ShardaUniversity,GreaterNoida VERNACULARCOURTYARDS INTHEAGEOFTHEBRITISHERS Adissertationsubmittedinthepartialfulfillmentof therequirementsforthedegreeof BachelorsofArchitecture by RahulAeron 03December2019
ThisdissertationtalksaboutCalcutta(history,culture,peopleandarchitecture),the MarwaricommunityandtheirrelationshipwiththecityThisresearchexploresthe historyofcourtyardhousesaroundtheworldandexplainstheregionalvariationof Indiancourtyardhouses,withadetailoneontheRajbariofCalcutta.
Page|1 Abstract
Theauthoralsotellsabouttheimportanceandlogicofcourtyardhouses,emphasis onthatofCalcutta.Thisdissertationexploresthecultural,climaticandfunctional aspectsofCalcutta’scourtyardhousesAndalsoexplainwhethertheyareusableat presentscenario Withthehelpofacasestudy,theauthorexplainedtheform,plan,andcirculation withtheclimateofthecourtyardhouseinCalcuttaThisdissertationexploresthe viabilityofcourtyardhousesofCalcuttaintoday’stime.
MarwariorMarwadi,thecommunitybelongstotheIndianethnicgroupwhichis originallyfromRajasthanTheoriginisintheJhunjhunuDistrict andShekhawatiDistrictTheyfallundertheBaniacommunityandhavethehabitof migration.MarrubhashaorMarwariastoldbyMarwarisistheirtraditionaland historicallanguage.
HistorianMedhaMKudaisyasaidthattheMarwari’s:
“madethetransitionfrombeingnicheplayersintradingtobecomingindustrial conglomeratesFrombeingbrokersandbankers,theMarwari’swentontobreak theBritishmonopolyoverthejuteindustryafterWorldWarI;theythenmovedinto otherindustrialsectors,suchascottonandsugar,andsetupdiversified conglomeratesBythe1950s,theMarwari’sdominatedtheIndiaprivateindustry scenario,emergingastheestablishersofitsmostprominentbusinesshouses” (Kudaisya,2009)
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KolkataAlsoknownasCalcuttaisthecapitalofWestBengal.Forpeople,itis referredtoas“TheCityofJoy”Itisalsoknownforitsfood,culture,people, traditions,andclimatePeoplealsocallit‘TheCityofPalaces’&moreoveritalsois knownastheCulturalandartisticcapitalofIndia.Thecityplaysanimportantrolein IndianHistoryasitistheoldestcityofIndiadevelopedbytheBritishEmpire.The BritishercametoCalcutta(calledatthattime)fortradeandgotsettledDuringthe Britishera,CalcuttabecamethecapitaloftheEastIndiaCompany.Forthem,itwas thesecondimportantcityafterLondonItwasthemainlandofBritishersforalltheir tradesThecityreflectsthearchitectureofthateraasithasanoverallcolonial outlook.EveryimportantbuildingreflectsthecolonialismbytheBritishers.Kolkata isaculturallyrichandinfluentialcitythathasinspiredliterature,drama,andartall overthecountryThecitystaysinthelowerGangeticdeltaofEasternIndiaThecity hasgotmanynaturalandmanmadeattractionspots.HooglyRiveristheonewhich passesbythecityandgivesthedramaticallybeautifulsunsetThegreatestman-made structure,HowrahBridgeisacompletetensilestructurethathasitshistorical importance.Itconnectsallthesubcentralbusinessdistrictsandhasitsowncultural significanceasitisasymbolofKolkata.
Introduction
Thecommunity’ssignificantpopulationmigratedtoBombay(18351850),Madras& Calcutta(Fromthe1870s).Theybelongtothesuccessfulbusinesscommunityand alsoplayamajorroleintheIndianeconomichistory.AftertheendoftheMughalera intheBengalregion,MarwaripeopleshiftedtoCalcuttaTheirmigrationinthe 1870swasencouragedbytheentryofBritishersasithelpedthemtoestablishnew businesses.Thecommunityhastightlyknitsocialsolidarity,explainedbySelig Harrisonas "Indissolubleundertheimpactofthestrongestregionalsolvents" KolkatabecomethebusinesshubofIndiaundertheBritishEra,andMarwarihelped themtobuildCalcuttaTheyarethekeytoBengal'sgrowthinbusiness,astheirroots canbetracedinthe18thcenturyandperindependence.Atpresent,Kolkatahasa majorityofMarwari’sincomparisontoBengalisinpopulationaswellasthe economicsgroundTheBurrabazarofthecitywastheplacewhereMarwaricameto giveafreshstarttotheirbusinessbutnowthecommunityhasspreadalloverthecity andholdthepowertocontrolthemoneymarketofKolkata.
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Theauthorspeaksaboutthecourtyardhousesandbywhatmeanstheyareconnected tothe‘CityofJoy’.Courtyardhousesatypeofhouseinwhichthemainpartofthe buildingisaroundacourtyard.Itbelongstovariouscivilizationsandhasavast historywhichsaysthestoryabouttheformationandimportanceofthecourtyardIn theIndiancontext,courtyardhouseswerediscoveredinvillagesanddesignedonthe principlesofVastuShastra.Itistheoldestresidenceformandisalsothegathering spaceforhouseusersThecourtyardhasmanyfunctionsasheatabsorberduring summerdaysandradiatorduringawinterday,lightupthesurroundingroomsand providesopenspaceforcommunalactivities.Ithasvariousbenefitslikecultural, climate,economical,liabilities,symbolicreligiousandaccessibility&circulation Indiancourtyardhouseshaveundergonemajorly2designphases.Thefirstphasewas duringtheMughalperiod(betweenthe16thcentury&early18thcentury)andthe secondphasewasthecolonizationofthesubcontinent(late18thcenturyto20th century).
2(Hardgrove,August1999)
forperformancesofmusic,dance,anddramaAndonesideofthecourtyardhas apujamandaporthakurdalanroomforworshipwherethefamilyoffersdaily worship.AccordingtoRandhawainBengalmanywomenliberationmovementsand otherreformationstartedsomanyofthehousesdidn’thaveaseparatespacefor jenana,asseeninnorthernhavelis.Thesemoderncourtyardhousesareamixof westernexteriorsandvernacularinteriors. Forexample,thetraditionalpujamandapissupportedbyDoriccolumns,awestern facadewitharoofintheformofabangladar(traditionalBengalroof)4hutincludea guardroomattheentrance.Rajbariistheprimaryfocusofthisdissertationandwill bediscussedindetailinupcomingchapters 3(Randhawa,1999) 4King,AnthonyD1995TheBungalow:theproductionofaglobalcultureNewYork:Oxford UniversityPress
Rajbari’sofCalcutta(WestBengal),theword
ThecourtyardhousescanbefoundineverypartofIndiafromthesteepHimalayasto thesouthernpartincludingplainsHaveliofnorthern&northwesternIndia,Wadas ofMaharastra,NalukettuofKerela,ChettinadofTamilNaduandRajbariofWest Bengal.
BariisaBengaliwordwhichmeans home.Twotypesofcourtyardformscanbefoundinthecity.Thefirst,houseswere ofMarwaribusinessmenmigratedtothecityTheygotfamiliarizedwiththelocal conditionandtheland&builtacopyoftheirancestralhouses.Thesecondwasbuilt bywealthyBengalibabuswhowereinfluencedbythewesternarchitecturalconcepts &Britisher'stasteTheybuilttheirmansionswiththewesterntouchbutretainedthe traditionalcourtyardformandpujaarea.
