Emotional intelligence business use 5

Emotional intelligence business use –e-1 Contents Intelligence, emotions and emotional intelligence Business use of emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence for medical profession Emotional intelligence for selling Emotional intelligence for leaders Emotional intelligence for managers Emotional intelligence for teachers Emotional intelligence and driving Emotional intelligence and sleep problems Emotional intelligence and decision making Emotional intelligence and call centres Emotional intelligence for entrepreneurs Emotional intelligence for executives Emotional intelligence for stock brokers Emotional intelligence for networking /social relationship Emotional intelligence for family relationship Emotional intelligence for success/promotion Emotional intelligence for job opportunities Emotional intelligence for team building Emotional intelligence for mental health Emotional intelligence for finance and economics Emotional intelligence for HR Emotional intelligence for coaching Emotional intelligence for IT 1

Emotional intelligence for aviation industry Emotional intelligence and theatre/ film industry Emotional intelligence for medical profession Emotional intelligence for medical profession Emotional intelligence for medical profession Emotional intelligence for medical profession Emotional intelligence for medical profession

Introduction During the last two decades interpersonal skills have become a more integral part of effective management. In the age-old paradigm, managers were once seen to plan, control and inspect the overall running of an organisation. But in today’s more service-oriented industries, managers’ roles are also to motivate and inspire others, to foster positive attitude at work and to create a sense of contribution and importance with and among employees.

The rules of success are changing with times. The satellite revolution has brought knowledge and learning closer. The functional know-how and expertise is therefore assumed to be of high standards. The question thus arises as to what differentiates a star performer from others. The evidence from enormous research work in the last couple of decades establishes without doubt that what sets a star performer apart from the ordinary ones, is a different way of being competent (i.e.) emotionally competent. Emotional competence can be understood as a learned capabilities based on emotional intelligence that facilitates outstanding performance. Being intelligent about emotions means that we can perceive and use emotions to create optimal relationships and produce desired outcomes.

Some people just get along with others, respond carefully even in the face of challenge, and truly connect with people. They are proactive, balanced, operate with integrity, and have great insight into themselves and others. All these come from a set of skills called emotional intelligence. These skills are learnable, measurable, and are valuable at work – especially in complex roles. EQ skills assist in engaging people, influencing across boundaries and cultures, being proactive, caring for customers, building enduring sales relationships, and creating workplaces where people can excel.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, skill as well capacity to identify, assess, manage and control the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. Emotional intelligence is considered to play a crucial role in the modern business life. Its principles help in evaluating business person’s behaviour, management styles, attitudes, interpersonal skills and potentials and is considered to have great relevance in areas like job profiling, planning, recruitment and selection. Another major 2

advantage of emotional intelligence is that it allows people to better understand and mange emotions . It also helps in understanding one’s own conduct as well as relationship with others .

Psychological studies have shown that understanding and controlling emotions play significant role in gratifying one’s life and work environment. In a group setting business people with higher EI will be able to influence the emotions of others in such a manner that, they will be able to boost their own as well as their employee’s morale. They stay open to feelings, blend emotions with thinking and reflectively monitor emotions. They also generate new ideas, think in new ways, be creative, enhance “big-picture” thinking and have enhanced decision-making abilities.

The evidence for utility of EI is increasingly compelling. The measurable, learnable skills of emotional intelligence make a significant impact on organisational performance. EQ may be essential to differentiating world-class organisations in an increasingly complex and competitive marketplace.

That deep emotional conviction of the presence of a superior reasoning power, which is revealed in the incomprehensible universe, forms the roots of success. Successful people therefore never build their emotional life on the weaknesses of others.

"Your pain is the breaking of the shell that encloses your understanding." Said Khalil Gibran and emotionally intelligent people manage to break their shell to develop understanding themselves and others.

Business use of emotional intelligence As “emotional intelligence” becomes part of mainstream vocabulary (at this point there are 7.7 million hits on Google, and 695,000 results on Google’s book search), leaders are increasingly considering how this concept brings value. In a recent study, when asked “What are the top issues you face at work?” leaders identified that 76% are on the people/relational side, and only 24% on the finance/technical side. Among these 135 respondents, a massive 89%identify EQ as “highly important” or “essential” to meeting their organisations’ top challenges.

Your organization is made of people, processes, and property. For a long time, "common wisdom" has been that returns come from investing in the latter two. Yet, in the last decades, a flood of research has challenged that assumption and is increasingly proving that a company's people are the differentiating factor. Since emotional intelligence is all about "people smarts" -- about relating to yourself and others -- it's no surprise that EQ plays a major role in this dimension.

(White Paper The Business Case for Emotional Intelligence ) If over 70% of the top issues in the workplace are tied to leadership, it’s no surprise that organizations are urgently looking for the cutting edge science that helps leaders understand how to work with and through their people and emotional intelligence serves that purpose.

The challenge is to see the value of emotions, then to begin using these skills on a daily basis. Everyone has emotional intelligence -- for most of us, it's 3

an underdeveloped area and an untapped resource that requires careful application. As Peter Salovey said, "Yes we can control emotions. The trick is doing it in the right way at the right time."

It's not a new idea: around 350 BC, Aristotle wrote, "Anyone can become angry – that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way – that is not easy. "Emotional intelligence remains an emerging science. The research progress in the last 20 years is remarkable – but research into other intelligences has been underway for over 100 years. Meanwhile, this new science can be applied to help leaders understand what truly drives people – and thereby to accelerate performance In Working With Emotional Intelligence , Daniel Goleman reported that 8090% of the competencies that differentiate top performers are in the domain of emotional intelligence.

While IQ and other factors are important, it's clear that emotional intelligence is essential to optimal performance. Emotional Intelligence is more than twice as predictive of business performance than purely cognitive intelligence and is more predictive of business performance than are employee skill, knowledge and expertise.

Numerous studies explore the financial implication of emotional intelligence; particularly how higher EQ leaders produce more powerful business results. One such study tested 186 executives on EQ and compared their scores with their company’s profitability; leaders who scored higher in key aspects of emotional intelligence (including empathy and accurate self-awareness) were more likely to be highly profitable.

The Harvard Business Review recently reminded leaders that their excellence begins and ends with their inner resources: "Executives who fail to develop self-awareness risk falling into an emotionally deadening routine that threatens their true selves.

Restaurant managers with higher EQ create:34% greater annual profit growthIncreased guest satisfactionHigher employee retention

Indeed a reluctance to explore your inner landscape not only weakens your own motivation but can also corrode your ability to inspire others."

In the last century, “inspiring others” might have looked like Donald Trump playing the tough leader in The Apprentice. But in real organizations today, leaders face a much more complex challenge of 4

inspiration. Again, the Gallup findings indicate that almost 3/4ths of the workforce is disengaged. Leaders who use their emotional resources to foster "engagement" (a sense of caring and commitment) deliver significant bottom-line results. Teams with higher engagement are: •50% more likely to have lower turnover.

•56% more likely to have higher-than-average customer loyalty.

•38% more likely to have above-average productivity.

•27% more likely to report higher profitability.

So do emotionally intelligent leaders create more effective teams, or are “business smarts” and traditional intelligence all it takes? In a study of relationships between emotional intelligence and leadership, 261 members of the British Royal Navy were administered measures of intellectual competency, managerial competency, emotional intelligence competency, overall performance, and personality.

13 Participants in the study were divided into two levels of seniority, Officers and Ratings (non-officers). The results broadly illustrated the importance of emotional intelligence in predicting leadership trends.

For example, compared to both managerial and IQ competencies, the EQ competencies were better able to predict: •Overall performance •Leadership Further, EQ competencies made a greater contribution to leadership and performance at higher levels of the organization (i.e., EQ mattered even more for senior officers).

(White paper on emotional intelligence business case)

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One key challenge in emotional intelligence research is to isolate the effect of EQ from other factors. Clarke (2010), worked to assess the impact of specific emotional intelligence skills above and beyond differences in personality and general intelligence. The study of project managers found those with higher EQ (particularly emotional awareness and understanding emotions) were linked to improved teamwork and more effective handling of conflict.

A similar finding occurred in a study of 81 technology professionals in India where EQ was linked to resolving conflicts in a manner that supported mutual gain.

These correlations can also be linked to the bottom line. In a compelling study of one of the UK's largest restaurant groups, there was clear evidence that emotionally intelligent leaders were more effective. Managers high in emotional intelligence had restaurants that outperformed others in terms of increased guest satisfaction, lower turnover, and 34% greater profit growth.

The link between EQ and leadership was also clear at PepsiCo .

In a pilot project, executives selected for EQ competencies far outperformed their colleagues, delivering: • 10% increase in productivity.

•87% decrease in executive turnover ($4m).

•$3.75m added economic value.

•over 1000% return on investment.

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Similarly, a study of 358 leaders within Johnson and Johnson identified a strong link between superior performing leaders and emotional competence. The conclusion is powerful: " Emotional competence differentiates successful leaders.

EI definition Mayer, Salovey and Caruso define emotional intelligence (El) as "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth." Their model, considered an ability model, has been more widely accepted by the academic community and contains four levels of emotional abilities. The most basic level is the ability to perceive emotion and includes skills such as recognizing facial expressions in others and interpreting what those expressions mean. The second level is the ability to use emotion to facilitate thought and includes skills such as weighing conflicting emotions against each other to determine how one should react. The third level, understanding emotion, involves labelling emotions and understanding the relationships associated with shifts in emotion. The fourth level is the ability to manage emotion, to effectively manage feelings within oneself and others, for example, calming down after being angry, or being able to alleviate the anxiety of another person. This model is measured through the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Goleman defines emotional intelligence as "abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope." Goleman's model is considered a mixed model and has been more widely embraced by the non-academic community.

This model of El is comprised of five skill areas, three of which relate to personal competence and two of which relate to social competence. The personal competencies include: 1) Self-Awareness ("knowing one's internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions"); 2) Self-Regulation ("managing one's internal states, impulses, and resources"); 3) Motivation ("emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals").' The social competencies include: (1) Empathy 'Awareness of others' feelings, needs, and concerns" (2) Social Skills 'Adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others". i° There are two measurement tools based on Goleman's model: the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI)."

As with the MSCEIT, leadership development programs will benefit from the inclusion of either the ECI or the ESCI as one of the self-report measures completed by program participants prior to attendance. The specific measure of El that is likely to complement the other self-report and 360degree instruments used will differ from one program to another of leadership development.

The work of Salovey and Mayer would almost certainly never have become known outside of academic psychology except for one key event. The year 1995 saw the publication of the best selling 7

book “Emotional Intelligence” by Dr Daniel Goleman's followed three years later by “Working with Emotional Intelligence” by the same author. Both of these books were enormously influential and marked the beginning of emotional intelligence as something that was recognized by mainstream business theorists and writers.

Dr Goleman asserted that “The criteria for success at work are changing. We are being judged by a new yardstick: not just by how smart we are, or by our training and expertise, but also by how well handle ourselves and each other. This yardstick is increasingly applied in choosing who will be hired and who will not, who will be let go and who retained, who past over and who promoted…”

Goleman’s definition of emotional intelligence proposes four broad domains of EQ which consist of 19 competencies: Self-Awareness

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Emotional self-awareness: Reading one's own emotions and recognizing their impact Accurate self-assessment; knowing one's strengths and limits

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Self-confidence; a sound sense of one's self-worth and capabilities

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Self-Management  

Emotional self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control Transparency: Displaying honesty and integrity; trustworthiness

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Adaptability: Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles

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Achievement: The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of excellence

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Initiative: Readiness to act and seize opportunities

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Optimism: Seeing the upside in events

Social Awareness  

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Empathy: Sensing others' emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking active interest in their concerns Organizational awareness: Reading the currents, decision networks, and politics at the organizational level Service: Recognizing and meeting follower, client, or customer needs

Relationship Management  

Inspirational leadership: Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion

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Developing others: Bolstering others' abilities through feedback and guidance

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Change catalyst: Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction

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Conflict management: Resolving disagreements

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Building bonds: Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships

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Teamwork and collaboration: Cooperation and team building

There is general agreement that the factors that Goleman and his colleagues have identified are indeed emerging as a key element of workplace success. This is because the way that most organizations work has changed in the last 20 years. There are now fewer levels of 9

management than there were and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, the move towards more knowledge based, team working and customer focused jobs means that individuals generally have more autonomy, even at fairly low levels within organizations.

If we accept that IQ plays a limited role in accounting for why some people are more successful than others, what is the evidence that emotional and social factors are important?

In other words, is there a business case emotional intelligence ?

Emotional intelligence involves being sensitive to and perceptive of other people's emotions, and having the ability to intuitively facilitate improved performance based on this knowledge.

The modern workplace is characterized by open communication, team work, and a mutual respect among employees and their supervisors. Possessing emotional intelligence allows managers to better understand and motivate people they supervise.

Individuals who come from the old school philosophy of management by intimidation often find it challenging to adapt their management style to the demands of today's workers. In the modern business environment, authoritarian managers are much less likely to be successful for the long term than those who utilize a democratic style of management. If you want to succeed in the business world now and in the future, it's important that you understand the role of emotional intelligence in business today. ..

EQ and success "Success" is the key word - defined simply as "achieving that which is important to you." In measuring and developing the success of leading people in highly stressful work environments, one invaluable tool we have found helpful for people in success ladder is emotional intelligence.

So why are some people better able to achieve success in life? Why do some people who are blessed with superior intellectual abilities seem to fail in life, while others with more modest gifts succeed?

The world's most effective people are alike in one crucial way: they all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence quotient, or "EQ" for short.

What a high EQ person looks like Psychologist David Mclelland did some thorough leadership research that found that executives with higher EQ outperformed their annual revenue targets by 15-20%, and that 87% of the executives rated highly on EQ came in the top 33% of performance-related bonuses.

It is not that IQ and technical skills are irrelevant, but research clearly shows that a person can have the best training in the world, a sharp, analytical mind and an endless supply of smart ideas, but they still will not make a successful person in community without a high EQ. 10

Research by Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and author of the book Emotional Intelligence, shows that EQ levels determine up to 85% of leadership success.

Some characteristics of high EQ person are: ● They cope successfully and proactively with life's demands and pressures. ● They build and leverage rewarding relationships with others. ● They are able to set and achieve personal and professional goals in a manner that is compatible with what is truly best for them and others. ● They seek first to understand, then to be understood. ● They act with great authority and are not afraid to make tough decisions. ● They lead by example. ● They are able to get the most out of others.

Coach your EQ So why use emotional intelligence coaching for teams? First, leadership is a huge responsibility it entails the potential to create a lot of good, or equally to cause a lot of collateral damage.

Second, in a "from-good-to-great" environment, small improvements in leadership skills can have a huge impact on return on investment.

Third, 80% of problems in organisations have nothing to do with strategic planning or accounting, but rather with faulty communications people's inability to understand how they and others function failure to see matters from someone else's perspective and failure to grasp the impact of one's actions on others.

Last, successful leaders shine in EQ: good relationships and coping strategies are the key to our success in every area of human activity, especially for a leader to bring out the best in their teams.

Emotional intelligence coaching is coaching designed for successful executives. Indeed, most leaders are very successful by any standard.

As such, they know from past experience that they can change their behaviour. Upon closer scrutiny, we observe that they are successful because of a lot of reasons, and yet in spite of others. Coaching will often focus on improving an item on the "in spite of list" in order to release their full leadership potential.

