Land Journal
High flyers The rules and training you need to fly drones PG.
10
Supply and demand
New for old
Invasive weeds
Past and future trends in UK mineral production
Why the National Trust is investing ÂŁ30m in renewables
Are you risking a fine under new rules?
PG.
6
PG.
12
PG.
14
October/November 2015
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Keeping you up to date with the latest rural policy, reforms, updates and opportunities for growth. Find your nearest Rural Conference below and book online today:
RICS Rural Conference, Hexham 7 Oct 2015 Hexham Auction Mart, Hexham, Northumberland, NE46 3SG Book online today rics.org/northrural
“Join our impressive speaker line up as we discuss and debate the most up to date information of relevance for your professional practice”
RICS Rural Conference, Preston
David Coulson, Partner, Addisons Chartered Surveyors
19 Nov 2015 Battleby, Redgorton, Perth, PH1 3EW Book online today rics.org/scotlandrural
11 Nov 2015 Brockholes, Preston New Road, Preston, PR5 0AG Book online today rics.org/ruralnw
RICS Rural Mid-Session Conference
Find out more: To 20776 ad veRICS rtise t a174x127.5mm-AW1.indd c t Em m a Ke n n e1 dy +4 4( 0 ) 20 7 8 7 1 5 7 3 4 or emmak@wearesu nday. c om Ruralcon Advert 2 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
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RI CS LAND JO UR NAL
C O NTENTS
RIC S L AND JOURNAL
ST R A P LI NE
Land Journal Author Author Standfirst
Head
T High flyers The rules and training you need to fly drones PG.
Supply and demand
New for old
Past and future trends in UK mineral production
Why the National Trust is investing £30m in renewables
PG.
6 24
PG.
M A R C H /A P R I L 2 0 1 4
12
10
Invasive weeds
October/November 2015
Are you risking a fine under new rules? PG.
rics.org/journals
14
Images ©
Front cover: ©istock
contents
CO N TAC TS
4 From the chairmen
LAND JOURNAL
6 Supply and demand
Editor: Mike Swain T +44 (0)20 7695 1595
E mswain@rics.org
Editorial team: James Kavanagh, Fiona Mannix, Tony Mulhall (Land Group) Land Journal is the journal of the Environment, Geomatics, Minerals and Waste, Planning and Development and Rural Professional Groups Advisory group: Tim Andrews (Stephenson Harwood LLP), Philip Leverton (College of Estate Management), Rob Yorke (rural chartered surveyor), Michael Rocks (Michael Rocks Surveying), Tim Woodward (rural chartered surveyor), Michael Birnie (Buccleuch Estates), Marion Payne-Bird (consultant), Frances Plimmer (FIG – The International Federation of Surveyors), Duncan Moss (Ordnance Survey), Kevin Biggs (Royal Bank of Scotland) The Land Journal is available on annual subscription. All enquiries from non-RICS members for institutional or company subscriptions should be directed to: Proquest – Online Institutional Access E sales@proquest.co.uk T +44 (0)1223 215512 for online subscriptions or SWETS Print Institutional Access E info@uk.swets.com T +44 (0)1235 857500 for print subscriptions To take out a personal subscription, members and non-members should contact Licensing Manager Louise Weale E lweale@rics.org
Published by: Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Parliament Square, London SW1P 3AD T +44 (0)24 7686 8555 www.rics.org ISSN: ISSN 1754-9094 (Print) ISSN 1754-9108 (Online) Editorial and production manager: Toni Gill Sub-editor: Gill Rastall Designer: Nicola Skowronek Creative director: Mark Parry Advertising: Emma Kennedy T +44(0)20 7871 5734 E emmak@wearesunday.com Design by: Redactive Media Group Printed by: Page Bros
16 Housing city migrants
Li Sun reports on informal urban villages in China
18 Waste not, want not
Lester Hicks examines trends in UK minerals
Reusing waste in the circular economy is discussed by Dirk Hebel, Marta H Wisniewska and Felix Heisel
9 Minerals at a glance
Hilary Arrowsmith highlights key facts from the mineral products industry
20 One map at a time
10 High flyers
Mapping is helping Upper Guinea communities to establish land rights, reports Jamil Hasan
Craig Lippett explains the rules and training to fly drones
22 Back to the future
12 New for old
Arthur Wills remembers a surveying career without the benefit of today’s hi-tech aids
Patrick Begg explains the National Trust’s £30m renewables investment
24 Model cities
14 Taking control
Stephen Chadwick looks at the effects of 3D digitally modelling cities
Max Wade explores the battle against invasive weeds
Journal goes interactive
QSanand Constructio Your RICS Journal is now available inRICS ISSUU, Conference interactive page-turning digital reader. Ideal for 2015 20 May 2015 reading on a tablet or desktop, it allows you toVictoria, ‘clip’ London etc.Venues, and share part or whole articles and isThiscompatible must attend event will examine the crucial role the Qua has to play in delivering the Construction 2025 targets. Brin speakers from across the construction sector, this c with android or iOS mobile devices. expert give insight into the demands on the sector at a time when
is a dominant concern and will examine the evolving role of adapts to a changing market.
Once signed in, just go to your usual Key journal sessions will address some of the most pressing concerns profession including, a CDM regulations update, the impact of B of the QS in infrastructure, implications of early supply chain eng home page and click on the link or follow adding value across the profession. the link from your regular email alert. Book your place online today:
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While every reasonable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of all content in the journal, RICS will have no responsibility for any errors or omissions in the content. The views expressed in the journal are not necessarily those of RICS. RICS cannot accept any liability for any loss or damage suffered by any person as a result of the content and the opinions expressed in the journal, or by any person acting or refraining to act as a result of the material included in the journal. All rights in the journal, including full copyright or publishing right, content and design, are owned by RICS, except where otherwise described. Any dispute arising out of the journal is subject to the law and jurisdiction of England and Wales. Crown copyright material is reproduced under the Open Government Licence v1.0 for public sector information: www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence
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OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 3
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RICS L A N D JO U RN A L
C H A I R M E N ’S CO L U MN
FROM THE
CHAIRMEN PLAN N I N G & DEV E LOPME N T
RURAL
Paul
John
MRICS
FRICS
Collins Open note to all of the Land Group. The content and processes of the APC are under review and the P&D board is considering an optional new competency in masterplanning and associated urban design. This has led me to wonder whether there is a need for a compulsory competency in geography for the Land Group – and possibly the entire profession. This would not necessarily be taken to level 3 by all surveyors – but Land Group surveyors need to understand, appreciate and have skills in spatial awareness and connectivity. The geography of things, people and places impacts on most ‘land’ work. With the numbers taking geography A level on the rise, a new competency could draw students to the profession and could also have a positive impact on university-accredited courses. It would underpin curriculum developments that address a better understanding of the ‘where’ in land, property and construction work. National Curriculum geography key stage 3 states: “The study of geography stimulates an interest in and a sense of wonder about places. …It explains where places are, how places and landscapes are formed, how people and their environment interact, and how a diverse range of economies, societies and environments are interconnected… geographical enquiry encourages questioning, investigation and critical thinking about issues affecting the world and people's lives, now and in the future….geography inspires pupils to become global citizens by exploring their own place in the world, their values and their responsibilities to other people, to the environment and to the sustainability of the planet.” Thoughts? 4 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
Lockhart RICS was pleased to attend the highprofile launch of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) Food and Farming 25 year plan. with addresses from both Environment Secretary Liz Truss and minister George Eustace. Seven working group sessions examined breaking down barriers, exports, investment, branding, skills and apprenticeships, innovation, and procurement. RICS will remain engaged with the programme as it evolves. The RICS/ RAU Rural Land Market Survey H1 2015 showed an increase in the supply of commercial farmland and a tailing off of demand growth across many parts of the country, which has resulted in a reduction in price growth expectations over the next 12 months. This survey and our Farmland Market Directory of Land Prices can both be accessed under the Research section at www.rics.org/rural. RICS responded to the recent DEFRA announcement on the rural productivity plan. While we welcomed the government’s acknowledgement that rural areas, not just cities, can contribute to the economic recovery, we expressed reservations concerning starter homes on rural exception sites.
LAND & RESOURCES GLOBAL BOARD
Barney
Pilgrim FRICS
We are gaining some traction within RICS and are producing a Land and Resources Infographic. This is designed to explain a very complex subject in a graphic format
and will be used at RICS regional events and RICS governing council to highlight the critical importance of land and resources issues. A number of our key outputs are valuation of unregistered land (research), Smart Cities (Insight), Ecosystem valuation (Insight) and the now finalised consultation on valuation of mineral bearing land. We have also started a wide-ranging outreach programme with a diverse range of related bodies such as the World Bank, FIG, Thomson Reuters and Devex. We are very pleased that the chair of the Oceania land and resources group Prof Chris Eves has joined our board. The board is also key driver behind the development of the International Land Measurement Standard and the formation of an independent coalition to establish this as part of the portfolio of land, construction and property standards currently under development.