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TheloveforcultureandperformingartsinBengalipeoplecanbeseenintheRajbari designastheyhaveraisedtheplatformononesideofthecourtyardwhichisastage
AccordingtoRandhawa,“ThecourtyardhousesofCalcuttahaveeclecticblends withinwesternstylefacades,marblestatues,importedtiles,aswellastraditional designelements”(p.123)3
Page|5 Calcutta-CityofJoy Figure1:MapofIndia,WestBengalandCalcutta Source:Author Longitude:88°36’E Latitude:22°57’N Area :204.5sq.km(city) 188667sqkm(KolkataMetropolitanarea) Population:asper2011census4.49million(city) 1462million(KolkataMetropolitanarea) Altitude:9m(30ft.)abovesealevel Climate:WinterMaximumTemperature36.8°C MinimumTemperature92°C SummerMaximumTemperature41.7°C MinimumTemperature381°C
Page|6 Rainfall:1851mm(monsoonmonthsJunetoAugust) Bestseason:OctobertoMarch Clothing:Cottoninsummerandlightwooleninwinter Calcutta(PresentlyknownasKolkata)CapitalofIndianeasternstate(WestBengal) Acityisknownforitshistory,culture,people,traditions&food.Calcuttawasfound byJobCharnockwhichwasformedbycombiningthreevillages(Kalikata,Sutanati, andGobindapur)situatedonthebankofHooghlyRivermorethan300yearsago Kolkatahasbeenthecityofcontradictionandgreatcontrast.Therearevarious theoriesbehindthederivationofthenameofthecity.SomearerelatedtotheHindu GoddessKali,fewstatedtheplacewasknownforthemanufacturingofshelllime andotherwasthatthenamewasderivedfromtheBengaliwordkilkila(“flatland”). KolkataalsoservedasthecapitalofBritishIndiauntil1911. HistoricBackground Kolkataa.k.aCalcuttatracesbacktothe15thcentury.InMansaMangal(1495),itis mentionedthattherenownedtraderChandSadagarpassedbyKalikatatooffer prayerstogoddessKaliatKalighattemple5(AsinEnglishRamiswrittenasRama soGhatiswrittenasGhata,thusKalighatwaswrittenasKalighataanditwas translatedasKalikata)6 . PortuguesecametoCalcuttaaround1530fortradingandtheirmaintradecenters wereSatgaonwestandChittagongintheeastbutlatertheywereforcedtoseek anothermarketfortrade.AfterPortuguese,during1625Dutchcametothecityand establishedinPipli&ChisurahEuropeansnamedHooglyasBhagirathi,theyalso startedcommercialrelationsinBengalandmadeSatgaonandHooglyasmainports. TheArmenianstransformedthecityintothereputedtradingcenterby1660andalso builtachurch In1686,JobCharnockcametoKalikatawasappointedastheSeniorAgentofEast IndiaCompanylaterlaidthefoundationstoneofCalcutta.Thecommercialand 5Cotton,HEA,CalcuttaOldandNew:AHistoricalmidDescriptiveHandbooktotheCity,W NewmanandCo,DalhousieSquareCalcutta,1907,p.4. 6Suhrawardy,H,CalcuttaandEnvirons:AHlliustatedGuidetoPlacesofInterestandtoExcursions kiandaroundCalcutta,Bengal,ELERallway,1921,p8
7Suhrawardy,H,CalcuttaandEnvirons:AllIllustratedGuidetoPlacesofInterestandtoExcursions inandaroundCalcutta;Bengal,ELERailway,1921 8Hardgrave,JrandRobert,L,"APortraitofBlackTown:BalthazardSotvynsInCalcutta, 17911804",inPratapadltyaPal:ChangingVisions,LastingImages:CalcuttaThrough300Years, MargPublications,Mumbai,1990,pp3146
Rapidindustrialgrowthstartedinthe1850smainlyinthetextileandjutesector,this ledtohugeinvestmentininfrastructureprojects.MarwaripeopleshiftedtoCalcutta. Theirmigrationinthe1870swasencouragedbytheentryofBritishersasithelped themtoestablishnewbusinesses.MarwarihelpedthemtobuildCalcutta.Theyare thekeytoBengal'sgrowthinbusiness,astheirrootscanbetracedinthe18thcentury. TheBurrabazarofthecitywastheplacewhereMarwaricametogiveafreshstartto theirbusinessbutnowthecommunityhasspreadalloverthecityandholdthepower tocontrolthemoneymarketofKolkata.
Page|7 strategicimportanceofthesiteinfluencedCharnockasthesitewasthemidday haltingpointofEuropeanmerchantsThesitewassuitablefortheHeadquarterof BritishTradeinBengalregionastheHooglyRiverhadalargeagriculturallyrich areaofGangeticValley.In1698,thethreevillagesKalikata,Sutanatiand GobindapursituatedonthebankofHooghlyRiverwereacquiredbyTheEastIndia CompanyfromRoyChowdhury's.Within8yearsaftertheacquirementof Zamindaryrightsapprox83acresofKolkata(proper)and19acresofBurrabazar wereoccupiedbythelocalpeopleTheBattleofPlassey(1757)changedthewhole scenariowhichwastherevengeofthe‘BlackHoleTragedy’7in1756.Afterthefall ofNawabofBengalfromtheMughalDynasty,BritishersmadeCalcuttaasthe HeadquarterofEastIndiaCompanyHeavycompensationwaspaidbythemerchants andthepartofthemoneyreceivedfromtheNawabutilizedtobuildnewfortsand palaces.AstimepassesbyBritishersdevelopedtheWhite(British)Townonraised groundandBlackTownconsistofIndians8By1770,GobindaporeandBhabanipur wereoccupiedbyBengalis.Thecityalsoexperiencedtheconstructionofbuildings mainlyinfluencedbythemixtureofGothic,BaroqueandRomanarchitecturalstyles. ThebuildingsweredesignedbythetasteofEnglishGentlemanandBengalibabu Allthesemansionswerebuiltalloverthecitycorewherethegovernmentareawas laidout,whichledKolkatatobecalledthe‘CityofPalaces’.Itwasalsothe mainlandofBritishersforalltheirtrades
The1960s1970sNaxalitesMovementaffectedthecity infrastructure. Thewarof1971betweenIndiaandPakistancausedtheimmigrationofrefugees whichchallengedthecity’sinfrastructure.Sincethe2000s,thecityisgrowinginthe ITsectorandthemanufacturingsectorrecently.
Later,ThePartitionofBengalin1905ledtotheSwadeshiMovement(Boycottof Britishgoods)In1911,thecapitalofBritishIndiawasshiftedtoNewDelhiasit wasquitedifficulttomanagetheadministrationfromKolkata.DuringtheSecond WorldWarin1945,Kolkataportwastheimportantmilitaryportbecauseofwhich city’sportwasbombedtwicebyJapaneseduringWWII
11
9
10SuhrawardyH;"DirectActionDay",InTalukdar,MHR.(ed.):MemoirsofHuseynShaheed
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MarwariCommunity MarwariorMarwadibelongstotheRajasthanregionofIndiaandisanIndianethnic group.MarwariisthelanguagespokenbythemwhichcomesunderRajasthani languagesTheyarethemostsuccessfulbusinesscommunity,earliertheywere inlandtradersoftheRajputeraandnowtheyarealsotheinvestorsinindustrialas wellasothersectorsAtpresenttheyarealloverthecountry,buthistoricallythey wereinKolkata,Mumbai,Chennai,Delhi,Nagpurandothercitiesofcentraland easternIndia. MarwarifallsundertheBaniacommunityaccordingtotheirjati,themainsare Agarwals,Maheshwaris,Khandelwalas&OswalsMostofthepeopleoftheMarwari communitybelongstothedistrictofJhunjhunuandShekhawatiinsteadofJodhpur,it mightbepossiblethattheMarwariterm’sassociationwithJodhpurmighthavea highstatusofthecityinpreindependenceIndia Randhawa,K,ThebombingofCalcuttabytheJapanese,BBC,Retrievedon20060426 Suhmwardy,UniversityPressofBangladesh,Bangladesh,1987,pp5556
10Itcausedamajorshiftindemographicsand intenseviolenceAlargenumberofMuslimsmovedinEastPakistanwhilelakhsof Hinduscameintothecity.
