Dissertation
A SOCIAL IMPACT STUDY OF URBAN INTERVENTIONS AT VARANASI
By
Rashi 1508881055
Guided by Prof. Dr. Anurag Varma
APEEJAY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING GREATER NOIDA June, 2019
APEEJAY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING GREATER NOIDA
NAR808 Dissertation
A SOCIAL IMPACT STUDY OF URBAN INTERVENTIONS AT VARANASI
Rashi 1508881055 IV B.Arch.
Guide: Prof. Anurag Varma
Internal Examiner
External Examiner
Director
APEEJAY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING GREATER NOIDA
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I Rashi hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the Dissertation entitled "A SOCIAL IMPACT STUDY OF URBAN INTERVENTIONS AT VARANASI" is an outcome of my own research and free from plagiarism.
It is my original work except where explicitly stated otherwise in the text and has not been previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or certificate of this or any other university. I have duly acknowledged all the sources used by me in the preparation of this Dissertation.
RASHI
06-06-2019 Greater Noida.
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ABSTRACT Varanasi being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities of India, with its rich cultural heritage attracts a large sum of visitors both from the country and abroad to its land. The major part of these visitors are pilgrims who come to visit the world famous shrine of Kashi Vishwanath Temple and the riverfront ghats to take holy dip in river Ganges. With the increase in the tourism due to transportation technology the city is coping with the problems to cater to such large population of its citizen as well as the tourists. Considering the number of visitors, the growing needs of its citizen and to meet the city up to international standards, various projects under Smart City Mission has been started. Amongst its various projects, “Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor Project� has been the focal point of all the major developments in the city which involves urban regeneration around the holy shrine. The project intends to provide better pilgrim experiences in the area and thus has placed pressure on the government to expand Temple’s infrastructure capacity. Such emphasis on tourism planning and development has had significant implications on the residents of the area, many of whom have been displaced by corridor developments. This research focuses on the individuals or communities affected and displaced in the process of redevelopment around a holy shrine and to study the social impact that the intervention has created on the communities that lived as a whole and the individuals who make up that community by means of onsite interviews with the locals and officials as wells as understanding the historical context of the site in relation to the different phases of development that took place.
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ACKNOWELEDGEMENTS Throughout the writing of this dissertation I have received a great deal of support and assistance. I would at first like to thank my dissertation guide Prof. Anurag Varma who was always there to support and guide me throughout the dissertation. He was always in for the discussion whenever I ran into a trouble spot or had a question about my research or writing. He consistently allowed this paper to be my own work, but steered me in the right the direction whenever he thought I needed it. I also thank our director Prof. Vivek Sabharwal for providing me the opportunity to do this dissertation and helping me in the process. I would especially thank to Ar. Santosh Tiwari as my teacher, she has always taught me and shown how a good research should look like. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Rana P. B. Singh for his valuable opinions and suggestions regarding my dissertation and to provide a brief insight related to the topic of my research work. I would also like to thank Prof. T. P. Verma who has provided me extensive personal and professional guidance about the research and for lending me his books for the research. I am grateful to all the local people, tourists, police officers and officials for being active participants of my dissertation and to share their views and opinions about the topic of concern and to provide relevant information on the same I thank my companions from the college who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research; their suggestions were highly valuable to me. And First of all, I sincerely thank to my parents, my brother and my sister for their encouragement, moral support, personal attention and care.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION …………………………………………………………...i ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………………..ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………………………....iii CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………….…1
1.1
Research Design …………………………………………………………..….3
1.2
Research Questions …………………………………………………..………3
1.3
Research Objectives ……………………………………………………………...….3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………..…...5
2.1
History and Evolution …………………………………………………….....5
2.2
Tourism and its impact ………………………………………………….….14
2.3
Social impact and its assessment criteria’s…………………………………….15
2.4
Literature case study ……………………………………………………….17
2.4.1
Mecca …………………………………………………………………. 18
2.4.2
Amritsar ………………………………………………….……..……...22
2.4.3
Inferences ………………………………………………………….…...23
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………...24 CHAPTER 4
FIELD CASE STUDY..................................………………………………..26
2.1
Problem Statement..…… …………………………………………………..26
2.2
Intervention…………….. ………………………………………………….28 iv
2.3
Interviews………………………………...…………………………………….32
CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS ……………………………………………………………….....38
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………….......39 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………........40
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION Varanasi often referred to as the “city of temples and learning” is a sacred and holy place to Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and Muslim religion. It is the oldest living city and is heterogeneous with multiple layers of religion, culture, art forms, believes nature, profiles and individualities. The city has been a cultural and religious Centre in northern India for thousands of years due to which it has varied intangible heritage assets. Being home to numerous religious monuments, to be exact “over 3000 Hindu shrines, about 1400 Muslim shrines, 12 churches, 3 Jain temples, 9 Buddhist temples, 3 Sikh temples” , it serves as major destination for tourists from across the world. It has the second largest tourist footfall right after the Taj Mahal, in India. Also Varanasi received the status of a ‘Million plus town’ (as Urban Agglomeration) in 1991 and recorded a populace of 1,435,113 people in 2011.The main city of Varanasi spreads over a place of 84.55 km2. Additionally, everyday about 40,000 commuters go to the city, which inflow increases to 60,000 at some point of festive seasons (Singh, 2009). However, amongst all the famous sites in the city, the old city witnesses the major number of tourist footfall, the reason being the presence of ghats and the world famous shrine of Kashi Vishwanath Temple. Kashi from time immemorial has been sanctified by the divine and spiritual light of the Jyotirlingam of the Lord Vishwanath. The temple has served as the major religious site for Hindu pilgrims for more than thousand years. The temple has been mentioned in Hindu scriptures for a completely long time as an imperative part of worship inside the Shaiva philosophy. The presiding deity is known as Vishwanath or Vishweshwara, suggesting the "ruler of the world". In the sanctum sanctorum, the holy 'jyotirlingam' is placed in a silver alter. This sacred 'Lingam' of Lord Shiva captures the main devotional focus of Varanasi. Thousands of devotees and pilgrims come to offer their obeisance to Lord Shiva. As per the Hindu folklore, the temple must be visited once in the entire lifetime. A holy dip in Ganga River along with the 'darshan' of Lord Vishwanath is regarded as the leading way to 'Moksha' (salvation). Due to the many reasons, people seek to visit the place at least once in their life span. With the advancement of technology, the city and the temple have marked its place at the global level and the number of pilgrims visiting the city has increased over decades. This in return
