Teaching Individuals with Physical or Multiple Disabilities, 6E Sherwood J. Best Test BankTeaching I by Ace Test Banks

Test Bank for

Teaching Individuals with Physical or Multiple Disabilities, 6e Sixth Edition Sherwood J. Best California State University, Los Angeles

Kathryn Wolff Heller Georgia State University

June L. Bigge San Francisco State University Prepared by Sherwood J. Best

Table of Contents

Chapter One: Impact and Implications of Physical, Health, and Multiple Disabilities………………………………………………… 1 Chapter Two: Physical Disabilities…………………………………………………4 Chapter Three: Cerebral Palsy……………………………………………………..7 Chapter Four: Health Impairments……………………………………………….. 9 Chapter Five: Curriculum and Individualized Educational Planning………….. 11 Chapter Six: Task and Situation Analysis………………………………………… 14 Chapter Seven: Assistive Technology……………………………………………….16 Chapter Eight: Augmentative and Alternative Communication………………….18 Chapter Nine: Feeding and Swallowing…………………………………………….20 Chapter Ten: Adaptations for Personal Independence……………………………23 Chapter Eleven: Adaptations in Physical Education, Leisure Education, and Recreation………………………………………………………. 25 Chapter Twelve: Self-Determination and Education for Transition…………….. 27 Chapter Thirteen: Reading Instruction and Adaptations…………………………30 Chapter Fourteen: Writing Instruction and Adaptations…………………………32 Chapter Fifteen: Science and Social Studies Instruction and Adaptations………34 Chapter Sixteen: Mathematics Instruction and Adaptations……………………..37 Answer Key………………………………………………………………………….. 39

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Chapter One: Impact and Implications of Physical, Health, and Multiple Disabilities Fill in the Blank: 1. Disability issues were brought into federal politics through the efforts of _________________. 2. Three models for viewing disability are the: 1) __________________, 2) _____________, and the 3) ____________________. 3. The World Health Organization (WHO) has attempted to classify functioning, disability, and health with a model called the ___________. 4. Previous terminology used by the WHO used the terms 1) ____________, 2) _____________, and 3) __________________, which have been incorporated into the current ICF model or replaced. 5. The NDT Enablement model added the component of motor functions to the ICF model across the domains of: 1) ______________________, 2) ________________________, 3) _________________________, and 4) ____________________________. 6. Four federal disability categories that describe persons with physical, health, and multiple disabilities are: 1) __________________, 2) _____________, 3) _________________, and 4) _____________________. 7. Educational goals for students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities must correspond to their _______________________ for meeting general curriculum goals. 8. Content standards refer to __________________________________________________. 9. Curricular content for students with severe cognitive disabilities are aligned with ____________________________________. 10. A ______________ is a condition that lasts ≥ 12 months at the time of diagnosis and is likely to have a duration of ≥ 12 months. 11. Chronic illnesses include conditions such as _______________, ________________, ________________, _____________, and _______________. 12. One way to enhance usability for all individuals is to employ the concept of ____________________. 13. Students with physical or health impairments receive educational services in many ways, including; 1) _________________, 2) _____________________, 3) ________________, and 4) ______________________.

14. Barriers to effective educational service delivery for students with physical, health, and multiple disabilities include: 1) _________________, 2) _________________, and 3) ________________________ 15. Teachers who work with student with physical and health disabilities must possess these specialized knowledge and skills: 1) ______________________, 2) _________________, 3) _____________________, and 4) _______________________. Short Answer: 1. What does the author mean by the statement “Disability is part of the human condition”? 2. When might a disability be an important factor in a person’s life, and when might the disability be inconsequential? 3. Describe several responses to persons with physical disabilities throughout history. 4. Compare and contrast the medical, social, and biopsychosocial models of conceptualizing disability. 5. Describe the ICF model. Does this model help you to understand the broad construct of disability? Why or why not? 6. Why is terminology important when describing aspects of disability? 7. What are the differences between grade level achievement standards, modified academic achievement standards, and alternate achievement standards? 8. What challenges are faced by a person whose disability is observable/visible? What challenges are faced by a person whose disability is not observable/invisible? 9. What is the difference between acute and chronic conditions? What challenges are faced by teachers who work with students who have chronic conditions? 10. Define assistive technology and explain its importance to academic and daily life functioning for individuals with physical or multiple disabilities. 11. What is UDL and how can it be applied to teaching and learning? 12. Why is it important to consider the need for students with physical disabilities to strive for independence? How can teachers support personal independence for such students? 13. Describe two types of educational service delivery that are unique to students with physical or health disabilities. Would you like to work as a home or hospital teacher? Why or why not?

14. Why is lack of adequate equipment and important logistical barrier to service provision for students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities? 15. Describe four specific knowledge and skill areas needed by teachers who work with students who have physical, health, or multiple disabilities.

Chapter Two: Physical Disabilities Fill in the Blank: 1. Neuromotor impairments include conditions that originate in the _______________ and affect the _________ and __________. 2. Malformations of the brain, spinal cord, and/or vertebrae are collectively called ____________________, although they are commonly referred to as ______________. 3. The major types of neural tube defects are _____________, ____________, and __________. 4. The most common type of neural tube defect is spina bifida, which can be further classified into the categories of _____________, _______________, and _________________. 5. Many individuals with myelomeningocele have accompanying ________________, which is characterized by head enlargement, brain abnormalities, and seizures. 6. Surgery to correct hydrocephalus involves placement of a plastic tube called a _________, which is inserted into the ventricles of the brain to drain excess cerebral spinal fluid. 7. Headaches, dizziness, nausea, trouble staying awake, and other disturbances may be an indication of _____________________ in a person with spina bifida. 8. Head trauma acquired by external physical force in which there is disruption in brain structure or function is called ____________________________________. 9. Traumatic brain injury in which the brain slams against the inside of the skull in the front and then travels backwards and connects again the inside of the skull in the back is called a _________________________________ injury. 10. Types of visual loss that can occur with TBI include ______________, _____________, and ________________. 11. Students who have had a TBI often experience swiftly changing emotional ups and downs known as _______________________________. 12. Three examples of disrupted executive functioning in persons with a TBI are: ____________________, _____________________, and ______________________. 13. The most common form of muscular dystrophy is _____________________________.

14. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) occurs when there is absence of a protein called _____________. The gene for dystrophin production is located on the mother’s _____ chromosome, and is therefore known as a ______________________ disease. 15. Some students with DMD require severe spinal curvatures that require surgical stabilization called _____________. Short Answer: 1. Briefly describe the different classifications of spina bifida. 2. Briefly describe three conditions associated with myelomengocele. 3. Why is it important to develop a manageable personal hygiene program for students with myelomeningocle? 4. How can teachers modify activities that support achievement in the areas of motor, cognitive, and language in students with myelomeningocele? 5. Describe how teachers may ascertain that a student with myelomeningocele is experiencing a shunt malfunction. 6. What is the difference between an open and a closed head injury? What is the primary cause of brain injury in infancy? 7. What happens to the brain in a coup/countracoup injury? What is the impact of such an injury on student learning? 8. How can teachers modify the classroom environment for students whose reduced ability to attend to or respond to instruction is a result of a TBI? 9. How can teachers respond to manage emotional lability in a student with a TBI? 10. Describe the progression of symptoms in children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). 11. Children with DMD often require a power wheelchair as their disease progresses. Discuss why this dynamic is a positive one for the child and often met with resistance by parents. 12. How can teachers meet the physical meet the physical needs of students with DMD? 13. Describe three ways that teachers can adapt curriculum content and scheduling to support students with DMD as their experience increased fatigue and debilitation. 14. How can teachers meet the physical meet the psychosocial needs of students with DMD?

15. How should a teacher handle the topic of terminal prognosis with a student with DMD?

Chapter Three: Cerebral Palsy Fill in the Blank: 1. Cerebral palsy is defined as: _________________________________________________. 2. Most instances of cerebral palsy occur during the ___________ period. 3. Cerebral palsy can be classified several ways, including: 1) ___________________, 2) ____________________, 3) ______________________, and 4) _____________________. 4. Damage to the __________________________ is associated with spastic cerebral palsy. 5. Damage to the _______________________ is associated with athetoid cerebral palsy. 6. Damage to the _______________________ is associated with ataxic cerebral palsy. 7. Many infants born with cerebral palsy have low tone, also known as ______________. 8. If a person has motor involvement in all limbs due to cerebral palsy, that person is said to have ______________________. 9. If a person has motor involvement on one half of the body due to cerebral palsy, that person is said to have ______________________. 10. Three conditions often associated with cerebral palsy are: 1) ________________, 2) _______________, and 3) ________________. 11. Persons with cerebral palsy may be treated with injections of _____________________, into spastic muscles, which assists with functional walking and sitting. 12. Sometimes persons with cerebral palsy have a surgery called ______________________, in which nerve rootlets in the spinal cord are severed. 13. Complex communication can be facilitated for individuals with cerebral palsy through the use of _____________________________________. 14. The emotional/social impact of cerebral palsy can be reduced through development of ______________________. 15. The feedback we receive relative to our position in space is called __________________.

