국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
The Psychological Implications of Martial Arts Training on Children and Adults GM David J Harrell of The Traditional Taekwondo Martial Arts Institute
Abstract A surprising amount of research on the impacts of martial art training and exercise on brain function has found that exercise can improve memory, enhance creativity and support the ability to rationally make good decisions about what actions to take. The impact of Taekwondo, the martial art, on children and adults has been carefully observed by the author for the past two decades, and warrants further examination to quantify the scope of the effects the martial art training makes as opposed to it’s sport oriented counterpart. Research findings consistently support the argument that traditional martial art training leads to positive personal development physically, psychologically and philosophically, irrespective of age. Emphasis is placed on respect, confidence, integrity, self-control and honor. Mean while, modern Taekwondo focuses on sport competitiveness of athletes., not content of character.
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
I. INTRODUCTION
“How does martial arts contribute to psychological development?” To answer this question we must first realize that children and adults are all unique. Their differences are not only confined to the obvious, physical state but their mental state too. Normalities and abnormalities co-exist, in both states, which determines their ability an capacity to develop and process information. Additionally, method, style and presentation approaches can and do determine how well the child, adolescent and adult process and retain the information presented. The introduction to personal challenges in the form of public speaking, tackling fears, openly displaying learned skills and the willingness to rise to the next level of performance is just the “tip of the iceberg” as they say. It is worth noting that the rewards of success not only benefit the individual being challenged, but also the casual observer who can be inspired by what they have witnessed, so much so, that they anxiously want to have the opportunity to give it a go themselves. This certainly brings to mind an adult male student of mine who participated in his first international championship 4 or 5 years ago. He won a Silver Medal in three categories at that event. Jubilation from his success was an under statement. But the thing that I remember the most was his words “sir that’s the best fun I have ever had.” If we were to take a glance at the profile of this adult male aged 39, we would notice he had served in the military and experienced combat duty. You may ask “how did this international championship help him?” Well I will tell you! The weeks of physical and mental preparation leading up to the championship that contributed to his Silver Medal win overflowed into his professional life. Shortly after returning home from the event, he was promoted to Project Manager. The Upper Management team discovered a leadership quality in Tom that was viewed as an asset to his employer; and worthy of the sizable increase in his salary that he also received. Tom’s success story is just one of many examples as this essay will illustrate throughout that is directly related to the contribution that good, sound and structured martial arts training can make in improving the quality of life of the practitioner outside of the dojang.
II. THE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
While the specific origin of martial arts remains a subject of debate for historians, it is apparent that they have been around for a very long time. Over the years, fighting styles have been passed on from generation to generation, and from country to country. It is the belief of many master level practitioners that the arts emigrated from China into Japan and Korea, giving us the variety of styles we have today. Developed to improve self-defense and combative success, martial arts were created in the ancient cultures of Asia.
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
In general, martial arts involve fighting techniques, mental discipline, physical exercise, and various philosophical components. Most of them embody intellectual concepts as well. The Taoist philosophy of balance, Buddhist meditation and breathing, and Confucian ethics have all greatly influenced martial arts. Our society has become increasingly interested in these martial arts over the last fifty years. We in the western culture are finally beginning to realize all the wonderful benefits that martial art training has to offer. Martial Art training 30, 40, 50 years ago was still pure, full of fruitful richness; full of healthy benefits; where the tradition was preserved at all costs. It was evident, from the instructor’'s recommendation to my parents, that there are psychological implications too. The suggestion that there is a mental comfort in knowing that you are capable of protecting yourself that will lead to a change in your temperament, makes it clear that martial art training develops the individual mentally and physically. If you think right, you will act right. So your behavior traits will improve for the better as well. But how? We must examine the whole process. How does the brain work? What area of the brain is affected by physical activity? What kind of physical activity stimulates the brain most? How does a physically stimulated brain improve attributes of the physical functions? First, let’'s take a look at our Brain. The largest player on the brain team is the Cerebrum. The Cerebrum makes up 85% of the brain's weight, and it's easy to see why. This is the thinking part of the brain. It lets you solve math problems, play video games, feed your fish, do a Poomsae, remember your sister's birthday, and draw pictures. It's the cerebrum that makes human beings more intelligent than animals because it's