GEOMAT I CS
Chris
Preston FRICS
It is shaping up to be a very busy autumn for RICS geomatics, with key international events and outputs. By now, Intergeo (the world biggest geospatial event) will have been held in Stuttgart, Germany. We have also been working with our UK geoindustry colleagues on a new Survey4BIM, which will be launched in November. This looks at how geo elements are integral within BIM and the RIBA digital plan of works and further cements our relationships with kindred professional bodies and associations such as CICES, AGI and TSA. Geo is one of the more international sectors within RICS and this issue features a very interesting article on mapping and land administration/rights in Sierra Leone.
RI CS LAND JO UR NAL
UPDATE
UPDATE Land rights recognition, ownership titling and associated benefits provide social and economic stability and growth and are one of the ways in which geo can add to society. We continue the Smart Cities and Big Data theme with articles highlighting 3D modelling and drones. The next geo evening lectures, with the annual lecture and Michael Barrett award, is on 8 December.
Top of the class A final-year rural enterprise and land management student from Harper Adams University has received a top award for his outstanding performance during a year’s placement with Clinton Devon Estates, based in Budleigh, near Exeter. James Boddington, from St Austell, received an Aspire Award for his work as a trainee land agent.
Joining iConsult ENVI RON ME N T & RES O UR C E S
Andrew
Fitzherbert MRICS
The conference planned for 8 October in Bristol is filling up quickly. The agenda includes Rebecca Carriage, Consultant Solicitor at Howes Percival LLP and Suzanne Walsh, Chartered Wastes Manager at PDE Consulting, offering legal and practical tips if you find yourself in a tight spot with the environmental regulator. Wendy Barratt, County Waste Manager at Devon County Council, will be talking on her paper, “From waste to resource management” which will be relevant to all areas of the country. I am looking forward to the session by John Cowley, Director of Mineral and Resource at Planning Associates on “Critical minerals or minerals that are critical?” This is sure to cause debate. Simon Gawler and Simon Trahair-Davies, Partners at Stephens Scown LLP, will round up with “Drilling into mineral laws”. This will cover issues that many of us have grappled with over the years including, are minerals ‘land’ and who owns the void?’ I am sure their answers may be worth the entrance fee alone. I would like to thank chair Mick Sherratt, who has brought together another excellent programme. If you wish to attend, please visit www.rics.org/envandresources
Comments and contributions on guidance and standards are encouraged through iConsult. Using iConsult means all comments are recorded correctly. Instructions can be downloaded at n www.rics.org/uk/the-profession/ how-you-can-contribute/
Conferences RICS Rural Conference 7 October, Hexham Sessions will cover the countryside stewardship scheme, the latest on the rural planning and development sector and an essential tax update. n www.rics.org/northrural Environment and Resources Conference 8 October, Bristol The programme will include the opportunities and challenges facing mineral surveyors and waste management experts in the UK. n www.rics.org/envandresources RICS Rural Conference 11 November, Preston Top of the agenda is a discussion on the countryside stewardship scheme. n www.rics.org/ruralnw RICS Rural Mid-Session Conference, Scotland 19 November, SNH Battleby Conference Centre Discussion on the Land Reform (Scotland) Bill and the impacts on the rural economy as well as how the rural landscape is set to change. n www.rics.org/ruralscotland
Old photos
Around 100,000 old aerial photographs, dating back more than 70 years, are available for download at www.blueskymapshop.com. The collection includes some of the earliest commercial aerial survey images, military photographs and many national archives, offering a record of most major UK cities and towns, transport and utility infrastructure and commercial property developments. It could be of interest to anyone in local studies, genealogy, boundary disputes, environmental land use research or town planning.
RICS Rural Conference, Wales 9 December, Llandrindod Wells The latest developments in the Welsh rural sector will come under the spotlight. n www.rics.org/walesrural RICS Telecoms Forum Conference 25 November, London There has never been a more crucial time to discuss the mobile telecoms property market. With the impending changes to the Electronic Communications Code, there will no doubt be a considerable shift in the market that will impact on surveyors with an interest in the sector. n www.rics.org/telecomsconference
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 5
RICS L A N D JO URN A L
M I N E R A LS
Lester Hicks examines past and future trends in the UK's production of minerals
U
Supply and demand K mineral production and consumption has changed dramatically over the past 50 years. Domestic coal has almost disappeared, offshore oil and gas is now declining, leaving energy generation relying on imported coal and increasingly gas. Aggregates consumption sharply increased in the 1970s and 1980s before returning to early 1960s levels, and across most mineral sectors the UK now largely depends on imports. Since the 1970s, UK public opinion has become increasingly aware of the environmental impacts of mineral extraction. As coalfields have closed, memories of minerals as the bedrock of the country's economy and prosperity have faded. Aggregates,
quarrying in particular, has become the last widespread expression of heavy industry. But most people think that extraction should happen somewhere else – if it happens at all. This emerging environmental awareness combines with a natural local unwillingness to host high-impact new development. All this creates challenges for the minerals industries and their professional advisers. In late 2012, the UK Minerals Forum therefore set up a working group to examine future scenarios, and their implications for maintaining supplies of essential minerals for the needs of the UK economy over the next 35 years, to 2050. The group presented its findings and recommendations to the CBI’s Living with Minerals 5 conference in November 2014 (www.ukmineralsforum.org.uk).
Studying the trends Before considering future possibilities, the group first looked at trends since 1970. It found: bb Overall, onshore mineral production has declined, led by falls
Figure 1 UK balance of trade in minerals and mineral-based products: 1980 and 2012 (at constant prices)
Oil and oil products
1980
Natural and manufactured gas
2012 Crude minerals and fertilisers Manufactured fertilisers
NET EXPORTS
NET IMPORTS
Iron and steel Coal and coke
Non-ferrous metals
Organic chemicals Inorganic chemicals Non-metallic mineral products
Source: UK Minerals Yerabook, BGS: HMRC Metal ores and scrap
-12000 -11000 -10000 -9000 -8000 -7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 £ million © Copyright UK Minerals Forum
6 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
0
1000
2000
3000
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in coal and aggregates, and the UK has become increasingly dependent on imported minerals and mineral products bb While total production and consumption has fallen by tonnage, production value has increased by nearly 300% (mainly offshore oil and gas – although this peaked in 1999-2000, and is now falling steadily) bb Domestic coal production has fallen by 90% – exports of 3.3mt in 1970 had become imports of 44.3mt by 2012. bb Primary aggregates consumption is down by nearly 30%, and 50% below its 1989 peak bb Other declining sectors include brick clay (down 78%), cement (down 63%), kaolin (down 48%) and salt (down 33%) bb On the positive side, ball clay production has increased by 27% (although still 15% below a 2000 peak). A new sector, potash, produced over 1mt in 2000 and still mined 770,000t in 2011; and tungsten mining near Plymouth is due to restart this year after more than 70 years.
Drivers of demand The group found that although technology and society continue to change, in an increasingly competitive world the
UK’s future economy would still need access to extracted and imported minerals. Resource conservation, reduction and reuse helps, but cannot fully satisfy demand and quality. Under any plausible future economic, social and environmental scenario, demand will be driven by: bb population and economic growth bb the security and cost of energy bb national investment in production, infrastructure and climate resilience bb evolving technology bb the balance between minerals’ benefits and environmental impacts bb the resulting political and regulatory framework.
Forum findings The group concluded: bb a secure and reliable supply of minerals is essential, not an option bb supply is threatened by global competition, geopolitical uncertainty and country monopolies in key sectors, especially for rare minerals
n
Future possibilities: A personal view Before reaching its conclusions, the group also examined three broad future economic scenarios for minerals demand and supply until 2050: bb Green Britain: environmental protection and conservation predominate bb Britain Powering Growth: pro-development to boost GDP growth bb Insular Britain – emphasising self-sufficiency, less priority on trade In practice, these mutually exclusive scenarios proved impracticable for generating credible predictions for specific mineral sectors. No one scenario could attract support from all the interests represented on the Forum. Howev er, I do not feel so constrained, on the understanding that the personal views expressed here are not necessarily those of the Forum.