Short Answer: 1. Why is it impossible to describe the “typical person with cerebral palsy?” 2. Describe ways that cerebral palsy can occur during the prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal periods. 3. Compare and contrast the movements of persons with spastic and dyskinetic cerebral palsy. 4. Describe the functional impairment and variability of movement in someone with severe cerebral palsy. 5. Seizures are often associated with cerebral palsy. Discuss how seizures can have a negative impact on cognitive development. 6. Why is communication an important factor in emotional/social development for persons with cerebral palsy? 7. Why is it difficult to predict developmental outcomes in young children with cerebral palsy? 8. What areas of expertise would a physical therapist apply to maximize the independent functioning of a student with cerebral palsy? 9. What areas of expertise would an occupational therapist apply to maximize the independent functioning of a student with cerebral palsy? 10. Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of medication use for persons with cerebral palsy. 11. What physical management strategies would you use to support functioning in a person with spastic cerebral palsy? 12. What physical management strategies would you use to support functioning in a person with athetoid cerebral palsy? 13. What physical management strategies would you use to support functioning in a person with ataxic cerebral palsy? 14. Describe the primary rules of good body mechanics for handling persons with cerebral palsy. 15. How can a teacher foster communication for students with cerebral palsy whose speech is non-functional?

Chapter Four: Health Impairments Fill in the Blank: 1. The number of individuals with health impairments in schools has risen dramatically due to: 1) ______________________________ and 2) ______________________________. 2. A major difference between physical disabilities and health impairments is ___________. 3. __________ is the most common pulmonary disease of childhood. 4. ____________ are foreign substances that enter the lungs and cause an asthma attack. 5. The body responds to the presence of antigens by producing _____________. 6. Asthma symptom control can be enhanced through the use of a ___________________ which is used to determine if breathing is normal and medication is working. 7. Diabetes occurs when carbohydrates, fats, and proteins cannot be appropriately metabolized into ____________ because of reduced or absent _____________. 8. The most common form of childhood diabetes is _____________. 9. _______________ diabetes is on the rise in the pediatric and adolescent population due to lifestyle changes such as lack of exercise and obesity. 10. Too little insulin can lead to a condition called ___________________ and too little glucose can lead to a condition called ________________________. 11. ______________________ is the most common hereditary and progressive disease among Caucasians. 12. In addition to the lungs, cystic fibrosis can affect the 1) __________________, 2)______________________, and 3) ________________________________. 13. The STORCH infections stand for _____________, ________________, ___________, ___________________, _____________________, and __________________. 14. The best preventative measure against infectious disease is proper __________________. 15. Developing an _________________________ is considered best practices for students with specialized health care needs.

Short Answer: 1. Discuss why the number of persons with health impairments is rising. 2. What are strategies for preventing asthma attacks? What are strategies for intervention during an asthma attack? 3. How might having chronic asthma have psychosocial and educational implications for a person with asthma? 4. Why has Type 2 diabetes become a recent public health issue? 5. Describe the process of normal glucose metabolism and contrast it with glucose metabolism in a person with diabetes. 6. Discuss three medical conditions associated with diabetes and their implications for normal lifespan. 7. How should teachers respond if a student experiences a hypoglycemic event in class? 8. Why might an adolescent with diabetes become non-compliant with following a treatment regimen of appropriate diet, exercise, and insulin injection? 9. Describe why cystic fibrosis is considered a systemic disease. 10. Describe two techniques used to clear the lungs in persons with cystic fibrosis. 11. Is it important to maintain an academic focus for students with a progressive disease? Why or why not? 12. Compare and contrast the modes of transmission of syphilis, toxoplasmosis, and herpes. 13. Discuss the importance of developing Individualized Health Care Plans for students with specialized health care needs. 14. What are the benefits of implementing universal precautions in schools, daycare, and other settings? 15. Describe the techniques for proper handwashing.

Chapter Five: Curriculum and Individualized Educational Planning Fill in the Blank: 1. Access to curriculum goes beyond exposure to subject area content in that is also means ____________________________ in the general curriculum. 2. The process of agreement, overlap, or intersection between standards, instruction, and assessments is known as ________________. 3. A modification to the delivery of instruction or method of student performance that does not change the grade level content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum is called ________________________. 4. Examples of environmental accommodation could include: 1) _______________, 2) ________________, and 3) ___________________. 5. Examples of physical/sensory accommodations could include: 1) _______________, 2) ________________, and 3) ___________________. 6. Examples of health-related accommodations could include: 1) _______________, 2) ________________, and 3) ___________________. 7. Examples of curricular/instructional accommodations could include: 1) _______________, 2) ________________, and 3) ___________________. 8. Examples of behavioral accommodations could include: 1) _______________, 2) ________________, and 3) ___________________. 9. The ______________________ curriculum should be used as a starting point in educational planning. 10. The general education curriculum include: 1) _________________, 2) ______________, and 3) __________________. 11. A ________________________ is made when the specific subject matter is altered or the performance level expected of students is changed. 12. The curricular modification approach of _____________________ pertains to changing what students are asked to do with the curriculum content. 13. The four levels of depth of knowledge are: 1) _________, 2) ______________, 3) _________________, and 4) _________________.

14. Essential knowledge and skill domains for personal self-reliance include the following components: 1) _________________________, 2) ______________________________, 3) ___________________________, and 4) ________________________________. 15. ____________________ is an important avenue to physical task performance because it augments a sense of movement, circumvents a sense of movement, provides alternatives or adaptations for means of communication of information expressed and received, and/or provides a means of performance in learning. Short Answer: 1. Why is it important to align curriculum for students with special needs with general education curriculum? 2. Explain five accommodations that you could provide in your classroom to support the needs of students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities. 3. How does Universal Design for Learning (UDL) apply to the concept of accommodation? 4. Provide four examples of how can teachers provide accommodations that support student responses to curriculum. 5. Describe at least two situations that could result in curricular modification. 6. Describe a social studies lesson that incorporates prerequisite content selected from lower grade levels for a student who is three grade levels below the grade level content. 7. Why is mastery of functional academics important for students with physical or multiple disabilities? 8. Why is mastery of functional living skills important for students with physical or multiple disabilities? 9. Describe four areas of communication frequently identified for students with physical or multiple disabilities. How is the domain of basic social skills an important communication skill area? 10. How can a teacher assist a student with physical disabilities to become more proficient in individualized information acquisition? 11. How can a teacher assist a student with physical disabilities to become more proficient in information storage, organization, and retrieval? 12. Describe five points of educational transition that might occur for students with physical or multiple disabilities.

13. Discuss two approaches to determining a student’s need for curriculum modification. 14. Apply the Objective Evaluation Approach to a hypothetical student who requires modification of fifth grade math material. 15. Describe the components of measurable and objective IEP goals/objectives.

Chapter Six: Task and Situation Analysis Fill in the Blank: 1. Content areas of curriculum that present specific concepts at certain grade levels is called the __________ of the curriculum. 2. The hierarchy of skills that are needed to master a specific concept is called the ____________ of curriculum. 3. Task analysis can serve as both a ____________ and a ____________. 4. When used as an assessment tool, task analysis can function as ____________ assessment and _________________ assessment. 5. Ordering the steps in a task analysis from first to last is called ________________. 6. Ordering the steps in a task analysis from last to first is called ________________. 7. When implementing a task analysis, subtasks that are not learned at proficiency level may be designated as ____________________________. 8. When applying task analyses to students with physical disabilities, it is important to distinguish whether training needs should be focused on __________________ or _______________________________. 9. A prompting procedure that involves varying assistance throughout a task is called _____________________________. 10. A prompting procedure that begins with a verbal cue, followed by a task direction and then wait time is called _____________________________. 11. A prompting procedure that employs a gradual move from immediate to delayed prompting is called _______________________________. 12. Assistance can be augmented with a strategy called ______________. 13. Removing levels of support and other cues in a gradual manner is called ___________. 14. Assessments that are used to examine situations are called ______________________. 15. The seven levels of communication in Rowland’s Communication Matrix are: 1) ______________, 2) __________________, 3) ______________, 4) _______________, 5) ___________________, 6) ____________________, and 7) ___________________.

Short Answer: 1. How would a teacher employ task analysis as a process and as a product? 2. Develop a task analysis that outlines the steps in teaching subtraction of single digits from double digits using forward chaining. 3. Develop a task analysis that outlines the steps in teaching shoe tying using backward chaining. 4. Why must teachers be careful in creating task analyses that use typical developmental sequences as guides? 5. For a student with severe cerebral palsy whose speech is not clearly intelligible but who performs on grade level in academic core subjects, describe several interventions for modifying that student’s response and performance method. 6. Describe levels of prompting and explain how you would employ graduated guidance with a student with multiple disabilities who is learning to fold a letter and insert it into an envelope. 7. Why is it important for teachers to employ “wait time” with students who have physical or multiple disabilities? 8. How would you employ the strategy of shaping to support a student who is learning to form alphabet letters? 9. Using the ecological inventory approach, develop the content for a student whose family wants him to perform the chore at home of feeding the family dog. 10. Discuss the four major reasons why people communicate (according to Rowland). How have you seen these reasons performed in your classroom? 11. How can teachers use a social networks approach to broaden student social and communication interactions? 12. How can task analysis be used to prepare students with physical disabilities to learn and practice elf-care routines? 13. Explain the strategy of partial participation. Why is partial participation an important strategy to employ with students who have severe physical or multiple disabilities? 14. How can graphic organizers to assist students to analyze bodies of information? 15. Create a task analysis for teaching a student to obtain materials from a backpack located on the back of her wheelchair.

