Rachel Braude: Can the integration of biodiverse architecture make our cities more sustainable? by Rachel Braude

Can the integration of biodiverse architecture make our cities more sustainable? Rachel Braude | Architecture Dissertation | MA (Hons) Architecture | Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture | 2015

abstract

Urban culture has always maintained a strong engagement and interest in green space in the city. This has become particularly relevant in contemporary situations where sustainability discourses are commonplace. This dissertation explores utopian narratives and sustainability discourses, offering a contextual background to the attraction to nature. A need for the integration of green space into the urban fabric is revealed, with focus on the neglected spaces of the city. The term â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;biodiverse architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is coined within the study to describe the various methods of appropriating these spaces. Rotterdam and London are investigated as case studies and exemplars, distilling a key set of issues in relation to the greening of the city. Subsequently, structured interviews, with experts within the field, are undertaken in order to further evaluate these issues. Thus, a speculative, transformative strategy of a specific area in London is created, both in the spirit of utopian thinking, as well as a means of analysing the significant case study information. From this, the key opportunities and challenges of integrating biodiverse architecture and greening the city are examined. The study demonstrates the qualitative and quantitive benefits of an overlap between small-scale, progressive interventions and wider pro-ecological behaviour adaptation. The challenge of achieving the necessary coordination between all levels of the community is highlighted. It is concluded that perhaps the significance of biodiverse architecture does not lie in the design itself, but in the process of its establishment and the ways in which it is appreciated.

introduction

literature review

Historical Context 03

i The evolution of the human relationship with nature Utopian and ecotopian ii thoughts

Sustainability B

What is sustainability?

The quantifiable benefits of ii green space Hypothesis C

methodology

A Overview of the integration of 19 biodiverse architecture into the urban environment B Case study #1: Rotterdam 25 C

Case study #2: London

Transformative strategy D

conclusion

references

appendix 06

Interview with Michael Collins A

Interview with Tiago Torres-Campos

60 63

introduction

Contemporary urban environments are being rendered unsustainable as a result of climate change and the rapidly increasing urbanised population. The resulting demand for development is eliminating green space. This is diminishing the human relationship with nature and consequently weakening standards of living and social stability. It is becoming increasingly evident that cities must form a strategy to ensure that the ramifications of climate change are both mitigated and supported. This project will begin by looking at the initial formation of cities and the consequent development of the concept and meaning of the term ‘sustainability’. Through an analysis of historical utopian visions and ecotopian thoughts, possible actions for sustainable development will surface and the cruciality of our relationship with nature evidenced. A hypothesis will be proposed that there is potential to develop the ‘wasted’ or unused spaces in urban areas, in order to improve environmental biodiversity and the general sustainable qualities of the area. This will investigate the implementation of ‘biodiverse architecture,’ which in this case predominantly refers to living roofs and urban agricultural schemes. Whilst acknowledging that sustainable ecological systems cannot function in isolation, the methods required for integrating these concepts into urban fabrics will be analysed. Two case studies will be explored; the first will look at the citywide scale of Rotterdam, in which policies have been formed and similar concepts to those discussed have been widely applied. The second will be concerned with London, focusing on a series of small-scale interventions within the city. Through the investigation of these case studies, which will be concerned with a range of scales; from that of the city to the community, to the more immediate focus of the building; the implications of these systems will be best evidenced. Their ability to aid cities both qualitatively and quantitively will be demonstrated and the long term effects evaluated.

The explored strands of interest will be further clarified and reflected upon through the formation of a transformative strategy. This will be constructed with the assistance of third party, expert opinions. Based on Long Lane in London, the strategy will fully integrate biodiverse architecture into the concerned area. This will form a critical analysis, regarding Long Lane specifically, of how the assimilation of biodiverse architecture into the urban area can assist in the strive for urban sustainability and a strengthened coexistence with the natural world. Aspects of these conclusions will then be applied to the wider context of urban environments in a more general sense.

literature review

Within the literature review the contextual background to the issue of urban sustainability will be explored. Initially, this will focus on the evolution of the human relationship with nature. The presence of a nature narrative in contemporary cities and the qualitative benefits of green space will then be analysed through a study of utopianism. Subsequently, the development of the concept of sustainable development will be investigated alongside the measurable benefits of green space. This review will form a platform from which an integration of the natural world into the man-made environment will be studied more specifically.

Historical context

The evolution of the human relationship with nature At the heart of the sustainability discourse is the relationship between humans and the natural environment. The pertinence of this coexistence will be explored through a study of man’s sustained attraction to nature, the origins of urbanism and the progression of cities to their realisation today. Regardless of the densification of human habitation and the strong sense of the urban within cities, an evident attraction towards nature is maintained. This notion seems paradoxical due to the innate character of the urban environment, which tends to be both manufactured and inherently detached from nature. Arguably, this allure is a result of a nostalgia for romanticised arcadian imaginations.1 These visions describe nature as being “generous within limits,”2 considering the rural environment as “a symbol of stability and permanence in a ceaselessly changing world.”3 A harmonious relationship between humans and nature is depicted and has continued to be desired throughout history. This union is portrayed in Henry Thoreau’s ‘Walden,’ written in 1854, which critiques society, heralding a lifestyle of self-reliance and simplicity, attuned to the rhythms of natural ecosystems.4 Thoreau boasts of the benefits and wonder that nature offers, viewing it as a “sweet and beneficent society,”5 superior to that of human construct. He

states that “it is life near the bone where it is sweetest,”6 thus encouraging a yearning for a cohesion with nature.

Fig. 01: Development of the first city; The City of Ur.

This unity was evidenced in the conception of urbanism and agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago with the development of the first cities. Typically, these were of a compact nature, both in terms of scale and population size, due to the geographical constraints of the surrounding productive hinterland.7 Consequently, this led to a strong alliance between humans, nature and food production. However, industrialisation and the progression of transport systems changed the way in which urban areas emerged. Cities were emancipated from geographical limitations and were no longer reliant on their immediate surroundings, giving them the ability to grow to any shape or size.8 Carolyn Steel argues, in her studies into food and the city, that this unlimited growth and supposed freedom is in reality a hinderance, which has “distanced us from our most important relationship,”9 that between humans and nature. A narrative of nature is, nevertheless, present within contemporary cities. Nic Clear explains in ‘The Persistence of the Pastoral’ that nature has maintained an idealised, fictional image of “green and pleasant land”10 since the 18th century. This idyllic perception represents nature “as benign and morally superior to technology.”11 Consequently, it has been placed at the forefront of utopian visions, which attempt to suggest rectifications for the “evils of industrial capitalism.”12 These imaginations evidence the presence of nature’s discourse in the city, demonstrating an aspiration for a greater cohesion with the natural world.

Fig. 02: The emancipation of the city; The Growth of London 1840-1929.

Endnotes

1 Nic Clear, “The Persistence of the Pastoral,” Architectural Design, Volume 83, Issue 3 (May/June 2013): 88. 2

Lisa Garforth, “Green Utopias: Beyond Apocalypse, Progress, and Pastoral,” Utopian Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Winter 2005): 404.

Ibid., 405.

4 Henry David Thoreau, Walden (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1854), 244-245. 5

Ibid., 99.

Ibid., 244-245.

7 Michael Hough, Cities and Natural Processes (London: Routledge, 1995), 5. 8 Carolyn Steel, “How food shapes our cities,” TedGlobal 2009 video, 15:40, 2009, <https://www.ted.com/speakers/carolyn_steel> 9

Ibid.

Clear, “The Persistence of the Pastoral,” 88.

Ibid., 89.

Ibid.

Utopian and ecotopian thoughts The prevalence of nature within the contemporary urban discourse is further evidenced through the study of utopian schools of thought. The meaning of the term ‘utopia’ is understood to stem from the Greek ‘ou-topos’ meaning ‘no place’ and from ‘eu-topos’ meaning ‘good place’.1 Utopian thought, which was originally developed as a concept by Thomas More in 1516, is thus primarily concerned with envisaging an ideal society, free of practical constraints.2 Through the exploration of several historical utopian thoughts and their critiques on society, issues of contemporary relevance regarding nature and the city will be highlighted. Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’ is concerned with the depiction of a society which is ecologically responsible. He poses the question: “how can the problem of scarcity of means be solved and how can the good life be attained?”3 More advocates the development of a lifestyle that limits consumerist attributes, one which focuses on needs rather than ever increasing desires.4 The encouragement of a sustainably conscious social structure is demonstrated, which portrays food as a foundational ordering tool and places the concept of growing ones own at the forefront of importance.5 It is suggested that progression can be achieved by integrating the desired mindset into both urban planning and everyday behaviour.6 The influence of More’s views is clearly evidenced in subsequent utopian visions. Ebenezer Howard’s ‘Garden Cities of To-morrow’, written in 1898, is rooted in a similarly ecological position. Howard calls attention to issues of urbanisation; those migrating in numbers from the rural to the town. This relocation is thought to disrupt the ecological balance of nature.7 His utopian vision is, therefore, primarily concerned with blurring the boundary between the two; ”town and country must be married, and of this joyous union will spring new hope, a new life, a new civilization.”8 Howard, much like More, stresses the importance of thoroughly planned architectures, urban areas and social structures that promote the inclusion of green space and the environment. The rigorous nature of this planning denotes that in order for a bettered society to transpire, change must be implemented on a broad scale. He suggests that a town should continually ‘possess unity, symmetry, completeness, and the effort of growth should never be to destroy that unity, but to give it greater purpose.”9 The sociological benefits of the alliance with nature are some of the primary drivers of the Garden

