«Safety and Security»

04 Safety and Security RIGA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY RESEARCH

Safety and Security RIGA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY RESEARCH 04

This issue encompasses the results of research carried out by RTU in the field of civil and military security.

Today, the security issue is one of the biggest challenges, therefore RTU researchers in different fields of science, such as informatics, mechatronics, materials science and others are involved in security research and are offering technological solutions that could already now solve many problems related to border security, defense of cyber systems, water supply networks and other critical infrastructures.

Our researchers are successfully collaborating with the Latvian National Armed Forces and are involved in the research project for NATO. The issue gives insight into the most interesting research conducted in recent years.

I wish you an interesting reading,

Riga Technical University Dr.sc.ing., Professor TÄ lis Juhna Vice-Rector for Research

SAFETY, SECURITY and defence Security is one of core human values as well as one of basic tasks of the state – by ensuring the protection of its citizens against factors that are distressing, affecting their health and property as well as possibly causing both physical and mental suffering. For this purpose, every State forms bodies which take care of the country’s external defence and internal security. Unfortunately, the number of risks in the world posing threats to the security does not decrease over time and considerable resources still should be devoted to their prevention.

Riga Technical University (RTU) research platform Safety, Security & Defence (S&D) is intended for promotion of interdisciplinary research in areas that could directly affect security of individuals and collective security of the country as well as its capabilities of defence against negative impact of various external factors.

The scope of the research platform’s main areas of activity includes: • Strategic products for international security; • Border security; • National economic security; • Civil protection.

The research fields cover a very wide range of problems where representatives of all branches of science should be involved in finding solutions and thus contributing to strengthening the general security both at national and international level. Threats in modern world are complex; therefore their prevention is a particular challenge for various industries by forming joint research groups in order to find integrated solutions. Only implementation of latest achievements of science and technology in the work of the S&D bodies in both Latvia and our partner countries will allow to ensure situation where everyone living in the country could feel secure and protected. These objectives will not be achieved without involvement of S&D body repre-

sentatives in research since their experi- field of activity. In this regard, one of the ence is important not only for finding the research platform tasks is to maintain a innovative solutions but also for imple- mutual dialogue or communication with menting them successfully. Furthermore, representatives of S&D industry trying to conducting a research, it is important to understand their problems and supplying ensure close cooperation with local indus- them with latest scientific developments. tries by contributing to their development This situation is not unique to Latvia and manufacturing of innovative products and can be regarded as a global problem, not only for the domestic market but also therefore various ways to overcome this for export, in particular, with regard to ‘language barrier’ are sought elsewhere. the products: goods, services, technology On the other hand, to introduce the and information, which can be used not latest scientific and technical developonly for civilian purposes but in the mili- ments on a broad scale, it is necessary tary sector as well. to ensure that they are multiplied or S&D system is based on three pillars, produced; and this task requires close namely: S&D bodies which are the di- cooperation with the companies. Varirect implementers of S&D activities ous factors exist preventing the compaand which are directly connected with nies from direct cooperation with govthe companies supplying the necessary ernmental bodies during the product products, industry and the scientific development period. This is mainly recommunity as a source of knowledge lated to various potential risks of corabout potential threats, their nature and ruption. The scientific community in capabilities to eliminate them or miti- this respect is a channel that provides gate their consequences. Similarly, com- a legitimate exchange of information panies must have access to information between industry and public bodies. necessary to improve and develop their Within the area of S&D research, sciproducts in accordance with modern re- entists of the RTU have previous sucquirements. These are the three pillars, cessful cooperation with both state namely, S&D bodies, industry repre- institutions and companies in finding sentatives and scientific institutions, of solutions relating to security and dewhich close cooperation contributes to fence matters. Therefore RTU research the development of secure environment. platform S&D must become a forum RTU research platform S&D must be- where issues of trilateral cooperation come a cornerstone of this mutually could be addressed successfully. beneficial and legitimate cooperation.

Scientists of RTU have experience in S&D research is inextricably connected successful cooperation with the governwith and subordinate to the national in- mental S&D bodies, international organiterests and shall not be contrary to them, zations as well as companies seeking to therefore cooperation with the relevant work in this field. The task of the research governmental bodies is vital to this re- platform is to promote and expand the cosearch. One of factors preventing this operation as well as to increase the numcooperation from expanding lies in the ber of researchers and representatives of fact that representatives of the S&D sector companies and public bodies involved in use a specific language; concepts they use finding solutions to the S&D problems. are understood differently in the scientific community because the researchers also Dr.sc.ing. Juris Ķiploks express themselves in a certain way that, Head of RTU Defence and Military in addition, strongly depends on their Technology Research Centre

Contents DECONTAMINATION OF MODEL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM AFTER DELIBERATE POLLUTION WITH BACILLUS SPORES Kamila Gruškeviča

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INNOVATIVE MATERIALS AND SMART TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, IMATEH 10 Andris Čate, Diāna Bajāre, Līga Radiņa MISSION SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION FOR UNMANNED VEHICLES Agris Ņikitenko

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EVALUATION OF CAMOUFLAGE FITTING INTO PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT Iveta Ābele, Inese Ziemele, Ausma Viļumsone, Igors Šitvjenkins

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REQUIREMENTS FOR STATE ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTION EMPLOYEES’ FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING AND THEIR SYSTEMIZATION Inese Šroma, Iveta Ābele, Inese Ziemele, Ausma Viļumsone

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NANOLEVEL MODIFIED COTTON TEXTILES FOR SAFETY Svetlana Vihodceva, Silvija Kukle

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OUR CIVILIZATION ON ENERGY NEEDLE Pēteris Apse-Apsītis

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RESILIENCE METRICS OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEM: RESULTS OF A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH IN LATVIAN CONTEXT Francesco Romagnoli, Claudio Rochas

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NOTAM MESSAGE REGARDING UAS OPERATION IN RIGA FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION Monta Lacane, Aleksandrs Urbahs

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SAFEGUARDING THE EU MARKET AGAINST ILLEGAL CIGARETTE IMPORTS Māris Jurušs, Zane Rutkupe

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Institute of Heat, Gas and water technology

Department of Heat and Gas technology

Department of Water Technology

DECONTAMINATION OF MODEL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM AFTER DELIBERATE POLLUTION WITH BACILLUS SPORES Faculty of Civil Engineering Institute of Heat, Gas and Water Technology

▶Dr. sc. ing.

Kamila Gruškeviča

ABSTRACT

Drinking water distribution networks are critical infrastructures, being the potential targets for terrorists’ attacks. This study focuses at the decontamination of a drinking water distribution system after its deliberate contamination with spores of Bacillus spp. Shock chlorination, acid and alkaline flushing processes were tested for the ability to inactivate Bacillus spores in a large-scale pilot loop.

The results of the study show that shock chlorination is very efficient against Bacillus spores in water; however, additional treatment is necessary to inactivate the spores adsorbed to the surfaces. A novel approach to alternation of chlorine and the biofi lm release agent (NaOH) gave the best results in inactivation of Bacillus spores on PVC pipe surfaces.

Keywords: drinking water, distribution network, decontamination, Bacillus spores.

INTRODUCTION Intentional contamination of water distribution networks is the most serious among possible scenarios in terrorists’ attack [1]. There is a long history of the use of water resources as both a target and a tool of terrorism. More than 40 documented facts took place during the last 14 years (2000 to 2014) concerning terrorism-related threats to drinking water systems around the world [2].

Knowledge about decontamination of these systems is not sufficient to recover them within reasonable time and restore their normal operation. To relieve the consequences of deliberate or accidental contamination of distribution networks, it is necessary to understand the processes occurring within the network. It is clear that decontamination (introduction of chemicals) gets complicated due to chemical, microbiological and physical interactions; moreover, the method itself must be safe.

This study focuses on decontamination of a model drinking water distribution system after its deliberate contamination with resistant microorganisms (spores of Bacillus anthracis). Bacillus spores (causing agent of anthrax) are categorized as a threat to drinking water systems; besides, the spores are stable in water for long periods and strongly resistant to common drinking water disinfection methods [3].

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples were taken from both bulk and surface (coupons). Also prior to Large-scale pilot experiments were performed to evaluate the conventional Run # 6, the pilot systems were fi lled decontamination methods that can be applied to a drinking water network con- with tap water and water was recycled taminated with Bacillus spores. Briefly, the spores were introduced into a pilot for 2 weeks to grow the biofilm on the system (Fig. 1) with a total volume of 99 l and the total length 28 m (the inner pipe walls. diameter of the pipes 75 mm) and were recycled for 48 h. After that time, the selected decontamination agent (Table 1) was introduced into the pilot system.

RESULTS Table 1 Simulated Distribution System Decontamination Run #

Reagent used

Concentration, mg/L

Total Ɵme, min

Target pH

Biofilm

1

NaOH

12

300

N/C*

No

2

HCl

2

300

N/C

No

3

Free Cl

200

150

6

No

4

Free Cl

200

1440

7

No

5

NaOH + Cl

15 + 200

420

N/C

No

6

NaOCl→ NaOH→ NaOCl

200→ 15→200

180→180 →1080

6→N/ C→6

2 weeks

* N/C – pH was not controlled.

Fig. 1. Pilot distribution system

Fig. 2. B.subtilis spore inactivation in bulk water

The results showed (Fig. 2) that the fastest inactivation agent for B. subtilis spores in bulk water was free available chlorine (with pH adjusted to 6 or 7).

NaOCl with target concentration of 200 mg/L of free chlorine inactivated 5 log10 (99.999 %) B. subtilis spores in water after 3 hours. The kinetics of inactivation of B. subtilis spores in water using sodium hypochlorite at pH 6 and 7 was similar.

Free available chlorine inactivated 84 % of the spores on PVC coupon surfaces after 3 h (Cl pH 6) and 95 % after 2 h (Cl pH 7) (data not shown). No further reduction in spore concentration on the coupon surfaces was detected.

NaOH (1.2 % volume concentration) capable to germinate B.subtilis spores in the water has decreased by 1Log10 (90 %) after 4 hours (Fig. 2). HCl (0.2 % volume concentration) did not manifest any significant inactivation of B. subtilis spores in water.

Sodium hydroxide (1.5 %) in combination with sodium hypochlorite (200 mg/L free chlorine) showed similar inactivation kinetics to chlorine after the first 30 min in water (Fig. 2).