Next 35 years UK mined coal bb expect a very limited future, with ad hoc opencasting offsetting declining imports, as coal-fired generating plant is retired to meet EU/UK carbon reduction targets. Exit from the EU would not affect this, UNLESS bb major geopolitical or energy supply shocks restrict UK access to imported gas and coal at acceptable cost. Then expect a short-term dash to opencast to meet immediate fuel shortages, possibly permitted under emergency powers (analogous to the wartime IDOs of 1943-1948), perhaps with rapid development of carbon capture and storage, AND, bb extending into the medium-term, an intensive focus on coalbed methane and underground gasification, again permitted under emergency powers if required, BUT bb no return to deep mining for steam-based power generation
Shale gas and oil bb despite the previous coalition government’s hype, and emerging strong support from its successor, the prospects for large-scale shale extraction appear limited in the shortmedium term: • the PR battle with the public is already lost (fears of pollution, earthquakes, flaming taps) • the real world local impacts are not yet fully perceived – getting large fracturing kit along narrow country lanes to perhaps hundreds of well pads, the large demand for water, and treating and moving the waste water • local opposition to shale fracturing will be a rolling mediarich gift to anti-mineral protesters • south of the Thames the shale resource is oil – so not even a carbon benefit bb the recently refused Cuadrilla applications in Lancashire will be a benchmark, as the stated intention to appeal is worked through • expect gravy for lawyers – legal challenges and possibly direct action if permitted by ministers (who will surely recover any appeal from the inspector for final decision) • approval should boost activity elsewhere, but will the new government hold its pro-shale nerve in the face of opposition, especially from its own supporters, in contradiction to its hostile stance on onshore wind? bb BUT, if major geopolitical or energy supply shocks directly affect UK access to imported gas and coal, then expect a ‘dash to frack’ (as with coal) using emergency powers if required Aggregates bb expect steady demand based on progress in construction as proxy for the economy bb but also increasing problems in maintaining supply: • shortages of sand and gravel, especially in the
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 7
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M I N E R A LS
bb uncertainty about continued EU membership could deter new investment by now predominating foreign operators, impacting on prices and supply bb the UK is not self-sufficient in key sectors – notably metals, and increasingly oil, gas and competitively-priced coal bb the real-world potential of UK unconventional fuels, notably shale gas, is uncertain and needs more study bb the UK has adequate resources of many non-energy minerals, especially for construction bb conflicting energy and environmental policies threaten UK/EU investment in bricks and cement, core construction minerals bb the successful UK balance between minerals access and environmental regulation is crucial and must be maintained bb all minerals stakeholders – industry, government, analysts, regulators and environmentalists – should work towards a national minerals strategy. The group recommended: bb a national long-term vision for minerals within a national industrial strategy
n
development hungry but aggregates-poor Greater South East, including London • increasing focus on an ageing fleet of hard-rock quarries for local as well as strategic supply • longer haulage from hard rock areas to markets • a growing need for new hard rock supply – through new sites or extensions • of 25 rock quarries producing over 3mta year. in 2008, nine now have permissions ending before 2031, five between 2031-2040, and 11 after 2040 • no new hard rock sites have been permitted for decades • extensions more likely, especially if rail connected • rail connections for sites not on existing lines almost impossible (cost and Network Rail bureaucracy) • policy constraints on finding suitable sites in hard rock areas (National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty) bb potential result – relative cost/price increases as scarcity bites bb greater use of marine-dredged sand and gravel – higher UK prices should repatriate some of the 4-5mt landed annually on the continent bb weakness in the national Managed Aggregates Supply System even before the 2015 election. Can the Department of Communities and Local Government as a ‘non-protected department’ continue funding and coordinating strategic aggregates supply? The local process is already patchy and increasingly politicised, and effective inter-regional aggregates supply planning is now questionable bb in the longer-term, sustained UK supply shortages would force significant reliance on aggregates imports: • bulk hard-rock landings previously limited (e.g. Glensanda to Isle of Grain) • aggregates cannot currently compete with high-value cargo (e.g. LNG) for limited berths • but if coal imports fall, deep-water mineral berths and stockyards could be released (e.g. at Immingham and Portbury/Bristol) and new berths developed 8 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
bb effective monitoring and review of the vision by all parties to ensure it responds to events bb continuing collaboration between government and the industry to deliver the vision bb concerted action by the industry to help politicians and the public understand the importance of extracting minerals bb using the strategy to boost the resilience of the UK minerals industry. C
Lester Hicks is an environmental planning consultant and Chairman of the UK Minerals Forum lesterhicks@sweethaven.biz
Related competencies include Sustainability, Minerals management
Other minerals bb UK supply more limited and local, but markets national/worldwide bb prospects depend on: • quality and extent of resources • patterns of demand and supply constraints • energy costs in processing relative to competitors bb areas of concern • bricks and cement – basic to construction but UK production and capacity has fallen and imports increased. High EU/UK energy costs threaten competitiveness • kaolin and ball clay – vulnerable to world prices and lower-cost competitors • salt – closely tied to activity in the energy-dependent UK chemical industries • potash – new and expanding, but depends on world trade and sustaining the recent further mine approval in the North Yorkshire National Park against the threatened High Court Challenge • fluorspar – small but strategic, and sourced in a highly protected landscape Where do we go from here? The future supply of the minerals the UK needs, whether extracted here or imported, cannot be taken for granted. In October 2014 the former BIS Select Committee endorsed the UK Minerals Forum working group’s call for a UK minerals strategy as part of a national minerals strategy. In reply the coalition government noted that the CBI Minerals Group was preparing a proposed strategy, and looked forward to discussing it in due course. This was inevitable before an election. But the issue has not gone away. The CBI continues to work on its Minerals Strategy, and the issues identified by the Forum and this personal commentary on some of the hard-edged possibilities over the next 35 years, must be addressed. Minerals are basic to the things we use in our economy and society – “if you can’t grow it, you have to mine it”.
MINER A LS
RI CS LAND JO UR NAL
Hilary Arrowsmith highlights some key facts on current industry performance
Aggregates at a glance
T
he UK public’s awareness of the minerals and mineral products industry can be limited, perhaps with the exception of oil and gas. The latest Mineral Products Association (MPA) Industry at a glance document, which highlights key facts, aims to help ‘make the link’ between mineral resources and general economic activity, detailing what minerals are, how much the country produces and where they are used (see Figure 1). Along with associated content on the MPA website, it provides a reference point for industry information.
Key facts from the document are: bb 300mt: GB production of aggregates and manufactured mineral products bb £21bn: Annual turnover bb £6.7bn: Total gross value added (GVA) bb £445bn: Turnover of industries supplied bb £135bn: Value of construction, the sector’s main customer bb 80,000: People directly employed in the industry bb 3.3 million: Jobs supported through the supply chain. Other headline figures include: bb Each worker in the mineral products industry produced on average £81,000 in value added in 2013, 1.6 times more than the national average. bb Materials in the MPA scope accounted for 68% of the total UK production of minerals in 2013 (including crude oil/natural gas/coal).
Figure 1
bb In 2014, 111mt of aggregates were produced in England, 25mt in Scotland, 20mt in Northern Ireland and 14mt in Wales. bb In the 2014, crushed rock accounted for 45% of all GB aggregate sales, recycling 29% and sand & gravel 27%. bb The annual cost of the aggregates levy was equivalent to 17% of the industry’s GVA in 2013. bb The total cost of climate change and energy measures is estimated to rise from an equivalent of 8% of the GVA of the cement industry in 2014, to 46% by 2020. bb In 2013, the use of aggregates and cement per capita in Great Britain was 32% and 48%, respectively, below the European average. Aurelie Delannoy, MPA Economist, says: “Industry data can seem pretty dry but the latest information on the scale and contribution of mineral products puts the industry’s activities into an important context. The operations are significant in their own terms, throughout the UK, but the real value is in how the industry supports and enables much of the economy to function. “Plans to improve the UK’s housing stock and infrastructure are reliant on the use of mineral products and the industry is a key element of the supply chain of many other industries. The industry is, therefore, central to the government’s objective of improving economic productivity and also essential to improving quality of life and standards of living for our growing population.” The data is presented simply and succinctly, using easy-to-interpret graphs. The document provides: bb product information, such as sales volumes and where production is concentrated. bb analysis of maintaining long term aggregate supply, looking at permitted reserves and replenishment rates. bb details of the cumulative burden of taxation and regulation on the industry. bb outlining the industry’s contribution to sustainability using data on the share of recycled and secondary materials in total aggregate sales, resource efficiency, carbon dioxide emission reductions and biodiversity delivery. C To download The mineral products industry at a glance 2015 edition, visit http://bit.ly/1JrdOGZ
Hilary Arrowsmith is Communications Manager at the Mineral Products Association hilary.arrowsmith@mineralproducts.org
Related competencies include Minerals management, Planning, Works progress and quality management © Mineral Products Association
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 9
RICS L A N D JO URN A L
DRONES
Craig Lippett explains the rules, regulations and training needed to fly unmanned aerial vehicles
High flyers
T
he exponential expansion in the use of unmanned aerial vehicles, or drones, is transforming the way a wide range of industry sectors conduct their business, none more so than the survey community. However, the pace of technological advancement has outstripped the evolution of regulations, an issue that continues to provide challenges to operators who wish to fly in more complex environments to meet the needs of their customers. The majority of those entering this new sector have little or no experience, many simply being established professionals such as surveyors, inspection engineers, asset managers, agronomists and archaeologists. The principles of operating a drone are new so each organisation must learn quickly. Across Europe, each country has broadly similar regulations, although the transfer of qualifications and operating permissions between states is not harmonised. The UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) has adopted a ‘light touch’ approach to drone regulation, with the aim of finding the line between managing risk to the public while enabling the industry to grow. Two years ago there were 260 organisations certified to operate drones in the UK, with 1,600-1,700 qualified remote pilots. Now there are 920 organisations, and with 10 more being approved each week they could number 2,500-3,000 in another two years. 1 0 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
To become certified, a company must obtain a CAA Permission for Aerial Work (PfAW), which allows the holder to work for commercial gain and also sets the operational limitations. The key document in the PfAW submission is the Company Operations Manual, which outlines how flying activity will take place, what drones will be used and the safety principles employed. An organisation must be insured for drone operations.