11Gandhi,R,Patel:AUfa,Navajivan,1992,p497
In1946,CommunalviolenceondemandofcreatingaMuslimstatecauseresultsin thedeathofapprox2000people.
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DwijendraTripathisaysthatthetermMarwariwasusedbythetradersonlywhen theywereoutsidetheirhomesMarwaripeoplehavethehabitofmigrationfromthe starting.ToescapefamineandtheyalsohelpedvariousrulersacrossNorthernIndia inbankingandfinanceskills.Themigrationpatterntendstodevelopinadifferent directionafterthefalloftheRajputKingdomThechangeofmigrationwasalso encouragedbyBritishersasnewtradingcentersandrouteswereestablished. BritishersalsogaveasenseofsafetytotheMarwaricommunity,andthecommercial andlegalframeworkwasmorefavorablethanthatofMughalsandRajputsAfterthe declineofMughalfromtheBengalregion,theMarwaricommunitymigratedtothe growingBritishempireinCalcutta.TheyspreadinareascontrolledbyBritishers throughoutthe19thcenturyandwereknownassahukars(moneylenders)They helpedBritishertoestablishthecity.TheyhavebeenthemajorpartofBengalfrom theBritishEra. Culture Kolkataa.k.a.CalcuttaisknownastheCityofJoy,anditisalsoconsideredasthe CulturalCapitalofIndiaThecityhasbeenknownforliterary,artisticand revolutionaryheritage,itwasalsothebirthplaceartisticthoughtandmodernIndian literary.Kolkataisalsofamousforitsartfilms&Bengalicinemaindustry.Thecity appreciatesrichliterarytraditions,theBengalSchoolofArt,etc Gothic,Baroque,Roman,IndoIslamicandOrientalmotifspresentinthemajorityof buildings.TheCityofPalacehasmanycolonialbuildingssomearewellmaintained whilesomearedeclaredheritagestructure
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DurgaPujaisthemostimportantreligious&socialfestivalofKolkata KolkatahasamajorityofMarwari’sthanBengalisandthecityreflectsbothoftheir culturesMarwaricommunityisknownforitstightly-knitsocialsolidarityOther communitieshavecontradictingperceptionsoverMarwariculture.Knownfortheir successfulbusinessesandindustries,theyarealsocriticizedbyotherIndiansfortheir corruptionandsocialconservatism
andSettlementsWorkingPaperSeries,Volumesix,IASTE,WP0689CenterforEnvironmental
Setinthemidstoftheuniverse,manneedsaplaceofpeace,seclusion,aspartofthe greater,hostile,amorphousworldoutside,aspacewhichallthesame,receivesits
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ThecourtyardhasbeenamajorpartofancienthistoryaftertheexcavationinKahun, Egypt,thehouseformsfoundedweredated5000yearsold,whileintheChaldean cityofUrtheformsweredated2000yearsoldOverthepastdecades,aconstant debateontheoriginofcourtyardformsisgoingbutstill,thepreciseoriginofthe formisnotyetdefined.Thebasicdefinitionofacourtyardhouseisdescribedasthe commonopentoskycourtsurroundedbyroomsgenerallyassociatedwiththehot Blaser,Werner1985Atrium:FiveThousandYearsofOpenCourtyardsWepf&CoAGVerlag, BaselJohannesSpaltwrotetheintroductiontothisbook Bagneid,Amr“IndigenousResidentialCourtyards:Typology,MorphologyandBioclimates”The CourtyardAsDwelling.AlSayyad,NezarandJeanPaulBourdier.ed.1989.TraditionalDwellings DesignResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
shareofdayandnight,sunandmoon,heatandcoldandrain JohannesSpalt12
courtyardstyle
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Oneofthemostpopulararchitecturalform mayberelevantforany typeofbuildings,itcanberesidential,commercial,industrialorinstitutional.The courtyardisthespacewhichgivesafeelingofoutsidebutyetitisinside,opentothe skybutstillconnectedtogroundandissurroundedbyroomsCourtyardshad historicalimportanceasitwasanimportantpartofresidentialarchitectureinall climaticregions.Themainconcernofthisdissertationistheresidentialtypeof courtyardsAccordingtoBagneidobservation,“Geographically,courtyardhousesare todayspreadmainlyinNorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,andperipheryregions (Mediterranean:Spain,Greece,etc.;India,Pakistan,Iran,etc)asthepredominant forminindigenouscitieswithhotdry,moderateand/orwarmhumidclimates” (p.42).Thecourtyardhouseemergedanddisappearedpracticallyinallthe civilizationsaroundtheworldbecauseofgeographicalbarriers,politicaldifferences, andreligiousculturaltraditions
Page|10 Courtyards
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HistoricEvolution
Page|11 anddryclimaticregionofMiddleEasterncountries.Theformremainsthesamein allthecountriesandtheclimaticregionsoftheworldCourtyardhousesrespondto thehumanforprivacyandsecurity,asprivatespaceisthemostimportantfactorfor shelterwhichcanbeseeninprehistoriccavedwellings. AncientCivilization TroglodytevillagesintheMatmatasofSouthTunisiawerethefirsthomogeneous societytobuiltcourtyardhousesEachunitwasbuiltaroundacarter(court)which wasopentosky;ithadslopingwallsandflatbottom. Figure2:TroglodyteCaveDwelling Source:(Schoenauer,1962) ThisprototypewasthenprecededbyDouarsinNorthAfrica,itwastheshelterof tribesinWestAfrica Figure3:NorthAfricanDouar Source:(Schoenauer,1962)
Page|12 TheKraalsofBechuanalandinSouthAfricaandtheveryfirstrectangularshaped dwellingsnamedasNoualasTheyweretransitionbetweenDouarandupcoming conventioncourtyardhouses. Figure4:KraalsofBechuanaland Figure5:NoualaofMorocco Source:(Schoenauer,1962) Around20001500B.C.,IndusValleyhouseswerebuiltonthesamephilosophy whereaseriesofroomsconnectedtoacentralcourtyardIthadmultiplefunctions suchaslightingtherooms,absorbsheatduringsummers&radiantheatduring wintersandprovidesanopencentralspaceforcommunityactivities.IndusValley communityhadthewelldrainedcourtyardhousesEvenaftertheendofIndusValley Civilizationaround900B.C.,courtyardplanningisstillthereintheIndian Subcontinent. Figure6:IndusValleyHouseplan Source:(Schoenauer,1962)
Page|13 TheChineseCourtyardHousesweremainlyinfluencedbytheprincipleofYinand YangPlanningofthedwellingunitreflectstheYin&YangconceptOrientationof theunitisNorthSouthandissymmetricalwhichembracestheharmony.Thetypical Chinesecourtyardhouseconsistofseveralbuildingsaresurroundingacourtyard. Figure7:TypicallayoutofChinesecourtyardhouseandStreet Source:(Schoenauer,1962) TheJapaneseDwellingunitreflectsthereligionandcultureastheygivemore importancetothelandscapearchitectureofthecourtyardhousewhichshowsthe deeprespecttomothernature.InSouthAsia,thecourtyardhousesofBaliresembles theChinesecourtyardhouses Figure8:TypicallayoutofJapanesetraditionalhouse Source:(Schoenauer,1962)