A focus on measurable results Good news: like your IQ, your EQ can be measured, and unlike your IQ, your EQ can be improved.

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Based on 20 years of research by psychologist Reuven Bar-On and tested on more than 450,000 individuals worldwide (and rising rapidly), the Bar-On EQ-i is the most validated measure of emotional intelligence in the world.

Emotional intelligence is not only about being able to understand your own feelings, but it is also about being able to tune into how others are feeling around you, and act on that positively.

Fear not, the idea is not to get you to hug trees. Instead, emotional intelligence-based leadership coaching is focused on success and enhanced performance.

Many leaders feel they have to work longer and longer hours today. They grind themselves into the ground, get stressed, ill and cause collateral damage to those around them at work and home. This is not sustainable. The successful ones benefit from leadership coaching that gets them to be more focused and try less.

Indeed, the best leaders are what we term "leaders who grow leaders". They spend a significant amount of their time developing and empowering the generation coming up to lead.

This generation works across the lower, and now mid-level, of most companies they like multi-tasking with multiple media channels and want to know "what is in it for me" and "how will you develop me so I am more employable, not just employed?".

A particularly effective leadership style for these leaders is using the "coach approach to leadership", and so giving themselves and their leadership teams vital skills. The output is to bring out the best in others, focus on results, have courageous conversations on high-friction performance issues and give inspirational feedback.

You can use emotional intelligence to measure and develop leadership success when it is supported by leadership coaching.

Most important is to get the work/life balance right, and model good leadership by example by being a leader who grows other leaders through using a coach approach to leadership. …………

EQ In hard times, the soft stuff often goes away. But Emotional Intelligence, it turns out, isn't so soft.

If emotional obliviousness jeopardizes your ability to perform, fend off aggressors, or be compassionate in a crisis, no amount of attention to the bottom line will protect your career.

Emotional intelligence isn't a luxury you can dispense with in tough times. It's a basic tool that, deployed with finesse, is the key to professional success." Harvard Busines Review 2012 There are aspects of management, leadership and teamwork in which competencies owing their origin to emotional states are at least as important as technical abilities. Managing personal emotions and adapting them to circumstances, and understanding others' emotions, is an important aspect of leadership and teamwork." CIPD Online, February 2010

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Emotional intelligence describes your capacity to understand and control your emotions, and to recognise and manage those of others. Your emotional intelligence helps you to become more effective and productive. Good understanding of emotional intelligence gives an indication of how well you understand and manage your emotions, how well you interpret and deal with the emotions of others and how you use this knowledge to manage relationships.

Emotional intelligence makes the difference between good and great leaders. The key to great leadership is managing the emotionalenvironment of the organisation by working with and through people empowering rather than directing. Great leaders have an exceptional awareness of themselves and understand very clearly the impact that their behaviour has on other people. Good emotional intelligencestarts with awareness of your own emotions. Once you develop such awareness you will be able to recognise and read how others are feeling enabling you to manage the emotional climate more appropriately.

Emotional intelligence embraces and draws from numerous behavioural, emotional and communication

theories, such as NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), transactional analysis, and Gestalt. By developing emotional intelligence within the five facets you can become more productive and successful at what you do. Time is saved as misunderstandings do not occur so readily, which enhances team working.

Developing robust emotional understanding ensures a more proactive, rather than a reactive, personal development path. This understanding reduces stress and improves resilience for individuals and organisations. Additional benefits include less conflict through improvements in mutual understanding as well as increases in stability, continuity and harmony.

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: Why It Matters More than Personality

By Mike Poskey, ZERORISK HR, Inc. Emotional Intelligence Quotient, or EQ, is a term being used more and more within human resources departments and which is making its way into executive board rooms. This article will help shed some light on what EQ is, how it is different than personality, and how it has proven to impact the bottom line in the workplace.

What is EQ (Emotional Intelligence Quotient) ?

Emotional Intelligence Quotient is defined as a set of competencies demonstrating the ability one has to recognise his or her behaviours, moods, and impulses, and to manage them best according to the situation. Typically, "emotional intelligence" is considered to involve emotional empathy; attention to, and discrimination of one's emotions; accurate recognition of one's own and others' moods; mood management or control over emotions; response with appropriate (adaptive) emotions and behaviours in various life situations (especially to stress and difficult situations); and balancing of honest expression of emotions against courtesy, consideration, and respect (i.e., possession of good social skills and communication skills).

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Additional, though less often mentioned qualities include selection of work that is emotionally rewarding to avoid procrastination, self-doubt, and low achievement (i.e., good self-motivation and goal management) and a balance between work, home, and recreational life. In essence, EQ is the pattern of how people's biases in their thinking leads them to think one thing or choice is better than another, as well as their clarity in differentiating within those biases to exercise clear and sound judgment.

"People see what they want to see." —Red Barber

How is EQ Different from Personality?

In psychology, personality refers to the emotion, thought, and behaviour patterns unique to an individual. Personality influences one's tendencies, such as a preference for introversion or extroversion. Like Intelligence Quotient (IQ), personality cannot be used to predict EQ. However, as EQ can identify both the biases and clarity in one's thinking patterns that allow them to make good sound decisions, personality only refers to the biases in the behaviours themselves.

Personality tests typically only distinguish four categories of temperament but do not distinguish which melancholy person is actually high in ambition. For example, business people know that they want an extrovert to fill the sales position, but they cannot tell from a temperament test which ones will be persistent from those who will be insistent.

It is desirable for salespeople to have persistence, which allows them to have the energy, drive, and thick skin to develop and close new business. Less effective, however are insistent salespeople who 1) turn off prospective buyers because they are too pushy, and 2) cannot give up on a prospect who is not going to buy when they could be focusing their efforts on more promising opportunities. We know we want an extrovert, sensor, thinker, and judger (ESTJ) from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator for the vacant leadership role, but we cannot tell which ESTJ will make sound judgments under stress and which ones will maim everyone in his/her path when under stress.

An employee with a "good" personality may be fun, social, energetic, and outgoing.

However, having a "good" personality doesn't necessarily equate to success in the workplace.

A "good" personality tells you nothing about the fact that the employee can also make errors in judgment due to lack of "clarity" when making decisions within their own biases. This is why people with varying personality styles can successfully perform the same job. It boils down to their ability to exercise clear and sound judgment in those situations their job/role presents on a regular basis.

An employee with high emotional intelligence can manage his or her own impulses, communicate with others effectively, manage change well, solve problems, and use humour to build rapport in tense situations. These employees also have empathy, remain optimistic even in the face of adversity, and are gifted at educating and persuading in a sales situation and resolving customer complaints in a customer service role. This "clarity" in thinking and "composure" in stressful and chaotic situations is what separates top performers from weak performers in the workplace.

As managers and business executives we have often asked ourselves the following questions: Why do certain employees get into accidents more often than others? Why do they violate company ethics and policies? Why do they ignore the rules of the organization? Why do they 14

use illegal drugs while on the job? Why do some people cause conflict while others are so gifted at resolving it? Why do they put self-interest ahead of the organizational values? Why do some salespeople build large books of new business with ease while others struggle to do so even though they seem to be putting forth the required effort?

In many cases the answer to the above questions lies in "emotional intelligence" rather than the individual's "personality type."

"Unmet emotional needs cause the majority of problems at work." —EQI.org

EQ Competencies that Correlate to Workplace Success The following outlines a set of five emotional intelligence competencies that have proven to contribute more to workplace achievement than technical skills, cognitive ability, and standard personality traits combined.

Social Competencies—Competencies that Determine How We Handle Relationships Intuition & Empathy. Our awareness of others' feelings, needs, and concerns. This competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons.  

Understanding others: an intuitive sense of others' feelings and perspectives, and showing an active interest in their concerns and interests Customer service orientation: the ability to anticipate, recognize, and meet customers' needs

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People development: ability to sense what others need in order to grow, develop, and master their strengths

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Leveraging diversity: cultivating opportunities through diverse people

Political Acumen & Social Skills. Our adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others.

This competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons.  

Influencing: using effective tactics and techniques for persuasion and desired results Communication: sending clear and convincing messages that are understood by others

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Leadership: inspiring and guiding groups of people

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Change catalyst: initiating and/or managing change in the workplace

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Conflict resolution: negotiating and resolving disagreements with people

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Building bonds: nurturing instrumental relationships for business success

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Collaboration and cooperation: working with coworkers and business partners toward shared goals

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Team capabilities: creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals

Personal Competencies—Competencies that Determine How We Manage Ourselves

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Self Awareness. Knowing one's internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions. This competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons.

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Emotional awareness: recognizing one's emotions and their effects and impact on those around us Accurate self-assessment: knowing one's strengths and limits

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Self-confidence: sureness about one's self-worth and capabilities

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Self Regulation. Managing one's internal states, impulses, and resources. This competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons.  

Self-control: managing disruptive emotions and impulses Trustworthiness: maintaining standards of honesty and integrity

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Conscientiousness: taking responsibility and being accountable for personal performance

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Adaptability: flexibility in handling change

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Innovation: being comfortable with an openness to novel ideas, approaches, and new information

Self Expectations & Motivation. Emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals.

This competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons.

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Achievement drive: striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence we impose on ourselves Commitment: aligning with the goals of the group or organization

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Initiative: readiness to act on opportunities without having to be told

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Optimism: persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks

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Emotional Intelligence's Impact on the Bottom Line To date, many companies have focused their selection criteria and training programs on hard skills (e.g., technical expertise, industry knowledge, education) and the assessment of personality traits. Topics including competencies like stress management, assertiveness skills, empathy, and political/social acumen were never measured in the selection process or focused on in training and development programs. In reality, these are critical success factors that should not be dismissed, and have a direct impact on the bottom line.

For example, the Hay Group states one study of 44 Fortune 500 companies found that salespeople with high EQ produced twice the revenue of those with average or below average scores. In another study, technical programmers demonstrating the top 10 percent of emotional intelligence competency were developing software three times faster than those with lower competency.

Additional research unearthed the following success stories. A Fortune 500 company in financial services proved that their high EQ salespeople produced 18 percent more than the lower EQ salespeople. One recent study conducted by a Dallas corporation measured that the productivity difference between their low scoring emotional intelligence employees and their 16

high scoring emotional intelligence employees was 20 times. A Texas-based Fortune 500 Company had utilized personality assessments for candidate selection for years with little results in reducing turnover in their high turnover sales force. After turning to an emotional intelligence-based selection assessment and EQ training and development program, they increased retention by 67 percent in the first year, which they calculated added $32 million to their bottom line in reduced turnover costs and increased sales revenues. A large metropolitan hospital reduced their critical care nursing turnover from 65 percent to 15 percent within 18 months of implementing an emotional intelligence screening assessment. A community bank that reduced staff by 30 percent due to the sluggish economy assessed the remaining workforce for their emotional intelligence competencies, placed them in the right role for those competencies, and the bank is now producing more with less people.

Lastly, through a series of recent studies conducted by ZERORISK HR, Inc., a correlation was found among low emotional intelligence and theft and shrinkage. One other study in the construction industry yielded results showing workers with low emotional intelligence had a higher likelihood of getting injured while on the job.

All of these cases are starting to prove the value of having highly emotionally intelligent employees make up your workforce if you want a competitive advantage in this highly competitive business world. ……………………

Emotional intelligence and medical profession If your emotional abilities aren't in hand, if you don't have self-awareness, if you are not able to manage your distressing emotions, if you can't have empathy and have effective relationships, then no matter how smart doctor you are, you are not going to get very far.

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Emotional intelligence, theatre and film industry

The essence of cinema is editing. It's the combination of what can be extraordinary images of people during emotional moments, or images in a general sense, put together in a kind of alchemy.

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Is EQ More Valuable than IQ for Entrepreneurs?

What makes an Entrepreneur? How can an entrepreneur’s ability be measured? The first thought that popped into my mind is his resume, but experience alone cannot make an entrepreneur successful. IQ was my second thought, but studies have shown that after the threshold of 120 IQ, any higher IQ does not have a significant effect on the outcome of success.

A term called emotional intelligence seems to be the missing “X” factor.

What is emotional intelligence?

EI, or often known as EQ, is an array of personal, emotional, and social abilities and skills that determine how well the individual functions in any given environment. EI refers to recognizing how you and others feel and sensing what to do about it.

Emotional Intelligence is still a relatively new subject. Although it’s a growing topic of discussion, the general

public is still mostly left in the dark.

From the literature on emotional intelligence, it is evident that the lives of people who have higher emotional intelligence are safer, happier and more successful. Altogether, people who are emotionally intelligent and optimistic have an attribute that enables them to focus on solution rather than cause. The attributes include: emotional self­control, delaying gratification, and looking at things in a bigger picture. Let’s see how EI contributes in the workplace and as an entrepreneur.

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Emotional Intelligence in Important Entrepreneurial Traits Longitudinal studies of Harvard graduates and Foreign Service Officers found that test scores on entrance exams did not predict career success. On the other hand, Daniel Goleman, a forerunner on studies in EI, did an analysis of 181 jobs in 121 organizations and found that emotional competencies were the best differentiations between star performers and typical performers. He found that EI is twice more important than technical skills and IQ for jobs at all levels. Goleman also reported that EI plays an increasingly important role at the highest levels of a company. Goldman said "When I compared star performers with average ones in senior leadership positions, nearly 90 percent of the difference in their profiles was attributable to EI factors rather than cognitive abilities."

To have an understanding of that, here are some key traits and skills needed by entrepreneurs that draw heavy influences from EI: Decision making Part of emotional intelligence is about awareness, prioritizing, and the ability to look at the bigger picture without being carried away by the details. This is more important for entrepreneurs than most others. Emotions are a huge component of decision making as well. Most big decisions are made based on emotions i.e. choosing a college, spouse, or car. Although emotions should not be ignored, they should not overwhelm the decision making process. Check this chart to see the effects of emotions on financial risk taking.

Strategic and technical breakthroughs Researchers have found that creativity is generated by emotion. Creativity is construed as the ability to cognitively construct an idea or concept inspired by emotions. For entrepreneurs, the ability to formulate original ideas triggered by emotions is of the most utmost importance. Creativity plays a huge role in problem solving as it is used to match the solution with the problem.

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Open, honest communication In every interaction, there are ways people usually interact, and then there are better ways a person with high EI can naturally achieve. When rewarding and reprimanding an employee or colleague, there is a whole process of understanding, getting the message across, and remaining in good terms.

Leadership Entrepreneurs are leaders and they must communicate their vision to others, accept responsibility for failure, build relationships, and be decisive.

Trusting relationships and team work Relationships and connections are an important aspect of entrepreneurship. Knowing the right people and knowing who to count on, can make all the difference. While working with others, a high Emotional Quotient group would have a low number of interpersonal conflicts, high motivation, and easier communication.

Maintaining a good work ethic Emotional intelligency isn’t just about understanding others and communication. It is also about self­awareness, the ability for an individual to be in tune with his/her feelings and actions and to recognize the impact this has on others; self­management, the ability to keep impulsive behavior under control and stay calm during stressful situations, maintain a positive outlook, emotional self­control, and achievement orientation. Understanding oneself also helps entrepreneurs build an A­Team according to his/her weaknesses and strengths.