Flying test Pilots must undergo a certification process offered by national qualified entities on behalf of the CAA. They must undergo theoretical training (or demonstrate an acceptable means of compliance such as a private pilot licence (PPL) and a competency assessment, in the form of a practical flying test. This full certification process is offered by the National Qualified Entities (NQE) that have emerged in recent years to deliver on behalf of the CAA. The theory element is normally classroom based, over two to three days (although can be as little as one day) and focuses on regulation, airspace considerations, how a drone works, how to set up a flying site, conducting pre-site surveys and risk assessments. The culmination is a flying test, during which the candidate is given a representative flying task and demonstrates their ability to plan, set out a flying site, perform basic flying skills and show how they react to emergency situations to assess their competency. If successful, the pilot is certified to fly the configuration and weight category of the drone tested. For example, if it was a Phantom 3 UAV, then the pilot could fly
“ Although initially slow to recognise the benefits, the survey community is now embracing drone technology
four, six or eight engine rotorcraft up to a weight of 7kg. Between 7kg- 20kg, the remote pilot is automatically qualified for the below 7kg category. The next step is completion of the operations manual, which is submitted to the CAA together with evidence of pilot competency and insurance, and approximately two months later the organisation can expect to be issued with its PfAW. The vast majority of companies that hold a PfAW are concerned
RI CS LAND JO UR NAL
m Preparing a drone for flying
with basic aerial imagery for marketing, inspection and high-end production video.
Joining the armoury Although initially slow to recognise the benefits, the survey community is now embracing drone technology as an additional, essential tool in its capture armoury. Sophisticated drone technology means that a survey professional can find it easier and cheaper to get a sensor in a point in time and space to capture the raw data they need. Drones come in all shapes and sizes, but the class below 20kg make up almost all current certified organisations. They can be rotorcraft (a helicopter with multiple rotors, usually four, six or eight engines) or fixed wing. These fly like conventional aircraft with forward motion generating lift to keep the platform in the air. They can be hand, bungee or rail launched and often employ features such as parachutes to ensure a safe landing. Image © Craig Lippett
With safety in mind, all drones must have (and be able to demonstrate) failsafe features that automatically bring them back to their launch point in the event that the radio link between the remote pilot and the platform is lost. The proliferation of drone use means that awareness by the general public has grown and news pieces about near misses with airliners keep them in the forefront of safety consciousness. The rules enable a remote pilot to operate to 500m radius from the launch position and up to 120m (400ft) above the ground, keeping the drone in sight at all times. A margin of 50m must be maintained from people, cars and buildings unless they have been briefed and pilots cannot fly over large groups of people or congested areas – by definition, villages, towns and cities. The UK has a high population density (second only in Europe to the Netherlands and Belgium) and a lot of the available work, especially in support of the construction industry, can be found
in built up areas. The CAA has recently released the operational safety case concept. This enhanced permission requires the applicant to demonstrate a greater level of safety but could mean an easing of the usual limitations. For instance, the standard lateral distance of 50m might be reduced to as little as 10-15m if the applicant can show the correct level of risk mitigation. This can be demonstrated by more comprehensive pilot training, greater safety features on the drone and more safety elements built in to the operational procedures. In general, the more safety features submitted, the greater the reduction in operational limits, and therefore, the wider the choice of work for the operator. Only 15-20 enhanced permissions have currently been granted, which puts the holders in a select club of those who can perform work that the vast majority of certified drone companies cannot. In this sector, as in others, it pays to stand out from the crowd. For surveyors, drones are not the answer to every problem but employed in the right way they fulfil a useful function. And as sensors develop, the future holds some exciting visions. What about miniature pocket-sized drones that can be taken out and thrown in the air? They could survey a 50ha area in 20 minutes in all weathers with data uploaded to the cloud to be processed and delivered to the client two to three hours after capture – all with no direct human interaction. Perhaps not as far away as you think. C Craig Lippett is Operations Director at Skycap and has contributed to various UK CAA working groups on small unmanned aircraft systems Craig.lippett@skycap.com
Related competencies include Remote sensing and photogrammetry, Legal and regulatory requirements, Mapping
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E N E R GY
New for old Patrick Begg explains the thinking behind the National Trust’s £30m investment in renewable energy
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k Two biomass boilers have been installed at Upton House
The National Trust’s 10-year strategy Playing our part – what does the nation need from the National Trust in the 21 century? outlines four key priority areas. These are:
looking after its places; a healthy, beautiful natural environment; experiences of its places that move, teach and inspire; and helping to look after the places where people live. As part of the plan, we recognise we will have to play our part in helping to mitigate climate change. As Europe’s biggest conservation charity, a key part of that is to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, cut energy use by 20% and source 50% from renewables on our land by 2020.
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National Trust Images © Rupert Truman
Our biggest ever investment in renewables, an expected £30m, marks a milestone towards reaching these targets. This investment follows the successful completion of five renewable energy projects at National Trust properties – part of a £3.5m pilot launched with Good Energy in 2013. We have also drawn on the lessons learned from building our first and still largest 660kW hydro at Hafod y Llan farm in Snowdonia. This project has exceeded
expectations since it was launched in April 2014, producing enough equivalent energy to light every mansion and house the National Trust cares for in Wales. Our motivations are clearly driven by conservation, but there are further dimensions which underpin our renewables programme. We are very mindful of the future resilience of our business: the ability to keep the lights on and heat our places in an increasingly unstable worldwide energy context.
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Insulating ourselves from these potential energy shocks looks increasingly appealing. Equally, a shift to home-grown energy at the scale we envisage should save up to £4m on our energy costs each year and green electricity sold to the grid will provide a novel source of income. In the context of a challenging economic climate for rural land managers and farmers, being able to demonstrate how natural assets can be turned, sensitively, into part of a diversified business feels like a legitimate part of our work. In practice, our future renewables programme spans a range of available technologies that fit best with the advantages and constraints of our places. More than 40 further
projects include: bb a 200kW lake source heating project at Blickling Estate in Norfolk, which will remove two oil tanks and 25,572 litres per annum of oil consumption with an estimated saving of 68 tonnes of CO2 per year bb two biomass boilers at Upton House in Warwickshire to heat the mansion and other areas, saving an estimated 55 tonnes of CO2 per year bb a 250kW hydro scheme at Hayeswater in Cumbria where there is a legacy of hydropower from historic corn mills and water wheels. This project will provide an income stream to support conservation work on National Trust land Our renewables work is weighted towards biomass
l A heat pump has replaced oil at Plas Newydd
– which makes sense because we have a lot of woodland for supply – but also will include at least 12 hydros and increasingly is looking at how ground, water and air heat pumps can play a bigger part. Behind this is the need to deliver low level, constant heat which creates stable humidity levels in our mansions and thus helps safeguard very sensitive collections and contents.
Hydro schemes We have a lot of steep land where it rains a lot and it would be negligent if we did not use such a fantastic natural resource. But when we realise hydro projects, we aim for them to blend into the landscape. Nor do we want rivers running low, so we have reduced the energy take to ensure we maintain the wild feel of the river.
Biomass
National Trust Images © Nick Meers
By using wood fuel sourced directly from our estates we have been able to deliver a ‘double dividend’: as well as properties becoming self-sufficient in fuel supply, the more actively managed woodlands are also creating clear benefits for habitats and biodiversity. Our woods are more healthy, more open and better able to support and nurture a wider and increasing variety of animals, insects and plants.
Heat pumps
l Biomass boiler at Ickworth
Heat pumps – both ground source and water source – represent our ‘growth’ technology. Becoming more
efficient and more cost-effective to install, they also suit our local needs increasingly well. We have recently completed one of the largest marine heat source pumps in the UK. Put simply, it operates like a fridge or an air conditioning unit in reverse, harnessing the latent and constant heat in subsoil, water or air and, via a heat exchanger, turning that into very efficient energy that can heat water. At Plas Newydd, we used to burn an astounding 60,000 litres of oil a year to heat the building. Our new heat pump, plus some sensitively screened and located PV to add additional green power, has displaced all that carbon-intensive fuel oil. Collaboration has played a key part in the success of our renewables work, whether with our energy partner, Good Energy, or with suppliers, contractors and neighbours. We are committed to sharing the lessons we are learning and our Fit for the Future network, set up on the back of winning a national Ashden Award for sustainability, is one of the main ways we do this. The membership-based coalition, visits, peer-to-peer dialogue and joint sessions help to provide unbiased and innovative ideas and advice on what is available and what might work best. C
More information >
For details of the National Trust’s energy work, visit www.nationaltrust.org.uk/energy
Patrick Begg is Rural Enterprise Director at the National Trust
National Trust Images © Ray Dale
Related competencies include Sustainability, Land use and diversification
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 1 3
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I N VAS I V E W E E D S
After renewed headlines about Giant hogweed causing severe blistering, Max Wade explores how new regulations are focusing the battle against invasive weeds
Taking control
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t is more important than ever for property professionals and landowners to be aware of invasive weeds in the UK. A combination of a new EU regulation and community protection notices have put plants such as Giant hogweed and Japanese knotweed firmly in the spotlight. The new approach started with the reformed Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 and associated community protection notices, which can force landowners to deal with these plants. Companies could be fined up to £20,000 and individuals up to £2,500 for failing to tackle the problem. Meanwhile, EU regulations, which came into effect in January, could mean fines of thousands of pounds and prosecution if certain invasive plants are not managed appropriately and in a timely fashion. The list is currently being drawn up. The regulations empower government agencies to issue control orders for the removal of high-risk species from specified areas, which could include derelict sites, public land, construction sites, residential and other properties. Importantly, these measures are promoting risk-based assessments linked to avoidance and preventative measures as well as identifying and cutting off pathways of spread. The ability to implement a rapid response, should an undesirable plant invade a property or asset, is encouraged – a direction already being taken in Scotland. The weeds to be listed could include Himalayan balsam, Giant hogweed and 1 4 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
l Giant hogweed
Japanese knotweed, as well as species not yet present or widespread in the UK and Northern Ireland, such as Ragweed.
