Architects of the Scientific Thought in Islamic Civilization
Hallmarks from the Biographies of Muslim Scholars in Various Ages
By Halima El Ghrari
Translated by
Abdelaziz Haouaria
Publications of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization -ISESCO- 1424AH/2003AD
Typesetting and Design of the Cover Page at Photocomposition Unit - ISESCO Legal number : 1683/2003 ISBN : 9981-26-350-8 Printing : Imprimerie Beni Isnassen SalĂŠ - Kingdom of Morocco
Preface The publication of this book in its Arabic, English and French editions, falls within the framework of the efforts exerted by the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation in order to highlight the contributions of the Islamic civilisation, in its various aspects, to the enrichment of human civilisation in general, and in the fields of science in particular. These contributions constituted the foundations and basis of the scientific renaissance that appeared and thrived in the West, as was confirmed by distinguished European and American authors and historians who worked on the history of science through centuries. This book, which the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation presents to readers in all regions of the Islamic world and in other regions in the East and the West, is the most complete reference that presents concise and thorough biographies of the leading founders of scientific thought in Islamic civilisation. These illustrious figures contributed to the progress of the whole humanity and set up the foundations of the scientific advancement that was achieved in Europe in the 19th century and continued in the 20th century, reaching unprecedented advancement and prosperity at this dawn of the third millennium. Professor Halima Ghirari has been successful in shedding light on 40 outstanding and distinguished Muslim scholars who flourished in different ages and had various interests and contributions in all fields of science, yet were all inspired and guided by Islam’s call to the quest of knowledge and mastery of sciences. They were the fruit of and sought inspiration in the Islamic civilisation in which they grew up. They can be considered, in this respect, as the founders of today’s civilisation. Their biographies deserve to be read and they should be followed as examples of scientific and cultural creativity in all fields.
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In his “Introduction to the History of Science”, George Sarton classified scientific activity throughout history into epochs, each of which lasting half a century. He named each epoch by the name of a leading scholar. From 750 to 1100 (350 years), all the epochs had names of scholars from the Islamic world: Jabir, al-Khawarizmi, al-Razi, al-Masoudi, Abu al-Wafa, al-Biruni, Omar al-Khayyam. They were all Muslim scholars, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Persians who mastered chemistry, mathematics, medicine, geography, natural science and astronomy. Since 1100, and for 250 years, European scholars intermingled with Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Rochd, al-Tussi and Ibn Nafis. At that time, modern European civilisation started to flourish and the Islamic scientific works were translated, studied and improved; this endeavour is still in process. The biographies of all these scholars are presented in this book. This fact is stated and confirmed by the Arab Muslim scientist settled in Germany, Dr. Mohamed Mansur, who was chosen among the 2000 personalities who contributed to human civilisation in the previous century, in a selection realised at the initiative of prestigious Cambridge university. We have decided to publish this book in a medium-size form to present these 40 scholars with a view to allowing a wide range of readers from all ages to have access to it. This effort comes within the framework of the lofty mission. ISESCO endeavours to achieve, i.e. disseminating facts about the Islamic civilisation and culture, showing their specificities and foundations and recalling their rich contribution to humanity’s progress and prosperity. May God grant crown our efforts with success and guide us to what is best for our Islamic Ummah and for the whole humanity.
Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri Director General of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
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Contents Preface ............................................................................................. V Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 1. Jabir Ibn Haiyan ......................................................................... 3 2. Al-Khawarizmi .......................................................................... 6 3. Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari ................................................................ 9 4. Al-Farghani ................................................................................ 11 5. Sanad Ibn Ali ............................................................................. 13 6. Banu Musa Ibn Shakir ............................................................... 14 7. Al-Kindi ..................................................................................... 17 8. Al-Razi ....................................................................................... 20 9. Al-Battani .................................................................................. 24 10. Al-Farabi ................................................................................... 28 11. Abdurrahman Sufi ..................................................................... 31 12. Abul Wafa al-Buzjani ................................................................ 33 13. Al-Majriti ................................................................................... 35 14. Ibn Al-Jazzar .............................................................................. 37 15. Ibn Yunes ................................................................................... 39 16. Al-Zahrawi ................................................................................ 41 17. Abu Sahl Al-Quhi ...................................................................... 43 18. Al-Karkhi ................................................................................... 45 19. Ibn Sina ...................................................................................... 47 20. Ibn Al-Haitham .......................................................................... 51 21. Al-Biruni .................................................................................... 55 22. Ibn Ridouane .............................................................................. 58
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23. Al-Zarqali .................................................................................. 60 24. Ibn Jizla ......................................................................................
62
25. Omar Al-Khayyam .................................................................... 64 26. Ibn Bajja .................................................................................... 66 27. Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr ............................................................... 68 28. Ibn Tufayl .................................................................................. 71 29. Ibn Roshd ...................................................................................
74
30. Ibn Al-Razaz Al-Jazari .............................................................. 77 31. Al-Batruji ................................................................................... 79 32. Ibn Al-Bytar ...............................................................................
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33. Nasir Al-Dine Tussi ................................................................... 83 34. Ibn Al-Nafis ............................................................................... 86 35. Al-Hassan Al-Murakchi ............................................................ 89 36. Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi ............................................................. 91 37. Ibn Al-Banaa ..............................................................................
93
38. Ibn Al-Shatir ............................................................................. 96 39. Al-Kashi .....................................................................................
98
40. Ulugh Beg .................................................................................. 100 Biographies of some Muslim Scientists .......................................... 102 Bibliography .................................................................................... 105
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Introduction Sciences were among the fields in which Arab scholars excelled and made great contributions, participating in the development of human knowledge. Several western historians and searchers have acknowledged the significant contributions of Arab scientists in many fields, such as medicine, astronomy, mathematics‌ and their leading role in setting up the foundations of modern science. In an attempt to present some prominent Muslim figures and their scientific contributions, we thought to realize a bibliography of some Muslim scholars. We endeavoured to present illustrious figures and others who are less famous despite their achievements and contributions to the advancement of science. Our objective is to offer an opportunity to secondary school and university students to recognize these hallmarks of scientific thought in Islamic civilization and to form a concise idea about their works and contributions in various fields of science. Muslim scholars were known for their encyclopedic nature and for excelling in various fields of science and knowledge, such philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine‌ However, we considered it more appropriate to dedicate this bibliography only to some scientists who contributed to the advancement of scientific knowledge in specific fields such as chemistry; medicine, botany, pharmacy, astronomy, mathematics and geometry and to present concise biographies about each scholar and his inventions, achievements, works and contributions, in coherence with facts mentioned in the reference books we rely on to achieve this work. This book presents concise biographies of 40 Muslim scholars who lived in different epochs –from the 9th century AD to the 15th century AD. Although we dedicate this bibliography only to some scientists who played important roles in the advancement of scientific knowledge, we are aware that more efforts need to be made in the future in order to present other figures that we could not include in this work.
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I would like to present my deep thanks and gratitude to Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, Director General of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, for his precious help in realizing this work. Thanks also go to Dr. Faiq Billal, Director of Science at ISESCO, who adopted this project and suggested it among the Organisation’s scientific programs.
Halima El Ghrari Rabat, August 23, 2001
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1. Jabir Ibn Haiyan (102-199H/721-815AD) Jabir Ibn Haiyan, an outstanding personality and one amongst the greatest scholars of the Middle Ages(1). Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, sometimes called al-Harrani or al-Sufi, was known in Europe in the Middle Ages under the name of Geber. He is thought to have belonged to the Sabian sect in Harran, which gave him the name of al-Harrani. He converted to Islam and showed a real zeal for his new religion(2). Father George Qanouati stated that after the death of his father at his early age, Jabir was sent to the Arabic Peninsula where he studied Koran and Mathematics. Ibn Nadim stated in his "al-Fahrest" that views were controversial concerning the classification of Jabir in a specific category, such the Shiites, Baramika or the philosophers. “Some people even denied his existence". Hence, reserve should persist as to his belonging to the Sabians. Though he originated from Khurassan, he spent the greatest part of his life in Kufa. Jabir was born in Taous around 721AD and died in 813 or 815AD, as historians differ as to the date of his death(3). In his early days, Jabir practiced medicine under the patronage of the Vizir Jaafar al-Barmaki under the rule of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. In the aftermath of the downfall of the Barmakis, he was put in prison in Kufa, where he remained until his death in 803AD(4).
Scientific Contribution The major contribution of Jabir Ibn Haiyan was in the field of chemistry. He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy and invented the (1) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, t. 1, p. 532. (2) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 6, p. 227. (3) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 2, p. 103. Refer also to : - Qanawati Georges: "Al-Khayma al-Arabia" in the"Encyclopedia of the Histrory of Arabian Sciences, Part III, by Dr. Rushdi Rashed, Centre of Pan-Arab Studies, Beirut, p. 1105. - Tawkan Qadri: Arabian Sciences, p. 97. (4) Hakim Mohamad Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 41.
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alkalis, known in contemporary chemistry by their Arabic original terms alkali. He also discovered silver water and all credit goes to him for the later discovery by Europeans of ammonia, gold water, potassium, vitriol. He described in his books non precious metals and their oxides and salts, nitric and sulphuric acids, as well as distillation, percolation and sublimation processes. Amongst Jabir's major scientific achievements was the introduction of experimentation and laboratory work in chemistry. He recommended accuracy in research and reliance on experimentation and patience. He was amongst the pioneers of applied science. His achievements in this field include the refining of various metals, steel preparation, cloth dyeing, leather tanning, water-proof cloth varnishing and the use of manganese dioxide in glass-making(1). Jabir classified substances based on their characters into three distinct types : 1. Spirits, i.e. those which vaporize on heating, such as camphor and ammonium chloride; 2. Metals, such as gold, silver, lead, copper, iron; 3. Compounds which can be converted into powders(2). In short, as rightly said by "Sarton", "the real value of Jabir's contribution can only be appraised if all his works are annotated, edited and published(3).
Major Works The fame of Jabir Ibn Hayyan came from his numerous books, namely : - Kitab Arrasel al-Sab'een (Book of the Seventh Treaties), translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona into Latin in 1187AD - Kitab Ossoul -al-Kimya, (Basics of Chemistry); (1) Sarton. op. cit., p. 532. (2) Scientists and Thinkers, p. 42. (3) Sarton. op. cit., p. 532.
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- Soundouk al-Hikma (Wisdom Box); - Kitab al-Moulk - Kitab al-Mawazin Asaghir - Kitab Arrahma - Kitab al-Khawas - Kitab Assomoum wa Dafu Madariha, (Poisons and their Antidotes). Jabir's corpus includes a great number of books. Apart from chemistry, he compiled several treatises, such as commentaries on Aristotle and Platoon, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine and music. Zarkali stated in his "Eminent Figures and Personalities" that Jabir had a voluminous corpus, ranging between 232 and 500 books, but most of them were lost(1). Some of these books were translated from Latin to English in 1678AD. For several centuries, Europeans relied on his books which had an important impact in the development of modern chemistry. In this context, Max Mayerhaff says "the development of chemistry in Europe can be traced back directly to Jabir Ibn Haiyan. The great evidence can be found in the fact that several terms coined by Jabir, are still found in various European languages.�
(1) Zarkali, Ibid., p. 103.
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2. Al-Khawarizmi (Died 236H/850AD) Al-Khawarizmi was one of the greatest Arab and world scholars whose works had a significant influence on mathematics and astronomy. In this connection, Aldo Mili says : "If we move to mathematics and astronomy, we will find from the beginning top level scholars, such as the illustrious Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi"(1). The date of his birth is unknown while the date of his death is inexact. The only precise information available about him is that he was born at Khawarizm (Kheva), south of the Aral sea. He lived in Baghdad during the rule the Abbassid caliph Al-Mamun who appointed him as the chief librarian of his library and entrusted him with the task of gathering and translating Greek books(2). Al-Khawarizmi draw an enormous benefit from the books of Al-Mamun library. He studied mathematics, geography, astronomy, history in addition to his in-depth Greek and Hindu knowledge.
Scientific Contributions Al-Khawarizmi laid the foundations of algebra as a independent science separate from arithmetic, that was later adopted by Europeans. He was the first to have used the term of algebra. Up to now, algebra is known by its Arabic name in all European languages. All the terms in European languages ending by "algorithm" are named after him. He was the first scientist to have ever written in the field of algebra. He had also the merit to introduce the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals). Amongst the major contributions he made to (1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science and its Impacts on Scientific Development in the World. (2) Zarkali, ibid., p. 116.
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mathematics was his discovery and development of some procedures, such as the calculus of two errors, the geometrical solution of quadratic equations. He published the first Arabic trigonometric tables which were translated in Latin in the 12th century. In addition to his great contributions in arithmetic, al-Khawarizmi innovated in the field of astronomy and developed research in trigonometry and developed ephemerides which had a considerable impact on the other tables developed by Arabs afterwards (1). The other scientific contributions of al-Khawarizmi were the improvements brought on Ptolemy's views on geography as well on his maps.
Major Works Al-Khawarizmi wrote several books, the most important of which are : - Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, (Book on Integration and Equation) an unprecedented book wrote at the request of the Caliph al-Mamun. This book not only coined the word of algebra and gave it its present meaning but it also opened verily a new era in mathematics(2). It was translated in Latin during the 12th century, and thanks to this translation, this science reached the West. For several centuries afterwards, this book constituted a reference in Europe. It was annotated by Dr. Ali Musharafa and Dr. Muhamad Mursi Ahmed and was published for the first time in Cairo in 1939AD. - Kitab Surat-al-Ard, a manuscript kept today in Strasbourg, France. This book was translated in Latin and the information it contained was confronted to Ptolemy's views(3). - Kitab al-Amal bi al-Usturlab (Use of the Astrolabe) and Kitab Amal al-Usturlab (Astrolabe's Operation).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 161. (2) Aldo Milli, Arabian Sciences, p. 154. (3) Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 9, p. 18.
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In brief, al-Khawarizmi was undoubtedly among the greatest scholars of his time and had the merit of introducing the Indian numeral system both to Arabs and to the Western world(1). In fact, he was the founder of algebra and left several treaties in arithmetic, astronomy and geography. In his words, Aldo Milli paid tribute to the eminence of al-Khawarizmi by saying : "al-Khawarizmi opened the lead for a series of great mathematicians"(2). His books were taught in European universities until the 16th century.
(1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 154. (2) Ibid., p. 154.
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3. Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari (Died in 247H/861AD) Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was Born in Marv, Tabristan in 780 or 770AD(1). According to Aldo Mili(2) and Ibn Khalkan,(3) he hailed from a Persian Christian family. Later, he embraced Islam guided by Al-Mua'tassim(4). In the words of Mohamad Zubair Siddiki, the annotator of al "Firdous al-Hikmat" treatise : "it was al-Mutawakil who called him to Islam and called him the servant of the commander of the believers. His nobility endeared him to the caliph who made him a member of his court�. As for the surname of Rabban which implies "professor" according to Aldo Milli who says : "the Siryac surname of Rabban was used amongst Christians as an equivalent for the word professor we use"(5). His father Sahl was a scholar who excelled in the fields of medicine, geometry, astrology, mathematics and philosophy. Reportedly, he was the first to have succeeded in translating Ptolemy's book Almajest.(6). Ali received his education in the disciplines of medicine, geometry and philosophy from his father. He also mastered Syriac and Greek languages. After the death of his father, he furthered his study of medicine and became a renowned physician. He practiced medicine at his beginnings in the city of Array then moved to Baghdad. In the end, he settled in "Sura man raa"(7) (Samaraa), where he became the secretary of the Caliphs, al-Muatassim, al-Ouatik and al-Mutawakil. (1) Firdaous al-Hikma, Annoted by Mohamad Zubair Seddiki. (2) Aldo Milli, Science and Arabs, p. 131. (3) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol. 5, p. 159. (4) Ibn Nadim, Index, 1, p. 593. (5) Aldo Milli, op. cit., p. 133. (6) Sarton: op. cit., t. 1, p. 565. (7) Ahmed Abdelbaki, Landmarks of the Islamic Civilization in the 3rd century H., p. 541.
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Contributions to Medical Science The major scientific contribution of Ali Ibn Rabban lies in his classification of several medical topics which he tackled in-depth in his treatise Firdous al-Hikmat, including laying the general principles of medicine and the rules for keeping good health; comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases; description of the diet to maintain the good health. Besides, he discussed in this comprehensive book all diseases from head to toe, namely head and brain diseases; eye, nose, ear, mouth and teeth diseases; muscular diseases: chest and lung diseases; diseases of the abdomen; liver diseases; gallbladder and spleen diseases, intestinal diseases as well the different kinds of fever. He also described flavor, taste and color and tackled drugs and poisons.
Major Works Ali Ibn Rabban left several medical books, the most renown of which are : - Firdous al-Hikmat treatise (850AD) is a medical encyclopedia which incorporates all the branches of medical science, in addition to studies in philosophy, psychology, zoology, astronomy, meteorological phenomena. Al-Tabari wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic and simultaneously translated it into Syriac. Several copies of this book were published in different countries. Dr. Mohammed Zubair Siddiqi verified and annotated the manuscripts. The book was published in India in 1928. It was also published by the Institute of Arab and Islamic Sciences in Frankfort University in 1996. - Kitab Tuhfatu al-Mulouk, Hifdh al-Sehhat (a book on keeping good health) and Kitab fi Tartib al-Aghdiya (a book on foodstuff classification) Manafi'a al-At'ima wal as-Shriba wal Akakir (book on the benefits of foodstuffs, beverages and drugs). Az-Zarkali(1) added to his works the book entitled Addin wa Dawla (Religion and the State) in which, Ibn Rabban defends Islam. (1) Zerkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 4, p. 288.