Customer loyalty Empathy helps understand what can be done differently in creating or delivering the product to make a customer happier. EQ helps understand consumer buying decisions and how to keep consumers engaged.

Still trying to find venture partners, employees, or wondering if you are up to the task? Keep EI in mind when you are on the lookout, and consider taking an EI test to measure your abilities.

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Emotional intelligence and improving business performance While there are numerous implementation strategies, researched EQ applications include: •increased sales performance through recruiting and training more emotionally intelligent salespeople.

•improved customer service through recruiting higher EQ customer service reps.

•superior leadership performance by developing and recruiting for executive There is evidence that using EQ in training and organisational climate change can reduce costs associated with turnover, absenteeism, and low performance.

Research has provided clear evidence that emoti onally intelligent leaders are more successful. Many of these studies yield bottom-line results: At Pepsi Co, for example, executi ves selected for EQ competencies generated 10% more producti vity . High EQ sales people at L’Oreal brought in $2.5 million more in sales. An EQ initi ati ve at Sheraton helped increase market share by 24%. The US Air force is using EQ to screen pararescue jumpers to save $190 million. One of the most important applicati ons of EQ is in helping leaders foster a workplace climate conducive to high performance. These workplaces yield signifi cantly higher producti vity, retenti on, and profi tability, and emoti onal intelligence appears key to this competi ti ve advantage

How many times has someone knocked on your door with a whole list of issues with a person they work with and they just cannot get along with? They feel they have reached the end of the line with the person and it is now HR’s job to ‘fix’ the situation. How can we prevent such intrusions? Emotional Intelligence (EI) is one way, and is a powerful means of communicating effectively, building relationships and creating a positive working environment.

In today's business world, HR professionals and managers need to be emotionally intelligent deal with problems, lead by example, take the initiative, handle difficult situations and develop good relationships with clients. Successful human resource professionals know that their job isn't just about hiring: they can help line managers deliver measurable improvements in productivity and win the hearts and respect of management to contribute to the bottom line.

Through EI human resource professionals now have a strategic tool that can help management produce results.

EI provides methods to help solve your retention and morale problems, improve your company's creativity, create synergy from teamwork, improve information flow, drive forward your objectives, and ignite the best and most inspired performance from your employees.

Developing EI is all about being self-aware and aware of others. This involves lifting your head from the task in-hand and looking to see what is going on around you. In the past, emotions were often deemed as an unwanted and unsociable set of characteristics that needed 21

to be controlled as they were associated with weakness and instability. However, research is emerging that emotions are essential for motivating actions which are critical for adapting to challenges of survival or well-being, both personally and professionally. We experience many types of emotions in our daily lives such as fear, anger, enjoyment, disgust, interest, surprise, contempt, shame, sadness and guilt. These emotions become much stronger during times when our values and beliefs are compromised by ourselves or others.

However, in order to function professionally, we often have to temporarily manage these emotions to encourage smooth communication or avoid conflict. But managing these emotions does not equate to ignoring them, as this can, over time, take its toll and lead to stress, with true personal feelings leaking through the mask. The consequence of such mismanagement of emotions leads to HR functions being overwhelmed by petty conflicts in the workplace which spiral out of control. One concept which may help with this is EI. In 1995, Daniel Goleman described EI as knowing how one is feeling and being able to handle those feelings without becoming swamped; being able to motivate oneself to get jobs done; being creative and performing at one’s peak; sensing what others are feeling and handling relationships effectively.

Sounds great, but how can we develop emotional intelligence? Are you born with it or can you learn some strategies to develop it? The reality is that some people are better than others at reading their own and other’s emotions. Like everything, once you know what to look for, you can practise and start to pay close attention to some key signals and cues which are all around you. Here are some ideas to help you develop your emotional intelligence: Listen to your own emotions – they are offering you some very important data about your instinctive feelings about people and situations and will give you some real clues as to whether the person or situation is making you feel a certain way. This information will allow you to assess whether this person or situation is possibly in conflict with your values or beliefs. This process of naming the feeling may reduce an impulse reaction against them or the situation. You can also experiment with creating a visual representation of the emotion if naming it is difficult. This underlies some of the practices of art therapy and is an alternative means of describing the emotion.

Pay attention to how others are feeling – sometimes when handling a task we are focused on how we are feeling, but we may be causing some uncomfortable stirrings of emotions within the person we are communicating with. There are many clues that we should be alert to. The first is body language, which includes facial expression, stance, gestures and tone. For example, a simple physical movement may indicate that someone is withdrawing from a conversation. This may be because the subject no longer has any relevance for them, or you may have said something that they don’t agree with. Do not to plough on regardless, but stop and ask some open questions as to what they think or how they feel about what you have just said. This will give you some time to assess if you are on the right track and whether you are still engaging them or not.

Notice moods – notice how some people make you feel more energised than others. Think about why that is the case. Do you share similar values or beliefs? If so, you can leverage this good mood and bring it to your next meeting or encounter, which will allow you to further create a positive mood in others around you. Good moods are contagious most of the time, as are bad moods! Don’t underestimate the power of your mood in your work, as it is contagious and can be the deciding factor as to whether people actively want to work with you or not.

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What is behind the emotion? When you meet an emotional response, such as someone being angry or sad, before you react, think about what may be behind such a response. This can be difficult if it is aimed at you, but most of the time, it is not about you at all. Sometimes when people feel inadequate, or out of control, they will react emotionally if their beliefs are being compromised. An emotionally intelligent person will not react to the emotion, but find out what is really going on. This may involve moving the person to a less threatening location, changing the subject until they regain composure and displaying some empathy. Then, once they have calmed down, some gentle probing and questioning may reveal what is really going on. This can take some real confidence and bravery to put aside how their reaction has made you feel and focus on what is really going on for them. One way to engender a culture of having such difficult conversations may be to offer people a safe forum to practise these difficult conversations before any such need arises. This will give people confidence to face the difficult situation assertively and manage it to a successful conclusion when it arises.

Managing our emotions – during our lives, some people and situations will make us feel better or worse than others. Sometimes we have no choice but to deal with and work with people who are very different to us and will evoke some strong reactions inside us. The important thing is not to ignore these feelings, but manage them in a way that works for us. If you feel angry or upset in a situation where it would be inappropriate to display such emotions, work out some strategies that will allow you to channel that emotion into a safe and effective outlet. This may involve removing yourself from the situation when the time is right, and going for a brief walk outside to breathe some fresh air.

Organisations also have a responsibility to their people in helping them manage their emotions within the work environment. The provision of a suitably qualified mentor by the organisation with whom people can talk to is a very healthy way to allow people to get rid of their day and gain some perspective and wisdom on the situation. Alternatively, it is worth having a trusted work colleague with whom you can discuss your frustrations. This may be a person who makes you feel good when you are around them and will bring your mood to a more positive place. This will allow people to arrive to work the next day with a clear head and hopefully a light heart. Those with such an attitude are the clear headed thinkers and feelers who will be creative, fun and easy to work with. An HR manager’s dream team.

EI and resilience (http://www.ei4change.com/resilience.htm)

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What feelings and emotions do people go through when faced with change? The Personal Transition through Change Curve is a popular and powerful model used to understand the stages of personal transition and organisational change. It helps you understand how people will react to change, so that you can help them make their own personal transitions, and make sure that they have the help and support they need. (The model was devised by John M. Fisher developed through his work on constructivist theory in relation to service provision organisations at Leicester University, England.)

Copies of the Personal Transition through Change curve can be downloaded from our Resources page.

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Further details about the curve and its development can be found at www.c2d.co.uk

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Business use of EI in future It's likely that emotional intelligence is going to continue to become even more important in the business world in the future than it is today. As the baby boomer population approaches retirement age, companies are going to find themselves dealing with labor shortages the likes of which have never been seen before.

In an economy characterized by scarce labor, it's going to become increasingly important to hold on to the good employees. At the same time, competition for the best employees is going to become even more fierce, and good workers who feel they aren't treated fairly at work will have an easy time finding employment elsewhere.

The best way to hold on to the employees that you want to keep is to incorporate emotional intelligence into your personal and organizational management philosophy. Managers and business owners can't let themselves lose sight of the fact that their employees are people, with real lives and emotions that impact how they think, feel, and act. Managers with emotional intelligence understand that their staff members are people first and workers second. This understanding guides how the best managers treat their employees at all times.

Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction

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The basic idea underlying the concept of Emotional Intelligence is that effective action requires more than purely rational thought. Emotion is critical for energizing and directing behaviour. Also, to be happy and successful in life, one needs more than just cognitive ability as measured by Intelligence Quotient tests. Research consistently shows that IQ scores and academic intelligence do not predict important life outcomes very well. Job satisfaction is an integral component of organizational climate and an important element in management employee relationship.

There should be firm and concrete steps taken for the purpose to improve job satisfaction. Job Satisfaction can be an important indicator of how employees feel about their jobs and a predictor of work behaviours such as organizational citizenship, absenteeism, and turnover. Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviours.

One common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life satisfaction. This correlation is reciprocal, meaning people who are satisfied with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. However, some research has found that job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other variables such as nonwork satisfaction and core self-evaluations are taken into account. A major finding for organizations is that job satisfaction has a rather feeble correlation to productivity on the job. In short, the relationship of satisfaction to productivity is not necessarily straightforward and can be influenced by a number of other work-related constructs, and the notion that "a happy worker is a productive worker" should not be the foundation of organizational decisionmaking [23, 24, 25] The expression, recognition, and communication of emotional states are ubiquitous features of the human social world. Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to perceive, manage, and reason about emotions, in oneself and others. Individuals with psychopathy have numerous difficulties in social interaction and show impairment on some emotional tasks .

Emotional intelligence can be defined as the capacity to process emotional information accurately and efficiently, including that information relevant to the recognition, construction, and regulation of emotion in oneself and others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Such emotional information generally conveys knowledge about a person's relationships with the world (Frijda, 1986; Morris, 1992; Plutchik, 1980; Schwarz, 1990) and may well be processed differently from strictly cognitive information (Gardner, 1983; Zajonc, 1980). Intelligences that appear to employ their own specific processing modality, such as mental imagery, or spatial relations, are considered conceptually separable from general intelligence (Gardner, 1983), although still correlated with it.

Emotional intelligence and HR

They feel they have reached the end of the line with the person and it is now HR’s job to ‘fix’ the situation. How can we prevent such intrusions?

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Emotional Intelligence (EI) is one way, and is a powerful means of communicating effectively, building relationships and creating a positive working environment.

In today's business world, HR professionals and managers need to be emotionally intelligent deal with problems, lead by example, take the initiative, handle difficult situations and develop good relationships with clients.

Successful human resource professionals know that their job isn't just about hiring: they can help line managers deliver measurable improvements in productivity and win the hearts and respect of management to contribute to the bottom line.

Through EI human resource professionals now have a strategic tool that can help management produce results.

How can we use this to improve our recruitment processes?

As recruiters, we know that successfully landing a job is not purely based upon a candidate’s qualifications or IQ score. In addition to experience, what employers want is the right personality type, who will be able to fit comfortably in with the team.

When we interview candidates, we go through a number of active thought processes.

Without realising it, we are measuring their responses, mannerisms and how well they put themselves across. What we are really doing is assessing their emotional intelligence. It’s that quality, honesty and ability to build rapport that is so often the key to them standing out from the other applicants – and this is the type of employee who ultimately helps the client to improve their staff retention and keep costs down.

What’s important is how we implement our understanding of emotional intelligence to improve how we increase the quality of our hires; whether we are looking for a new graduate recruitment consultant or we are sourcing the perfect candidate.

Get the description right Firstly, when taking down a job description, focusing on the core behaviours is a vital element to sourcing the best person for the job. When discussing the requirements of a vacancy from a client, think about what qualities they are looking for in an employee.

A bad job description will describe only specific qualifications required, and the responsibilities of the role. Whilst these might imply the core behaviours the candidate needs to demonstrate in interview, a much better specification touches on the person’s softer skills – a more successful specification might include: 

Adaptable

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Able to influence key stakeholders 36

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Strong communication

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Able to negotiate

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Problem-solving

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Articulate

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Team player

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Self-motivated

An important part of any job description is an insight into the company culture – does the organisation have a strong social side? Is it a competitive environment? All these unique elements will suit different sets of emotional behaviours – and as the recruiter it is up to you to match the right type of personality to the organisation, as well as taking their experience into consideration. This approach will result in successful placements and promote stronger relationships with your clients.

Psychometric testing To further test a person’s emotional intelligence, psychometric testing (such as the Thomas International Personal Profile Analysis, or PPA) is becoming more and more common amongst recruiters and employers as a means to understanding the applicant’s personality traits. To offer this service to your clients shows your commitment as a recruiter to fully profiling candidates and finding the right person for the job.

In a sales-based business, such as recruitment, you can also undertake this testing to assist your internal employment drive – identifying the individuals most suited to this type of profession, what motivates them and how well they cope under pressure.

In an industry which typically has a high staff turnover, retaining the top talent has to be a priority in order for you to differentiate from your competitors.

Trust your instinct…

In the interview stage, you are likely to gauge how emotionally intelligent someone is by their body language and how they articulate themselves. Don’t underestimate your gut feeling – if someone is saying all the right things, but for some reason you doubt their integrity or their confidence in themselves, it is worth thinking about whether they will give the same impression to the hiring manager. A wise move is to take an extra reference here, that clearly attests to their character in the workplace.

Emotional intelligence and leadership/ management .

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A number of different authors argue that El is a key component of effective leadership. George suggests that leaders high in El are able to recognize, appraise, predict and manage emotions in a way that enables them to work with and motivate team members. Prati, Douglas, Eerris, Ammeter and Buckley propose that El is "essential to effective team interaction and productivity" and that the "emotional intelligence of the team leader is important to the effective functioning of the team. The leader serves as a motivator toward collective action, and facilitates supportive relationships among team members. The emotionally intelligent team leader also provides a transformational influence over the team."

The inferences recommend that bad leadership associates to a lack of self-management and relationship management competencies; though good leadership is not the strict opposite to it.

Leaders should aspire to have an apparent view on their followers and extremely developed relationship management competencies. It also shows that face-to-face communication is appropriate. It is expected that the function of emotions and emotional intelligence in management is wide and adds to the facts that the competencies contained by the relationship management quadrant could be used as selection and developmental criteria.

Managers who have outstanding leadership qualities tend to possess emotional intelligence.

It's important to realize that leadership isn't an inherent part of being in a position of authority. Leadership is something that employees bestow upon the most effective managers, and is reserved for individuals with high standards of integrity and outstanding communication skills.

An individual who is in tune with his or her own emotions is much more likely to be able to understand and empathize with the emotions that impact the attitudes and behaviors of others.

This is why emotional importance is so valuable for managers. It's essential for managers who want to be viewed as leaders to remember that actions speak louder than words. This is something that individuals who possess a high degree of emotional intelligence seem to inherently understand.

Supervisors who take the time to get to know and really listen to their employees are utilizing emotional intelligence as a management strategy, whether or not they realize they are doing so. Most employees respond best to managers who treat them as individuals who deserve respect. When you take the time to focus on an employees' needs and make yourself accessible to them, that's exactly what you're doing.