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brings additional challenges in terms of management, security, environmental impact and urban development. One of the important challenges being faced is the pressure which mass flow of pilgrims could exert on the urban fabric of the holy city. With fast urbanization, along with the impact of globalization, has in recent times accelerated the pace of change in all aspects of city life. Also with overwhelming call for improved capacity and offerings, city making plans has spoken back via overhauling huge quantities of land to deal with its incoming site visitors. Taking in consideration the number of people visiting the city (especially pilgrims) and to bring city up to international standards, various city level interventions are being made under the Smart City Mission. Amongst these the old city of Varanasi is witnessing it’s one of the biggest urban level project “A path that leads to Kashi Vishwanath Temple”, a corridor from the Ganga to Kashi Vishwanath Temple. With the rapid increase in number of visitors and the issues that came up in order to visit the temple, such as dealing with the crowd and congestion accompanied with unhygienic conditions in the area, “The Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor Project” has been initiated. With its starting on 8 March 2018, the project aims to enhance pilgrim experience. A pilgrim seeking to offer prayers at the Vishwanath temple after a dip in the Ganga will now face nothing in between the congestion, crowds, or cows, otherwise to reach the temple; one has to walk through narrow and congested lanes. So to cater to the growing need and to create less of hustle and easy flow of the traffic this project has been put forward by the government and to develop this area as it had been in the earliest around two thousand years back. This involves the demolition of the structures that came in between the line of this corridor. With the beginning of the project there are many challenges coming up and problems are being faced by the locals as well as the government. With the demolitions of the residences and shops there have been many points of view and questions are being raised on the importance and relevance of the project. Also being swept away in the process is a manner of existence, as families that have lived for generations in the same house are moved to the different parts of the city. Current demolitions with the commencement of the project have attracted significant local and international criticism, which have mostly centered around the impact of development on the religious site and the religious experience, including: 2
1. The commercialization of holy sites, 2. Loss of historical urban fabric and 3. Pilgrim oriented interventions on religious sites. While each of these claims requires further study, the discussion about how city planning and development are affecting or failing the resident community and how the city’s overall physical and social formation remains lacking. Due to which the consequences are being faced by the locals displaced and the ones who are around the intervening site. 1.1 Research Design The Research at first examines the different phases of development that took place in the heritage city around the ghats and how these informal settlements were formed. Also to know the social environment that these urban fabrics exhibit and how with the growing needs and demand of the locals as well as tourists, the need to intervene the heritage site was required. The research is primarily based on the study of the historical urban fabric to know the context and then the interactions with the locals and the officials to know the different points of views and opinions related to the intervention. 1.2 Research Questions The research aims on knowing the social impact that such urban level development project creates on the lives of the people displaced in the process or how does changing urban forms around a religious site affect social life? Is it good to compare the city with how it had been two thousand years ago and ignore the development of the settlements that brewed up in about 200-300 years ago which is also an important factor in forming the image of the city? 1.3 Research Objectives The Objectives of the research are listed below: 
To study the evolution of the settlements around the ghats and their social contributions.
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Understanding the relevance of the historical urban fabric in the heritage city. 3
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To study the impact of such intervention on the social fabric of the community and the wellbeing of the individuals and families.
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Assessment of the tangible and intangible aspects in terms of the stakeholders with respect to the intervention.
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Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This study is concerned with the implications of urban level regenerations on the locals of informal neighborhoods in the intervening area around Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi. Therefore, this study will draw on the following bodies of literature: 1) History and Evolution, 2) Tourism and its Impact, 3) Social Impact and its considerations and 4) Literature Case studies. 2.1 History and Evolution The ancient city of Varanasi was not built in a day. Being one of the holiest cities of Hinduism, the impact of the religion is found everywhere in the city – in the chanting bells and the monotonous but oddly soothing Sanskrit hymns, in the fragrant flower offerings, and the colored powders (which decorate the foreheads of the devout), sold in a myriad roadside shops in millions of worshippers and the thousands who offer their salvation or services in the holy waters of River Ganga. Since ancient times, the many parts of the natural and cultural landscape of the city have played an active social role in nurturing a contemporary society that is closely associated with the traditional way of life. The city is a place of pilgrimage and a holy site for sacred baths in the River Ganga, to have a good death, to get relief from transmigration, to learn and receive spiritual merits, etc. Despite several downfalls and upheavals, the city has still maintained its sacred spirit and its traditions are fully alive even today. The history of Varanasi or Kashi goes back to several millennia. Mark Twain (1898: 480), the famous English litterateur once wrote: “Banaras is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend and looks twice as old as all of them put together”. Kashi has been mentioned in Vedas as well, as a very prosperous and graceful city. 2.1.1 About Kashi Vishwanath temple For more than the last two thousand years at least Benares has been famous as the place of the temple of Visvanatha. The practice of worshipping the lingam seems to have come down from time immemorial. It is laid down in the Holy Scriptures that the Vishnu first obtained the darshan of the God of goods here in this lingam of light and received the boon of omnipotence. The Manikarnika Kunda, dug by Vishnu’s Chakra to mark the occasion, on the cremation ground of 5
the same name, stands to this day. Brahma, the creator, also performed Ten Ashwamedha Jagyas here Lord Vishwanath promised to never leave Kashi.So Kashi is called Avimukta-Kshetra and Lord Vishwanath, Avimukteshwar. This global-famous shrine temple is located on the western bank of holy river Ganga and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, the holiest of Shiva temples. The foremost deity is thought by the name Visvanatha or Vishveshvara which means Ruler of The Universe. Since 1983, the temple has been controlled by using the authorities of Pradesh. The temple has been mentioned in Hindu scriptures for a completely long time as an imperative part of worship inside the Shaiva philosophy. It has been destroyed and re-constructed a number of times in history due to which it is difficult to determine the exact place of the Jyotir-Lingam. But according to historical data from various sources the worshipping of the Lingam never stopped because of these destructions, although the fluctuation in number of visitors was seen. The last structure was demolished by Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor who constructed the Gyanvapi Mosque on its site. The current structure was built on an adjacent site by the Maratha ruler, Ahilya Bai Holkar of Indore in 1780. This specifies that the site has served as a pilgrim center from time immemorial. In 1835, the temple spire and dome were covered with 1000kgs of gold that was donated by Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab. From the year 1983, Vishwanath temple is under the management of Uttar Pradesh Government.