Chapter Seven: Assistive Technology Fill in the Blank: 1. Any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially or off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability is knows as ___________________. 2. The process to determine which product or products might work for an individual student is called ________________. 3. AT can be included in the IEP document in one of three ways: 1) _________________, 2) ____________________, or 3) ______________________ 4. Positioning that supports proximal stability is necessary in order to achieve ___________________. 5. The _________ serves as the basis for head and trunk control. 6. A student’s feet should be positioned to be ________________________________. 7. A leg separator that holds the knees apart if called an _________________. 8. ______________ is the ability to move from place to place independently. 9. Motorized wheelchairs are also called ____________ wheelchairs. 10. Other than wheelchairs, three examples of mobility aids are 1) ________, 2) _________, and 3) ___________. 11. Object modification can be achieved through: 1) ________________, 2) _____________, 3) ______________________, 4) ____________________, and 5) _________________. 12. Three examples of object stabilization are: 1) _________________, 2) ______________, and 3) _____________. 13. Three examples of boundary creation are: 1) _________________, 2) _______________, and 3) _____________________. 14. Three examples of grasping aids are: 1) ___________________, 2) ____________________________________, and 3) __________________________. 15. Assistive technology devices that allow individuals to control their environments are called _______________________________.

Short Answer: 1. How is assistive technology defined in federal education legislation? 2. How should educational team members consider the need for assistive technology? 3. Explain how positioning affects muscle tone, muscle control, and posture. 4. Why and how often should a child’s position be changed frequently? 5. What positioning and support strategies would you employ for a student with severe multiple disabilities and cerebral palsy who has minimal head and trunk control? 6. What are the consequences of inadequate seating? 7. Describe three strategies for implementing safe transfers of students with physical disabilities. 8. Why is self-directed mobility important for individuals with physical disabilities? 9. Moving to power mobility, while liberating for users, may be negatively perceived by other family members. Explain this dynamic. 10. Discuss how you would assist a student with a physical disability to store school supplies on his wheelchair. 11. Describe two work surface modifications that support functional hand use. 12. Discuss the technology of robotic and virtual for enhancing interaction possibilities for persons with severe physical disabilities. 13. Discuss at least three important considerations for selecting an appropriate switch. 14. How can assistive technology be used for persons with hearing loss? 15. How can animals function as assistive technology partners to persons with disabilities?

Chapter Eight: Augmentative and Alternative Communication Fill in the Blank: 1. _______________ refers to a compilation of methods and technologies that are used to supplement spoken communication for individuals who have limited speech. 2. Communicative _______________ refers to the intent or reason for communication. 3. _______________ communication consists of the behaviors, basic gestures, expressions, and/or object manipulations used to intentionally communicate with another person. 4. _______________ communication consists of the behaviors, basic gestures, expressions, and/or object manipulations used to intentionally communicate with another person. 5. _______________ are concrete, natural nonsymbolic motions to give receptive information to the student and can also be used as a form of expressive communication. 6. ________________ are objects that are placed into the student’s hand to provide receptive communication. 7. _______________ communication includes such forms as gestures, body language, body movement, facial expressions, vocalizations, speech, and sign language. 8. _______________ communication refers to the use of any device or item that individuals may use beyond their bodies to communicate to another person. 9. _______________ refers to the presentation of the symbol, picture, or word choice (by highlighting each choice with a light or sound) in a sequential pattern and the student needs to activate a switch to stop the light (or sound) at the desired choice. 10. Three main scanning patterns are 1) __________________, 2) __________________, and 3) _________________________. 11. When objects or three-dimensional items are used for communication, they are often referred to as _____________.1 12. ______________ uses multiple meanings assigned to each symbol, and a word or message is constructed by selecting a short sequence of symbols. 13. A ____________ vocabulary consists of those words or phrases that are commonly used across activities while the specific content vocabulary is dependent upon that specific task. 14. ______________ procedure is a naturalistic approach to teaching communication that emphasizes responding to student’s communication while using models to elaborate communication, using communication in social interactions, and providing functional consequences.

15. ______________ strategies are used to create communicative opportunities for student to initiate and use their communication system and are part of the EMT procedure. Short Answer: 1. How can a teacher assist students to move from early noncommunictive behavior to nonsymbolic communication? 2. Why is it possible to overlook/recognize nonsymbolic communication? 3. Describe several forms of nonsymbolic communication that can be paired with speech to promote communication for students with disabilities. 4. Compare and contract unaided and aided communication. 5. How could you create an ETRAN to assist a student to select letters of the alphabet using eye gaze? 6. Under what circumstances might you employ row-column scanning instead of liner scanning? 7. What is the difference between a fixed display and a dynamic display? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? 8. Symbols can be organized on a communication display in a variety of ways. Describe symbol arrangement by activity format, category-based format, and language-development based format. 9. Explain the Core Milieu Procedures of the Enhanced Milieu Teaching procedure and give an example with each. 10. What is PECS? Include the different phases in your description. 11. Explain a breakdown strategy. 12. What does a teacher need to consider about the physical aspects of displaying symbols? 13. Describe 4 different types of symbol organizations that may be on the display of the AAC system. 14. Explain how vocabulary content should be selected. 15. Give an example of how to teach choice making.

Chapter Nine: Feeding and Swallowing Fill in the Blank: 1. _____________ is a functional process which involves a variety of factors in the child’s environment; caregiver-child interactions; integrity of the child’s medical, developmental, sensorimotor, neuromotor, and cognitive status; feeding techniques/procedures; feeding utensils; positioning needs; swallowing; and the interaction of swallowing variables with respiratory and gastrointestinal factors; nutritional requirements; and specific oral and pharyngeal activity. 2. _____________ is a complex series of finely timed motor acts that transport material from the oral mechanism through the pharynx and esophagus to the stomach. 3. ______________ is entrance of material into the trachea below the level of the true vocal folds.

4. Four physical conditions that may be associated with feeding and swallowing problems are: 1) __________________, 2) _____________________, 3) ___________________, and 4) _______________________________. 5. Touching the outside of an infant’s mouth causes the head to turn in the direction of the stimulation and the mouth to open. This food-seeking movement is called the ___________________. 6. When infants rhythmically open and close their lower jars when something touches the biting surface of their gums, they are displaying the _____________________________. 7. The _________________ is a survival response that is present throughout life. 8. Early infant sucking turns evolves into a more sophisticated pattern called ____________, in which the infant moves the chin away from the chest and the mouth develops a larger range of movement. 9. The chewing process that begins with a combination of up-and-down jaw movements with up-and-down tongue movement is characterized by a movement called ___________. 10. By the time a child is two years old s/he is able to use controlled, ___________________ to break up solid foods. 11. Atypical oral movement patterns in children with neuromotor disabilities include the following: 1) _________________, 2) _________________, and 3) ________________.

12. Children who exhibit jaw thrusting with retraction, check/lip retraction, and tongue retraction develop a compensatory oral behavior called ____________________. 13. Never use a _________ spoon with children who have a strong bite reflex. 14. If a child is not yet ready for drinking from an open cup, a _____________ cup may provide the help the child needs to control the amount of liquid. 15. Thin liquids and thin pureed foods can be ____________ to make them easier to hold in the mouth and swallow. Short Answer: 1. Discuss the relationship between feeding and swallowing activities and nutrition, dental care, and communication. 2. Discuss the relationship between feeding and swallowing activities and personal-social, perceptual, and sensorimotor development. 3. Describe the pattern of feeding in which early infant sucking is augmented by suckling. 4. Describe the changes in movement and oral structures that take place inside the infant’s mouth when spoon feeding is introduced. 5. Describe the changes in oral movement patterns as the infant acquires the ability to handle solid food. 6. Describe the characteristics of typical respiratory development. 7. Explain how tongue retraction interferes with the ability to handle liquids, pureed foods, and solids. 8. Explain how atypical postural control and movements have an impact on respiratory function. 9. Describe questions that should be asked to conduct a comprehensive feeding/swallowing evaluation. 10. Why is toothbrushing important to feeding? 11. Describe the strategies of positioning on a wedge or in a car seat for infants with feeding/swallowing dysfunction. 12. Describe the strategies of positioning in a highchair, and adapted chair, and a wheelchair for older children with feeding/swallowing dysfunction.

13. Describe preparation of the oral mechanism for feeding. 14. Describe the steps in oral control from the side. 15. Describe the steps in oral control from the front.

Chapter Ten: Adaptations for Personal Independence Fill in the Blank: 1. _____________ skills cover a broad range of skills including self-care skills and home management skills. 2. One type of assessment aimed at determining a student’s performance capability is a _______________. 3. The process of breaking a skill down into small steps is known as a ______________. 4. ______________ are materials and instructions that are presented to a student to encourage the correct performance of a behavior when the naturally occurring cues are not sufficient to produce correct behavior. 5. When using a ____________, the steps of the task analysis are visually presented through pictures or auditorally. 6. Hands should be washed for ___________ seconds. 7. A ___________ strategy involves washing only the area that is dirty. 8. A ___________ strategy involves washing the entire area by dividing up the areas to be washed. 9. A ___________ program uses scheduled times for the student to go to the bathroom, based on student request, presence of student cues, and data taken on toileting times. 10. When a student is unable to achieve proper nutrition by ingesting food orally, a tube may be inserted in the student’s stomach or intestines through which proper nutritional feedings can be given and this is known as __________________. 11. In a ___________ procedure a tube is gently inserted into the urethra or stoma (not using sterile technique) and the catheter is advanced into the bladder and then removed when urine has been released. 12. The ____________ is a condom-like device with a tube on the end that allows the urine to drain into a leg bag. 13. An artificial opening into the large intestine that allows feces to exit is known as a ______________. 14. ____________ steps are those steps in which the student could injure himself or herself by making a quick, jerking, or incorrect movement.