Assessing the impact As a result of the measures, there has been a significant shift in the number of property professionals wanting to get a bigger picture of the implications. The Property Care Association (PCA) Invasive Weed Control Group recently added guidance on non-native plants to its series of briefing notes, giving the history and identification, the impact of each plant, and details of control methods.
Japanese knotweed The PCA information supports existing guidance on Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica), which has become increasingly well known in recent years, and is a growing commercial problem because of the challenges it causes in the urban environment. Where the plant grows on development sites it can cause damage to services and any structures and surfaces that are in poor repair. We continue to hear from specialists about homeowners who are struggling to sell homes or secure mortgages on properties where Japanese knotweed is within 7m of buildings. Loan applications and re-mortgages are being refused by lenders, without first seeking the views and advice of the specialist, despite guidelines set out by RICS in 2012 to assist surveyors in understanding the procedures that should be followed where Japanese knotweed is discovered. Images © Property Care Association
The species was introduced to the UK in 1825 as an ornamental plant for large gardens due to its imposing size and attractive sprays of creamy-white flowers. But, by 2000, it was to be found in just about all urban areas across the UK. The plant spreads very effectively through fragments of underground stem (rhizomes) and, occasionally, from sections of fresh-cut stems. Its tall, rigid and densely packed stems can exacerbate flooding along watercourses by obstructing water flow post high rainfall and, after winter dieback, leave river banks exposed to erosion.
Giant hogweed Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) was introduced to the UK and Ireland from south-west Asia as an ornamental plant in the mid-19th century. It soon escaped cultivation, aided by its prolific seed production (as many as 50,000 per plant) and now grows wild across the country and is spreading to more and more locations.
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l Japanese knotweed Liability concerns
It spreads using pathways such as wind dispersal, for example along transport corridors, through watercourses, and in transported topsoil. It can cause delays and additional costs on development sites and seed heads and soil containing seeds must be removed as controlled waste. There is also a significant health factor associated with this plant. The sap is extremely toxic to the skin in sunlight. The chemical in the weed, a furanocoumarin, causes blistering and other dermatological discomfort that can recur over a number of years. Hence, fine weather and the plant’s occurrence in locations accessible by the public increases the likelihood of people being injured.
Himalayan balsam While Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) does not have the same economic impact as Japanese knotweed, nor the health concerns of Giant hogweed, it is of concern particularly
in relation to watercourses. It is well established in the UK and Northern Ireland and extremely invasive in lowland areas especially along streams and rivers. The GB Non-Native Species Secretariat describes Himalayan balsam as an annual herb with stout, succulent, reddish translucent hollow stems and deep purplish-pink to white flowers, with a strong balsam smell. The plant can spread rapidly on the soft banks of watercourses and grows to 2m tall. In times of flood, it can seriously impede water flow in streams and rivers. In winter, when the plant dies away, the banks are exposed to erosion much more so than in Japanese knotweed. These factors make it an important plant to target.
Ragweed Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) could become a significant problem if it were to spread and proliferate in the UK and Northern Ireland. The recently published Field guide to invasive plants and animals in Britain describes it as a “medium to tall erect annual herb … the stem giving an aromatic smell when broken and with deeply lobed leaves”. The pollen causes hay fever and for this reason the plant is a serious weed in North America and other parts of Europe, but although found quite frequently in the UK it rarely persists. But given factors associated with climate change, Ragweed might well be able to establish itself and become a problem species.
Japanese knotweed will continue to be a focus for land and property professionals because of the delays it can cause on development sites. But Giant hogweed has opened another debate in terms of the impact this invasive weed can have on land managers and owners including local authorities. Particular concerns have been raised regarding liability issues given the significant health threats, as well as effective methods of controlling its spread. Recently the PCA held an inaugural conference in Cardiff, dedicated to the subject of non-native invasive plants, providing a platform to debate these issues and many others. The focus for the event, Understanding invasive weeds: Japanese knotweed, fact and fiction, was to promote a level-headed and evidence-based approach to Japanese knotweed, as well as Giant hogweed and Himalayan balsam. Japanese knotweed and other invasive weeds can be managed, controlled and eradicated using the knowledge and experience of specialists in this field. By bringing together professionals collectively, we saw how we can work together and collaborate – and start to root out the issues of invasive weeds effectively. C
More information >
PCA guidance notes Management of Giant hogweed and Management of Himalayan balsam can be viewed at http://bit.ly/1E6dj3S and http://bit.ly/1ImSNxN To download the RICS Japanese knotweed and residential property information paper, visit http://bit.ly/1hR11rI
Professor Max Wade is Technical Director (Ecology) at AECOM, and Chairman of the Property Care Association Invasive Weed Control Group pca@property-care.org
Related competencies include Management of the natural environment and landscape
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 1 5
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HOUSING
Homing city migrants Li Sun reports on the debate over informal urban villages in China and the rights of migrant workers
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l Migrants live in crowded conditions
rban villages are a common sight in major Chinese cities, housing an estimated 100 million people. In Guangzhou alone there are 138 urban villages, accounting for 22% of total housing in the city. Literally ‘village in city’ (chengzhongcun), these residential neighbourhoods are built on villagers’ homesteads which remain after nearby farmland has been expropriated for urban use. Swallowed up by urban sprawl, the local villagers continue to live in the old neighbourhoods surrounded by skyscrapers, and rent or sell some of their housing to migrant workers. Their existence has provoked an ongoing debate. Opponents say the developments violate laws on land, planning, and real estate. Proponents argue that they fulfil a vital social function, meeting the migrant workers’ demand for affordable housing in cities. In accordance with the Land Administration Law, land in urban China is state owned, while land in rural and suburban areas is collectively owned, allocated free to the villager members as a welfare guarantee. The law stipulates that any kind of trading, such as leasing or selling, is not permitted. Only state-owned land may be used for commercial construction development, although the collectively owned land can be transferred into state-owned land through state expropriation, and subsequently used for real estate development. Without transferring land ownership, collectively owned land is not legally recognised as useable for housing development. However, with the rapid urbanisation, and urban villages desirable location, the residential potential of the land became obvious. Thus, the renting or selling of housing on villagers homesteads was transacted in private.
Rural-urban migration Between 2000 and 2010, China’s GDP grew by 10% annually on average, into the world’s second largest economy. One of the key drivers behind this ‘economic miracle’ is the rural-urban 1 6 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
Images © Li Sun
migrant workforce, the subsistence farmers from impoverished rural areas seeking off-farm employment. The number of migrant workers reached 274 million in 2014, concentrated in fast-developing cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen. In Shenzhen city, migrant workers made up 71% of its population, largely employed in the manufacturing, construction, service, transportation and retail sectors. However, although migrant workers have made a great contribution to China’s economy, because of the country’s unique household registration system (see panel, p17), their status remains that of agricultural hukou even after working and living in cities for years, which excludes them from urban social welfare systems such as social housing or schools for their children. At the same time, formal housing is unaffordable to such a low income group.
Housing costs In 2014, the average monthly wage of migrant workers in cities was about $460, a large percentage of which was sent back to families in their villages. Against this, the average monthly cost of rent, for example in the Xiaojiahe urban village in Beijing, was $100, while, in a nearby formal housing neighbourhood, it was upwards of $300. For formal housing developments, the government hands over the construction land-use rights to real estate developers. Housing in urban villages, on the other hand, is built spontaneously by local villagers. They do not pay the land-use right granting fees, which a developer must pay
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m Chinese cities are attracting a large number of migrants
Hukou system In 1958, the National People’s Congress passed the Regulation on Household (hukou) Registration of the People’s Republic of China. Since then, China has been institutionally divided into dual systems, with an ‘invisible wall’ between the urban and rural citizens. People living in rural areas were registered as agricultural, and those living in urban areas as non-agricultural. This division was used to distinguish citizens’ access to state-subsidised welfare. The ascribed status is inherited from the mother.
Finally, according to the Urban Real Estate Administration Law, when a buyer formally purchases housing, a Document of the Quality Guarantee for Housing should be obtained. In recent years, rather than renting, an increasing number of migrant workers purchase housing in urban villages, yet do not get this document as part of the transaction.
The redevelopment dilemma
to the government, nor do they pay any of the taxes and marketing expenses which developers must pay based on legal regulations. As a result, the cost of housing in urban villages can be as low as one third of that of formal housing. Utilities, infrastructure and services in urban villages are generally good, and meet the basic demands of migrant workers for electricity, water, sanitation, hygiene-related issues, as well as convenient access to public transport. They generally provide all necessary facilities such as shops, medical clinics, restaurants, hostels, and schools. However, compared to formal housing developments, the conditions are poorer, for example multi-floor buildings lack elevators and population destiny is high.
