dimensions: 150cm x 65cm x 17cm. • Weight: Up to 60kg. • Main floating deck material made of recycled plastics from the ocean (e.g. plastic HDPE high density polyethylene).

• Soft silicon/rubber blend treads on the gears to grip seaweed. • aluminium supports that are resistant to corrosion. • solar panels mounted on blade cutter compartment and on recycled plastic deck.

Contact Information

Kim Bunny kbunny@pymblelc.nsw.edu.au

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