Page|14 ClassicCivilization TheClassicaleraofarchitecturewasmarkedbythesophisticatedRoman&Greek designandplanninghadevidenceoftheuniversallyappealingcourtyarddwelling unitsGreeksunderstoodthethermalqualityofcourtyardsandimplementedinsucha waythatthehousesallowlowwintersuninthecourtyardwhileblockingthehigh summersunwiththehelpofoverhangingeavesontheportico. Figure9:TypicalGreekcourtyardhouse Source:(Schoenauer,1962) Later,theRomanswereinspiredbytheairinessandlightingtechniqueofGreek peristylehouses&theatriumhouseoftheEstruscanTheRomanatriumhousewith theperistyle,twoinnercourtyardsandatriumwasthenevolved Figure10:GreekperistylehouseandRomanatriumhouse Source:(Schoenauer,1962)
Page|15 TheMiddleAgesandRenaissanceCivilization AfterthefalloftheRomanEmpirein476A.D.,courtyarddwellingssufferedalot. DuringtheMiddleAges,Italiancourtyardhouseshadtracesof courtyardMonasteriesstartedtoadoptthecourtyardunderthepopularityof ChristiansSullivanobservationsaysthattheBenedictinemonasteryliferevolves aroundenclosed,central,4sidedspacewitharoofedwalkwaywherethemonks studyandmeditateDuringtheRenaissanceperiod,courtyardsremainedsuppressed withsomeglimpseinthecitylikeFlorence.Brunelleschi,Manetti,andMichelangelo transformedFlorencebythereboldandcharmingcourtyards,tomakeitacityof greatcourtyards Figure11:TypicalcourtyardhousesinMoroccoduringmiddleage Source:(Schoenauer,1962) CourtyardhouseswerealsofamousinthenorthernregionaroundtheMediterranean SeamainlySouthernSpain.InSpain,RomanAtriumHousesinspired2dwelling typesastheclimatewasmorefavorableforoutdooractivitiesbutinNorthernSpain housesweresolidLaterSpanishcolonistsexportedthisconstructionideatoLatin Americawhereitisstillknownasthepredominantdwellingtype.Theplanningofa typicaldwellingunitinMexicoisentrancethroughamonumentaldoorway,leading tozaguan(passageway)andzaguanleadstothepatio Figure12:TypicalMexicanPatio Figure13:TypicalSpanishPatio Source:(Schoenauer,1962)
Page|16 FormsandElements ThecourtyarddoesnothaveafixedplanRectangularandsquareshapedcourtyard dwellingsareverybasic,butitcanberoundorcurvilineartoo.Amasswitha punctureinitscenterwhichactsasbreathingspacewithinthemassisgenerally courtyardtypologyButthemainformcanbemodifiedaccordingtotherequirement Thesizeofthecourtyardcanvaryeitheritcanbeveryintimate(small)oritcanbe quitespaciousButineverycase,ithastobelightandairyEarliercourtyardhouses wererestrictedtoonetofivefloors.Butinthemoderncontext,itcanbeofany heightwiththeincorporationoftheatrium,terracegardenandsoon,providingthat thescaleandproportionarepropersothatthecourtyardfeelslightandairy Thebasiccourtyardformconsistsof4mainpartsthatcanbemodifiedandadapted accordingtoregionandculture Thepartsofabasiccourtyardformare TheCourt TheVerandah TheRooms Theroof Figure14:BasicCourtyardForm Source:Author
14Reynolds,JohnCourtyards:Aesthetic,SocialandThermalDelight2002NewYork:JohnWiley
Theprimarybenefitofthecourtyardisthatitprovidesasenseofprivacyand enclosuretotheresidents.Itisheartofthehousewheredifferentactivitiescantake placeduringdifferentpartofthedayItcaneitherbeusedasanextensiontokitchen orcanalsobetheextensionofthelivingroom.Itcanbeasafeplaceforthechildren toplayundertheelder’ssupervision.Asitconnectedtoalltherooms,itactasan interactiveplaceforallthefamilymembersandencouragethemtouseitasa group.Asprivacyisthemainconcernincourtyardform,itprovidesacousticprivacy asitabsorbsallthenoiseofthehouseinitself.Itseparatetheinnerhousefromthe outsidenoisystreetasthesurroundingroomsabsorbsthenoisebyactingasanoise barrier. CulturalBenefits
Thebenefitsofacourt/verandahinthehousemightbeexplaineddownbelow: Psycho-SocialBenefits
Page|17 Benefits AsHinrichsputsit,“vernaculardwellingsarethedistillationofcenturiesofbasic experimentsoftrialanderror”(p.6).14
Morethanonecourtyardsaretheretosegregatethepublicandprivatespacewithin thehouseTheoutercourtyardismainlyusedfortheguestsorpublicmeeting,the decorationreflectsthesocialvalue,statusandwealth.Itismainlyaccessedbymale membersofthefamily.Whereastheinnercourtyardinmorespaciousand comfortableasitisforthefamilymembersandisusuallyenjoyedbythefemalesof thefamily.Thissectionofthehouseismorelavishincomparisontotheouterone.
Page|18 ClimateBenefits Courtyardismainlyreferredasthemicroclimatemodifierasithastheabilityto controlhightemperatures,channelizethebreezeandadjustthedegreeofhumidity. Theinwarddirectednatureofcourtyardenablesdesignertoorientthehousein relatedtosunlight.Thecourtyardofthehouseisthespacethatobeystheweather changeannually,seasonallyanddiurnal.Ithelpsinbothacoustically(preventoutside noise)andamplifyingthesoundofnatureCourtyardhouseconceptcanbeappliedin regionandinallthetypeofclimates. Accessibility&CirculationBenefits Courtyardislociinthehouseconnectingvariousareaandfunctionwithinthehouse. Thecompactnaturereducescirculationzonewithinthehouseandeliminatecorridor sothatalltheroomsaredirectlyconnectedtothecourtyard.Ithelpedinavoidingthe limitedmobilityasalltheroomsareplannedonthegroundandminimizetheneedof staircase Symbolic-ReligiousBenefits Symbolicallyandreligiouslysignificanceofthecourtyard.Enclosedspacewithinthe surroundingwallsofahouseandopentoskyhasbeenconsideredasaspatial symbolofinwardnessandfemininityinthehouseThecourtyardmaysymbolize manythings:afragmentofnatureinsidethehouse;anoasisinthedesert;thecentral focusofinterestinthehouse;aconcentrationoflight,soundandwater;aprivate, safeandlife-sustainingrefugeHindutheology’scosmicsquareisfollowedinthe courtyardhousesintheHinduregionsoftheworld.AllthedailyHindureligious ritualsareperformedinthecourtyard.MostHinducourtyardsaredistinguishedby theplacementofaTulsi(basil)plantwhichiswateredandworshipedeverymorning bytheladiesofthehouse
Page|19 EconomicalBenefits Somefinancialbenefitsregardingtheformandtheconstructionofcourtyardare clearlyassociated.Landisusedefficientlyforthecourtyardhousedesign,especially whencourtyardhouseshavesharedwallTheconstructioncostandmaintenancecost issignificantlyused.Thesetbacksusuallyrequiredforfrontandsidesaround buildingsmaybenullified,thusallowingusageofmorefloorareaallbecauseofan interioropenspaceCourtyardhousesleadstosimple,unpretentiousdesignsolutions, whichhelpcreatesavingsinconstructioncosts.Anotherfinanciallybeneficialaspect ofthecourtyardformisitsgenerallyflexibleinteriorspaces.