the part that lets us reason. The Cerebrum is made up of two halves, with one on either side of the head. Some scientists think that the right half helps you think about abstract things, like music, colors, or shapes. The left half is said to be more analytical, helping you with math, logic, and speech. Scientists do know for sure that the right half of the Cerebrum controls the left side of your body, and the left half controls the right side. One part of the Cerebrum is called the motor area. It runs across the two halves of the Cerebrum like headphones, from ear to ear. The motor area controls your voluntary muscles - the muscles in your body that move when you want them to. Next time you're sparring and kicking paddles or at your partner, thank your motor area! Next area is the Cerebellum. The Cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the Cerebrum. It is a lot smaller than the Cerebrum - only 1/8 of its size. But don't let the Cerebellum's small size fool you - it is working very hard behind the scenes, controlling balance, movement, and coordination (how your muscles work together). Because of your cerebellum, you can stand upright, keep your balance, and move around. Think about a competitor at a Taekwondo Tournament who is performing the jump turning back kick. What does he need to stay balanced? The best Hogu? The most fashionable looking Dobok? Nope - he needs his cerebellum! Another brain part that's small but mighty is the Brain Stem. The Brain Stem is beneath the Cerebrum and in front of the Cerebellum. The Brain stem connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord, which runs down your neck and back. The Brain Stem controls all the functions that are necessary for your body to stay alive, like breathing air, digesting food, and circulating blood. It's in charge of your involuntary muscles - the ones that work
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
automatically, without you even thinking about it. There are involuntary muscles in the heart and stomach, and it's the Brain Stem that tells your heart to pump more blood when you're running, or your stomach to start digesting that piece of cake you just ate. Remember, the Cerebrum has control over the voluntary muscles. Controlling all of the body's muscles is too big a job for one brain part. The Brain Stem is also responsible for sorting through the millions of messages that the brain and the rest of the body send back and forth. It the brain’s secretary. The Hippocampus is a part that's amazingly cool, because you use it to remember the way to school! The hippocampus is part of the cerebrum, and it's the area of your brain that deals with memory. There are different kinds of memory: two of them are called short-term and longterm. Try to remember what you had for breakfast today - that's an example of short-term memory. It's information your brain just received. Now think about your very first day of school or last year's birthday party. Those are examples of events that are stored in your long-term memory. Your Hippocampus has the big job of transferring information between short-term and long-term memory. It's a lot of work, but the Hippocampus is always there, making sure you remember little things, like where you left your yo-yo, and big things, like your camping vacation two summers ago. The Pituitary Gland is very small - only about the size of a pea! Its job is to produce and release hormones into your body. If your clothes from last year are too small, it's because your Pituitary Gland released special hormones that made you grow. This gland is a major player in puberty, too. This is the time when boys' and girls' bodies go through major changes as they slowly become men and women - all thanks to hormones released by the Pituitary Gland. Last but not least is the Hypothalamus. It sits right in the center of your brain, in the middle of the action. The Hypothalamus is like your brain's inner thermometer. It knows what temperature your body should be (about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit or 37 degrees Celsius), and it sends messages telling your body to either sweat or shiver. Sweating when you're hot or shivering when you're cold is your body's way of trying to keep your temperature the same. Remember the last time you ran around and got really sweaty? Your Hypothalamus could tell that your body temperature was going up from all that running, and it sent a message to your skin to sweat. When you began sweating, your body started to cool off. Your brain is a thinking organ that learns and grows by interacting with the world through perception and action. Mental stimulation improves brain function and actually protects against cognitive decline, as does physical exercise. The human brain is able to continually adapt and rewire itself. Even in old age, it can grow new neurons. Severe mental decline is usually caused by disease, whereas most age-related losses in memory or motor skills simply result from inactivity and a lack of mental exercise and stimulation. In other words, use it or lose it. It is important to challenge your brain to learn new and novel tasks, especially processes
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
that you've never done before. Examples include Square-Dancing, Chess, Martial Arts, Yoga, or Sculpture. Working with modeling clay or play-dough is an especially good way for children to grow new connections. It helps develop agility and hand-brain coordination, like controlling the computer mouse with your opposite hand. Most of us know that physical exercise is good for our general health, but did you know that physical exercise is also good for your brain? If you think you’re going to get smarter sitting in front of your computer or watching television, think again. Scientists have begun to present evidence that a healthy human being is a human doing. Let’s take a look at Physical Activity and how it affects the Brain.