During next 1.5 h, the inactivation kinetics slowed down. Afterwards, the number of spores capable to germinate increased from 2.2.102 to 2.1.103 per ml and stayed at this level till the end of decontamination experiment.

To test the capability of the elevated pH to release the adsorbed spores from surfaces under conditions maximally close to the real distribution network, one experiment was carried out in the system with a 2-week old distribution system biofilm. The disinfection regime used involved the alternation of free available chlorine and sodium hydroxide (Table 1).

The results evidently demonstrated that NaOH promoted the spore desorption from the pipe walls (Fig. 3).

This approach also showed the highest efficiency in inactivation of B. subtilis spores on PVC pipe surfaces. After the first chlorination (3 h), the number of spores capable to form colonies on the R2A agar decreased by 1 log10. After the 7

KOPSAVILKUMS

Fig. 3. The effect of alternation of free available chlorine and sodium hydroxide on inactivation of B. subtilis spores in water

second chlorination (sodium hydroxide was used in between), the number of spores decreased by 1.66 log10 or by 98 %. The results were slightly better than those obtained in the pilot studies on decontamination of water and surfaces from Bacillus spores by EPA [4].

CONCLUSIONS • Single chlorination (Ct value = 30000 mg∙min/L) is an effective method to inactivate B. subtilis spores in water (5 log10 decrease 3 hours), but it fails at the surface disinfection (3 . 103 spores/cm2 adhered to pipe surfaces survived).

• Alternated chlorination with alkaline treatment (or other release agent) is the most effective method (among those tested) for decontamination from B. subtilis spores adhered to the surfaces.

REFERENCES 1.

Kroll, D. The terrorist threat to water and technology’s role in safeguarding supplies. in Pros. 45th Session of the International Seminars on Planetary Emergencies. 20–23 august 2012. Erice, Italy.

2. Gleick, P. H. (ed. Water Conflict Chronology List. (2015) Available from: http://www2.worldwater.org/conflict/list/ visited 08.01.2015.

3. Carrière, A., Gauthier, V., Desjardins, R. & Barbeau, B. Evaluation of loose deposits in distribution systems through unidirectional flushing. (2005) J. / Am. Water Work. Assoc. 97, 82–92.

4. Krishan, R., Piao, H. Pilot-scale tests and systems evaluation for the containment, treatment, and decontamination of selected materials from T&E building pipe loop equipment. (2008) Cincinnati. Ohio.USA.

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Publikācija veltīta dzeramā ūdensapgādes tīkla attīrīšanas metodēm pēc apzināta piesārņojuma ar rezistentiem mikroorganismiem (Bacillus anthracis sporām). Dzeramā ūdens apgādes tīkli ir neaizvietojama infrastruktūra, kas potenciāli var būt teroristu uzbrukumu mērķis. Pētījuma laikā veikts liela mēroga ūdens attīrīšanas pēc piesārņojuma ar Bacillus sporām pilotpētījums, izmantojot šokveida hlorēšanas, skābes un sārma skalošanas metodes.

Pētījuma rezultāti parādīja, ka šokveida hlorēšana ir efektīva metode ūdens attīrīšanai pēc piesārņojuma ar sporām, taču papildus uzmanība ir jāvelta ūdensapgādes sistēmu cauruļu virsmām. Vislabākos rezultātus cauruļu virsmu attīrīšanai no Bacillus sporām parādīja jauna metode, kas paredz atkārtotu hlora un cauruļu virsmu attīrošā aģenta (NaOH) ievadīšanu sistēmā.

INSTITUTE of MaterialS and STRUCTURES

Department of Composite Materials and Structures

Department of Building Materials and Products

INNOVATIVE MATERIALS AND SMART TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, IMATEH Faculty of Civil Engineering Institute of Materials and Structures

▶Dr.sc.ing., Prof.

Andris Čate

▶Dr.sc.ing., Prof.

Diāna Bajāre

ABSTRACT

Use of innovative and advanced materials is a driving force in many sectors of economy. Results of research on materials are significant for improving building and transport infrastructure and ensuring climate, environmental, health safety. Systems of smart materials provide the preconditions for a breakthrough in creation of innovative constructions, thus contributing to the use of future technologies in urban environment and providing a significant economy of energy in the construction sector. In addition to the impact on economy created by the use of innovative materials, they should be environmentally friendly, i.e. materials used in infrastructure projects should be safe against potential chemical and biological risks during all life-cycle. Taking into account that every material can lose its properties with time, it is vitally important to create and apply methods for detecting ageing of the material at early stages.

Keywords: innovative materials, smart technologies, environmental and human safety

▶Mg.sc.ing.

Līga Radiņa

INTRODUCTION According to the latest EU standards, the sustainability and safety are among key demands for building materials and structures. Therefore, attention should be paid not only to the direct costs of structures and infrastructure objects but also to the growing maintenance costs of these structures and objects.

Annual growth in maintenance costs of buildings and infrastructure objects is observed in Latvia, which can be explained by both construction of new objects and ageing of the existing buildings, infrastructure, proper and regular maintenance. For example, expenses for maintenance and repair works of the EU transport infrastructure will amount up to 11 billion euros during next 20 years. It should be noted that the amount of fi nancial investments in buildings and infrastructure objects for preventive measures was insignificant and irregular since Latvia had gained its independence. Therefore, current safety can be doubted for infrastructure objects and buildings built 50–60 years ago and having reached the end of their planned service life. Being aware that in the nearest future it would be impossible to pull down all objects and buildings after expiry of their exploitation period, it is necessary to take into account economic considerations, standards, methods and recommendations for safety assessment in these buildings, which would be based on scientific research and recognized by experts in order to use them in the process of decision-making

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according to legislative norms. Similar tendency can be tifunctional composite materials for sustainable builobserved in recently constructed buildings, namely, the dings” is being implemented in relation to wood consquality of construction design and construction works is truction materials. Within this project, it is planned to questionable due to the lack of consistency in legislation develop plywood I-core type sandwich panels, which are regarding the construction sector. Overall quality of cons- composite materials alternative to conventional plywood truction works has decreased during the last few years, boards having improved heat resistance, vibration/imwhich is associated with a strong focus on the lowest costs pact damping and environmental stability. Such strucin national and municipal tenders and lack of qualified tural solution has several advantages over conventional labour force in the construction sector leading to the use plywood boards: weight and material savings are only of unqualified labour force. Consequently, a synergy can some of them [6]. be noticed with the National Research Programme prioNational Research Programme is oriented to the deverity “INNOVATIVE AND ADVANCED MATERIALS, lopment of innovative composite materials for construction SMART TECHNOLOGY”, which is one of the priority sector, thus assessment of safety and sustainability of the directions in 2014-2017. In addition, conformity of the existing buildings and infrastructure objects as well as the National Research Programme with other priority direc- increase in their safety level and service life by using innotions - “LOCAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND SUS- vative materials and technologies is an integral part of it.

TAINABLE USE” and “ENVIRONMENT, CLIMATE Within the framework of the project “Risk Consideration AND ENERGY” can be observed [1]. for Safe, Effective and Sustainable Structures”, dynamic National Research Programme has a practical orientation: characteristics of road bridges in Latvia will be investigated each of its tasks will contribute to the important sectors of the and technologies for control of active and hybrid vibrations Latvian economy - Construction, Transport, Material Pro- aimed at reduction of unwanted vibrations will be devecessing. At the same time, the main task of the research prog- loped. Besides, methods and technologies for structural ramme is to create new knowledge about use of innovative health monitoring of real applications that can increase materials, ensure safe living environment, facilitate technology safety, extend serviceability, reduce maintenance costs and transfer to the economy by contributing to the restructuration operating limits of structures will be developed, contribuof the national economy according to the smart specialization ting to the increase of knowledge about building safety and strategy for a long-term development in Latvia. its assessment methods [7].

Six projects are included in the National Research ProgMechanical destruction of materials begins at nano and ramme IMATEH, being interrelated and integral parts of micro scale. Early destruction is researched in the project the whole programme in order to fulfi ll the tasks of the “Material Mechanical Micro- Nano- Scaled Features and programme: Their Impact on Human Safety” which goal is to develop Goal of the project “Innovative and Multifunctional Com- methods for early diagnostics of destruction of polymers posite Materials from Local Resources for Sustainable Struc- and polymer composites and analyse application of thetures” is to create and investigate composite materials for se methods in enterprises in order to improve quality of sustainable buildings, for example, CO2 neutral composite the materials. The planned results of this project will be materials from textile plants, high-performance concrete methods for early diagnostics of destruction of polymer composite materials and bitumen composites. [2], [3], [4]. and polymer composite materials and recommendations Innovative composite materials for construction pur- on how to choose the composite materials and polymers poses, which are made from the local resources and are for mechanical constructions and drinking water systems. well suited for the Latvian climate with a high air hu- Development of the above-mentioned methods will create midity, as well as recommendations and guidelines for a world-class knowledge and contribute to improved qualiproduction and casting of these products will be deve- ty and increased safety level of materials as well as to the loped within the framework of this project. Fulfillment solutions of economic problems and possible creation of of the project will contribute to the transformation of competitive products [8]. economy to production of construction products with a In order to prolong the life cycle of dynamic constructihigh added value. ons operated in conditions of movements, vibrations and Forests, being one of the most important renewable mutual influence, the task of scientific research is to reduce resources, wood construction materials and composite the friction-caused fatigue impact of materials. materials play an important role in the construction secGoal of the project “Processing of Metal Surfaces to tor. Within the framework of the project „Layered Woo- Lower Friction and Wear” is to develop a methodology den Composite with Rational Structure and Increased and criteria for optimization of metallic material properSpecific Bending Strength”, it is planned to develop the ties for improvement of surface treatment and coating and principles of ribbing technology as well as demonstration reduction of friction and wear of friction pairs. To achiemodels of wood composite plates. Creation of layered ve this goal, it is necessary to determine the relationship wood composite material with a rational structure with between metal alloys and their sliding ability, to develop increased specific bending strength will lead to reduction a method for measurement of sliding ability, as well as to of expenses, materials and energy compared to conven- determine the main factors that influence the increase in tional wood materials These innovative materials will the sliding ability. Surfaces with improved sliding ability have a potential not only to enter the local market but will be created in this project with involvement of local also contribute to the export capacity of wood processing metal working companies and use of new surface modificompanies [5]. Another project - “Innovative and mul- cation methods [9], [10].

