Barbarian Weekly Presents
Fifty Shades of Franks Quincy Leachman, Joshua Kazakoff, Ian Field, Ryan Formosa
Table of Contents: Page 2: Mythological Origins/Migration Page 4: Franks and the Roman Empire Page 6: Merovingian Franks Page 7: Clovis I Page 8: Merovingian Dominance of Gaul Page 10: Gregory of Tours Page 11: Religion Page 12: Charles Martel Page 13: Battle of Tours Page 14: Carolingian Dynasty Page 16: Charlemagne Page 17: Holy Roman Emperor Page 18: Saxon Campaigns Page 19: Military Page 20: Law/Government Page 21: Art/Architecture Page 22: Works Cited
Here we see the Franks forcing the Saxons to cut down a tree involved with pagan worship. We at Barbarian Weekly like to think that the Franks proceeded to bath in the tears of the vanquished Saxons.
Mythological Origins: The mythological origins of the Franks are both intriguing and complex. According to the Chronicle of Fredegar, a seventh century compilation of
Romans and some ended up finding their way to Germany. Regardless of which story one believed, it seems clear that the mythological roots of the Franks helped secure the kings’ reign.
writings on events witnessed first hand
in Frankish Gaul. According to Fredegar,
the Franks could trace their lineage back to the war in Troy and to those who
escaped the city after it fell. In fact,
according to the author, “Priam appears
as the first king of the Franks” (Wallace-‐ Hadrill, 1960). Up until the 1500s,
authors and historians widely
considered the Trojan origins of the
Franks to be the truth (Huppert, 1965), so it appears that the legend first
designed as a propaganda tool to secure
the noble origin of the Merovingian
kings. As the story goes, Priam left Troy and fled to Macedonia. From thence his
family was divided, with some going to
found Rome, others back to Asia Minor,
and a man named Francio building his kingdom on the Rhine (Wallace-‐Hadrill,
1960). According to another story, the
men of Troy sailed with thousands of
soldiers from the Aegean to the Sea of Azov, but were defeated in battle by
When you’re descended from a guys who exited their burning city while carrying entire families in a manner that Hollywood has emulated numerous times in the Die Hard franchise, you have a 96% chance of being crazy tough. That’s just science.
Franks and the Roman Empire: After migrating to Gaul, the Frankish people split off into a number of different factions, the two main ones
example of which is evident within the military, where they continued to use a number of Roman practices (Kortüm, 2010b).
being the Salians and the Ripuarians.
While the Ripuarians became pillagers,
constantly at odds with the Roman Empire, the Salians allied with the
Romans (Anderson, 1997). The Romans
settled the Salian Franks on the
boarders of their empire, using them as a crucial defensive barrier. The Salians
were often recruited to fight in the
Roman army (Anderson 1997, p.136). In
fact, it can be argued that the continued process of amalgamation with the
Romans shaped the Salian people
(Anderson 1997, p.136). Even the
leaders of the Salians were active members of the Roman army. Examples
of this were Childeric I and Clovis I, the
founders of the Merovingian Empire.
Childeric and Clovis were both Roman generals, and Frankish kings (Kortüm,
2010b). After the fall of the Roman
Empire, the Merovingian Franks under
Clovis continued with a number of Roman traditions. The most prominent
Unlike the haphazard tour routes selected by the other,
clearly less sophisticated, barbarian groups the Franks kept it simple. Clearly they did their research, proving that not only did the Franks have biceps the size of pot roasts and abs like washboards, but minds that can quash the Sunday edition of the NY times crossword in a matter of minutes.