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4. Al-Farghani (Died after 247H/861AD) Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Kathir al-Farghani, known in the West as Alfraganus, was born in Farghana and lived in Baghdad during the rule of the Abbassid Caliph, al-Mamun. He was one of the most distinguished astronomers who worked in the service of al-Mamun and his successors(1). Sarton said about him "He was still alive in 861AD"(2). Al-Farghani was a contemporary of al-Khawarizmi, Beni Musa and Sanad Ibn Ali.
Scientific Contributions Al-Farghani was an astronomer, astrologist and engineer. He determined the diameter of the earth to be 6,500 miles, and found the diameters of the planets. Aldo Milli says : "Al Farghani's measurements of planet distances and diameters were used by many other astronomers, namely Copernicus(3) as such, almost without change. Thus, this Muslim astronomer had a significant influence on the renaissance of astronomy in Europe. In year 861, the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, entrusted him with supervising the construction of the Nilometer at al-Fustat. He supervised it to completion and his name was written on it.
Major Works Al-Fraghani left a number of valuable books, namely : - Kitab Jawami Ilm al-Nujum wal Harakat al-Samawiya a book on thorough science of the stars and celestial motion, which was (1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 567. (2) Sarton, ibid,. p. 567. (3) Aldo Milli, op. cit., p. 167.
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translated into Latin in the 12th century by Gerard of Cremona. It was as well translated in Hebrew. This book exerted a great influence on European astronomy in the period before Regiomontanus, the astro-mathematician who thrived in the 15th century. Translations of this book were edited and published several times during the 15th and 16th centuries. - Fi al-Usturlab (on the Astrolabe) and Al-Jama' wa Tafrik (Addition and Division) .
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5. Sanad Ibn Ali (Died after 250H/864AD) Sanad Ibn Ali, alias Abu Tayeb was a contemporary of the Abassid Caliph al-Ma'mun. Reportedly, he was born around 850AD. According to Sarton, he died after year the 864AD. He was a Muslim astronomer and mathematician(1). It is said that Sanad was Jewish and embraced Islam, guided by the Caliph al-Ma'mun, who appointed him in his panel of astrologists and head of all observational matters.
Scientific Contributions All the credit goes to Sanad for the setting up of Baghdad observatory. He also developed ephemeredes, he called "Azyaj al-Ma'mun", that were used by astrologists of his time and subsequently. He was renowned for the manufacturing of astronomic detection equipment and the astrolabe. He also corrected the positions of some planets and took part in the endeavor of measurement of the Earth and planet surfaces, ordered by al-Ma'mun.
Major Works In addition of his interests in meteorology, Sanad Ibn Ali was versed in mathematics. He wrote several books in these subjects, including : - Kitab al-Hissab al-Hindi (book on Indian Numerals); - Kitab al-Jama' wa Tafriq (book on addition and division); - Kitab al-Jabr wa al-Mufaraqa; - Kitab al-Munfasilat wa al-Mutawassitat, dealing with stars and arithmetic; Besides, Sanad explained nine essays from Euclid's treatise on geometry "Elements". (1) Sarton, op. cit., t. 1, p. 566.
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6. Banu Musa Ibn Shakir (Died in 259H/ 872AD) Musa Ibn Shakir lived in Baghdad during the rule the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun and was among his closest courtiers. He was interested in astronomy and astrology. At his death, he left three children at small age. Al-Ma'mun took them under his wings and appointed Isshak Ibn Ibrahim al-Masbaghi to take care of them. This latter placed them in Bayt al-Hikmah (the House of Wisdom), which hosted an important library, an astronomic observatory, and a translation center of Greek philosophical and scientific works. Banu Musa brothers grew up in this scientific environment, and became among the outstanding scholars of Bayt al-Hikma. The three brothers, Muhamad, Ahmad and al-Hassan were known as Banu Mussa or the three brothers(1). The eldest of them, Abu Jaafar Muhamad was a scientist with extensive knowledge in geometry, stars and "Almajest". Ahmad was an expert and an innovator in the field of mechanical engineering. Al-Hassan had an in-depth mastery of geometry(2). The eldest of the three brothers died in 872AD.
Scientific Contributions Ibn Musa brothers excelled in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, mechanics and geometry and contributed to their development by their important innovations and discoveries. Their scientific contributions in mechanics appeared in the invention of a series of scientific tools and automatic devices, such as a number of farming machines, fountains which show numerous images with ascending waters. They also invented a number of household devices and toys as well as machines for loads traction, lifting or weighing. (1) Ahmad Yussuf Hassan: Introduction of the Annotation of Kitab Al Hiyal, Banu Musa, Damscus, 1981, p. 18. (2) Tawkan: op. cit., p. 187.
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Banu Musa brothers had an extensive expertise in general mathematics and put into use their mathematical knowledge in applied matters. They succeeded for instance in creating the elliptic form(1). The method consists in planting two pins at two separate points, taking a thread measuring the distance between the two points. The threat must be tightened from both ends then put around the pins and a pencil inserted into the other folded end. When the pencil is turned clockwise the elliptic form is drawn. In the fields of astronomy, Banu Musa brothers assessed the mean movement of the sun in the Persian calendar and developed calendars for the positions of planets. They also worked on meteorological changes and recorded the observations. Banu Musa brothers played also an important role in the development of mathematics, astronomy and geometry through their treatises and by providing sponsor and support to translators and scientists. In this context, the German author Sigrid Hunkah said about Banu Musa brothers : "They sent envoys at their own expenses to the Byzantine Empire in search of ancient philosophical, astronomic, mathematical and medical manuscripts. They went until paying considerable amounts to buy Greek heritage and carry them home... In a house, close to the palace of al-Mutawakil, put at their disposal by this latter, a large team of translators from all parts of the country was working ceaselessly ‌"(2).
Major Works Banu Musa brothers wrote in several scientific fields, such as geometry, land surveying, cones, astronomy, mechanics and mathematics. Their publications include the following : - Kitab al-Hiyal, their most famous book, in which they compiled old mechanics as well as their personnel experiences. The (1) Ahmad Yussuf Hassan, ibid., p. 19. (2) Hunkah, "the Sun of Arabs Shines on the West", p. 124.
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annotator of this book, Mr. Ahmad Yussuf Hassan, says that the interest for Kitab al-Hiyal started in the West by the end of the 19th Century. The serious studies did not appear until the beginning of the 20th century, with the publication by Fiedeman and Hauser of study papers on this book. In 1979, Hill translated the book into English. Kitab al-Hiyal was published in 1981 by the Institute of Arab Scientific Heritage in Syria after its verification and annotation by Dr. Ahmad Yussuf Hassan and others; - Kitab Missahat Al-Akr; - Kitab Kismat Azzawaya ila Talatat Akssam Mutassawiya (Division of angle into three equal parts), translated by Gerard of Cremona into Latin; - Kitab chalk al-Handassi, a book on geometrical form; - Kitab Harakt al-Falak al-Ula (Stars First Motion). It is worth noting that Banu Musa brothers worked closely with each other to the extent it becomes impossible to single out the work of each of them. The important thing is that they played an outstanding role in the development of mathematics, astronomy and geometry and had a great influence on their era.
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7. Al-Kindi (175-260H/800-873AD) Al-Kindi was known as the Philosopher of the Arabs and was considered "as one of the 12 geniuses endowed with a high level of intelligence"(1). He was an encyclopedic scholar. Besides his fame as philosopher, he was mathematician, astronomer, physicist, physician, pharmacist and geographer. His full name was Yaqub Ibn Ishaq Ibn Sabah al-Kindi Abu Yuusuf. He hailed from al-Kinda tribe and was known in Latin by Alkindus. He was born at Kufa where his father was governor (2). Al-Kindi grew up and studied in al-Basra. Later he moved to Baghdad where he furthered his studies with the most reputed scholars. He was a contemporary of three Abbasid caliphs, al-Mamun, al-Mu'tasim and al-Mutawakkil as well as the three astronomers, the Banu Musa brothers and the astronomer Sanad Ibn Ali. He was held in such a high esteem by al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim that al-Ma'mun entrusted him with the task of translating Aristotle's books as well as other Greek philosophers. He vas also used by al-Mutawakkil as calligrapher. On account of his philosophical views and denunciation by envious people, al-Mutawakkil ordered the confiscation of all his books. These were, however, all returned to him later.
Scientific Contributions He wrote four books on the use of Indian numerals and made considerable contribution to spherical geometry which he used in his astronomical studies(3). (1) Tawkan, Kadri, Arabian Sciences, p. 112. (2) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 1483. (3) Hakim Muhammad Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 50
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He observed the positions of stars and planets -particularly the Sun and the Moon- in comparison to Earth and their eventual natural impact as well as the arising phenomena. He came up with breakthrough and bold views in his research, including on the origin of life on Earth. This forced several scholars to recognize him as a high level thinker (1). In chemistry, he challenged the idea that precious metals, such as gold can be extracted from base metals. He wrote a treatise that he called "Treatise in Opposition of Alchemists Pretending to Make Gold and Silver and their Trickeries". In astronomy, al-Kindi did not believe in the influence of the planets on people's fate and refuted the astrologer's predictions based upon the motion of celestial bodies. He focused instead his interest on the scientific study of the Universe and stars based on their observation. Some historians considered him as one of eight outstanding astronomers in the Middle Ages(2). In physics, he made rich contributions to geometrical and physiological optics and wrote a book on the subject, which had a great influence later on Roger Bacon, Witelo and other scholars(3). Al-Kindi was also a brilliant engineer whose publications and theories were used as reference in construction works, mainly canals as was the case during the digging of canals between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (4). In medicine, his chief contribution was his attempt to systematically determine the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time(5).
Major Works Al-Kindi was a prolific writer; he wrote and explained several books. Views differ as to the total number of his works which range between 230, (1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 170. (2) Ibid., p. 179. (3) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, p. 559. (4) Tawkan, Ibid., p. 168. (5) Hakim Muhammad Said, Idem., p. 50.
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270 and 300 monographs and books. In these books, he tackled various subjects, including philosophy, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, medicine, physics, logic, tides, metals, precious stones, iron and sword types. He was also an early translator of Greek works into Arabic. Only some of his works will be presented, based on the statements of Tawkan(1) and Zarkali(2) : - Risalah fi Madkhal Ila Aritmetica (Introduction to Arithmetic) : 5 monographs; - Risalah fi Isti'mal al-Hissab al-Hindi (Use of Indian Calculation) : 4 monographs; - Risalah fi 'ilal al-Awda' Noujoumia (Positions of the Stars); - Risalah fi Sina'at al-Usturlab (Making of the Astrolabe); - Ilahyat-e-Aristu (Aristotelian Philosophy) ; - Aduiyah al-Murakkab (Compound Drugs); - Rissalat al-Mosiqa (Treatise in Music); - Al-Mad wa al-Jazr (Tides) and - Assuyuf wa Ajnassuha (Swords). Gerard of Cremona translated a large number of al-Kindi's books into Latin. Their influence on the development of several scientific fields continued throughout several centuries.
(1) Tawkan,: Ibid., p. 175. (2) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 8, p. 195.
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8. Al-Razi (251-313H/865-925AD) He is Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi, Abu Bakr, known by Europeans as Rhazes. He was a celebrated Muslim physician, alchemist and philosopher. Historians agreed to consider him as the greatest physician of the Islamic world and the most famous physicians of the Middle Ages. "And one of the world renowned physician of all time ‌ He had an extensive knowledge to the extent that he was versed in all fields of science and arts."(1) Ibn Khalkan described him as "the expert and the reference in medicine in his time. He was excelled in this practice and knew all its aspects and rules. People used to come from everywhere to study under him"(2). Al-Razi was born in Ray in the south of Teheran. Initially, he studied mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy, logic and literature. Later, he learnt medicine from Ishaq Ibn Hunayn, who was well versed in Greek, Persian and Indian schools of medicine. Though he studied medicine well after his 40 (3), he was able to make significant achievements in the field, which earned him fame. After serving as chief physician in a Ray hospital, he was appointed in a similar position in Baghdad Hospital, build by order of the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir(4).
Ar-Razi Contributions to Medicine In medicine, his contribution was so significant and varied, hence only some of them will pinpointed. He had an interest in clinical (1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 463. (2) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol. 5, p. 157. (3) Ibn Khalkan, op. cit., p. 173. (4) Aldo Milli, Arabian Sciences, p. 173.
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observation, involving the evolution of the disease in reaction to the treatment and the development of the patient's state and the result of the treatment(1). He also relied on the psychological state in the diagnosis of diseases. He considered that some stomach diseases were primarily caused by psychological reasons. The diagnosis of Small Pox and Measles constituted one of al-Razi's greatest medical achievements. He gave a precise description of the two diseases, particularly their first symptoms and their treatment. He used to stress the importance of practice, expertise and experimentation in the treatment of patients. He also compounded new medicines and experimented them on animals before prescribing them to human beings. Westerners recognize the innovations of Al-Razi in the fields of gynaecology, obstetrics, MST, and eye surgery(2). He also studied face palsy and its causes and distinguished between palsy resulting from a central cause in the brain and localized palsy. He described the complexity of nerves in the thorax. Al-Razi was among the first to apply their knowledge in chemistry to medicine and who attributed the recovery of patient to chemical reaction in the body.
Contributions to Chemistry Al-Razi was not only a great physician, but also an alchemist of top level stature(3). He was among the leading scientists who made of chemistry a true science. Some researchers consider him as the founder of modern chemistry. He undertook important chemical experiments, such as the preparation of acids. His methods continue to be used up to now. He was the first to have mentioned sulfuric acid and called it "oil of vitriol" or "green vitriol". He extracted alcohol by the distillation of fermented starchy and sugary materials. He used it in pharmacy as a compound to prepare medicines(4). The merit of al-Razi in chemistry was most evidently his (1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 220. (2) Ibid., p. 221 (3) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 171. (4) Tawkan, ibid., p. 218.
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classification of chemistry elements into three categories : vegetal, animal and mineral. This very classification still exists in modern science(1).
Major Works Al-Razi was a prolific author, who left an important number of treatises. According to some historians, they exceeded 220 books, most of them were lost. In medicine, al-Razi wrote several valuable books, which in addition to his innovative research papers, included Greek and Indian science. His most famous books are : - Al-Hawi was by far the most famous of all his books. It is the largest Arabian medical encyclopedia in which al-Razi gathered abstracts taken from Greek and Arab physicians and added to them the results of his experiments as well as his own views. It was translated into Latin by the Jewish physician Faraj Ibn Salim, commissioned by the King of Sicily Charles I. The word "al-Hawi" was changed by its Greek equivalent "Continens"(2). The book was also translated several times in Europe until year 1542AD. Eminent European scholars relied considerably on this book which remained a reference book in their schools and universities until the 12th century. - Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah (Treatise on Small Pox and Measles) : This book contains a detailed and accurate description of the two diseases and their treatment. It was translated in Latin in Venice in 1565 then in various European languages. It was published in Europe forty times between 1498 and 1866(3). - Tib al-Fukara (Medicine of the Poor) : A popular dictionary in which al-Razi describes all the known diseases, symptoms and their treatment using cheap foodstuffs instead of expensive medicines and rare compounds. (1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 463. (2) Arnold, ibid., p. 463. (3) Ahmed Abdelbaki, Landmarks of Islamic Civilization in the 3rd century of the Hegira, p. 537.
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- Kitab al-Mansuri, which was named after the Governor of Khurassan, al-Mansur ibn Ishaq. He covered in this book several medical subjects, such as surgery, eye diseases. The book was published for the first time in Milano in year 1481AD and was translated in Latin. It remained a reference book for physicians in European universities until the 17th century. Among its most famous books in chemistry, the following can be cited : - Kitab al-Asrar fi al-Kimiya (Secrets of Chemistry) : Al-Razi describes in this book the way he conducted his experiments and the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization as well as the instruments and tools used. In astronomy, the most famous of al-Razi's books was : - Kitab Hay'atu al-Alam (Attitude of the Universe) : In this book, he demonstrates that "Earth evolves around two axes, that the Sun is bigger than the Earth and that the Moon is smaller than Earth"(1). Al-Razi had several other books in medicine, pharmacy, astronomy, mathematics, physics, logic, philosophy and religious science. In brief, we can say that al-Razi made a considerable contribution through his books and inventions to the progress of medicine and chemistry and the development of research in both fields. His books remained a reference in medicine in European universities until the 17th century.
(1) Hunkah, Ibid., p. 247.
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9. Al-Battani (244-317H/858-929AD) He is Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan ar-Raqqi al-Harrani, known as al-Battani. He was named as ar-Raqqi after Raqqa, a township on the Euphrates in Iraq. He was known in the West in the Middle Ages as Albategnus or Albategni. Al-Battani was born in "Battan" near Harran, located on one of the Euphrates tributaries. His date of birth is not accurate, but he was probably born in 235 H./858 AD. Concerning the date of his death, "historians agreed all that he passed away in 317 H./929 A.D.(1) near the city of Moussul in Iraq. He was regarded as one of the greatest Arab astronomers. He devoted all his life time from 264 H until his death to the observation of planets and stars. Al-Battani was first educated by his father Jabir Ibn al-Battani, who was also a well-known scientist. He then moved to Raqqa, where he studied the works of his predecessors, mainly Ptolemy's. He dedicated himself afterwards to research in the fields of astronomy, trigonometry, algebra, geometry and geography. He spent his professional life travelling between "Ar-Raqqah" and "Antakia" in Syria, where he set up an observatory bearing his name (al-Battani Observatory). The Islamic Encyclopedia refers to al-Battani was famous for the observation of planets and was one of the leading figures in the fields of geometry, planet positions and star calculus. European scholars all agree that al-Battani was more versed in his science than was the Greek astronomer Ptolemy. The French astronomer Lalande said that al-Battani was among the 20 top level astronomers that existed in all the world(2).