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Conclusions In the course of this research realized within the framework of the National Research Programme, innovative and multifunctional materials and technology will be created, as well as legislative and normative base for safe application of materials and structures in Latvia will be developed.

The accumulated knowledge in the form of publications, recommendations, technologies, methodology and other scientific documents as well as scientific conferences (student conference, 2nd International Conference “Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies”) will be available to producers of construction materials, civil engineers, students, planners, as well as legislative and supervisory institutions resulting in economic development and direct improvement of human living environment safety for the existing and future infrastructure.

Acknowledgment The research leading to these results has received the funding from Latvian state research programme under grant agreement “INNOVATIVE MATERIALS AND SMART TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, IMATEH”.

national Conference on Bio-based Building Materials, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 21.06–24.06.2015.

5. G.Frolovs, K.Rocens, J.Sliseris. Glued Joint Behavior of Ribs for Wood-Based Composite Plates, 2nd International Conference „Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies”, Riga, Latvia, 30.09– 02.10.2015.

6. E. Labans, K. Kalnins. Experimental Validation of the Stiffness Optimisation for Plywood Sandwich Panels with RibStiffed Core, Wood Research 59 (5), 2013, 793–802.

7. I. Paeglite, A. Paeglitis, J. Smirnovsm. The Dynamic Amplification Factor for bridges with span length from 10 to 35 meters. // Journal Engineering Structures and Technologies, 2015, pp.1–8.

8. A. Aniskevich, O. Bulderberga, Yu. Dekhtyar, V. Denisova, K. Gruskevica, T. Juhna, I. Kozak, M.Romanova.

Coloured Reactions and Emission of Electrons towards Early Diagnostics of Polymer Materials Overloading.

2nd International Conference „Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies, Riga, Latvia, 30.09– 02.10.2015.

9. Z. Butans, K.A. Gross, A. Gridnevs, E. Karzubova. Road Safety Barriers, the Need and the Impact on Road Traffic Accident Mechanism, 2nd International Conference „Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies”, Riga, Latvia, 30.09–02.10.2015.

10. J.Lungevics, J.Zavickis, L.Pluduma, K.A.Gross. Finding The Best Qualitative And Quantitative Assessment Method For Highly Polished Low-friction Surfaces, European Material Research Society (EMSR) Conference “EMSR Fall meeting 2015”, Warsaw, Poland, 15.–18.09.2015.

Project partners: Institute of Materials and Structures (Riga Technical University) Institute of Structural Engineering and Reconstruction (Riga Technical University) Institute of Transport Infrastructure Engineering (Riga Technical University) Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Nanotechnologies (Riga Technical University) Biomaterials research laboratory (Riga Technical University) The Institute of Polymer Kopsavilkums Mechanics (University of Latvia) Latvian State Institute of Publikācija veltīta valsts pētījumu programmas “InoWood Chemistry. vatīvi materiāli un viedās tehnoloģijas vides drošumam (IMATEH)” projektu īstenošanai. Šīs programmas ietvaros tiek radītas jaunas zināšanas inovatīvo un daudzfunkcioReports and conference papers 1. Order of the Cabinet of Ministers No.551 On the Priority nālo materiālu un tehnoloģiju jomā, kurai ir liela ietekmē uz industrijas attīstību, ražojot sarežģītus produktus un Directions in Science for 2014–2017, 20.11.2013.

2. G. Bumanis, D. Bajare, A. Korjakins. Durability of High attīstot zināšanu pārneses vidi, veidojot labāku izpratni par Strength Self Compacting Concrete with Metakaolin nākotnes tehnoloģijām, palielinot bāzes pētniecības kapaContaining Waste, 24th International Baltic Conference citāti viedo materiālu un konstrukciju sektoros. Projekta īstenošanas gaitā tiek veicināta uz zināšanām balstītas Baltmattrib, Tallinn, Estonia, 5.11–6.11.2015.

3. V. Haritonovs, M. Zaumanis, R. Izaks, J.Tihonovs. First tautsaimniecības attīstība, sniedzot ieguldījumu Latvijas Trial to Design Hot Mix Asphalt in Latvia with High apstrādes rūpniecības ilgtspējīgā attīstībā, diversificējot RAP content, International Conference on Structural apstrādes rūpniecību un panākot straujāku vidēji augsto un augsto tehnoloģiju nozaru attīstību, kā arī sekmējot Integrity, Funchal, Portugal, 1.09–4.09.2015.

4. M. Sinka, L. Radina, G. Sahmenko, A. Korjakins, D. Ba- augstākas pievienotās vērtības produktu ražošanu tradijare. Enhancement of Lime-hemp Concrete Properties cionālajās tautsaimniecības nozarēs un jaunu nišas prousing Different Manufacture Technologies, 1st Inter- duktu ražošanas attīstību.

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Institute of Applied Computer Systems

Department of Artificial Intelligence and Systems Engineering

Department of Software Engineering

Chair of Applied Computing System Software

MISSION SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION FOR UNMANNED VEHICLES Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology Institute of Applied Computer Systems Department of Artificial Intelligence and Systems Engineering

ABSTRACT â–śDr.sc.ing., Assoc. Prof.

Agris Ĺ…ikitenko

At present time, several methodologies are known, which propose a quantitative performance estimation of unmanned systems (UMS). Unfortunately, none of them has been widely adopted by the UMS community. Having a way to estimate the mission specific UMS performance before the actual application of the UMS would provide means for more effective mission planning and more successful accomplishment of the planned missions. Therefore, the proposed estimation called the Mission Performance Potential (MPP), in contradiction to methods estimating UMS performance by means of historical data, provides a prior estimation using the mission and UMS description as well as the reasoning tool. This paper is a more concentrated report on previously published work and the main results comprising the tests with application of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for target tracking mission. The full report can be found in [1].

Keywords: Mission Performance Potential, Autonomous operation performance, UMS performance estimation

INTRODUCTION Despite rapidly growing application of unmanned systems (UMS) and increasing capabilities of their autonomous operation, the community still has not agreed on the standards or common methods for performance assessment of the applied UMSs. The problem becomes even more urgent when the particular system is capable to change its autonomy level from remote controlled operation up to fully autonomous operation. Several models proposed for assessment of UMS autonomy level and autonomous performance are briefly described in the following section.

Unfortunately, in case of having several possible assets none of the proposed methods provides a simple means for the user (a military unit or operator) to select one particular asset that would perform best at a given or selected autonomy level. This paper describes a quantitative measure for mission specific performance of a given UMS depending on the selected autonomy level of the UMS. The proposed metric for measurement of autonomous performance is designed to predict the maximum possible mission performance of a UMS for a given mission and autonomy level and is referred to as the Mission Performance Potential (MPP).

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The remaining part of this report is arranged as follows: Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of existing metrics and their possible application.

Chapter 3 describes the proposed MPP measure and data required to calculate the MPP for a given UMS and mission.

Chapter 4 contains the results of practical test of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle compared to the expert evaluation in order to provide a solid ground for verification of the proposed method.

Chapter 5 contains conclusions and a brief insight into possible future work.

RELATED WORK The considered previously developed methods can be divided into two categories: contextual and non-contextual; A. Contextual Performance Evaluation Tools The most developed and commonly referenced contextual model for assessment of autonomous UMS performance is the Autonomy Levels for Unmanned Systems (ALFUS) framework [2] [3]. The ALFUS is not a specific test or metric, but rather a model of how several different test metrics could be combined to generate an autonomy level. The framework includes the following four components: 1) Terms and definitions published in [2] 2) Detailed Model for Autonomy Levels 3) Summary Model for Autonomy Levels 4) Guidelines, processes and use cases For a given mission and environment, the metrics are measured for the mission complexity, environmental complexity, and human independence of the UMS (measured during the mission performance), and these metrics are combined to form a level of autonomy.

The ALFUS framework provides the capability of estimating the level of autonomy of one robot or a team of robots. However, the ALFUS methodology does not provide the tools to: – decompose the tasks in a commonly agreed way; – test all possible missions, tasks, and sub-tasks; – assess the interdependency between the metrics; – allow the metrics to be standardized in scoring scales resulting in subjective estimations; – integrate the metrics into the final estimate.

Perception

Modelling

Unfortunately, ALFUS does not provide a relation of the autonomy level to the performance in the given context. In some missions, a higher autonomy does not imply a higher performance as a simple tele-operated vehicle maybe more effective.

B. Non-Contextual Performance Evaluation Tools The main obstacle to the use of the ALFUS and other contextual measures of autonomy is that they are highly context-sensitive methods, requiring the metrics to be measured not only for the UMS hardware platform but also for its operator and mission environment.

To overcome this drawback, an alternative measure has been developed. Th is framework, referred to as the Non-Contextual Autonomy Potential (NCAP), was fi rst presented in [4] and [9]. The NCAP provides a predictive measure of a UMS ability to perform autonomously rather than a retrospective assessment of UMS autonomous performance.

The NCAP treats the autonomy level and the autonomous performance separately. A UMS that fails completely in its mission but does so autonomously still operates at the same autonomy level as another UMS that succeeds in the same mission.

The NCAP defines four Autonomy Levels (AL). Figure 1 shows the NCAP and AL within the context of the architecture model. The NCAP is solely based on the UMS platform itself. Metrics based on the component level testing of the UMS are combined to provide the final NCAP score, and the NCAP is intended to serve as a tool for prediction of autonomous performance potential.

While each of the described methods provides some of the features for the autonomous operation, a new one is needed that would combine both contextual and non-contextual measures to provide a more solid estimate.

THE MISSION PERFORMANCE POTENTIAL As discussed above, a tool is needed, which predicts the performance potential for a particular mission with given UMS hardware, software, and operational environment.

Planning

Execution

Testing of physical sensor systems.

Testing of modelling software: (mapping, localization, target detection, etc.)

Testing of planning software: (path planning, behaviour generation, etc..)

Testing of UMS platform and controls: (mibility, HRI testing, etc..)