Fig 2.1: Kashi Vishwanath Temple (Wikipedia) 6
Although with the advancement of transportation technology and media, the number of the pilgrims increased. As well as due to historical and cultural significance of the city the number of tourists also increased. This leads to the further study of Tourism and its nature in Varanasi. 2.1.2 Evolution and morphology of settlements around the ghats (i) Past setup: Archaeologically proven, the city has been inhabited by humans since 800 BCE and back. Whereas if the continuity of cultural tradition is concerned Banaras surpasses all civilization centers. “However, the present city has grown broadly at some stage in the early eighteenth century” (Singh, 2016) . In the early medieval period Varanasi passed from one ruler to another and developed culture and architecture accordingly. The urban character of Banaras is very complex. The traditional city of Varanasi, Kashi, has undergone transformations over time while still holding on to its original character and ethos. Areas of the old city exhibit dense development due to their proximity to the holy Ghats, and also as a result of their social and economic value and their longevity of existence. This core, the Pakka Mohallas, represents the cultural fabric of the city. The riverfront history covers the part of the town stretching within 200 m from the Riverbank. 84 riverfront ghats cowl a period of 68 km along the crescent fashioned bank of the River Ganga, from the confluence of the Assi drain in the south to the confluence of the Varana River inside the north. Here, the riverfront is overlooked by lofty palatial buildings built in the main with the aid of kings and lords from extraordinary parts of India between the eighteenth and 20th centuries, and the location along the ghats is dominated by way of diverse shrines and temples. These developments around the ghats mainly took place to plant a seed representing one’s province in the city’s core that is wealthy, high in cultural values, religiously significant and have an identity. This resulted in the construction of Mahals or Havelis and Ghats as a representative expression of the concerned province. Creating the required impact during the development of the Pakka Mohallas or the Core. Even today, the districts behind such edifices are largely utilized by the same or similar ethnic and cultural groups.
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Fig 2.2: Riverfront Ghats of Varanasi Source: Google images and Wikipedia
The significant evolution of settlements around the riverfront ghats can be seen from 18301880.In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the most significant change is the – increase in the pakka mahals which rapidly encroached upon the kaccha houses. Also all the vacant spaces in the immediate neighborhood of the Ganga were filled in by pakka houses. 8
Fig 2.3: Evolution of settlements around the ghats (Source: https://www.slideshare.net/jagjeetkmr/settlement-pattern-of-town-varanasi-55097206)
However over the decades, the city kept on evolving through strands of transformation from the sacred core of the city to its outer periphery, in the process developing various other major centers for the city itself. Yet the vital part of Banaras north of the Dashashwamedh Ghat become normally appeared as a place of precise reverence. Therefore there was sizeable problem to preserve the ‘holy mile’ (pakka mahals) free from undesirable businesses. These covered not only the representatives of the sooner Muslim authority but even the raja and his collaterals. The urban region of Banaras continued to make bigger along the riverfront southward and westward via the 19th century (Singh, 2009).
While the city was undergoing major transformations of modernity, there was a need to save the old and the raw. Due to which the government laid down certain laws specifically for preserving the structures along the ghats. Because maximum of the background heritage sites are in those densely inhabited slim-lane areas, 2 Uttar Pradesh (UP) State Government orders state that “in all the cities located along the Ganga River, no development activities can take place 200 m from the riverbank.” It specially prohibits new construction at the riverfront ghats unless these homes are temples, maths, or ashrams (monasteries), and handiest if these have approved production plans or are best being renovated. To take in population boom within the antique city middle, 9
new buildings are being constructed both by demolishing antique systems and via building over them. The order is going on to say that all different antique homes which might be within 200 m from the ghats can best be renovated. Overall, those orders purpose to shield the integrity, sacredness, and the historic glory of cities alongside the Ganga. The crescent moon shaped riverbank is a landscape temple in the form of an amphitheater, wherein the Ghats form the structures, the water the altar, and the sun is God. (Singh, 2009) However, until the 18th century there was no as such statistical data on the population of the city and the structures it had. So, the first detailed census of population of Varanasi was carried out by James Prinsep in 1828-29. At that time the city had 30,205 houses scattered in 369 mahals. It had 181,482 persons, excluding 11,876 Indians and 7,092 Europeans living in Escarole (Army Cantonment). Thus Banaras had a total population of 200,450 in 1928-29. According to Bishop Heber the population of Varanasi was larger than that of any European city in mid-nineteenth century. Hamilton’s estimate of 582,000 appeared to be an over-statement. (Singh, 2017)
Fig 2.4: The City of Banaras, Street Plan, redrawn on the map by Prinsep, 1822 10
Fig 2.5: The City of Banaras, after Prinsep, (1822) 11
Varanasi became millennial plus city in 1991. According to 2001 census returns, it had 1,211,749 people, which reached to 1,435,113 people in 2011. Historical information concerning the quantity of people in Varanasi had at specific times is hard to check. Using a crude technique of geometric progression and on the premise of the books written every so often, the estimates of its population since 1500 BCE is given in Table 1. The populace of the city seems to have grown from 8000 in 1000 CE to about 90,000 in 1100 CE. As the quantity of inhabitants accelerated, the town grew spatially. (Singh, 2017) Table 1. Varanasi: Estimated Population, 1500 BCE - CE 1901
(Source: Based on Census of India reports. *Low projection estimates)
Since 1921 the city has recorded constant boom of population (Table 2) attaining to 1,211,749 in 2001, recording an increase of 17.Fifty five according to cent in line with decade (1991-2001). The boom price in the decade 1981-ninety one became 26.