City. Consequently, it is viewed that a high standard of living can be achieved, individual happiness bettered and the formation of a safe community realised.10 21st century utopian thinkers follow similar trajectories, subsequently coining the term ‘Ecotopia’ in response to the ecological issues that the contemporary world is faced with. With remarkable foresight, Ernest Callenbach’s 1929 ‘Ecotopia’ addresses today’s major ecological threats, aiming for the development of a “society that leaves nature unharmed, and ensures the lasting and physical well-being of humanity.”11 A foundational principle of a ‘stable-state concept’ is set out, in which a criteria is developed for testing all political and planning measures against; “what are the consequences for the natural environment, and do they lead to the fulfilment of an ecological balance for all living systems?”12 Callenbach dismisses the benefit of small-scale, gradual adaptations in the strive for ecological viability and alternatively insists that a revolutionary approach is essential.13 It is proposed that this will be achieved through a full transformation of social structures and behaviours to show primary concern for the environment and its ecosystems. Accordingly, Ecotopia advocates: waste reduction through recycling; a handson approach to food production; the consequent encouragement of a healthy lifestyle; education on these strategies; and the subdivision of cities into more manageable communities, with an abundance of green space being implemented.14 Murray Bookchin’s ecotopian visions, stemming from around the 1960s, build upon ideas established in Callenbach’s Ecotopia. Bookchin is critical of the environmentalist’s approach to the ecological crisis, suggesting that the intention for minor policy changes and technological adaptations will not be successful in achieving the required goal.15 It is insinuated that all ecological issues are essentially matters of a deeper social concern and consequently pro-ecological adaptation to human behaviour and thought is required. A lifestyle reform of moderation and reduced consumerism is advocated, in order to sustain the natural environment.16 He expresses a keen interest in the human scale and an individual relationship with the natural world, stating that the development of cities “has alienated the citizens from the natural world.”17 The importance of well thought out design is consequently highlighted, suggesting that man-made creations must exist in harmony with the natural environment, in order to achieve aesthetic satisfaction. In response to this divide from

nature, the benefits of education are again discussed, intending to strengthen the alliance through food growth and gardening.18 Bookchin describes this as an activity that “enriches the diversity in our everyday lives, sharpens our natural sensibilities to growth and decay, and attunes us to natural rhythms.”19 It is understood that the utopian way of thinking encourages the interrogation of societal developments. However, the inherent issue with utopian and ecotopian thoughts, as Steel highlights, lies in its name. ‘Ou-topos’; no place; implies the detachment of these idealised, imagined scenarios from reality, thus leading to an inevitably unachievable goal. Consequently, Steel questions the motivations for the evident interest in utopian thought.20 Marius de Geus argues in ‘Ecological Utopias,’ that the attraction lies in the perception that humanity can be designed and regulated. The strong visual dimension of utopian imaginations plays a vital role in this, allowing for the utopia to be conceptualised by all, while clearly demonstrating the severity of the issues dealt with and the consequent fictitious desires that emerge.21 De Geus, citing Marie Louise Berneri, suggests that there may be benefit to be gained through adopting the method of utopian thinking in the strive for an ecologically sustainable society:22

“Our age is an age of compromises, of half-measures, of the lesser evil…At a time when man is so concerned with what is practicable and capable of immediate realisation, it might be a salutary exercise to turn to men who have dreamt of Utopias, who have rejected everything which did not comply with their ideal of perfection”23 Marie Louise Berneri, Journey through Utopia (1987)

The above statement suggests that the concern, which Steel holds for the non-viable nature of utopian imaginations could be turned on its head, depicting these visions as allies of sustainable development. De Geus criticises ecologically concerned political agendas for leaving inadequate scope for thorough discussion. He therefore builds upon Berneri’s stance, suggesting that the appropriation of utopian thinking would establish alternative interpretation methods.24 A detachment from reality is in itself viewed as providing freedom of thought, allowing for unanticipated insights and perceptions of a sustainable society to be imagined.

De Geus contends that the most lucrative of sustainably concerned discussions will only be established “by an open debate between scientifically supported notions, critical social visions and utopiantinged fantasies.”25 As a consequence of the discussed benefits of this traditional way of thinking, the analytical framework mentioned in the introduction will later be undertaken in the form of a transformative strategy. This will allow for the issues raised throughout this project to be further explored and reflected upon, adopting De Geus’ crossdisciplinary approach. Through this method of analysis potential solutions can be portrayed in an accessible manner, exploiting the benefits of the visual nature of utopian imaginations. Utopian visions display pertinent concern and foresight with regard to today’s sustainable development discourse. The discursive strands and impacts of utopianism can be further explored through an analysis of the contemporary sustainably-focused narrative.

Endnotes Endnotes 1

Carolyn Steel, Hungry City: How food shapes our lives (London: Chatto & Windus, 2009), 291-292.

Ibid., 292.

3 Marius de Geus, Ecological Utopias: Envisioning the Sustainable Society (The Netherlands: International Books, 1999), 21.

Ibid., 70.

Steel, â&#x20AC;&#x153;How food shapes our cities.â&#x20AC;?

de Geus, Ecological Utopias, 217.

Ibid., 129.

Ibid., 130.

Ibid., 121.

Ibid., 133-135.

Ibid., 183.

Ibid., 173.

Ibid., 183-184.

Ibid., 187.

Ibid., 188, 200, 210.

Ibid., 203.

Ibid.,197, 217.

Ibid., 197.

Steel, Hungry City, 305-306.

de Geus, Ecological Utopias, 258-259.

Ibid., 247.

Marie Louise Berneri, Journey Through Utopia (London: Freedom Press, 1987), 1.

de Geus, Ecological Utopias, 254-255.

Ibid., 259.

Sustainability

What is sustainability? The sustainability discourse evidences the presence and importance of the nature narrative within the urban realm. This chapter will therefore discuss the contextual background and evolution of ‘sustainability’. Various perceptions of the concept and how it should be achieved will be explored. The chapter will conclude with a study into how sustainability is, in reality, being dealt with. The Oxford Dictionary defines the term ‘sustainable’ as “conserving an ecological balance by avoiding depletion of natural resources.”1 This is a contested concept, commonly misconstrued as only concerning issues of the environment. The scope of the term is, however, much broader and encompasses far greater issues. A global concern for sustainability was originally raised at the United Nations (UN) Conference in Stockholm in 1972. However, the Brundtland Report, published in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), has arguably had greater impact.2 It defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”3 It was here that these matters were first placed on the political agenda, suggesting that a legal framework should be used to support sustainable development. The report portrays this as being concurrently concerned with social, economic and ecological criteria, viewing them as part of a global integrated system connected by space and time.4 Werner Hediger contends, in his paper on sustainable development, that an inconsistency remains in the interpretation of the term sustainability and therefore there is difficulty in establishing what should be sustained and how it should be managed. He maintains that the situation has typically been dealt with through a narrow-minded approach, predominantly focusing on the ecological dimension and subsequently diminishing the attention given to other elements.5 Hediger highlights that approaches which tend to be preoccupied with the individual areas of concern compartmentalise the issues at hand and thus disrupt the true understanding of what is a complex system.6 This will not allow for sustainable development to successfully

occur, due to the interdependent nature of the “three pillars of sustainability - sustainable economy, sustainable environment, and social equity.”7 If one accepts the requirement for the interrelation of these elements, the question arises as to how we achieve such sustainable development. Contemporary green political thought demonstrates further discrepancies within this field of discussion. The environmentalists’ perspective is rooted in the belief that a managerial framework will be sufficient, whereas the ecologist takes the stance that fundamental alterations must be made to both our relationship with nature and our social and political ways of life.8 The latter point of view is deeply set in the belief that the essential issue lies in the concept of ‘limits to growth,’ an argument which is further reinforced through the Limits to Growth experiment undertaken by the Club of Rome in 1972.9 Issues of global concern were explored through a computer simulation, which altered the growth of variables such as population, pollution and resources in order to predict future scenarios. The experiment evidences that technological advancements may temporarily extend the limits, but ultimately the limits will always be reached.10 Subsequently the contrast between green and conventional political approaches is highlighted. The current social norm focuses on growth, expansion, consumerism and technological developments without limits, whilst ecological thinking contends the converse, viewing continuous growth as being unachievable due to the finite nature of the earth.11 The ecologist, Robert Goodland, similarly conceives that sustainability cannot be grown into, stating that; “we must save the remnants of the only environment we have and allow time for and invest in the regeneration of what we have already damaged.”12 The ecological approach to sustainable development is arguably well rooted in reality; in the universal condition of a finite planet. Consequently, it rightfully questions the economic, environmental and social frameworks which are feasible within this situation. Hence, this position calls for radical social reforms, which begin to coincide with the aforementioned ecotopian visions. The contemporary society; “a culture of maxima,”13 conceives happiness as being proportional to material wealth. As demonstrated, this lifestyle is unsustainable and consequently Bookchin’s ecotopian ideas of a state of moderation become pertinent to the ecological discourse. It is argued that if this culture were to be adopted, “by illusory standards of wealth”14 we may