Fully non-autonomous:

Semi-autonomous:

Autonomous:

Fully Autonomous (nonhuman in the loop):

Autonomy level 0

Autonomy level 1

Autonomy level 2 Autonomy level 0-2 (3)

Fig. 1. NCAP autonomy levels

15

Unmanned system

Environment

Intelligence metrics Mission – specific Fuzzy inference

Environment description

NCAP metrics

MPP metric estimation

Fig. 2. MPP framework

More specifically, a new tool is needed that provides the following: 1) a single, numeric value, comparable between UMS systems, which provides a predictive measure of UMS performance for a given mission, environment, and autonomy level; 2) a fi xed UMS autonomy level with UMS performance measured as a function of this autonomy level; 3) an input data set that can be evaluated using only the UMS system and mission description.

The MPP methodology provides a snapshot of a UMS potential to perform a given mission at a given autonomy level.

The MPP starts with fi xing the autonomy level in a similar way as NCAP approach. The MPP defines five levels of autonomy as follows: 1) Radiocontrol – the operator is provided with a method of directly controlling the actuators of the vehicle; 2) Teleoperation – the operator is provided with a method of indirectly controlling the actuators on the vehicle, through control-by-wire or rates control; 3) Supervised Autonomy – the operator is provided with a method of controlling the vehicle path. It is assumed that the operator can maintain the communications line-of-sight with vehicle for task reallocation or waypoint definition; 4) Adaptive Autonomy – the operator is provided with a method for accepting the vehicle-initiated changes in the initial task, path or target. The vehicle is capable of suggesting, changing or overriding previous operator’s commands; 5) Higher Intelligence – the operator is provided with the vehicle’s relevant information for decision-making and tactical planning. The operator does not need the access to full vehicle’s sensor readings or navigation sensors, and instead focuses on collection of mission sensitive data.

The MPP framework uses a similar data collection method as the NCAP. Then, questions related to the mission and environment are used to create “masks” to compute the final MPP score for the UMS. Calculation of the MPP score requires three types of input data:

16

1)

data about the system being estimated, i.e. the platform’s physical parameters, such as weight, shape, dimensions, sensing capabilities describing the sensor types, their functional characteristics including the sampling rates and data noise parameters, to name a few; 2) data about the system’s intelligence, i.e. the platform’s decision-making capability, including the path planning, re-planning, obstacle avoidance, and other relevant features that demonstrate the system’s active and reactive behaviours; 3) data about the mission environment, including weather conditions, soil conditions, structuredness (i.e. urban vs. cross-county), to name only a few.

The framework is outlined in Figure 2 below. The main challenge behind the MPP calculation is the need for a reasoning procedure that allows the combination of input data, which is different both in its nature and its value domains.

The only feasible solution for MPP calculation is therefore the use of fuzzy inference techniques allowing to combine different information types into a unified inference mechanism [5].

Using the fuzzy logic, the MPP aggregates all necessary data related to the UMS system (hardware, soft ware, intelligence) into a final MPP score. The rules and “masks”, as mentioned above for the fuzzy aggregation, are determined by the mission description.

MPP TRIAL ON FIELD UAV The proposed MPP framework was implemented using MATLAB Fuzzy Logic toolkit [6]. In order to test the framework, afield test of UAV mission was performed on December 2013 by Portuguese Air Force at Ota Air Force Base in Portugal. Four dedicated flights were performed on the same day on the same mission to provide possibly equivalent conditions.

The UAV operators were given a task breakdown for the mission as follows: 1) Airborne: Take off and proceed with first checks; 2) Transition to Automatic control; 3) Fly/route: Proceed to search area;

4) Observe/Reconnaissance/Identify: Observe, recognize and identify the target; 5) Follow: Track and follow the target for 10 minutes; if the target is lost, re-task with previous task; 6) Fly/route: After finishing the mission, return to base through predetermined flight path; 7) Land: Preform final checks and land.

In order to compare the MPP, which represents the predicted mission performance potential, with the actual mission performance, a questionnaire was developed and given to three UAV operators. Using the questionnaire, each mission task was evaluated qualitatively and scored within the range 0 to 9. Then the membership values for each data were aggregated, and the final total membership function was de-fuzzified into a single value between 0 and 100, where 100 represents perfect performance and 0 - absolute failure.

The calculated MPP for this particular UAV and mission scenario was 77.95. Therefore, the maximum possible performance for this asset and for this mission is roughly 78/100. The reason why the MPP predicts a maximum possible performance below the theoretical max of 100 is the imperfections in the UAV’s sensors, other technical parameters, such as maximum altitude and fl ight speed, and a low overall platform intelligence regarding the UAV’s onboard reasoning algorithms. Comparison of both assessments, the 87.96 UAV operator performance rating observed during live testing and the 78 calculated using the MPP tool, shows that the calculated MPP and the observed performance are close enough, and that the proposed MPP method is a valid approach for performance assessment and its future development.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK As shown in the paper, MPP has certain advantages over the existing methods, such as independence on the field tests and fi xed autonomy level, which to some extent simplifies the calculation for the end-user while MPP provides the performance potential rather than the actual performance estimation. Therefore, future developments should involve full-scale tests of UMS missions, providing a validated tool form mission planning and increasing UMS autonomy.

Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Ms 39180 phillip.j.durst@erdc.dren.mil – Jo˜ao Caetano employed by Portuguese Air Force, PtAF Research Center, – Portugal jvcaetano@academiafa.edu – Michael Trentini working for Defence RD Canada Suffield, Box 4000 Station Main, Medicine Hat, AB, T1A 8K6, Canada ike.drdc@shaw.ca REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

J. Durst Phillip, W. Gray, A. Nikitenko, J. Caetano, M.Trentini, R.King, A framework for predicting the mission-specific performance of autonomous unmanned systems, In Proceedings of Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2014), 2014, IEEE, pp. 1962 – 1969.

Huang, Hui-Min, et al. ”A framework for autonomy levels for unmanned systems (ALFUS).” Proceedings of the AUVSIs Unmanned Systems North America (2005): 849 – 863.

Huang, Hui-Min, Elena Messina, and James Albus. Toward a generic model for autonomy levels for unmanned systems (ALFUS).NATIONAL INST OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY GAITHERSBURG MD, 2003.

Durst, Phillip J., Wendell Gray, and Michael Trentini. ”A Non-Contextual Model for Evaluating the Autonomy Level of Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles.” Proceedings of the 2011 Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium.

Zadeh, Lotfi Asker. ”Fuzzy logic.” Computer 21.4 (1988): 83 – 93.

MathWorks, Inc, and Wei-cheng Wang. Fuzzy Logic Toolbox: for Use with MATLAB: User’s Guide. MathWorks, Incorporated, 1998.

KOPSAVILKUMS

Publikācija veltīta bezpilota sistēmu (BS) veiktspējas novērtēšanai. Līdz šim ir zināmas metodes, kas piedāvā BS veiktspējas kvantitatīvu novērtēšanu. Diemžēl neviena no tām nav plaši lietota BS sabiedrībā. Daudz efektīvāk plānot un izpildīt BS misijas būtu iespējams, ja BS specifisko veiktspēju varētu novērtēt pirms misijas izpildes.

Publikācijā aprakstīts novērtējums, kas saukts par Misijas Veiktspējas potenciālu. Tas ļauj iegūt iepriekšēju novērtēACKNOWLEDGMENTS jumu, izmantojot misijas un BS aprakstus, kā arī atbilstošu This is a concentrated review of research previously pub- spriešanas mehānismu pretstatā BS veiktspējas mērījulished in [1]. Therefore, the whole research team has to be miem, kuri izmanto vēsturiskus datus. Publikācija balstās acknowledged: uz iepriekš publicētiem pētījumiem, kuros bija ietverti arī – Phillip Durst (main contributor) and Wendell Gray work- praktiski testi, mērķa izsekošanas misijā izmantojot bezing for the US Army Engineer Research and Development pilota lidaparātu.

17

Institute of Design Technologies

Department of Clothing and Textile Technology

Department of Material Technology and Design

EVALUATION OF CAMOUFLAGE FITTING INTO PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT Faculty of Material Science and Applied Chemistry Institute of Design Technologies Latvian National Armed Forces

▶Mg.sc.ing.

Iveta Ābele

ABSTRACT

Function of military uniform camouflage is to visually hide human outline and minimize the contrast between the body and the environment.

Camouflage is usually featured by a wide variety of colours, texture and patterns differing in accordance with geographic location, season and environment thus creating the mimics of temperate, tropical, desert and arctic backgrounds [1].

One of problems for the camouflage user is the quality of protection against visual detection and evaluation of camouflage hiding capability.

The target of the present research is to create a method for evaluation of camouflage fitting into particular environment for visual protection of soldiers.

▶Dr.sc.ing., Assoc. Prof.

Inese Ziemele

Keywords– camouflage, evaluation, fitting into particular environment, colour concordance

INTRODUCTION Two camouflages of military uniform were evaluated and compared in this research: the existing uniform camouflage of Latvian National Armed Forces and the experimental camouflage with corrected green color.

▶Dr.sc.ing., Prof.

Ausma Viļumsone

CAMOUFLAGE FITTING ANALYSIS METHOD A hypothesis was advanced that the evaluation of camouflage fitting into environment could use the statistical distribution of color values.

Adobe Photoshop soft ware CS3 RGD analyzing tool was used for visual evaluation of soldier’s uniform camouflage fitting into particular environment.

The original picture (Fig. 1) was divided into two parts. One picture consists of a camouflaged soldier (Fig. 2a) and the other picture – the background environment (Fig. 3a) without the soldier [2].

Pixel calculations were made for both pictures using the program Adobe Photoshop CS3 and the feature for color generation model RGB histogram. Mean, STD deviation, median, counts of pixels were analyzed using the histogram statistics.

Mean represents the average intensity value of all pixels in the image. Median shows the average value in the range of intensity values [3]. After calculations, both histograms were combined. As a result, one histogram of the environment and the other one with the camouflaged soldier were obtained by placing together both coloring intensity histograms.

▶ Dr.sc.ing.

Igors Šitvjenkins

19

a) Fig.1. Original picture

b)

Fig.2. a) camouflage, b) camouflage histogram

Although all colourings are represented in both pictures, the picture with the environment histogram (Fig. 3b) consists of darker colourings and the average intensity value is 89.61. The picture with the camouflage histogram (Fig. 2b) consists of lighter colourings and the average intensity value is 102.23. However, the environment picture is brighter than the picture with the camouflage (higher pixel count). After comparison, it was assumed that the camouflage fits well in the environment (Fig. 4).