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HaveliofGujrat,Punjab&Rajasthan,WadaofMaharashtra,NalukettuinKerala, ChettinadofTamilNaduandRajbariofBengal
IndianCourtyardHouses
Indiahasamazingexamplesofcourtyardhouses
HistoryEvolution
ResearchonthesignificanceofIndiancourtyardswasdonerecentlyaspreviouslyit hasbeenovershadowedbythearchitecturalimportanceofWesterncounterparts (mainlyGreek,Roman,etc)Randhawapointsoutthatthecourtyardhouseformin Indiawasnotbasedonblindconformityandtherewastremendousinnovationinthe designofsuchhomes.HeobservesinTheIndianCourtyardHousethatthesedesigns werenotonlyoriginatingbutalsoconformedtotheclimaticrequirementsofthe differentregions.Theuseofdifferentdesignandcrafttechniques,buildingmaterials (likebrickorstone)andmortarjointswasvisibleacrossthecountrywithregional variations CourtyardsinIndiaarethemainexpressionofthesocioculturalvalues.Thesesocial valuesaredemonstratedinthebeliefinthefundamentaldirectionswhichguidethe locationandorientationofthebuildinganditsdifferentfunctions.Thespace organizationwithinthehouseholdreflectsthesocialrelationsofmenandwomen, eldersandyounginthefamilyandthesocialstructureTheIndiancourtyardhouse typeisverylooselydefinedwithrespecttotheinteriorspaces.Infact,asRandhawa hasrightlyobserved,thekitchenandthepujaroomsaretheonlyrigidlydefined spacesOtherwisemostotherroomsaremultipurpose,whichreflectstheadaptable socialstructure,respectingtheutilityofspacesevenaftertheirprimaryuseisover.
InIndia,courtyardhousescanbetracedbacktotheHarappancivilization(3rd MillenniumBC)-basedonrectangulargridformatLater,theAryaninvadersalso influencedthecourtyardhousesoftheVedicperiod(1500BC)Later,theMuslim invaders(500B.C.)hadtheirowninfluenceoncourtyardhouses.Courtyardhouses werewidelyadoptedbytheHind,JainandBuddhistculturesastheirdominant
Figure15:Akbar’sFatehpurSikrishowstwophasesincourtyarddesign,combiningtheMuslim ArcheswithHinduTrabeatestyle Source:(Unknown,AgeFotoStock)
AccordingtoRandhawa,thefirststageofdesignevolutionofcourtyardstartedwith theincorporationoftheIslamicarchintotheHinduTrabeatestyle(asseeninthe FatehpurSikri).Crossregionalinfluencealsoprevailedwiththeimportofthe ‘bangladarroof’fromthevillagehutsofBengaltoNorthIndia.Thesecondstagewas markedbytheriseofpalatialarchitectureinIndiaThegrandeurofthehousebecame directlyrelatedtothesocialstatusofitsresidentsTheIndoSaracenicblendwiththe Italianimitationsgivingthehybridcourtyardstructure.
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housingtypology.TemplesandBuddhistmonasteriesalsousedtheCourtyardform.
Courtyardhousescanbefoundineverypartofthecountry,formtheHimalayasto thesouthernpartofIndiaButtypicalplanningwasfeaturedinthecourtyardhouses ofplain,startingfromthefoothillsoftheHimalaya. ThefollowingareregionaltypeofCourtyardhouses
RegionalVariationinCourtyardform
Today’sCourtyardhouseswereinfluencedbytwomaindesignphasesThefirst phaseassociatedwiththemughalperiodinIndia(16thcenturytoearly18thcentury); thesecondphaseassociatedwiththecolonialperiodinIndia(late18thcenturyto 20thcentury)
CourtyardarchitectureprevailedinIndiatilltheearly16thcenturyandthengained greatnessundertheMughalruleinIndia.
Page|22 Haveli ThehavelisarefoundinthenorthernandnorthwesternpartofIndiamainlyin Gujrat,RajasthanorPunjab.ThehavelisofGujratarepopularlyknownfortheirrich interiorandexteriorwoodcarvingsanddecorationsItissaidthatduring19thcentury thesehavelisweremadefromlocaltimberresourcebutastheforestfell,teakwood wasimportedfromWesternGhatsorfromMalabarCoastorBurma.Thehavelis wereelongatedbutplanningwasnarrowwhichconservespaceideallyThehavelis havearoofedopenverandahinfrontofthehousefacingthestreet.Nexttoitisthe Baithakusedforgatheringofguestandsleepingspaceduringwintersbutmainly occupiedbygentsTheoutercourtyardismajorlyusedforparkingtractors&trolleys andkeepinganimalslikecowsand/orbuffaloesTheinnercourtyardisusedfor familygathering,seriesofsomeroomsaredevotedforpreparation,waterstorageand cookingThecomplexcomplexgobbledrooffacilitaterainwaterwhichisgathered towardsthecourtyard.Thewindowsanddoorsareornamentedandwindowsactas socializingplaceaswellasvisualseparator.AuniquethingofhavelisofGujratis thatitconsistofaswingseatorhinchkowhichcreatesagentlebreezewithminimal effortallowsonetotakerest,naporjustsitandchill. Figure16:TypicalinteriorofHaveliofGujrat Source:(Ahlwalia,2016)
Page|23 ThehavelisofPunjabReflectsthepsychologyofthesocietyastheywerebuiltfor thesecurityandsafeguardthefamiliesfromtheMuslimInvadersThefacadeofthe havelisofPunjabwerenotornamentedasthatofRajasthanandGujrat.Thegatehad nailsstuddedandwereboltedaftersunset&unlockedaftersunrise.Thefortlike appearanceofhaveliswassmoothenedbyMughalinfluenceddecorationtakenfrom domesticarchitecture.Thedoublecuspedarchedbrackets(chajjas)forshading,use ofstuccoandothertypeofdecorativefloralpatterns.Thewallsofcourtyardhouse givesasenseofprivacyanddefenselikeothercourtyardhousesandthecourt remainsthecenterofattraction.Thewesternpartisopentoexteriorsoithasamen’s areaorMardanawhiletheeasternpartwhichisplannedawayfromentranceisthe women’sareaorZenana Figure17:TypicalHaveliofPunjab Source:(Unknown,SikhSangat,2019)
Figure18:HoneycoloredsandstonehaveliofJaisalmer
RajasthaniHaveliswereinspiredbyMughalexceptfortheHavelisofUdaipuras theyreflectthestyleofearlyRajputpalaces.Havelislookscongestedinthecity layoutbutsurprisinglytheybecomeairythemomentoneentersfromthresholdtothe courtyardandthehighwallsblockthenoisefromthestreetTheHaveliswerehigher thantwostoriesandgouptillfivetosixstorieshigh,daylightcreatesaspaciousness illusion.TheexteriorfacadeoftheHaveliswasornamentedwithbalconiesand windowsAlltheroomsofeachfloorhadwindowsandbalconieshelpedinair circulationastheyopenedinthecentralcourtyard.Thefloralpatternswithmirrors reflectlightmultipletimeswhichincreasesthespaciousnessfeelingintheroom.