seem worse off, although in reality the benefits reaped would be significant; “a higher standard of living, better food, healthier bodies, rewarding working…cleaner air, greater self-reliance…a safer world to live in.”15 The human relationship with the natural world again becomes a notable topic. It is contended that the detachment of the city from the productive hinterland leads to a lack of knowledge of ecological systems and consequently a lack of moral obligation and concern for the environment.16 Subsequently, barriers for achieving sustainable development are formed. The bioregionalist’s perspective holds that by reducing the distance between natural and human activities we become better attuned to natural processes. Through the adoption of this approach, the situation can arguably be improved. 17 This view can be applied to the case of production and consumption. By reducing the distance between the two processes, society naturally becomes increasingly aware of our dependency on the natural world and the resources required to sustain contemporary culture. As a result, it is thought that society’s attitude towards the planet would adapt to become more sustainably inclined. Acknowledging the theoretical perspectives of green political thinkers, the analysis returns to the Brundtland report. More specific urban applications in the form of policies and agreements are to be explored. The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992 was held in order to continue the discussion on sustainable development that was initiated in Stockholm. A number of agreements were realised, although Agenda 21 is of particular interest to the matters discussed within this study. Agenda 21 is conceived as being the initial action plan, acting as “a ‘blueprint’ for sustainable development.”18 It outlines key policies and is aimed at global, national and local scales. A series of sustainable development indicators, surrounding environmental, economic and social matters of concern were generated in order to assist in the establishment of policies at a more local scale.19 It is, however, contended that the UN shows predominant concern for sustainability at a global level and thus there is a lack of consideration for the physical characteristics of the urban environment.20 The Green Paper on the Urban Environment, published in 1990 by the European Commission in Brussels, responds to the Brundtland Report, sparking debate on this topic. It endorses the idea of a compact city, which advocates

dense development in order to preserve land and energy. An acknowledgement for the interrelation of environmental, economic and social concerns is demonstrated, while evidencing consideration for the city form.21 Similarly, the Working Group on Urban Design for Sustainability clearly demonstrates a successful connection between Agenda 21 and the physical characteristics of the urban environment. This is done through the model of a ‘Short Cycles City,’ which proposes the development of green networks within urban environments; “giving additional possibility for recreation and leisure as well as having an intentional ecological impact on the microclimate of the city and reducing the impacts of pollution.”22 The Brundtland Report and Agenda 21 have been especially resilient in informing contemporary sustainable narratives.23 The sustained desire for a closer relationship with nature and the qualitative significance of green space have been evidenced. Viewing the innate sensibility towards nature that is depicted in the study of utopianism alongside the need to improve the environmental and consumption characteristics of the city, the quantitive benefits of green space become significant.

Endnotes 1

“Sustainable,” accessed 07.03.15, <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ sustainable>.

Hildebrand Frey and Paul Yaneske, Visions of Sustainability: Cities and regions (Abingdon: Taylor & Francis, 2007), 7, 10-11.

Gro Harlem Brundtland and World Commission on Environment and Development, “Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission On Environment and Development” (Oxford: Oxford University, 1987).

Frey and Yaneske, Visions of Sustainability, 11.

5 Werner Hediger, “Sustainable development and social welfare,” Ecological Economics, Volume 32, Issue 3 (2000): 482-483. 6

Ibid., 482-484.

Frey and Yaneske, Visions of Sustainability, 35.

Andrew Dobson, Green Political Thought, 3rd ed. (London: Routledge, 2000), 64-65.

Ibid., 62-65.

Ibid.

Ibid., 15.

Robert Goodland, “The Concept of Environmental Sustainability,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 26, Annual Reviews (1995): 5.

M. Adil Kahn, “Sustainable Development: The Key Concepts, Issues and Implications” (paper presented at the International Sustainable Research Conference, Manchester, UK, 27-29 March, 1995), 67.

Dobson, Green Political Thought, 78.

Peter Bunyard, The Green Alternative, ed. Fern Morgan-Grenville (London: Methuen, 1987), 335.

Frey and Yaneske, Visions of Sustainability, 56.

Dobson, Green Political Thought, 101.

Frey and Yaneske, Visions of Sustainability, 12.

Ibid., 12-13.

Ibid., 34-35.

Ibid., 35.

Ibid.

John Drexhage and Deborah Murphy, “Sustainable Development From Brundtland to Rio 2012,” International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) (New York: United Nations Headquarters, September 2010), 6-7.

The quantifiable benefits of green space The integration of green spaces into the city is not purely qualitatively beneficial, but also measurably useful, giving the cohesion with nature pertinence within the environmental strand of sustainable development. These quantitative benefits, such as climate change mitigation; storm water attenuation; and increased biodiversity, will now be explored in further detail. The presence of vegetation in the city is thought to act as a mechanism for diminishing the ramifications of climate change.1 One of the ways that this is done is through the absorption and filtration of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gaseous pollutants. This in turn enhances the air and water quality within cities.2 CO2 emissions can similarly be reduced through integrating vegetation into the immediate vicinity of the built environment. The shading provided lowers the internal building temperature, thus diminishing the demand for artificial cooling.3 The urban heat island effect, which causes temperatures to increase as a result of heat being absorbed by building materials in the day and then being emitted at night, is similarly reduced by evapotranspiration.4 Additionally, the integration of green spaces can diminish the risk of flooding, due to the fact that storm water is retained by vegetation and the peak flow run-off rate is reduced.5 Moreover, the presence of vegetation within the urban area betters the quality of day to day life. The presence of vegetation reduces noise pollution and maintains and increases the levels of biodiversity. Birds and insects, and vegetation are interdependent on each other, therefore through increasing the amount of green space in a city, the capacity for specie diversity is strengthened.6 The innate human attraction to nature was explored through the utopian school of thought. This natural sensibility was grounded in reality through the investigation into the contemporary sustainable discourse. Accordingly, the benefits of green space with regard to environmental, economic and social aspects have been evidenced. The study will go on to further explore the significance of green space in the urban discourse and the ways in which it can be integrated into the urban realm. Through a continual shift between qualitative and quantitive viewpoints, an analysis of the effects of these implementation strategies will be undertaken.

Endnotes 1

Greater London Authority, “Living Roofs and Walls, Technical Report: Supporting London Plan Policy” (Greater London Authority, February 2008), 4.

Gary Grant, Green Roofs and Facades (Bracknell: IHS BRE Press, 2006), 37.

3 “Trees and Vegetation,” accessed 13.04.15, <http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/trees.htm> 4

Grant, Green Roofs and Facades, 31.

5 Dr. James R. Fazio, ed., “How Trees Can Retain Stormwater Runoff,” Tree City USA, Bulletin No. 55, Arbour Day Foundation, n.d., 1-3. 6

Helga Fassbinder, “City as Nature,” Urban Design, Issue 133 (Winter 2015): 32.

Hypothesis It is proposed that the unused spaces in urban environments hold the potential for biodiverse development. The project therefore sets out to explore the integration of ‘biodiverse architecture’ into these areas. Various methods of appropriating these spaces will be discussed, predominantly focusing on concepts of ‘Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes’ (CPULs); living roof strategies; and the application of urban agricultural initiatives, to areas other than simply the ground plane. The hypothesis adopts the ecologist’s perspective that technological solutions to sustainability will not suffice. It considers the interrelated nature of environmental, economic and social concerns. The focus lies on bettering the already existing urban spaces, in response to Robert Goodland’s previously discussed view that we must deal with the environment that we find ourselves in today “and invest in the regeneration of what we have already damaged.”1 Qualitative values of the introduction of biodiversity will be highlighted and analysed in relation to the literature review. Simultaneously, quantitive indicators will be established in terms of the environmental measures of the city. As a consequence, the extent to which this method of development can assist in the strive for urban sustainability will be established.