(1) Human Heritage Magazine, Vol. 3, p. 183. (2) Islamic Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 326.
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Kadari Tawkan stated in his book "Arab Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy"(1) that "Kajori" and "Halle" considered al-Battani among the most eminent observation scientists. Some researchers called him Ptolemy of Arabs. Georges Sarton described him as the greatest astronomer of his time and one of the greatest scholars of Islam(2).
Contributions to Astronomy Of his most important contributions in astronomy is his discovery of the azimuth and nadir and the determination of their points in the sky. He also determined with remarkable accuracy the inclination of the ecliptic, the length of the tropical year, the seasons and the true and mean orbit of the sun. He opposed Ptolemy's and showed that the position of the Sun's apogee is variable. His accurate observations of lunar and solar eclipses were used by Europeans (Dunthorne in 1749 AD) to determine the secular acceleration of motion of the Moon throughout a whole century. He also rectified the orbits of the Moon and the planets and developed a table of their new positions. Besides, he checked the positions of several stars and included them in his famous table of planetary movements, which was used by astronomer for centuries. "Nellino" recognizes that he "discovered a new theory which evidences his dexterity and ability to find out means to explain the states of the Moon at its birth(3).
Contributions in Mathematics Al-Battani was among the first Arab scholars to have used the sine instead of chord. He also used the tangent et the cotangent in the spherical trigonometry. He attempted to use algebra in solving the problems in which Greeks used geometry. Al-Battani was among the founders of trigonometry and who endeavours to extend its scope(4). (1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 241 (2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 602, (3) Tawkan, op. cit., p. 245. (4) Tawkan, op. cit., p. 246.
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Major Works Among his major works, the following can be cited : -"Zij Assabi" is by far his most important writing. It contains the findings of the observation of planets, he conducted in 299 Hegira, tables on the motions of the celestial bodies, he discovered as well as the various astronomical works he undertook from 264 to 306 H. It constituted the first "zij" or ephemeris ("zij" a Persian term referring to the old ephemerides) containing true and accurate information. The book was greatly influential in the development of astronomy and mathematics both during the Arab-Islamic renaissance or at the outset of the European renaissance. Several Arab scientists relied on it in their calculations, some of them quoted or interpreted parts of its content. This book was translated in Latin by Tivok Platoof in the 12th century under the title "Sciencia de Sttellarum", "Science of Stars", and was printed in Nuremberg in 1537 AD. In the 13th century, the King of Castile, Alfonso X, ordered the translation of this Zij from Arabic into Spanish. An incomplete manuscript of this translation is in Paris. A copy of this book is available in the Vatican. Carlo Nellino published an edition of the Arabic original, copied from the copy of El Escorial in three volumes in Rome 1899-1907 accompanied by Latin translation and comments on some subjects. - "Kitab Ma'rifat al-Buruj fima bayna Arba' al-Falak" in which al-Battani deals with the mathematical solution to the astrological problem to the observer's orientation; - "Rissala fi Mikdar al-Ittissalt"; - "Rissala fi Tahqiq Akdar al-Ittissalat"; In these last two treatises, al-Battani tackled the subject of the congruence of two planets as to latitude and longitude, whether they are in the same orbit, or one or both of them are outside this sphere.
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-"Charh al-Maqalat al-Arba' Libatlimus". Ptolemy ended his "Almagest" with these four treatises in which he dealt with astrological issues and the influence of stars on secular matters. - "Kitab Ta'adil al-Kawakib". Al-Battani studied the difference between the motions of planets within their orbits, as a constant value and their real motions which differ from one position to the other. In summary, "Al-Battani was among the greatest geniuses of the world who developed important theories and enriched the human scientific heritage by adding new discoveries in astronomy, algebra and trigonometry. He became famous for his observations of planets and celestial bodies. Some of his findings continue to arouse the interest of scholars and their admiration(1).
(1) Tawkan, op. cit., p. 241.
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10. Al-Farabi (257-339H/870-950AD) "Al-Farbi was a celebrated philosopher and mathematicians as well as a skilled musician" (1). He is Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan Ibn Uzalagh, Abu Nasr al-Farabi. He was known as the "Second Teacher" (al-Mou'allim al-Tani) for having studies and explained the books of Aristotle (First Teacher) (2). He was born in Farab in Turkistan where his father of Turkish origin was serving as an army commander. Dr. Ali Abdulwahed Wafi said : " Very little is known of al-Farabi's childhood or subsequent periods of his life(3). All what is known is that he studied in his hometown a number of subjects, including science, mathematics, letters, philosophy, languages, such as Turkish, Persian, Greek and Arabic. As he grew older, he moved to Iraq to further his higher studies. He studied philosophy, logic and medicine with the Christian physician Yohana Ibn Haylane. He also studied Arabic linguistics and music. From Iraq he moved to Egypt and Sham, where he jointed the court of the Sayf ad-Dawlah in Halab. He held an outstanding position among scientists, men of letters and philosophers. After a rich life, he died still bachelor at the age of 80 years in Damascus in 339 H/950 AD(4).
Scientific Contributions Al-Farabi was the greatest philosopher of Islam. His contemporaries used to call him the "Second Teacher" for the big interest he gave to (1) Hunkah, Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, p. 162. (2) Zerkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 7, p. 20. (3) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 2, p. 570. (4) Human Heritage Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 569.
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Aristotle's works and to their explanation, annotation and comments. The specificity of his philosophy lies in the fact that he tried to synthesize Platonism and Aristotelism on one side and to compromise between theology and philosophy. He also introduced the doctrine of emanation in Islamic philosophy and paved the ground to philosophical sufism. Despite his fame in philosophy and logic, al-Farabi made considerable contributions to other scientific fields, such as medicine and physics. He brought evidence of the existence of vacuum(1). His major scientific contributions lies in his book Kitab Ihsa' al 'Ulum in which he discussed the fundamental principles and classifications of sciences(2); he classified sciences in groups and branches and the subjects and interests of every branch. Besides his contributions in philosophy, al-Farabi excelled in music. His treatise on music constituted the first basis of the concept of logarithm as indicated in the book entitled "Heritage of Islam". Cara de Faw said : "As for al-Farabi, the second teacher after Aristotle and one of the eminent figures of modern Platonism, endowed with a mind that could assimilate the ancient philosophy, he wrote a valuable treatise in music, a field in which he excelled. This treatise contain the first core of the logarithm, which demonstrates the relationship between mathematics and music(3). Siegfreid Hunkah confirms this very idea when she said : "the interest shown by al-Farabi to music and to the principles of tune and rhythm brought him so close to the logarithm science, which is contained in his book entitled 'Anasir Fan al-Musiqa"(4) (Elements of Musical Art).
Major Works Al-Farbi wrote several interpretations and books in science, the major of which are the following(5): (1) Zahoor, Muslim History. (2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 628. (3) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 582. (4) Hunkah, op. cit,. p. 163. (5) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 1, p. 861.
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- Interpretation of Ptolemy's Almagest; - Interpretation of the first and fifth treatises of Euclid's book on geometry; - Introduction to Virtual Geometry; - Kalam fi Harakat al-Falak, a book on the motions of celestial bodies; - Kitab Ihsa' al-Ulum : In this book, al-Farabi divided science to eight groups, listed the branches of every group, and the subject of ever branch, its purposes and interests. This book was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona(1) ; - Sina'at Ilm al-Musiqa, in which al-Farbi explained the principles of tune and rhythm. Al-Farbi was also prolific in philosophy and logic, the most famous of his writing in these fields are : - Ara' Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila (Views of the Inhabitants of the Ideal City); - Al-Jam' bayn al-Hakimayn Aflatun al-Ilahi wa Aristotalis : a book where al-Farabi synthesizes between Platonism and Aristotalism. "Most of al-Farabi's writing, were either lost or are still kept in chests and libraries. Only a small part of al-Farabi' works is known compared to the profusion of his writing in the various science and art fields(2).
(1) Dr. Othman Amin annotated and published the Arabic text in 1949 in Cairo. (2) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 1, p. 862.
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11. Abdurrahman Sufi (291-376H/ 903-986AD) Abu al-Hassan Abd al-Rahman Ibn Amr Ibn Sahl Al-Sufi ar-Razi was born in Ray. He was one of the greatest astronomers and astrologers. In the words of the historian George Sarton (1), he was one of the most eminent astronomer of Islam. He was friend with the caliph al-Bouihi Adud Adawla, who made of him his private astrologer and teacher to learn about the positions of static stars and their motions.
Scientific Contributions Sufi made significant contributions to astronomy which can be summed in the following accomplishments : He observed the stars, counted them and determined their celestial latitudes and longitudes. His observations allowed him to discover new stationary stars that had never been observed before. He drew the map of the sky, in which he listed the positions of the stationary stars, their magnitudes and the brightness of each of them. He developed an atlas of the stars to correct the mistakes of his predecessors (2). Europeans acknowledged the accuracy of his astronomical observations; Aldo Milli described him as "one of the most eminent Arab astronomers to whom we owe a series of accurate direct observations". He further stated : "This great astronomer not only located several of the stars that were unknown to Ptolemy, but he also corrected some of his mistaken observations (3). He enabled thus the future astronomers to recognize the planets for which the Greek astronomer gave inaccurate positions(4). (1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 665. (2) Hunkah, Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, p. 151. (3) Aldo Mielli, Arabian Science, p. 213. (4) Aldo Mielli, op. cit., p. 218.
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Major Works - "Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabita" (Book of the Stationary Planets) is considered by Sarton as one of the three major books which were famous among Muslim astronomers. The other two books are Ibn Yunus's and Ulugh Beg's. This book contained colored drawings of constellations and celestial pictures. - "Risalat al-Amal bil Usturlab" (Treatise on the Use of Astrolabe); - "Kitab Tadkira"; - "Kitab Matarih Chua'at"; - "Kitab al-Urjuza fi al-Kawakib Tabita". Copies of some of these works are kept in libraries in a number of countries, such as El Escorial library in Madrid, Paris and Oxford (1).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 223
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12. Abul Wafa al-Buzjani (328-387H/940-998AD) Abu al-Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail Ibn Abbas al-Buzjani was an engineer, astronomer, and mathematician. Sarton described him as one of the greatest mathematicians of Islam(1). Abu al-Wafa was born in Buzjan in Khurasan in 328H/940 AD. He studied mathematics under his paternal uncle Abu Umar al-Maghazli and maternal uncle, known as Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Ataba and studied geometry under Abu Yahya al-Marudi and Abu al-Ala' Ibn Karnib. In 348 H/ 959 AD, he moved to Iraq and lived in Baghdad until his death in 387 H/ 998 AD. Abu al-Wafa dedicated his life to writing, observing celestial bodies and teaching. He became a member of the observatory set up by Sharaf ad-Dawla in 377 H(2).
Scientific Contribution Abu al-Wafa was one of the outstanding scholars in astronomy and mathematics. Several western scholars also acknowledged his outstanding merit in geometry(3). Al-Buzjani made important contributions to the development of trigonometry. "Cara de Faw" acknowledged that "the services rendered by Abu al-Wafa to trigonometry can by no means be contested. Thanks to him, this science became simpler and clearer. He used the secant and cosecant and developed a new method for the calculation of the sine(4). He was also the first to demonstrate the general theorem of the sine in spherical triangles(5). (1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 666. (2) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 227. (3) Tawkan, Idem., p. 277. (4) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 581. (5) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 433.
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Abu al-Wafa was equally a genius in geometry; he was able to solve several geometrical problems with great dexterity.
Major Works Al-Buzjani left several valuable books, including : - "Kitab fima Yahtaju Ilaihi al-Kuttab wa al-Ummal min 'Ilm al-Hisab" (Book on What Is Necessary from the Science of Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen) a book of applied arithmetic. Two incomplete copies of this treatise are kept in Leyden in Holland and in Cairo. - "Kitab al-Kamil"(the Complete Book) - "Kitab fima Yahtaj Ilaih as-Suna' fi 'Amal al-Handasa" (Book on What Is Necessary from Geometric Construction for the Artisan), a book of applied geometry, written at the request of the Caliph Baha' ad-Dawla. A copy of this treatise is kept in the library of Ayasofya Mosque in Istanbul. - "Kitab al-Majesti" (Almagest Book) is the most famous of all his books. An incomplete copy of it is kept in the National Library of Paris. - "Kitab al-Handsa" (Applied Geometry) Apart from these treatises, Abu al-Wafa wrote rich commentaries on Euclid, Diophantus and al-Khawarizmi, but all of these were lost. In summary, al-Buzjani's researches and books had a significant influence of the progress of science, in particular astronomy and trigonometry. He was among the pioneers who laid the ground to the emergence of analytical geometry by finding geometric solutions to some algebraic equations(1).
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 227.
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13. Al-Majriti (338-398H / 950-1007AD) "Al-Majriti was the leader of mathematicians in Andalusia and the most knowledgeable in astronomy and stars motion"(1). His full name is Abu al-Qasim Maslama Ibn Ahmed Ibn Qasim Ibn Abdullah al-Majriti.(2) He was born in Madrid, Spain in 338 H/950 AD and lived in Cordoba until his death in 398 H/1007 AD. He traveled to the East, where he met with Arab and Muslim scholars and discussed with them the results of his researches in mathematics and astronomy. He built a school in Cordoba which was attended by several great scientists in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, chemistry and zoology(3).
Scientific Contributions(4) Al-Majriti was considered an authority of his time in chemistry. His made many contributions to the field by drawing a clear distinction between chemistry and semiology and freeing chemistry from myths and sorcery. He called for the scientific study of chemistry based on experimentation and investigation. He considered that mathematics is necessary for the study of chemistry. Al-Majriti was also interested in combustion and the resulting reactions. He earned fame for his preparation of oxide of mercury; nobody succeeded before him in transforming mercury into mercury oxide. In the field of astronomy, he shortened al'Battani's ephemerides and his extract became a reference for astronomers. He was the first to have (1) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 7. p. 224. (2) Zarkali, ibid., p. 224. (3) Adifa', Contribution of Arab and Muslim Scientists in Zoology, p. 369. (4) Adifa', ibid., pp. 370-379.
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ever commented Ptolemy's astronomical map. Al-Majriti also gained fame by his commentary and correction of al-Khawarizmi's ephemerides and adopting a Hegira calendar instead of the Persian(1). He also developed the theories of numerals and Euclid's geometry. Furthermore, al-Majriti had a great interest in zoology; he dealt with animal anatomy and the preference of some over the others and their benefits.
Major Works Al-Majriti wrote in many scientific fields, including chemistry, astronomy, mathematics and zoology. Among these writings, those referred to by Sarton (2) and az-Zarkali (3) : -"Rutbat al-Hakim" (The Steps of the Scholar). In this treatise, al-Majriti dealt with semiology and chemistry and drew a distinction between them. His experiments on mercury are included in the book; -"Ghayat al-Hakim" (The Goals of the Scholar) relates the history of chemistry. In 1252 AD, a translation of this treatise was ordered by king Alfonso and given the title of Picatrix; -"Rissala fi al-Usturlab" (Astrolabe Treatise) was translated into Latin; -"Sharh Kitab al-Majesti li Batlimus" (Commentary of Ptolemy's Almagest); -"Kitab Timar al-Adad fi al-Hissab". It is worth nothing that al-Majriti's books continued to be taught in European universities for several years and that the Western scholars were the first to shed light on al-Majriti's and his works.
(1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 668. (2) Sarton, ibid., p. 668. (3) Zarkali, ibid., vol. 7, p. 224.
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14. Ibn Al-Jazzar (Died in 399H/1009AD) Abu Jafar Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Abu Khalid al-Kirawani Ibn al-Jazzar, known in the West by Algizar was a Arab Muslim physician who lived in Kirawan, in Tunisia in the 10th century, and died in 1009 at an age exceeding 80 years old (1). Details of his life and scientific contributions are very scarce. However, Zigrid Hunkah states that “he used to accompany Arab ships travelling from Tunisia to Europe, serving as a physician”(2).
Scientific Contributions Ibn al-Jazzar described in his books the causes, symptoms and treatment of the diseases that might affect travellers. He has also laid down an accurate description of people infected with smallpox and measles. He came up with valuable data about internal diseases, and dealt with different kinds of fever and on epidemics.
Major Works Ibn al-Jazzar left many medical books(3), among which : - “Zad al-Musafir” (The Traveller's Supplies) : It is his most famous book and was translated by Constantine the African into Latin. It was also translated into Greek and Hebrew. This book enjoyed a wide reputation among physicians in the Middle Ages, and remained part of the syllabus in European universities up the 16th century. Many libraries around the world have manuscript copies of this book. (1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 682. (2) Zigrid Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 288. (3) Zarkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 1, p. 85.