Source:(Vallangi,2016)
TheHavelisofRajasthanweredifferentfromGujratiHavelismainlyintheextensive useoflocallyavailablestoneasthebuildingmaterial(marble,sandstone,limestone, etc).Rajasthaniwantedsafeandprivatespaceforwomen,atthesametimethey wantedjharokha,balconies,porchesandprojectedwindowsfromthefacade. AccordingtoRandhawa,Rajasthanihadthevarietyofcourtyardhousesfrom honeycoloredsandstoneHavelisinJaisalmertothepinkcoloredhousesinJaipur,to thewhitesignifiespurityinUdaipur,tothelightbluecoloredhousesofJodhpur.
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Page|25 Wadas
TheseweretheresidentsofMarathasunderthepatronageofPeshwa,weremade fromPunetoNasiktoSholapur.ThehouseswereofBrahminMarathasbutthe buildingshowsMughalinfluenceintheirdesignandthecourtyardwithfountains, pools,terraces,pillaredaisles,arches,latticedwindowsorbalconiesSymmetry playedanimportantroleinthesehousesGenerally,theserosestotwoormorefloors andastheywereintheurbanareasofMaharashtratheyhadtheshortageofspaceso courtyardswereofsmallsizemanytimesTheoutercourtyardwasmainlytoreceive guestsorforbusiness&administrativeactivitiesofthehouseandinnercourtyards werefamilyoriented.TheexteriorswereminimalwiththecarvingofHindugodson thecenterofthewoodenlintelwhichwasonthemainentranceandguardroomswere onbothsidesoftheentrance.Theinteriorwasdecoratedlavishlywithpaintingsand otheritems.Itwasobservedthatinwadaseitheraseparateroomwasdedicatedtothe religiousceremoniesorthecornerofthehallwaspartitionedfortheimageoffamily GodorGoddess.Therewasasittingplatformorotlainthesemiprivatespacefor socializingwithneighbors.Inthelargewadas,theuppertwofloorsactas theDiwankhana15,whichwasconnectedbyawoodenstaircaseatthesidesofthe courtyard. DiwankhanaThefloorusedforformalentertainmentandreligiousceremonies
Figure19:TypicalWadaofMaharashtra Source:(Taheem,2018) 15
Page|26 Nalukettu ThisformofresidenceofKeralaislasoknownasTarawad.Thesetypicalhouses wereownedbyeliteNairBrahminsofKerala.Nalukettumeansasinglecourtyard withfoursidesThecourtyardissurroundedbyfourblockswithsloppingtiledroof onallthesides,protectinginnerandouterverandahfromrainandsunThecourtyard ofthesehousesarewaysmallerthenthecourtyardofnorthernhavelisasallow moderateamountofsuninthespaceThehousesareformedonVastushastram principlesoforientation,locationandfunctionsofrooms.Fortheexpansion,asimilar moduleiscreatedtoaccommodatetheexpandingfamily.Nalukettualsohasa decoratedentranceontheeasternsidejustlikethenorthernhouseswithraised semiprivateverandahwithplatformsforvisitorstositAnimportantdifferenceof thissoutherncourtyardhousefromitsnortherncounterpartswasthematrilineal familythathousedthemThereisnoprivateareaofwomenjustlikeinthenorthern havelis.Theupperfloorsaremainlyusedasstoreroomswhichareventilatedbythe screensonthegableroofs.Thebasicstructuralelementsisbrickandwood,wood carvingisdoneingeometricpatternsasornamentationThetempleislocatedatthe rearendofthehouseneartothecourtyard Figure20:TypicalNalukettuofKerala Source:(Unknown,TheHindu,2017)
Chettinad ThistypeofresidencewasofChettiarBrahminsofTamilNadu,whoaretradersand businessmenbytheprofessionthatoncehadmajormercantilelinkswithSoutheast Asia.Therectangleistheprimaryshapeofthehouseanditiselongated,similarto theHavelisofthenorthernregionThetransparencyoftheplanofChettinadallows uninterruptedviewsfromthefrontdoortothebackdoor.Themaindooris ornamentedwithwoodcarvingalongwiththedoorpanel.Theprimarycourtyardis rectangularThetwotierfrontverandahiscoveredbyaslopedroofwithtilesand supportedbytworowsofwoodencolumnswhicharetheuniquefeatureofChettinad. Themaincourtyardissurroundedbyacoveredverandahanditclosesattheendof thehouseswhichisusedforformalmealsItisalsointwolevelsinwhichtheupper levelisformenandthelowerlevelisforwomen.Asmallcourtyardisassociated withkitchenandcookingactivitieswhichisawomendomain.Itisobservedthat toiletsarephysicallyseparatedfromthehousePlannedaccordingtoHindu philosophyofplacingimpurityawayfrompure.Smallroomsaroundthecourtyard arefortheheadsofthesubfamilieswithinthejointfamilyresidinginthehouse.The storageroomsareontheupperstoreyexceptforoneroomwhichisreservedfor newlyweds.AtpresenttheseChettinadaredesertedastheoriginalfamilymembers havemigrated.Buttheycomebackduringceremonialoccasionslikemarriages whichneedtotakeplacewithinthecourtyard
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Figure21:TypicalChettinadofTamilNadu Source:(Ramadurai,2015)
Page|28 Rajbari TwotypesofcourtyardformscanbefoundinthecityThefirst,houseswereof Marwaribusinessmenmigratedtothecity.Theygotfamilisedthelocalcondition& thelandandbuiltacopyoftheirancestralhouses.Thesecondwasbuiltbywealthy Bengalibabuswhowereinfluencedbythewesternarchitecturalconcepts& Britisher'staste.Theybuilttheirmansionswiththewesterntouchbutretainedthe traditionalcourtyardformandpujaarea.Theloveforcultureandperformingartsin BengalipeoplecanbeseenintheRajbaridesignastheyhaveraisedtheplatformon onesideofthecourtyardwhichisastageforperformancesofmusic,dance,and drama.Andonesideofthecourtyardhasapujamandaporthakurdalanroomfor worshipwherethefamilyoffersdailyworshipAccordingtoRandhawainBengal manywomenlibrerationmovementsandotherreformationstartedsomanyofthe housesdidn’thaveanseparatespaceforjenana,asseeninnorthernhavelis.These moderncourtyardhousesareamixofwesternexteriorsandvernacularinteriors Rajbariistheprimaryfocusofthisdissertationandwillbediscussedindetailin upcomingchapters. Figure22:TypicalRajbariofKolkata Source:(Unknown,TripAdvisor,Unknown)
marriage,birthanddeath Figure23:VastuPurushaMandala Source:(Unknown,ArchitectureIdeas,2008)
ThecosmicsquarephilosophyoftheMandalaguidestherelationshipandorientation ofthedifferentspacesinthehousewiththecentralnodeintheformofthe
TheHinduCourtyards
sidesareconsideredinauspicious.AllHinducourtyardhouseshaveamainentrance intheeast.ThetopofthemaindoorhaveanengravedGodorreligioussymbols.