15. If performing a time-limited step, the teacher should provide ____________ (keeping adult hands within an inch of the student’s hands). Short Answer: 1. How would you make a trip training schedule? 2. Provide an example of a discrepancy analysis. 3. What educational implications are there for teaching a student to perform their own health care procedures? 4. Discuss why handwashing is an important self-care skill. How can teachers support young children with physical disabilities to wash their hands adequately and appropriately? 5. Describe three methods for toothbrushing. 6. Describe how you would teach a child to blow his/her nose. 7. Explain how you would teach face washing to a student with a physical disability. 8. Explain how to effectively teach menstrual care to students with intellectual disabilities. 9. Describe the trip training method for toilet training. 10. Why is it important for students to perform their own health care procedures? If they are unable to perform entire procedures independently, how can the teacher support maximal participation? 11. Describe four adapted dressing devices. 12. How can clothing be adapted for students with physical disabilities who have limited coordination or hand use? 13. What should be taken into consideration when teaching a student who has physical disabilities to use cooking utensils? 14. Make a sketch of the optimal kitchen for use by an adult wheelchair user. Include modifications of counter height, storage, and appliance use. 15. What is an environmental control unit?

Chapter 11: Adaptations in Physical Education, Leisure Education, and Recreation Fill in the Blank: 1. _________________ is an area of sports and recreation instruction for children with disabilities. 2. The three crucial components of an adapted physical education program plan are: 1) __________________, 2) ___________________, and 3) _____________________. 3. Evaluating student performance through real-life situations is referred to as _______________ assessment. 4. Four ways to apply authentic assessments is through the use of: 1) ______________, 2) ________________, 3) _________________, and 4) ___________________. 5. The __________________ method focuses on teaching skills needed sequentially and then putting them together progressively until the whole sequence is attained. 6. Applying slight accommodations to general educational curriculum is called ______________________. 7. Embedding individual IEP goals into the general education curriculum is called ____________________. 8. Activities separately selected and adapted for the student with a disability is called _____________. 9. Comprehensive leisure and recreation programs include the following four major components: 1) ___________________, 2) __________________, 3) _____________, and 4) ______________________. 10. Three suggestions for planning crafts projects for early adolescents are: 1) ___________, 2) ___________________, and 3) _________________. 11. Three ways that teachers can teach students about collectibles are: 1) _______________, 2) _____________________, and 3) _________________. 12. Leisure time computer use includes: 1) ________, 2) ____________, 3) _____________, 4) _________________, 5) _______________, and 6) __________________. 13. Therapeutic horseback riding for persons with disabilities is also called ______________. 14. Four considerations for travel for persons with physical disabilities include the following: 1) ___________________, 2) ______________________, 3) ____________________, and 4) ___________________________.

15. ________________ has been a catalyst in wheelchair sports and has become a featured aspect of marathons, track-and-field events, and other athletic affairs. Short Answer: 1. How does recreation differ from adapted physical education (APE)? How does the concept of leisure relate to recreation? 2. Why is leisure important for personal satisfaction and lifestyle of persons with physical or multiple disabilities? 3. Define a physically educated person. 4. Describe a successful physical education program for individuals with disabilities. 5. What are factors to consider when planning for adaptations of physical activities? 6. Describe guidelines for designing curriculum plans for an adapted physical education program. What components might be included in a yearlong instructional strategy using the progressive parts method of planning? 7. Describe at least six strategies for implementing a safe adapted physical education program. 8. List five traditional and five nontraditional categories of aspects of leisure. 9. How might crafts activities be incorporated into classroom educational programs? 10. What suggestions would you consider for planning crafts projects for young children? 11. How can teachers adapt cards and card games for students who cannot physically manipulate cards? 12. Discuss safety considerations for planning robotic projects. 13. How would you plan an outing to a state or national park for students with physical disabilities? 14. What are the benefits of therapeutic horseback riding for persons with disabilities? Describe necessary adaptive equipment used in a hippotherapy program. 15. Discuss how you would plan an aquatics program for students with physical disabilities.

Chapter Twelve: Self-Determination and Education for Transition Fill in the Blank: 1. Three major areas of a comprehensive curriculum that are based in transition planning are: 1) _____________________, 2) ___________________, and 3) _____________________. 2. Four characteristics of self-determined people are: 1) ________________, 2) ________________, 3) ________________, and 4) ____________________. 3. The implementation of Framing a Future involves the following four steps: 1) _________________________, 2) ___________________, 3) __________________, and 4) _____________________. 4. Barriers to exercising choice include: 1) ____________________, 2) _______________, 3) ______________________, and 4) __________________. 5. Components of a model designed to improve post-school success for students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities are: 1) _______________, 2) ______________, 3) _______________, and 4) _________________. 6. Brolin’s program for career development is called ____________________________. 7. Brolin’s four stages of career development are: 1) _____________, 2) ____________, 3) ___________________, and 4) _____________________. 8. The following components are integrated within Brolin’s stages of career development: 1) _________________, 2) ______________________, and 3) ____________________. 9. Students should be encouraged to explore jobs: 1) _____________________________, 2) __________________________________, and 3) ___________________________. 10. _______________ employment is working full-time or part-time in any competitive labor market with or without any support person. 11. _________________ employment is an appropriate option for individuals who require ongoing assistance to gain and maintain employment status. 12. Three strategies identified by Powers and Sowers that comprise critical components of successful vocational preparation programs include: 1) __________________________, 2) _____________________________, and 3) _________________________________. 13. Two ways that job tasks can be adapted or modified for students with physical disabilities are: 1) ______________________________________________________________ and 2) _____________________________________________________________________.

14. The federally-mandated document that supports transition and must be developed for students with special needs by age 16 is called the __________________________. 15. _________________ is one of the most effective models for occupational placement and follow-up for persons with severe disabilities. Short Answer: 1. Define transition services. Why might students with physical or multiple disabilities additional challenges in meeting life demands? 2. Why is self-determination a desirable characteristic for persons with disabilities? 3. How would you evaluate whether your students are self-determined? 4. Describe the content of educational programs for students that include components of self-determination. 5. How would you use Framing a Future to create an individualized program of life planning for a student with a physical disability in your classroom? 6. Why are physical self-reliance and self-management critical components of successful adult outcomes for persons with physical disabilities? 7. Discuss how you would provide feedback to students to help them establish valid selfevaluation. 8. Describe classroom activities that you could implement to support career awareness for students with physical or multiple disabilities. 9. Describe classroom activities that you could implement to support career exploration for students with physical or multiple disabilities. 10. Describe classroom activities that you could implement to support career placement/follow-up and continuing education for students with physical or multiple disabilities. 11. Discuss four suggestions for preparing students for successful job placement and maintenance. 12. Why is it important for individuals with physical disabilities to learn how to ask for assistance on the job site? 13. Why is training in community settings an important job preparation strategy for students with physical or multiple disabilities?

14. How can a teacher adapt and modify job tasks to make them more achievable for students with physical disabilities? 15. How can parents be involved in the vocational preparation of their children?

Chapter Thirteen: Reading Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. Four examples of functional effects that can affect student performance are: 1) ____________________, 2) ______________________, 3) __________________, and 4) _________________. 2. Four examples of psychosocial and environmental factors that can affect student performance are: 1) _________________, 2)___________________, 3) ______________, and 3) _________________. 3. The ________________ is one method of assisting students to not lose their place on the line when reading. 4. The ________________ refers to the most accurate and consistent way the student can respond. 5. _________________ refers to the reading abilities of children who are not yet conventionally literate. 6. _________________ is the ability of the child to understand that print, not pictures, carry meaning and letters on the page have meaning and match the words being spoken. 7. _________________ is the ability to identify same and different letters. 8. _________________ refers to the ability to discriminate, identify, and manipulate individual sounds into spoken words. 9. _________________ is the ability to make a new word by adding a phoneme. 10. ________________ is any type of movement that is easy for the student to make which the students engages in simultaneously with each step of the decoding strategy. 11. A ______________ is a list of alternative choices provided to the student, either orally or in writing, which are designed to evaluate the student’s acquisition of the targeted material and help identify error patterns. 12. A ______________ has both symbols and print together and is used for reference for students who do not recall the word. 13. Reading fluency can be classified into three levels: 1) ________________, 2) ________________, and 3) _________________. 14. STORE is a mnemonic strategy to help with comprehension and it stands for _________________________________________________________________.

15. ________________ is the ability to discern meaning conveyed through images such as photos, pictorial and simple graphic symbols and signs and video. Short Answer: 1. What is the Physical and Health Disabilities Performance Model? Describe the components of this model. 2. How can books be adapted to make them more accessible for some students with physical disabilities? 3. Provide three examples of how AAC can be used to promote reading. 4. What are the characteristics of more advanced AAC systems that promote literacy? 5. Give an example of a reliable means of response (RMR) and how you know this is the best form of response for a particular student. 6. Once a reliable means of response is established, how can Clay’s (1993) reading tasks be applied to assist in assessing literacy skills? 7. Describe the seven stages of emergent literacy skills. How can these skills be modified for a student with physical disabilities? 8. Give four guidelines that should be followed when teaching basic decoding skills. 9. What is book and print awareness and why are they important components of emergent literacy? 10. Describe how you would use a weekly online newsletter such as News 2 U to promote reading for students who use AAC. 11. Give four examples of phonemic awareness activities. 12. The four ways that students generally read word are automatic word recognition, analogizing, prediction, and decoding. Describe a classroom activity that could be used to implement two of these approaches. 13. Describe guidelines for evaluating effective phonics programs. 14. What is the Nonverbal Reading Approach? Include its component parts in your description. 15. Provide examples of two reading fluency approaches.