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- “Kitab al-I’timad” : A book about medicines, compiled by al-Jazzar for one of the Fatimid Caliphs in Africa. Manuscripts of this book are preserved in Algiers and Istanbul. - “Medicine of the Poor” : A manuscript treatise preserved in the Museum of Iraq. - “Causes of the Epidemic in Egypt and ways of Prevention.”
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15. Ibn Yunes (Died in 399H/1009AD) Ibn Yunus was a prominent observer of the astronomical phenomena and a top level theoretician(1). In the words of Sarton, he might have the greatest Muslim astronomer. His complete name was Abu al-Hassan Ali Ibn Abu Said Abdurrahman Ibn Ahmed Ibn Yunus Ibn Abd al-Ali as-sadafi al-Masri. The date of his birth is unknown, while his death occurred in 399 H/1009 AD in Cairo. He belonged to a family known for its lore. His father was an eloquent narrator and a great historian, and his grand-father was an expert in astronomy. Ibn Yunus gained the favors of the Fatimid monarchs who encouraged him to persevere in his research in astronomy and mathematics, and erected for him an observatory near al-Fostat (Cairo), and equipped it with all the necessary tools and instruments(2).
Scientific Contributions Ibn Yunus excelled in trigonometry; his valuable treatises contributed to the development of this science. He was the first to develop a law for the calculation of spherical triangles, which had a great importance for astronomers well before the discovery of logarithms. Thanks to this law, the operations of multiplication could be transformed in the calculation of triangles into addition. This facilitated much of the long and complicated equations. Ibn Yunus also invented the pendulum of the clock. Besides, Ibn Yunus was very skilled in solving many of the equations in astronomy(3): (1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Sciences, p. 213. (2) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 145. (3) Tawkan, Arabian Sciences, p. 150.
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He observed the Sun and Moon eclipses in Cairo towards 978 AD. His calculation constituted the more accurate findings ever known until the apparition of modern observation instruments.
Major Works The most interesting book of Ibn Yunus is : -“Zij al-kabir al-Hakimi" (The Big al-Hakim Ephemeris) : He began its compilation at the request of the Fatimid Caliph Aziz in 380 H/990 AD, and completed it in 1007 under the reign of the Caliph al-Hakim. The treatise was named under the Caliph al-Hakim. Parts of this book exist in several libraries around the world such as Oxford, Paris, El Escorial, Berlin and Cairo. Caussin published and translated part of this book, which contain observations of ancient astronomers as well as Ibn Yunus's observations about solar and lunar eclipses, and planets conjunction. In compiling this book, Ibn Yunus wanted to correct the observations and sayings of his predecessors, and at the same time complete them(1).
(1) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 304.
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16. Al-Zahrawi (Died in 404H/1013AD) Al-Zahrawi is one of the greatest Muslim and world surgeons. Abu al-Kacem Khalaf Ibn Abbas al-Zahrawi, known as Abulcassis in the West, was born in the city of Al-Zahra, in the outskirts of the city of Cordoba in Andalusia. He flourished in Andalusia in the 4th century where he served as private doctor of Abderrahman III, and then of his son al- Mustansir. While the date of his birth may be unknown, the historians believe his death to have occurred in 404 H/1013 AD.
His Scientific Contributions The scientific contributions of al-Zahrawi are manifest in his several scientific achievements in medicine as a whole, and in surgery in particular. He was the first to differentiate between surgery ant the other subjects of medicine, making it an independent field of science based on the anatomical study of alive and head bodies. He was also the first to undertake an operation to remove stones from the bladder through the vagina, and was the first to make a cleft in the respiratory tube in an operation on his servant. He also succeeded in stopping a haemorrhage by legating the big veins. He taught his students how to stitch injuries internally without leaving visual scars, and how to make stitches with two needles and one thread fixed in them. In the field of general medicine, he was the first to give a description of the readability of certain bodies for haemophilia, as he was concerned by rheumatism and vertebra tuberculosis. He also introduced new methods and new instruments for gynaecology. Indeed, European surgeons and dentists benefited from the drawings he made for the design of necessary surgical instruments.
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Major Works The biggest and most famous of al-Zahrawi compilations was a treatise entitled “al-Tasrif liman Ajaza ani Ta'lif”. It a sort of encyclopaedia comprising 30 volumes, illustrated by pictures, and by a profusion of drawings of the surgical instruments used by al-Zahrawi. The part of the book dealing with surgery was translated by Gerard de Cremona into Latin in the 12th century. It was also published in many versions: one in Venice in 1497, the second in Basel in 1541 and the third in Oxford in1778. It was also translated into French in the 19th century by Dr. Leclerck. Zigfried Hunkah says on this part of the book: “the third part of this book played an important role in Europe, as it laid the foundation for European surgery. It has elevated this branch of medicine to a high status. Surgery has thus became an independent science based on anatomy.”(1) By far, this book had an important impact on the European Renaissance for five centuries. It was taught in the universities, and constituted a reference for European surgeons.
(1) Ibid., p. 288.
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17. Abu Sahl Al-Quhi(1) (Died in 405H/ 1014AD) Al-Quhi was one of the famous Muslim Scholars who excelled in astronomy and mathematics during the 4th century H./ 10th century AD. His name was Abu Sahl Wijen Ibn Rustum al-Quhi. The date of his birth is unknown, while his death occurred in 405 H./1014 AD. He hailed from Kuh in Tabaristan mountains and lived in Baghdad. When Sharafu Dawla al-Bouaihi acceded to power, he favored him and appointed him in 378 H./988 AD at the head of the observatory he set up in Baghdad. He requested him to provide him with a study on his observation of the seven planets, their orbits and motions within their zodiac(2).
Scientific Contributions Al-Quhi was among the prominent astronomers in the 4th century H/ 10th century AD. He made a number of observations on which scholars of his time used to rely and criticized some of the Greek astronomers' hypotheses. His renown came also from his skills in the manufacturing of observation instruments. In mathematics, "al-Quhi was concerned by Archimedes' and Appolonius problems that lead to equations higher than the second degree equations. He was able to solve some them and discussed the requirements of such an operation. His studies can be considered as the best that has ever been written on geometry in the Muslim world"(3). (1) Some sources referred to him mistakenly as al-Kuhi. See Dr. Rushdi Rashed, Geometric Science and Landscapes in the 4th century H. (Ibn Sahl- al-Quhi, Ibn al-Haytam), Pan-Arab Study Centre. History of Sciences during the Arab Rule (5), Beirut, 1996, p. 167, p. 376. (2) Ad-Difa', Exact Sciences in Arab Islamic Civilization, p. 396. (3) Sarton, op. cit., p. 665.
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Al-Quhi also contributed to the study of weights, a field in which he had precedence. He used geometric evidence to solve many problems that require the determination of weight. Moreover, he left valuable researches in the founding principles of cranes/lifts(1).
Major Works Dr. Abdullah ad-Difa' and az-Zarkali(2) mentioned several of al-Quhi's works in astronomy and mathematics, namely the following : - "Kitab Marakiz al-Akr"; - "Kitab al-Ussul ala Tahrikat Euclides" - "Kitab San'at al-Usturlab bi al-Barahin" - "Kitab Aziyadat ala Archimedes fi al-Maqala Tania" - "Ikhraj al-Khatayn min Nuqta ala Zaouiya Maaluma" - "Tatlit azzaouiya wa 'amal al-Musaba' al-Mutassaoui al-Adla' fi Da'era" Dr. Abdullah ad-Difa' says in his book" Exact Sciences in Arab Islamic Civilization" : "However, most of al-Quhi's works were lost and only few references to them were found in Latin works(3).
(1) Ad-Difa', Ibid., p. 395. (2) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 9, p. 152. (3) Ad-Difa', ibid., p. 400.
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18. Al-Karkhi (Died between 410-420H/1019-1029AD) Al-Karkhi was one of the eminent Muslim mathematicians(1), and "one of the greatest mathematicians who had a real influence on the progress of mathematical sciences"(2). But only few information are available about him. He is Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan (or Hussain) al-Hassib al-Karkhi (after Karakh, a township in Baghdad suburbs. He lived in Baghdad at the time of the Vizir Abu Ghalib Muhammad Ibn Khalf Fakhr al-Malik, the Minister of Baha'u Dawla al-Bouwayhi.
Scientific Contributions Al-Karkhi's books contained for the first time in the history of Arabs, solutions of indeterminate equations as any other equations, using the methods adopted by De Fuentes(3). Al-Karkhi also came up with various solutions to equations of second order and presented researches on approximate roots of numbers and proofs of the finding of total of squares and cubes of the natural numerals he enumerated(4).
Major Works -"Al-Fakhri fi al-Jabr". This book was called al-Fakhri under Fakhr al-Mulk and was compiled between 401 and 407.
(1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 718. (2) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 282. (3) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 220. (4) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 1450.
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Smith says in his book entitled "History of Mathematics" that Kitab al-Fakhri is a valuable heritage in algebra(1). A translation was undertaken in 1853 by the French orientalist Franz Woepcke. - Al-Kafi fi al-Hissab (Basics of Calculus). This book was published between 401 and 407 and was given as a gift to Fakhr al-Mulk. It deals with the principles of calculus known at the time as well as some innovated rules and calculation methods to facilitate some operations. The author did not use Indian numerals in his book and instead wrote them in letter. The book was translated in German by Hocheim and was edited in three volumes between 1878 and 1880. - Kitab "Al-Badi'a fi al-Hissab.
(1) Tawkan, ibid., p. 284.
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19. Ibn Sina (370-428H/980-1037AD) Avicenna is the most outstanding Muslim scientist and one of the world’s most famous scholars. He was a philosopher, a physician, a mathematician and an astronomer(1). His full name is Abu Ali al-Hussain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, known as Achaikh Arrais. He was also known as the third teacher after Aristotle and al-Farabi. He is known to Europeans as ‘Avicenna’. Ibn Sina was born near Bukhara (Uzbekistan) in 980 AD and died in Hamadan in 1037. He received his first education in Bukhara. He studied the Koran, the rules of language, literature, philosophy, logic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, and natural science. Ibn Sina became a reference in medicine, astronomy, mathematics and philosophy before reaching the age of 20(2). It was through his reputation in medicine that princes invited him to cure them. He cured the prince of Bukhara, Nuh ibn Mansur, prince of Hamadan, Shams ad-Dawlah, and prince of Asphahan, Alaâ ad-Dawlah. They welcomed him in their libraries, which allowed him to sharpen his learning and gain all sorts of knowledge (3). In addition to ibn Sina’s scientific interests, he was a politician who participated in the administration of the state’s affairs. Shams ad-Dawlah appointed him as a vizier, but the prince’s son imprisoned him. However, he escaped from prison after several months and fled to Asphahan, where he spent the last part of his life under the patronage of its prince ‘Alaâ ad-Dawlah’. He died in Hamadan (4). (1) Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, p. 709 . (2) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 19. (3) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 323. (4) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 19.
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Medical Contributions Ibn Sina mastered medicine in particular. He made new discoveries in this field; he was the first to describe a worm that he called the "round worm", currently known as "anklestoma". He also studied neurological dysfunctions and was able to reach certain pathologic and psychological facts through psychoanalysis. He believed in the existence of an interaction between psychology and physical health. He also described the brain’s apoplexy resulting of excess in the blood flow (1). Ibn Sina made original contributions in medicine, based on his own observations. He founded his conclusions on experiments and was able to reach new observations, including the contagious nature of tuberculosis, and the propagation of diseases through water and soil. He also described at length dermatological and sexually transmitted diseases. Moreover, he described the pharmaceutical preparation of some medicines (2). Inb Sina was also the first to describe the irritation of the brain’s envelope, distinguishing it from other chronic irritations. He elaborated the first clear diagnostic of neck's scleroses and of meningitis He also described the facial paralysis and its causes. He made the distinction between the paralysis caused by a dysfunction in the brain and that resulting of a local dysfunction(3).
Scientific contributions in other fields Ibn Sina made important contributions in physics, through the study of several natural phenomena such as motion, force, vacuum, infinity, light and heat. He made the observation that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some particles from a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite(4).
(1) Tawkan, ibid., p. 311. (2) Sarton, ibid., p. 710. (3) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 272. (4) Sarton, op. cit., p. 710.
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Ibn Sina made contributions in geology with a treatise on the formation of mountains, precious stones and metals. In this treatise, he discussed the effect of earthquakes, water, the degree temperature, sediments, fossilisation and erosion(1). Ibn Sina was also an outstanding mathematician and astronomer. He studied infinite bodies from religious, physical, and mathematical perspectives. His findings helped Newton and Leibniz to develop infinite numerals(2) in the 17th century.
Major Works Ibn Sina wrote more than 200 works, including books and treatises. Among the most famous of these : - Al-Qanun, known as the ‘Canon’ : one of Ibn Sina’s most important and original works. Ibn Sina’s reputation in medicine is due to this book, which became very famous in the East and in the West. Al-Qanun was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremonia in the 12th century. In the last 30 years of the 15th century, it was published sixteen times - fifteen editions being in Latin and one in Hebrew. Al-Qanun was reedited more than twenty times during the sixteenth century(3). It remained the textbook for medical education in European schools until the 19th century. In 1996, Al-Qanun was reedited by the Institute of the History of Arab and Islamic Science, affiliated to the University of Frankfurt, within the framework of a collection of Islamic Medicine realised by Fuad Sizkine. -'Kitab Al-Shifa' (Book of Healing) was a philosophical encyclopaedia covering a vast area of knowledge in logic, natural science and philosophy.
(1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 476. (2) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 162. (3) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 471.
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-'Kitab al-Najat' (Book of Rescue) a less complex summary of Kitab Al-Shifa. -'Kitab al-Isharat wa Tanbihate' : contains studies in natural science, Sufism, theology and ethics. Ibn Sina has many other works in medicine, philosophy, music, language, theology, psychology, logic, natural science, mathematics and astronomy.
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20. Ibn Al-Haitham (354-430H/965-1038AD) Ibn Al-Haitham is one of the most outstanding Arab scholars. He excelled in and contributed to the fields of optics, mathematics, natural science, medicine and philosophy. His full name is Abu Ali Hasan ibn Al-Haitham, known by Europeans as ‘Alhazen’. He was born in Basrah, where he received his education. The Fatimid Caliph Al Hakim bi Amri Allah heard of Ibn Al-Haitham’s method to regulate the annual Nile flood. He invited him to Egypt and asked him to regulate the Nile’s water flow in order to prevent floods. Ibn Al-Haitham failed to do so and simulated foolishness and remained on this state until the caliph died, then resumed work on copying the books of predecessors in the fields of mathematics and natural sciences. He also started writing his own books on different subjects.
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contribution in Optics European historians acknowledge Ibn Al-Haitham’s contribution in the development of optics. In ‘The Heritage of Islam’, Arnold says “the field of optics reached its peak with Ibn Al-Haitham"(1). Sarton says “Ibn Al-Haitham was the best scientist to have existed in the Islamic world in the Middle Ages in the field of natural science. He was one of the few most outstanding figures in optics in all times. He was also an astronomer, a mathematician and a doctor"(2). The Encyclopaedia Britannica considered him as the leading figure in optics after Ptolemy(3). (1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 478. (2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 721. (3) Tawkan,Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 297.
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Ibn Al-Haitham was the first to conclude the magnifying property of a lens. He was also the first to describe accurately the various parts of the eye and gave them names that Western scientists adopted and translated into their languages. These terms are still accepted today. Among these terms are ‘Retina’, ‘Cornea’, ‘Humour Viteous’ and ‘Humour Aqueous’. His treatises on magnifying lens laid the ground for their use in the correction of eye dysfunctions (1). Ibn Al-Haitham reached the conclusion that vision originates from rays sent by an object to the eye. These rays are reflected on the retina and transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve, constituting the image of the object. Through this conclusion, he contradicted Ptolemy’s and Euclid’s theory of vision that the eye sends out visual rays to the object of vision. Ibn Al-Haitham also did researches on light, colors, and the reflections of light in some experiments on the measurement of angles of incidence and refraction(2). Some researchers consider him as the father of optics.
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contributions in Mathematics Ibn Al-Haitham was a great mathematician. He used geometry, equations and algebra to solve astronomic questions. He also solved cubic equations and accurately calculated the rules of the surface of balls, pyramids, leaning discs, round sectors, and round pieces (3).
Ibn Al-Haitham’s Contributions in Astronomy Ibn Al-Haitham was interested in astronomy and wrote several books in this field. He also made a number of observations. Among his important contributions was the design of a new method to determine the pole’s altitude. He elaborated a theory on the motion of planets, which (1) Tukan, ibid., p. 300. (2) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 478. (3) Tawkan, ibid., p. 302.
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continues bear influence up to now. A table that was made in Germany in 1428, showing the planets motion according to Ibn Al-Haitham’s theory, is still exposed in Austria. Ibn Al-Haitham discovered that all celestial bodies, including stationary stars, are self-luminous and radiate their light, except for the moon, which receives light from the sun (1).
Major works Ibn Al-Haitham left a rich scientific heritage in various fields. Among his works : -"Kitab al-Manadhir": a treatise on optics comprising research on light, the eye's anatomy and vision. This book created a revolution in optics and influenced Western scientists such as Bacon and Kepler. It remained a reference for several centuries. It was translated into Latin several times in the Middle Ages. The book contains seven essays, the first and third of which were revised and published in a book by Abdul Hamid Sabrah in 1983 in Kuwait. Dr. Rochdi Rashid annotated the seventh article in his book "Geometry and Optics in the 4th century of the Hegira", published in Beirut in 1996. Complete handwritten copies of the book or of some of its articles still exist in several libraries, especially in Istanbul, Turkey. - "Hal Shokouk Euclid’s"; - "Makalat al- Shokouk ala Batlimus"; - "Kitab Sharh Oussoul Euclid’s fi al-Handass wa al-Adad"; - "Kitab al-Jamia fi Oussoul al-Hissab"; - "Kitab fi Tahlil al Massaïl Al-Handassia." It is worth mentioning that Ibn Al-Haitham wrote 80 books and treatises in astronomy, dealing with the motion of planets, the moon, celestial bodies and their dimensions.