Managers who possess emotional intelligence approach supervisory responsibilities from a different perspective than authoritarian managers. They understand the importance of communicating effectively with staff members, and of treating each employee with respect. Those who want to be effective 21st century managers are well served by developing a deeper understanding of the concept of emotional intelligence and applying it to their management strategies.

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Emotional intelligence draws upon the idea that we respond to the behaviours of others; their behaviours affect our mood. It is the interpersonal nature of management and leadership that has ignited the interest of both researchers and practitioners in emotional intelligence.

It was Daniel Goleman who first brought the term “emotional intelligence” to a wide audience with his 1995 book of that name, and it was Goleman who first applied the concept to business with his 1998 HBR article, reprinted here. In his research at nearly 200 large, global companies, Goleman found that while the qualities traditionally associated with leadership—such as intelligence, toughness, determination, and vision—are required for success, they are insufficient. Truly effective leaders are also distinguished by a high degree of emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill.

These qualities may sound “soft” and unbusinesslike, but Goleman found direct ties between emotional intelligence and measurable business results. While emotional intelligence’s relevance to business has continued to spark debate over the past six years, Goleman’s article remains the definitive reference on the subject, with a description of each component of emotional intelligence and a detailed discussion of how to recognize it in potential leaders, how and why it connects to performance, and how it can be learned.

Every businessperson knows a story about a highly intelligent, highly skilled executive who was promoted into a leadership position only to fail at the job. And they also know a story about someone with solid—but not extraordinary—intellectual abilities and technical skills who was promoted into a similar position and then soared.

Such anecdotes support the widespread belief that identifying individuals with the “right stuff” to be leaders is more art than science. After all, the personal styles of superb leaders vary: Some leaders are subdued and analytical; others shout their manifestos from the mountaintops. And just as important, different situations call for different types of leadership.

Most mergers need a sensitive negotiator at the helm, whereas many turnarounds require a more forceful authority.

I have found, however, that the most effective leaders are alike in one crucial way: They all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence. It’s not that IQ and technical skills are irrelevant. They do matter, but mainly as “threshold capabilities”; that is, they are the entry-level requirements for executive positions. But my research, along with other recent studies, clearly shows that emotional intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership. Without it, a person can have the best training in the world, an incisive, analytical mind, and an endless supply of smart ideas, but he still won’t make a great leader.

In the course of the past year, my colleagues and I have focused on how emotional intelligence operates at work. We have examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and effective performance, especially in leaders. And we have observed how emotional intelligence shows itself on the job. How can you tell if someone has high emotional intelligence, for example, and how can you recognize it in yourself? In the following pages, we’ll explore these questions, taking each of the components of emotional intelligence—self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill—in turn.

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Evaluating Emotional Intelligence Most large companies today have employed trained psychologists to develop what are known as “competency models” to aid them in identifying, training, and promoting likely stars in the leadership firmament. The psychologists have also developed such models for lower-level positions. And in recent years, I have analyzed competency models from 188 companies, most of which were large and global and included the likes of Lucent Technologies, British Airways, and Credit Suisse.

In carrying out this work, my objective was to determine which personal capabilities drove outstanding performance within these organizations, and to what degree they did so. I grouped capabilities into three categories: purely technical skills like accounting and business planning; cognitive abilities like analytical reasoning; and competencies demonstrating emotional intelligence, such as the ability to work with others and effectiveness in leading change.

To create some of the competency models, psychologists asked senior managers at the companies to identify the capabilities that typified the organization’s most outstanding leaders. To create other models, the psychologists used objective criteria, such as a division’s profitability, to differentiate the star performers at senior levels within their organizations from the average ones. Those individuals were then extensively interviewed and tested, and their capabilities were compared. This process resulted in the creation of lists of ingredients for highly effective leaders. The lists ranged in length from seven to 15 items and included such ingredients as initiative and strategic vision.

When I analyzed all this data, I found dramatic results. To be sure, intellect was a driver of outstanding performance. Cognitive skills such as big-picture thinking and long-term vision were particularly important. But when I calculated the ratio of technical skills, IQ, and emotional intelligence as ingredients of excellent performance, emotional intelligence proved to be twice as important as the others for jobs at all levels.

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Management of Change: No one can persuade another to change. Each of us guards a gate of change that can only be opened from the inside. It is extremely hard to open the gate of another by argument but relatively easier with emotional appeal, and emotionally intelligent business people do that all the time. It is also said that when the intensity of emotional conviction subsides, a man will lose the drive and path to success.

Those who are in the habit of reasoning will search for logical grounds in favour of the belief and will find it, however it will not satisfy them for long particularly when the ego drive subsides.

Lewin (1951) demonstrated the pivotal role of the manager/leader in interpreting challenges in the business environment in the development of his three-step change model. This idea was developed further by Kotter (1995) who identified common failures of managers, including lack of urgency, absence of a vision and an inability to effectively communicate with employees. The contemporary workplace is changing rapidly with the development of the knowledge economy, the move to a “24/7” working environment and the greater use of technologies such as email as a means of communication. According to Dressler (2002, p. 15) the drivers for change include “technology, globalization, deregulation and changing political systems. The speed and scale of the challenges organizations face today, the greater reliance on non-personal communication coupled with the acknowledged difficulties in responding to change (Deutschman, 2007), suggests that there should be an even greater focus on the interpersonal nature of management, leadership and managerial behaviors. Managers and leaders are responsible for creating an environment in which their followers are able to respond effectively to the demands of constant change.

Emotional Contagion: Emotional contagion describes how we respond to the behaviours of others; their behaviours affect our mood (Hatfield et al., 1994 cited in Robbins and Judge, 2007; Boyatzis et al., 2002). It outlines how every day we interpret emotional cues to help us understand other people (Caruso and Salovey, 2004). Ekman (1999, p. 3) suggests that “emotional expressions are crucial to the development of interpersonal relationships”.

However, it may also be possible to detect fabricated signs of emotion (Ekman et al., 1990 cited in Ekman, 1999). Ekman (1999) suggests there are 15 basic positive and negative emotions which humans experience, these being: The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence to MBA students by · Anger · Fear

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· Disgust · Sadness · Contempt · Contentment · Amusement · Excitement · Guilt · Pride in achievement · Embarrassment · Relief · Shame · Sensory pleasure · Satisfaction This list has some overlap with a summary of the six emotions of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise which can be universally observed in humans (Weiss and Corpanzano, 1996 cited in Robbins and Judge, 2007). Positive emotions – particularly a sense of new hope created by an emotional connection with other people – have been found to play a significant role in bringing about change in therapeutic settings (Frank, 1991, 1999 both cited in Deutschman, 2007). Also, positive relationships with others have been reported as having influence on our health, well being and happiness (Patzwald and Wildt, 2004; Seligman et al., 2005). This view is echoed in organizational settings by Kotter (1995).

Positive emotional connections with others are important in the context of change in all areas of our lives, including the workplace (Kramer and Hess, 2002 cited in Caruso and Salovey, 2004; Bower, 1991 cited in Boyatzis et al., 2002). This has further implications in today's workplace as managers and leaders may rely on technology to communication therefore potentially limiting their ability to make such important connect.

Neuroscience of emotional intelligence:

Understanding how the brain processes emotional data gives a further insight into why we respond to the behaviours of others and how that shapes our cognitive responses. Over 150 years ago the French neurologist Broca demonstrated in the case of Phineas Gage that if parts are the brain are damaged it impacts upon an individual's identity; in Gage's case he changed from a 42

sober industrious individual to a drunkard and a failure after a serious head injury (Carr, 2006). With the development of functional magnetic-resonance imaging neuroscientists have been able to map the activity of the brain Emotions involve anorchestration of activity in circuits throughout the brain, particularly the frontal lobe, which houses the brain's executive facilities (such as planning); the amygdale, which is particularly active during the experience of negative emotions such as fear; and the hippocampus, which adjust actions to context. Damasio (1994, 2000) has carried out research among individuals with brain lesions, including the role of emotions during decision making when information can be incomplete and a high degree of uncertainty exists. He concludes that in addition to logic and knowledge we also use our memory of previous similar situations, in particular the emotions connected with those memories. Therefore, if faced with a similar situation, an individual may not choose a particular course of action if it resulted in producing a negative emotion, e.g. fear or embarrassment. This is supported by current research looking at how our expectations or predictions of what might happen to control our emotional and cognitive responses. Expectancy or predictions about future states (including emotional experiences) is an important factor in shaping experience. Expectations provide ways of controlling behaviour without experiencing adverse consequences first.

The concepts outlined briefly above only touch upon current research that could play a part in helping to develop the ability of managers and leaders to respond to the challenges outlined

by Sach (2007). It is possible that the range, diversity and complexity of this research have contributed to the popularity of the emotional intelligence construct. Emotional intelligence attempts to bring together understanding emotion and how the brain works; as Gestalt psychology suggests: understanding is based upon insight, i.e. when an individual suddenly becomes aware of the relevance of behaviour or learning.

The amygdala in the emotional center sees and hears everything that occurs to us instantaneously and is the trigger point for the fight or flight response.

Although still in the early stages of conceptual development, emotional intelligence has been shown to be an important skill in improving performance and increasing job satisfaction. For example, research has demonstrated that physicians who are skilled in identifying patients’ emotions are more effective in treating those patients than are their less empathetic colleagues. In studies of Air Force recruiters and American Express financial advisors, those who were able to demonstrate characteristics associated with high emotional intelligence were more effective in accomplishing goals than were those who did not possess these skills.

Emotional intelligence and efficiency of managers Most managers get to be managers because of their technical expertise, seniority, or a relationship with a decision maker. It’s not usually because someone is inspiring, engaging, able to ignite passion, or care about the people they manage. Hence, there are far more managers than leaders in this world. If you have a great leader as a manager, you’re one of the lucky ones. So, how do we at EITC transform managers into leaders?

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We break down leadership into its component parts (self­knowledge, relationship­building, effective communication, team effectiveness) and then we break down those component parts further (emotional intelligence competencies) and teach them to managers in interactive workshops and one­one coaching sessions so organizations can increase their bottom­line results.

If emotional intelligence has value for the manager, how can skills related to emotional intelligence be applied in an environment of job insecurity? In order to assist managers in dealing with employee anxiety related to job uncertainty, we present a five-step strategy that incorporates the emotional intelligence framework described above.

Emotional Awareness During periods of uncertainty, managers often tend to deny their own feelings of stress. Perhaps this denial is due to their belief that leaders are required to put on a “stoic face” in order to demonstrate that they are in charge. In fact, they may just be ignoring their concerns. Recognizing emotions related to the situation is helpful because it encourages the manager to take action rather than be passive, that is, to create a plan to deal with the justifiable tension among employees.

The emotional awareness dimension also requires managers to pay attention to the emotions of others. Managers need to show empathy and be aware of the impact that job insecurity may have on employees and their families. Failing to demonstrate caring, understanding behavior may send inappropriate messages that have a negative impact. Employees who perceive a “lack of understanding” are likely to share that perception with others in the organization. Such negative communication can lead to an epidemic of bad feelings throughout the organization.

Body language and other non-verbal cues are good sources of information that can alert managers to the level of tension that may exist in the office. Few smiles, a lack of informal conversation and eye contact, and a demonstrably reduced energy level among the staff are examples of subtle yet significant signs of heightened stress among employees.

Verbal cues often are subtle, but sensitivity to indirect verbal messages is important in perceiving problems and in responding with appropriate concern. For example, a statement such as, “I guess there are going to be a lot of changes around here,” may really be asking, “Is my job safe?” It is suggested that managers pay attention both to their own emotions and to those of employees. It would be wise to listen actively and carefully to verbal signals and be able to perceive non-verbal signals as well.

Self-Regulation Uncertainty about job status generally results in increased tension in the office. Managers may react defensively if pressure from employees regarding job concerns continues to mount. While it is appropriate to display emotions, one should nevertheless remain in control of them. Remaining “in control” in times of stress is widely perceived as sign of leadership. Sometimes a manager who experiences stress may lash out and vent negative feelings on employees. Such behavior usually proves deleterious to business relationships as well as to the work environment. Balance and selfregulation help preserve harmony in the workplace.

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When seeking to cope with extreme impulses in stressful times, managers may find it helpful to place themselves in the “shoes” of their staff members. Questions such as, “How would I respond in a similar situation?” or “What would I be feeling if my family were dependent solely on my salary?” may enable managers to empathize with the job fears of others. Such questions may also assist managers in dealing more effectively and sensitively with their own feelings.

On the other hand, a danger arises if managers take in too much of the employees’ pain and anxiety.

If they experience excessive identification with employees’ concerns and problems, they may lose objectivity. While managers are required to understand the employees’ feelings and needs, they nevertheless must practice emotional self-management so that they do not spread the contagion of employees’ negative feelings.

Responsiveness to Situational Cues Awareness and regulation are important first steps, however action is also required. The manager’s ability to express empathy may be valuable in dealing with the anxiety of job uncertainty, and being empathic is important. But the use of empathy is not without risks and dangers. To be effective, empathy ought to be sincere. If it is not, employees will likely recognize it as being hollow and sterile.

Such lack of sincerity would then exacerbate the employees’ anxiety and might also generate angry feelings toward the supervisor.

To use empathy effectively, it is necessary for managers to genuinely respect the worth of the individuals. For example, in a well-publicized response to the anxieties and insecurities felt by United Airlines employees during the company’s 2002 downturn, the CEO walked through O’Hare International Airport hugging employees and passing out buttons stating, “United Will Stand.”[6] Another helpful technique for managers to practice is asking open-ended questions such as, “Tell me about your concerns” and “What can I tell you that would be useful for you to know?” The empathy shown by seeking specific input about anxieties does not mean that the manager will then and there solve the problem. Neither should the response falsely reassure employees that there is nothing to worry about if indeed there is reason to be concerned. For instance, if upper echelon company officers have informed the manager that lay-off decisions will be announced soon but request this information not be revealed to the staff, the manager is obligated to respect such confidences.

However, that does not mean the manager cannot empathize with employees by listening to their concerns. In such a case, a manager might respond by saying, “I can understand your feelings, and I know why the uncertainty is so stressful, but at this time, I do not have an answer for you.”

Word of possible layoffs usually gets out, however, and the manager needs to recognize this and address such a contingency as forthrightly as possible. Employees want to hear from the manager, not from the rumor mill. In management, issues of trust are of paramount importance and concern.

Empathy expressed by the manager allows employees to be recognized and understood. Employees who feel “unheard” may convey even stronger feelings of insecurity and anxiety that can spread to other members of the organization and also impact employees’ families.

Influence Maintaining healthy and productive relationships between employees and the organization can be a high leverage influence. When managers seek to continue a spirit of shared goals with employees, they can become quite convincing that it is in the best interest of the employee to remain a part of the

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team. Not behaving as part of the team can lead to greater job insecurity than may presently exist and possibly to termination when such an eventuality might otherwise never have occurred. Another way that managers can frame the issue is to explain to employees the value of maintaining quality performance even in light of uncertain job status. Performing well and even being proactive in taking responsibilities can enhance skill development so that the skills gained can be used in the current organization or may be transferred to another position elsewhere.

It is important to stress that managers who demonstrate sincerity and genuine care for the well-being and welfare of employees are likely to engender positive responses. For example, difficult situations can be framed in ways that allow employees to identify positive and productive actions that may be taken to ameliorate difficult situations. However, effecting such insight is a fine balancing act.