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Table 2. Varanasi: Population Growth, CE 1853 – 2031
(Source: Based on Census of India reports. *Low projection estimates)
The population density consistent with residence in Banaras in 1928 various between 4.0,5.0 and 7.0, with an average of 6.0 according to household. One to 2-storey homes accounted for 81% of all homes. In addition to those houses, there were 1498 dilapidated homes, and spaces marked out for homes; 174 gardens and ponds, and many others, 1000 Shivalas and Hindu temples, and 333 mosques. It is clear that the city developed organically around the ghats with the various phases of developments and demolitions that took place in different ruling dynasties that came while at the same time acting as the major pilgrim center. (ii) Scenario around 50-100 years back: With the growing need and requirement and technological advancement many of the owners rented their house and moved to other parts of the city, country and abroad. So, many of the residences at the scared core were occupied by the tenants in the latter half of the 19th century. Also because of the presence of such temples of huge importance and thus acting as a pilgrimage center, the local shops and small markets emerged around the temples and the ghats. These shops varied from local flower shops around the temple to those of famous banarasi sarees. Also with the period of time many smaller temples developed in the surrounding areas of the Vishwanath 13
temple, around which many developed their houses or the locals themselves built their own temples. Some of them became priests of these temples, which were often visited by the pilgrims and tourists along with the Vishwanath temple and for some this became the source of their income. However Archaeological survey of India is still researching upon the existence and significance of these temples. Latter the agents of modernity spread across different periods, transforming the economic, social, and built fabric of the city. And we can say that these agents of modernity acted as catalysts of transformation in the sacred fabric of Banaras. The major agent being the tourism and pilgrimage that this sacred city offers due to its uniqueness and originality. 2.2 Tourism and Its Impact According to the recorded archeological proof, human lifestyles on this city is dated returned to 1000 BCE and in line with historical myths, it's miles dated at the least again to 2500 years BCE. Consequently, from those historic times, numerous ancient phenomena have been emerged on this town which has end up visitor’s sights today. Tourism in Varanasi is divided into vast parts, i.e. International and domestic; the latter, inside the maximum cases, is of pilgrimage kind. In 2013, the quantity of vacationers was 5,251,413 together with 4,988.842 home tourists and 262,570 worldwide tourists (Faezabadi, n.d.).The table (1) shows the details of tourism Varanasi. Table 1 Detail of Tourism from 2001 – 2013 in Varanasi
Source: India Tourism, Region Office, Varanasi. (Singh, 2010) 14
Month-wise statistics of domestic tourism shows that, "the peak season for domestic tourist inflow, is from October till January as all the important [Hindu] festivals, like Dev Deepawali, Ganga Mahotsav, Ramlila, and Nag Nathiya are celebrated between these months" (SPA(School of Planning and Architecture), 2014). Based on this data, the visitors of Varanasi can be divided into two parts: pilgrims and tourists. Broadly speaking Tourists & Pilgrims come from different locations. Generally a pilgrim is from within India and a tourist is from abroad. They both display different worldviews and give different reasons for coming to Banaras, yet they participate in similar places and exhibit similar mannerisms. When we talk about the impact that tourism and pilgrimage makes on the host city, then it can take the form of numerous results, from the financial to the socio-cultural, political or herbal. The environment, local people, and tourist are three necessary constituents of tourism in such a way so that ignoring one of them will produce unsustainability consequences in tourism as well as on the host community. (Kerimoglu, 2008). The results of those effects need to not be disregarded or handled enough seriousness, due to the fact they might create imbalances within the local community or can make the network participants to reject visitors, resulting in harm that the local community will go through, as an entire. These points briefly towards the social impact as a major factor while considering tourism and pilgrimage oriented urban interventions. Relating these aspects to the current urban interventions in Varanasi, there seems to be lack of considerations in the Social Impact that Tourists and pilgrims in Varanasi could create on the host community. 2.3 Social impact and its assessment criteria’s
In general terminology social impact can be defined the effect an organization’s actions have on the wellbeing of the community. Through the various definitions the impact can created on one’s personal identity, living, accommodation and habitat, behavior and daily routines, new social ties and networks, social mixing, citizen participation, democracy, health and physical wellbeing, employment and unemployment, livelihood, wealth and various other factors. 15
Social Impact Assessment consists of the methods of analyzing, tracking and coping with the intended and unintended social consequences, each tremendous and bad, of deliberate interventions (regulations, applications, plans, initiatives) and any social trade tactics invoked with the aid of those interventions. Its primary purpose is to result in a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment. (International Association for Impact Assessment, n.d.) A convenient way of conceptualizing social affects is as adjustments to one or greater of the subsequent:
People’s way of life – this is, how they stay, paintings, play and have interaction with each other on a day-to-day foundation;
Their tradition – this is, their shared beliefs, customs, values and language or dialect;
Their network – its concord, balance, individual, services and centers;
Their political structures – the extent to which humans are in a position to participate in choices that have an effect on their lives, the extent of democratization this is taking location, and the sources provided for this motive;
Their environment – the nice of the air and water humans use; the provision and nice of the food they devour; the level of threat or risk, dirt and noise they're exposed to; the adequacy of sanitation, their physical safety, and their get right of entry to to and manipulate over resources;
Their health and well-being – fitness is a nation of complete bodily, intellectual, social and spiritual wellness and not simply the absence of disorder or illness;
Their non-public and assets rights – specifically whether people are economically affected, or experience private downside which may additionally consist of a contravention of their civil liberties;
Their fears and aspirations – their perceptions about their safety, their fears about the destiny of their community, and their aspirations for his or her future and the destiny in their kids. (International Association for Impact Assessment, n.d.)
When taking into account the above mentioned factors with respect to the research context it seems that at certain level these has been ignored due to which problems are being faced and 16
more of negative opinions have come up regarding the wellbeing of locals inhabiting in the intervening area. 2.4 Literature Case Studies
The above literature review requires relevant case examples in global context with respect to the topic of research. The case research is of holy towns which acquire large amount of pilgrims and tourists in constant or temporary manner. When broadly speaking about pilgrimage, it is greater than traveling a holy shrine; it indeed incorporates rituals through which pilgrims receives spiritually purified in order to input the sacred vicinity. Inherent in the means of pilgrimage is the idea of travelling from one region to some other vicinity on occasion in a shape of mass motion of crowds. Therefore, path and routes become important factors for performance of rituals. One of the principle features of shrine cities is a primary path for the movements of pilgrims and performance of pilgrimage rites. Up till the contemporary time maximum holy cities grew organically around the sacred complex. Advancement of transportation technology eased the journey and led to increase in the number of pilgrims. It is clear that the increased flow of pilgrims caused important problems in terms of mass movement, transportation and accommodation. These problems, in step with literature, have been reflected in the transformation of urban areas in three categories: 1. Enlargement of the area around shrine 2. Accessibility (vehicular and pedestrian) to shrine 3. Sacred sites versus speculation sites The study and analysis of development around holy and religious sites and what were the impact and conclusions derived in these places are done considering similar parameters of research identified. These are parameters are: 
Past position and setup: History and Evolution of the city as well as its population growth.