(1) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West.
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Ibn Al-Haitham’s works that were translated into Latin exerted a great influence on western scientists, such as Kepler and Francis Bacon. According to Mustapha Nadhif, Ibn Al-Haitham contributed in the development of the experimental methodology based on observation, experimentation and investigation (1) before Francis Bacon. In "The Influence of Arabs on Western Civilization", Abbas Mahmud Al-Akkad says that the translations of Ibn Al-Haitham’s books on optics were used as references by all the European scientists who came after him.
(1) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 29.
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21. Al-Biruni (363-439H/973-1048AD) Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Abu Raihan Al-Biruni al-Khawarizmi was born in the Persian region of Khwarizm (now in Uzbekistan) in 973 C.E. The date of his death is not known exactly, but most likely he is believed to have died in 1048. Al-Biruni’s interests included mathematics, natural science, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, religion, history, language and literature. But he is most known as a mathematician and astronomer. Eminent orientalists consider him as one of the most outstanding Arab and universal encyclopedic scholars(1). The historian George Sarton acknowledges Al-Biruni’s scientific prominence : “Al-Biruni was an outstanding traveller, philosopher, mathematician astronomer and geographer. He was one of the greatest encyclopedic Muslim scholars in all times”(2). Little is known about Al-Biruni‘s family, childhood and first education. However, he is known to have received education from three teachers: Abu Nasr Ibn Iraq, Abu Sahl Ibn Yahya al-Massihi and Abu al-Hasan Ibn Ali al-Jabali. He is also known to have been a contemporary of the famous physician Ibn Sina and to have corresponded with him. Besides Arabic, he mastered Greek, Persian, Hebrew. At the age of 25, Al-Biruni moved to Jorjan, where he joined the court of sultan Abu al-Hasan Kabus Ibn Washkamir. He went back to Khawarizm several years later and served under the patronage of Abi Abbas al-Mamun ibn al-Mamun, the last ruler in the Maâmuunid dynasty. When Mahmud Ghaznavi seized power in Kwharizm, he invited (1) Arnold, the Heritage of Islam, p. 476. (2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 707.
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Al-Biruni to his court and took him along with him in his journeys to India several times(1). Al-Biruni is thought to have stayed in India for a long time and to have studied Indian culture, sciences and knowledge. He became, in this respect, the Arab scholar who learned the most of India’s history and sciences(2).
Scientific Contributions Al-Biruni contributed in various fields of science. He made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude and discussed whether the earth rotated on its axis. He studied the specific weight and accurately determined the mass of eighteen varieties of metals and precious stones. He stated that the speed of light is immense as compared with the speed of sound. He also explained the working of natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels. His investigations included descriptions of unusual phenomena such as the Siamese twins(3). In the first part of his "History of Mathematics", Smith considers al-Biruni as the most prominent mathematician of his time(4). Moreover, Al-Biruni was an outstanding astronomer. He studied the world’s configuration and the nature of stars. He elaborated a method to calculate the earth’s diameter. This method is known to Western scientists as the "al-Biruni Law". Al-Biruni described dawn, solar eclipse and other phenomena. He argued that the earth rotated on its axis. Furthermore, he was versed in trigonometry and did research on the trisection of angles (5). Al-Biruni was known for scientific his objectivity, truthfulness and accurate research and observation.
(1) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 2. p. 406. (2) Tukan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 311. (3) Sarton. op. cit., p. 708. (4) Tawkan, ibid., p. 313. (5) Tawkan, ibid., p. 313.
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Major works Al-Biruni left more than 150 works, most of which were mentioned in his treatise known as "Al Fahrass". These works involve various fields, such as geography, mathematics and astronomy. Among his famous works : -"Al-Athar al-Baqia fi al-Qurun al-Khalia" (Chronology of Ancient Nations): Al-Biruni discussed the Earth’s rotation on its axis and its flatness. He initiated the rules of drawing on plain earth surface. This book was translated by Edward Sachau into English and edited in London in 1789. "Al-Athar al-Baqia fi al-Qurun al-Khalia" was also translated into German and English in the 19th century. -"Al-Qanun al-Masudi fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum" (The Mas'udi Canon) was written in 1030 AD upon the request of Mas'ud ibn Mohammad Ghaznawi. It contains 143 parts and discusses several subjects related to astronomy and mathematics. This book was printed in Haidarabad, India. -"Tarikh al-Hind" (A History of India) provides a detailed account of Al-Biruni’s study of Indian languages, sciences and cultures. Sachau translated it into English and was printed in London in 1887. -"Al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at al-Tanjim" (Elements of Astrology) deals with mathematics, geometry, algebra, numerals and astronomy. It was written in a question-answer model and illustrated with forms and figures. In addition to this heritage, Al-Biruni wrote many treatises in geometry, numerals, astronomy, mechanical, medicine and chemistry. He corresponded with Ibn Sina and translated a number of books from Sanskrit into Arabic. Al-Biruni’s works were translated into French, German and English and were edited in the 19th and 20th centuries.
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22. Ibn Ridouane (389-453H/998-1061AD) Distinguished Egyptian physician, he was the doctor of the Caliph Al Hakim bi Amr Allah and the dean of Cairo’s physicians. His full name is Abu al-Hasan al-Masri Ali Ibn Ridouane Ibn Ali Ibn Jaâfar. He was born in 998 in Jizzah, near Cairo, where he lived until his death between 1061 and 1067 AD(1). He was a physician, a mathematician, an astrologer and one of the outstanding Muslim philosophers(2). Little is known about Ibn Ridouane’s life. Some say that his father was a baker or water carrier. Ibn Ridouane had to start work at an early age in order to have the necessary money to buy the books he needed.
Scientific Contributions Ibn Ridouane gave great importance to observing his patients and recognizing the disease through the observation of the patient’s body parts, skin and face and examining visible and non-visible parts, the patient’s way of walking, talking and seeing, his heart’s beats and his mood and by asking him some questions(3). Ibn Ridouane stated that a physician must treat his enemies and friends with the same degree of devotion and keenness. He corresponded with Ibn Batlan, the physician of Baghdad, about small birds and other subjects, in particular the learning of Greek medicine.
(1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 729. (2) Zarkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 4, p. 289. (3) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 240.
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Major Works Ibn Ridouane wrote several books on medicine, among the most famous of which : -"Kitab fi Dafîa Madar al-Abdan bi Ardi Missra". Max Mayrhuf translated a part of this book in his "Study of Climate and Health in Ancient Egypt" (1923). -"Sharh Assinaâ Assaghira li Galion’s". This book became very well known and Gerard of Cremonia translated it into Latin. It was edited in Venice in 1494. -"Sharh al Makalat al Arbaâ fi al Kadaya bi Annujum li Batlimus". -"Kifayat Attabib fi ma Sahha Ladaya mina Attajarib" -"Al Kitab Annafiî fi Taâlumi Sinaâti Attib". This book presents Ibn Ridouane’s ideas and those of his colleagues about ancient Greek medicine, its evolution, value, and the way to acquire it(1).
(1) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 252.
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23. Al-Zarqali (420-480H/1029-1087AD) Al-Zarqali was the foremost astronomers of his time. He was also a unique reference in algebra, astronomy and astrology. He was an Arab Muslim from Andalusia, born in Toledo, where he carried out most of his astronomic observations; then he moved to Cordoba, where he spent the rest of his life(1). His full name is Ibrahim ibn Yahya an-Nakash, known as ibn Zarqala or al-Zarqali. His Latinised name is Arzaquiel.
Scientific Contributions Al-Zarqali invented a new astrolabe, known as Safihah Zarqalia and referred to in astronomy as "al-Zarqali astrolabe". In the 15th century, Ragio Montanous published a manuscript in which he detailed the advantages of Sahifa al-Zarqalia. Al-Zarqali was the first to prove the motion of the apogee of the Sun relative to the stars. He measured its rate motion as 12.04 minutes per year (the actual value is 11.8 minutes)(2). Al-Zarqali also compiled tables on planets, known as Toledan Tables, based on the observations he made in Toledo from 1061 to 1080(3). Al-Zarqali corrected geographical data from Ptolemy and al-Kawarizmi. Specifically, he corrected Ptolmey’s estimate of the length of the Mediterranean sea from 62 degrees to the correct value of 42 degree(4). (1) Zarkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 1, p. 79. (2) Sarton, op. cit., p. 758. (3) Sarton, ibid., p. 759. (4) Zahoor, Muslim History.
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When talking on the influence of Arab astronomers in the West, Hunkah says that al-Zarqali’s works were carefully studied by Western scholars. In the 12th century, Gerard of Cremonia translated al-Zarqali’s works into Latin. Ragio Montanous wrote a book in the 15th century on the advantages of the Sahifah al-Zarqalia. In 1530, the German scholar Ziegler Jacob wrote a commentary on al-Zarqali’s book. In his "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" -1530-, Copernicus quotes the works of al-Zarqali and al-Battani (Albategnius)(1).
Major Works Zarkali cites the following among al-Zarqali’s major works : -"Al Amal bi Assahifa Az-Zijia"; -"Attadbir"; -"Al Madkhal fi Ilm Annoujoum"; -"Rissalat fi Tarikat Istikhdam as-Safiha al-Moushtarakah li Jamiâ al-ouroud"; Al-Zarqali’s works influenced Spanish astronomers who designed the "Alfonso's Tables", by the name of Alfonso, king of Castile, who, 200 years after al-Zarqali’s death, ordered all his works to be translated into Castillan(2).
(1) Arnold, The Heritage of Islam, p. 588. (2) Hunkah, ibid., p. 137.
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24. Ibn Jizla (Died in 493H/1100 AD) Abu Ali Yahya ibn Isa Ibn Jizla was an Arab Muslim physician from Baghdad. While his birth date is not known, he passed away in 1100 AD. Europeans know him as Bengesla. He was Christian and embraced Islam in 1074. He was influenced by his teacher Abu Ali ibn al-Mouâtazili. He received his education in medicine from Said ibn Hibat Allah, the doctor of the Abbasid caliph al-Mouqtadi bi Amr Allah. Ibn Jizla was known for treating his acquaintances and relatives and giving them medicines for free. He was also known for his care and generosity toward the poor”(1).
Scientific Contributions Ibn Jizla was the medical reference in his time. His major contribution was the elaboration of tables describing in detail a wide range of diseases and presented the epidemic diseases, their seasons, the countries where they are endemic, their diagnosis and treatment. He adopted a systematic method for the monitoring of the body parts and their diseases, and designed tables that are easy to use by ordinary educated people in providing treatment(2). Ibn Jizla was also one of Baghdad’s famous pharmacist. He described drugs, plants and medicines and all other materials used in treatment such as meat and chemical preparations (3). A distinctive feature of Ibn Jizla in medical treatment was his deep conviction of the important role of music in the treatment and prevention of diseases. In this respect, he said : “The effect of music on ailing psyches resembles that of medicines on ailing bodies.(4) (1) Ibn Khalkan, Death of Eminent Figures, vol 2, p. 267. (2) Marizen, Scientific Life in Iraq during Seljouqi Rule, p. 493. (3) Marizen, Ibid., p. 501. (4) The Simplified Arab Encyclopedia, p. 12.
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Major Works Among the famous works of Ibn Jizla, the following can be mentioned : -"Taqwim al-abdan fi tadbir al-insan" : Ibn Jizla classified the names of diseases in tables and described the treatment of 352 diseases(1). A Latin translation of this book was edited in Strasbourg in 1532; -"Minhaj al-bayan fi ma Yasta창miluhu al-insan" written for the Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadi. It contains an alphabetical listing of medicines and plants; -"Al Ishara fi Talkhis al-i'bara"; -"Rissala fi Madh Tib wa Mouafakataho li Shar창" (Treatise Lauding Medicine and its Compliance with the Islamic Precepts); -"Rissala fi Ar-rad ala Annasrania" (Treatise Responding to Christianity).
(1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 772.
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25. Omar Al-Khayyam (440-518H/1048-1124AD) Abu al-Fath Umar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam was a Persian philosopher, poet, mathematician, astronomer, linguist, historian and religious scholar. He was born between 1038 and 1048 AD and died between 1123 and 1124 AD in Nishapur. He was called al-Khayyam because he used to make tents (1) (Khyam in Arabic) in the beginning of his life. When his friend "Nizam al-Mulk" became a vizier of the sultan "Alb Arsalane", then of his grandson "Malikshah", he allocated to al-Khayyam an annual income from Nishapur’s treasury that allowed him to live at ease and spend most of his time studying and doing research. He lived in Nishapur and Samarqand for most of his life. He also travelled to reputed institutions of learning in Bukhara, Balkh, and Ispahan in order to acquire knowledge and exchange experiences with scholars(2). He settled down in Baghdad later on.
Scientific Contributions Al-Khayyam gained fame due to his work in mathematics. He developed a geometrical and algebraic approach to solving second-degree equations. He also classified equations and found partial geometric solution to most of them. He developed the binomial expansion for the case when the exponent is a positive integer in order to find qualitative mass(3). Al-Khayyam was also an outstanding astronomer. In 1074, the sultan "Malikshah" asked for his assistance to modify the old Persian (1) Sarton, op. cit., p. 759. (2) Hakim Mohamed Said, Eminent Figures and Thinkers, p. 47. (3) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 769.
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calendar. According to Sarton, al-Khayyam’s calendar was more accurate than the Gregorian one.
Major Works Al-Khayyam wrote many references in mathematics, philosophy and poetry. Most of his books were written in Persian. Among the books he wrote in Arabic : -"Al Jabr wa al Mukabala’ : The book was translated in French by the scholar Franz Woepc, and edited in Paris in 1851(1). It was translated into English by Daoud Kassir in 1931(2). -"Sharh ma Ashkala min Mussadarat kitab Euclid" -"Al Ihtial Limaârifat Mikdarai Addahab wa al-Fidda fi Jismin Murakkab Minhouma", describing a method to measure qualitative mass. -"Rissala fi Al Mussika" (Treatise of Music). Omar Al-Khayyam is best known for his poetic work "Rubaiyat" (quatrains) which was written in Persian and translated in Arabic, Latin, French, English, German and other languages.
(1) Zarkali, Eminent Figures, vol. 5, p. 18. (2) Aldo Milli, Arabian Science, p. 223.
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26. Ibn Bajja (Died in 533H/1138AD) Andalusian philosopher, astronomer, physician, and mathematician. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya at-Tujibi as-Saraqusti known as Ibn Bajja (according to ibn Khalkan, Bajja is a word of a European origin, meaning silver). He was also known as ibn-Say'igh or Avempace in the West. Little is known about his life. He is known to have been born in Saragossa, Andalusia towards the end of the 15th century (1). He studied most of the flourishing sciences of his time such as medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and music. He was also a politician. He was appointed vizier by Abu Bakr Ibrahim, gender of Ali ibn Yussef al-Murabiti, the then governor of Grenada, then of Saragossa(2). When Alfonso seized power in Saragossa, Ibn Bajja moved to Seville, then to Grenade. Later on, he went to Fez and worked as physician in the Al-Muravid court. His rivals accused him of atheism and ignorance. Ibn Bajja was poisoned and died in 1138(3).
Scientific Contributions Although Ibn Bajja was famous mainly as a philosopher, he also excelled in natural science, mathematics, astronomy and music(4). According to Hafid Kadri Tukan, Ibn Bajja made valuable commentaries on the astronomic system developed by Ptolemy. He criticized this system and underlined its inaccuracies. This fact was (1) The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 95. (2) Ibid., p. 95. (3) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 3, p. 819. (4) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 10.
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supported by Sarton, who thinks that al-Batrouji was influenced by Ibn Bajja’s ideas in astronomy. In his "Al Adouia al Mufrada", Ibn al-Baitar cites arguments made by Ibn Bajja and evidences from his treatise in medicine(1).
Major Works Ibn Bajja wrote more than 30 books in logic, philosophy, mathematics, natural science, botany and medicines, but most of these works were lost. Only the Latin and Hebrew translations of some treatises and papers survived. Among his scientific illustrations and commentaries(2) : -"Taâlik fi al-Handassa wa Ilm Al-Haiâa"; - Explanation of Aristotle’s "Natural Hearing"; - Commentary of parts of Aristotle’s "Universe and Corruption"; - Commentary of parts of Galileo’s "Non-compound Medicines"; - A synthesis of Al-Razi’s "Al Hawi"; - "Attjribatain ala Adwuiate ibn Wafid". In addition to these scientific references, Ibn Bajja wrote a number of philosophical illustrations and works, the most famous of which : -"Rissalat al Wadaâ"; -"Rissalat Tadbir al Moutawahid". Some of Ibn Bajja’s works still exist in a several world libraries such as Oxford, El Escorial and Berlin.
(1) Tawkan, Arabian Scientific Heritage in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 823. (2) Human Heritage Magazine, p. 823.