Chapter Fourteen: Writing Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. Often students using AAC have difficulties with the syntax of language, such as _______________, ________________, and __________________. 2. A commercially available material that can be used to prevent paper or items from slipping is known as _____________. 3. Two popular programs that provide support to students who are having difficulty with handwriting are ________________ and ________________. 4. _____________ makes the computer ignore repeated keystrokes or slows down the repeat rate. 5. _____________ allows the student to press one key at a time, instead of having to press tow at a time (e.g., when using “shift”). 6. The three main categories of alternative input devices are 1) __________________, 2) _________________, and 3) __________________. 7. In __________________ the student speaks and the software converts that speech into words on the computer screen. 8. When students use an on-screen keyboard and scanning, letters may be arranged in a format that will allow quick selection of the most commonly used keys which is referred to having a _______________ keyboard layout. 9. A special type of printer that prints in Braille is known as a ________________. 10. Selection of a word-processing program should be based on _____________, ________________, and ______________. 11. ______________ programs provide a written and/or graphic outline to assist students in planning what they are going to write. 12. ______________ programs assist the students in starting stories, offer questions to evaluate what is written, and/or provide editing assistance. 13. An example of a software editing tool is __________________. 14. The five stages of spelling development are: 1) ______________, 2) _______________, 3) ________________, 4) _______________, and 5) _________________. 15. Three types of software that may increase writing fluency are: 1) _______________, 2) _________________ and 3) ________________.

Short Answer: 1. Describe four of the writing difficulties commonly experienced by students with physical or multiple disabilities. 2. Describe four writing tool and paper adaptations that may be used for some students with physical disabilities. 3. Explain why paper placement is an important writing consideration. 4. Discuss at least four principles that should be used in conjunction with any effective handwriting program. 5. Describe how handwriting Without Tears® and The Living Letters® Handwriting Program are especially useful for supporting handwriting for students with physical disabilities. 6. Describe how accessibility options such as filter keys or sticky keys can be used to improve computer access for writing for students with physical disabilities. 7. Describe how keyboards may be modified or emulated through keyboard alternatives to improve computer access for writing for students with physical disabilities. 8. Discuss the use of alternative input devices such as onscreen keyboards, touch windows, and speech recognition software facilitates computer access for students with physical disabilities. Discuss an example when each might be used in classroom activities. 9. Discuss three different types of keyboard layout options and when they might be used. 10. Why are word processing programs so useful for students with physical disabilities? Why is it important for students to learn keyboarding skills? 11. Discuss at least three writing strategies that may be used to address early writing skills. 12. Describe the five main stages in the process approach to writing and adaptations or assistive technology that may be used to address each of these stages for students with physical and health disabilities. 13. Not all students are able to develop skills writing through a process writing approach. How can teachers use direct instruction approach to explicitly teach writing skills? 14. Describe how the self-regulated writing approach is used to promote writing. 15. Discuss four strategies for spelling instruction.

Chapter Fifteen: Science and Social Studies Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. The use of ____________ is needed to provide personally relevant and authentic learning experiences for students. 2. When planning for effective instruction, the teachers will need to select the most effective strategies, based on the student’s need such as (give three examples) 1) ______________, 2) _______________, and 3) _______________. 3. A _____________ is a pictorial collection of ideas surrounding a target topic that serves to assess current knowledge and to activate prior knowledge. 4. K-W-L- H strategy stands for: ______________________________________________. 5. ____________ are various devices that help present content in a learner-friendly manner to help student identify, organize, comprehend and recall information such as providing models or study guides. 6. ____________ are designed to provide a framework for the upcoming material to assist student to effectively assimilate new information such as outlines, diagrams, or charts. 7. A ___________ is any technique or principle that helps students learn and complete tasks independently. 8. Two of the most common mnemonic strategies are 1) ______________ and 2) ________________. 9. _____________ assessment is conducted prior to an educational intervention and serves to identify prior knowledge of learners as well as topics that may require more emphasis. 10. A _____________ is a collection of the student’s work that portrays student progress and achievements. 11. The five stages that comprise the 5E model are: 1) ____________________, 2) ___________________, 3) ___________________, 4) ________________, and 5) ____________________. 12. ____________ involves the study of human beings, their interactions, their cultures and their contributions. 13. ____________ is the ability to analyze information and draw conclusions based on interpretation of the data as it pertains to different cultures and different times.

14. A ___________ curriculum is one in which topics are revisited at a much greater depth as the student progresses from elementary to middle to high school. 15. A ______________ assessment is cumulative and takes place at the end of a unit. Short Answer: 1. What is meant by an inquiry-emphasis in teaching? Why is the inquiry emphasis especially applicable for teaching science and social studies? 2. How are science and social studies considered to be lifelong connections? 3. Why is close collaboration needed between general and special education teachers? 4. Discuss how a teacher could use of specimens, objects, and artifacts to enhance science and social studies activities. 5. Describe four environmental arrangements that may help some students with physical disabilities access material. 6. Describe how science or social textbooks can be simplified for students with physical or multiple disabilities. 7. How can teachers facilitate textbook access by students with physical disabilities? 8. Develop a science or social studies lesson that uses semantic mapping to activate prior knowledge. How would you use the map to assess knowledge before and after the lesson? 9. Describe a visual display that you could create to help students with physical or multiple disabilities to categorize and identify important information in either a science or social studies instructional unit. 10. Provide three alternative experiences with science or social studies content that go beyond simple textbook and lecture to develop in-depth understanding of complex concepts as well as creating enjoyable experiences with the subject matter. 11. Explain the key elements of the inquiry process. Describe how the 5E model complements the inquiry process. 12. Discuss several adaptations needed in science for students with physical disabilities. 13. Compare and contrast the roles of content and process in social studies instruction. 14. How could you include the oral histories, object investigation, mixed media projects, and community service projects to enhance a social studies project for high school students who are enrolled in a American History class?

15. Discuss several adaptations needed in social studies for students with physical disabilities.

Chapter Sixteen: Mathematics Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. When teaching basic math skills, teachers can promote the active involvement of students through the use of a three-phase instructional process (graduated instructional sequence) of 1) _____________, 2) __________________, and 3) ________________. 2. _________________ instruction refers to systematic instruction of math that is teacher led and consists of several elements such as highly organized step by step presentation. 3. The purpose of _______________ is to modify thinking and behavior through the development of inner speech. 4. _______________ is the awareness and regulation of one’s thinking processes. 5. ________________ can be defined as any relationship in which a member of one set is exactly matched to a different member of a second set. 6. Learning to _______ count teaches children the names of the numbers and their order. 7. ____________ counting is counting item in succession and providing the correct number name. 8. The four main principles to counting that students need to learn in order to be effective counters are: 1) ______________, 2) __________________, 3) __________________, and 4) _________________. 9. Teaching numeral identification typically goes through a sequence of: 1) ____________, 2) _______________, and 3) _____________. 10. __________ is a dot notation methodology which uses a series of dots that are placed directly on the numerals. 11. The mnemonic “DRAW” stands for ______________________. 12. A _________________ algorithm avoids having to place numerals on top of tens, hundreds, or other columns. 13. A _________________ algorithm avoids regrouping by adding or subtracting a constant. 14. ______________________ is an example of an alternate money strategy. 15. Some students will benefit from having their own calendar or schedule for the day which is known as a ________________________.

Short Answer: 1. What are the five standards for content goals and the five standards process goals proposed by the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics? Why are content and process important aspects of mathematics instruction? 2. How can mathematics standards be modified for students with moderate to severe disabilities? 3. List three barriers to mathematics learning encountered by students with physical or multiple disabilities. 4. Describe four general principles or approaches to math instruction. 5. Give the four elements of explicit math instruction. 6. Why are songs or rhymes especially useful for teaching math concepts to students with disabilities? 7. How would you implement metacognitive strategy instruction in a middle school math class? 8. List four different adaptation categories for students with physical and multiple disabilities and provide instructional examples of each. 9. Develop a lesson that uses functional math curriculum for students in a community-based program at the high school level. 10. Describe three important beginning math skills. 11. Discuss some considerations on how to teach students numeral identification and adaptations that may be appropriate for some students with physical disabilities. 12. Why are approaches and strategies such as Touch Math, pattern dots, and math marks especially helpful for teaching computational skills to students with physical and multiple disabilities? 13. Explain what electronic worksheets and their importance for students with physical disabilities. Provide an example of an electronic worksheet. 14. Explain what an error analysis is and give five examples of computational error categories. 15. Describe guidelines for appropriate calculator instruction.

ANSWER KEY Chapter One: Impact and Implications of physical, Health, and Multiple Disabilities Fill in the Blank: 1. Disability issues were brought into federal politics through the efforts of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. 2. Three models for viewing disability are the: 1) medical model, 2) social model, and the 3) biopsychosocial model. 3. The World Health Organization (WHO) has attempted to classify functioning, disability, and health with a model called the ICF. 4. Previous terminology used by the WHO used the terms 1) impairment, 2) disability, and 3) handicap, which have been incorporated into the current ICF model or replaced. 5. The NDT Enablement model added the component of motor functions to the ICF model across the domains of: 1) system integrity/impairments, 2) effective/ineffective posture and movement, 3) individual functional activities/limitations, and 4) participation/participation restrictions. 6. Four federal disability categories that describe persons with physical, health, and multiple disabilities are: 1) orthopedic impairments, 2) health impairments, 3) multiple disabilities, and 4) traumatic brain injury. 7. Educational goals for students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities must correspond to their state standards for meeting general curriculum goals. 8. Content standards refer to what gets taught, the subject matter, the skills and knowledge, and the applications. 9. Curricular content for students with severe cognitive disabilities are aligned with alternate achievement standards. 10. A chronic health condition is a condition that lasts ≥ 12 months at the time of diagnosis and is likely to have a duration of ≥ 12 months. 11. Chronic illnesses include conditions such as diabetes, asthma, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease (others include HIV, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and kidney disease). 12. One way to enhance usability for all individuals is to employ the concept of universal design.