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ThesenseofenclosureandprivacyhighlighttheHinducourtyardhousesinIndia opentoskycourtWhiletheeastandnorthsidesarefavored,thesouthandwest Generally,multipleentrancesarepreferredtosegregatethepathsofmenandwomen inthehouse.Basedonthephilosophyofthe“pollutionpurityaxis”,thekitchenand toiletinthehouseareseparatedbytheinternalcourtintwoaxiallyopposite directionsTheHinducourtyardisgenerallydistinguishedbyaTulasi(Basil)plant, setinalowplatforminthecenter,wherethefemalemembersofthefamilyoffer prayersforpeaceandprosperity,everymorningandevening.Thecourtyardis mainlyafemalespaceintheHinduhousesThefemalemembers,whoareusually separatedbydistancefromthemalemembers,usethisoutdoorspacefortheirdaily activitiesInmanyHinduhouses,cookingandpreparationoffoodisdonein courtyardallowingthekitchentoremainsmallinsizeThesizeofthecourtyardand itsopentoskycharacteristicallowsforaccommodatingdifferentHinducommunal andreligiousritualsandritesthatneedtobewitnessedbyheavenlybodieslike,
Page|30 CourtyardsofCalcutta TheHotHumidclimateisknownbyhighhumidityandhighrainfallDuringdaytime, thetemperatureisusuallyonthehighersideapprox31°C37°Cthroughouttheyear. Thewindisverylightorsometimesdoesn’tevenexistforlongerdurationButstorm andheavyprecipitationoccurfrequently Calcuttaisthecitywhichcomesunderhothumidclimaticzone.Temperaturelies between30°C35°C,relativehumidityrangesbetween75%90%Theprevailing windstravelfromSouthWesttoNorthEastduringsummersandNorthSouthduring wintersMaximumrainfallinthemonthofAugustThecourtyardhousesofCalcutta belongtoBengalibabusandMarwaricommunityandthehousesreflectstheirculture Accordingtoclimate,thecourtyardhousesofCalcuttaneedtotamethesunand channelthewind.Humidityisanimportantaspectoftheclimate. SunIncourtyardhousesthesunhastwoimportantaspectsEntranceofdaylightin thehouseandtheheatgainedduringdaytimeKolkata’sclimateismajorlythelong sunshinehoursandoverheatedseason WindIncourtyardhousesproperventilationinenclosedspaceandsurrounding roomsisthechallengeThewiderhorizontalwindwardsideallowswindtoentryinto andoutofthecourtyardbeforereachingleewardside.Thelightandairytype buildingdesignhelpinairpenetrationintothespacesandtherebyincreasethe comfortinsideandoutsidethehouse CourtyardHouseTheidealproportionofcourtyardhouseshelpsintamingthe Calcutta’sclimate(Avoidheatgainwithmaximumnaturalventilation)Arcade aroundcourtyardprovidessolarshading,filterdaylightandnaturalventilation. Courtyardaffectstheuseofarcades(Semiopen).
Page|31 CaseStudySaraugiHouse(Rajbari) Figure24:SaraugiHouseofBurrabazar Source:Author Form TheinwardformofcourtyardhousesofKolkataisexactlyoppositeinformfrom BritishBungalowshavingafrontverandah.Thecourtyardissquareorrectangular forminthecourtyardhousesofKolkata.Thisarchitecturalformisidealforthe BengalitraditionTheformsymbolizesthetransitionfromtheIndianarchitectural philosophytothewesternarchitecturalstyle.Thepresenceofaninnercourtyard helpedtheownerstoleadaprivatewithinthehouseeventhoughthepeoplehadto imitateBritishlifestylesinspacesthatwereaccessibletotherulers
Page|32 Figure25:BasicCourtyardForm Source:Author Figure26:Typicalcourtyardview Source:Author
Page|33 Plan SimilartomostothercourtyarddwellingsinIndia,theRajbariorcourtyardhousesin Kolkatahasasimpleplanwithroomslaidoutsurroundingthecentralcourtyard.In mostofthesepalatialbuildings,thereismorethanonecourtyardtheouterbeing thepubliccourtyardorbahirmahalwhiletheinnercourtyardismorerestrictedtothe familyorandarmahal.Thetraditionalplanissymmetricalinnature.Theroomsare plannedaccordingtotheirfunctionsbasedonthefundamentaldirectionsaroundthe courtyard.ThemostuniquefeatureofthesecourtyardmansionsinKolkata,as differentiatedfromthoseinotherpartsofthecountryistheexistenceofthakurdalan (pujaroom)andnatmandir(stageforculturalperformances) Figure27:TypicalentrytothecourtyardhouseinCalcutta Source:Author
Circulation
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Figure28:Typicalcirculationlayout Source:Author
ThemovementwithinthehouseisusuallydirectedtowardsthecourtyardMostof thecirculationinthehouseisthroughthearcadedverandahsaroundthecourtyard. Theroomsingeneralopentothesearcadestowardsthecourtyardside.Somehouses hadverandahsontheoutersideofthehousefacingthestreet,buttheyarevisually blockedbyusingscreensontheupperfloorswherethewomenmayreside,whereas thelowerfloorsusuallyremainedthedomainofthemeninthehouse.Sincemostof thehousesaretwostories,therearestairsforverticalcirculationatstrategiccorners
Page|35 Figure29:ArcadeView Source:Author Figure30:Presentuseofthecourtyard Source:Author
Page|36 Thecourtyardinthishousewasearlierusedforsocialgatherings,durgapuja, membersinthehouseusedtosleepincotsinthecourtyard,womenofthehousehold usedtositinthecourtyardandcompletealltheirdailychoreslikehandlingthehelp, makingpickles,grindingspices,prepareformeals,etcItwasaspaceforthe householdmemberstoentertainguest,culturalperformances Figure31:Arcadedupperfloors Source:Author Butintoday’stimethereishardlyanyuseforthecourtyard.Thespaceisatmost usedforentertainingguestsandsmallpujasandfamilyfunctions.Itremainsasa spaceforthehouseholdmemberstosit,entertainguests.Butthecourtyardisnotas wellmaintainedasitwasearlier.Themembersofthefamilyenjoytheideaofhaving thecourtyardbuttheuseforthecourtyardhasgonedownovertheyears.
Page|37 Thefamilylovesthesentimentalvalue,culturalaspectsandthecoolwindsthatthe courtyarddirectstowardstherooms,theeaseoffloortofloorcommunicationvia arcadedcorridorButduetofinancialissuesthefamilyhasnowsoldofftheground floorroomsTheroomsonthegroundfloorarenowusedasgodowns,jewellery storeThefrontfacingroomsareusedassmallshops Figure32:Theuseofgroundfloorchangesfrombedroomsforprivateuseoffamilytogodownsand jewelershopstoeasefinancialburdenonfamilyovertheyears Source:Author Figure33:FrontfacadeofSaraugiHouse Source:Author
Page|38 Figure34:EntrancegateofSaraugiHouse Source:Author
ThecourtyardsaidintheventilationofhousesTheygiveasafecommonareafor childrentoplayandwomentoperformdomesticactivitieslikegrindingofspices. Theyprovideaspaceforsocialgatherings.Especiallyduringthewintermonthsthe courtyardspacesbecomeacentreforactivityinthehouseCourtyardsareawayfrom thepryingeyesoftheneighbourandhencecanbeusedfreelybythefemale occupants.Courtyardsgivethehousesamoregrandappearanceastheyallowplenty ofsunlight,airandventilationintothehouse
Overtimewiththechangeinfamilystructureandeconomicconditionsthe maintenanceofthesecourtyardhouseshasbecomedifficult.Earlierjointfamilies werethenormoftheIndiansocietybutnowwithmodernizationthesizeofthe familieshasreducedsothemaintenanceofthehousesischallenging.Themodern dwellersagreethattheircourtyardhousesholdanemotional,socialandcultural valueintheirlifebuttheeconomicstrainofthehousesismore
Thesocialtrendsandpracticeshavealsochangedovertheyears.Earlierwomenused tostayathomeanddothehouseholdchores,forthemthecourtyardwasaspacefor allthewomenoftheextendedhouseholdgatherandworkNowithasbecome difficultforthepeopletomaintainthecourtyardintheirhouse.