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27. Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr (465-557H/1072-1162AD) Ibn Zuhr was a surname of family of Muslim scientists who flourished in Andalusia from the beginning of the 10th century to the early years of the 13th century AD(1). The most famous of them was the physician Abu Marwan 'abd Al-malik Ibn Abi Al-'ala' Zuhr, commonly called abu Marwan and known for the Europeans as Avenzoar. He was the descendant of a family of physician; his farther Abu Al-'ala' was a skilful doctor in diagnosis and curing, and his grand father was a doctor. He was born between 1091-1094 AD (484-487 H)(2). After having studied literature, doctrine, and jurisprudence, he learned medicine under his father. He was a friend of Ibn Rushd, the physician and philosopher. Abu Marwan served first for the Almoravid Emirs and suffered under the reign of "Ali Ibn Yussuf Ibn Tachfine" as much as his father beforehand. He was imprisoned for nearly ten years in Marrakech. After the fall of the Almoravids and the establishment of the Almohad dynasty, he served as a physician and Vizier for Abdelmoumen, the founder of the state who surrounded him with his solicitude. This allowed him to compile his most interesting works. He died in Servile, his native city.
Scientific Contributions Ibn Zuhr was a unique case of his time. Despite his vast and encyclopedic knowledge, he specialized in medicine and practiced it all his life. He made many innovations, such as the description of various internal and skin diseases, and surgery. He led researches on the ulcers and diseases of the head, ears, nose, lips, teeth, eyes, neck, lungs and (1) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 184. (2) Ibn Zuhr, “At-Taysirfi al-mudawat wa at-tadbir (Manual of Treatments and Diet).
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heart. He was concerned by the different kinds of fever. He described pericardium inflammation and distinguished it pneumonitis. Ibn Zuhr based his researches on empiricism and scientific examination. He was able to discover some diseases that were unknown before, such as lung diseases. He operated on trachea, and was the first to use hypodermics for artificial feeding (1). He was one of the leading physicians who directed their interest to the study of diseases found in particular environments, like diseases that were widespread in Marrakech. Just as he was among the first doctors to stress on the curing and nutritional value of honey (2). Ibn Zuhr was one of the greatest Andalusian physicians. He earned the esteem of most of his contemporaries, on top of whom was his friend Ibn Roshd, who qualified him in his book “al-Kuliyat” as the greatest doctor after Galen. Thanks to the translation of his books into Latin and Hebrew, Ibn Zuhr had been an influential figure in European medicine until the 17th century.
Major Works The most famous books of ibn Zuhr are : -“Kitab his at-Taysirfi al-mudawat wa at-tadbir” (Treatments and Diets), is a medical encyclopedia that gives evidence of the medical skillfulness and talent of ibn Zuhr. He offered it to his friend ibn Roshd who later compiled his book “Generalities in Medicine”(3). The two books, in fact, complemented each other. This book was translated into Latin in 1490 AD and had a considerable impact on European medicine until the 17th century(4).
(1) Marhaba, "Al-Jame'a fi Tarikh al-Ulum 'inda al-Arab" (History of Arabian Sciences), p. 272. (2) Mohamed Larbi Khattabi, Medicine and Doctors in Islamic Andalusia, vol. 1, p. 285. (3) Hunkah, Arab's Sun Shines on the West, p. 279. (4) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 17.
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Copies of it are still preserved in many libraries among which the Public Library in Rabat, and the libraries of Paris, Oxford in England and Florence in Italy(1). In 1991, the Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco edited it after its annotation and preparation for printing by the researcher Mohammed Ibn Abdellah Rudani. -“Kitab al-Iktisad fi Islah an-Nufus wa al-Ajsad” (Curing souls and bodies). It’s a sort of summary of diseases, cures, health prevention science and psychotherapy. Many copies of this book are conserved in libraries, including in the Royal Library in Rabat(2). - “Kitab al-Aghdia wa al-adwya” (Nutrition and medication). Ibn Zuhr describes in this book various kinds of nutriments and drugs and their effects on Health. It was translated in Latin. It is still in the manuscript form. Two copies are preserved in the Royal Library in Rabat(3). Along with these three books, abu Marwan has written other books and treatises in medicine.
(1) Ibn Zuhr, op. cit., p. 29. (2) Khattabi, op. cit., p. 283. (3) Khattabi, op. cit., p. 283.
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28. Ibn Tufayl (Died in 581H/1185AD) His full name was Abu Baker Muhammad Ibn Abdulmalik Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tufayl, al-Qaysi al-Andalusi. He hailed from the Arab tribe of beni Qays. He was born near Cordoba in Andalusia. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but it’s likely that he was born at the beginning of the 12th century. Nothing also is known of his family and education(1). What is known of him is that he was educated under the scientists and scholars of his time. He had a deep and comprehensive knowledge of various sciences, especially medicine, philosophy and astronomy. He held numerous positions. He first worked as a scribe in the Diwan of the Governor of Cordoba, then in the Diwan of the Emir Abu Said Ibn Abdulmoumen, the Governor of Tangier. He later became a vizier and doctor of the Almohad Sultan Abu Yakub Yussef. Ibn Tufayl is said to have had a great influence on the Sultan, which he invested to bring scientists to the Sultan’s palace. Among these scientists there was particularly the philosopher and doctor Ibn Roshd (2), who was introduced to the Sultan by Ibn Tufayl, at his late age, to comment on Aristotle‘s books and to replace him as a doctor. Ibn Tufayl served in the Sultan’s Palace until his death in Marrakech in 1185 AD / 501 H.
Scientific Contributions In medicine : Lissan Uddin Ibn al-Khatib stated that Ibn Tufayl compiled a book of two volumes in medicine. Ibn abi-Usaibi'a for his part stated that Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Roshd had consultations and in discussions (1) Encyclpaedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 212. (2) Ibid., p. 203.
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concerning the "prescription of medicines" which were included in Ibn Roshd's “Generalities”. Ibn Tufayl also composed a poem on medicine, made up of 7700 verse. In Astronomy: Ibn Tufayl had reportedly innovative ideas in astronomy, and theories in the composition and movements of the celestial bodies. The researcher Lyon Gauthier says in his book on Ibn Tufayl: "Though there is no writings on astronomy were left by Ibn Tufayl, except for the few short paragraphs he included in his “Hayy Ibn Yaqdhan”, we know that he did not agree with Ptolemy's astronomical system and thought of another one. To substantiate his statement, the author quoted Ibn Roshd and al-Batruji. In his mid-explanation on “al-Athar al-Ulwya” (the Supreme Deeds) of Aristotle, Ibn Roshd criticized the Ptolemaic theories on the composition and motion of celestial bodies, saying that Ibn Tufayl came up in this domain with excellent theories which could be very useful. Al–Batruji for his part stated in the introduction of his famous book on astronomy that Ibn Tufayl devised a new astronomical system along with principles for its motion different from Ptolemy's. The French researcher wonders if Ibn Tufayl's hypotheses did not contain the basic elements for the great astronomical reform, brought about by Copernicus and Galileo four centuries later(1).
Major Works - “Muraja'at wa Mabahith”: (Consultations and Discussions) which took place between him and Ibn Roshd on the prescription of medicines, compiled by Ibn Roshd in his book “Generalities”; -“Urjuza fi Tib” (A Poem on Medicine). It is conserved in the library of al-Qaraween in Fes, Morocco; - The philosophical “Rissala fi Nafs” (A treatise of the Psyche); (1) Ibn Tufayl, Texts and Studies, p. 53.
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- “Haiy Ibn Yaqdhan�. This is the most famous of his works. It is a philosophical story in which Ibn Tufayl enshrined his philosophical views, arranged in the form of a narrative story, where he tried to conciliate between religion and philosophy. This story has been known in the West since the 17th century, and was translated into many different languages, such as Latin, Hebrew, English, French, German and Dutch(1).
(1) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 20.
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29. Ibn Roshd (520-595H /1126-1198AD) His full name was Abu al-Walid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al-Andalusi, known in the West as Averroes(1). He was a Arab Muslim Philosopher, physician and jurisconsult. He was born in Cordoba and grew up in a family of Islamic scholars. Both his father and grandfather were judges. He learned Islamic sciences under his father, and then learned medicine and philosophy. He was a contemporary of the philosopher and physician Ibn Tufayl and the famous doctor Ibn Zuhr(2). He visited Marrakech the first time in 1153 AD/548 H at the invitation of the Almohad Sultan Abdalmoumen Ibn Ali who asked his advice about the construction of several schools in Morocco. In his second visit, he was introduced by the philosopher and physician Ibn Tufayl to the Sultan Abu Yaqub Yussef who asked him in 565 H/1169 AD to comment Aristotle’s philosophy and assigned him as a judge in Sevilla and then was as a supreme judge in Cordoba. In 578 H/1182 AD Abu Ya’aqub called upon him in Marrakech to be his private doctor, and then assigned him as a judge in Kordoba. The Caliph Abi Ya’aqub was succeeded after his death by his son Abu Yussef Yaqub who had shown favor to Ibn Rushd. But this did not last for long, as some of his fellow scientists severely attacked him and he was taken to court. His books were burnt, except those on medicine and astronomy. He was banished to Lucena near Cordoba, then was forgiven afterwards. He returned to Morocco in 1198 and died in the same year(3).
(1) Zarkali, Eminent Figures and Personalities, vol. 5, p. 318. (2) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 3, p. 153. (3) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 3, p. 154.
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Scientific Contributions He was a medical researcher and a practitioner, but he was actually more interested in research and study than in practice(1). He made a reference in his book “Generalities” to his practice of medicine though it was limited. He emphasized the necessity to rely on observation and experimentation, and to acquire state-of-the-art natural science developments, such as in anatomy and the functions of body organs. As regards ethics, he preached consultation between doctors. Of his medical contributions, his finding that smallpox affects people only once in life, and that rabies is transmitted by the saliva of a rabid dog. He agreed with Ibn Sina about the hereditary nature of some diseases. Sir Stewart Duke Elder pointed out in his encyclopaedia “System of Ophthalmology” that Ibn Rushd was the first to say that, it is the retina that receives light (2). Ibn Rushd believed that good health is synonymous to a good nutrition, clean water and pure air. He considered medicines as a foreigner substance to the body, capable of causing harm to some organs because of their various negative side effects, particularly to liver and kidneys, the organs in charge of the detoxication of the body. He also described many diseases, their symptoms and their complications. He tackled psychological syndromes such as anger, nervousness and epilepsy. He was also concerned by the medication means and devoted accordingly a big part of his book “Generalities” to the varieties of food and medicines and their effects. He also laid down the basic principles to follow in drug dosage(3).
Major works - “Al-Kulyat fi Tib” (Generalities in Medicine). It is the foremost of Ibn Ruchd's books in medicine, in which he tackled the general principles of medicine. It was divided into seven thematic sections. (1) Preface of the Annotator of the book " Ibn Rushd's Generalities in Medicine, pp. 6-9. (2) Ibid., pp. 6-9. (3) Talili, Ibn Roshed, the philosopher, pp. 69-72.
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This book was translated into Latin in the 13th century AD under the title of “Colliget” and then into Hebrew. It was re-printed a dozen of times during the 15th and 16th centuries. The Arabic version was not published until 1984 in New Delhi. In 1989, the Algerian Higher Council of Culture in Association with the International Union of Academies published it after its verification and annotation by Dr. Said Shiban and Dr. Ammar Talbi. - Aristotle's “Talkhis Kitab an-Nafs” (Summary of the book of the Psyche) - Commentary of “Sharh Kitab an-Nafs” of Aristotle. - “Talkhis al-Ilal wa al-Amrad” (Summary of Diseases) by Galen. - “Massala fi Ilm an-Nafs” (An issue of psychology). -“At-Tiriaq” (Antidote) where the author indicated the diseases that can be cured by an antidote, and explained further when and how it should be used. -“Sharh Urjuzat ibn Sina” (Explanation of Ibn Sina’s poem). In addition to these medical books, Ibn Rushd wrote several books in philosophy, the most important of which is “Tahafut at-Tahafut” (Incoherence of Incoherence) in which he responded to al-Ghazali’s book “Tahafut at-Tahafut” (Incoherence of Philosophers). In the field of astronomy, he compiled “A treatise on the motion of celestial bodies”. In summary, it can be said that Ibn Rushd was one of the greatest thinkers and scientists in the 12th century AD, and that he has been an influential figure in the West, until the 16th century(1). He played a major role in the theoretical development of medicine. He paved the way to the understanding of Greek medical theories by the critical summarizing of Galen’s books and others, and by criticizing their theories and formulating different views(2). (1) Hakim Muhammad Said, Eminent Figures and Scientists, p. 34. (2) Muhammad Larbi al-Khattabi, op. cit., p. 328.
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30. Ibn Al-Razaz Al-Jazari (6th century H/ 12th century AD) His full name was Badi’u Zaman Abu al-Iz Ismail Ibn ar-Razaz al-Jazari. He was named al-Jazari as he hailed from the Isle located between the Tigris and Euphrates. He lived in Diar Baker (modern Turkey) in the 6th century of Hegira, where he served its kings for 25 years, beginning from 570 H. (1174 AD) (1). Though al-Jazari was one of the most prominent inventors in mechanics, details of his life are rare. All that we know about him is what he himself wrote about himself in “al-jamea bayna al-ilm wal amal anafe' fi sina't al-hiyal" (theory and practice in designing artifices).
Scientific Contributions He contributed in designing a number of different mechanic engines, such as the compressor, the crane, the carrier and the conveyor. He also gave an accurate description of the exact assembly of watches that took their names following the particular design appearing on them : an elephant's watch, a monkey's watch, an archer's watch, an author's watch, or a drummer's watch (2) … We conclude from his book that he devised a large number of mechanic models, but he limited himself to the description of only fifty models. Ibn ar-Razaz was intent on associating between theoretical mechanic sciences known at that time, and practical applied aspects(3). Donald Hill states that al-Jazari worked out water watches using wicks of lamps, measuring instruments, fountains, musical instruments (1) Marhaba, The exhaustive book about the history of Arab sciences, p. 372. (2) Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 11, p. 56. (3) Marhaba, ibid., p. 372.
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and instruments to lift water. He also devised a kettle with a cover in the form of a bird, which made a hiss for a short time whenever it is used before water settled down. Aldo Milli states also that al-Jazari devised a water watch with two arms pointing to time(1).
Major Works - “Al-jamea bayna al-ilm wal amal anafe' fi sina't al-hiyal� (theory and practice in designing artifices) is by far the most interesting book of al-Jazari. He was charged by king Nacer ed-Din Muhammad Ibn Qura, one of Beni Artaq Sultans, in Diar Baker to compile this book. That occurred in 1181 during the reign of the Abbassid Caliph Nacer ed-Din ibn al-Abbas Ahmed. The book was completed in 1206 AD, which means that it took 25 years of studies and research in the mechanics of watches, fountains and water and heavy material lifting engines. This book was the most wonderful book ever written in the Middle Ages on mechanic and hydraulic engines(2). Many copies of this book are conserved in a number of museums worldwide such as Tobi Kari in Istambul, and the museum of fine arts in Boston, the museum of the Louvre in France and Oxford Library(3). The book enjoyed a wide reputation in the West. Wiedmann and Hawser translated parts of it into German in the first quarter of the 20th century. Donald Hill who is specialized in the history of Arab technology also translated it into English. The Institute of Arabic Scientific Heritage issued the Arabic version in Alepo, Syria, in 1979 after its annotation by Ahmed Yussuf(4).
(1) Mrizen, Scientific Life in Iraq under the Seljukid Rule, p. 516. (2) Marhaba, ibid., p. 372. (3) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 16. (4) Marhaba, ibid., p. 372.
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31. Al-Batruji (Died 600H/1204AD) Abu Ishac Nur ed-Din al-Batruji al-Ishbili, known in the West as Alpetragius, was an astronomer from Andalusia. It is reported that he was born in Seville in the 12th century AD, while Doctor Dr. Zahur says he was born in Morocco and immigrated to Spain where he lived in Seville. He died at the beginning of the 13th century, towards 1204 AD(1). He was a contemporary and a student of Ibn Tufayl.
Scientific Contributions Al-Batruji described a new theory on astronomy that revived the Eudoxos theory on celestial bodies with multiple centers, but with introducing a basic modification on it. He also criticized the famous theory of Ptolemy on declination of planets and their circular rotation, thus paving the way for Copernicus. His contemporary fellow scientists viewed an important positive innovation in his ideas. They even talked about New Astronomy(2). Cara de Faw says about him "As for al-Batruji, he had innovative ideas on the movement of planets"(3).
Major Works -“Kitab al-Falak" (Treatise on astronomy). This book was known in Europe in the 13th century. It was translated by Michael Scot into Latin in the 13th century and was also translated into Hebrew in the 16th century. The Greek translation was printed in Vienna in 1531. (1) Zahoor, Muslim History. (2) Honkeh, The sun of Arabs, p. 201. (3) Arnold, Islamic Heritage, p. 588.