Merovingian Franks: The first sign of the Merovingian Franks was predominately seen in the in the latter half of the fifth century. The name Merovingian is derived from the king of the Salian Franks, Merovich. (Britannica Online, 2012) There is not much known about Merovich except he was the father of Childeric I, who carried on the Merovingian dynasty until his death in 481/482. Clovis I, son of Childeric I, expanded the Frankish empire by conquering nearby cities and tribes, and united almost all of Gaul. (Britannica Online, 2012) During the reign of Clovis, he was one of the first to convert to Christianity, which was a new religion at this time. His death in 511 divided the Frankish kingdom among his four sons Theuderic I, Chlodomir, Childebert I and Chlotar I. (Britannica Online, 2012) The four brothers, despite their upsets, managed to expand the Frankish empire even further than their father. By the latter half of the sixth century, Chlotar was the last of the sons of Clovis, and his death in 561 divided the kingdom once again among his four sons, Charibert I, Guntram, Sigebert, and
Chilperic I. (Britannica Online, 2012) The Frankish empire, under the rule of these four brothers, suffered extreme hardship, and prompted a reorganization of the Frankish Kingdoms. Some regions merged with different kingdoms, and some regions were lost entirely. Despite this division, in 613, Chlotar II, son of Chilperic I united the kingdoms once again. (Britannica Online, 2012) However, some years later, after the death of Dagobert I, the kingdom was yet again divided. At this time, many of the kings had to hand their power over to the Mayors of the Palace, which were mayors who supervised a number of activities. (Britannica Online, 2012) The soon gained more power and responsibilities, which turned the remaining Merovingian kings into nothing more than puppets. In 750, Childeric III was the last of the Merovingian kings, and when Pippin III the Short deposed him, he usurped the throne for himself and thus established the Carolingian dynasty. (Britannica Online, 2012)
2012). After his death, his kingdom was
Clovis I: Clovis the First was the founder of the Merovingian Dynasty who united the Franks under one ruler. He was a Salian Frankish king born in the year 466 (Kortüm, 2010a). Clovis, as well as his father, Childeric I, served in the Roman
divided between his four sons (Clovis I, 2012). Clovis was buried next to St Genevieve in the church of the Holy Apostles, which he had built in Paris (Clovis I, 2012).
army as Generals, helping the Romans protect their borders. At the age of only sixteen, Clovis succeeded his father as king of the Salians and Roman general (Kortüm, 2010a). After the fall of the Roman Empire, Clovis began his unification of the Frankish people and the creation of the Merovingian Kingdom (Kortüm, 2010b). Clovis’ first major victory came in 487 against Syagrius, the last Roman official in Gaul (Kortüm, 2010a). Clovis was also the first Frankish king to convert to Christianity. His decision to be baptised Catholic could be seen as strategic (Kortüm, 2010a). It was key in gaining the support of the Gallo-‐Roman peoples (Kortüm, 2010a). Overall Clovis is best known for uniting the Frankish tribes under one ruler, conquering Gaul, and the conversion to Christianity. Clovis th
died on November 27 , 511 (Clovis I,
With his ZZ Top-‐esque beard and the bone structure of a male model, it’s safe to assume that if Clovis were alive today he would be featured in Dos Equis commercials as the most interesting man alive. Semi-‐reliable sources have informed us Clovis’ favorite pastimes involved arm-‐wrestling grizzly bears and bare-‐knuckle boxing dragons.
Merovingian Dominance of Gaul: Clovis I was predominately one of the most influential rulers in Frankish history and he transformed Frankish society in ways other kings never could. Primarily groups such as Romans, as well as a large population of Visigoths maintained Gaul. (Britannica Online, 2012) It was not until the latter half of the fifth century that Clovis decided to
Catholic wife Clotilda. (Britannica Online, 2012) Furthermore, Clovis dealt politically and diplomatically with the Catholic bishops of Gaul because the bishops saw themselves as the king’s natural advisors. (Britannica Online, 2012) He also was extremely tolerant by recognizing their rights and protecting their property up until his death in 511.