Planning permits Urban villages are regarded as an informal development by government administrations since by sidestepping the transfer rules, their development violates the laws on land, planning, and real estate. In addition, according to the Urban and Rural Planning Law, all construction should be within the ‘planning area’, and only if it meets the planning requirements can the developer apply for the Certificate of Construction Land Planning Permit. Housing in urban villages cannot be granted such a certificate because it does not comply with these planning requirements for height or plot ratio of the building. For example, according to the regulations in Guangdong province, buildings on a villager homestead cannot exceed four floors, while in reality, some villagers have built as many as 10.
Due to their informality and location, urban villages are increasingly targeted for redevelopment in major Chinese cities. This was confirmed as a priority in the March 2014 Report on the work of the government, issued at the Second Session of the Twelfth National People’s Congress. Governmental officials, developers, and local villagers are the key players during the process. Through negotiation, the local villagers get a significant amount of compensation for relocating. Their unregulated housing is then demolished, and the homesteads transferred from rural collectively owned to state owned, with construction land-use rights then granted to real estate developers. After the construction of new office buildings, shopping malls and formal residential apartments, the unregulated urban villages become absorbed into the surrounding city. However, a huge social issue goes unheeded. As the de facto dwellers of urban villages, migrant workers are marginalised tenants, who are forced to leave urban villages without any compensation. With the gradual disappearance of urban villages, finding shelter in cities is becoming increasingly challenging for migrant workers. Making efforts to solve housing issues in Chinese cities remains a pressing issue for the state, market, and society. b
Li Sun is a postdoctoral researcher at Delft University of Technology, Faculty of technology, policy and management L.Sun-1@tudelft.nl
Related competencies include Planning, Housing strategy and provision, Sustainability
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WASTE
Building from waste
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The potential to reuse the world’s growing piles of waste in the circular economy is discussed by Dirk Hebel, Marta H Wisniewska and Felix Heisel
aste is a result of any human action and interaction, bringing raw natural materials from one stage of being into another, by applying various forms of skills and energy. In this sense, waste was seen for centuries as something specific, which neither belonged to the family of natural resources nor to finished products. But waste could also be understood as an integral part of a resource, the substance or matter from which to construct or configure a new product after its first life span. This metabolic thinking understands the built environment as an interim stage of material storage, or in the words of design innovator Mitchell Joachim: “The future city makes no distinction between waste and supply.” According to the US-based Worldwatch Institute, the world’s growing population and prosperity will double the annual production of municipal solid waste by 2025, from today’s 1.3 to 2.6 billion tonnes. Will we be able to activate this material for urban construction? If so, the concept of a circular metabolism could emerge, whereby the city is constantly producing the matter it needs to grow without exploiting natural resources. Concepts for future cities call for architects and designers to think, work and create in a holistic, circular spirit to allow materials to live through several states of formation and use over their life span without ever being waste. 1 8 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
Linear economy Currently, we follow a linear process where the outcome of our consummation is not valued as a resource, but seen as a kind of product excluded from the environmental cycle. Absurdly, in the US local authorities collect 251 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per year, of which only around 87 are recycled. The rest ends up in incineration plants and landfills. This misuse of refuse is also a waste of natural resources, such as the energy, water and other materials needed to produce the discarded items from virgin resources. The manufacture of a plastic bag requires crude oil, not only as the raw material but as energy needed for its production. In total, 1kg of CO2 is emitted to make five average-sized bags. Almost half could be saved if plastic waste materials were recycled instead of discarded or burned, emitting even more carbon dioxide and toxic fumes. Numbers are even higher in other industries. Recycling steel saves 75% of energy compared to its fabrication. And producing 1 tonne of paper uses 98 tonnes of natural resources. Yet high amounts of paper waste are still generated, even though recycling is one of the easiest processes to adopt.
Circular economy A circular or metabolic economy has been mooted for decades by economists and architects. In the late 1970s, US landscape architect John T Lyle developed a theoretical concept in which communities base their daily activities on living within the limits of available renewable resources without causing environmental degradation. His work and visions, developed with his students at Cal Poly Pomona University, Image © iStock
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From drink packaging to pavilion
Following McDonough and Braungart’s argument, systems need to be installed that constantly recover the stored economic value, which should become a social responsibility.
Urban mining
In 2013, an estimated 178 billion beverage cartons were consumed worldwide. Some 430,000t of drink cartons were thrown away in 2010 in the US alone. In theory, the materials (paper 74%, polyethylene 22%, and aluminium 4%) can be re-separated relatively well. At this year’s IDEAS CITY street festival by the New Museum in New York, ETH Zurich designed a pavilion to showcase how these discarded drink cartons can be used to build impressive and load-bearing structures. The ETH Zurich Pavilion by Dirk E Hebel, and Philippe Block, Professor of Architecture and Structure, in cooperation with US company ReWall, the beverage cartons were shredded by machine then pressed into panels on a conveyor belt using heat and pressure. No water, glue or other additives are required, and crucially, the three substances are not harmful. Following their use in the pavilion structure, they can be fully integrated into the recycling process. ETH Global and the New Museum used the structure to host events ranging from seminars and lectures to parties and exhibitions.
found widespread interest due to the studies of Walter R Stahel, co-founder of the Product-Life Institute in Geneva. A pioneer in the field of sustainable thinking, he promoted the “service-life extension of goods” and was one of the first to introduce three Rs to product life cycles – reuse, repair, and remanufacture. Stahel is credited with the term ‘cradle to cradle’, later turned into a well-known principle by the architect William McDonough, a former student of Lyle. Together with German chemist Michael Braungart, the cradle to cradle manifesto introduced the idea that all materials used in the industrial and commercial production process should be acknowledged as constituents of a continual circular growing process. Imitating a natural metabolic life cycle, the pair developed a model of a technical metabolism of the flow of industrially produced materials. The key idea is obvious: products should be designed in such a way that they can become part of a continuous recovery and reutilisation process. They act as nutrients in a global metabolism, without ever being discarded as useless and value-free substances.
The concept of urban mining is relatively young, embracing the process of reclaiming compounds and elements from wasted or undesired products or buildings, which contain high levels of valuable materials. Commentators Ilka and Andreas Ruby describe the shifting awareness that raw materials are more and more to be found, not in a ‘natural’ realm, but in the ‘cultural’ domain of buildings. In their text Mine the city, they say: “The material resources of construction are becoming exhausted at the place of their natural origins, while inversely accumulating within buildings. For example, today there is more copper to be found in buildings than in the earth. As mines become increasingly empty, our buildings become mines in themselves.” The city therefore becomes the means for its own reproduction, they argue. For Thomas E Graedel of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Science, urban mining also answers the question of how to make energy savings. He argues that the reuse of aluminium, extensively used in buildings, requires only 5% of the energy for its original production. When buildings are remodelled or demolished, the aluminium is freed for recycling, so it is not inaccurate to regard this as ‘urban ore’ and cities as ‘urban mines’, he says. Urban mining demonstrates how waste products can be resourced at the end of their first life span, when entering a second or third, by being transformed, reshaped, remodelled, or reconfigured. But it also raises the question of whether the consideration of the waste state of a product should not become the starting point of its design. b
More information >
The authors’ book Building from waste, recovered materials in architecture and construction provides a conceptual and practical look at waste as a renewable resource, from straw facade panels and self-healing concrete to research into the use of newspaper, wood and jeans fibres. Through ideas and products, the book highlights the potential of waste as a building material for future cities and aims to change the perception of this ‘renewable’ resource. The book is published by Birkhäuser/DeGruyter.
Dirk E Hebel is Assistant Professor of Architecture and Construction and Marta H Wisniewska and Felix Heisel are Researchers and Teaching Assistants at ETH Zürich and the Future Cities Laboratory, Singapore hebel@arch.ethz.ch; wisniewska@arch.ethz.ch; heisel@arch.ethz.ch
Related competencies include Waste management, Sustainability
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 1 9
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R A I N FO R E STS
n Evidence of land rights can be passed down through generations
One map at a time
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Modern mapping is helping Upper Guinea communities to establish land rights and arrest the destruction of the rainforest, reports Jamil Hasan
The communities living around Outamba-Kilimi National Park near Sierra Leone’s northern border have survived off the region’s lush rainforest for generations. But rapid deforestation, slash and burn agricultural practices, and bush fires are ravaging the area and other parts of the Upper Guinean Rainforest. Once covering much of Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast and parts of Ghana, less than 10% of the original rainforest remains. The destruction continues through the hunting and poaching of endangered wildlife and logging – often done illegally – to meet the rising demand for bush meat and timber in West Africa’s burgeoning cities. In the struggle to make a living, others cash in on whatever gold they can dig out in small-scale, illegal mining operations that pollute streams and cause other environmental damage. Help arrived in 2007 via the Sustainable and Thriving Environments for West African Regional Development (STEWARD) programme, funded by the American
people through the United States Agency for International Development West Africa, and the United States Forest Service (USFS) International Programme. This teaches sustenance farmers and local communities to manage community forests sustainably and find environmentallyfriendly ways to make a living. The aim is not only to lift them out of poverty, but also to save what remains of the rainforest, which is home to 220 species of birds, at least nine species of primates, and endangered animals such as the pygmy hippopotamus.