Endnotes 1

Goodland, “The Concept of Environmental Sustainability,” 5.

methodology

An overview of the integration of biodiverse architecture into urban environments This chapter will focus on the term ‘biodiverse architecture’ and explore current best practice concepts and implementations, which are concerned with greening the underused spaces in cities. Initially, the benefits of an urban cohesion with nature will be discussed. An attempt to reestablish and strengthen this relationship will be demonstrated through the exploration of CPULs, urban agricultural strategies, meanwhile uses and living roofs. Concepts surrounding the innate attraction to these ‘wasted’ spaces, such as Gilles Clément’s construct of ‘The Third Landscape’, will allow for them to be addressed from several angles. Simultaneously, the positive implications of biodiverse architecture on societal behaviour and construct and the quantitative nature of their effects will be assessed. The term ‘biodiverse architecture’ is used throughout this project to refer to alternative methods of appropriating seemingly redundant areas. This term takes the definition of ‘ecological biodiversity’ as being; “the diversity of ecosystems, natural communities and habitats…the variety of ways that species interact with each other and their environment.”1 With this in mind, ‘biodiverse architecture’ sets the framework to discuss the development of structures and systems, which are primarily concerned with encouraging the interaction between humans, man-made environments and natural ecosystems. As discussed, it is thought that there is much benefit to be gained from being “‘together’ instead of ‘against’’2 natural ecosystems. The integration of nature into man-made environments is not a case of making more space available but instead revising the design approach for urban areas.3 Arguably, these areas tend to be “single purpose, and therefore inefficient”4, whereas perhaps the built environment should be multi-functional in both its design and operation, in order to address the interrelated nature of the three pillars of sustainability. The benefits of the integration of vegetation is understood to have a plethora of benefits, such as aesthetic, economic, psychological and environmental. Given

these benefits, English Nature proclaims that “no person should live more than 300m from their nearest area of natural greenspace.”5 Contemplating these views alongside the existing and increasing building density in conurbations, alternative means for introducing nature must be considered. The appropriation of unused spaces is, therefore, a pertinent concept. This avoids radical redevelopment of established areas, while integrating vegetation and responding to the aforementioned desire for reforming growth-occupied attitudes. To illustrate how this occupation of spaces may occur, exemplary concepts and constructs focused around increasing the biodiversity of the urban realm will be explored. Gilles Clément, a landscape designer, exhibits an interest in the innate nature of these neglected spaces. He develops the concept of ‘The Third Landscape’; “an undetermined fragment of the Planetary Garden - designates the sum of the space left over by man to landscape evolution - to nature alone.”6 Clément considers these areas to be “the genetic reservoir of the planet, the space of the future,”7 as they hold great potential for regenerating biodiversity. The evolution of human perception is touched upon, highlighting the developing interest in the unique, inherent aesthetic of the ‘wild’ and the ‘abandoned’ spaces, which are often a consequence of industrial decay.8 Clément proposes the retention of the intrinsic qualities of these uncultivated areas and the utilisation of them in order to “enrich the city in unexpected ways.”9 The potential diversity that can be achieved, both aesthetically and biologically, heralds this concept as being one of pertinence within the discussion of sustainable development. Alternative approaches are seemingly less concerned with maintaining these spaces as they are found, but rather advocate a requirement for development. This development is, however, still fundamentally centred around the synthesis of humans and nature, which due to the essence of nature itself is likely to similarly maintain a sense of the ‘wild’. André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn’s design concept ‘Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes’ (CPULs) is not solely involved with unused spaces. It does, however, make pertinent points given its focus on urban sustainability and its interest in interweaving and building upon existing urban fabrics. The concept proposes the “introduction of interlinked productive landscapes into cities as an essential element of sustainable urban infrastructure.”10 ‘Productive landscapes’ predominantly refers to outdoor space, wildlife habitats, pedestrian networks and urban agriculture. This

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approach shows a desire to respond to social, environmental and economic concerns, through enhancing both the qualitative and quantitive aspects of the city, namely the “citizens’ experience… with respect to reduced negative environmental impact.”11 A consumerist society is discouraged, striving towards more “localised, efficient, circular urban systems.”12 The realisation is made that adaptation must be implemented on a large scale in order to have a real impact.

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Urban agriculture is given priority within the construct of CPULs. This method of approach embodies the discussed qualities and thus is a topic of increasing global interest. In many cases, this interest is in response to the issue of food security, however, this is a complex topic in its own right, one which this particular project is not primarily concerned with. Alternatively, it will be considering how urban agriculture can play a part in the strive for urban sustainability, in other senses. As demonstrated earlier within More’s ‘Utopia’, food is viewed as being of paramount importance within urban design, due to its inherent multi-faceted nature and its relevance to the environment, society and economy.13 The CPULs acknowledge the view that there is a requirement for change at a public behavioural level. Viljoen and Bohn express that an involvement in urban agriculture, as demonstrated through UK allotments, will improve the health of citizens, through increased exercise and a bettered diet. Accordingly, incentives for public interest in CPULs and urban agricultural schemes are established, 02/01/2005 6:27applying PM Page 14 in turn pressure on policy makers.14 In addition to the social benefits, closed waste systems and reduced energy usage willANDbe achieved CARROT CITY: THE CONCEPT OF CPULs through emulating natural ecosystems. As a result, the biodiversity of the urban realm will be preserved.15

MORE SPACE WITH LESS SPACE: AN URBAN DESIGN STRATEGY

MORE SPACE WITH LESS SPACE: AN URBAN DESIGN STRATEGY Figure 2.1

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Figure 2.2

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detail

MORE SPACE WITH LESS SPACE: AN URBAN DESIGN STRATEGY Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.3

detail

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.1 An established city with no CPULs. Figure 2.2 Identifying continuous landscapes. Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.3 Inserting productive urban landscapes. Figure 2.4 Feeding the city. Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4 detail

Cpul-ch02.qxd

Figure 2.1 An established city with no CPULs. Figure 2.2 Identifying continuous landscapes. Figure 2.3 Inserting productive urban landscapes.

.1 An established city with no CPULs.

Figure 2.4 Feeding the city.

.2 Identifying continuous Figure 2.3landscapes. .3 Inserting productive urban landscapes.

Figure 2.4

.4 Feeding the city.

o c

u n ti

tive

urban landsca pe de ta il

2.1 An established city with no CPULs.

2.2 Identifying continuous landscapes.

2.3 Inserting productive urban landscapes.

2.4 Feeding the city.

Fig 03. (above) The integration and evolution of CPULs in a hypothetical city; top - no CPULs, bottom - feeding the city through fully formed CPULs. Fig 04. (right) Close up detail depicting the interrelation of sites within CPULs.

continuous landscape connecting city and countryside

green footpath

Productive Urban Landscape with multi-coloured urban agriculture fields

individual urban agriculture fields

local farmstore with wholesale market

local market or shop

individual consumer

food flow

Figure 2.5

Fig. 05: A Bronze Age roundhouse with turf roof.

An urban integration of vegetation does not solely have to occur on the ground plane, but can be incorporated into the frequently neglected spaces on the roofs of buildings. The concept of green roofs can be traced back approximately 2,800 years, to the British Bronze Age, where turf covered roof structures were originally exhibited.16 In 1876, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, the founder of the Journal of Public Health, initiated the advocation of incorporating roof gardens into towns, expressing a belief that this “would result in a vast increase in the health and happiness of the population.”17 These postulations have since been furthered and the benefits of green roofs evidenced. An incorporation of vegetation onto rooftops has measurable environmental merits, which encompass those previously discussed. Flood risks are reduced, the effects of the urban heat island effect are diminished and both air and water are remediated.18 Additionally, the biodiversity of the area is strengthened, through the additional wildlife habitat provided. Furthermore, this particular integration demonstrates advantages at the more immediate scale of the building. Conventional roofing materials do not respond as well to the environment as living roofs do. Living roofs provide a high level of thermal insulation, naturally stabilising the internal temperature and thus resulting in a reduced heating demand and diminished CO2 emissions. The qualitative benefits are demonstrated, as the local amenity is bettered through an aesthetic gain of the revitalisation of dated or bland exteriors.19 At the human scale, there are thought to be undeniably, positive psychological effects of being in close proximity to nature. It is argued that this presence increases productivity and happiness, while acting as a catalyst for recuperation.20 However, understandably these qualitative views are unmeasurable and thus currently only stand as matters of frequently contested opinion. The alternative concept of ‘meanwhile use’ is less involved with the physical approach of synthesising humans and nature and more with the practicalities behind how it should be executed. This term is used to describe the “temporary uses of empty property and land.”21 A bottom-up approach to urban renewal is advocated, which arguably would strengthen regeneration and development proposals, while maintaining an attractive aesthetic and avoiding areas becoming stagnant.22 The temporary and flexible nature results in reduced start up costs, while offering a platform for small organisations to thrive, develop skills and increase capacity. Planning authorities tend to exhibit reluctance in adopting this approach. Due to its benefits, it is, however, contended that it

should be viewed as a prerequisite as opposed to a novelty tool.23 Meanwhile use is understood to offer a level of freedom which would assist in achieving â&#x20AC;&#x153;the more aspirational and intangible goals which planningâ&#x20AC;Śis often ill-equipped to deliver.â&#x20AC;?24 Appropriating the neglected spaces within the urban fabric can evidently be achieved through an array of concepts and methods of approach that embody the essence of biodiverse architecture. These strategies display the potential to assist in the strive for urban sustainability at the immediate focus of the city. An ability to nurture the relationship between humans and nature is demonstrated, while concurrently improving the quality of community life and bettering both the local and general environment. These mechanisms will be further explored through the case studies of two cities that exhibit sustainable development interests. This method of analysis will allow for these concepts to be rooted in reality, thus, enabling the feasibility of their application, their setbacks, limitations and success to be investigated.