EXPERIMENT OF FITTING IN

a)

To test the hypothesis, 30 pictures were analyzed with soldier uniforms of Latvian National Armed Forces made at five different geographic locations in Finland, Israel, Malaysia and 2 locations in Latvia, and two different green colors were also compared of the existing military camouflage and the experimental military camouflage with adapted green color.

Geographic locations were chosen according to areas of military actions of Latvian National Armed Forces.

Previously described method was used in the experiment. Environment and camouflage area was selected for each picture.

b) Fig.3. a) environment, b) environment histogram

20

Fig.4. Combined histogram

Mean, standard deviation and median values were determined for each picture. Based on the experiment results, the linear correlation factor, students test value and tabled critical value calculated. The obtained value shows (Tab.1) that linear correlation of standard deviation between the camouflage and the environment is not approved. Linear correlation coefficients of mean and median confirm the existence of linear relationship between the camouflage and the environment colour intensity and colour tone separation.

The research allowed to conclude that the corrected green color camouflage better fits in abovementioned geographic areas and its implementation provides a better visual protection.

It was determined that the difference in colour intensity normal values between the environment and the corrected camouflage reduced by 1.36 to 2.72% compared to the original camouflage.

Table 1. Results of experiment linear correlation coefficient r

Criterion of Student numerical value determined from results of experiments texp

linear correlation coefficient of mean, for camouflage and

2.962 0.49

>2.045

environment

correlation exists

linear correlation coefficient of

1.128

STD deviation for camouflage and

0.21

<2.045

environment

no correlation exists

linear correlation coefficient of

2.741

Median for camouflage and

Criterion of Student tabulated critical value of 95% probability of 29 degrees of freedom tkrit

0.46

environment

>2.045 correlation exists

CONCLUSIONS

KOPSAVILKUMS

The developed method for evaluation of camouflage fitting into environment provides possibility to evaluate the efficiency of camouflage at different geographic locations and the quality of soldiers’ protection against visual detection.

Camouflage evaluation research was carried out by RTU for evaluation of new camouflage uniforms of Latvian National Armed Forces.

Publikācija veltīta Latvijas Nacionālo bruņoto spēku maskēšanās apdrukas novērtēšanai. Jau vairāku gadu garumā Rīgas Tehniskās universitātes Dizaina tehnoloģiju institūts sadarbojas ar Latvijas Nacionālajiem bruņotajiem spēkiem karavīru individuālās aizsardzības jomā.

Sadarbības ietvaros Rīgas Tehniskās universitātes Dizaina tehnoloģiju institūts ir izstrādājis metodi maskēšanās apdrukas novērtēšanas metodi, kuru var izmantot, lai prognozētu maskēšanās apdrukas iekļaušanos militārās darbības apkārtējā vidē. Vidē iederīga maskēšanās apdruka nodrošina labas vizuālās aizsardzības īpašības.

REFERENCES 1.

Scott, R.A., Rascotex. Military protection. In: Textiles for protection. UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010, pp. 597–621. ISBN 978-1-85573-921-5.

2. Lee, C.P. Robust Image Segmentation using Active Contours: Level Set Approaches [online]. Raleigh: Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, 2005 [viewed 05 June 2014].

Available from: http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/5246/1/etd.pdf 3. Viewing histograms and pixel values [online]. Adobe Systems Incorporated ©2014 [viewed 10 June 2014].

Available from: http://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/ using/viewing-histograms-pixel-values.html

21

REQUIREMENTS FOR STATE ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTION EMPLOYEES’ FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING AND THEIR SYSTEMIZATION Faculty of Material Science and Applied Chemistry Institute of Design Technologies

▶Mg.sc.ing.

Inese Šroma

▶Mg.sc.ing.

Iveta Ābele

▶Dr.sc.ing., Assoc. Prof.

Inese Ziemele

ABSTRACT

A comprehensive catalogue has been developed of uniforms, special clothing and individual protective equipment for officials of Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Finance and Prison Administration. Its purpose is to organize and keep a clear system of guaranteed professional clothing and protective equipment, providing an adequate level of ergonomics and comfort for users representing the state administration institutions and minimizing or eliminating work-associated and environmental risks within the period guaranteed by standards.

To facilitate the use of the general catalogue, a search algorithm employee <—> uniform, uniform components for a special task has been elaborated in order to learn what uniform and its components or protective equipment, what properties and fabric thereof are required for an official performing certain official duties under certain environmental conditions. It also serves to verify the conformity of the procurable clothing and protective equipment with the requirements.

Based on the general catalogue of special clothing and protective equipment and classification1 of objects contained therein, as well as on the algorithm for use of the general catalogue, it is planned to develop a classifier of functional clothing for employees of state institutions2.

Keywords: functional clothing, components, requirements, classifier, algorithm.

INTRODUCTION

▶Dr.sc.ing., Prof.

Ausma Viļumsone

To develop a common system for maintenance and renewal of Latvian state institutions personnel’s clothing and protective equipment, it is important to consult the current mandatory European regulations for grouping of special task clothing and protective equipment and the classification systems used for this purpose.

In accordance with the European standardization ePDC project 2003–2005 “Global Multilingual Product Description and Classification for e-Commerce and e-Business”, the standards of existing product description and classification were harmonized for all branches of national economy by developing a uniformly 1

Classification is a systemized arrangement of objects by specific categories, groups, subgroups or any other units depending on similarity or difference of their criteria. The codes assigned to specific objects enable the grouping of the relevant objects at any level of classification.

2 Classifier is a systemized list of objects, a system of codes or nomenclature. For each object of the classifier a specific identification code shall be assigned, which substitutes the object name.

22

applicable scheme for classification and description, formalizing it as CEN workshop agreement (CWA) [1]. The harmonized terminology was introduced by CWA 15294:2005 [2] as a solution of this task at all stages: data modelling, metamodeling as well as at the stages of classification and description of the products.

Problem Formulation Regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers (hereinafter CM) No. 137 of 10 February 2009 [3] and CM No. 705 of 03 September 2013 [4] and the law “On State Revenue Service” [5] (hereinafter – Laws on State Employees Clothing And Protective Equipment (LSECPE)) regulate the description of uniforms and insignia of institutions supervised by the Ministry of Interior (MI) - State Border Guard (SBG), State Police (SP), Security Police (SP), State Fire and Rescue Service (SFRS), Prison Administration (PA); customs institutions (Customs Administration, Customs Police Administration) of State Revenue Service (SRS) supervised by the Ministry of Finance, Finance Police officers with special ranks, as well as soldiers and Home Guard. They also prescribe the type and norms of issue of uniforms and description of insignia, as well as the types of gear and equipment and issuance norms of special clothing and personal protective equipment.

Analyzing the above Laws on State Employee Clothing and Protective Equipment (LSECPE) [6, 7, 8, 9], it has been concluded that there is no single body for issuance of clothing guaranteed by state to employees having similar official duties in different state administrative institutions and its systematic maintenance and management. Both the respective clothing and its properties have not been brought in line with the existing standards for protective clothing [10], which results in low quality of the state-guaranteed clothing, its inadequate functionality upon performance of certain tasks and, consequently, in dissatisfaction among users. Provision of employees with the state-guaranteed clothing is not transparent. It all leads to irrational use of the public funds.

Characteristics of state administrative institution employees’ clothing components and protective equipment Studying the groups of officials, conditions of performance of their job duties listed in Laws on State Employees Clothing and Protective Equipment (LSECPE), it was found that numerous different types of clothing and protective equipment have been systematized only partially in accordance with service tasks to be carried out and with possible threats.

This system does not comply with the requirements for protective clothing and protective equipment (often grouped according to the administrative structure elements of the institutions subordinated to MI). Besides, each state institution has different additional rules for issuance of protective clothing and protective equipment and different periods of standard useful life of equipment while the functions of employees and the threats in job descriptions are similar.

Even though the protective clothing and protective equipment listed in LSECPE and issued for protection are recognizable, it can be concluded that no single system exists in

Latvia for the state-issued protective clothing and protective equipment that would comply with the CM Regulation No. 74 “Requirements for Personal Protective Equipment, Procedures for Conformity Assessment and Market Supervision Thereof ” [11]. Th is Regulation provides a detailed explanation of the requirements applicable to labour protection tasks in individual sector.

According to the CM Regulation No. 74, the protective equipment is divided into three categories in accordance with potential risks. The category of protective equipment is determined by the manufacturer, its authorized representative or the importer in accordance with this Regulation, Articles 9, 10 and 11 [11].

Analyzing the information on labour safety regulations and requirements, it was established that: • The clothing and protective equipment mentioned in Laws on State Employees Clothing and Protective Equipment (LSECPE) should have such protective functions which are appropriate for the nature of work of each structural unit and for the types of threats occurring in work of each structural unit.

• In order to prevent specific threats, the elements of clothing and protective system should comply with the relevant standards for protective clothing and protective equipment (see Table below), in which respect there are no references and compliance requirements in the tender documents for procurement of clothing for state employees.

• The standards established for useful life of protective clothing and protective equipment should be harmonized with the functional performance of protective equipment, which also meets the standardized requirements for respective products.

• Clothing ensembles and protective equipment kits of special task forces and other units for participation in international missions or operations are hardly compatible or non-compatible with clothing and protective equipment used in other NATO member states [12], which may not take place during the participation in international missions or operations.

Types of threats encountered by state administrative institution employees Depending on the end-use functions, the clothing shall have the following protective characteristics: cold protection, heat protection, fire protection, chemical protection, protection against mechanical threats, radiation protection, biological protection, electrostatic and electromagnetic protection, camouflage protection, oil and water protection.

Requirements for protective clothing Protective clothing and means of state administrative institutions employees should: ensure a comfortable wearing and meet the requirements of occupational health and safety; withstand the stresses, to which it is exposed in daily work; serve as a functional work aid; be recognizable and distinguishable from other uniforms; be accepted by the wearer; provide the possibility of fast access to weapons and 23

Table. Types of threats to state administrative institutions employees and standards of requirements & testing methods for protective clothing Item no.

Threat

Standards for protective clothing requirements and testing methods

State administrative institutions

Environmental threats 1.

Heat

LVS EN 511:2006

Cold

LVS EN 14058:2004 LVS EN 342:2004 LVS EN 342:2004 /AC:2008 LVS EN 14225-1:2005 LVS EN 14225-2:2005 LVS EN ISO 15831:2004 LVS EN ISO 11079:

2.

3.

Wind Rain

4.

SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS

SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS LVS EN 343+A1:2007

SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS

LVS EN 343+A1:2007 /AC:2010 LVS EN 14360:2004

5.

Snow

6.

Dust

7.

Ultraviolet radiation Microorganisms

ISO 16603:2004 ISO16604:2004 EN 14126:2003 ISO 22609:2004

SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS

etc.

etc.

etc.

8. etc.

SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS SBG, SP, the Security Police, LVS EN ISO 13982-1:2005 /A1:2011 SFRS, PA, SRS SBG, SP, the Security Police, SFRS, PA, SRS

other equipment (VHF radio, telephone, writing materials); protect the wearer against cold, rain and wind both in winter and summer [13].

Therefore, it is also important to follow all requirements and instructions of the document CEN/TR 15321:2006 “Guidelines on the selection, use, care and maintenance of protective clothing”.

In the study-specific case, a particular attention should be focused at the garment’s functional requirements im-

posed by the employee (as well as by the country’s inhabitants who have also paid the uniform costs with their taxes), performance of particular apparel issued by the state when carrying out certain job duties in a certain working time regime (maintenance of public order, detention of offender/ trespassers, border control, firefighting, rescue operations,

Fig. Example of grouping of the classification characteristics in the catalogue.

24

etc.) in different environmental conditions (rain, wind, cold, heat, etc.), which should be highlighted as the most important. This set of requirements can be featured by the wearer’s physical comfort in clothes during the in-warranty period [14].

The additional informative group of the fourth objects level consists of a set of properties required for each uniform component. This set of properties is extensive and depends on the fabric type, surface density and efficient use of properties of each product, etc.

When choosing the classification characteristics of the database objects, it is necessary to provide for their possibStructure of Catalogue Database le diversity and increase in number when new objects are In order to maintain the availability and combinability added to the database.

The work has resulted in establishment of the catalogue of state administrative institutions employees’ everyday database with the search function employee <—> uniform, uniform and its components in compliance with the labour uniform components in order to find out which specific uniprotection standards, protective clothing standards and form component with which functional properties, from requirements for general representative clothing, a com3 which fabrics and fabric layers is required for an official carprehensive catalogue of characteristics of officials uniforms, rying out specifi c job duties in certain conditions of external specialized clothing, personal protective equipment and environment. their raw materials has been created. This will improve the provision of employees with a safe, comfortable and representative work uniform.

Conclusions The comprehensive catalogue will comprise a varying Analysis of available information allows to conclude that number of garments. Initially it is expected to include about 200 items. With changing and increasing duties of there is no common structure for issuance of the state- guofficials depending on financial possibilities of the state, aranteed clothing to the state administrative employees the assortment of clothing guaranteed by the state has having similar professional responsibilities, its system maa tendency to increase. It is also envisaged to regularly intenance and management, as well as that the respective compile the wearers’ references on the clothing func- clothing and its properties are not subject to the protective tionality, its ease of care, and register the actual service clothing requirements of the existing standards. life of clothing etc., in order to manage the lifecycle It has been established that according to the potential risk of clothing (PLM) issued by the state. It will allow to the protective equipment is divided into three categories and obtain accurate information on the desirable clothing the protection class corresponds to the relevant threat level improvements. specified in the applicable standards. During execution of In the comprehensive catalogue the components of uni- service duties, an official is exposed to either environmental forms, specialized clothing and personal protective equip- or human-caused threats or to both threats simultaneously. ment are grouped according to their common characteristics To mitigate or eliminate such threats, the functional clothing – the structural unit, the type of the ensemble and the kit, and personal protective equipment must be used, which components and their properties (see Fig.). complies with the protective clothing standard requirements These four groups of characteristics of each object are (see Table). Their performance during service is satisfactory sufficient for making a catalogue and are applicable to all according to the requirements of ergonomics standards ISO sections of the comprehensive catalogue. A set of charac- 7730 [15], ISO 7243 [16], ISO 11079 [17], ISO 9886 [18], ISO teristics of the structural unit is determined as a group of 15265 [19]. basic characteristics similar for all products. The characIt has been established that hazards and their types depend teristics of the ensemble type are separated as a group of on state administrative institution departments, groups of specific characteristics according to various user groups. officials, their respective duties and tasks. Official duties creThe characteristics of the ensemble components combina- ate preconditions for everyday basic uniform requirements, tion are distinguished as a type of specific characteristics. which in turn determine the basic components of uniform Particular component properties generally required for ensembles and the types of their layers. the uniform or protective clothing are distinguished as In designing and procurement of clothing for state eman additional informative group. Such structure of the ployees, both consumer and production requirements database, after registration of a new product in it, will groups are of equal importance since limited availability of allow to classify this product according to the defined financial resources will always be topical. One of the most characteristics of the uniform (requirements for protec- important properties of clothing is to maintain a steady temtive clothing). perature of human body at different ambient temperatures The type of specific characteristics of the third object and to provide heat exchange between human body and classification level is subdivided into seven sublevels of clo- environment. thing to be worn in various layer arrangements (the first, The comprehensive catalogue of employee uniforms, spethe second and the third level underwear, the 4th – 7th le- cial clothing, personal protective equipment and their raw vel jacket and trousers) and summer, winter and universal materials properties has been compiled in order to collect (all-year-round) seasons when a specific component of the the numerical, textual and graphic information on properuniform is worn. ties characteristic of the aforementioned items. The database 3

A catalogue assembled from different sources.

25

structure of the catalogue articles has been developed as well as the search functions. In the comprehensive catalogue the components of state officials’ uniforms, special clothing and personal protective equipment are grouped based on their unifying characteristics – structural units, type of clothing ensemble, ensemble components and properties.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

26

CWA 15295:2005. Description of References and Data Models for Classification. Brussels: CEN, August 2005.

130 p.

CWA 15294:2005. Dictionary of Terminology for Product Classification and Description. Brussels: CEN, May 2005. 26 p.

CM Regulation No. 137 “Regulations on Officials with Special Service Ranks Working in Institutions of the System of the Ministry of the Interior and the Prisons Administration of the Description of Uniforms and Distinguishing Marks, of Special Clothing, of Personal Protective Equipment, equipment and Inventory Types and of their Issue Norms”, adopted on 10 February 2009, entered into force from 26 February 2009, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis” No. 31 (4017), 25 February 2009. [Online] Available from: http://likumi. lv/doc.php?id=188255 CM Regulation No. 705 “Regulations on Officials of Customs Authorities and Financial Police of the State Revenue Service Uniforms, Badges and Ranks Distinguishing Marks”, adopted on 3 September 2013, entered) into force from 6 September 2013, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis” No. 173 (4979), 5 September 2013. [Online] Available from: http://likumi.lv/ doc.php?id=259555 Latvia Law “On State Revenue Service”, adopted on 28 October 1993, entered into force from 25 November 1993, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis”, No. 105, 11 November 1993, “Ziņotājs”, No. 34, 09 December 1993. [Online] Available from: http:// likumi.lv/doc.php?id=59902 Latvia Law “Law on Police”, adopted on 4 June 1991, published “Ziņotājs”, No. 37, 24 September 1992. [Online] Available from: http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=67957 Latvia Law “Border Guard Law”, adopted on 27 November 1997, entered into force from 1 January 1998, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis”, No. 329/330 (1044/1045), 16 December 1997, “Ziņotājs”, No. 1, 08 January 1998. [Online] Available from: http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=46228 Latvia Law “Fire Safety and Fire-fighting Law”, adopted on 24 October 2002, entered into force from 1 January 2003, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis”, No. 165 (2740), 13 November 2002, “Ziņotājs”, No. 23, 12 December 2002. [Online] Available from: http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=68293 CM Regulation No. 398 “By-law of the State Firefighting and Rescue Service”, adopted 27 April 2010, entered into force from 1 May 2010, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis”, No. 69 (4261), 30 April 2010. [Online] Available from:http://likumi.lv/doc. php?id=209089

10. Protective clothing – General requirements (ISO 13688:2013).

11. CM Regulation No. 74 “Requirements for Personal Protective Equipment, Conformity Assessment and Market Supervision Thereof”), adopted on 11 February 2003, entered into force from 1 April 2003, published in official newspaper “Latvijas Vēstnesis” No. 25 (2790), 14 February 2003. [Online] Available from: http://likumi. lv/doc.php?id=71294 12. NATO Supply Classification. [Online] Available from: https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Federal_Supply_Group 13. Overview of functional clothing’s. [Online] Available from: http://www.atci.lv/?page_id=45 14. Choudhury AKRoy, Majumdar PK, Datta C. Factors affecting comfort: human physiology and the role of clothing. In: Improving comfort in clothing, edited by Guowen Song. UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011, p. 3–60. ISBN 978-1-84569-539-2.

15. Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. ISO 7730.

16. Hot Environments – Estimation of the Heat Stress on Working Man, based on the WBGT-index (wet bulb globe temperature). ISO 7243.

17. Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Determination and interpretation of cold stress when using required clothing insulation (IREQ) and local cooling effects. ISO 11079-2007.

18. Ergonomics – Evaluation of thermal strain by physiological measurements. ISO 9886, 2004.

19. Ergonomics of the thermal environment – risk assessment strategy for the prevention of stress or discomfort in thermal working conditions. ISO 15256.

KOPSAVILKUMS Publikācija veltīta darba drošības jautājumiem un iepazīstina ar pētījuma secinājumiem par prasībām, kas izvirzāmas valsts pārvaldes iestāžu darbiniekiem izsniedzamajam apģērbam. Pētījumā secināts, ka nepastāv vienota struktūra valsts garantētā apģērba izsniegšanai, uzturēšanai un pārvaldīšanai, kā arī netiek ievēroti eksistējošie standarti, kas nosaka aizsargapģērbam izvirzītās prasības. Standartos noteikts, ka, atkarībā no valsts ierēdņa veicamajiem dienesta pienākumiem un potenciālā riska, formas tērpu sastāvdaļu drānu un to slāņojumu veidu īpašībām jānodrošina nepieciešamā aizsardzība pret darba izpildes laikā biežāk sastopamo apdraudējumu, kura samazināšanai vai novēršanai jāizmanto funkcionālais apģērbs un individuālie aizsardzības līdzekļi. Tiem, savukārt, jāatbilst aizsargapģērbu standartu prasībām un veiktspējai, kā arī jāatbilst ergonomikas standartu prasībām.