Page|39 Conclusion
Courtyardisusedatalltimesofthedaywiththemostpreferablebeingwinter morningsandsummereveningsMosthouseshavetwocourtyardswiththeinnerone beingmoreprivatethantheouterone.Mostofthefamiliespreferholdingprivate, familygatheringsintheinteriorcourtyardswhiletheoutercourtyardsarereserved forlargergatheringslikePujas,Marriageceremonies,theatre
Courtyardsaregenerallyprivateopenspacesintheinteriorofhouses.Thesespaces wereearlierusedforavarietyofsocialgatheringsandfunctionsandtheystill continuetobeusedforthesameCourtyardsarealsomajorlyusedforthefestivals likeDurgaPuja,KalipujaandDolthatthepeopleofBengalsolovinglycelebrate. Courtyardscanalsobeusedformarriageceremonies,familygatherings,funerals, ‘aachar’,theatre,kidsplayarea
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Givenachoicebetweenapartmentbuildingsandoldcourtyardhouses,theoccupants preferoldcourtyardhousesforthesocial,traditionalandreligioussignificancethey carryTheygoontosaythattheoldcourtyardbuildingalsoprovidesproper ventilation,airandsunlightinsidethehouseThefamilieshavesentimentalvalues attachedtothecourtyardhouses.Theonlydrawbackistheeconomicstrainand maintenanceissuesthatthehousescausetothefamiliesthatresideinthem.Some peoplepreferstayingintheircourtyardhousesbutsellingawaypartsofitfor financialgainandeaseofmaintenance.PresentdaycourtyardhousesofBurrabazar, Calcuttaaremostlyoneswherethegroundfloorhasbeensoldofftojewellerstore, spicevendors,clothgodownsandsoonManycourtyardhouseshavealsobeen demolishedandapartmentbuildingshavebeenconstructedinitsplace.
Themainissuewithcourtyardsintoday’stimeisthatitisverydifficulttomaintain. TheycauseaneconomicstrainontheoccupantsofthehouseTherearefewsafety andsecurityrelatedissues.Inthepresenttimemostofthefamilieshavereducedin size,theextendedfamilydonotresideinthesameresidenceanymore.Jointfamilyis athingofthepastsowiththereducednumberofoccupantsmanagingacourtyardin thehousebecomesanissue,additionalstaffisrequiredtomaintainthecourtyard spacesofthehousesthatprovestobeaneconomicburdentothefamily.
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Bibliography Ahlwalia,M.(2016).
Thestoryofa350yearoldhaveliinAhmedabad.Retrieved fromArchitecturalDigest: https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/thestoryofa350yearoldhaveliinahm edabad/#scust0 Das,N(2001)CourtyardsHousesofKolkata:Bioclimatic,Typologicaland SocioCulturalStudyManhattan,Kansas FatmaAbass,L.H.(2016).AREVIEWOFCOURTYARDHOUSE:HISTORY EVOLUTIONFORMS,ANDFUNCTIONS.ARPNJournalofEngineeringand AppliedSciences,11,25572563. Hardgrove,A.(August1999).
TheIndianCourtyardHousePrakashBooks Roy,S(2016,May11)MarwariCity:StoriesofKolkata'sheritageoftenexcludeits prominentcommunityFirstpost Schoenauer,N.&.(1962).TheCourtGardenHouse Taheem,M.(2018).RetrievedfromFabHotels: https://www.fabhotels.com/blog/historicalplacesinpune/ Unknown.(n.d.).RetrievedfromAgeFotoStock: https://wwwagefotostockcom/age/en/StockImages/panchmahalfatehpursikriagra html Unknown(2008)RetrievedfromArchitectureIdeas: http://architectureideasinfo/2008/10/vastupurushamandala/ Unknown.(2017).RetrievedfromTheHindu: https://www.thehindu.com/realestate/heritagehistorythenalukettuhousesofkerala /article19239576.ece
SatiWorshipandMarwariPublicIdentityinIndia. Harrison,S.(1960).India:ThemostdangerousdecadesPrincetonUniversityPress. Kudaisya,MM(2009)MarwariandChettiarMerchants1850s1950s: ComparativeTrajectories Pandey,J.(2014,September15).Meltingpotofculturesincityofjoy.Timesof India Ramadurai,C.(2015).RetrievedfromNatGeoTraveller: http://www.natgeotraveller.in/chettinadguidemagnificentmansionspepperycuisine andantiquemarkets/ Randhawa,TS(1999)
Page|42 Unknown.(2019).RetrievedfromSikhSangat: https://www.sikhsangat.com/index.php?/topic/84345sikhhavelisinpakistan/ Unknown(2012,November13)Eternal‘outsiders’MarwarisofKolkata/ KaliKathaviaBypassHajarduariWordpress Unknown.(Unknown).RetrievedfromTripAdvisor: https://www.tripadvisor.in/HotelReviewg304558d3610706ReviewsItachunaRaj bariKolkataCalcuttaKolkataDistrictWestBengal.html Vallangi,N.(2016).RetrievedfromBBC: http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20160311acrumblingbirthplaceofbillionaires
Page|43 ListofFigures Figure1:MapofIndia,WestBengalandCalcutta..................................................................................5 Figure2:TroglodyteCaveDwelling 11 Figure3:NorthAfricanDouar 11 Figure4:KraalsofBechuanalandFigure5:NoualaofMorocco 12 Figure6:IndusValleyHouseplan.........................................................................................................12 Figure7:TypicallayoutofChinesecourtyardhouseandStreet 13 Figure8:TypicallayoutofJapanesetraditionalhouse 13 Figure9:TypicalGreekcourtyardhouse 14 Figure10:GreekperistylehouseandRomanatriumhouse...................................................................14 Figure11:TypicalcourtyardhousesinMoroccoduringmiddleage 15 Figure12:TypicalMexicanPatioFigure13:TypicalSpanishPatio 15 Figure14:BasicCourtyardForm 16 Figure15:Akbar’sFatehpurSikrishowstwophasesincourtyarddesign,combiningtheMuslim ArcheswithHinduTrabeatestyle 21 Figure16:TypicalinteriorofHaveliofGujrat 22 Figure17:TypicalHaveliofPunjab 23 Figure18:HoneycoloredsandstonehaveliofJaisalmer.......................................................................24 Figure19:TypicalWadaofMaharashtra...............................................................................................25 Figure20:TypicalNalukettuofKerala 26 Figure21:TypicalChettinadofTamilNadu 27 Figure22:TypicalRajbariofKolkata....................................................................................................28 Figure23:VastuPurushaMandala 29 Figure24:SaraugiHouseofBurrabazar 31 Figure25:BasicCourtyardForm 32 Figure26:Typicalcourtyardview..........................................................................................................32 Figure27:TypicalentrytothecourtyardhouseinCalcutta..................................................................33 Figure28:Typicalcirculationlayout 34 Figure29:ArcadeView 35 Figure30:Presentuseofthecourtyard 35 Figure31:Arcadedupperfloors..............................................................................................................36 Figure32:Theuseofgroundfloorchangesfrombedroomsforprivateuseoffamilytogodownsand jewelershopstoeasefinancialburdenonfamilyovertheyears 37 Figure33:FrontfacadeofSaraugiHouse 37 Figure34:EntrancegateofSaraugiHouse............................................................................................38