expand his empire and consume all of
Gaul. After defeating the last Roman
official, Syagrius, in the northern Gaul, and the Visigoths in the southwestern
Gaul, Clovis was established as ruler of
nearly all the Roman Gaul. (Britannica
Online, 2012) During the occupation of Gaul, Clovis drafted a new law called the
Salic law or Pactus Legis Salicae and was
the code of all Salian Franks. (Britannica
Online, 2012) This was a written code, which combines customary law, Roman
written law, Christian ideals, and royal
edicts. The latter half of this draft was
predominately influenced by his
Gregory of Tours (538-‐594): Oddly enough for a figure who played such an important role in Frankish history, Gregory of Tours was not actually a Frank. Gregory was a member of the Gallo-‐Roman aristocracy as well as the Bishop of Tours (Britannica Online, 2012). As both a member of the nobility and a leading church official, Gregory would interact with many of the important Frankish figures of his period, including many members of the royal Merovingian family. Gregory would actually record much of the history of the Merovingian Franks in Historia Francorum, which includes accounts of Clovis I’s conquest of Gaul. Gregory of Tours remains a significant figure because his works remain the predominant source of information on the Franks during the Merovingian era (Gregory of Tours, 1997).
We know what you’re all thinking. A beard like that deserves
a spot on the cast of Duck Dynasty. We’re in the process of
see if they’ll include Gregory in the next season.
writing strongly worded letters to the show’s producers to
Religion:
abandon their gods. However, after
In the beginning of the 4th century, the
Clovis spoke to them and experienced
Franks were predominately pagans. They built false idols and worshipped many gods by making continuous sacrifices, in order to bring them good fortune. (Eupedia, 2004) Clovis I was one of the first Frankish kings who converted to Christianity, and he did this primarily because his wife, Clotilda, was Catholic. (Gregory of Tours, 1997) After the death of his first son, Clovis did not believe in his wife’s God, instead he believed his pagan gods blessed him with power and wealth. Until it came about that his two armies were being slaughtered and on the edge of being destroyed, and so Clovis looked to the sky and begged Clotilda’s God to bless him and his army. (Gregory of Tours, 1997) On that day God blessed him and the enemies turned and fled the
the will of God in his words, they all rejoiced in the name of Christ, and more than three thousand followers of Clovis were baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. (Gregory of Tours, 1997) After this, Clovis felt that he had God’s blessing and waged war on neighboring territories, in hope of claiming their land and converting them. The kings after Clovis remained devoted to Christianity, and continued to convert as many as they possibly could, and with the blessing of God, they truly believed they were unstoppable. (Gregory of Tours, 1997) Clovis is essential to religion in the time of the Franks, and without his conversion, the Frankish empire would have a completely different history.
battlefield. He claimed that it was no
work of his but instead Christ’s, and so
he converted to Christianity. (Gregory of Tours, 1997) One of the most difficult
problems to overcome in light of this
new conversion was that the people
who follow Clovis would not willingly
Charles Martel: Charles Martel was the illegitimate son of Pippin II, the mayor of palace of Austria. (Britannica Online, 2012) When all of Pippin’s legitimate sons were assassinated, followed by him shortly thereafter, the only heirs were three of his grandsons who could be granted power until they were of age. So, Pippin’s widow was to hold power until one of the grandsons came of age. (Britannica Online, 2012) Charles, being illegitimate, was neglected in Pippin’s will, and unfortunately received nothing from it. The king, Childeric II, joined forces with the Frisians in attempt to assassinate Charles, who was then thrown in prison by Plectrude, Pippin’s widow. (Britannica Online, 2012) Charles escaped and raised an army and defeated the Neustrians, which led to him becoming mayor in 719, and governing the Franks by himself.
tribes to Christianity. (Britannica Online, 2012) The Battle of Tours had to be Charles’ greatest accomplishment far none. The Muslims had raided Frankish territories, threatening Gaul in particular, it seemed as if no one could stop them. Charles’ cavalry managed to defeat the Muslims and turn back the onslaught at the Battle of Tours. (Britannica Online, 2012) This victory established Charles as a firm Frankish authority and he continued to expand his empire and forced territories such as Burgundy to yield to his rule, while continuing to fend off Muslim advances. (Britannica Online, 2012) In 741, Charles retired to his palace at Quierzy-‐sur-‐Oise, where he died soon after. Before he passed away, he divided his kingdom to his two sons Pippin III and Carloman. He is still seen as an iconic figure of Frankish history today. (Britannica Online, 2012)
(Britannica Online, 2012) Throughout his
reign, he attempted to gain many
territories and conquer many tribes, some were successful and some were
not. Charles, being a Christian, aided St.