III. Physical Activity and Brain Now let’s direct our attention to Physical Activity and the Brain. I would like to define Physical Activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in consuming energy. Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise like Taekwondo boosts the immune system, and helps prevent the "diseases of affluence" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity. It also improves mental health, helps prevent depression, helps to promote or maintain positive self esteem, and can even augment an individual's sex appeal or body image, which is also found to be linked with higher levels of self esteem. Childhood obesity is a growing global concern and physical exercise may help decrease the effects of childhood obesity in developed countries. Health care providers often call exercise the miracle or wonder drug alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits that it provides. By this definition, everyone performs physical activity in order to sustain life. The amount is subject to personal choice and will vary considerably from person to person as well as for a given person over time. Physical Activity can be categorized in a variety of ways. As far as this essay is concerned, I will confine the activity category to Taekwondo Martial Art training. Physical activity and a healthy lifestyle are vital to physical performance, maintaining a healthy body and preventing a host of chronic conditions. Now, the same can be said for the brain. New research shows that brain exercises and a brain-healthy diet can improve cognitive performance. The study, published by the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, (Miller et al, 2011) examined 115 people who lived in retirement communities. The subjects were randomly
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
assigned to participate in a twice-weekly educational program that included memory training, physical activity, stress reduction, and diet instruction, or be placed on the waiting list for the program and serve as the controls. After six weeks, the participants in the educational program showed improved objective and subjective scores related to cognitive function. The study participants were mostly white women, and the mean age was almost 81 years. All of the participants cited memory complaints, but none had been diagnosed with dementia. Before and after the six week study period, several measures of cognitive performance were assessed: verbal memory, retention of verbal information, memory recognition, verbal fluency, frequency and severity of forgetting, use of mnemonics, and retrospective functioning. In true use-it-or-lose-it fashion, the participants who learned brain exercises, such as brain teasers and memory techniques, and completed them outside of class, showed improved memory and cognition in only six weeks. Age-related declines in memory and cognitive function are common, as are age-related declines in physical health. The relationship between the latter and the former is becoming more and more apparent. Whether chronic physical conditions related to an unhealthy lifestyle affect cognition or physical health directly influences mental function is still unclear. While some studies point to a direct link between obesity and impaired cognition, others find no direct link between increased body mass index or physical exercise and mental performance. Regardless, physical activity and healthy lifestyle choices encourage healthy, productive aging, of which cognition is a part. Without any doubt, the most healthy aging people are the ones who remain active — physically and mentally: the octogenarian who does the crossword puzzle every morning, the great-grandfather who reads mystery novels, or the retired couple who travel the globe and learn new languages. The more you use your brain, the better is becomes.
Physical activity is probably the single best health practice that anyone can adopt into their lifestyle. It counteracts the effects of chronic stress and it improves cardiovascular functioning, strength, endurance, flexibility and reduces biological aging. It also enhances reaction times, task performance and response accuracy (Covassin el al, 2007). The general belief is that mind-body wellbeing is to focus on the importance of mental wellbeing for physical health. Reducing stress, practicing mindfulness, and experiencing positive emotions all have an impact on our physical health. But the mind-body connection works in the other direction too. Using our bodies and developing physical fitness is also good for our mental wellbeing. I know I am repeating myself but I can not over emphasize the importance of a regularly structured exercising routine nor the benefits. Research shows that sitting around at a computer all day is literally killing us (WHO, 2003). So then, how does martial art training work. Well, first of all, an individual is placed in a new environment that has an unfamiliar language in a room filled with strangers. This setting alone offers a stimulating challenge for the brain to adjust to and to settle into some state of comfort. Meanwhile, physical demands are also being imposed that require further mental adjustments. As time passes, the mind reaches an equilibrium state which