Endnotes 1 “What is Biodiversity?” Accessed 13.03.15. <http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Wildlife-Conservation/Biodiversity. aspx>. 2

Fassbinder, “City as Nature,” 32.

Ibid.

Grant, Green Roofs and Facades, 2.

English Nature, “Providing Accessible Natural Greenspace in Towns and Cities,” (Manchester: Centre for Urban and Regional Ecology, 2003), 2.

6 “The Third Landscape,” accessed 12.03.15. <http://www.gillesclement.com/art-454-tit-The-Third-Landscape>. 7

Ibid.

Matthew Gandy, “Entropy by design, Gilles Clement, Parc Henri Matisse and the Limits to Avant-garde Urbanism,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Oxford (2012), 5, accessed 12.03.15, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2012.01164.x.

André Viljoen et al., “Places for People, Places for Plants: Evolving Thoughts on Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes” (Landscape and Urban Horticulture: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference, Bologna: ISHS Acta Horticulturae 881, 2010), 1-2.

Ibid., 2.

12 André Viljoen, Katrin Bohn and Joe Howe, Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities (Oxford: Architectural Press, 2005), 39. 13

Steel, “How food shapes our cities.”

André Viljoen et al., “Places for People, Places for Plants,” 5.

15 Viljoen, Bohn and Howe, Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes, 39. 16

Grant, Green Roofs and Facades, 5.

Ibid., 9.

Ibid., 31.

Ibid., 32.

Timothy Beatley and Peter Newman, “Biophilic Cities Are Sustainable, Resilient Cities,” Sustainability 5 (2013): 3329, accessed 27.01.15, doi: 10.3390/su5083328.

21 Nick, Finney. “Cities / Meanwhile use, long term benefit,” ARUP, 26.06.13, accessed 12.03.15, <http://thoughts.arup.com/post/details/294/meanwhile-use-long- term-benefit>. 22

Ibid.

23 Jennifer Angus, “In the meantime,” The Planner, 06.03.15, accessed 12.03.15, <http://www.theplanner.co.uk/features/in-the-meantime>. 24

Ibid.

In order to assess the feasibility and success of applying the previously discussed schemes into real life scenarios, the cities of Rotterdam and London will be looked at as case studies. These will be approached as case studies in themselves and not as comparatives. Rotterdam will be analysed at the scale of enquiry of the city, predominantly focusing on the application of policies and their effects. London will be looked at, at the more immediate scale of the community, investigating a collection of small-scale strategies. The effects of the adopted approaches of biodiverse architecture will be further evaluated, whilst the citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approaches to social, environmental and economic issues are highlighted.

Case Study #1: Rotterdam

Fig. 06: The city of Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

The city of Rotterdam is situated in the south of the Netherlands, on the boundaries of the river Rhine delta. The population density of the city, in 2012, was 2912.5 inhabitants per km2, this is, however, as a result of the reduced number of inhabitants close to the harbour.1 Rotterdam has a temperate climate and as a consequence of its proximity to the river and the North Sea, is faced with issues of flooding. This project will not be primarily focused on the issue of water management, but on the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response to the unsustainability of the urban realm less specifically.

Rotterdam is one of the Netherlands’ greenest cities, with green space covering “19.7% of the total city area.”2 Nonetheless, the city expresses a concern for “a lack of adequate green spaces,”3 thus displaying a keen interest in the integration of nature into the city. The field of sustainable development is, in this case, approached with consideration for the interrelation of social, economic and environmental concerns. An adoption of the CPULs concept, which advocates mimicking and learning from natural ecosystems,4 is evident in Rotterdam’s development of living roof and urban agricultural initiatives. Prior to exploring these individually, the city’s overarching sustainable development approaches will be investigated. There are a number of frameworks in place, which provide support in implementing Rotterdam’s sustainable development objectives. Generally, the issue of sustainability is perceived by the city as one of opportunity, sparking innovation and experimentation in its approach to sustainable adaptation.5 Collaboration is key within Rotterdam’s approach. For instance, the Rotterdam Climate Proof (RCP), which attempts to support and raise awareness of sustainable adaptation, consists of people from all sectoral divisions, “in order to promote inter-divisional cooperation.”6 Additionally, the URBES project, which aims to educate and support local governments in applying policies, involves both policy makers and planners, creating a crucial bi-directional relationship.7 A keen desire to integrate and involve citizens in the development of the city is similarly demonstrated, with it being thought that this engagement will educate, encourage and strengthen “the transition to urban resilience.”8 Rotterdam’s mindset is more specifically demonstrated through its practical responses to sustainable development, namely with regard to urban agriculture and living roofs. Rotterdam is viewed as being pioneering with regards to urban agriculture (UA), arguably exhibiting “one of the most coherent, city wide urban agriculture programs in Europe.”9 The city’s interest arises as a result of the segregation between the producer and the consumer; the natural ecosystem and the citizen.10 In 2010, the municipal organisation initiated a cross-disciplinary discussion on the feasibility of applying UA to public and semipublic areas.11 As of 2013, the city boasted over 100 UA initiatives aside from allotments.12 This has no doubt been encouraged by the municipality’s assistance, offered through relaxed regulations and an encouragement of innovative strategies that align with

land use and permeability of private areas such as back yards, industrial areas where large paved surfaces are availaor other commercial grounds. Such ar- ble. Other alternatives include growing eas have been considered as partially produce in and on top of buildings. sealed and they cover around 19% of Flat roofs the total land surface of Rotterdam. Al- This study only takes into account roofthough there is no clear indication to- top agriculture as a solution for sealed wards the permeability of these areas, areas. Rotterdam has plenty of flat roofs, they can still be suitable for agriculture. but not all are suitable for rooftop agriPossible limitations lack of good quality culture. Height is a main concern, since soil or sunlight. Due to the high degree of strong winds and sun exposure can lim13 uncertainty, these areas have not been it available their objectives. The environmental and economic benefits of UA crop varieties above certaken into account. tain heights10. Since Rotterdam has no

are harnessed, while predominantly focusing the social particularly highon buildings, most gains. suitable Sealed areas

shouldn’t face such problems. A The percentage of urbancohesion, areas roofs encouraging Thehighest city advocates social education and for this analin Rotterdam is sealed (49%). This renders height limit of 40 m was set 14 ysis. stimulation across all ages and socio-economic groups.

Legend • 0.05 ha - 0.5 ha • 0.5 ha - 2 ha • 2 ha - 5.5 ha

0 0.5 1

Map 4. Suitable flat roof locations and areas (906 ha total)

Fig. 07: Flat roofs in Rotterdam highlighted as suitable for greening. Note: Flat roofs of buildings built after 1950 and with heights lower than 40 m were considered. Also, a minimal surface of 500 m2 for adjacent roofs with the same height was applied

The application of green roofs is an additional approach that the city has adopted, due to their positive implications at both the city wide and the building scale. 4,623,000 square metres of suitable, predominantly flat roof were highlighted within the city.15 Green roofing strategies have already been implemented on large municipal properties, such as the city library, local hospital and government buildings, publicly displaying and encouraging an adoption of this approach. The application of green roofs is further promoted through a financial incentive in the form of subsidies from the local council and water board.16 In this case, Rotterdam demonstrates a successful integration of biodiverse architecture into neglected urban spaces, predominantly bettering the environmental strand of sustainability.

The success of the discussed outlooks and strategies can be analysed through the individual initiatives that have been realised as a consequence. With regard to green roofs, the city has adopted a top-down approach, through which the awareness raised and subsidies put in place are thought to have assisted in doubling the square meterage of green roofs in the city, in 2011.17 UA has been dealt with through a bottom-up approach, materialising in several small initiatives, of which the most relevant is DakAkker. Created in 2012, DakAkker is one of the largest rooftop urban farms in

Europe. This came about as a result of the City Initiative, which promoted “administrative reform and citizen participation.”18 The City Initiative allowed for citizens of Rotterdam to vote for projects proposed by the city dwellers, which aimed to revive the city and improve the quality of life. The farm encourages volunteers and provides educational programs run by the Environmental Centre Rotterdam, which is in keeping with the city’s discussed approach to education.19 It is perhaps too early to establish the success of DakAkker as an initiative in its own right, however, the fact that it exists as a result of citizen interest, in itself evidences a level of success. Public awareness and a concern for issues facing the contemporary urban realm are indicated. The challenge is now thought be “how to scale-up successful pilot projects” in order to lead to favourable outcomes on a larger scale.20

Fig 08. (top) The urban farm, DakAkker, Rotterdam. Fig. 09 (bottom) The Luchtsingel proposal by ZUS (Zones urbaines sensibles) for the City Initiative. DakAkker is just one of the elements of this proposal.

Rotterdamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach emulates the views of ecological and utopian thinkers, reinstating Bookchinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thoughts in particular. Through adopting the view that sustainability is a matter of social concern, the city strives to encourage a pro-ecological mindset among the citizens. Its approaches reduce the distance between humans and nature, therefore strengthening their unity and establishing a greater concern for the natural environment. These notions have been successfully implemented and realised in Rotterdam, implying that collaboration and community involvement are key elements in achieving the goal of a sustainable urban environment. The study into the urban integration of biodiverse architecture will proceed through the investigation of a series of individual interventions within the city of London.

Endnotes 1 “ineqcities: Rotterdam,” accessed 15.03.15, <https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ineqcities/atlas/cities/rotterdam>. 2 “Rotterdam, Netherlands,” accessed 21.02.15, <http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/ resources/urbes_city_focus/rotterdam__netherlands/>. 3

Vlad Dumitrescu, “Mapping Urban Agriculture Potential in Rotterdam,” Rotterdam Municipality’s Engineering and Environmental Bureau, 2013, 1.

4 Viljoen, Bohn and Howe, Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes, 39. 5

Heleen Mees and Peter Driessen, “Climate Greening London, Rotterdam and Toronto,” Master Thesis, Faculty of Geosciences Utrecht University, 2010.

6 Mees, “Climate Greening London, Rotterdam and Toronto.” 7 “Vision for the Future: Rotterdam’s Transition to Urban Resilience” accessed 21.02.15, <http://www.iucn.org/ about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/resources/ urbes_city_focus/rotterdam__netherlands/?18498/Vision-for-the- Future-Rotterdams-Transition-to-Urban-Resilience>. 8

Ibid.

9 Rachel Keeton, “A Cohesive Urban Agriculture System Sprouts in Rotterdam,” Next City, The Future of Resilience, 26.11.13, accessed 21.03.15, <http://nextcity.org/daily/entry/an-actual-cohesive-urban- agriculture-system-sprouts-in-rotterdam>. 10

Town Planning, Urban Planning Department, “Food & the City: Stimulating urban agriculture in and around Rotterdam,” February 2012, 7.

Ibid., 14.

12 Dumitrescu, “Mapping Urban Agriculture Potential in Rotterdam,” ii. 13 Keeton, “A Cohesive Urban Agriculture System Sprouts in Rotterdam.” 14 Town Planning, Urban Planning Department, “Food & the City,” 17. 15 Killing, Alison, “Green Roofs in Rotterdam: Studies, Plans, Outreach and Reducing Flood Risks,” World Changing, 2010, accessed on 21.02.15, <http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/011610.html>. 16

Ibid.

Rotterdam Climate Initiative, “Investing in sustainable growth,” Rotterdam Sustainability Monitor, Summary, 2011.

18 “Dakakker,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.luchtsingel.org/locaties/dakakker/>. 19 “City Initiative,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.luchtsingel.org/over-de-luchtsingel/het- stadsinitiatief/>. 20 “Vision for the Future: Rotterdam’s Transition to Urban Resilience.”

Case Study #2: London The second case study will analyse the current urban situation in London, at the scale of individual approaches as opposed to that of the city. The interest in occupying unused spaces in the city in a sustainable manner has been evident in London, sparking the conception of several initiatives. The larger of these initiatives to be explored is the top-down approach of the ‘Capital Growth campaign’ and bottom-up interventions such as, ‘What If: Projects’, VACANT LOT’; and the ‘Urban Wild Project’. Following this, a series of innovative smaller scale interventions will be evaluated, such as ’The Edible Bus Stop’, ‘Food from the Sky’ and ‘AOC’s Croydon Roof DiverCity Car PARK’. Interest lies in both their creative nature and the fact that the scale and impact of them has been relatively minor.

Fig. 10: A site for growing, in London, which has been established as a result of Capital Growth.

CAPTIAL GROWTH Capital Growth adopts a top down approach, initiated by the Mayor of London. It is mainly focused on dealing with social issues, with an indirect effect on environmental and local economic matters. The scheme provides “practical and financial support to communities”1 in order to encourage food growth and greater access to outdoor spaces. The success of this approach has been demonstrated by the consequential figures; “two thirds of London’s boroughs signed up to support” 2 this scheme, with approximately 2100 spaces being developed to date and around 99,000 citizens growing food.3

Fig. 11: (top) Pitfield Estate, London. Fig. 12: (bottom) VACANT LOT Pitfield Estate meanwhile use appropriation.

VACANT LOT What If Projects’, VACANT LOT again primarily addresses social matters, with a consequential impact on the local environment and economy. It does so through a bottom-up approach, which adopts meanwhile use strategies and incorporates urban agricultural methods. The project began in 2007, aiming to transform “neglected…spaces on inner city housing estates into environments that provide neighbourhoods with…outside space, a place to grow food and a place to socialise.”4 The pilot example, was a temporary intervention, which provided the space with bulk bags for growing and low budget, specially designed seating and water tower. The project’s success has been widespread, following the funding received from housing providers and the Big Lottery. This has subsequently allowed for 20 additional sites; 2 acres of land, to be developed.5 It is thought that the living conditions and communities’ cohesion has been bettered, prompting similar responses across the United Kingdom.6

Fig. 13: (top) Herne Hill’s flat roofs. Fig. 14: (bottom) An artist’s impression of the greening of Herne Hill’s flat roofs, as envisaged by the Urban Wild Project.

THE URBAN WILD PROJECT The Urban Wild Project adopts living roof strategies, in order to better the local environment physically and aesthetically. The scheme aims to green approximately thirty non-residential roofs in Herne Hill, establishing one of the first instances that “a project of this size has been attempted at a community level in the UK.”7 Currently this scheme only has funding for the first stage and thus remains at a conceptual level.8 A lack of realisation highlights flaws in the system, suggesting that a bottom-up approach to greening roofs is unfeasible.

Fig. 15: (top) Guerilla gardening in action - members of the community taking owership of the unused space adjacent to the bus stop. Fig. 16: (bottom) The bus stop following growth of vegetation.

THE EDIBLE BUS STOP The Edible Bus Stop is the first in a series of smaller schemes to be explored. The project emerged out of a community desire to occupy a neglected site adjacent to a bus stop, using guerrilla gardening as a tool for doing so. It has since received funding from London’s Pocket Parks programme and its local borough, allowing this concept to grow along the bus route, resulting in the establishment of two additional ‘bus stops’.9 This scheme has encouraged local ownership over the void spaces within the area, bettering local amenity and aesthetic, whilst strengthening social cohesion.

Fig. 17: Food from the Sky Project, atop Budgens, London.

THE FOOD FROM THE SKY PROJECT The Food from the Sky project, which has now closed, claimed to be the first of its kind; a “food growing and education initiative on the roof top of Thorton’s Budgens supermarket.”10 The food grown was sold in the supermarket below, thus altering the current normative relationship between food production and consumption. The scheme attempted to create a template that could be replicated by other communities.11 Its short-lived success demonstrates a public awareness for the issues of sustainability, however, demonstrates the crucial nature of funding in sustaining projects, regardless of the relevance and creativity of their ambition.

Fig. 18: Sketch included in Mikey Tomkins’ research, illustrating various methods of dealing with the unused rooftops in cities.

ROOF DIVERCITY CAR PARK AOC’s Croydon Roof DiverCity Car PARK addresses social, economic and environmental issues, building upon concepts discussed within CPULs. It was born out of Mikey Tomkins’ research into the viability of occupying under-utilised rooftops in urban areas, for the purpose of growing food. This hypothetical proposal came to fruition for just a week, during the EcoExpo 2008, through the creation of a food growing space on the roof of a multi-storey car park.12 The brief materialisation of this theory allowed for its impact to be effectively analysed. This resulted in the realisation that this appropriation, which was aimed at reestablishing the relationship between the pedestrian citizen and natural ecosystems, would likely be unsuccessful as it would be out of the way of their typical routines. Consequently, it is viewed that in order for this approach to be deemed a success, a radical change in behaviour must occur.13 This links back to ecologists’ perspectives and utopian visions, promoting a lifestyle of moderation and reduced consumption in the aspiration of achieving sustainable objectives.

Many of these projects are grounded in intentions that coincide with viewpoints of utopian visionaries and green political thinkers. The innate attraction to nature is portrayed, as there is a continual ambition evidenced to minimise the distance between natural systems and human life, subsequently establishing a stronger alliance with nature. The measurable benefits of green space are harnessed and the environment, local amenity, aesthetic and local economy are improved. These initiatives have predominantly arisen out of interest at a community level, demonstrating some degree of awareness and consideration for issues of urban sustainability. However, the fact that many of these initiatives are limited to very localised impact and are poorly publicised, suggests that there is a lack of support both financially and practically. Through the analysis of London it is clear that for effective, wide-spread impact to occur, the scale of the application has to be significant. Additionally, a level of interest must be gained in order for sufficient funding to be awarded. The support of the innovative, citizen-led approaches would arguably be a suitable way of encouraging the discussed behavioural adaptation. The key issues drawn out of this case study work require further reflection and consequently will be discussed with practitioners in the field of sustainable development.