Boniface in converting other Germanic
Battle of Tours: In 732 AD a Frankish army met a force of Moors from al-‐Andalus (Moor controlled areas of the Iberian peninsula) in battle outside of Poitiers in the West of France. Details concerning numbers are difficult to come by, but it is commonly thought that both armies numbered in the tens of thousands. The Muslim force, making their way into Europe to expand the already impressive sphere of influence exerted by the Umayyad Caliphate centered in Damascus. The battle marked the final extent of the Muslim push into Christian Europe, and is considered one of the greatest battles fought by a Christian army in this period. The Muslim army, led by the illustrious emir of al-‐Andalus, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, had surged through southern France facing very little serious resistance. Their powerful cavalry was unparalleled in open warfare. Charles Martel, the Mayor of the Merovingian palace and de facto sovereign of the Frankish realm, led his army to the field of battle, where the Moors had already drawn up defensively. An initial Muslim cavalry
charge is repelled by Martel’s Franks, and a counter-‐attack by cavalry from Aquitaine managed to force the Emir’s host into a hasty retreat. Amid the chaos, and luckily for the Christians, Al Ghafiqi was killed, causing the Moors to quickly fall into disarray. Martel allowed the Moors to retreat, and rather than pursuing and crushing his foes, turned and led his army away from the field of battle (Vick, 2011). After this battle, “there were no further Muslim invasions of Frankish territory.” (Battle of Tours, 2012). Additionally, Martel’s victory prevented conquest of Europe by the Umayyads, allowing Western Civilization to continue to flourish.
The Carolingian Dynasty: By the eighth century, the Merovingian Dynasty had fallen into decline. A series of inept rulers had delegated many of the important administrative duties to members of the nobility. One of the most powerful Frankish families during this period was the Carolingian family, many of whom held prominent positions at court. The Carolingian family would often control Frankish government through a weak Merovingian king who would essentially act as a puppet. Notable Carolingian lords would include the famous Charles Martel, who would defeat a Muslim force from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732 (Britannica Online, 2012). By 751, with the support of the papacy, Martel’s son Pepin the Short would overthrow the final Merovingian king, Childeric III. Pepin proved to be an efficient leader, successfully campaigning against a number of other groups, including the Lombards and Spanish Muslims. When he died in 768, his realm would be split between his sons Charles and Carloman (History). Charles would eventually absorb Carloman’s holdings and greatly
expand the Frankish Empire, earning him the title “Charles the Great,” or Charlemagne (King, 1986). Charlemagne’s reign is considered to be a period of cultural revival, often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance. By the early ninth century, the Frankish empire encompassed most of Western Europe. In 800, Pope Leo III would crown Charlemagne as the very first Holy Roman Emperor (King, 1986). In 814, Charlemagne died and left the empire to his son, Louis the Pious. Louis and his successors proved unable to bring the stability seen during Charlemagne’s reign. The empire was constantly being divided between various princes, often followed by periods of intense civil war (King, 1986). In 843, the Treaty of Verdun formally divided the Frankish Empire (Britannica Online, 2012). A series of weak rulers and attacks from groups like the Vikings would lead to continuing decline of the Carolingian dynasty (King, 1986).
Charlemagne: Charles the Great, or Charlemagne was the eighth century king of the Franks, and the first Holy Roman Emperor. Born to the mayor of the Merovingian palace, Charles was probably groomed for leadership from a very young age. When Charlemagne was a boy, his father, with papal backing, took power from the Merovingian king Childeric III. Agreeing to defend Papal lands in return for an official recognition of his dynasty, the Carolingians. Charles’ father left the large Frankish kingdom to his two sons, and fierce rivalry between the two ended only with the death of Charles’ brother, Carloman. Charlemagne took control of the entire Frankish empire. During his reign, Charles kept his armies occupied, managing to conquer Aquitania, parts of Italy, Saxonia, Bavaria, and lands to the north. In an attempt to reintroduce Christianity to Spain, Charles led a famous Iberian invasion in 778, but was soundly beaten at the Battle of Saragossa. During his return to France, he had his forces massacred by basques leading to the acclaimed epic “The Song of Roland” (McGill, 2009). He is responsible for the expansion the Frankish empire to its greatest extent, bringing Frankish influence almost as far as the Danube to the east, and north as far as modern Denmark (McKitterick, 2008). In the year 800, Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III, making him the the first Western emperor since Romulus Augustulus in the fifth century (Bryce, 1961) In 814 Charlemagne fell ill and died, leaving his empire to his son Louis. Charlemagne’s legacy is impressive. His military prowess carved out the most significant empire in Medieval Europe, and his successors would lay the foundations for the modern states of France and Germany (Holy Roman Empire, 2012).