13. Students with physical or health impairments receive educational services in many ways, including; 1) general education classes, 2) itinerant services, 3) resource services, and 4) home or hospital schools. (other possibilities include distance education, special day programs, special sites. 14. Barriers to effective educational service delivery for students with physical, health, and multiple disabilities include: 1) architectural barriers, 2) tangible barriers, and 3) competing philosophies. 15. Teachers who work with student with physical and health disabilities must possess these specialized knowledge and skills: 1) physical and health monitoring; maintaining a healthy learning environment, 2) adapted and specialized assessment and evaluation, 3) specialized instructional strategies, and 4) disability-specific core curricula. (other possibilities include modifications and assistive technology and setting the affective and learning environment.

Chapter Two: Physical Disabilities Fill in the Blank: 1. Neuromotor impairments include conditions that originate in the central nervous system and affect the nerves and muscles. 2. Malformations of the brain, spinal cord, and/or vertebrae are collectively called neural tube defects, although they are commonly referred to as spina bifida. 3. The major types of neural tube defects are encephlocele, anencephaly, and spina bifida. 4. The most common type of neural tube defect is spina bifida, which can be further classified into the categories of spina bifida occulta, meningocele, and myelomeningocele. 5. Many individuals with myelomeningocele have accompanying hydrocephalus, which is characterized by head enlargement, brain abnormalities, and seizures. 6. Surgery to correct hydrocephalus involves placement of a plastic tube called a shunt, which is inserted into the ventricles of the brain to drain excess cerebral spinal fluid.

7. Headaches, dizziness, nausea, trouble staying awake, and other disturbances may be an indication of shunt malfunction in a person with spina bifida. 8. Head trauma acquired by external physical force in which there is disruption in brain structure or function is called traumatic brain injury (TBI). 9. Traumatic brain injury in which the brain slams against the inside of the skull in the front and then travels backwards and connects again the inside of the skull in the back is called a coup/contracoup injury. 10. Types of visual loss that can occur with TBI include cortical visual impairment, nystagmus, and diplopia. 11. Students who have had a TBI often experience swiftly changing emotional ups and downs known as emotional lability. 12. Three examples of disrupted executive functioning in persons with a TBI are: difficulty setting goals, planning activities, and monitoring one’s own behavior (answers may vary). 13. The most common form of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

14. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) occurs when there is absence of a protein called dystrophin. The gene for dystrophin production is located on the mother’sX chromosome, and is therefore known as a sex-linked disease. 15. Some students with DMD require severe spinal curvatures that require surgical stabilization called fusion.

Chapter Three: Cerebral Palsy Fill in the Blank: 1. Cerebral palsy is defined as: A static neurologic condition resulting from brain injury that results before cerebral development is complete. 2. Most instances of cerebral palsy occur during the prenatal period. 3. Cerebral palsy can be classified several ways, including: 1) area of brain damage, 2) type of movement disorder, 3) location of limb involvement, and 4) levels of severity. 4. Damage to the pyramidal tracts and cerebral cortex is associated with spastic cerebral palsy. 5. Damage to the extrapyramidal areas of the brain is associated with athetoid cerebral palsy. 6. Damage to the cerebellum is associated with ataxic cerebral palsy. 7. Many infants born with cerebral palsy have low tone, also known as hypotonia. 8. If a person has motor involvement in all limbs due to cerebral palsy, that person is said to have quadriplegia. 9. If a person has motor involvement on one half of the body due to cerebral palsy, that person is said to have hemiplegia. 10. Three conditions often associated with cerebral palsy are: 1) sensory impairments, 2) communication impairments, and 3) orthopedic deformities. (other responses include nutrition and feeding needs, cognitive deficits, learning disabilities, and seizures). 11. Persons with cerebral palsy may be treated with injections of Botulinum A toxin (Botox), into spastic muscles, which assists with functional walking and sitting. 12. Sometimes persons with cerebral palsy have a surgery called selective dorsal rhizotomy, in which nerve rootlets in the spinal cord are severed. 13. Complex communication can be facilitated for individuals with cerebral palsy through the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). 14. The emotional/social impact of cerebral palsy can be reduced through development of communication. 15. The feedback we receive relative to our position in space is called proprioception

Chapter Four: Health Impairments Fill in the Blank: 1. The number of individuals with health impairments in schools has risen dramatically due to: 1) improved survival rates and 2) environmental risk factors. 2. A major difference between physical disabilities and health impairments is visibility. 3. Asthma is the most common pulmonary disease of childhood. 4. Antigens are foreign substances that enter the lungs and cause an asthma attack. 5. The body responds to the presence of antigens by producing antibodies. 6. Asthma symptom control can be enhanced through the use of a peak flow monitor which is used to determine if breathing is normal and medication is working. 7. Diabetes occurs when carbohydrates, fats, and proteins cannot be appropriately metabolized into glucose because of reduced or absent insulin. 8. The most common form of childhood diabetes is Type 1 diabetes. 9. Type 2 diabetes is on the rise in the pediatric and adolescent population due to lifestyle changes such as lack of exercise and obesity. 10. Too little insulin can lead to a condition called hyperglycemia and too little glucose can lead to a condition called hypoglycemia. 11. Cystic fibrosis is the most common hereditary and progressive disease among Caucasians. 12. In addition to the lungs, cystic fibrosis can affect the 1) liver, 2) pancreas, and 3) kidneys. (other responses include testicles and intestines). 13. The STORCH infections stand for Syphilis, Toxoplasmosis, Other, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes. 14. The best preventative measure against infectious disease is proper handwashing. 15. Developing an Individualized Health Care Plan (IHCP) is considered best practices for students with specialized health care needs.

Chapter Five: Curriculum and Individualized Educational Planning Fill in the Blank: 1. Access to curriculum goes beyond exposure to subject area content in that is also means fostering academic progress in the general curriculum. 2. The process of agreement, overlap, or intersection between standards, instruction, and assessments is known as alignment. 3. A modification to the delivery of instruction or method of student performance that does not change the grade level content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum is called accommodation. 4. Examples of environmental accommodation could include: 1) ramps, 2) accessible classroom locations, and 3) furniture that meets unique seating/positioning needs. 5. Examples of physical/sensory accommodations could include: 1) mobility aids, 2) adaptive equipment to enhance learning (pencil grips, book holders, etc., and 3) assistive technology such as AAC. 6. Examples of health-related accommodations could include: 1) Individualized Health Care Plan in place, 2) Universal precautions followed, and 3) modified daily schedules. 7. Examples of curricular/instructional accommodations could include: 1) information presented in multiple formats, 2) instruction is broken down into steps (task analysis), and 3) assignment length is reduced. 8. Examples of behavioral accommodations could include: 1) consistent, predictable schedule, 2) teachers inform students of behavioral expectations, and 3) praise and reinforcement is consistent and common. 9. The general education curriculum should be used as a starting point in educational planning. 10. The general education curriculum include: 1) core academic subjects/courses, 2) electives, and 3) basic skills. 11. A curriculum modification is made when the specific subject matter is altered or the performance level expected of students is changed. 12. The curricular modification approach of cognitive demand pertains to changing what students are asked to do with the curriculum content. 13. The four levels of depth of knowledge are: 1) recall, 2) skill/concept, 3) strategic thinking, and 4) extended thinking.

14. Essential knowledge and skill domains for personal self-reliance include the following components: 1) functional living skills, 2) physical task performance and physical management of assistive technologies, 3) fundamental and assisted communication, and 4) disability-related preparation for life transitions. 15. Assistive technology is an important avenue to physical task performance because it augments a sense of movement, circumvents a sense of movement, provides alternatives or adaptations for means of communication of information expressed and received, and/or provides a means of performance in learning.

Chapter Six: Task and Situation Analysis Fill in the Blank: 1. Content areas of curriculum that present specific concepts at certain grade levels is called the scope of the curriculum. 2. The hierarchy of skills that are needed to master a specific concept is called the sequence of curriculum. 3. Task analysis can serve as both a process and a product. 4. When used as an assessment tool, task analysis can function as formative assessment and summative assessment. 5. Ordering the steps in a task analysis from first to last is called forward chaining. 6. Ordering the steps in a task analysis from last to first is called backward chaining. 7. When implementing a task analysis, subtasks that are not learned at proficiency level may be designated as temporary target tasks. 8. When applying task analyses to students with physical disabilities, it is important to distinguish whether training needs should be focused on motor impairments or discrimination/cognitive impairments. 9. A prompting procedure that involves varying assistance throughout a task is called graduated guidance. 10. A prompting procedure that begins with a verbal cue, followed by a task direction and then wait time is called constant time delay. 11. A prompting procedure that employs a gradual move from immediate to delayed prompting is called progressive time delay. 12. Assistance can be augmented with a strategy called shaping. 13. Removing levels of support and other cues in a gradual manner is called fading. 14. Assessments that are used to examine situations are called situation analyses (or ecological inventories). 15. The seven levels of communication in Rowland’s Communication Matrix are: 1) preintentional behavior, 2) intentional behavior, 3) unconventional pre-symbolic, 4) conventional pre-symbolic, 5) concrete symbols, 6) abstract symbols, and 7) language.