Endnotes 1 “Growing Success: The impact of Capital Growth on community food growing in London,” accessed 29.03.15, <http://www.sustainweb.org/publications/growing_success/>. 2 “Capital Growth Scheme a Great Success,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.transitionbelsize.org.uk/news/capital-growth- scheme-great-success>. 3

Idib.

4 “VACANT LOT,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.vacant-lot.info/BACKGROUND.html>. 5

Ibid.

7 Tierney Smith, “Adaptation focus: Making the business case for living roofs,” Responding to Climate Change, 13.11.12, accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.rtcc.org/2012/09/26/adaptation-focus-making-the- business-case-for-living-roofs/>. 8 “The Urban Wild Project,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.theurbanwildproject.org/>. 9 Katherine Purvis, “The Edible Bus Stop: promising patch of possibility to blooming success,” The Guardian, 28.04.14, accessed 21.03.15, <http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/apr/28/edible- bus-stop-promising-patch-of-possibility-to-blooming-success>. 10 “Food from the Sky,” accessed 21.03.15, <http://foodfromthesky.org.uk/>. 11 Ibid. 12 André Viljoen et al., “Places for People, Places for Plants,” 5-6, 11. 13

Ibid., 7.

Long Lane: Opportunities for the Future July 2012 Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum

1.0

1.2

Executive Summary

Introduction

Transformative strategy The strands of particular interest that have run throughout this study will be further reflected upon, through structured interviews with experts within the field of sustainability; Tiago TorresCampos and Michael Collins. A reflective, transformative strategy will then be under taken, set in a specific site context that is typical of other areas found within the urban realm. The strategy will be formed through weaving both the material studied thus far and discussions with interviewees, with drawings and captions that explain a personal interpretation of appropriating the context in question. The opportunities that a dense and chaotic urban area can offer both environmentally and in terms of the way that people view nature and the city, will consequently be analysed. This method of analysis will, as mentioned earlier, harness the beneficial qualities of utopian thinking that were evidenced within the literature review.

This document has been produced on behalf of the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum in order to produce a sustainable masterplan for the future development of Long Lane and the surrounding area that will provide social, economic and environmental benefits to the people who live, work and use the area.

THE CITY

The aim of this document is to provide a framework that will become a material consideration in the determining of planning applications thereby influencing the way in which Long Lane evolves.

WEST END

The document has been produced in the following manner; Analysis – Understanding the Context We have carried out a detailed appraisal of the local area to consider the historical, urban and environmental issues that impact on the quality of the area.

London Bridge

Preliminary Consultation – Understanding the Priorities We have engaged with the local community; residents, businesses, community groups and other stakeholders in order to gain an understanding of the perceived problems and issues in the local area and ways that these might be addressed.

SOUTH BANK

Vision - Identifying Opportunities Using the information obtained we have identified opportunities for carrying out improvements to Long Lane and its environs through a series of proposals (buildings, public art, open space or highways) that could be implemented as mini-projects by the local authority, private landowners or community groups.

WESTMINSTER

Long Lane

Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum boundary

Elephant & Castle

Fig. 19: Location plan showing Long Lane, London. Location Plan

BERMONDSEY NEIGHBOURHOOD PLAN

A key question within the interviews asked which urban areas have the greatest potential for transformative greening strategies. Michael Collins expresses the view that areas within close proximity to “communities that will benefit the most from it, and contribute the most to it”1 would be most successful, such as either a low income demographic, elderly residents or young families.2 Collins also reveals ideas which coincide with those of Tiago Torres Campos, who discusses Clément’s Third Landscape; viewing derelict, neglected urban land as embodying great potential for biodiverse development.3 In response to these perceptions, Long Lane in Bermondsey, London has been chosen as a representative canvas to which to apply a transformative strategy. BELL PHILLIPS ARCHITECTS

Long Lane: Opportunities for the Future July 2012 Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum

1.0

1.1

Executive Summary

Foreword

What is this document for? This document has been produced for the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum to look at the history, background and environment along Long Lane, London SE1, to identify the current issues and to identify the opportunities for change. The aim is to answer the question ‘What could be done along and around Long Lane?’. To help gather public views as to what should happen next in Long Lane through further consultation.

Why has this document been produced? In late 2010 a group of residents came together following concerns about the development pressures in the area between Tower Bridge Road and Borough High Street. This led to the creation of the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum to take advantage of the new neighbourhood planning powers being introduced by the Government, with the aim of producing a Neighbourhood Plan for the area. (more details are on the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum website: www.yourbermondsey.org) Through a number of public meetings local residents expressed concern that planning and future development should be much more joined up than it had been in the past. Residents wanted to see a ‘bottom-up’ approach that looked at the area as a whole for the benefit of the community. The Neighbourhood Forum responded to early feedback and settled on an processby which we look at all the possible sites where there could be development or environmental improvement – the Opportunity Sites - and then to try to join these up into sensible groups – the Action Area. Long Lanewas chosen as the first Action Area to be analysed. In addition to producing suggestions for the specific Action Area, the Long Lane work is a pilot and the Long Lane document is a template for how the other Action Areas in teh Bermondsey Neighbourhood Area can be moved forward.

Long Lane is situated within the borough of Southwark, which has a population density of 9,988 residents per square kilometre, higher than the London average.4 The street is viewed as a “boundary that separates the two communities;”5 one of regeneration by the river and one in much need of development. It is a mixed use street, which is primarily residential with a variety of uses interspersed along it.6 The majority of the housing is rented from the council, with the central region of the street being occupied by local authority flats and the ends of the street mainly featuring “late 20th century housing developments.”7 Long Lane’s residents are primarily between the ages of 30-44, however a significant number are also young families and elderly residents.8 Concern has been expressed about the number of derelict or underused spaces found along the street, as well as about the lack of open space available.9 Considering Long Lane’s characteristics, the area lends itself to being subject to the transformative strategy at hand. Long Lane: Opportunities for the Future July 2012 Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum

1.0

Executive Summary

In particular we’d like you to look at the sites we’ve identified and tell us: •

Do you agree with the issues that we have identified at each site?

•

What do you think of the opportunities for change that we’ve identified?

•

Which are the best options going forward?

•

Are any of the suggestions completely unacceptable?

•

Have we got the opportunity sites right?

•

Are there any other issues we should be looking at?

When we get views back on this document, we can start to pull the range of opinions together to start to answer the question ‘What should be done with Long Lane?’ We also want to have a series of possibilities available for developers who wish to invest in the local community to make sure the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum area gets our share of the benefits of all the development happening in this part of London. The lack of actionable projects in the area currently results in improvement funds being invested in neighbourhoods much further south. Don’t forget that Long Lane and the surrounding area is just the starting point on our journey to create a comprehensive Bermondsey Neighbourhood Plan. We will be aiming to develop similar masterplans for the other Action Areas in teh near future. How do you give your views on the plan? We intend to hold a number of consultation events where people can come along and give their views on the proposals in this document.

Long Lane is particularly significant as it cuts right through the middle of the Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum area and highlights the range of developments and improvements that can be made in our area – from finally redeveloping some of the derelict sites in the middle of Long Lane, to improvements for pedestrians & traffic and looking at making the best use of the public spaces such as Long Lane Park or St George the Martyr’s Churchyard.

You can also give your views by using the ‘leave a reply’ facility on the page about the Long Lane plan on the website:

What happens next?

Alternatively you can take any written comments into the Leathermarket JMB office or put them in the post to:

This document is designed to prompt further debate and consultation by identifying particular issues at sites along Long Lane and to suggest various options for each site. We are also interested in general views concerning Long Lane in general rather than a review of individual sites. We want to get as many people’s views as possible on how Long Lane should evolve in the future, taking into account the history and overall context of the area.

BERMONDSEY NEIGHBOURHOOD PLAN

www.yourbermondsey.org

Long Lane Plan Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum c/o Leathermarket JMB 26 Leathermarket Street London SE1 3HN

Fig. 20 + Fig. 21: Views along Long Lane, London. BERMONDSEY NEIGHBOURHOOD PLAN

BELL PHILLIPS ARCHITECTS

Fig. 22: A map highlighting the lack of existing green public spaces available within the vicinity of Long Lane.