Holy Roman Emperor: In the year 795, Pope Leo III ascended the pontifical throne (Granshof 1949, p.524). In order to protect against corruption within the church, it was determined that the reestablishment of a Western imperial power was necessary to fulfil the will of God on earth, as well as to protect the faith and church (Granshof 1949, p.524). They believed that Charlemagne satisfied the need to be that Roman Christian Emperor (Granshof 1949, p.524). In 799 a situation arose that would allow for this. A revolution in Rome caused the overthrowing of Pope Leo III, this created a difficult situation (Granshof 1949, p.524). After reinstating Pope Leo III, Charlemagne visited Rome in order to put in order the affairs of the church (Granshof 1949, p.524). While praying during mass on Christmas, December 25th, 800, Charlemagne was Crowned Holy Roman Emperor (Granshof 1949, p.524). Pope Leo III found that while Charlemagne was in Rome restoring order to the church was the perfect time to crown him. After the coronation Charlemagne went to work gaining recognition from the East. He did this by applying both political and military pressure until the Byzantium emperor Michael I Rhangabes recognized Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor (Granshof 1949, p.525). Charlemagne finally achieved this in the year 812 (Granshof 1949, p.524). Charlemagne’s coronation marked him as the first crowned ruler of the West since the fall of the Roman Empire.
The Saxon Wars: During Charlemagne’s reign, he was in an almost perpetual state of conflict. Some of his most important campaigns were a series of wars against the Germanic Saxons, known as the Saxon Wars. During this period, the Saxons were predominately pagan. Therefore, many of Charlemagne’s wars against the Saxon tribes were justified as wars of conversion. During the wars, Charlemagne would often force defeated Saxons to convert to Christianity, destroy centers of pagan worship, and divide his newly acquired territories into areas of religious administration. Perhaps the most famous of Charlemagne’s Saxon opponents was King Widukind. Widukind would lead a series of rebellions against the Franks in the late eighth century (New Advent, 2009). Charlemagne dealt with these rebellions ruthlessly, perhaps best displayed in the Verden Massacre of 782, where Frankish forces executed 4,500 Saxon prisoners in response to renewed Saxon rebellions (History). Eventually, after years of conflict, Widukind was subdued by Charlemagne and forced to accept Christianity (New Advent, 2009). There would be a few more Saxon rebellions in later years, but none of them would prove successful. Charlemagne would go on to create a new class of nobility, both Frankish and Saxon, and bring a new code of laws to the region. Eventually, the majority of Saxons would convert to Christianity and largely become absorbed within the Frankish Empire (History).
Frankish Military: Throughout their existence the Franks had a rather diverse military. Starting with their settling in Gaul, the Franks displayed a very barbarian military. This means it consisted mostly of a fairly disorganized, brutish, pillaging force. After the settlement, with the Frankish involvement in the Roman army, the Frankish military changed. With Clovis I being a Roman General( Clovis I, 2012), many aspects of the Roman army were incorporated into the Frankish military. This created a more organized and efficient fighting force. Clovis incorporated siege warfare into the Merovingian military (Verbruggen 2005, p.12). They also had an organized fighting body, followed by archers and spearmen; this allowed for their army to fight hand-‐to-‐hand, while picking off the back ranks of their enemies with projectiles (Verbruggen 2005, p.12). They would press this force forward in order to force the battle to be fought their way: up close. This being said, the Merovingians were able to keep some of their barbarian influences as well, such as the use of mounted soldiers. Cavalry was something that was a vital to the Franks throughout their history. Charles Martel again was also a large supporter of the quick advance to force battle (Verbruggen 2005, p.13). Cavalry was also something he used quite extensively. In 717, Charles chased a fleeing army to Paris with his cavalry, subsequently subjugating the entire area (Verbruggen 2005, p.13). The weapons used by the Franks were primarily swords, spears, bows, and warhorses (Verbruggen 2005, p.12). The Franks also used a throwing axe called a francisca to break defences as they were charging (Tactics, 2012). As for armour, they used chainmail, helmets and shields (Tactics, 2012). Considering the warlike nature of the Frankish people, much of what we know about their weapons and armour comes from the examining of Frankish graves (Soulat, 2011). Among other objects, axe heads, spearheads, and swords have been found in Frankish graves (Soulat 2011, p.63).