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
allows the participant to become relaxed, to some degree. Physical demands have begun to increase, slowly, steadily and continuously. Soon, physical requirements become routine but the demands for learning more things seems to never end. This is a description of a good martial art school at work. Running, jumping, skipping, bending, turning, twisting in every which way in every class that you attend. Then comes the blocking and the punching and the kicking. The body seems to never stop aching. Pain becomes as routine as the drills. At the end of each class you promise yourself, “"once I get out of here, I’'m never coming back”". Yet you find yourself coming back again and again. You continue to undergo this agony until one day you notice the absence of pain and discomfort. Sit-ups, push-ups, leg stretching, back bends - when will it stop! The head is still wet. Perspiration runs down your face. Your dobok is saturated from the sweat oozing from your entire body. Even the palms of your feet are moist, leaving a trail from where you last stood. The practice of Poomsae insists your mind remain alert - turning this way, blocking that way, kicking with the left leg then the right. Damn! I forgot to punch. My stance was not correct. I didn't yell...! The instructor shouts out “"paddle drills”"!!!! Oh. Just kick the paddles. That sounds simple enough... So you coil your leg and kick that little round pad as hard as you can. Ow! That hurt...The instructor shouts “again”. “This time lift the knee higher.” “You are not turning” Master so and so yells. How humiliating to be yelled at in that tone of voice, you say to yourself. Oops! I hope that mad-man did not hear what you were thinking. Relief comes in a strange form. Your name appears on a list to take a belt test. “It’s been 6-weeks since I walked in to this place - I mean Dojang and the mad-man thinks I’m good enough to get a yellow belt. Wow!! This is great.” What has happened? Your parents have noticed. Your wife/husband has noticed. Your friends have noticed. Even your school teachers and employer have noticed. You’ve changed. You’ve become a little more patient, a little more polite, a little more considerate, a little more thoughtful, a little more caring, a little more attentive. Your diet has changed. You eat more healthily. You have stopped smoking. You stopped or have reduced your intake of alcohol. Your overall behavior has improved in such a short period of time. Physical Activity has improved and stimulated brain functionality, this assertion is supported by (Hillman 2006). Your conscious awareness has been awakened and raised to another level. Your ability to control your responses to emotions and impulses, or to self-regulate, has increased. An essential component of self-regulation is the presence of clear and consistent standards (Baumeister& Vohs, 2007). This is what a good martial arts school with a traditional martial arts instructor offers.
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
Lakes & Hoyt (2004) studied the effects of traditional Taekwondo training on the selfregulatory abilities of a group of primary schoolchildren. The results indicated that the children who received the traditional martial arts training had improved cognitive and affective self-regulation as well as improved classroom behaviour and performance. The researchers cited the work of Trulson (1986) who compared traditional martial arts training with modern, sport orientated training and found a number of essential constituents in traditional martial arts that were lacking in the modern variety: “"First the instructor in traditional classes was a role model of the highest character. Second, the physical conditioning included an integration of psychological and philosophical training. Instructors emphasized respect, humility, confidence, responsibility, honesty, perseverance and honour. Finally, there was a strong emphasis on only using the techniques for self-defense”"(Trulson 1986 cited in Lakes & Hoyt, 2004, p300). Trulson’'s study involved teenagers who were identified as juvenile delinquents. The results of his study showed that the teenagers who received traditional Taekwondo training displayed decreased anxiety and aggression and increased self-esteem and social skills. Those teenagers who experienced the modern martial arts training showed increased aggression and delinquent behaviour and decreased self-esteem and social skill. Lakes & Hoyt’'s research focused on children without any mental or physical challenges and showed how traditional martial arts training had positive effects on their internal and external behaviour. Trulson’'s research concentrated on young people with behavioural issues and also showed the positive psychological impact of traditional Taekwondo training on cognition and behaviour. The events the author has, so far, described taking place in his dojangs involve people without mental or physical challenges and demonstrate the positive impact of traditional Taekwondo martial arts. But what about people who have learning difficulties? Can martial arts training effectively improve them as well? And in the same way? Let’s find out more about these learning difficulties.