Nevertheless, an unrealistic response is likely to engender frustration in employees that may lead to loss of trust and undermine employees’ confidence in a manager’s message. Ultimately such a reaction could lead to reduced job performance and/or job satisfaction.

Decision-Making Astuteness In a global business environment, it is increasingly difficult to accurately assess emotions. Maintaining an open door policy and seeking opportunities to “walk around” can give managers improved opportunities to judge employees’ feelings.

In Conclusion The emotionally intelligent manager is able to think through options and incorporate anticipated reactions of others in order to improve the quality of decision making. Individual managers are required to take into consideration the relationships they have with each employee, then carefully select the most appropriate and sensitive responses that will be effective for each individual. There is no “one-size-fits-all” approach in wrestling with the challenges presented by job insecurity and its resulting anxiety. Instead, effective managers are advised to assess each situation and the personalities involved, then to use their most insightful responses and techniques in making the best decisions.

Noted mathematician, logician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead has written, “Intellect is to emotion as our clothes are to our bodies; we could not very well have civilized life without clothes, but we would be in a poor way if we had only clothes without bodies.”[7] In a complex and insecure business environment, managers need to use every available tool to successfully survive and to serve both employees and the companies for which they work. We suggest that these tools include familiarity with and choice of appropriate responses to emotional as well as to cognitive concerns.

Theory of Emotional Intelligence Salovey et al. (2004) proposed one of the first comprehensive theories of emotional intelligence.

They carried out comprehensive tests to establish the validity of emotional intelligence based on the theoretical concept of emotion and a definition of intelligence. They defined emotion as “an organized response system that coordinates experiences of moods and feelings, such as 46

happiness, anger, sadness and surprise” and intelligence as “a primary emphasis on abstract The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence to MBA students by reasoning and secondarily, refer to adaptation”. They suggested that intellect and emotional intelligence are different and in fact use different parts of the brain. Goleman (1995, 1998)popularized this field. He adapted the Mayer and Salovey model, focusing on emotionalintelligence as an array of competencies grouped around the management of our own feelings and our relationships with others. Goleman (1998, p. 82) defines emotional intelligence as, the capacity for understanding our own feelings and those of others, for motivating others and ourselves whilst using leadership, empathy and integrity. It is important to distinguish between two terms – emotional intelligence and emotional competencies. Emotional intelligence as proposed by Mayer and Salovey (1990) refers to a person's basic underlying capability to recognize and use emotion. Emotional competencies as proposed by Goleman (1998) refer to learned competencies or skills based on emotional intelligence with the explicit focus on the word learned, i.e. it is possible to develop emotional competencies. Since the publication of Goleman's (1995) seminal work on emotional intelligence interest in this construct and its application to HRD has been considerable (Higgs and Aitken, 2003; Rosete and Ciarrochi, 2005). In recent years organizations as diverse as BT, American Express, Johnson and Johnson, British police forces and local authorities have incorporated elements of emotional intelligence within their competency frameworks (Passmore and Roberts, 2005; Kilgallon, 2005; Urch Druskat et al., 2006; Consortium for Research onEmotional Intelligence in Organizations, 2007). Boyatzis (2008) suggests that almost every organization with more than 300 employees has adopted a competency-based framework for its human resource management. These competency frameworks influence both the selection and development of existing and future leaders.

Astudy of local government managers supports the view that there are generic behaviors that are either “effective” or “ineffective” (Hamlin and Serventi, 2008). Areview of these behavioral characteristics demonstrates congruence with the emotional intelligence competency descriptors developed by Goleman (1998, 2001). It appears that the major drive of interest from academic researchers has been “the failure of IQ tests, which can only test abstract reasoning, to account sufficiently for the variance in success both in an educational and organizational context” (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000, p. 346). The resulting focus by researchers has been in part to develop additional definitions and tests of intelligence to account for this variance. Although this paper does not give in depth consideration to the criticisms of the emotional intelligence construct, it should be noted that some writers suggest it is not new and is in fact a repackaging of personality theories (McCrae, 2000). These groups are based upon his research into hundreds of competency models from both private and public organizations. The model breaks down each behavioural group into clusters of competencies, which make up the constituent parts of the complete “algorithm” as described by McClelland (1973). For example, to describe an individual is socially aware, they should fulfil the criteria for that cluster. These criteria could require the individual to demonstrate a certain level of mastery in all or only two of the three constituent parts: empathy, service orientation and organizational awareness. Working alongside Boyatzis and others, Goleman (1998) developed the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) testing instrument for emotional intelligence. It is based upon a 360-degree assessment that gathers self, subordinate, peer and supervisory ratings using the framework shown in Tabulation, above. The literature discussed underpins the proposition

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that in times of change it may be valuable for HRD professionals to understand why and how people respond the behaviour of others and that in particular the value of identifying the emotional intelligence competencies that create a positive emotional connection with others. This paper extends Goleman's (1995, 1998) inductive research into emotional intelligence competencies to consider which elements, if any, have greater importance for HRD practice in times of change.

Goleman's framework was adopted as his research was based upon competency models from both private and public organizations which match the MBA students' experiences.

The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence to MBA students by requires leaders to engage in doubleloop learning and complex decision making, then the negative feelings created by a leader who lacks self management and relationship management competences could be counterproductive.

Equally, the positive feelings created by leaders who are high in relationship management and social awareness competences are likely to be productive. These negative and positive feelings may also have an impact on the health, wellbeing and happiness of individuals. It is perhaps surprising that self-awareness, which is considered the cornerstone of emotional intelligence, was not found to be a significant factor in this research. This may be because it is the perceptions of followers that create the impression of a leader's influence. The dimensions of relationship management and social awareness are more readily observable, and a perceived lack of competence in selfmanagement may suggest a lack of self-awareness. Our findings suggest that the positive behaviours associated with relationship management competences enable individuals to deal more effectively with today's challenges. This research also implies that the emotional intelligence construct, which incorporates important research from the fields of psychology, positive psychology and neuroscience, may be useful in supporting the development of effective leaders. Competency frameworks form an important part of many organizations' HRD responsibilities. These frameworks are used as the basis for selection in terms of assessment centre design and other selection and testing methodologies. They will also influence appraisal and leadership development programs. This research suggests that HRD professionals when designing competency frameworks should consider a focus on the self-management and relationship management competencies clusters.

They should also consider the design of assessment centres and if possible consider testing for emotional intelligence for new and existing managers because it appear these competency clusters are particularly relevant.

Emotional intelligence and tourism Emotional intelligence has always been one of the most important applied and investigable factors in human-like behaviours particularly in tourist relationship management teatn and study on noncognitive aspects of intelligence and effort for comprehension and discernment of human behaviours can be considered as one of the most important factors for tourist relationship management team.

Tourists due to cultural differences of nations always require a kind of peace in mind in order to properly enjoy tourism services. Increase and promotion of emotional intelligence level in tourist relationship management team will lead to comprehension and understanding of one's sentiments and emotions as well as that of others and showing and emerging ethical 205www.ccsenet.org/ibr International Business Research Vol. 5, No. 8; 2012behaviors accompanying with social conscience.

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As a result, we will be able to correctly identify our feelings and behaviours and those of others and to use them for improvement and enhancement of service qualify and tourists' satisfaction level.

Table 13 presents the most important applied elements of emotional intelligence in tourist relationship management team as Fuzzy ranking which can be a comprehensive model for extension in other tourism behavioural contexts. In line with this research, it is recommended for future research, the other multi-criterion models such as DEMATEL, Network Process Analysis to be employed and by preparing a comprehensive model, impact of each of the introduced components to be measured.

Human beings, while being rational creatures, have other characteristics and features which make them emotional creatures. For years in different cultures due to prevalent customs and mies, actions based on emotions were considered disgraceful because there was the belief that emotions are the source of violence and these characteristics contradict with lofty thinking process including intelligence. However, today, psychologists by raising the concept of emotional intelligence have tried to clarify this point that the two categories of intelligence and emotion are not contradictory to one other (Averill, 2007). Emotional Intelligence is the last evolution in understanding relationship between rationality and emotion and it is referred to as the trigger of a great revolution in promotion of mental hygiene. In fact, the concept of emotional intelligence is a multi-factor field comprising a set of social skills and competencies which affect individual's abilities for discemment, comprehension, management of emotion, problem solving, and adaptability and effectively match and adjust individual with needs, requirements, pressures and challenges of life(Bar-on, 2006). In recent years, emotional intelligence due to numerous applications in diverse areas such as education, jobs, individual growth, etc has gained an increasing popularity (Elias,Tobias, & Friedlander, 1999; Goleman D., 1998). Emotional intelligence is the ability to distinguish one's emotions and those of others and adjust emotions in social situations (Koczwara & Bullock, 2009). Emotional intelligence is a subject which tries to describe and interpret position of human sentiments, emotions, feelings and capabilities. Emotionally intelligent managers are the effective leaders who achieve goals with maximum productivity, and employees' satisfaction and commitment (Donohue & Stevensen, 2006; Cadman & Brewer, 2001). As well as in psychology literature, it is claimed that emotional intelligence helps people be more successful in leadership, decision making, sale, and even in receiving debts (Koczwara & Bullock, 2009).

EI and happiness Happiness requires both proindividual and prosocial activity.

Various types of nonconscious regulation of emotion also exist. Some are so biologically determined as to be of little interest in the present context. For example, opponent- process theory states that as one emotion emerges, its opposite is physiologically activated so as to prevent the original emotion from entering into a "run away" reaction (Mauro, 1988; Solomon & Corbit, t974). But some forms of non- conscious emotion regulation may well reflect emotional intelligence.

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Repression is slightly more sophisticated because it requires a sufficiently complex self to hide emotions from itself. Sublimation is more sophisticated still because it requires the person to compromise his or her (unacceptable) desires with societally condoned activities (A. Freud, 1966, pp. 51- 53). Thus, more sophisticated defences maintain better reality contact, enhancing the individual's chance of exercising good judgment concerning emotion over the long-term. ………………..

Increasing Emotional intelligence in employees and transformational leadership (TFL)

Leadership style is an important variable that explains gender differences in leadership. The most effective leadership style in contemporary organizations is transformational leadership (Conger & Hunt, 1999; Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Hunt, 1999; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996; Lopez-Zafra, 2001; Lopez-Zafra & Morales, 1999, 2007; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).

Transformational leadership involves establishing oneself as a role model by gaining the trust and confidence of followers (Bass, 1985, 1998). This leadership style is in clear contrast to transactional leadership, where management is performed in a more conventional way and the leader rewards or punishes a follower depending on the adequacy of the follower’s performance (Avolio & Bass, 2002, p. 3).

Transformational leaders motivate their followers to improve their performance (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House, 1977; Lowe et al., 1996). Thus, transformational leaders, for instance, generally use emotional support; that is, they are able to spread their own emotions and they understand their followers’ emotions (Avolio & Bass, 2002; Bass, 1996, 2002; Lopez-Zafra, 2001). These leaders also benefit from their followers’ emotional commitment (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, & Spangler, 2004). Furthermore, transformational leaders present several nonverbal emotional cues that make them more effective and charismatic leaders (Weierter, 1997). Supportive (e.g., intellectual stimulation) and considerate (e.g., individual consideration) behaviors are also typical of transformational leaders and are related to feminine gender roles. These behaviors thus may be advantageous for women (Porterfield & Kleiner, 2005) and may allow them to be outstanding leaders (Eagly, 2003), as female leaders are often more transformational than male leaders (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Eagly & Johannensen-Schmidt, 2001; Eagly et al., 2003; Garcia-Retamero & Lopez-Zafra, 2002, 2006a, 2006b). Finally, previous research has illustrated that individuals’ stereotypic feminine characteristics predict transformational leadership (Cuadrado, 2004; Kent & Moss, 1994; Hackman, Furniss, Hills, & Paterson, 1992; Lopez-Zafra & Morales, 1998, 2007), regardless of gender (LopezZafra & Del Olmo, 1999).

(THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE FROM A GENDERED APPROACH, Esther Lopez-Zafra, Rocio Garcia-Retamero, M. Pilar Berrios Martos , E-mail: elopez@ujaen.es, The Psychological Record, 2012, 62, 97–114)

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Researchers have proposed that TFL behaviors cover four dimensions (Bass, 1985), as follows: idealized influence, which refers to the degree to which leaders exercise charismatic mannerisms that cause followers to identify with them; inspirational motivation, which is the degree to which leaders articulate a vision that appeals to followers; individualized consideration, which is the degree to which leaders attend to followers’ needs, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to their concerns; and intellectual stimulation, which is the degree to which leaders encourage followers to challenge assumptions, take risks, and solicit their followers’ ideas.

In social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) it is suggested that employees may acquire much of their behavior by observing and imitating others and by observing the outcomes of the behaviors of others. With these observations and considering which actions are rewarded and punished, employees may choose whether or not to engage in certain behaviors based on the gathered social information. This learning process is considered passive because people can learn effectively from the mistakes of others and from the positive and negative outcomes resulting from other people’s actions. Dasborough (2006) empirically demonstrated that leaders evoke emotional responses in employee workplace settings. Furthermore, it is now widely accepted that TFL is an emotion-laden process. George (2000) explained how emotions play a central role in the leadership process, emphasizing and identifying five essential elements for leadership effectiveness: (a) developing collective goals and objectives; (b) instilling a sense of appreciation and importance of work in others; (c) generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust; (d) encouraging flexibility in decision making and change; and (e) establishing and maintaining a meaningful identity for the organization. Each of these elements involves emotional aspects, whereby leaders instill emotion in employees for potential enhancement of employee EI. An example of this process is an employee’s observation of a leader consistently engaging in EI behaviors and noting the subsequent promotion of the leader. Consequently, if this employee desires promotion, he or she may be more likely to engage in an EI behavior after observing the actions of the leader leading to a promotion. Zimbardo and Leippe (1991) found that people are more likely to engage in behaviors if a viable opportunity exists from which they can benefit. Leaders may influence this EI or change in behavior on behalf of employees through the process of role modeling (e.g., Gruys, Stewart, Goodstein, Bing, & Wicks 2008).

In summary, we reasoned that the tenets of social learning theory could be applied to the relationship between TFL and EI. In this regard, because of the transformational process, those who practice emotional management (i.e., the four dimensions of EI) will be influenced by TFL, and will, as a result, exhibit a higher level of EI. Researchers (e.g., Coetzee & Schaap, 2004) have argued that TFL may promote the EI of employees.

There is another hypothesis : Increased exposure to transformational leadership will result in increasing levels of emotionally intelligent behavior over time.

Consequences of Emotional Intelligence are great :The first aspect of job performance is task performance, which is defined as activities that are involved directly in the accomplishment of core job tasks or activities that directly support the accomplishment of tasks involved in an organization’s technical core (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997). Compared with other people, individuals with high levels of EI can use emotional regulation 51

effectively and master their interactions with others in a more effective manner in their work groups, and should, therefore, exhibit enhanced performance because they can interact effectively with their peers. Compared with other people, they are more attentive and more focused on coordination and, therefore, may be better suited than others to the general tasks of the job. From a performance perspective, past researchers have also argued that EI is connected to performance (e.g., Goleman, 1998; Wong & Law, 2002); however, to date no empirical research has been carried out in which the focus has been the processes through which fosters the competencies of followers in relation to task performance behavior development.