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32. Ibn Al-Bytar (593-646H/1197-1248AD) Ibn al-Baytar was the greatest botanist and pharmacologist in Islam and of all the Middle Ages (1). He was the unique scientist in his time to specialize in botany. His full name was Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Dhiya al-Din al-Andalusi al-Malaqi, known as Ibn al-Bytar, and surnamed the herbalist. He was born in Malaqa (Malaga), Andalusia, in 593 H/1197 AD(2). His father was a veterinarian. He learned botany from Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, known as Ibn Rumia. When he reached twenty years old, he traveled to many different countries, including Greece, Roman Europe, North Africa, and Sham (now Syria and Lebanon) and Egypt to search for medicinal herbs and see them and identify them. In Egypt, he entered in the service of the king al-Kamil al-Ayyubi who appointed him as chief herbalist. After the king’s death, he continued serving for his son al-Malik as-Salih Najm ed-Din who was residing in Damascus. From there, al-Bytar began studying plants in as-Sham, and Asia Minor in his capacity as a physician herbalist(3). He was the teacher of Ibn Abi Usaibia who accompanied him in his journeys and travels in search for plants. Ibn al-Bytar earned fame for his many travels, which led him to numerous regions worldwide, seeking the profound study of herbs(4). He died in Damascus in 646 H/1248 AD. (1) Ad-Difaa, Contribution of Muslim Arab Scientists in Zoology, pp. 334-335. (2) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 329. (3) Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 104. (4) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 333.
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Contributions in Botany and Pharmacology Ibn al-Bytar described 1400 medicinal plants, 30 of which were never described before. He mentioned their names, uses and other alternative plants. He also discovered several other plants unknown before. He followed in his studies a scientific methodology based on empiricism, referencing, and sincerity and accuracy. He was the first scientist to concern himself about studying harmful weeds, and classified them according to the crops they affect. Besides his interest in plants, he was also concerned by the study of marine and land animals. He showed their benefits in curing diseases. He was thus one of the greatest zoologists. Ibn al-Bytar was equally a prominent pharmacologist. Said Hassan says in his book “Islamic Sciences and Civilization”: “Ibn al-Baytar was one of the greatest Muslim scientists in botany and pharmacy. His wide reputation was unrivalled in the Middle Ages. He was undoubtedly the greater pharmacologist from Dioscorides up to Modern era.” Ibn al-Baytar did not limit himself to extract medicines from plants, but he also used animals and metals as sources of medicines(1).
Major Works Ibn al-Bytar compiled many books, the most famous of which are : -“Jamia Mufradat al-Adwya wa al-Aghdya” (Index of medicine and food terms). It was printed in 1291 H. It is an alphabetically organized compilation of simple medicines extracted from metals, plants and animals. Some of these medicines were taken from Greek and Arabic books, and the others were the result of the author’s own experience in this domain. It was translated into Latin and constituted a reference for the West until the European Renaissance. George Sarton says in his book: “Introduction to the History of Science”: “ Ibn al-Baytar organized this book following the alphabet order for (1) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 331.
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easy use. He listed the names of medicines in all languages.” The Europeans relied on this book up until the European Renaissance(1). - “Kitab al-Maghni fi al-Adwiya al-Mofrada” It’s a book about drugs, where the author dealt concisely with the treatment of diseases affecting every organ in order to maximize its profitability for doctors.
(1) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 330.
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33. Nasir Al-Din Tussi (597-672AH/1201-1274AD) He was one of the few extraordinary scientists to have flourished in the 6th century H. and one of the distinguished Muslim scholars. He was as “Al-Allama” (The professor)(1). Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Hassan Nasir al-Din al-Tussi was born in Tus near Neyshabur(2) in Persia in 507 H (1201 AD), and died in Baghdad in 672 H (1274 AD). He studied under Kamal al-Din Ibn Yuness al-Musili and Abdelmun’im Salem Ibn Badran alMu’atazili(3). He served as an astronomer to the governor Nacir al-Din Abderrahman Ibn Abu Mansur in Sartekht. He attained a privileged position in his time and was honored by the Caliphs and sat with Emirs and Viziers. He was as a result smitten by the jealousy of his fellow men and was defamed. As a consequence he was sentenced and imprisoned in the castle of “Alamut”, but allowed to continue his researches. It was in its reclusion that he compiled his most interesting books. When Hulagu Khan, the Mongolian ruler, took hold of Baghdad, in 656 H (1258 AD), he wanted to benefit from his Abbassid enemy scientists. So, he freed Tusi, favored him and appointed him as administrator of waqf (religious bequests). Later, Tusi was appointed at the head of the observatory of Maragheh (Iran), build at Tusi's request. In this observatory, he supervised the work of many astronomers, brought by Hulagu from different regions of the world, including al-Muayed al-Urdi from Damascus, al-Fakhr al Maraghi from al-Musil, Najm al-Din al-Qazwini, and Mohi (1) Tuquan, The Arab scientific heritage in mathematics and astronomy, p. 407. (2) Zerkali, op. cit., vol. 7, p. 30. (3) Tuquan, ibid., p. 407.
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al-Din al-Maghribi. This observatory was famous for its sophisticated instruments and its higher observational capacity and for its splendid library that contained books pillaged from Baghdad, as-Sham and the Arabic Peninsula. Its books were estimated at 400,000 volumes(1).
Scientific Contributions : Tusi wrote on trigonometry, astronomy, algebra, and on the manufacturing and use of astrolabes. He was the first to separate trigonometry from astronomy, making it an independent science. He came up also with new evidences for various astronomical matters. He also presented new evidence for various astronomical issues. He was the first to use the six cases of the spherical right-angled triangle(2). Cara de Faw says that Tusi simplified and clarified trigonometry in his treatise “As-Shakl Ar-Rubai”. First, he used the methods of Manalaus and Ptolemy, then used his own methods, showing their results. The rule he called “the rule of complementary forms” differs from the Ptolemaic theory on the rectangles(3). The genius of Tusi in geometry matched his genius in astronomy(4). He excelled in dealing with parallelograms, basing his demonstrations on hypotheses. Sarton says that Tusi demonstrated in his treatise “at-Tadkira” numerous geometric matters. He was characterized in his researches on geometry by his mastery of the basic principles related to geometry, especially concerning parallelograms(5). He made important contributions and additions in astronomy. He clarified a number of astronomical theories, and criticized the "almajest" treatise and suggested an astronomical system simpler than the Ptolemaic one. Thus, he paved the way for the reforms brought up by Copernicus later. He also wrote treatises on the celestial sphere and the planets system. (1) Zerkali, ibid., p. 30. (2) Tuquan, ibid., p. 409. (3) Arnold, op. cit., p. 591. (4) Arnold, op. cit., p. 590. (5) Tuquan, ibid., p. 410.
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Major Works Nasr al-Din wrote on trigonometry, astronomy, algebra, geometry, mathematics, calendars, medicine, geography, logic, ethics, music and other subjects. He also translated some of the Greek books and made comments and critics on their topics. Among his most famous books there are : -“Kitab Shakl al-Kitaa” (The form). It was the first book to differentiate between trigonometry and astronomy. Cara de Faw says about it : “it was translated into Latin, French and English and constituted a reference for the Europeans for many centuries.” -“At-Tadkira an-Naciria” It is a general reference book on astronomy in which the author explained a number of astronomical theories, and criticized Ptolemy's “almajest”. Sarton admits that this criticism was a proof of Tusi’s genius and deep knowledge of astronomy. -“Zij-i Ilkhani” A table of planetary movements containing the calculations of the observations he made during 12 years. - “Kittab Kawaid Al Handassa” (The rules of geometry) - “Kitab fi Al Jibr wa al-mukabala”. - “Kitab dahirat al-falak” (The astronomical phenomena). - “Kitab tahrir al-manadir” in optics. Tusi wrote his books in Arabic and Persian and were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages. Most of them were printed. Tusi was indeed one of the greatest Muslim scientists and one of their prominent mathematicians. He contributed a lot to the progress of sciences, especially astronomy and mathematics, His books constituted references for many centuries and gained a wide reputation for their author’s precious contributions.
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34. Ibn Al-Nafis (607-687H/1210-1288AD) Ala' al-Din Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi, surnamed ibn an-Nafis. He was horn in the outskirts of Damascus where he was brought up and educated. He studied medicine under Dakhouar, the chief doctor of Nuri hospital, and other famous teachers, such as Amran al-Israeli, and Radi ed-Din Rehabi. He taught in his turn medicine and supervised a whole department at Nuri hospital. Then he moved to Cairo, where he served in Nasiri hospital. He was appointed in many medical positions until he became chief of all doctors in Egypt(1). His contemporaries compared him to ibn Sina as regard his scientific position and medicinal knowledge. He is said to have learned by heart ibn Sina’s “al-Conon”, and to have had a deep knowledge of Galen’s books (2). “His method of compiling books was characterized by his capability of relying on what he memorized, his own experiences, observations and his deductions” without referring to any other source.(3) He was also well versed in other fields of knowledge such as philosophy, logic, grammar and Islamic sciences. He was not prepared to accept ideas without discussions and argumentation even if they taken from very known scientists. In this context, he rejected Galen’s medical views on grounds that they were weak and complicated(4).
Ibn an-Nafis's Contributions in Medicine Ibn an-Nafis was a leading figure in medicine in his time, and a prominent physician in Damascus. He was discovered lung blood (1) Human Heritage Magazine, vol. 1, p. 68. (2) Ibid., p. 69. (3) Zerkali, Scientists, vol. 4, p. 270. (4) Honkeh, op. cit., p. 264.
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circulation, providing an accurate scientific description of it. He preceded thus Miguel Servede to whom Europeans attribute this discovery(1). Ibn an-Nafis used anatomy as a method of work, and reached many results, among which(2) : 1. Discovery of blood circulation in coronary arteries; 2. Blood feeds lungs with air and not with nutriments; 3. Lung vessels are not filled with air or remnants (as Galen believed) but they contain only blood.
Major Works Ibn an-Nafis left behind a number of books, including the following(3) : - “Sharh Tashrih al-Canon” (Explanation of Anatomy Section of al-Canon). The author explained and criticized the section of anatomy included in Ibn Sina “al-Canon”. This book had fallen into oblivion in libraries until the Egyptian physician Dr. Mohy ed-Din Tettawi stumbled upon it in 1924 in Berlin Library and chose it as his subject of research for obtaining his doctorate from Friburg University in Germany. - “Al-Kitab as-Shamel fi Tib” (Exhaustive Medical Book). It is an encyclopedia in eight volumes. Only some paragraphs of this book are conserved in Oxford Library. - “Al Mohaddab fi al-Kohl” (4)A book about ophtalmia. - “Al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdiya” (Selected Foods) : A book on nutrition. - “Sharh Fusul Abukrat” (Explanation of Epicures' Articles). A copy of it is kept at Paris National Library, and in El Escorial library. It was printed in Iran in 1298 H/1881 AD. (1) The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, p. 29. (2) Honkeh, p. 265. (3) The human heritage, pp. 70-71. (4) Published by ISESCO.
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- “A Summary of al-Canon” It’s a five-volume summary of Ibn Sina’s al-Canon. Copies of it are still kept in Paris, Oxford, Florence, Munich and El Escorial. It was translated into Turkish and Hebrew, and printed in English for the first time in 1830 in Calcutta, India, under the title “al Moghni fi Sharh al- Mujaz”.
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35. Al.Hassan Al-Murakchi (660H/1262AD) Abu Ali al-Hassan Ibn Ali Ibn Umar al-Murrakchi was one of the Moroccan scientists. He lived during the rule of the Almohads in the first half of the 17th century H / middle of the 13th century AD(1). He earned fame in astronomy, mathematics, geography and the fabrication of sundials.
Scientific Contributions(2) He led many researches in trigonometry, introducing a number of innovations. He introduced the co sinus, sinus and tangent. He developed co sinus tables and came up with solutions for some astronomical problems. He provided more details on more than 240 stars for the year 622 H. He was also the first to use lines for equal hours. In addition, he introduced many important geographical corrections, and put a new map of Morocco
Major Works -“Jamea al-Mabadi' wal Ghayat fi Ilm al-miqat� (Book of Principles and Goals of Time Measurement). Thanks to this book, al-Murakchi gained a wide reputation among European scientists and was even considered as one of the greatest Muslin and Arab astronomers(3). Hajji Khalifa considered this book as the most interesting work ever compiled in this field and said it is divided (1) Tuquan, Aforementioned reference, p. 416. (2) Tuquan, ibid., pp. 17-416. (3) Abdallah Guennun, The Moroccan genius in the Arab literature, p. 156.
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into four sciences: mathematics, engines design and utilization, and a section including useful debate to acquire the skill of deduction. The book includes also some issues on algebra and opposition (1). Sarton says, “It is among the best books including precious researches on trigonometry and various sundials.” The book was translated by Emanuel Sidue and published by his son Louis Emily Sidue in 1834-1836. Cara De Faw published the section on astrolabes. Al-Murrakchi compiled other treatises on mathematics, among which : - “Kitab al-Kotua al-Makhrutia” (Conical Sections) -“Rissalat Talkhis al-Amal fi Ruayat al-Hilal”. A treatise on the observation of the moon.
(1) Ibrahim Harakat, Morocco throughout history, v. 1, p. 360.
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36. Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi (634-710H/1236-1311AD) Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi Muhammd Ibn Massud Ibn Muslih al-Farissi(1) was born in Shiraz (Iran). He studied medicine under his father and uncle; then became a student of “Nasir Al-Din Tussi”. He made several journeys that led him to Khurasan, Iraq, Persia and Egypt. Besides his scientific activity, he practiced justice and diplomacy, as he was appointed judge in one of Persia’s cities and served its kings. He was sent by one of them in a mission to al-Mansur (Syff Al-Din Kalawun), the Sultan of the Mamluk state in Cairo, to conclude a peace treaty between the two parties. He prolonged his stay in Egypt for a certain time before he returned back to Tabriz (Persia) where he died in (710 H/1311AD)(2).
Scientific Contributions Georges Sarton considers Qutb Al-Din ash-Shirazi to be one of the prominent scientists in mathematics, astronomy, physics and philosophy(3). His main contributions in physics was his “unprecedented comprehensive explanation of the rainbow, as he demonstrated that the rainbow phenomenon occurs when sun rays fall on the small water drops that prevail in the air when it’s raining. The sun rays then undergo an internal reflection and become apparent to the eye”(4). In the domain of astronomy, he continued the researches of his teacher Nasir Al-Din Tussi, and developed an astronomical model of (1) Zerkali, Scientists, v. 8, p. 65. (2) Tuquan, aforementioned reference, p. 425. (3) Ad-Difaa, The exact sciences in th Muslim Arab civilization, p. 338. (4) Tuquan, aforementioned, p. 426.
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Mercury that this latter had already begun. He also provided simplified explanation for his teacher’s hermetic ideas on astronomy and geometry. His methodology was based on observation, experimentation and deduction, stressing on mathematical evidence in physic and astronomical issues(1).
Major Works Qutb ed-Din compiled many books, among which : -“Nihayat al Idrak fi Dirayat al-Aflak”. It is a book - as says Sarton - that includes different subjects about astronomy, the earth, seas, seasons, atmospheric phenomena, mechanics and optics. -“ Kitab at-Tuhfa as-Shahia fi al-Haya”. -“ Kitab at -Tabsira fi al-Haya”. -“Kitab Nuzhat al-Hukama wa rawdat al-Atiba” (Scholars and Physician's Guide). It is an explanation of and a commentary on ibn Sina’s Canon. - “Kitab Rissala fi Bayan al-Haja ila Tib wa arab al-Atiba wa Wassayahum”. - “Rissala fil Burss” (A treatise on Leper). Ash-Shirazi wrote many other books in astronomy and in other fields of science. He devoted the rest of his life to Sufism, and the compilation of books on the Qur’an and Hadith sciences.
(1) Ad-Difaa, aforementioned reference, p. 341.
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37. Ibn Al-Banaa (654-721H/1256-1321AD) “He was a scientist from Marrakech well-versed in many fields of knowledge, especially in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, hermetics and also medicine”(1). His full name was Ahmed Ibn Mohammed Othman al-Azali, known as Abu al-Abbas Ibn al-Banaa al-Murrakchi. His father was a bricklayer. He was born in Marrakech, Morocco in 654 H/1256 AD where he spent the majority of his life, whence his name(2). It is there also where he learned grammar, hadith and jurisprudence, then he went to Fez where he studied medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Among his teachers there was Ibn Makhluf Sigilmasi Falaki and Ibn Hajla Ryadi(3). He gained the esteem of the Fatimid Sultans in Morocco who continually called on him to come to Fez. He died in Marrakech in 721 H/1321 AD.
Scientific Contributions In mathematics, he contributed in clarifying the difficult theories and complicated rules. He led ample researches on fractions. He developed rules for the addition of square and cube numbers, and the rule of two errors to solve first degree equations, and other calculus. He also introduced new rectifications on the method known as “the method of one error” and formulated it into a law(4). (1) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, p. 102. (2) Ahmed Jabbar, Mohammed Ablagh, Life and works of al-Banaa, p. 26. (3) Ibrahim Harakat, Moroco throughout History, p. 158. (4) Tuquan, The Arab scientific heritage in mathematics and astronomy, p. 430.
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It is mentioned in the Encyclopedia of Islam that Ibn al-Banaa outshone all his mathematician predecessors from the Orient, especially in the calculation of fractions. He was also considered to be one of the prominent mathematicians who used the Indian numerals in the way they are used by Moroccans(1).