IV. Martial Arts Training and Learning Difficulties According to the National Autistic Society over half a million people in the UK have an Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Children with an autistic spectrum disorder such as Autism or Asperger Syndrome don’t develop the social and language skills that other children do. As a result, they may display unusual behaviours and have learning difficulties. People with ASD have difficulty understanding unwritten ‘social rules’ and can find other people unpredictable and confusing. This can lead to high levels of anxiety and confusion that may lead to inappropriate behaviour (Peeters & Gillberg, 1999). Research conducted by College of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Iran provided
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
evidence that Kata techniques training decreased stereotypic behaviors of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The study included 30 eligible diagnosed ASD, school age children. The frequency of instruction was four times per week for 14 weeks (56 sessions). Results showed that Kata techniques training significantly reduced stereotypy in the exercise group. The researchers concluded that teaching martial arts techniques to children with ASD for a long period of time consistently decreased their stereotypic behaviors (Bahrami et al, 2012). These improvements were maintained 30 days after the study ceased. Traditional Korean Taekwondo training is quite similar. It includes: • Step by step repetitive movement instruction • Adherence to etiquette • Constant group reinforcement • Personal attention and positive reinforcement • A sense of belonging and group cohesion with shared goals and ideology • New physical skills, values and beliefs
The new student develops a new social identity, learns appropriate role behaviour and conforms to the expectation of the instructor and the group through a process of planned and predictable interactions, modelling, imitation and observation. Taekwondo helps students improve self-control, refine and strengthen motor skills, build confidence and increase focus and concentration. Taekwondo training teaches the student to focus, relax and communicate more effectively, become self-aware and integrate the mind and body. Now that we have reached a point in this essay where the reader has sufficient theoretical background on the brain, how it functions, the effects of particular physical activities and the various abnormalities associated with learning disorders, I would like to direct the remainder of this essay to my observation of the development of students who are training or have trained in my martial arts programs. I have had the blessing of training and educating and developing students in martial arts and Taekwondo the sport for over 50 years. Through the years, students began their study and practice with me for a variety of reasons: to improve their fitness, to lose weight, to reduce stress/anxiety, coordination / balance as well as the obvious self protection, to name a few. Ironically, I have never had a student to enroll in any of my programs for the sole purpose of improving brain function or to become an Olympic Athlete. The latter, the athlete, was easiest to identify and was (and still is) placed in one of two categories - natural and development potential. So the task appeared to be straight forward until brain function abnormalities became apparent, the most common being Dyslexia. "Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty which affects up to 10 per cent of the population to
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
some degree and is most commonly characterized by difficulties with the acquisition of reading, spelling and writing skills. Frequently, mathematics and aspects of spoken language are affected. Dyslexic people often suffer from auditory processing difficulties, poor organizational skills, poor physical co-ordination and directional confusion. The majority of dyslexic people have poor short-term memory that causes an inability to retain sequences of numbers and words, and instructions to carry out simple tasks. Except for the common difficulty with written language, no two dyslexic people exhibit the same range of associated characteristics. Dyslexia affects people across the whole spectrum of ethnicity, socio-economic status and intellectual ability." (Dyslexia Scotland 2004). However, I currently have nearly a dozen students who have some form of learning disorder. Some have been clinically diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (previously discussed.) Two have earned Black Belts - 1 successfully passed his 2nd Dan Test a few weeks ago and is now in his second year of college. Rodney has the condition known as Autism which means the way a person communicates and interacts socially is affected. The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a range of similar conditions linked by abnormal autistic tendencies, because although they all share a common disorder, their symptoms range from mild to severe. Bret suffers from a condition known as Asperger syndrome. Asperger’s syndrome is a developmental disorder that affects a person’s ability to socialize and communicate effectively with others. Children with Asperger’s syndrome typically exhibit social awkwardness and an all-absorbing interest in specific topics. (Peeters & Gillberg, 1999) In spite of Rodney and Bret’s learning challenges, they have accomplished a lot, mentally and physically. Their martial arts skills are also very impressive. It goes without saying, if martial arts training can successfully improve those with learning disorders, it will definitely help those who do not have learning difficulties. As an example, I have a student who had a brain aneurysm that ruptured about twelve years ago. With therapy, he was able to re-learn to walk and talk in a normal fashion. But he was plagued with poor balance and coordination. In June of 2002, Glover enrolled in my Gumdo program. The breathing exercises, the sword drawing drills and the Gum Bups (patterns) he was required to learn did wonders for him. Glover is now a 3rd Dan Black Belt in Gumdo. Charles joined our full martial arts program (empty hand & weapons). At that time he was 55 years old and on depression medication. Within 6 months, his doctor took him off the medication. Four and a half years have passed and Charles now holds the rank of 1st Keup,soon to be Black Belt and a picture of good health. He can almost do splits at age 60! What about the nurse who joined our classes at the age of 42. She had never participated in any sports at all. In eight short years, Morag has earned a 3rd Dan Black Belt in Taekwondo, 1st Keup in Gumdo and 3 Gold Medals won in International Taekwondo Championships. I could go on and on with success stories about how martial art training has improved the quality of life for so many of my students, from the very young to the older matured adult.