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Problem: Problems that arrived due to Tourism.
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Intervention: How the issues were resolved. 17
Social Impact: What impact it had on the hosts as well as the tourists.
Current Scenario & present position: How the city is now working after the issues have been resolved.
Inferences
2.4.1. Mecca (i) Past Position and Setup: The holy town of Mecca is positioned inside the Southwest of Saudi Arabia and it's miles considering it as the spiritual and religious capital of one and half billion of Muslims internationals. The non-secular importance of Mecca is due to the presence of Ka’ba (Sacrified house of God) which dates back to the time of Abraham. It is ka’aba towards which all Muslims need to face of their everyday prayers and it is also the destination of Muslims seeking to comply with Islam’s fifth pillar: Hajj (pilgrimage). The ever increase in range of visitors for the reason that time of Prophet Muhammad has decided not only the best of the financial systems of the city abut also its urban pattern, land uses and architectural typology. The mountainous site of Mecca has contributed to the unique character of the town, however it has additionally imposed heavy constraints on Mecca’s urban boom: “the ancient middle at the bottom of the valley was laid out around the courtyard of sacred Ka’aba which traces its lifestyle again to the instances of Abraham. In ancient times, and in fact as much as the center of this century [the 20th century], the surrounding houses formed the walls, because it have been, of the holy mosque and had been considered as part of the haram, the internal precinct of which become described with the aid of a modest arcade, attributed to the Turkish grasp architect Sinan. The gradual growth of each the precinct and the town pressured the residential districts to climb up the steep and rocky hillside, producing the city’s regular bowl-shaped townscape.”
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Fig 2.6: Formation of Settlements in Mecca (Hossein Maroufi, 2017)
Up until the 1920 Mecca developed around the Haram in a very concentrated from. The main urban expansion occurred in a southwest to northeast direction along the main valley. As shown in figure 1 the main transport gates toward the city were the northeastern approach from Mena, the northwestern approach from Medina, the western approach from Jeddah and the southern approach from Yemen. In 1923 Mecca became part of a kingdom of Saudi Arabia which accelerated the number of pilgrims due to stability and security developed by the central government
(Hossein Maroufi, 2017).This states that Mecca has gone through certain
transformations with time in which the presence of the Ka’ba has also been the driving factor. This can also be seen in the development of the settlements and the population in fluctuation of the city. (ii) Problem: The Holy City of Mecca yearly contains more than three million pilgrims coming from everywhere in the world and additionally from the distinct areas within dominion of Saudi Arabia, which results in disruptions of the city device and affects the city dynamics as a whole. The glide of pilgrims has commenced travelling the city each 12 months, and a number of them settled completely within the town leading to a continuous urban sprawl. Most of the pilgrims arrive Mecca long before the commence of Hajj and also stay for some time after the fulfillment of Hajj. Therefore, the several inns which can be spreading on unique areas of the city (particularly the closest holy places) are being over occupied. There are numerous 19
spiritual reasons and logistic issues at the back of the lengthy duration of pilgrimage staying in Mecca. The pilgrims have brought about the development of tourism business, in particular in the heart of the town (close to the Holy Mosque). The marketplace fee of confined areas across the Holy Mosque has created a “excessive filtration" as the residential regions are being expelled to the outside areas. (Hossein Maroufi, 2017)
(iii) Intervention: During the 50s the increase in oil revenue changed considerably the economy of the dominion which intended greater funding on huge scale infrastructures in nearby and on concrete scale. In the 60s and 70s due to increasing range of pilgrims the region of Ka’aba increased to house extra pilgrims and facilitate the accessibility of pilgrims to Ka’aba. Large portion of historical city material needed to be demolished for extension of worship space and to separate the Haram from the encircling fabric with the aid of building huge vehicular road around Haram. Further intervention imposed networks of radial highways and tunnels converging on the Ka’ba to ease vehicular traffic at some point of Hajj season. Moreover, there was this need to increase pilgrims-related services and competition for area around the shrine complicated which caused the hypothesis of land in shape of massive-scale mega projects. This expanded the demolition of ancient fabric in choose of improvement of large-scale projects with profit-driven method in mind.
Fig 2.7: Demolitions in around Mecca (Hossein Maroufi, 2017) 20
(v) Social impact: Around 17000 and more population were displaced in the process. Out of fifteen Mecca’s antique neighborhoods’, thirteen have been razed and rebuilt to make room for resorts and business spaces. Most affected by the change of all had been the city’s immigrant groups who had been broadly affected and as neighborhoods have been razed, casual economies that stored whole communities alive – be they vegetable dealers, cobblers or informal tour courses – had to suffer in the process. In the process mecca families who now stay out of doors of the city and who most of the times rented out their homes to migrant pilgrims, that turned into enough for them to preserve for the relaxation of the year additionally got affected. Also many have sold property either to the government, or to actual property builders – accordingly severing their historical ties with the city. (Hossein Maroufi, 2017).So, with the development of the holy city the locals got widely affected and many lost their livelihoods and their ancestral homes. (iv) Present Position: Today the city sample of mecca is composed of a center dominated via pilgrims’ activities (industrial and resorts) and the residential regions have increased outside the pilgrim sector.