Pētījuma rezultātā izveidots amatpersonu formas tērpu, speciālā apģērba, individuālo aizsardzības līdzekļu un to izejmateriālu īpašību kopkatalogs, kura mērķis ir apkopot valsts garantētā apģērba īpašības skaitliskas, tekstuālas un grafiskas informācijas veidā, kā arī izstrādāta kopkataloga objektu datu bāzes struktūra, kas nodrošina meklēšanas funkciju “darbinieks <—> uniforma, uniformas sastāvdaļas”.

NANOLEVEL MODIFIED COTTON TEXTILES FOR SAFETY Faculty of Material Science and Applied Chemistry Institute of Design Technologies Department of Material Technology and Design

ABSTRACT

Incorporation of additional functionality into traditional textiles allows to add new valuable functional properties, find new application areas, solve ecological problems and enhance the quality of consumer life due to the increase in added value and marketability of the product. Deposition of nanolevel coatings on the surface of cotton textiles, in addition to the existing properties of textile, such as flexibility, lightness, softness etc., allowed to obtain versatile textile products with such new valuable functional properties as excellent protection against ultraviolet radiation, antimicrobial activity and water-repellence in a single textile material.

Various tests carried out according to respective standards demonstrate that the imparted properties still have their effect after multiple washing-drying cycles and the coatings are wear-resistant.

▶ Dr.sc.ing., Assoc. Prof.

Svetlana Vihodceva

▶Dr.habil.sc.ing., Prof.

Silvija Kukle

Keywords: nanolevel coatings, sol-gel process, UV protection, water repellence, antimicrobial activity

INTRODUCTION Textile functionality can be enhanced by use of sol-gel technology. Research experiments show that the main limitation of sol-gel technology application for textiles is associated with low thermal stability of most textile materials, especially those based on natural fibres, i.e. usually below 200 °C but for many materials much lower. Thermal treatment at temperatures below 200 °C will cause the formation of amorphous inorganic xerogels. On the other hand, conditions and treatment of sol-gel technology as well as composition of the sol can be adapted for treatment of textiles according to their types; moreover, this technology promises the possibility to tailor surface properties to a certain extent, and to combine different functionalities in a single material. A crucial requirement for use of sol-gel technology in textile coating application is a sufficient strength of bonding with the textile fibres in order to prevent the coating from peelingoff during the hydrothermal treatment and use. In case of materials like cotton (cellulose), the adhesion of the sol-gel coating is easily improved by chemical condensation of silanol groups (Si-OH) with the hydroxyl (-OH) groups on the textile surface.

At the same time, application of sol solutions can be carried out by means of techniques commonly used in textile industry: finishing of textiles, for example, can be carried out by dipping, spraying or padding processes followed by thermal treatment. Double-face effects obtained by spraying processing allow 27

to manufacture textiles, for example, with one hydrophobic - Pseudomonas aeruginosa gram-negative bacteria is a microorganism found in soil, water, skin flora and one hydrophilic side. Apart from mentioned advantage and most manmade environments; it manifests of spray applications, the uniform spray application a significant activity in a variety of implant for large surfaces in continuous processing is a general colonization and is a frequent cause of nosocomial problem: simultaneously incomplete covering of the fibres infections, such as skin and soft tissue, wound might decrease the durability of applied nanosol coatings. infections; Less studies and articles contain the evaluation of adhesion - Escherichia coli gram-negative bacteria that can cause between textile surfaces and coatings implemented by the urinary tract infections and wound and nosocomial sol-gel technology. As a rule, the coating stability under infections; hydrothermal treatment was not evaluated at all, or was - Candida albicans microscopic fungus that can cause only after few cycles, which does not meet the standard nosocomial infections. requirements. Finally, many research projects mention the  Determination of antimicrobial properties in relation to necessity to increase the strength of coating bonding with microorganisms causing cellulosic textile destruction: textile substrate.

- Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria, create an array of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes destructing the To impart optional properties to the cotton woven fabric cellulose textile and causing the degradation by use and knitted T-shirts, the sols were synthesized using silica of plant tissue components, e.g. carbohydrates, fatty alkooxide tetraethylortosilicate C8H20O4Si, ethanol and acids and oils; water, added to perform the hydrolysis and condensation Trichoderma viride, is a microscopic fungi mycelium process, and HF used as a catalyst of the process. Zinc that can form enzymes (cellulase and chitinase) that acetate dihydrate Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O was used as the cause the destruction of cellulose and chitin; modifier of the sol-gel system.

- Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast, is a microorganism To investigate the presence and durability of desirable of the fungi kingdom, known for a long history of optional properties, the following tests of the modified textile its safe use; during the fermentation process the were performed in accordance with respective standards: yeast converts carbohydrates into CO2 and ethanol.

S. cerevisiae is explored as a model of eukaryotic  Surface structure analysis by means of scanning organisms. electron microscopy (SEM),  Coating composition analysis by means of energy  Evaluation of UV protection and UPF classification using certified equipment Varian Cary 50 Solascreen dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Fourier (Australia) transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray  Determination of textile permeability to air using diffraction (XRD), certified equipment Air Permeability Tester III FX  Surface topography analysis by means of atomic force 3300 (TEXTEST Instruments, Germany), microscopy (AFM),  Determination of coating adhesion to the hydrothermal  Determination of liquid sorption by the drop test,  Determination of hygroscopicity; treatment,  Determination of abrasion resistance of coatings and  Contact angle measurements by the drop method. fabrics,  Determination of antimicrobial properties in relation to CONCLUSIONS the following nosocomial pathogenic microorganisms by the Parallel streak method: 1. Consolidation of coating due to self-assembly of - Staphylococcus aureus gram-positive bacteria, due aggregates on the fibre surface and, as a result, increase to the presence of virulence factors can penetrate in thickness of the coating was observed after the in human body and cause some heavy hospital first washing cycle (Fig. 1.a,b). After fifty cycles of (nosocomial) and publicly acquired infections, it is hydrothermal treatment, all aggregates were included also a widespread aerobe microorganism found in into coating (Fig. 1.c,d) and possible chemical patients with wound infections and abscesses; composition changes took place as indicated by EDX - Staphylococcus epidermidis gram-positive bacteria, analysis. it is a part of normal skin flora showing a significant 2. Durability of cotton textile coating under multiple activity in a variety of implant colonization (from hydrothermal treatment evidences a very good piercings to artificial heart, etc.), it causes nosocomial bonding strength obtained between the coating and the infections in immunosuppressed patients; cotton textile surface; all fabric types demonstrate an a

b

c

Fig. 1. Coating structure of cotton textile modified by sol-gel process. Thermal post-treatment at temperature 120 °C

28

d

excellent protection against UVA and UVB radiation – UPF above 50 (UPF 50+), which is important for practical application of sol-gel in the industry and of course for users (Fig. 2).

3. The number of hydrothermal treatment cycles has not affected the water sorption rate of the modified textiles, the sorption rate remaining > 30 minutes.

4. The samples processed under sol-gel technology containing amorphous Si and Zn compounds in their coating demonstrated the highest antimicrobial activity in relation to the growth of microorganisms in all performed tests after 10 washing cycles while in some cases with higher Zn acetate concentration the intensive antimicrobial activity still remained after 50 cycles of hydrothermal treatment.

Fig. 2. UPF values of modified textiles after hydrothermal treatments a

REFERENCES 1. Vihodceva, S., Kukle, S. Cotton fabric surface modification by solgel deposition of ZnO thin films// Journal IOP Conference Series: Material Science Engineering. – 2012. Volume 38, p. 012022. ISSN 1757-8981.

2. Vihodceva, S., Kukle, S. Comparison of surface functionalization technologies for natural textile// Journal of Materials Science and Engineering. – 2012. Volume 1, pp. 796–801. ISSN 2161-6221.

3. Vihodceva, S., Kukle, S. Modification of the cotton textile surface by the depositing of thin coatings using the sol-gel method// Scientific Journal Proceedings of International Conference Nanomaterials: Applications and Properties. – 2012. Volume 1, pp.

1–4. ISSN 2304-1862.

4. Vihodceva, S., Kukle, S. Cotton textile surface investigation before and after deposition of the ZnO coating by sol-gel method// Journal of Nano- and Electronic Physics. – 2013. Volume 5, pp.

01006-1 – 01006-5. ISSN 20776772.

5. Vihodceva, S., Kukle, S. Dipping time influence on the UV properties of natural textiles treated via sol-gel method// Scientific Journal Proceedings

b

Fig. 3. Liquid sorption a) untreated, b) after treatment

a

b

c

Fig. 4. Cotton textile surface wettability process (drop 5μL) a) untreated, b) treated, c) after 50 cycles of hydrothermal treatment

of International Conference Nanomaterials: Applications and Properties. – 2013. Volume 2, pp. 02NFC30-1 – 02NFC30-4. ISSN 2304-1862.

6. Vihodceva, S. Extension of the range of textiles modified at nano-level.

Doctoral Thesis. RTU Press, 2014.

7. Vihodceva, S. Extension of the range of textiles modified at nano-level.

Summary of the Doctoral Thesis. RTU Press, 2014.

8. Riepniece, A. Nanolīmenī modificētu tekstiliju prototipu izstrāde un testēšana. Maģistra darbs. RTU Izdevniecība, 2015.

KOPSAVILKUMS Publikācija veltīta nanolīmeņa pārklājumiem uz kokvilnas tekstiliju virsmas.

Papildfunkciju integrēšana tradicionālajās tekstilijās ļauj tām pievienot jaunas, vērtīgas funkcionālas īpašības, atrast jaunas lietojumu jomas, risināt ekoloģiskas problēmas un, pateicoties jaunajām īpašībām, uzlabot lietotāju dzīves kvalitāti, kā arī palielināt produktu pieejamību patērētājiem. Nanolīmeņa pārklājumi uz kokvilnas tekstiliju virsmas saglabā kokvilnai raksturīgās īpašības − elastību, vieglumu u.c., kā arī piešķir jaunas, lietotājiem nozīmīgas īpašības, kā aizsardzību pret ultravioleto starojumu visā tā spektrā, antimikrobiālu aktivitāti un noturību pret samitrināšanos. Daudzveidīgie testi, kas veikti atbilstoši spēkā esošajiem standartiem, demonstrē kokvilnas tekstilijām piešķirto jauno īpašību efektivitāti un pārklājumu nodilumizturību arī pēc daudzkārtējiem mazgāšanasžāvēšanas cikliem.