Major Works He compiled more than seventy books in mathematics, geometry, algebra, astronomy and astrology. Most of them were lost and only a few of them have reached us. The most famous of them are : - “Kitab Talkhis amal al Hissab” (A summary of mathematics), Smith and Sarton admit that it is one of the best books on mathematics. It remained a reference in the West until the end of the 16th century AD. Several Arab scientists wrote explanations of it, and many western scientists borrowed from it. He attracted the attention of scientists during the 19th and 20th centuries (2). It was translated into French in 1864 by Marre, and the translation was published in Rome. It was translated once again into French by Dr. Muhammad Suissi. The original text its translation a preface and annotations were published in 1969(3). -“Maqualat fi al-Hissab”, it’s a treatise about true numbers, fractions, radicals and proportion; -“Kitab al-Gibr wa al Muquabala” (The Book of Integration and Equation); -“Kitab al Fussul fi al-Faraid”; -“Kittab fi al-Missahat” (The Book on Surfaces); -“Kitab al Usterlab wa Istiamaluhu” (A Book on the Astrolabe and its Uses); -“Kitab al-Yassara fi Taquim al Kawakib as-Syara”; (1) The Islamic Encyclopaedia, v. 1, p. 102. (2) Tuquan, aforementioned reference, p. 430. (3) Mohemmed Mannuni, pages on the Merinid civilization, 338.
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-“Minhaj at-Talib fi Taâdil al Kawakib”, the Spanish Orientalist Verne Jines annotated its introduction and some of its sections and translated them into Spanish in 1952. -“Kitab Ahkam an-Nujum” (The Book on the Law of Stars); The two professors Muhammad Ablagh and Ahmed Jabbar published a book under the tile “Life and Works of Ibn-Bamaa” within the framework of the publications of the Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences, University of Mohammed V, Rabat, in 2001.
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38. Ibn Al-Shatir (704-777H/1304-1375AD) A scientist from Damascus who excelled in mathematics, geometry, and astronomy. Abu al-Hassan Ala'-Din Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Mohammed al-Ansari al-Muakit, known as Ibn ash-Shatir was born and died in Damascus. He was surnamed al-Mutaem because he used to inlay ivory when a child(1). His father died when he was still a child and was taken in charge by his grandfather, and then by the son of his father’s uncle and his aunt’s husband who taught him how to inlay ivory. He then accumulated an important sum of money, which enabled him to visit numerous countries such as Egypt where he studied astronomy and mathematics in Cairo and Alexandria. He spent the majority of his life in his position as timing officer and chief Muezzin in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus(2).
Scientific Contributions He had contributed in the invention of many instruments such as the astrolabe, his rectifications of sundials. He also came up with many valuable astronomical theories. His books on the astrolabe constituted a reference for many centuries in ash-Sham and Egypt, and throughout the Othoman Empire and in other Islamic countries as they were essential in defining time in the Islamic world(3). He also succeeded in accurately measuring the angle of deviation of the circle of constellations, as he estimated it at 23° 31 minutes. In this (1) Zerkali, Scientists, vol. 4, p. 251. (2) Ad-Difaa, op. cit., p. 421. (3) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 422.
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context, Sarton Says: “Ibn ash-Shatir was a scientist of a great genius. He studied the movement of celestial bodies in a very precise way, and demonstrated that the angle of deviation of the circle of constellations was 23° 31 min in 1365, whereas the exact value that has been calculated by 20th century scientists by means of computers is 23° 31 minutes 19.8 seconds(1). Ibn as-Shatir proved also, thanks to his astronomical observations, the deficiency of Ptolemaic theory. He said that the earth evolves around the sun, and the moon evolves around the earth, and this is what Copernicus discovered many centuries later(2).
Major Works Ash-Shatir has compiled many books, the majority of which are still lost. Among his books, mentioned by Zarkali in his book “al aâlm”. -“Zij al-Jadid” (The New Astronomical Table). This book was written at the request of the Othoman Caliph Murad I who reigned over ass-Sham between 1360 and 1398. It contains astronomical models based on experiments, observation, and deduction(3). - “Idah al-Moghib fi al-Amal bi ar-Robi al-Mojib”; - “Urjuza fi al-Kawakib” (Poem on Planets); - “Rissala fi al-Ostorlab” (Treatise on Astrolabe); - “Mukhtasar al amal bi al Usturlab” (Summary of Astrolabe Uses); - “An-Nafa al-Aam fi el-Amal bi ar-Robi’ at-Tam”; - “Rissalat Nuzhat as-Samis fi al-Amal bi ar-Rrobi al-Jamia”; - “Rissalat Kifayat al-Qunua fi al-Amal bi ar-Robi al-Maqtua.”
(1) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 423. (2) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 423. (3) Ad-Difaa, ibid., p. 422.
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39. Al-Kashi (Died in 839H/1436AD) Ghaiat ed-Din Massud Ibn Muhammad al-Kashi was born at the end of the 8th century H in Kashan (Iran). He studied grammar, conjugation, fiqh and logic, and learned and excelled in mathematics. No wonder since his father was one of the prominent scientists in mathematics and astronomy. He lived most of his life in Samarkand, where he built an observatory, he called as “the observatory of Samarkand” (1).
Scientific Contributions He provided explanations for most of the output of scientists who worked with Nacir ed-Din Tussi, in the observatory of Meragha. He also revised the tables of stars devised by observers in this observatory. He gave very precise estimation of the solar eclipses during three years (between 1407 and 1409 AD / 809 and 811 H) and was the first to discover that the orbits of mercury and the moon are elliptical (2). In mathematics, he devised the decimal fractions. Smith says in his book “The History of Mathematics”. “The discord between mathematicians is indeed bitter, but the majority of them agree that it was al-Kashi who devised the decimal fractions.”(3) He also developed a law concerning a group of natural numbers raised to power four. Cara de Faw in his comment on the Muslin astronomers says: “Al-Kashi devised a method to add numbers of a chain, raised to power four. It is indeed a method that requires a lot of genius to find out.”(4) (1) Ad-Difaa, The summary in the Muslim Arab scientific heritage, p. 184. (2) Ibid., p. 184. (3) Ibid., p. 185. (4) Arnold, Islamic Heritage, p. 588.
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Major Works He compiled books in many sciences, here are a few : -“Kitab Zij al-Khaquani” : It contains adjustment of the star tables developed by the astronomers at Meragha observatory; -“Rissala fi al-Hissab” (A Treatise of Arithmetic); -“Rissala fi al –Handassa” (A Treatise of Geometry); -“Rissalat al-Jib wa al-Watr” -“Rissala an Ihliligiat al Kammar wa Atarid” (A treatise on the elliptical moon and mercury) Abdullah ad-Difaa says in his comment on the importance of al-Kashi's books, in particular “Miftah al hissab” (Key of Arithmetic), “This book was a source of inspiration for scientists either from East or West. They used it as reference in the education of their sons in schools and universities for several countries. They also used many of his theories and laws.”
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40. Ulugh Beg (796-853H/1393-1449AD) Ulugh Beg Muhammed Targai Ibn Shah Rakh Ibn Timur was born in 796 H/1393 AD in Sultaniyeh, in Asia Minor. He grew up as a prince as his father was reigning on many countries and large regions. Before the age of 20, his father appointed him Emir on Turkistan and Transoxania. He made of Samarkand his capital and a center of Islamic civilization. During his long reign that lasted nearly 40 years, he rendered great services to science and arts(1).
Scientific Contributions He devised many new astronomical instruments that helped astronomers in their researches. L. Bouvat says on this point : “In his work with astronomers, he succeeded in creating new powerful instruments, capable of helping them in their researches.” He also worked on trigonometry, and his co sinus and sinus tables helped a great deal in the progress of science. He was also concerned by other branches of mathematics, especially geometry and came up with solutions to some of its complicated issues(2). He built in Samarkand an observatory and equipped it with engines and instruments known at the time. This observatory “was considered at the time as one of the wonders of the world”(3). He summoned in this observatory many great astronomers and mathematicians, such as “Kadi Zadah Rumi” and “Mu’in ed-Din al-Kachani” and others, with whom he undertook (from 827 to 839 H) to correct the Greek astronomical observations. (1) Tuquan, Scientific Heritage of Arabs in Mathematics and Astronomy, p. 444. (2) Tuquan, ibid., p. 448. (3) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 2, p. 513.
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Ulugh Beg was not only a scientist in astronomy, observation and mathematics. He was also involved in literature, a historian and a jurisprudent. He studied the Qur’an, learned it by heart and recited it in the Seven Readings(1).
Major Works - “Zij Ulugh Beg” (Ulugh Beg Astronomical Table). He included in this book the results of twelve years of observation. It contains practical ways to calculate the solar and lunar eclipses, tables of stationary stars, the movement of the sun, the moon and the planets, and the latitudes and longitudes of big cities throughout the world(2). There is a discord over the language in which this treatise was written, whether in Arabic, Persian or Turkish (3). This book was first printed in London in 1650 AD. It was translated afterwards into European languages. Sidue translated the introduction into French and published it in Paris in 1847 and 1853 in two volumes. In 1419/1998, Fuad Sizekin, in cooperation with a group of researchers, assembled and reprinted all Ulugh Beg’s astronomical works in German.
(1) Tuquan, ibid., p. 448. (2) Omar Ferrukh, History of sciences of the Arabs, p. 175. (3) Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.
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Biographies of some Muslim Scientists Name of scientist
Sciences in which he contributed
Most famous works
Country where he flourished
Date of Death* AD
Jabir Ibn Hayyan
Chemistry
Kitab ar-Rassail as-Sabin
Iraq
815
Al-Khawarizmi Mathematics-Astronomy - Hissab al-Jibr wa Geography al-Mukabala
Iraq
850
Firdaws al-Hikma
Iraq
861
Jawamii Ilm an-Nujum wa al-Harakat Samawiya Astronomy-Mathematics Kitab al-Jama wa at-Tafriq
Iraq
After 861
Iraq
After 864
Iraq
872
Iraq
873
Ibn Rabban at-Tabari
Medicine
Al-Farghani
Astronomy-AstrologyGeometry
Sanad Ibn Ali Banu Mussa Al-Kindi
Geometry-AstrologyMechanics
Kitab al-Hiyal
Mathematics-Astronomy- Rissala fi Istiamal Geometry-Physicsal-Hissab Medicine-Chemistry al-Handassi
Al-Razi
Medicine-Alchemy
Al-Hawi
Iran-Iraq
925
Al-Battani
Astronomy-GeometryMathematics
Zig as-Sabi
Iraq-Syria
929
Al-Farabi
Mathematics-Music
Ihssaa al-Ulum
Turkistan-Syria
950
As-Sufi
Astronomy-Astrology
Kitab al-Kawakib at-Tabita
Iraq
986
Abu al-Wafaa al-Buzjani
Geometry-AstronomyMathematics
Kitab al-Majesti
Iraq
998
Al-Majriti
Alchemy-AstronomyMathematics-Zoology
Rutbat al-Hakim
Andalusia
1007
Ibn al-Jazzar
Medicine
Zad al-Mussafir
Tunisia
1009
Ibn Yunnes
Astronomy-Mathematics
Zig al-Kabir al-Hakimi
Egypt
1009
Al-Zahrawi
Medicine (Anatomy)
At-Tasrif liman Ajaza ani Taalif
Andalusia
1013
Iraq
1014
Al-Kuhi
Astronomy-Mathematics Massail Handassia
(*) Since the date of death of scientist in the Middle Ages is not always agreed upon, we have opted for the use of dates that recur throughout the references we have relied on.
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Name of scientist
Sciences in which he contributed
Most famous works
Country where he flourished
Date of Death* AD
Al-Karkhi
Mathematics
Al-Fakhri fi al-Jibr
Iraq
1029
Ibn Sina
Medicine-PhysicsGeology
Al-Canon fi Tib
Iran :Hamadan and Asfahan
1037
Ibn al-Haytham
Optics-MathematicsAstronomy-Medicine
Kitab al-Manadir
Iraq and Egypt
1038
Al-Biruni
Mathematics-Astronomymedicine
Kitab al-Atyhar al-Bakia anii al-Qurun al-Khalya
Iran and India
1048
Ibn Riduan
Medicine
Kitab fi Dafi Madar alAbdan bi Ardi Misr
Egypt
1061 ?
Zerkali
Astronomy
Al Amal bi Safiha Zijya
Andalusia
1087
Ibn Jazila al-Insan
Medicine-Chemistry
Takwim al-Abdan fi Tadbir
Iraq
1100
Omar al-Khyam
Mathematics-Astronomy
Al-Jibr wa al-Mukabala
Iran and Iraq
1124
Ibn Baja
Medicine-AstronomyMathematics
Taalik fi al-Handassa wa Ilm al-Haya
AndalusiaMorocco
1138
Ibn Zahr
Medicine
Kitab at-Tayssir fi al-Mudawat wa at-Tadbir
AndalusiaMorocco
1162
Ibn Tufayl
Medicine-Astronomy
Hay ibn Yaqdan
AndalusiaMorocco
1185
Ibn Roshd
Medicine
Al-Kuliat fi Tib
AndalusiaMorocco
1198
Ibn ar-Razzaz al-Jazari
Mechanics
Al-Jamia byna al-Ilm wa al-Amal an-Nafia fi Sinaat al-Hyal
Iraq
12th C
Al-Batruji
Astronomy
Kitab al-falak
Andalusia
1204
Ibn al-Bytar
Veterinary-ChemistryBotany
Jamia Mufradat al-Adwya wa al-Aghdya
Andaluisia-Egypt -As-Sham
1248
Tussi
Astronomy-Mathematics
Kitab Shakl al-Kitaa
Iran-Iraq
1274
Ibn an-Nafis
Medicine
Al-Kitab as-Shamil fi Tib
As-Sham-Egypt
1288
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Name of scientist
Sciences in which he contributed
Most famous works
Country where he flourished
Date of Death* AD
Al-Hassan al-Murakshi
Astronomy-Mathematics- Jamia al-Mabadia manufacture of watches wa al-Ghayat fi Ilm al-Miquat
Morocco
1262
Ash-Shirazi
Astronomy-Mathematics- Nihayat al-Idrak Physics fi Dirayat al-Aflak
Iran-Egypt
1311
Ibn al-Banaa
Mathematics-Astronomy
Kitab Talkhis Amal al-Hissab
Morocco
1321
Ibn ash-Shatir
Mathematics-Astronomy
Zij al-Jadid
Damascus
1375
Al-Kashi
Mathematics-Astronomy
Kitab Zij al-Khakani
Iran-Uzbekistab (Samarkand)
1436
Ulugh Beg
Astronomy
Zij Ulugh beg
Iran-Uzbekistan (Samarkand)
1449
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10- Human Heritage Magazine, Ministry of Culture and National Guidance, Egyptian General Establishment for editing, translation, printing and publishing, Egypt. 11- Talili : "Ibn Roshd, the Philosopher and the Scientist" 12- Harakat, Dr. Ibrahim : " Morocco throughout History", Dar Rashad al-Hadita, Casablanca, 3rd edition, 1993 13- Hakim Mohammed Said : " Scientists and Thinkers : Biographies of the Renown Scientists and Thinkers in the Islamic Golden Ages" 2nd Ed., 2000, Islamic Academy of Sciences, Aman, Jordan 14- Al-Khattabi, Mohammed al-Arbi : "Medicine and Doctors in Islamic Andalusia", Dar Al-gharb al-Islami, Beirut 15- The Encyclopedia of Islam: Arabic translation, October, 1932 16- Ad-Difaa, Abdallah : "Contributions of Muslim and Arab Scientists in Zoology" 1st Ed., Rissala Foundation, 1986 17- Ad-Difaa, Abdallah : "Exact Sciences in Islamic Arab Civilization" 1st Ed., Rissala Foundation, Beirut, 1981 18- Ad-Difaa, Abdallah : "A Summary of the Islamic Arab Scientific Heritage", John Wyli and sons, New York, 1979 19- Aldo Milli : "Arabian Sciences and their Impact on the Development of the World Science", translated by Dr, Abdalhalim Najjar and Dr. Yussef Mussa, Dar al-Qalam 20- Zarkali, Khairdin : "Eminent Figures, dictionary of the renown Arabs, Arabists and Orientalists ", 4th Ed., Beirut, Dar Ilm Malayeen, 1979 21- Tawkan, Kadri Hafid : "Arabian Mathematics and Astronomy Heritage" 3rd Ed., Cairo, Dar Kalam, 1963 22- Tawkan, Kadri Hafid : "Arabian Sciences", Dar Ikraa, Beirut
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23- Guenun, Abdallah, "Morocco's Genius in Arab Literature", al-Kitab, Beirut, 2nd Ed., 1961
Dar
24- Marhaba, Mohammed Abderrahman : "Comprehensive Book of Arabs History, 2nd Ed., Beirut, Aouidat Publications, 1988 25- Mrizen, Said Mrizen Assiri : "Scientific Life in Iraq in the Seljuqid era, Talib library, Mekka al-Mukarama, 1987 26- Mannuni, Mohammed : " Articles on the Life of the Marinids, Najah al-Jadida Printing House, Casablanca, 3rd edition, 1996 27- The Simplified Arabic Encyclopedia, under the supervision of Mohammed Shafik Gharbal, 2nd Ed., 1972, Cairo 28- Nellino, Carlo : "History of Astronomy in the Arabian Region in the Middle Ages, summary of the lectures given at the Egyptian University 29- Farukh, Dr. Omar : "History of the Arabian Sciences" 30- Zegrid Honkeh : Arabs' Sun Shines on the West, Influence of the Arab civilization on Europe, translated by Faruk Bydun and Kamal Dassuki, 8 Ed., Beirut, Dar al Jil, 1993 31- Sarton Georges : Introduction to the History of Science, Carnegie Institution of Washington, by The Williams and Wilkins Company, Baltimore 32- Zahoor, Arkan : Muslim History 570-1950, Chronology, ZMD Corporation, MD, 2000
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