Fig 2.8: Current setup in Mecca (Hossein Maroufi, 2017)
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2.4.2 Amritsar (i) Past setup: The Golden Temple, Amritsar, India (Sri Harimandir Sahib, Amritsar) is not only a relevant non secular place of the Sikhs, however also an image of human brotherhood and equality. This became based in 1577 via the fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das. Everybody, irrespective of forged, creed or race can look for non-secular solace and religious achievement without any problem. It also represents the distinct identification, glory and heritage of the Sikhs. To pendown the philosophy, ideology, the internal and outer splendor, in addition to the historical legacy of Sri Harimandir Sahib is a momentous venture. (Dutt, 2016) (ii) Problem: With the immense number of footfall that the temple faced every year, and with the growing needs it became difficult to cater to such large number of crowd in the street leading to the golden temple. Also there were various safety and security issues with unhygienic conditions of the street. With no restrictions on vehicular traffic it became more difficult to manage these problems. (iii) Intervention: An Rs 210-crore mission becomes conceived to bring the Holy City as much as international standards; to make the road main up to the holiest Sikh shrine “the world’s excellent avenue”. Punjab determined to make the road from Entrance Gate to Golden Temple as an international heritage street within the global context. The facade together with the road that ends in the shrine has been refurbished. The idea was to offer the vicinity a vintage appearance, paying homage to Amritsar that existed four hundred years ago. More than 20 homes and facades were illuminated in this area. Each facade becomes unique in production and its necessities. Biggest hurdle turned into to mount fixtures in public places where there was no space available for mounting. The architects did no longer want to peer the fixtures in any respect. Town hall was an existing facade and it was included as a part of the historical site. No drilling, external mounting changes were allowed at the façade. The only way ahead turned into to apply true IP rated linear furniture at the out of doors facade. Newly built Ranjit Singh Chowk (big round 7 level shapes which 22
convey the stories of Sikh valor) has a large statue of Ranjit Singh with a fountain. The water app IP sixty eight fixtures from iGuzzini have lit up the sixty five lions so well at the bottom of the fountain from in which the water oozes out. (Dutt, 2016) (iv) Social Impact: The beautification project has uprooted traditional commerce. The moment this opaque and very beautiful facade was created, markets were disconnected. People now have to make a beeline for Darbar Sahib and go back. This impacts people’s livelihoods. Sales have also fallen, for the others whose businesses have hidden behind the jaali that has been added to the facade. According to the locals the development should have been done putting peoples in the center. While pedestrianisation is a good thing; locals feel their rights have been compromised and the place’s character has been diluted in all this. But for tourists, they marvel at the beauty of the place. (v) Present position: The road from Phuwara Chowk to the Golden Temple is now vehicle-free. Refurbished, the building facades are now in red sandstone. All business establishments on the street are painted pink, with maroon boards. Old houses have got a fresh paint too. Services have gone underground. (Dutt, 2016) 2.4.3 Inferences In both the case studies, the urban interventions can be seen as a result of major tourists and pilgrim activities in the city. But in both the cases the host community of the intervening area has suffered consequences because of the demolitions and redevelopment of the old and historic structures. This indicates the ignorance of the social impact and the social issues that emerges due to such interventions. Although the infrastructure around the holy shrine has no doubt improved and accelerated the pace of tourism and pilgrim oriented activities. But the host community remains at stake and they have to come up with the difficulties that emerges due to such changes such as lost livelihood, loss of identity, loss of way of living and many others.
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Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY The research methodology adopted is a combination of both in depth literature studies as well as live case study. To know the relevance of the research topic study about the city, its history and evolution was required which is done through literature. Furthermore, as the intervention is a part of tourist oriented design which has led to change in urban forms and its impact on the host community, which being the major part of the research. So, literature study has been done to understand the scale of tourist inflow in the city and how has it affected the locals. What are the issues that the city is facing while catering to such large number of population and which are the groups that have to be given prime importance this is provided with relevant statistical data as well. Since Tourism also creates a social impact on the community and the individuals of the city. So, the social impact and its assessment criteria’s are have also been focused upon to understand the problem statement in detail with respect to the Corridor project. To know the relevance of the dissertation in global context two literature case studies of Mecca and Amritsar have been done considering similar parameters of study, though the scale of the development varies in all the three. The social impact that the tourists create on the local communities have been analyzed in both the literature case studies. To know that whether these impacts analyzed in the literature studies are true to the concerned group of people and what other criteria’s are to be taken care of, a live case study of the intended site was needed. Because of the exploratory nature of this research, a qualitative investigation was deemed to be more appropriate as it would yield a substantial amount of in-depth data in comparison to a quantitative approach, which would provide limited information, although with a larger number of respondents. Also due to time restraints quantitative approach was neglected. Live case studies are supported with discussions held with the locals of various identified groups. Maps and site photographs are provided to support the dissertation. 24
The identification of the stakeholders was done, and interviews were conducted to the identified groups. Also Officials of the trust were part of the discussions of the dissertation whose point of view has been mentioned as well. The findings and conclusions are primarily drawn on the basis of both the literature as well as live case studies.
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Chapter 4 FIELD CASE STUDY The change in urban forms due to the interventions, because of the overwhelming demand to meet the need and requirements of the pilgrims has led to the displacement of the locals in the area. Due to which there has been many controversies evolving regarding the same as the residents have lost their ancestral homes and livelihood of the people have been lost. The onsite interviews were conducted with the both the locals as well as the officials. Certain group of the people was identified, who are basically the stakeholders and the most affected ones:
Residents
Tenants
Shopkeepers
Priests
Visitors Domestic International
Furthermore to know the overall analysis of the project and to get more acquainted with the problem statement, officials from the have also been part of the research discussion. On interaction with the locals and tourists, different points of view of the stakeholders themselves were observed regarding the commencement of the corridor project and the effect that it has on the people. The points of view also differed with respect to the different Mohallas or localities falling in the vicinity of the project. 3.1 Problem Statement: The movement of the pilgrims from ghats to the temple was through very narrow lanes of 2-2.5 meters which had to accommodate a large number of crowds on daily basis and the numbers reaching to lakhs on festivals. Also to add there were shops and residences attached with local
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population of the area adding to more congestion and creating difficulty for people to visit the temple and stand in lines for hours.(According to the officials and locals)
Fig 4.1: Area of intervention for the Kashi Vishwanath Temple Corridor Project Source: Author
Fig 4.2: Location of Vishwanath Temple and Gyan Vapi mosque before and after intervention 27
3.2 Intervention: To solve this, problem identification of the movement pattern of the pilgrims and the area with more number of crowd and congestion was done. This cleared the path from the three ghats which came in direct axis right behind the Vishwanath temple that is Lalita ghat, Jalasen ghat and Manikarnika ghat which had in total 2 lanes connecting ghats to the main temple complex. Now these two lanes have been demolished, with the demolition of all the shops and residences that came in between the area identified for the Corridor Project. Currently Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust has been set up for the Corridor project.