There is another hypothesis- The development of emotionally intelligent behavior will lead to development of increased task performance behavior over time.

Job performance includes not only direct task performance, but also less formal and less direct emergent behaviors that contribute to organizations (Motowidlo et al., 1997). In general, helpfulness, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue do not contribute directly to an organization’s technical core (Organ, 1988), but they contribute to the organization by fostering a social and psychological environment that is conducive to the accomplishment of tasks involved in the organization’s technical core (Motowidlo et al., 1997). The label given to these indirect performance behaviors is organizational citizenship behavior (OCB; Organ, 1988). People with high EI can regulate their emotions effectively to engage fully and positively with their work groups compared to those with less EI, which should mean that they are more willing to step outside the bounds of the formally defined tasks of their jobs and engage in actions that constitute OCB. Empirical researchers such as Day and Carroll (2004) have argued that employees with high EI have greater attachment or affect toward their organizations; however, no empirical research has been conducted in which the focus has been on the processes by which EI fosters the development of followers’ OCB. Therefore, we developed the following hypothesis: There is another hypothesis : The development of emotionally intelligent behavior will trigger the development of an increase in organizational citizenship behaviors over time.

Our results in this study demonstrated that TFL perception at Time 1 influences development of increases in EI behavior, and that these increases triggered the development of increases in TP and OCB over time. First, we delineated how TFL leads to development of changes in employee performance behavior. By applying TFL to EI behavior development, we proposed that TFL enhances employee performance by transforming employee EI, and suggested that EI plays a dominant role in predicting TP and OCB. Second, our results also suggest that improved employee performance may be achieved when TFL is accompanied by EI development strategies. EI also provides a strategic focus for TFL behavior and enables transformational leaders to be more effective in directing employee behaviors toward achieving high performance.

(Increasing Emotional Intelligence Of Employees: Evidence From Research And Development Teams In Taiwan.Authors: Yuan, Benjamin J. C, Wan-Lung Hsu, Jia-Horng Shieh, Kuang-Pin Li, valuepreneur@gmail.com, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal 2012, Vol. 40 Issue 10, p1713 )

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Cooper identifies a number of high profile business leaders who demonstrate what he refers to as the "four cornerstones" of El: emotional literacy, emotional fitness, emotional depth and emotional alchemy. Harrison &Clough conducted secondary research on 15 "state of the art" leaders and found that they possessed a number of characteristics, one of which was high EI. Barling, Slater and Kelloway examined self-report ratings of managers' El and subordinate ratings of their transformational leadership. They found that El was associated with three aspects of transformational leadership (idealized influence, inspirational motivation and individualized consideration). Higgs andAitken studied the El of 40 managers participating in a leadership developmentcenter. They found El to be related to a number of aspects of leadership and they suggest that El may prove a good predictor of leadership potential. Mandell and Pherwani examined the predictive relationship between El and transformational leadership style in 32 managers working for a medium to large organization in the U.S. They found a significant relationship between transformational leadership style and El. 'Jordan and froth conducted a study with 330 university students participating in 108 teams. They found that teams consisting of members higher in El performed better than teams with members lower in El. They also found that El affected the type of conflict strategies adopted. Those higher in El were more likely to use collaboration at both the individual and team levels of analysis.^" In a study of 41 senior executives. Rósete and Ciarrochi investigated the relationship between El, personality, cognitive intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Their results showed that El was associated with higher levels of leadership effectiveness and that El explained variance explained by neither personality nor cognitive ability^' Dries and Pepermans matched 51 high potential managers with 51 regular managers. They found that the El subscales of assertiveness, independence, optimism, flexibility and social responsibility separated the high potential managers from managers performing at an average level. Rego, Sousa, Pina e Cunha, Correia, and Saur-Amaral investigated the extent of co-variation between a leader's El and the creativity of his/her team. They found that employees were more creative when their team leaders possessed self-control against criticism and were more empathetic.^' The evidence provided above indicates a link between El and leadership effectiveness. Therefore, assessment centers and other selection procedures targeted at selecting effective leaders will benefit from the inclusion of El as one of the selection criteria.

(Emotional intelligence and leadership Development, By Golnaz Sadri, Public Personnel Management Volume 41 No. 3 Fall 2012) …………

Emotional intelligence training and leadership development

The first study of leadership development to be introduced in this section is that of Conger who suggested that there are essentially four approaches to leadership development: personal development, conceptual understanding, feedback and skill building. Conger suggests that the personal growth approaches to leadership development assume that the training participant has lost touch with his/her inner values, talents and passions. Activities aimed at personal growth help participants reconnect with these inner qualities. Conceptual approaches assume that leadership is complex and poorly understood.

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The goal of this category of training activities is to raise awareness of some key leadership ideas.

Feedback approaches to leadership training assume that participants have already developed a leadership style, feedback assists in identifying the strengths and pitfalls of the individual's particular style. Finally, skill building approaches to leadership development employ step-by-step instructions and demonstrations to help participants learn essential leadership skills and techniques.

It appears that a number of the competencies identified by Goleman are already the focus of current leadership development practices. Looking at the definitions provided and reviewing the activities identified by Conger, Conger's categories integrate with Goleman's competencies in the following ways: personal growth integrates with Goleman's dimension of self-awareness (both focus on developing greater awareness of one's internal states); feedback taps into self-regulation (feedback on leader behaviors leads to a greater recognition of abilities, preferences and resources and identifies next steps in managing resources); skill building approaches help with the development of social skills.

Thus, three of the four categories of leadership training and development currently employed by practitioners overlap in some manner with three of the five competencies identified by Goleman in his model of EI In a more recent study, Hartman, Conklin and Smith conducted a review of talks given to students of a leadership class by 12 business leaders and identified six themes which constitute "practice-based definitions of effective leadership and leader development.' Their six leadership themes are: full commitment (the leaders identified passion and 100% commitment as important to success); people orientation (appealing to and getting the most from their surrounding people); education (seeing everything as an opportunity to contribute to life-long learning); difficult challenges (taking on difficult assignments); communication (the importance of honest, face-toface contact with employees); and ethics (staying with one's morals and acting with integrity).

Again, Goleman's competencies of El integrate with Hartman et al's themes in a number of ways: people orientation integrates with Goleman's category of social skills (both involve the ability to get the most from others); communication integrates with Goleman's category of empathy (there is abundant literature linking empathy to effective communication skills); ethical behavior integrates with Goleman's categories of self-awareness and self-regulation (self-awareness involves knowing those key values that are important to a leader while self-regulation is defined as the ability to manage one's impulses and resources so that the leader stays true to his/her values). Thus, three of Hartman et al's themes of effective leadership and leader development integrate with four of the five competencies identified by Goleman.''^ "While the debate continues about the validity of El as a type of intelligence and the reliability and validity of El measures, this paper shows that four of the competencies of which it is composed integrate with prior research on leadership development. More specifically, the El competencies of self-awareness, self-regulation and social skills overlap with the personal growth, feedback and skill building approaches to leadership development identified by Conger. The El competencies of social skills, empathy, self-awareness and self-regulation overlap with the themes of people orientation, communication and ethical behavior identified by Hartman et al. Consequently, I suggest that practitioners interested and involved in developing leaders not attempt to improve all five El competencies in the same training program, but rather consider developing one or more of the competencies identified here as integrating with past research in the area of leadership development 54

(self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy and social skills) as stand-alone competencies and provide training to participants who lack the requisite skills on an as-needed basis. For example, the top training priority for one leader might be developing self-awareness, for another it may be improving self-regulation, for a third, developing empathy, while for a fourth, the initial focus for training might be enhancing social skills.

The level of priority will be determined through the measurement of each leader's El prior to attendance at the leadership development program. Toward this end, Allen and Hartman reviewed 25 sources of learning for leaders and provide helpful information about each. Of the activities identified by Allen and Hartman, those most pertinent to developing self-awareness include individual reflection, group reflection, executive coaching, instruments, simulations and personal development plans.'*^ Individual reflection focuses on a person's goals, past experiences and personal mission and is captured through activities like journaling. Group reflection typically occurs after a teambuilding activity. Participants discuss the pattern of events during the exercise and identify strategies for improvement. Executive coaching is an individualized method of learning where a coach works with a client in a one-to-one relationship to assist in accomplishing behavioral improvements back at the workplace.'^^ Instruments are a popular vehicle for raising self-awareness. A combination of self-report and 360degree instruments is often used as part of leadership development programs. It was suggested earlier in this paper that measures of El be incorporated as one of the instruments used in such programs. There are a variety of simulations available for use in leadership development programs.

These range from simple paper and pencil exercises (for example, where participants are asked to imagine that they are in a crisis type situation and, through discussion, they have to agree on a preferred coursed of action) to more elaborate outdoor activities. Such exercises are then paired with group reflection. Personal development plans involve the individual in developing and taking responsibility for his/her own training and development plan.

Activities most likely to contribute to the enhancement of self-regulation include executive coaching, developmental assignments, simulations and personal development. Please refer to the previous paragraph for definitions of executive coaching, simulations and personal development plans.

Developmental assignments are structured so that they are both challenging as well as providing an opportunity for the individual to learn.^" Service learning is likely to prove a very good vehicle for developing empathy Service learning involves engagement in activities that target individual and community needs.

Social skills may be enhanced through the training methodologies of teambuilding, developmental relationships and networking with senior executives. Teambuilding involves members working cooperatively together to analyse the task aspect of their work as well as the interpersonal processes occurring within the group. Developmental relationships may be formal or informal and help provide the target individual with information, support and challenge. Networking with senior executives gains the target individual exposure as well as the opportunity to learn about the organization from an informed and informal perspective.

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Finally, while motivation did not integrate with the prior studies reviewed here, I will nevertheless mention that of the training activities identified, those that seem most suited to the development of motivation as defined by Goleman include classroom based training, self-paced learning, as well as personal development plans (defined above) to better understand and assess a leader's own motivation. Classroom-based training is formal education with a relatively short (usually lasting between three to five days) curriculum geared towards the particular needs of the executive audience. Self-paced learning typically involves participants reading a book, completing a workbook, viewing a videotape or listening to an audiotape. The reader is directed to Allen and Hartman for further information about each of these training activities.

(Emotional intelligence and leadership Development, By Golnaz Sadri, Public Personnel Management Volume 41 No. 3 Fall 2012)

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Emotional intelligence and military performance

According to the EI mixed model (Bar-On, 1997), emotional intelligence is defined as an array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence people’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. Because the mixed model contains non-cognitive dimensions, we believe that the mixed model of EI would offer a more inclusive measurement of emotional Emotional Intelligence as a mediator between commanders’ transformational leadership and soldiers’ EI The mixed model of EI is characterized as emotional competence based on adaptive behavior in relation to the job environment. EI includes an individual’s knowledge related to emotions in addition to incorporating knowledge of motivation, personality traits, temperament, character and social skills (Bar-On, 2000). On the basis of emotional intelligence research in the work environment, the Bar-On mixed model is recognized as the most appropriate one (Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2004). In addition, EI mixed model components are consistent with the qualities required in a military leader and professional soldiers (Headquarters, Department of the Army, 2007). For example, EI intrapersonal factor refers to self-understanding, self-awareness and the ability to express one’s feelings and ideas. Interpersonal factor is defined as the ability to be aware of, appreciate and understand others’ feelings, and the ability to establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships with other individuals (Bar-On, 2000). If one applies EI theory to the field of soldiers’ professional development and training, it is apparent that the Armed Forces need soldiers who can work closely with people with various cultures, services and government agencies, and this requires tremendous interpersonal skills (Abrahams, 2007). Furthermore, the Armed Forces need soldiers who can adapt quickly to ambiguous and dangerous situations. These qualities are characterized by EI adaptability and stress management competencies ……………………………….

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Emotional intelligence and selling

Professional salespeople are often placed in situations where role conflict and ambiguity are prevalent. They are generally expected to sell a firm's products and services to generate immediate profits, while simultaneously building customer satisfaction and promoting lifetime customers and the long-term economic viability of the firm.

Although emotional intelligence is perceived to be a critical behavioural factor, its relationship to customer-oriented selling has not been evaluated. However, given the critical nature of these two behavioural dimensions, it would seem that the analysis of the potential relationship between a salesperson's level of emotional intelligence and the practice of customer-oriented selling would be a natural progression of existing research. It may be argued that many of the components of emotional intelligence (i.e., empathy, long-term orientation, focus on others, and ability to sacrifice short-term needs) are similarly related to customer orientation (Crosby, Evans, & Cowles, 1990; Dubinsky & Staples, 1981; Ingram, 1996; Pilling & Eroglu, 1994; Saxe & Weitz, 1982).

The accomplishment of the primary purposes of the research may enable sales managers to develop improved methods of sales recruitment, selection, training and development, as well as an improved focus on managerial behaviours. For example, if emotional intelligence is associated with customeroriented selling, firms that value customer satisfaction will be equipped with a tool that may be useful in identifying individuals with a proclivity to engage in customer-oriented selling. Furthermore, because research indicates that emotional intelligence is subject to development, the discovery that emotional intelligence is associated with the practice of customer-oriented selling may lead to the implementation of training programs that focus on the improvement of the salesperson's level of emotional intelligence. The determination that organizational commitment is related to customeroriented selling may be the factor that motivates managers to focus on developing an environment that enhances organizational commitment levels.

Finally, if the research uncovers a clear relationship between the practice of customer-oriented selling and performance, one might expect to find that additional firms will be seeking to encourage their sales staffs to engage in customer-oriented selling. Thus, the research may lead to both improved sales management practices in the areas of selection, training, and development and in the research pertaining to critical issues relating to customer-oriented selling and customer satisfaction.

Marketing and Sales Sales and marketing are two completely separate business disciplines that are often confused, sometimes deliberately.

MARKETING is the creative process that develops the personality of a product or service and communicates the emotions involved in using them.

SALES (or Selling) is the process of influencing customers' or clients' choice and to help with decisions to purchase.

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A social stigma still exists around sales but emotionally intelligence sales people are comfortable to tell others that they work in sales. Good sales people know that they help their customers or clients to make the best decisions according to their needs.

How are emotions involved in marketing?

Emotions play a fundamental part of the decision making process within purchasing - whether services or products are bought for personal or for business use. All too often marketing focuses on the analysis of logic and reason to understand how purchasing can be rationalised and in so doing overlooks the real reasons why people buy. Think about it, goods may be purchased simply because you like the product, it feels right or it makes you feel good. You buy with your heart and use your thinking to logically justify what you want emotionally.

How are emotions involved in selling?

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Something more than sales techniques is required to be successful in selling. Sales people who know the product or service extensively will not succeed in the long term without possessing certain essential competencies. Good sales people are continually managing tension in challenging situations, adapting to changing requirements and situations as well as using excellent communication skills on an intra and interpersonal level. Sales skills of high performing people can be developed further through one-to-one coaching support in the field.

The application of emotional intelligence techniques helps to improve overall marketing and sales performance by increasing both volume and value. Learning these techniques helps good people involved in marketing and sales to become even better and the incompetent to become competent.

Good long term client relationships are established and built through active listening and empathising more effectively. This allows any negative personal reactions to be efficiently managed enhancing resilience to rejection and sustaining optimism and motivation.