Chapter Seven: Assistive Technology Fill in the Blank: 1. Any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially or off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability is knows as assistive technology. 2. The process to determine which product or products might work for an individual student is called feature match. 3. AT can be included in the IEP document in one of three ways: 1) as part of specially designed instruction, 2) as a related service, or 3) as a supplementary aid or service. 4. Positioning that supports proximal stability is necessary in order to achieve distal stability. 5. The pelvis serves as the basis for head and trunk control. 6. A student’s feet should be positioned to be level and supported on the floor or wheelchair foot pedals. 7. A leg separator that holds the knees apart if called an abductor. 8. Mobility is the ability to move from place to place independently. 9. Motorized wheelchairs are also called power/electric wheelchairs. 10. Other than wheelchairs, three examples of mobility aids are 1) walkers, 2) crutches. and 3) toys (Go-carts, tricycles). 11. Object modification can be achieved through: 1) object stabilization, 2) boundary creation, 3) grasping aids, 4) manipulation aids, and 5) switches. 12. Three examples of object stabilization are: 1) clamping the base of items to the surface, 2) using masking tape or Velcro®, and 3) using suction cups. 13. Three examples of boundary creation are: 1) creating tracks to confine items, 2) placing items inside boxes, trays, or other compartments, and 3) placing an edge on the wheelchair lap tray. 14. Three examples of grasping aids are: 1) using a cuff, 2) placing a magnet in the palm of a glove for picking up metal objects, and 3) enlarging items to make them easier to grasp. 15. Assistive technology devices that allow individuals to control their environments are called electronic aids to daily living (EADLs).

Chapter Eight: Augmentative and Alternative Communication Fill in the Blank: 1. Augmentative and alternative communication refers to a compilation of methods and technologies that are used to supplement spoken communication for individuals who have limited speech. 2. Communicative function refers to the intent or reason for communication. 3. Nonsymbolic communication consists of the behaviors, basic gestures, expressions, and/or object manipulations used to intentionally communicate with another person. 4. Touch cues communication consists of the behaviors, basic gestures, expressions, and/or object manipulations used to intentionally communicate with another person. 5. Gestures are concrete, natural nonsymbolic motions to give receptive information to the student and can also be used as a form of expressive communication. 6. Object cues are objects that are placed into the student’s hand to provide receptive communication. 7. Unaided communication includes such forms as gestures, body language, body movement, facial expressions, vocalizations, speech, and sign language. 8. Aided communication refers to the use of any device or item that individuals may use beyond their bodies to communicate to another person. 9. Automatic scanning refers to the presentation of the symbol, picture, or word choice (by highlighting each choice with a light or sound) in a sequential pattern and the student needs to activate a switch to stop the light (or sound) at the desired choice. 10. Three main scanning patterns are linear or circular scanning, row-column or group-item scanning, and directed scanning. 11. When objects or three-dimensional items are used for communication, they are often referred to as tangible symbols. 12. Semantic compaction or iconic encoding uses multiple meanings assigned to each symbol, and a word or message is constructed by selecting a short sequence of symbols. 13. A core vocabulary consists of those words or phrases that are commonly used across activities while the specific content vocabulary is dependent upon that specific task.

14. Enhanced Milieu Teaching procedure is a naturalistic approach to teaching communication that emphasizes responding to student’s communication while using models to elaborate communication, using communication in social interactions, and providing functional consequences. 15. Environmental Arrangement strategies are used to create communicative opportunities for student to initiate and use their communication system and are part of the EMT procedure.

Chapter Nine: Feeding and Swallowing Fill in the Blank: 1. Feeding is a functional process which involves a variety of factors in the child’s environment; caregiver-child interactions; integrity of the child’s medical, developmental, sensorimotor, neuromotor, and cognitive status; feeding techniques/procedures; feeding utensils; positioning needs; swallowing; and the interaction of swallowing variables with respiratory and gastrointestinal factors; nutritional requirements; and specific oral and pharyngeal activity. 2. Swallowing is a complex series of finely timed motor acts that transport material from the oral mechanism through the pharynx and esophagus to the stomach. 3. Aspiration is entrance of material into the trachea below the level of the true vocal folds. 4. Four physical conditions that may be associated with feeding and swallowing problems are: 1) prematurity, 2) upper airway anomalies, 3) congenital defects of the larynx, trachea, or esophagus, and 4) acquired anatomical injuries due to traumatic injury. (other responses are neurological conditions due to central nervous system diseases, peripheral nervous system diseases, neuromuscular diseases, or other neurologically-based problems). 5. Touching the outside of an infant’s mouth causes the head to turn in the direction of the stimulation and the mouth to open. This food-seeking movement is called the rooting reflex. 6. When infants rhythmically open and close their lower jars when something touches the biting surface of their gums, they are displaying the automatic phasic bite-release pattern. 7. The gag response is a survival response that is present throughout life. 8. Early infant sucking turns evolves into a more sophisticated pattern called suckling, in which the infant moves the chin away from the chest and the mouth develops a larger range of movement. 9. The chewing process that begins with a combination of up-and-down jaw movements with up-and-down tongue movement is characterized by a movement called munching. 10. By the time a child is two years old s/he is able to use controlled, rotary jaw movements to break up solid foods. 11. Atypical oral movement patterns in children with neuromotor disabilities include the following: 1) jaw thrusting with retraction, 2) cheek/lip retraction, and 3) tongue retraction.

12. Children who exhibit jaw thrusting with retraction, check/lip retraction, and tongue retraction develop a compensatory oral behavior called tongue thrusting. 13. Never use a plastic spoon with children who have a strong bite reflex. 14. If a child is not yet ready for drinking from an open cup, a soft spouted cup may provide the help the child needs to control the amount of liquid. 15. Thin liquids and thin pureed foods can be thickened to make them easier to hold in the mouth and swallow.

Chapter Ten: Adaptations for Personal Independence Fill in the Blank: 1. Personal management skills cover a broad range of skills including self-care skills and home management skills. 2. One type of assessment aimed at determining a student’s performance capability is a discrepancy analysis. 3. The process of breaking a skill down into small steps is known as a task analysis. 4. Antecedent prompts are materials and instructions that are presented to a student to encourage the correct performance of a behavior when the naturally occurring cues are not sufficient to produce correct behavior. 5. When using a self-operated prompting system, the steps of the task analysis are visually presented through pictures or auditorally. 6. Hands should be washed for 15 to 20 seconds. 7. A target strategy involves washing only the area that is dirty. 8. A quadrant strategy involves washing the entire area by dividing up the areas to be washed. 9. A trip training program uses scheduled times for the student to go to the bathroom, based on student request, presence of student cues, and data taken on toileting times. 10. When a student is unable to achieve proper nutrition by ingesting food orally, a tube may be inserted in the student’s stomach or intestines through which proper nutritional feedings can be given and this is known as tube feeding. 11. In a clean intermittent catheterization procedure a tube is gently inserted into the urethra or stoma (not using sterile technique) and the catheter is advanced into the bladder and then removed when urine has been released. 12. The external urinary catheter is a condom-like device with a tube on the end that allows the urine to drain into a leg bag. 13. An artificial opening into the large intestine that allows feces to exit is known as a colostomy. 14. Caution steps are those steps in which the student could injure himself or herself by making a quick, jerking, or incorrect movement.

15. If performing a time-limited step, the teacher should provide shadowing (keeping adult hands within an inch of the student’s hands).

Chapter Eleven: Adaptations in Physical Education, Leisure Education, and Recreation Fill in the Blank: 1. Adapted physical education is an area of sports and recreation instruction for children with disabilities. 2. The three crucial components of an adapted physical education program plan are: 1) collaboration, 2) assessment, and 3) Individual Educational Program (IEP) Planning. 3. Evaluating student performance through real-life situations is referred to as authentic assessment. 4. Four ways to apply authentic assessments is through the use of: 1) rubrics, 2) portfolios, 3) portfolio cards, and 4) ecological assessment. 5. The progressive parts method focuses on teaching skills needed sequentially and then putting them together progressively until the whole sequence is attained. 6. Applying slight accommodations to general educational curriculum is called multilevel curriculum selection. 7. Embedding individual IEP goals into the general education curriculum is called overlapping. 8. Activities separately selected and adapted for the student with a disability is called alternatives. 9. Comprehensive leisure and recreation programs include the following four major components: 1) leisure awareness, 2) social interaction, 3) leisure activity skills, and 4) leisure resources. 10. Three suggestions for planning crafts projects for early adolescents are: 1) striving for self-expression through crafts, 2) uses longer time frames for activities, especially intricate crafts, and 3) supporting manipulation. 11. Three ways that teachers can teach students about collectibles are: 1) establishing a focus area for collecting, 2) discussing the value and pleasure of collecting, and 3) choosing an area of collecting. 12. Leisure time computer use includes: 1) games, 2) sports, 3) board and family games, 4) simulator games, 5) storyteller and fantasy games, and 6) creative arts. 13. Therapeutic horseback riding for persons with disabilities is also called hippotherapy.

14. Four considerations for travel for persons with physical disabilities include the following: 1) general physical condition, 2) need for immunization, 3) prescriptions needs while traveling, and 4) how to get medical assistance. 15. Wheelchair racing has been a catalyst in wheelchair sports and has become a featured aspect of marathons, track-and-field events, and other athletic affairs.