Fig 4.3: Map showing movement patterns of pilgrims from ghats to Vishwanath temple Source: Author
With the beginning of the project and the demolition phase almost over covering an area of almost 40,000 sq.m. , almost 275 houses and 200 shops have been demolished. Only about 15-20 buildings are left in the area which includes libraries and building of historical importance. There are plans to preserve a few existing heritage structures such as the Goenka Library and hostel, and the fort-like structure on Jalasen Ghat. About 40 temples have also been preserved which are to be a part of the main temple complex. Also one of the old age ashram in vicinity has been
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relocated. The plan means to remove the hideous sewage pumping station on the riverfront, an eyesore, and restore the architectural splendor of Lalita Ghat. The project is being handled by Bimal Patel, architect and urbanist, and head of HCP Design Consultants, which is one of the leading architectural firms of the country The proposed project area substantially overlaps with the pilgrimage route to the antargriha (inner sanctum) of the Vishwanath temple. The design creates a large Mandir Chowk or open space fronting the Vishwanath temple, and a smaller open space that provides the foreground for the Gyan Vapi mosque that is adjacent to the temple. One of the key features of the project is the pedestrian pathway that connects the temple and the Mandir Chowk with the river. Unlike the existing narrow and winding lanes, the proposed axial path is 50 m wide, which, towards the end, forks to embrace the ghats. It opens up the view to the temple on one side and to the river on the other. A relatively smaller pathway connects the temple with the Manikarnika ghat at the northern edge. The proposed development provides multiple amenities for pilgrims such as Yatra Seva Kendras, guesthouses, hospice, library, offices, public toilets, performance spaces, galleries, handicraft emporium and museum. The project has planned for extensive security arrangements, separate buildings for security personnel, a widened emergency entrance for vehicles and ambulances to enter the temple area. There are covered escalators to enable elderly pilgrims to climb the 26.5 m level difference (about eight floors height) between the river and temple. Also along with this the infra of the three ghats that is Jalasen, Lalita and Manikarnika ghat is also being improvised.(Data generated from discussions with officials of Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust)
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Fig 4.4: Proposed plan for the area of Intervention Source: Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust
Fig 4.5: View of the proposed Corridor Project Source: Google images 30
Fig 4.6: Internal Views of the proposed project in the direction of the Temple Complex Source: Google Images
Fig 4.7: Internal Views of the proposed project in the direction of the River Ganges Source: Google images Though the locals have some issues regarding the redevelopment and their displacement but according to onsite interviews with the officials, the government has provided double the compensation amount to the residents and shopkeepers which should not create problems in their
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livelihood, which was the prime factor when considering their displacements. Also the compensation amount has been given to the tenants who lived here for almost 50-100 years. 3.3 Interviews: The interview with the locals was primarily based on discussions with the different groups identified. This was done to know the social impact study on different groups of people identified. According to the discussions, different points of view amongst the locals were observed as not everyone had negative opinions about the development and their displacement. According the discussions with different groups and for people belonging to different mohallas, three categories of the locals were observed: (i) Category 1: For this group, was not happy with the process of redevelopment and displacement of their residences and shops. According to them it is: Loss of identity Loss of ancestral homes Loss of livelihood Loss of way of living Here are some of the personal interviews listed for this Category: Raj Kumar Kapoor. Personal Interview.22 March 2019 “They cannot bring back my identity which I have made here in 50 years; they cannot make it in a day. Now how will I start my new business elsewhere, how will it work there as it did before? What’s lost is lost, that can definitely not be compensated” [while sitting in front of his house which is in the line of demolition, who owned the shop of Banarasi saree in Lahori Tola].
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Fig 4.8: Shop and Residence of Raj Kumar Kapoor Source: Author
Ravi Shankar Giri. Personal Interview. 22 March 2019 “I used to be the pujari of this temple and I took care of it and the tourists came and visited this temple and my daily income depended on it� [who is a priest and was a pujari in the temple he owned which is now taken in the corridor project].
Fig 4.9: Protected Temple to be included in the main temple complex Source: Author
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Ashish Kapoor, Manish Kapoor. Personal Interview. 20 March 2019 “We used to gather here on each other chabutaras and talk, we together celebrated each and every festivals here in these gallis, we welcomed the foreigners and helped them and guided them, how will we be able to get rid of those memories, we cannot do that anywhere else. The government could have at least asked about the project and we would have helped to develop the city” [who were tenants from fifty years in the Lahori Tola were very much disappointed with the development].