In business-to-business marketing, the relationship between the salesperson's behaviour and customer satisfaction would seem to be significant. As stated by Williams and Attaway (1996, p. 34), "The marketing success of a firm is highly dependent upon its sales representatives since they have the most immediate influence on customers." One study found that the quality of the relationship between the salesperson and the buyer had a significant impact on the buyer's likelihood of repurchase (Crosby, Evans, & Cowles, 1990). Correspondingly, research has found that one key aspect 59

in building relationships and increasing trust is the degree to which the buyer perceives the salesperson as being customer oriented (Hawes, Mast, & Swan, 1989).

The importance of the salesperson in the creation of customer satisfaction led to the development of a scale designed to measure the salesperson's selling orientation and customer orientation (Saxe & Weitz, 1982). The salesperson's selling orientation is exhibited by behaviours focused on making a sale. In other words, a salesperson may be described as being more selling-oriented when that individual is willing to sacrifice customer satisfaction in exchange for the opportunity to successfully sell the product/service. Conversely, the salesperson is said to be customer oriented when he or she engages in behaviour that is designed to build the customer's satisfaction and satisfy customer needs over the long term (Saxe & Weitz, 1982). According to Saxe and Weitz (1982, p. 343), the practice of customer oriented selling is "the practice of the marketing concept at the level of the individual salesperson and customer." This definition indicates that customer-oriented selling represents the salesperson's activities in which the focus is on satisfying the customer's needs. Obviously, this definition connotes a long-term focus designed to satisfy the customer's needs while simultaneously satisfying the needs of the seller. As Kelley (1992, p. 33) states, "The extent to which customer orientation is displayed by service employees impacts the level of satisfaction experienced by customers and the quality and the duration of the relationship between the organization and its customers." Thus, the customer orientation levels of a firm's employees are perceived as being a significant factor affecting a business' level of success.

The concept of customer-oriented selling has many corollaries. For example, some research has suggested that a salesperson is engaging in buyer-oriented selling when he or she engages in need identification, focusing on benefits, helping the customer understand how his or her needs are satisfied, and attempting to improve or maintain the customer's level of satisfaction (Dubinsky & Staples, 1981). Another corollary is termed relationship selling. Relational selling behaviour has been described as behaviour focused on developing the buyer-seller relationship and ensuring its maintenance and growth (Crosby et al., 1990). This concept includes a focus on customer disclosure, which the authors contend is necessary to help salespeople solve their customers' "complex and illstructured" problems. Relationship selling emphasizes the concept of listening to the customer's needs and concerns (Ingram, 1996). Listening may be perceived as overlapping with the psychological concept of empathy, which has been shown to significantly impact the performance of professional salespeople. In fact, empathy may facilitate the salesperson's ability to modify his or her presentation to focus on the customer's situation and feelings (Pilling & Eroglu, 1994). The relationship between empathy and customer-orientation levels was advanced by Weitz (1979, p.

101), who contends, "Empathic salespeople should be more effective because they would have a greater appreciation of their customer's needs...." Although the relevance of a customer orientation in many sales environments is relatively well established, considerable debate has ensued regarding the antecedents of customer-oriented selling (Boles, Babin, Brashear, & Brooks, 2001). Some research has discovered that organizational culture is a determinant of customeroriented selling (Avila & Tadepalli, 1999; Hoffman & Ingram, 1991; Kelley, 1992; Kohli & Jaworski, 1990; O'Hara, Boles, & Johnston, 1991; Pettijohn, Pettijohn, & Taylor, 2002; Williams & Attaway, 1996). Related research argues that customer oriented selling is more likely to occur in firms whose cultures encourage the practice of the marketing concept (Boles et al., 2001; Kelley, 1992;

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Saxe & Weitz, 1982) and in firms that have a long-run orientation toward the customer (Flaherty, Dahlstrom, & Skinner, 1999). With regard to salesperson characteristics, studies have evaluated salesperson gender, skills, training, organizational commitment, job involvement, role conflict/ambiguity, and supervisor/employee relationships to determine the degree to which these factors influence the practice of customer-oriented selling (O'Hara, Boles, & Johnston, 1991; Pettijohn, Pettijohn, & Taylor, 2002). However, certain antecedents have not yet received extensive research attention. For example, although some research has discovered a relationship between customer-oriented selling and organizational commitment (cf Kelley, 1992; O'Hara et al., 1991), the congruence between these two dimensions have yet to be well established (Boles et al., 2001).

Further, research has addressed the relationship that exists between performance and customeroriented selling. Although the relationship has been shown to exist in some studies (Boles et al., 2001; Saxe & Weitz, 1982), in other research the relationship has not been as clear-cut (Avila & Tadepalli, 1999; Saxe & Weitz, 1982).

One of the key factors influencing the use of customer-oriented selling entails the evaluation of the cost/benefit relationships. Although there are long-term benefits associated with the practice of customer-oriented selling, considerable investments are also required to successfully engage in this process. For example, Saxe and Weitz (1982) discuss the fact that salespeople who choose to engage in customer-oriented selling are often sacrificing short-term profits in exchange for future returns. Correspondingly, it is noted that salespeople make a considerable investment in time as they engage in the process of collecting information about the customer that will facilitate their understanding of the customer's needs.

This investment in time entails risk, because this time could be spent more productively working with other customers. Researchers have struggled to conceptualize and measure the notion of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). According to some theorists, emotional intelligence refers to a "long list of attributes or abilities that appear drawn from a number of aspects of personality" (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000, p. 101). The concept has also been referred to a group of personality traits that are believed to be important to the success in life (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000). Each conceptualization has its own shortcomings and theoretical limitations (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000). Several conceptualizations have been proposed, the major works of which are discussed below.

Much of the recent work on emotional intelligence is based on the foundation provided by Gardner (1983). Although he did not use the term emotional intelligence, his reference to intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence has been used as a foundation in more recent models on this topic.

Gardner's (1983) concept refers to having the ability to know and understand one's own emotions and other individuals' emotions and intentions.

This understanding, in turn, is presumed to guide one's behavior. Salovey and Mayer (1990) were the first to formally conceptualize and use the term emotional intelligence. Their conceptualization included three mental processes: (a) the appraisal and expression of emotions in oneself and others, (b) the regulation of emotion in oneself and others, and (c) the utilization of emotions to facilitate thought. These three processes are further divided into subcomponents within the model.

The first category, the appraisal and expression of emotion, is subdivided into those processes 61

dealing with oneself and those pertaining to others. The model further subdivides appraisal of self into verbal and nonverbal expressions of emotions and appraisals dealing with others into nonverbal perception and empathy. The second mental process, the regulation of emotion, is likewise subdivided into regulation of self and others. Finally, the third category, utilization of emotion, encompasses the components of flexible planning, creative thinking, redirected attention, and motivation. Although the model is general in nature, it also addresses individual differences in mental processes and abilities (Mayer & Geher, 1996; Mayer & Salovey, 1993,1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Goleman's (1995) book. Emotional Intelligence, builds on many of the foundations laid by both Gardner (1983) and Salovey and Mayer (1990). Five competencies are examined in this approach: self-awareness, selfregulation, self-motivation, social awareness (empathy), and social skills (relationship management). By suggesting that the time had come for society to focus on something other than innate intelligence, Goleman (1995, 1998) conceptualized emotional intelligence as a way to bring focus to what individuals could change within themselves to be more productive in their everyday life.

In their book. Executive EQ, Cooper and Sawaf (1997) put forth the four cornerstones of emotional intelligence at the executive level: emotional literacy (involves the knowledge and understanding of one's own emotions and how they function), emotional fitness (involves trustworthiness and emotional hardiness and flexibility), emotional depth (involves emotional growth and intensity), and emotional alchemy (involves using emotions to discover creative opportunities). The authors presented a measure of executive emotional intelligence, the EQ MAP, but it has not yet been validated.

In a reformulation of their original model, Mayer and Salovey (1997) developed a revised framework within which to study emotional intelligence. Their model presents emotional intelligence as having four branches ranging from the most basic psychological processes to those that are more advanced.

The most basic level of processing involves the perception, appraisal, and expression of emotion.

As these skills are mastered, one would advance to the emotional facilitation of thinking and then to the understanding and analysis of emotions and the utilization of emotional knowledge. The most integrated and highest level of processing involves the reflective regulation of emotions to further emotional and intellectual growth. Within each level, there exist representative abilities ranging fi'om those that emerge early in development to those appearing later, usually in a more integrated adult personality. Individuals high in emotional intelligence are expected to progress more quickly through the branches and master each ability to its fullest (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

There exist several different emotional intelligence self-report measures, including the Bar-On emotional quotient inventory (Bar-On, 1996a, 1996b), the EQ test (Goleman, 1995), the EQ Map (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997), the style in the perception of affect scale (Bernet, 1996), and the scale developed by Schutte et al. (1998). Others have used established personality tests in an attempt to capture the construct, but have experienced only limited success (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; Schutte et al., 1998). Recently, other instruments attempting to measure the concept of El have been developed. Ability measures exist (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000) that view El as an intelligence that relates to the processing of information. Scales stressing the use of informants who provide information about how a person is perceived by others also exist (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Hay/McBer, 1999).

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Numerous researchers have investigated the effect of organizational commitment on salespeople (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986; Ingram & Lee, 1990; Sager, 1991). For example, Ingram and Lee (1990) found that organizational commitment was a significant factor in understanding sales force behavior.

Specifically, the researchers found that organizational commitment was a significant predictor of propensity to leave a sales position. Similarly, McNeilly and Russ (1992) fovmd that commitment was negatively related to turnover intentions, particularly in low sales performers.

The notion of organizational commitment has been reviewed extensively within the literature. Meyer and Allen (1991) identified three distinctive components of organizational commitment, namely, affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Affective commitment refers to an affective attachment to the organization. Continuance commitment involves a perceived cost of leaving the organization. Normative commitment stems from a perceived obligation to remain with the organization. Based on the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire developed by Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982), Allen and Meyer (1990) developed and validated separate measures for each component.

Saxe and Weitz (1982) discuss situational aspects that will facilitate the practice of customer-oriented selling. First, they state that customer-oriented sales practices are most likely when salespeople have the expertise necessary to recommend suitable alternatives. This suggests that the salesperson should possess some level of expertise that will facilitate the selection of the alternative yielding the greatest amount of satisfaction to the customer. It is further argued that customer-oriented selling is most profitable in situations in which the customer is engaged in a complex buying decision that requires input from an expert salesperson.

Customer-oriented selling is also described as being necessary when repeat sales are important and when the salesperson has a cooperative relationship with the customer. Based on these considerations, research into the efficacy of using customer orientation as a dimension in determining salesperson compensation has concluded that customer-oriented selling incentive programs were most relevant in situations in which the salesperson can influence customer satisfaction levels, and where the customer's level of satisfaction is under the control of the salesperson (Sharma, 1997).

The concept of customer-oriented selling illustrates the conflict, as salespeople are required to forgo immediate benefits in lieu of long term rewards. The results of study by(Elizabeth J. Rozell, Charles E. Pettijohn, and R. Stephen Parker, Customer-Oriented Selling: Exploring the Roles of Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Commitment, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 21(6): 405-424 (June 2004) indicate that a salesperson's customer orientation level is significantly related to emotional intelligence. Implications of the findings indicate that managers should consider using emotional intelligence as a selection and human-resource development tool, as improvements in emotional intelligence are correlated with greater levels of customer orientation. ‌‌‌.

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The previous section reveals how EI affects performance directly. However, EI is also likely to affect exchange between buyers and sellers in more complex ways.

Customer orientation. Customer orientation requires sales professionals to “engage in behaviors that increase customer satisfaction and avoid behaviors leading to customer dissatisfaction” (Dunlap, Dotson, and Chambers 1988, p. 178). Salespeople with high EI are likely to exhibit behaviors consistent with customer orientation because they effectively perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions in marketing exchanges. High-EI sales professionals are likely to assess customers’ needs better, offer products that will satisfy them, describe products and services more effectively relative to the customer’s current emotional state, and avoid high-pressure selling, which can result from poor social skills (Thomas, Soutar, and Ryan 2001). Ramani and Kumar (2008) suggest that a customer orientation reflects ability to use information obtained through successive interactions to achieve profitable customer relationships. We suggest that high-EI salespeople perceive customers’ emotions effectively; know which emotions are useful relative to customers’ needs; understand how fear, anxiety, or frustration might make customers feel; and manage emotions toward finding joint solutions. Therefore, we expect customer orientation to be more positively related to sales performance at higher levels of EI. Manifest influence. Manifest influence refers to changes in customers’ decisions and behaviors because of sales professionals’ participation (Kohli and Zaltman 1988). Salespeople with greater manifest influence are likely to be superior performers (McFarland, Challagalla, and Shervani We expect that high-EI salespeople influence customers more effectively because they recognize and understand their needs and can help find the best solutions, which leads to positive outcomes for the firm, customer, and salesperson. Without EI, interpersonal skills suffer, and attempts to influence may seem divisive and pushy. We expect manifest influence to be more positively related to sales performance at higher EI levels.

In addition to the two-way relationships, we anticipate that manifest influence will significantly affect sales performance when sales professionals are better able to employ a customer orientation, but only when they have higher levels of EI. Low-EI salespeople may try to use customer orientation to influence customers’ decisions, but their communication will be less effective because they cannot integrate emotional information. For example, customers may interpret an inability to detect anxiety or frustration as signalling a lack of caring when the salesperson is merely less able to read emotions.

Furthermore, not knowing which emotions reduce tension, not understanding how anxiety and frustration can lead to anger, and not being able to help customers relax can cause salespeople to seem uncaring, disingenuous, or even manipulative. Alternatively, higher levels of EI are likely to make a customer orientation seem more credible and sincere because the salesperson also incorporates customers’ emotions. Therefore, we expect customer orientation to moderate the relationship between manifest influence and sales performance, but only at higher levels of EI. In summary, we predict the following: H2: EI in marketing exchanges moderates the relationships between (a) customer orientation and (b) manifest influence and moderates (c) the interaction of customer orientation with manifest influence on sales performance such that these relationships are more positive at higher levels of EI. The Influence of EI Beyond Cognitive Ability

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Considerable attention has been paid to the impact of cognitive ability on sales performance (Churchill et al.

1985; Sujan, Weitz, and Kumar 1994; Walker, Churchill, and Ford 1977; Weitz 1981; Weitz, Sujan, and Sujan 1986). For example, prior research has examined sales performance from an information processing perspective, in which the salesperson’s amount of domain-specific knowledge of customers (Weitz 1978), products (Szymanski 1988), and competitors (Sujan, Sujan, and Bettman 1988) predicts sales performance.

Despite the prevalence of cognitive ability studies in the marketing literature, recent research suggests that emotional ability is as important, if not more so, than cognitive ability (e.g., Schmidt and Hunter 2004). We suggest that EI can powerfully distinguish “those who truly understand emotions from those who get lost in them” (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso 2000, p. 413). For example, a sales professional who has high cognitive ability but low EI may be highly knowledgeable about product features but may not perceive that the customer is confused and thus may lose the sale. Another salesperson might have less cognitive ability but higher EI and can recognize, understand, and respond effectively to the frustrated customer and thus close the deal.