The strategy initially considers the dilution of utopian ideals by the utilitarian approaches demonstrated in the case studies. Consequently, the interviewees were asked which approach was of greater importance to them. Both Torres-Campos and Collins express an attraction to both perspectives. Torres-Campos states that the utopian viewpoint is “fundamental to keep tomorrow alive,”10 as it challenges “established conventions…about what is

a city, what is a landscape, or even what is change.”11 Similarly, Collins praises utopian visions, speaking of them as “powerful catalysts for change.”12 However, they both accept that in order to implement development and ensure that it is sustained, an approach of utility is mandatory.13 Thus, the transformative strategy on Long Lane adopts a utilitarian approach. It rejects Callenbach’s visions of revolution and opts for gradual, step-by-step development. Nevertheless, the approach sustains a consideration for utopian concepts; striving to encourage wider societal change through the implementation of biodiverse architecture.14 The more successful approaches to transformation highlighted within this study are reiterated by the interviewees. Collins emphasises the importance of considering the needs of the community and its coexistence with the environment.15 Whilst Torres-Campos stresses that change should not be purely aesthetical but be about “the meaningful improvement of social, ecological and environmental conditions.”16 The Long Lane strategy therefore adopts Rotterdam’s approach, considering the interrelation of the triad of concerns, whilst encouraging community involvement from the planning stage. In terms of implementation, Collins suggests that success lies in CPULs and a “joined up approach to urban green space.”17 Embracing this mindset, the strategy proposes a network of schemes for weaving biodiverse architecture into the entirety of the street. With regard to applying these methods of approach, ‘time’ has been highlighted as a relevant issue, in the sense of legislative, economic and natural growth timescales. Collins explains that sites which are to be either temporarily or permanently greened hold different options and potentials.18 Torres-Campos suggests that major urban transformations “can take from 5 years to 20 years”19 and goes on to discuss the inconsistency between legislative and natural temporalities and the concerns that ensue. He states that “if the economic funding can last for a maximum of 20 years, we know that the landscape…may take up to 50/60 years.”20 With this in mind, the development of an urban area must be undertaken with constant consideration for the timescales involved. Referring back to Collins’ point surrounding the differing temporal natures of unused sites, the strategy begins by looking at sites to be permanently occupied by biodiverse architecture. Consequently, Long Lane is initially investigated from a top-down approach. Given the number of post and interwar housing estates along the

street, there are a high proportion of flat roofs, which naturally lend themselves to being occupied by living roof strategies. From the evidenced success of living roofs in the analysis of Rotterdam, this would have environmental benefits and improve the area’s biodiversity, whilst similarly bettering the immediate building environment and strengthening the community’s relationship with the natural world. This appropriation would likely be made feasible through government subsidies, which would incentivise the local authority to implement this scheme locally. The timescale for the growth of green roofs can vary, depending on the type used, however, in terms of legislation this fairly significant transformation would likely take several years. Accordingly, the transformative strategy continues, looking to sites that are more accessible to the community and hold potential for more immediate development. Fig. 23: (top) Flat roofed commercial properties, Long Lane. Fig. 24: (bottom) Kipling estate, Long Lane; a typical flat roofed housing estate.

Fig. 25: A map showing the high proportion of flat roofed buildings along Long Lane that have been identified as holding the potential to be greened. These are predominantly residential housing estates, with a small series of lower-lying commerical buildings being included.

Collins argues that bottom-up initiatives are likely to be more commonplace than top-down.21 The short lived nature of bottom up approaches is, however, demonstrated within the case study work and subsequently the need for them to be supported is indicated. Torres-Campos refers to this as the “hybrid solution,”22 which exhibits bottom-up approaches being “time sensitive and socially responsible…try[ing] to forge commitment with governmental bodies.”23 This method is used within the Long Lane proposal. In this case, a wider utopian vision that a sustainably-concerned mindset should be nurtured is considered, whilst adopting Rotterdam’s educational approach to issues of sustainable development. The strategy takes Beormund Primary School and initiates the incorporation of urban agriculture into the school curriculum. This bottom-up initiative would be conceived by the school and funded by the local authority. It would occupy the neglected space along the bleak facade of the school, as well as appropriating areas of under utilised space within the school playground and carpark. This scheme could be established relatively quickly and would

take approximately 1 to 2 years to thrive. Through running both school classes and community workshops about plant and food growth, the knowledge, concern and coexistence with the natural environment would be strengthened amongst all age groups and demographics. The environment would be measurably improved and local amenity enhanced, while simultaneously bettering the local economy through selling harvested goods. It would be hoped that the scheme would generate sufficient interest at a governmental level in order for funding and support to be offered, thus sustaining the positive implications of this scheme. The transformative strategy continues along the street maintaining a bottom-up angle of approach.

Fig. 26: A map highlighting Boermund Primary School playground, car park and street front. These areas hold the potential for educational urban agricultural initiatives to be established.

Fig. 27: The wide and unused street frontage of Boermund Primary School, which would lend itself to being greened by urban agricultural schemes.

Torres-Campos states that “the more familiar we become with the notion that change is part of who we are and of our cities, the more successful landscape can be in terms of promoting development.”24 This statement can be applied to the development of the derelict sites along the street, which embody great potential for biodiverse development. (see Fig. 28 + 29) Collins reinforces this, advocating “‘surgically’ intervening to work with and retain and enhance these existing urban wildernesses.”25 These abandoned sites are similarly attractive to future developers and so are viewed as being temporarily available. The concept of meanwhile use consequently surfaces. The strategy proposes that these sites are

to be occupied by temporary urban agricultural initiatives. These would be supported by lottery funding and as Collins suggests, “government advisory groups.”26 Initially, citizen involvement and collaboration would be encouraged through government start-up capital, as demonstrated through Rotterdam’s City Initiative. The time it takes for meanwhile approaches to take root is understood to be significantly less than top-down legislative developments. The temporary nature of this method of appropriation, does not stifle urban change, but advocates it, through offering a platform and support network for innovative sustainable solutions to grow from. Again, the benefits of urban agriculture come to fruition, promoting interest and care for natural ecosystems, bettering society’s cohesion, health, education, job opportunities and quality of food, as is evidenced in Rotterdam’s community gardens. Similarly, this would provide aesthetic regenerative qualities and the potential for small scale economic growth.

Fig. 28: A map highlighting the vacant sites along Long Lane. These are currently in a neglected state, yet hold potential for future development. Thus, they lend themselves to being appropriated by meanwhile use initiatives, which would ameliorate the site through the integration of vegetation.

Fig. 29: Vacant site at 202-204 Long Lane, overrun with litter and flyers.

It is hoped that eventually these urban agricultural initiatives would prove successful and subsequently be planted in a more permanent manner throughout the urban realm. Acknowledging the fact that sustainable development considers future generations, the initial greening strategies would aim to evolve and grow, in order to sustain and coincide with the ever-changing urban realm. To ensure that these schemes are made commonplace and facilitate

significant transformation, legislative changes must occur. Collins identifies the need for urban agriculture to be recognised “as a formal land use,”27 which would allow for it “to be protected, [and] regulated for community use.”28 This method of approach would intend to encourage an adaptation in societal behaviour, to a more self reliant, less consumer orientated lifestyle. Referring back to the success of CPULs, which Collins suggests stems from their ability “to feed of each other in terms of resources, [and] users.”29 The Long Lane strategy ties together each of the proposed developments through the appropriation of an Edible Bus Stop style initiative. This occupies the neglected spaces at the sides of the street. It would do so through a community led, guerrilla gardening style aspiration, which Collins identifies as leading to “more immediate greening”30 action. This would be achieved through a collaboration between the local authority and the community. The areas along the street would be sponsored, designed and appropriated by local shops, businesses and residents. This approach would again improve local amenity and aesthetic, whilst encouraging community cohesion, ownership and pride, as is evidenced in the Edible Bus Stop project. Through forming a green network, the strengths of the individual projects are unified and thus greater interest and support are received.

Fig. 30: A map highlighting the neglected sides of the street which the strategy proposes to green in order to establish a well-linked green network and strengthen the benefits of each of the individual schemes.

Fig. 31 + Fig. 32: Underused sides of the street, which currently seem to serve no useful purpose. These would naturally lend themselves to being greened and subsequently would tie together the schemes along the street, establishing deeper sustainable roots within the community.

Long Laneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s transformative strategy explores the individual benefits of the many applications of biodiverse architecture. Their positive impacts on the community and environment alike, are demonstrated. It seems, however that through an interconnected approach their potential in achieving a wider, utopian goal of a change in societal behaviour is enhanced. The combined effect of the schemes is stronger and more wide reaching, thus perpetuating future interest and integration of biodiverse architecture into the urban fabric.

Fig. 33: An overlay of the previous maps, showing the integration of nature following the transformative strategy. This map shows the green, publicly accessible spaces along Long Lane.

Fig. 34: An amalgamation of the previous maps, highlighting the areas along Lane, which as a result of the speculative transformative strategy are now occupied by vegetation. This includes living roofs.

Endnotes 1

Michael Collins, E-mail interview by author, 03.04.15.

Ibid.

Tiago Torres-Campos, Email interview by author, 03.04.15.

4 “Census 2011 briefing,” accessed 12.04.15, <http://www.southwark.gov.uk/info/200223/census_2011/2723/ census_2011_briefing]>. 5

Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum, “Long Lane: Opportunities for the Future,” Bermondsey Neighbourhood Plan, July 2012.

Ibid.

8 “Area Information for Long Lane, London, SE1 4BS,” accessed 05.04.15, <https://www.streetcheck.co.uk/postcode/se14bs>. 9 Bermondsey Neighbourhood Forum, “Long Lane: Opportunities for the Future.” 10

Torres-Campos, Email interview by author.

Ibid.