Fig 4.10: Demolition in process of Ashish Kapoor’s house in Lahori Tola Source: Author
(ii) Category 2: While some of the stakeholders were happy with the commencement of the project as it meant solutions to the problems that they were facing in the locality such as: Problems arrived due to narrow lanes and congestions No proper movement of the vehicles. Unhygienic conditions Growing demands to meet family requirement Smaller area to cater large family 34
The people have shifted to other parts of the city and some are happy to move out of the congested area as they feel they were caged in the old city although they were attached to them but with the compensated amount they can start a new life free of daily hustle. Also the owners of the house who had rented their house for almost 50 years and above got free from the tenants as they were not leaving their land and were also not giving the rent according to the locals. Raghunandan Pandey. Personal Interview. 22 March 2019 “It was very difficult for the movement of four wheelers to come to our factory and we faced a lot of problems regarding that. Also the drains and nalas remained always open which created unhygienic conditions and foul smell due which it became difficult for us to work here and even the tourists had to pass through this dirty lane�[ has a Saree factory in Gharwasi Tola near Manikarnika Ghat is in favor of the development and the widening of the lanes]
Fig 4.11: Saree Factory in Gharwasi Tola Mohalla and Lane between two houses in Gharwasi Tola Source: Author
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Rajendra Kumar Aggarwal. Personal Interview. 22March 2019 “We have 25 members in our family and the place we lived in was very small to adjust in with growing needs of everyone. We had very much trouble in going from one place to another especially in festivals with so much congestion and crowd with litters around in this narrow lane” [who was a resident and his family lived from more than 100 years in the Nirmal Math Mohalla near Manikarnika Ghat] Subash Chandra. Personal Interview.20 March 2019 “The visitors and we faced quit a lot of problems, but for us as locals it became a part of our life and somehow we used to adjust with this as our main source of income depended on the tourists and things they bought. So we had to adjust with these conditions as now I am jobless as my shop has been demolished and I am shifting my things” [who had his sweet shops and has now a temporary stall nearby the Vishwanath temple]. (iii) Category 3: For these people the project brought both positives and negative impacts. Such as the people who live around the intervening area. As for them: The intervention meant new opportunities of increasing sales with increase in tourist footfall such as shops of sarees etc. But for some the sales could decrease such as the flower shops as already the shops will be there inside the temple complex. No issues of unhygienic conditions and narrow lanes filled with crowd. Loss of connections with the locals who are displaced; upto some extent this means a loss of way of life for the ones who are still residing. [Analysis done on the basis of multiple interviewees]
Of the three categories of the people observed the most affected ones in the process were the ones who lost their shops as well as their house. And the locals or more specifically the priests whose income depended on the tourists who visited the Vishwanath temple and theirs as well. 36
According to local Police officers, it was confirmed that tourists and locals both faced problems when the footfall increased specially in festivals, it became unmanageable to restrict and handle the crowd. The tourists had to face a lot of problems in reaching the temple and standing in large queue. According to Official’s point of view, necessary interventions for decongestion and promoting the heritage of the city was needed. Also it was to promote pilgrimage tourism in Varanasi and Kashi Vishwanath temple being the major center of attractions for tourists was chosen for the redevelopment in one of the smart city mission for the city. No survey was done for the corridor project as according to them they had to start the project for everyone’s benefit and involving public meant a lot of more controversies and it would have been a time taking procedure. Also according to them the residents themselves were not happy with their living conditions, facing n number of problems and many of the houses or shops were part of the encroachments but the government has provided enough compensation to all so that no local suffers in the process. With the different points of view of the stakeholders it is observed that the development had in both ways that is positive and negative affected the lives of the people. While some were completely not in favor of the project whereas others were happy with the development and some were just trying to adjust with the changes. For some the corridor project meant the loss of identity, loss of their ancestral homes, loss of their way of living, the shopkeepers losing their jobs while for some it was to get rid of the cage from daily tantrums. The demolitions and displacement of the locals has brought a lot of problems related to the livelihood of the people and to settle to a new place and make their own identity.
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Chapter 5 FINDINGS The findings are drawn on the basis of Literature studies and interviews held in live case studies. With the help of literature case studies it is observed that the inflow of tourists do have major impacts on the city due to which the city is liable to some changes whether small or big. Though there are various impacts that the tourists and pilgrims creates on the religious site which are bound to change, the social impact remains of prime importance amongst all as the concern in this case are the people who are to be considered while designing. It is seen from the very method adopted of the intervention that the social impact of these changing urban forms has been not taken care of. Due to which further case study and opinions of the stakeholders was required. On interviewing the stakeholders three categories amongst them were identified. In which some of them had been badly affected in the process as they lost the means of their livelihood and ancestral homes. While to some the intervention served as an opportunity to move towards a better way of life wherein they faced daily problems due to the planning of the area and had not much money to initiate a newer and better life. On the other hand the locals who are still residing have both positives and negatives perceptions towards the project.
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Chapter 6 CONCLUSION Varanasi with its varied tangible and intangible heritage assets attracts tourists and pilgrims from all over the world. No doubt the Number of tourists that the city receives has led to the change in urban forms of the city. To see this from global context and to meet the city up to international standards the interventions made do serve as positive aspects to improve the experiences of the visitors as a whole. But while these interventions are made the host communities need to be also taken care of. Providing just the compensation amount has never been enough for the people displaced as there are various other aspects related to the displacement of the people which needs to be focused upon. The implications of the city’s accomplishment of a rapid and aggressive program of physical upgrades have been a laxity in the development and enforcement of a robust regulatory infrastructure that addresses the needs of its residents. To date, all redevelopment initiatives (completed or planned) are positioned inside the city’s core and overlap with densely constructed neighborhoods. The task of this approach to development is threefold; first, the present day layout system does now not accommodate the socioeconomic truth of the citizens it displaces, Second, the demolitions proceeds despite absence of any long time period making plans for displaced groups in the town , and third, implementation of project has started without progress in the provision of alternative solutions, because the intervening place also has various other problems of motion and transportation as well.
Although the intervention provides better experiences to pilgrims and tourists. And it seems that the pilgrims have been the prime importance because the tourists who come from other parts of the world normally come to see the historical fabric of the city which has been demolished.
Although no doubt due to the development of the street it is easier now for the tourists to visit the temple without hustle and congestion and more importantly the safety and security issues have been solved but in the process the locals have been at loss.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Dutt, N., 2016. Amritsar’s makeover: Golden grandeur with a heritage tinge. The Hindustan Times, 24 Oct. Faezabadi, T. N., n.d. A Critical Reveiw of the Sustainability of Tourism in Varanasi. Academia. Hossein Maroufi, E. R., 2017. Cities Hosting Holy Shrines: The Impact of Pilgrimage on Urban Form. ICONARP(International Journal of Architecture & Planning). International Association for Impact Assessment, n.d. [Online] Available at: https://www.iaia.org/wiki-details.php?ID=23 [Accessed 29 April 2019]. Kerimoglu, E. a. H. C., 2008. Sustainable Tourism Development and a Governance Model for Frig Valley. ITU A/Z, Volume 12, pp. 22-43. Singh, B., 2014. Now, Charm of Varanasi Attracts Tourists from Pakistan and China. The Times of India. Singh, R. P., 1993. Banaras (Varanasi). In: Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions. Varanasi: Tara Book Agency. Singh, R. P., 2009. Transformation on the Cradle of Time. Singh, R. P., 2010. Varanasi, the Heritage City of India: Growth of Urban Fabrics, Visions and Strategies for Future Development. Asian Profile, Asia’s International, Issue 38 (3), pp. 257-282. Singh, R. P., 2016. Urban Heritage and Planning in India:A Study of Banaras. Singh, R. P., 2017. Varanasi: Making of India's Heritage City. SPA(School of Planning and Architecture), 2014. Sustainable Development of a Heritage City: Varanasi, New Delhi: s.n.
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