Salespeople who are better able to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions are likely to be proficient sellers because they can go beyond the spoken or written word, read customers’ emotions, know which emotions are appropriate in particular situations, understand how customers feel during and after purchases, and effectively manage emotions to effect positive outcomes for both customers and themselves. In addition, high-EI salespeople are more likely to generate positive feelings toward customers and create relationships characterized by goodwill and understanding.

They are more likely to be viewed as non-manipulative and genuine in their interpretation and understanding of customers’ emotions, which should lay the groundwork for establishing and maintaining long-term customer relationships. Therefore, we hypothesize the following: H3: EI in marketing exchanges positively influences sales performance beyond the effects of cognitive ability.

The Influence of EI and Cognitive Ability on Sales Performance We suggest that cognitive ability and EI make independent but complementary contributions to performance.

A complementary relationship suggests that these abilities are distinct but mutually supportive constructs and that their differences allow each to contribute to a unified outcome (Barbalet 2001). Such a view is consistent with recent research that examines the interaction between social competence and cognitive ability (Verbeke et al. 2008). We suggest that EI interacts with cognitive ability such that cognitive ability has a positive direct effect on sales performance but that this relationship is likely to be strengthened at higher levels of EI. Sales professionals who have high cognitive ability are likely to find it easier to understand how their products work and how they can function in complex customer settings. They are also likely to be better equipped to ask probing questions that uncover issues and challenges that customers face and to understand their situations.

Thus, cognitive ability is clearly beneficial. However, we suggest that higher EI enhances cognitive ability to boost sales performance. Specifically, those who have both cognitive ability and high EI can better discern whether they are conveying information that is resonating with customers, understand how basic customer emotions combine to form more complex emotions, and regulate their emotions and customers’ emotions during marketing exchanges. High-EIsales professionals understand subtle facial expressions of confused customers, which prompt them to repeat or clarify messages or find better ways to explain product or solution details. Thus, salespeople with high cognitive ability can understand what the customer is telling them, and salespeople who also possess high EI can understand how the customer is conveying that information, why the customer is feeling and expressing certain emotions, and when to express or suppress their own emotions.

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Although salespeople with greater cognitive ability may have little difficulty understanding problems and providing reasoned solutions to customer problems, without at least moderate levels of EI they will be unable to read, understand, or use emotional information in the interaction. For example, they will struggle with recognizing whether customers are enthusiastic or frustrated and with understanding complex emotional information, such as distinguishing facial expressions. They will also misread the appropriateness or blending of various emotions and fail to discern how to regulate their own emotions or manage the customers’ emotions.

Thus, we expect a weak relationship between cognitive ability and sales performance when EI is low. In summary, we suggest that EI affects the likelihood of cognitive ability enhancing sales performance, such that when EI increases, cognitive ability is more strongly related to sales performance. Formally, we hypothesize the following: another hypothesis is : EI in marketing exchanges and cognitive ability interact sales performance is more positive at higher levels of EI.

EI can have important contingency effects in marketing exchanges beyond directly affecting performance. Our findings indicate that being able to attend to customers’ needs (customer orientation) and influence them (manifest influence) are more positively related to performance when people possess high EI. In addition, we find that EI mediates the relationship between customer orientation and sales performance, suggesting that sales professionals’ emotional abilities are essential if they are to effectively employ strategies and techniques for interacting with customers. Therefore, although it is important to train sales professionals to use a customer orientation, they will be able to employ such techniques most effectively if they possess EI. Thus, EI is an important antecedent to sales performance and essential to successful selling behaviors.

Third, we provide theoretical insights into the relationships among EI, cognitive ability, and performance, and we explain and demonstrate how EI and cognitive ability interact to affect performance. Thus, we provide new insights into the interplay between EI and cognitive ability and extend recent research that examines “intelligences” other than general cognitive, such as social competence (Verbeke et al. 2008).

Fourth, we advance the literature by developing an ability-based EIME measure, which starkly contrasts with published EI scales based on subjective self-reports (SREIS; Brackett et al. 2006). As we discussed, self-report scales are susceptible to faking (Day and Carroll 2008) and invalid for assessing ability (Mayer, Roberts, and Barsade 2008). Thus, the current research should advance further research assessing and testing EI in marketing exchanges.

Fifth, we uncover underlying dimensions of EI that uniquely influence sales performance in different contexts. The ability to understand and manage emotions seems particularly useful in real estate contexts. Such contexts often involve multiple visits to numerous homes with demandingcustomers.

Agents who can keep their composure (i.e., manage their emotions) and recognize that an anxious client may become frustrated (i.e., understand the client’s emotions) are likely to perform more effectively. In insurance contexts, the evidence indicates that perceiving, facilitating, and managing emotions are effective. Such contexts typically involve fewer interactions with clients. This suggests that the ability to recognize and use emotions quickly should be particularly useful. For example,

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being able to read facial expressions (i.e., perceiving) and knowing which emotions to portray to clients (i.e., facilitating) are likely to be particularly effective in such contexts.

Managerial Implications Customer relationship management. This research provides evidence that high-EI sales professionals, compared with moderate- and low-EI salespeople, influence sales revenue and retain more customers, a finding that has potential implications for maintaining customer relationships over time.

High-EI salespeople are more likely to perceive how the customer feels in various situations, know which emotions are useful in various settings, understand how basic emotions might evolve given a customers’ current emotional state, and manage emotions to reduce frustration and anxiety or elevate moods through positive emotion. Thus, EI can be important to effective customer relationship management and can substantially affect the firm’s bottom line.

Adding to the direct effects of EI on performance, our findings indicate that high-EI sales professionals significantly influence the effectiveness of key marketing exchange variables. The marketing literature has emphasized the importance of influencing customers’ decision making to find optimal solutions (manifest influence) and the importance of meeting customers’ needs (customer orientation). We found one variable in particular that accentuates sales performance relationships—high EI—even when we controlled for several variables, including adaptive selling and self-efficacy. Furthermore, a three-way interaction demonstrated that higher EI influences the effectiveness of selling techniques. Note that simple effects analyses of the three-way interaction indicated that the combination of low EI and high customer orientation was negatively related to sales revenue. This suggests that without EI, sales professionals trying to use a customer orientation may not recognize which emotions will reduce tension, fail to understand how negative emotions will lead to anger and frustration, and be unable to manage customers’ emotions by helping them relax.

In their failure, they might seem to be uncaring, disingenuous, or even manipulative. Thus, higher EI can significantly improve the use of selling techniques. These relationships represent an extension of how emotions influence customer relationships and suggest that salespeople who have control over and knowledge of their own emotions and the emotions of their customers will not only perform more effectively but also more proficiently employ strategies designed to create and maintain strong positive customer relationships.

Sales managers must select highly talented candidates from applicant pools, knowing that sales force turnover affects recruiting and selection costs (Darmon 1990). Many selection procedures test cognitive ability and could easily include an EI assessment. Hunter and Schmidt’s (1998) metaanalytic assessment of selection procedures suggests that firms should enhance job performance by combining cognitive tests with assessments such as integrity measurements. However, until now, no useful assessment tools have been available to determine an applicant’s ability to use emotions when interacting with customers. Furthermore, selecting people with high EI can have other outcomes critical to performance, such as better communication among coworkers, teammates, and supervisors; facilitation of positive work climates; enhanced citizenship behavior; reduced role 67

conflict; and less turnover (Verbeke 1997). Training. People can learn EI (Mayer and Salovey 1997); therefore, such training could help sales professionals improve their performance (Kumar, Venkatesan, and Reinartz 2008). Companies might assess EI to discern which dimensions are lacking and then focus training on overcoming EI weaknesses. For example, sales professionals scoring low on managing EI can be taught to manage their own and customers’ emotions more effectively. Our findings suggest that those with at least moderate levels of cognitive ability may be the best candidates for focused EI training because these people may have the most to gain.

Those with low cognitive ability do not seem to benefit from training for greater EI. ………………………………………..

Emotional intelligence in banking industry

There is rich potential in the application of emotional intelligence to the management of banking industry. Very often, organizational systems fail to recognize the softer skills of the people and slot them into assignments for which they are inherently incapable. Such situations result in conflict and behaviour that is at times uncontrollable and bitter. Job design with an eye on the emotional intelligence content of a role is as important as the definition of role, the competencies it requires and the clean execution of tasks. A successful integration of these elements can lead to far greater banking industry success than that of those banks on board today and probably far healthier work environments in the banking industry as well.

Despite the rapid growth of interest in emotional intelligence, the measurement of emotional intelligence using ability-based indices is still in an early stage. The area of emotional intelligence is in need of energetic investigators interested in helping to refine the ability-based assessment of emotional intelligence, and, subsequently, studying the predictive validity of emotional intelligence in banking industry. The fact is, we are in the early phase of research on emotional intelligence, both in terms of measuring it as ability and in showing that such measures predict significant outcomes.

We need to remind ourselves that work on emotional intelligence is still in progress, and what the field and general public need is more investigators treating it with serious empirical attention.

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Emotional intelligence and creativity

One novel contribution of this study was the exploration of trait EI in relation to the two creativity criteria. At the global level, there was no relationship between trait EI and DT. As can be seen in the correlations, and also in the regression analysis, this was largely due to the differential effects of the 68

four trait EI factors. At the factor level, Self-control was negatively associated with DT, reinforcing the crucial point that high trait EI scores are not inherently adaptive in every situation (see Petrides et al.

2011; Sevdalis et al. 2007).

The Self-control factor of trait EI relates to stress management and emotion regulation. Although there is controversy about the relationship between creativity and negative emotions (see Sa´nchezRuiz, in press for a review), research indicates that activating emotional states with negative tone, such as stress, may be creativity enhancing in terms of perseverance. Persistent hard work and thorough exploration can be conducive to the DT aspects of fluency (as the generation of many ideas within a few categories), and originality (De Dreu et al. 2008). It is important to note that this low Self-control-DT link, as in the case of Neuroticism, was only found in the Arts group.

In contrast, positive correlations were found between trait EI (at the global and factor levels) and CP. This divergence between CP and DT suggests that the links between creativity and Self-control vary across the various indicators of creativity. A negative effect of trait EI on creativity may be evident on DT, but not on CP, due to the fact that socially undesirable variables are more likely to relate to performance than to self-report measures (Petrides et al. 2007a).

Taken together, the four trait EI factors successfully predicted both CP and DT, thus supporting our fifth hypothesis [H5]. Sociability was the best predictor in both cases, a finding which seemingly contradicts the view of creative people as being introverted, cold, and asocial (Eysenck 1993, 1995; Feist 1998). However, the findings do not indicate that creative people are socially warmer or more empathic (these facets are collected in the trait EI Emotionality factor, which was unrelated to the creativity criteria in the total sample). In contrast, the Sociability factor involves the qualitatively different aspects of Social awareness, Emotion management (in others), and Assertiveness. Social awareness and Emotion management are necessary characteristics for creative people to communicate their ideas and persuade others, while Assertiveness covers the non-conformist and autonomous element associated with creativity (Eysenck 1993). It appears that the link between trait EI Sociability and creativity has less to do with interpersonal factors than with independence of judgment, confidence and lack of repression (Barron and Harrington 1981; McCrae 1987).

Trait EI emotionality and self-control within the arts domain Another novel contribution of this study involved the investigation of university domain as a possible moderator variable. Significant interactions were found in the prediction of DT performance between Arts and Self-control (negative), and Arts and Emotionality (positive), thus supporting [H6]. The relationship between Self-control and DT was significantly more negative in the Arts group, than in the other two groups, whereas the relationship between Emotionality and DT was positive in the Arts group, but negative in the other two groups. This supports the view of the creative artist as someone with particular sensitivity to emotion and difficulties in controlling stress and anxiety (Feist 1998; Go¨tz and Go¨tz 1979). High sensitivity has been proposed as a requirement for creative work, while low emotional stability seems to be an additional specific advantage in the Arts (Feist 1998).

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It may also be the case that artists have a tendency to complete creative tasks in a way that consciously accords with the stereotype of them being emotional and unstable.

Studies have shown that artists tend to believe in implicit theories about the nature of their creativity, including that it represents a way to vent emotions and to resolve internal conflicts (Romo and Alfonso 2003). Variable interrelationships across domains Cognitive ability was the variable displaying the weakest associations with the creativity indicators in this study.

Trait EI was more strongly related to CP in T&N Sciences than in Social Sciences, suggesting that creative social scientists are not necessarily more emotionally confident than their creative colleagues in other disciplines. This partially contradicts the hypothesis of Baer and Kaufman (2005), that emotional intelligence would be more influential for creativity within the thematic area of empathy and communication. The composition of the T&N subsample may account for the correlations between trait EI and CP within this group. Other studies have shown slight differences between Natural and Technical Science students in trait EI (Sa´nchez-Ruiz et al. 2010) and it could be the case that the relationship between trait EI and CP also differs in those groups. Future studies on the domain specificity of creativity with sufficient sample size can benefit from splitting these subdomains of Technical and Natural Sciences.

Neuroticism and trait EI Self-control were the most domain-dependent variables in their relationships with the two creativity criteria. Arts students with higher scores on Neuroticism and lower scores on trait EI Self-control scored higher in DT. This may be a function of the emotional vulnerability and propensity to experience negative feelings associated with the artistic population (Burch et al. 2006; Feist 1998). An explanation for this may be that the emotional ambivalence and lability of creative artists can help them deal with affect-laden information and express negative emotions (Richards 1999; Russ 1993), aspects that are often intrinsically related to the artistic endeavor. Some authors have attributed the artists’ emotional instability to the stressors they face, such as high competitiveness among peers, geographical mobility, and occupational criticism (e.g., Marchant-Haycox and Wilson 1992). However, in the present sample, the possible impact of such factors would be limited because participants were undergraduates and recent graduates.

In contrast, T&N Science students with creative personalities scored lower in Neuroticism and higher in Selfcontrol, which agrees with Eysenck’s (1993) view of Neuroticism as an asset in the arts and a liability in the sciences. It is, therefore, likely that the relationship between emotional instability and creativity is moderated by third variables, including the domain of application.

At the other end, Openness and trait EI Sociability were the most domain-independent variables.

The former was moderately-to-highly related to both DT and CP across all domains, which suggests that it is a general requirement for creativity (see also Furnham et al. 2008; McCrae 1987). The Assertiveness facet of trait EI Sociability was positively associated with at least one of the two creativity criteria across all domains, which is explained by the independence of judgment and nonconformity that characterize creative people (Gough 1992).

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The study concludes that the determinants and consequences of creativity needs to pay full attention to the emotional aspects of personality, as well as to the specific domains and contexts of application.

(M. J. Sa´nchez-Ruiz • D. Herna´ndez-Torrano •J. C. Pe´rez-Gonza´lez • M. Batey • K. V. Petrides; The relationship between trait emotional intelligence and creativity across subject domains; Motiv Emot (2011) 35:461–473) ……………………………..

EI and scientific ability

EI and nobel prize EI and success potential EI and coaching EI and cognitive ability EI and wrestling EI and entrepreneurship EI and SME EI and multinational business EI and business strategy EI and HRM EI and medical profession/ goo doctor EI and nursing EI and Psychiatry EI and communication skills EI and influencing power EI and relationship success EI and marital success/ stability

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EI and middle managers EI and inner peace EI and counselling EI and politics EI and economics EI and multi-language/ lingualism EI and research ability

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