Land right The problem for Sierra Leone, when STEWARD was launched in 2009, was that there were no accurate maps of how much forest remained. This is far from an unusual problem in Sierra Leone, where records of land use and ownership were destroyed during a bloody civil war that ended in 2002. Sierra Leoneans still struggle to get land titles for plots that may have been in their families for generations. While in the capital Freetown multiple people often have titles to the same plot as a result of corruption and fraud, in remote areas, no full cadastre ever existed. Such official registers denote what rights and responsibilities people in the community have to specific plots of land.
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Instead, the land and resources are owned by local chiefs and leased to the population by word of mouth. People’s rights to parcels of land and resources are determined by complex relationships between clans, as well as immigrants from neighbouring countries and regions and conflicts festered. Boundaries were traditionally defined by landmarks such as big trees or streams. Thus, a family might be given the right to farm a piece of land between two mango trees. But if the trees are chopped down, they struggle to prove what is theirs when others lay claim to the same area. And as Sierra Leone opens up to foreign investment in the Images © STEWARD
STEWARD Sustainable and Thriving Environments for West African Regional Development
logging, mining and agri-business sectors, swathes of rural land have been leased or sold to companies without consulting communities or providing
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any form of compensation. In other cases, it is possible for chiefs who do not have accurate maps to promise companies a certain amount of land without knowing whether they have that much territory to sign away. With no government official to resolve land disputes within 200km of the Outamba-Kilimi National Park, anyone wanting official documentation has to hire professional surveyors, who charge far more than an average Sierra Leonean can afford.
Mapping project With the help of Thomson Reuters, 19 communities in northern Sierra Leone and the nearby region have overcome this challenge by surveying and mapping almost 325ha of land themselves. From 2011 to 2015, Thomson Reuters established a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) centre in Freetown as well as three mini GIS centres in partner countries Liberia, Guinea, and Ivory Coast to determine target areas for documenting local land and property rights. USFS then taught the communities about the concept of land and property rights, while Thomson Reuters trained them to use Aumentum OpenTitle. This inexpensive software allows rapid documentation and processing of rights and embeds ESRI GIS technology to digitally link people to parcels, and needs
little technological knowhow to build maps and record information. The importance of recording land use agreements on paper was stressed and volunteers administered a survey of each household on size and resources. Where neighbours disagreed on their boundary, the volunteers helped them work it out and note it down. Then they took photographs of people with their plots, and any landmarks, and used hand-held GPS devices to map the boundaries of household land and community forests. The data, along with satellite images and information from conversations with elders of the community, was aggregated at the mini-GIS centres with Esri’sArcGIS to produce maps detailing the land and resource rights of members of each community and individual households. Each household received a set of papers with maps and pictures outlining their land rights while each village knew the size of its community forest. Now, disputes can be resolved by checking the records, rather than relying on word of mouth, and the evidence of land rights can be passed down through generations. The government land and forest agencies were also involved in developing the methodology behind these new records, and the data was structured to fit the
official formats, lending real legitimacy to the documents. It is also the first time that the government has a complete record of the local forest and what belongs to the community enabling design policies to save it. Together with maps that Thomson Reuters is producing for communities and governments in Guinea, Liberia and the Ivory Coast, this will play an important role in preserving the West African rainforest.
Sustainability goal Historically, community forests in northern Sierra Leone had been managed by male elders or chiefs who prohibited activities, such as logging and hunting in certain areas, but their ideas and knowledge of sustainable practices were limited. Now community members are taking on board the concept of forest co-management introduced by Thomson Reuters and STEWARD. Decisions are made through forest management committees, which include men and women of all ages, formed to collectively manage the forest as a shared resource and responsibility.
They meet regularly to discuss how to use their land sustainably and, little by little, the community forests are coming alive with environmentally-friendly activities, ranging from honey production to the cultivation of medicinal plants. Members of the community are also farming more sustainably by using crop rotation and other techniques that keep land fertile, in addition to cutting back on and managing slash-andburn agriculture, a traditional practice that leads to uncontrollable bush fires. With the maps identifying responsibilities, local communities are beginning to have serious conversations about preserving the forest for their children and future generations. And when logging or mining companies want to invest in the region, local communities can hold up their documents as proof of their rights. No matter how poor they are, it gives them a chance to say, “This is my land and you can’t just take it from me.” Hectare by hectare, the community members are standing up for themselves and becoming agents of change. C
Jamil Hasan is a Project Coordinator at Thomson Reuters Jamil.hasan@thomsonreuters.com
Related competencies include Mapping, Cadastre and land administration, Property records and information systems
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started my career as a topographical surveyor with Ordnance Survey (OS) in 1953. The first three months were spent on a basic draughting course where students were taught to use a ruling pen to draw straight lines, to print lettering neatly and to learn the basic concepts of plotting details of field chain survey books. A further course comprised an introduction to undertaking chain surveying, including booking and plotting, and accurately carrying out detail surveys (filling in all the topographical details inside a basic framework that had been obtained from the chain surveys). This was all done in the field, and the only equipment for the tasks, including all the plotting, was an optical square and 30m tape. I can remember one course instructor saying: “One day, surveyors will walk round with a little black box that will display the exact position of its location.” How prophetic, given today’s use of GPS. Following completion of the training, students were transferred to various OS offices. I spent the next 18 months working on 1/1250 surveys using chain and detail survey methods in urban areas of the Black Country. Surveys were plotted onto aluminium butt-jointed plates that had a white-coated surface that ensured a continuous plan over the whole area. Plotting was carried out in the field, using a 9H pencil or a silver point; often on cold winter days, a curl of ice would precede the plotting point when plotting lines on the plate.
Engaging trigonometrics When I was conscripted for National Service, my employment with OS guaranteed my entry into the Royal Engineers in a survey unit. After six weeks’ basic training I was posted to the Army Survey School and undertook the AIII Trigonometric Survey course. This covered the essentials of triangulation, traversing using a 100m steel band for distance measurement and levelling, including contour interpolation from a grid of levels and plane tabling, related computational work using a Facit calculator with seven-figure natural trignometric tables and use of logarithms. 2 2 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015
Arthur Wills remembers a surveying career without the benefit of today’s hi-tech aids
Back to the future I was then posted to 89 Field Survey Squadron based in Nairobi, Kenya. The unit was assisting the Survey of Kenya in densifying the triangulation control in a large part of Masailand. I was assigned to the computation office, where two of us were responsible for calculating the coordinates and heights of new trigonometric control directly from the field sheets. To ensure accuracy, this data was calculated by both machine and natural tables and logarithms. Transfer to the field unit followed, where I was in a survey party undertaking theodolite observations for the new trigonometric control. This often included maintenance of heliographs for other parties to observe to our station during the day and occasionally the use of signal lamps at night. Mapping was non-existent for much of north and north-eastern Kenya bordering Ethiopia and Somalia, and so the RAF flew small-scale photography at a scale of
I can remember one course instructor saying: ‘One day, a little black box will display its exact location’
1/150,000 over the whole area. There was no trigonometric control available, so this photography was controlled by identified points which were fixed by astro survey and barometer heighting. After a crash course in using star almanacs, conversion of standard to sidereal time and methods of observation and calculation, we transferred to Mandera, a small town in north-eastern Kenya. We were then split into separate field parties, each of which was assigned a number of points to be identified and co-ordinated; the latter was carried out by 32-star position line fixes that consisted of eight sets of four stars, one in each quadrant, being observed at accurately timed moments. Time was calculated using chronometers set to Kenya radio signals, time pips and stop watches. The requirement was for eight sets of coordinates within a limit of about 6m, and the mean result was considered sufficiently accurate to control the small-scale photography.
Post-war advances After I was demobilised, I resumed my career with OS and worked on revision of the old pre-war 1/2500 rural county series. In 1958, the OS replaced chain surveying to provide the framework for the 1/1250 urban areas with horizontal bar tacheometer traverses and detail survey. I then successfully applied for a post
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with Wolverhampton Corporation, where surveys were undertaken for all departments. This included planning, fieldwork, calculations, plotting and final drawings. Initially, all plotting was done on linen-backed paper; the introduction of stable-based draughting film solved many problems. In 1960, the British athlete, Peter Radford broke the world record for the 220 yards (201m) at the Aldersley Stadium in Wolverhampton and we were able to verify the length of the track to the International Athletics authorities.
Cadastral surveying Five years later, I was appointed on Overseas Aid terms as a surveyor with the Water Development Department in Tanzania. I rapidly became proficient in the design of gravity-fed pipelines, supervision of six construction teams and many other responsibilities involved in a region the size of Wales. My next Overseas Aid contract was with the Department of Surveys in Malawi, where I was introduced to cadastral surveying. Many of the tasks required establishing control from the national triangulation network that often involved the use of the MRA101 tellurometer, which employed a klystron or cavity resonator to generate frequency-modulated microwave emissions. Once the control was fixed, the remainder of the survey would be carried out by catenary taped traverses. Using
a 300ft (91m) steel band that had been standardised at a particular temperature and tension, corrections had to be made for ambient temperature and sag, the steel band normally being supported in two places along its length. This was time-consuming; it was a good day if a total distance of two miles or more traversing was achieved. Most of the related calculations were carried out off-site, but tasks such as placing or searching for beacons were conducted in the field. This normally entailed sitting under a convenient tree, using a Brunsviga calculating machine and a set of Peters’ seven-figure natural trigonometric tables to calculate and check the field observations. Towards the end of my three-year contract, measurement of distances using an MA100 tellurometer superseded catenary taping. I joined the Public Works Department in Swaziland, which was responsible for all survey work required by other government departments, including site surveys, road profiling and setting out. My arrival coincided with the establishment of the post of Surveyor General for Swaziland; previously, all local cadastral surveys were the responsibility of the Surveyor General’s Office in Pretoria, South Africa. All the existing survey records for Swaziland had been transferred from Pretoria and I was responsible for their organisation and undertaking all the government cadastral work. A DI10 distomat was available for distance measurements and, about this time, Hewlett Packard introduced its first programmable calculator, the HP35, which although it required a separate magnetic card for each calculation, made surveys much easier. The HP35 was soon replaced with the more efficient HP45 and the DI10 distomat with a model that was lighter and had a far greater range. When I was appointed Deputy Surveyor General, I was still involved with all the cadastral work, including the establishment of a precise levelling section to provide a network of benchmarks throughout the country, a monitoring programme for a large earth dam that had been constructed in the lowveld (two areas that lie at an elevation between 150m-600m above sea level) and the densification of the triangulation control network.