Law and Government: Early Frankish law varies between the two major Frankish tribal groups, the Salians and the Ripuarians. Each separate group had its own set of legal codes, Salic and Ripuarian Law. These legal systems shared many similarities with other contemporary Germanic laws, which are usually characterized by an overall concern for the security of the individual as opposed to the state (Wood, 1994). As the Frankish Empire expanded, its legal system would often borrow bits and pieces from the tribal groups it absorbed, including sections from the Alamanni (. Frankish government operated in a manner that laid the framework for the feudal system that dominated the medieval period. The king would rely on the assistance of the nobility to provide military assistance during times of war, and in exchange he would often redistribute spoils amongst his supporters. The king was expected to sustain himself on the income from his own personal holdings, another tradition that would remain prominent in the middle ages (Eupedia, 2004).
Art and Architecture: In the early days of a Frankish empire, architecture and art was dominated by the Church. This was mostly a direct result of Clovis and his successors relying on a strong Christian influence throughout Gaul and support from Rome to maintain order. Churches and monasteries sprung up all over Merovingian Gaul with much of their design and construction cues taken from Roman forms. However, it is thought that in a uniquely Frankish way, the reliquary of the saint to whom the church was dedicated would be visible and accessible from the nave and transept (Jacobsen, 1997). Traditionally, such relics would be held within the altar or below the floor. As time wore on, Frankish art migrated into different fields but remained mostly religious. Sculpture, illumination, mosaics in the Roman tradition, and ornate metalwork like the golden altar at Sant’Ambrogio in Milan (Danielson, 2007). Charlemagne, himself a great patron of the arts, hosted what is known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural renewal during which the arts flourished. He is responsible for the building of the great cathedral at Aachen, within which his remains rest. Additionally, we see that in this period beautiful illuminations are commonly made, as well as impressive metalwork, paintings, and mosaics (Carolingian Art, 2012).
Works Cited A Brief History of the Franks 2004. Eupedia. Retrieved 04 November, 2012, from
http://www.eupedia.com/europe/frankish_influence_modern_europe.shtml
Anderson, Thomas Jr., 1997. Roman military colonies in Gaul, Salian Ethnogenesis and the forgotten
meaning of Pactus Legis Salicae 59.5. Early Medieval Europe, 4: pp.129–144. doi: 10.1111/j.1468
°©-‐0254.1995.tb00064.x
Battle of Tours 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 30 November, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/600883/Battle-‐of-‐Tours
Behr, John. "Gaul." Origins to Constantine. Eds. Margaret M. Mitchell, Frances M. Young and K. Scott
Bowie. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University
Press. 04 December 2012 DOI:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.022
Bryce, J. The Holy Roman Empire, Schocken Books, 1961. Charlemagne. History. Retrieved 1 December, 2012, from http://www.history.com/topics/charlemagne. Charlemagne 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 04 December, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106546/Charlemagne
Charles Martel 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 30 November, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/107383/Charles-‐Martel
Clovis I 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 04 December, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/122446/Clovis-‐I
Franks, 2006. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Retrieved 30 November, 2012 from
http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/ps/retrieve.do?inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&user
oupName=uvictoria&docId=GALE%7CCX3487400059&contentSegment=&navContext=none
Germany 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 30 November, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/231186/Germany
Granshof, F. L., 1949. Charlemagne. Medieval Academy of America. Retrieved online from
http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/stable/10.2307/2854638 ?origin=api. Last accessed
4 Dec 2012
th
Gregory of Tours (539-‐594): History of the Franks: Books I-‐X 1997. Medieval Sourcebook. Retrieved 04
November, 2012, from http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-‐hist.asp
Sourcebook. Retrieved 04 December, 2012, from http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory
hist.asp
Holy Roman Empire 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 04 December, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/269851/Holy-‐Roman
Empire/10161/Charlemagnes-‐successors
Huppert, G., 1965. “The Trojan Franks and their Critics.” Studies in the Renaissance, 12, pp. 227-‐241. King, P.D., 1986. Charlemagne. London: Methuen. Kortüm, Hans-‐Henning, 2010. Clovis I. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military
Knowledge. Available: http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/view/10.1093/ac
ref/9780195334036.001.0001/acref-‐9780195334036-‐e-‐0242. Last accessed 4 Dec 2012.