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
V. Conclusion Martial arts have been able to stand up to all the scientific tests. They are obviously physically and mentally beneficial. Different martial arts bring about different effects. If someone wants to battle stress and anxiety, most forms of martial arts will suffice. For the elderly and those that are physically limited, Tai Chi and Qigong are wonderful forms of exercise. In their review of the literature Jahnke, et al (2010), concluded there was adequate evidence to support this assertion. For adolescents, Taekwondo and Hapkido can work wonders. The martial arts, however, are by no means age specific. Taekwondo has also been shown to greatly help elderly people and prevent them from taking harmful falls. (Swiercz, A P) Whatever martial art one chooses to practice will undoubtedly affect him/her in a positive way. Asian martial arts pick up where Western sports are lacking. They pro-mote a healthy way of life as well as physical development. This combination allows martial arts to work wonders for many people. If the drug companies weren't so powerful in America, maybe the health benefits of martial arts would be more readily accepted. In the United States, doctors tend to prescribe drugs for whatever ails us. Martial arts are obviously not some magical remedy for all of our illnesses, but there is definitely something to them that we don't understand yet. It is amazing to think that the Chinese have been using martial arts for thousands of years, and we are just now starting to figure out what they involve. Overall, studies have verified that properly practiced marital arts can bring about positive physical and psychological changes. Very few will
disagree with this fact. However, there is much to be learned about how these changes are produced. The Asian martial arts have turned out to be more than just tools for selfdefense. They have developed into systems that not only protect the practitioner from attackers but also from poor physical and psychological health. Although Taekwondo, the Sport, has enjoyed nearly 2 and a half decades of successes, we cannot abandon nor overlook the estimated 69 million practitioners of Taekwondo, the Martial Arts who will never enter a competition ring. Evidence of the health benefits and personal development success stories that Taekwondo martial arts are experiencing is well worth preserving. The next step will be to revisit the training process that was involved with each of those students identifying the most effective training techniques and sequences.
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
REFERENCES
Bahrami, F; Movahedi, A; Marandi, SM and Abedi, A ‘Kata techniques training consis tently decreases stereotypy in children with autism spectrum disorder’, Res Dev Disabil. 2012, JulAug; 33(4): 1183-93. Epub 2012 Mar 22 Baumeister, R.F., Vohs, K.D (2007) ‘Self-regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation’ Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 1-14 Covassin, T., Weiss L., Powell, J. and Womack, C. (2007), Effects of a maximal exercise test on neurocognitive function [abstract]. British Journal of Sports Medicine 41, 370-374. Retrieved November 13, 2008 from
http://bjsm.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/41/6/370.
Dyslexia Scotland (2004) ‘Dyslexia Handbook For Adult Literacies in Scotland, Edin burgh: Dyslexia Scotland Hillman C, Motl R W, Pontifex M P, Boomsma D I, de Geus J C, Posthuma D, & Stubbs J H (2006)
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/12/061219122200.htm
Jahnke R, Larkey L, Rogers C, et al. - A Comprehensive Review of Health benefits of Qigong & Tai Chi(American Joural of Health Promotion. 2010 24(6):e4-e25) Lakes, K.D., Hoyt, W.T. ‘Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training’ Applied Developmental Psychology 25. (2004) 283-302 Miller, K; Siddarth, P; Gaines, J; Marx, K; Ronch, J; Pilgram, B; Burke, K; Barczak, N; Babcock, B; and Small, G (2011) “The Memory Fitness Program: Cognitive Effects of a healthy Aging Intervention”, American Journal of geriatric Psychiatry, Vol 20, no.6, June, pp.514-523 Peeters, T & Gillberg, C (1999) ‘Autism Medical and Educational Aspects’ , 2nd Ed, Whurr Publishers: London Res Dev Disabil. 2012 Jul-Aug;33(4):1183-93. Epub 2012 Mar 22 Swiercz, A. P.- The Physical & Psychological Benefits of Martial Arts Training (www.dctkd.org/library/papers/benefits-of-ma-training.cfm Trulson, M.E. (1986) ‘Martial arts training: A novel “cure” for juvenile delinquency’ Human Relations, 39,1131-1140 World Health Organization (WHO),(2003) ‘Health and Development Through Physical Activity and Sport’, Geneva: WHO Publications
국기원 태권도연구, 2012, 제3권, 제2호 Taekwondo Journal of Kukkiwon
2012, 3(1), 1-23
The author’s gives thanks to: Pu Sabum Nim Margaret Evans Facilitator PPDU Forester Hill House - Aberdeen Hospital for her administrative and data collection assistance. And to Kelly Lamond - Classroom Assistant - UdnyGreen Primary School for providing pictured Illustrations. Note: Any names that appear in this thesis are fictitious to protect the identity of individuals.