I am astounded at the changes that technology continues to bring to the survey and mapping industry Aerial advantage In 1981, I took up permanent residence in Johannesburg, South Africa where I joined Aircraft Operating Company (AOC), an aerial survey and mapping company. Among my responsibilities were handling all photo control survey contracts, supervising the cadastral section that supplied information to be included in mapping contracts and oversight of any engineering survey mapping such as volumetric surveys and road and railway routes. The first GPS unit was brought into the country and I worked on the early tests that used control points in AOC’s aerial camera test area. Due to the limited number of satellites available then, control points had to be occupied sometimes for two to three hours. I was also involved with the migration from conventional hand-drawn mapping to digital mapping, which meant a major shift in techniques and equipment. In 1993, I took over the cadastral section on a consultancy basis, supplying digital data for AOC and many other clients. Looking back on the many improvements in equipment and practices during my 60 years as a surveyor, I am astounded at the changes that technology has brought and continues to bring to the survey and mapping industry. C Arthur Wills is a retired member willcad@worldonline.co.za
Related competencies include Measurement
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Stephen Chadwick looks at the effects of 3D digitally modelling cities to improve efficiency, security, utility planning and public services.
Model cities
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y 2020, 70% of the world’s population will be city dwellers. In the UK, they will account for more than 92% of the population, up from 79% in 1950. In Africa, Botswana holds the record for that continent’s growth, from 2.7% in 1950 to 61% today, while China has seen a rise in city living from 13% to more than 40%. Worldwide, around 125,000 people move to cities every day. Cities need to plan for the future and Dassault Systèmes is working with many to create 3D digital city models to act as a central reference point for local government, urban planners, architects
l Virtual Singapore Jurong
and citizens. This technology helps them to define the future based on ‘what if’ scenarios involving such elements as heath provision, mobility, security and utility planning. This new perspective integrates formerly disparate departments, making them better informed, more efficient and able to visualise potential futures with greater accuracy.
Single source With political, financial and security consequences at stake, there is a growing information disjunction between city administrators. A 3D city model efficiently solves this problem by keeping people in synch with one
Pioneering Virtual Singapore Project Dassault Systèmes is cooperating with the National Research Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore, to develop Virtual Singapore, an integrated 3D model infused with static and dynamic city data and information. The collaborative platform will be used by citizens, businesses, government and research community to develop tools and services that address the complex challenges the city faces. This project will build on Dassault Systèmes, 3DEXPERIENCity to connect all stakeholders in a secured and controlled environment. Employing data analytics and model simulations, it will be used for testing concepts and services, planning, decision-making, researching technologies and generating community collaboration. With images and data collected from geometric, geospatial and topology agencies, as well as legacy and real-time data such as demographics, movement or climate, Virtual Singapore users will be able to create rich visual models and large-scale simulations. These can explore the impact of urbanisation on the city-state and develop solutions that optimise logistics, governance and operations related to environmental and disaster management, infrastructure, homeland security or community services. Powered by the 3DEXPERIENCE platform, it provides a scalable, single unified hub to represent, extend and improve the real world addressing architecture, infrastructure, planning, resources and inhabitants through virtualisation, simulation and collaboration capabilities. Virtual Singapore was launched in December 2014 as part of Singapore’s Smart Nation drive and is expected to be completed by 2018.
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Images © Dassault Systèmes
another through a single source of information about their city. In the past, separate information stores or silos inevitably arose, where more than one computer system was deployed by an organisation. With no access to each other’s data, planning is often based on out of date or incomplete information that effectively misinforms stakeholders and the public. This can lead to wrong choices being made and security being compromised. If aeroplanes were built and operated like cities, no one would fly in one. Now cities are deploying technology from aerospace and other highly efficient industries including F1 motor racing, in a drive to improve services, promote universal access to information and accurately envision future performance. Starting with a blank page, new cities can plan and operate using the same software that fosters industrial and commercial innovation. Existing cities can incorporate this technology on new projects.
k The technology is being applied to Brussels
k Model of Rennes For example, Dassault Systèmes is currently working with the Italian government to streamline the Ministry of Commerce and Finance’s internal and external information services. Using 3DEXPERIENCE technology as a platform, other projects and any type of information can be added over time to build a 3D picture that is comprehensible and usable by all.
“ As more users
contribute information a ‘time machine’ historic model will emerge
Secure in knowledge It is possible to make the mass of data that cities generate more useful and effective for planning purposes by building layers of information around a digital 3D city model. In France, a project with an airport authority makes use of a 3D digital model of the facility’s transport, utility and logistics services. This allows them to operate what-if scenarios and isolate gaps in services or provisions. By incorporating building services, aircraft movements, foot traffic and much more, planners see the whole
system and work towards improving its security and overall efficiency. The same system applied to a city deploys the 3DEXPERIENCE Platform to unify silos of information and bring departments into harmony. Efficiencies can be made because people are aware of each other's work and can organise departments, security and utilities based on current information and needs. With workflow monitoring, unifying and coordinating systems around a 3D digital model encourages fresh ideas sparked
by collaboration and the new vision that the model provides. People more fully understand the impact of their decisions and, by having access to appropriate layers of information, reach and communicate them universally.
Lessons for the future Progressive cities are able to commit their work, including 3D digital models of buildings and services to a unified platform and build up an increasingly detailed utility, security and services model when new projects are added. As more users contribute information a 'time machine' historic model will emerge. Historic situations become viewable while the progress of current work can be very accurately recorded and traced. This visibility means the mistakes of the past can be avoided and routes to good decisions recorded because the unified platform helps people better understand the current situation and that of their predecessors. It also allows a view of what is to come. Adding details OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2015 2 5
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k Singapore wind simulation
New cities Traditional planning is built on the idea that efficiency is achieved by standardising every element. Make every road, streetlight, junction and building the same and you drive down costs and make cities easier and quicker to build, expand and repair. But, much like medicine has come round to the idea that no two humans are alike and therefore need personalised care, Ingeborg Rocker, head of the GEOVIA 3DEXPERIENCity project at Dassault Systèmes believes that no two cities can be considered the same. Instead, she says cities need to be viewed and planned as living entities, where every element and every citizen is part of a whole. Changes – no matter how small – cannot be made without examining their impact on the entire organism and its environment. “Studies of the interaction between people and systems have revealed patterns that are anything but standard,” says Rocker, who is also an associate professor of architecture at Harvard University. “If we analyse the patterns and interactions between people and systems – such as transport and waste management – we can develop cities that are still robust while also being highly efficient and sustainable – but in new terms." “Even the most remote regions of the Earth are affected by urban lifestyles. In the name of sustainability, we must seek new ways to limit the impact urban growth has on our entire geosphere.”
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of future projects to the model allows decisions about utilities and other matters to be more fully examined and effectively dealt with. This type of system is used by major aircraft manufacturers, power plant operators, pharmaceutical, food and consumer product companies to ensure compliance to rules. It also leads to accurate record keeping throughout all operations and processes. And it retains intellectual property, meaning that when people leave, the knowledge they built up is not lost but remains within the layers of information that comprise the 3D model. Planners, rather than reacting to situations as they develop, can examine scenarios to find the most beneficially optimised solution. This makes best use of resources and funds for both the public’s and the authority’s mutual benefit – a political no brainer.
Problem solved Using shared 3D experiences reveals potential problems that may not be seen by other means. Overlaying data reveals new views making it possible to predict events. Transport systems and hubs, public services, utility provision and security, along with the location and operation can be modelled. Seamlessly linking the system to financial software allows cost planning and budgetary predictability. Potential problems and their outcomes can be observed and fixed before they occur. Building up knowledge into a single 3D digital model that can grow over time to encompass any aspect of the city saves time and allows projects to
proceed more easily with all stakeholders being aware of the consequences of their decisions. Being able to see the big and the small picture also helps to reduce corruption by making it easier to spot. To become vibrant, exciting places to live and work, cities need to accommodate the human urge for spontaneous creativity. Introducing order where it is needed can lead to the natural expressions that give a city its soul. C
Stephen Chadwick is Managing Director EuroNorth at Dassault Systèmes www.3ds.com
Related competencies include GIS, Planning, Property records and information systems
Images © Dassault Systèmes
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