Chapter Twelve: Self-Determination and Education for Transition Fill in the Blank: 1. Three major areas of a comprehensive curriculum that are based in transition planning are: 1) daily living skills, 2) personal-social skills, and 3) occupational guidance and preparation. 2. Four characteristics of self-determined people are: 1) awareness of personal preferences, interests, strengths, and limitations, 2) ability to differentiate between wants and needs, 3) ability to consider multiple options and to anticipate consequences for decisions, and 4) problem-solving skills. 3. The implementation of Framing a Future involves the following four steps: 1) establish sufficient context and background knowledge of the tool and of the student, 2) ensure full access in terms of concepts and response formats, 3) application of the tool, and 4) incorporating the results into the formal future planning process. 4. Barriers to exercising choice include: 1) reduced opportunities to practice choice making, 2) lack of instruction on how to make choices, 3) reduced or inconsistent ability of students to express preference, and 4) lack of teacher affirmation of student choices. 5. Components of a model designed to improve post-school success for students with physical, health, or multiple disabilities are: 1) decision making, 2) independent performance, 3) self-evaluation, and 4) adjustment. 6. Brolin’s program for career development is called Life Centered Career Education (LCCE). 7. Brolin’s four stages of career development are: 1) awareness, 2) exploration, 3) preparation, and 4) placement/follow-up and continuing education. 8. The following components are integrated within Brolin’s stages of career development: 1) daily living skills, 2) personal/-social skills, and 3) occupational guidance and preparation. 9. Students should be encouraged to explore jobs: 1) in natural situations in classrooms and at school, 2) through attention to people’s jobs through reading the newspapers, magazines, watching television, or going about their daily lives with families and friends, and 3) through visits to actual job sites. 10. Competitive employment is working full-time or part-time in any competitive labor market with or without any support person. 11. Supported employment is an appropriate option for individuals who require ongoing assistance to gain and maintain employment status.

12. Three strategies identified by Powers and Sowers that comprise critical components of successful vocational preparation programs include: 1) identify and train for jobs that reflect the local community job market, 2) train for work-related skills that are critical for job success, and 3) train students in community settings. 13. Two ways that job tasks can be adapted or modified for students with physical disabilities are: 1) redesign the task or task sequence to eliminate difficult steps and 2) identify alternative response strategies to those ordinarily used but were not effective. 14. The federally-mandated document that supports transition and must be developed for students with special needs by age 16 is called the Individual Transition Plan (ITP). 15. Supported employment is one of the most effective models for occupational placement and follow-up for persons with severe disabilities.

Chapter Thirteen: Reading Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. Four examples of functional effects that can affect student performance are: 1) atypical movements and motor ability, 2) sensory loss, communication impairments, 3) fatigue and lack of endurance, and 4) health factors (other responses include experiential deficits, or cognitive impairments and processing issues). 2. Four examples of psychosocial and environmental factors that can affect student performance are: 1) motivation, 2) self-concept, 3) self-advocacy, 4) behavioral and emotional functioning. (Other responses include social environment and social competence, physical and technological environments, and learning and attitudinal environments). 3. The color-line prompting strategy is one method of assisting students to not lose their place on the line when reading. 4. 4. The reliable means of response (RMR) refers to the most accurate and consistent way the student can respond. 5. 5. Emergent literacy refers to the reading abilities of children who are not yet conventionally literate. 6. 6. Print awareness is the ability of the child to understand that print, not pictures, carry meaning and letters on the page have meaning and match the words being spoken. 7. Orthographic awareness is the ability to identify same and different letters. 8. Phonemic awareness refers to the ability to discriminate, identify, and manipulate individual sounds into spoken words. 9. Phoneme addition is the ability to make a new word by adding a phoneme. 10. Motoric indicator is any type of movement that is easy for the student to make which the students engages in simultaneously with each step of the decoding strategy. 11. A diagnostic distractor array is a list of alternative choices provided to the student, either orally or in writing, which are designed to evaluate the student’s acquisition of the targeted material and help identify error patterns. 12. A symbol dictionary has both symbols and print together and is used for reference for students who do not recall the word. 13. Reading fluency can be classified into three levels: 1) nonaccurate, 2) accurate, and 3) automatic.

14. STORE is a mnemonic strategy to help with comprehension and it stands for Setting, Trouble, Order, Resolution, and End. 15. Visual literacy is the ability to discern meaning conveyed through images such as photos, pictorial and simple graphic symbols and signs and video.

Chapter Fourteen: Writing Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. Often students using AAC have difficulties with the syntax of language, such as incomplete syntax, improper work order, omission of articles and prepositions, omission of verb tenses and plurals. 2. A commercially available material that can be used to prevent paper or items from slipping is known as Dycem. 3. Two popular programs that provide support to students who are having difficulty with handwriting are: 1) Handwriting Without Tears and 2) The Living Letters Handwriting Program. 4. Filter keys makes the computer ignore repeated keystrokes or slows down the repeat rate. 5. Sticky keys allows the student to press one key at a time, instead of having to press tow at a time (e.g., when using “shift”). 6. The three main categories of alternative input devices are: 1) switches, 2) pointing devices, and 3) speech recognition. 7. In speech recognition software the student speaks and the software converts that speech into words on the computer screen. 8. When students use an on-screen keyboard and scanning, letters may be arranged in a format that will allow quick selection of the most commonly used keys which is referred to having a high frequency keyboard layout. 9. A special type of printer that prints in Braille is known as a Braille embosser. 10. Selection of a word-processing program should be based on ease of use, transparency to the user , and writing effectiveness. 11. Outliner software programs provide a written and/or graphic outline to assist students in planning what they are going to write. 12. Process tool software programs assist the students in starting stories, offer questions to evaluate what is written, and/or provide editing assistance. 13. An example of a software editing tool is spell-checking, thesaurus, grammar-checking. 14. The five stages of spelling development are: 1) precommunicative spelling, 2) semiphonetic spelling, 3) phonetic spelling, 4) transitional spelling, and 5) correct spelling.

15. Three types of software that may increase writing fluency are: 1) word prediction programs, 2) abbreviation expansion, and 3) speech recognition programs.

Chapter Fifteen: Science and Social Studies Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. The use of objects, specimens and/or artifacts is needed to provide personally relevant and authentic learning experiences for students. 2. When planning for effective instruction, the teachers will need to select the most effective strategies, based on the student’s need such as (any three of the following): 1) assessing and activating prior knowledge, 2) promoting motivation, 3) content enhancements, 4) learning strategies, 5) systematic instruction using prompts, and 6) instructional formats and 7) providing participation. 3. A Semantic map is a pictorial collection of ideas surrounding a target topic that serves to assess current knowledge and to activate prior knowledge. 4. K-W-L- H strategy stands for: What we know, What we want to learn, What we learned, How are we going to find out the answers. 5. Content enhancements are various devices that help present content in a learner-friendly manner to help student identify, organize, comprehend and recall information such as providing models or study guides. 6. Advanced organizers are designed to provide a framework for the upcoming material to assist student to effectively assimilate new information such as outlines, diagrams, or charts. 7. A learning strategy is any technique or principle that helps students learn and complete tasks independently. 8. Two of the most common mnemonic strategies are letter strategy and keyword strategy. 9. Front-end assessment is conducted prior to an educational intervention and serves to identify prior knowledge of learners as well as topics that may require more emphasis. 10. A portfolio is a collection of the student’s work that portrays student progress and achievements. 11. The five stages that comprise the 5E model are:1) Engage, 2) Explore, 3) Explain, 4) Elaborate, and 5) Evaluate. 12. Social studies involves the study of human beings, their interactions, their cultures and their contributions. 13. Historical literacy is the ability to analyze information and draw conclusions based on interpretation of the data as it pertains to different cultures and different times.

14. A spiral curriculum is one in which topics are revisited at a much greater depth as the student progresses from elementary to middle to high school. 15. A summative assessment is cumulative and takes place at the end of a unit.

Chapter Sixteen: Mathematics Instruction and Adaptations Fill in the Blank: 1. When teaching basic math skills, teachers can promote the active involvement of students through the use of a three-phase instructional process (graduated instructional sequence) of: 1) concrete instruction, 2) semiconcrete or representational instruction, and 3) abstract instruction. 2. Explict math instruction refers to systematic instruction of math that is teacher led and consists of several elements such as highly organized step by step presentation. 3. The purpose of self-instruction is to modify thinking and behavior through the development of inner speech. 4. Metacognition is the awareness and regulation of one’s thinking processes. 5. One-to-one correspondence can be defined as any relationship in which a member of one set is exactly matched to a different member of a second set. 6. Learning to rote count teaches children the names of the numbers and their order. 7. Rational counting is counting item in succession and providing the correct number name. 8. The four main principles to counting that students need to learn in order to be effective counters are: 1) one-to-one correspondence, 2) number order, 3) order of counting, and 4) last number counted is the total. 9. Teaching numeral identification typically goes through a sequence of: 1) teaching students to match numerals, 2) teaching the name of the numeral, and 3) teaching the student to match the numeral to the number of items that are counted. 10. Touch Math is a dot notation methodology which uses a series of dots that are placed directly on the numerals. 11. The mnemonic “DRAW” stands for Discover the sign, Read the problem, Answer or draw counting marks and check, and Write the answer. 12. A partial sum algorithm avoids having to place numerals on top of tens, hundreds, or other columns. 13. A changing-the-numbers subtraction algorithm avoids regrouping by adding or subtracting a constant. 14. Next-dollar strategy, money card strategy, or predetermined-amount strategy is an example of an alternate money strategy.

15. Some students will benefit from having their own calendar or schedule for the day which is known as a picture schedule, object calendar, or anticipation shelf.