th
Kortüm, Hans-‐Henning, 2010. Franks, Merovingian. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Knowledge. Available:
http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/view/10.1093/ac
ref/9780195334036.001.0001/acref-‐9780195334036-‐e-‐0368?rskey=
ALArUA&result=1&q=Merovingian. Last accessed 4 Dec 2012.
th
Mayor of the palace, 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 30 November, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/371074/mayor-‐of-‐the-‐palace
McGill, S 2009, 'Charlemagne', Charlemagne, p. 1, Primary Search, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 December 2012 New Advent: Catholic Encyclopedia, 2009. Widukind. [online] Available at:
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15618a.htm> [Accessed December 2, 2012].
Rosamond McKitterick, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambridge University Press,
2008
Soulat, J. (2011). Between Frankish and Merovingian influences in early Anglo Saxon Sussex (fifth-‐seventh
centuries). Studies in Early Anglo-‐Saxon Art and Archaeology. 62-‐71.
Tactics, 2012. Encycloaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 04 December, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580081/tactics.
Treaty of Verdun, 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 30 November, 2012, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/625953/Treaty-‐of-‐Verdun.
Verbruggen, J.F., and DeVries, K. (2005). The role of the cavalry in medieval warfare. Journal of Medieval
Military History, 3, 46.
Vick, H. ed, 2011. Encyclopedia of Classic Warfare. London: Amber Books. Wallace-‐Hadrill, JM, translator. , The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations.
Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1960.
Wood, Ian N., 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms: 450-‐751. New York: Longman.
Images Cover Image: Sacramentarium Gelasianum [Illumination]. 316, available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg> Accessed 4 December 2012.
Destroying Centers of Pagan Worship: Leutemann, H, 1882. Zerstörung der Irminsäule durch Karl den
Großen [Etching]. Available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zerst%C3%B6rung_der_Irminsaule_durch_Karl_den_Gro%C
%9Fen_by_Heinrich_Leutemann.jpg> Accessed 4 December 2012.
Escape from Troy: Barocci, F,1598. Aeneas' Flight from Troy [Oil Painting], 1598. Available at
<http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/html/b/barocci/index.html> Accessed 4 December 2012.
Barbarian Migration Map: Invasions of the Roman Empire [Map]. Available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png> Accessed 3
December 2012.
Clovis I: Dejuinne, FL, 1835. Clovis Roi des Francs [Painting]. Available at
<http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public> Accessed 4 December 2012.
Merovingian Territory Map: Rudric, 2008. Map of the merovingian kingdoms (sic) [Map]. Available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merovingian_dynasty.jpg> Accessed 4 December 2012.
Gregory of Tours Image: Jastrow, n.d. Gregory of Tours [Photograph]. Available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gregory_of_Tours_cour_Napoleon_Louvre.jpg> Accessed 4
December 2012.
Carolingian Empire Map: Map of the rise of Frankish Empire, from 481 to 814 [Map]. 2007. Available at
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-‐en.svg&page=1>
Accessed 4 December 2012.