29

Institute of Industrial Electronics and Electrical Engineering

Industrial Automation and Robotics

Power Electronics and Electrical Drives

Electronics and Electrical Technologies

DC and AC Traction Systems

Hydrogen, PV and Wind Energy Systems

Advanced Lighting Systems

Computer Control and Communications

Our Civilization on Energy Needle Faculty of Power and Electrical Engineering Institute of Industrial Electronics and Electrical Engineering

▶Dr.sc.ing.

Pēteris Apse-Apsītis

Keywords: energy supply safety, DC grid

INTRODUCTION One man wakes up in the morning. The room is cold and dark. He tries to turn on the light but nothing happens. Nothing works at home at all – household devices, computer, TV – power supply is off.

Next decision is going to the supermarket but cannot get in – the doors do not open, the cash registers and bank machines look dead – no power supply.

He decides to move to other district of the city and sees that the cell phone does not work and the street lights are off and the traffic lights do not work - no power supply.

The car cannot be fueled by a simply reason that the electric pumps are off.

Doomsday would come because our civilization is fully based on electrical energy - we are sitting on the energy needle.

Electrical energy supply stability, safety and “always ON” are crucial for our civilization.

Electricity, as we know it, is a pure design and development of our civilization rooting back to 1750 when Benjamin Franklin developed a concept of electrical charge. During the last 250 years, we learn how to generate, transfer and use electrical energy and enjoy all advantages of electrically powered or driven devices.

And historically, today we have reached the point when some changes must be made in hundred year-old practice of energy generation and transfer, due to alternative energy generators (solar, wind) and growing energy storage possibilities.

CENTRALIZED VS DECENTRALIZED ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATION AND SUPPLY Historically, the topology of the electric grid was based on large coal-, gas- and oil-fired power stations located close to the mines or wells, or close to railways, roads or ports for easy delivery.

Hydroelectric dams in mountain areas also strongly influenced the grid structure.

Nuclear power plants were located within availability of cooling water.

Besides, fossil fuel-fired power stations were initially very polluting and were 31

located as far as economically practicable from population from high voltage (lower current) to low voltage, e.g. in centres if the electricity distribution networks allowed households, thus keeping the power on the required level. it. Electricity grid reached the overwhelming majority of Today it is possible to use “electronic transformers” or population in developed countries, with only outlying “solid state transformers” – power electronics devices regional areas remaining “off-grid’. capable to change the voltage level for both AC and DC Supply of electricity, especially at peak times, often has (direct current) transmission lines and consumers. a poor power quality and unstable parameters. Time after More practically, all household devices (TV, computers) time it result in blackouts and power cuts. use DC or can be switched over to DC power supply (light Electric energy supply is also based on the needs of sources). From this point of view, DC grid for household industry, heating, lighting and communication. Consumers is a good option to decrease power losses in AC/DC demand ever-higher levels of reliability. converters for each individual consumer. Estimated voltage New power stations and transmission lines must be built for household is within range 24…28 VDC. to overcome the above problems.

Solar panels, small wind turbines or electrical energy Typically, a centralized grid can be described as “one storage devices (batteries or super capacitors) will be easier generator – many consumers” system. to integrate in household DC grid, contrary household AC Development of renewable energy and other sources, grid. such as solar (photovoltaic), wind, wave or energy DC micro-grids coupled with AC transmission lines harvesting, increasing possibilities of energy recuperation between them can significantly increase the energy use from mowing masses like braking tram or electric car, or efficiency, energy supply reliability as well as energy supply slowing down robotic arm, change the existing concept independence and power quality. to the concept of a smart grid – “many generators – many The same relates to industrial electric grids in factories consumers”. and production units, especially in case when many energy recuperation devices (production robots, local transport, etc.) are in use. Here the energy storage devices AC VS DC ENERGY SUPPLY can significantly reduce overall energy consumption: first Today the electrical energy transmission with few experiments demonstrate up to 25% energy savings. exceptions is mainly based on AC (alternating current) transmission, which was historically reasoned by the DEVELOPED MICRO- GRIDS possibility to change the required voltage by electromagnetic devices - transformers, in order to compensate the voltage Currently, 600V industrial DC grid (Fig.1), connecting drop on transmission lines or change the voltage level energy sources, recuperating consumers and energy storage

28 V or 6 00 V

Energy generators

C

id energy m o gr ea icr su m sed contro t ba l en m re

D

Energy storage

Energy consumer

Fig.1. Energy measurement modules installation on AC side and DC micro-grid

32

devices, is under development [1] at RTU in cooperation with industry partners.

Overall DC micro-grid power is up to 50 kW at 600 V (Fig.1.).

The main task is the micro-grid control for standalone micro-grids, micro-grids connected to AC grid and several directly connected micro-grids, creating smart DC grids connected to traditional or smart AC grid.

Bidirectional DC energy flow measurement modules must be capable to measure the parameter values of bidirectional energy flow due to recuperation or energy storage.

Special bidirectional AC and DC energy flow measurement devices are designed in order to control the grid energy flow and thus use the generated or supplied energy in most efficient way. The developed energy flow measurement modules utilize a different approach to energy flow measurement instead of well-known “typical” [2]. These modules (developed by RTU) are inexpensive and less power self-consumption devices, compared to known ones.

3-phase bidirectional AC energy flow module practically represents three (symmetric AC energy consumption in both half-periods) or six (asymmetric AC energy consumption in both half-periods) DC energy flow measurement modules. AC modules utilize only one MCU for all readings, calculations data storage and communication (Fig.2).

Energy flow measurement modules include 32-bit Cortex M4 microcontroller. Popular and low-priced 8-bit microcontrollers also can be applied in cases when reduced precision is acceptable, mainly for energy flow monitoring and overall estimation.

Data communication in industrial systems typically use EtherNet, Modbus or Profinet protocols. Additional modules or protocol converters must be added in order to realize these protocols.

Energy values can be measured over short time periods starting from 10 ms. At the same time, energy measurements within short periods generate a considerable data flow and large data log files.

AC modules include a resettable fuse and a varistor protection, DC module includes protection against possible reverse DC polarity connection to voltage-frequency converter.

Several developments (based on different MCUs) of devices were tested: converters, software and communication.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK Practically all household devices use DC or can be switched over to operation DC power supply. Solar panels, small wind turbines or electrical energy storage devices also are DC operating devices. It is logical that DC grid will simplify connections between generators, consumers and storage devices and reduce AC/DC conversion losses.

Independent DC micro-grids increase the reliability and safety as well as provide the energy “when it is needed”, thus helping to get along without the centralized “energy needle”.

Fig.2. AC (bottom) and DC (top right and left) energy sensor modules

AC grids are easier for redesigning to smart AC grids by implementation of smart DC micro-grids. The concepts of T.A. Edison and N.Tesla will probably start cooperating instead of fighting.

Energy flow sensors can also act as possible detectors of electrical equipment faults due to wearout and ageing – permanently increasing energy consumption is a source of concern about possible problems in future.

REFERENCES 1. online: http://www.areus-project.eu 2. Apse-Apsitis, P.; Avotins, A.; Ribickis, L., A different approach to electrical energy consumption monitoring, Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’14-ECCE Europe), 2014, DOI: 10.1109/EPE.2014.6910970, IEEE CONFERENCE PUBLICATIONS

Kopsavilkums Publikācijā autori pieskaras elektroapgādes drošības un uzticamības jautājumiem. Publikācijā aplūkotas iespējas maiņstrāvas tīklu kombinēt ar līdzstrāvas mikrotīklu un tā izmantošanas iespējas.

Līdzstrāvas mikrotīklā samērā viegli iespējams iekļaut enerģijas uzkrājējus, vieglāk pieslēgt alternatīvos enerģijas avotus, piemēram, saules un vēja ģeneratorus.

Tā kā mājsaimniecībā praktiski visas elektroiekārtas izmanto līdzstrāvu un katrai iekārtai ir individuāls maiņstrāvas pārveidotājs, kas palielina kopējos elektroenerģijas zudumus, tad līdzstrāvas mikrotīkliem ir perspektīva. Īpaši plaši nākotnē varētu tikt izmantoti viedie elektrotīkli, kuros paredzama plaša maiņstrāvas un līdzstrāvas tīklu kopdarbība.

33

Institute of Energy Systems and Environment

Department of Energy Systems and Environment

Information and Study Centre on Sustainable Development

Solar Energy Systems Laboratory

Combustion Research Laboratory

Bioeconomy Centre

Biosystem Laboratory

Building Energy Efficiency Laboratory

Environmental Monitoring Laboratory

RESILIENCE METRICS OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEM: RESULTS OF A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH IN LATVIAN CONTEXT Faculty of Power and Electrical Engineering Institute of Energy Systems and Environment

ABSTRACT

In order to face with the increasing hazard frequency, exposure and vulnerability, the concept of building resilient communities has been an hot topic of discussion on the scientist and policy arenas. The key to reduce society’s susceptibility and vulnerability to major disruptive and destructive events is the core part of this discussion aiming reducing their likely effects, and efficiently and sustainable building institutions and structures to minimise any possible effects of disruption upon them.

Within this perspective it is crucial the development of a new quantitative adaptive strategy, which starting from the risk analysis of a territory, aims at strengthening a symbiotic and adaptive relationship between human communities and their surrounds. The holistic approach must involve the evaluation the evaluation of Critical infrastructure resilience applicable to those utilities whose functioning is vital where occurring a disruptive event to the provided service.

This study presents a new methodological approach for the selection of the most effective restoration strategy of a networked infrastructure system, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative (multi-criteria analysis) methods.

The proposed methodology was summarized into a general algorithm and implemented into a programmed tool for practical application. The case of a real system was examined by the application of the developed methodology to the district heating pipeline system of Salaspils city (Latvia). This study also comprehends the main aspects to be considered when using the specific resilience metric as a function of time and involving economic components.

The practical value of the current study is represented by the tool, which can be used by the stakeholders in the regional planning, organization of restoration and other processes, where high level efficiency in use of materials and time resources is required.

▶PhD, Asiss. Prof.

Francesco Romagnoli

▶PhD, Prof.

Claudio Rochas

Keywords: Critical Infrastructure Resilience, network analysis, system functionality, restoration strategy, energy infrastructure, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

INTRODUCTION Since the early 1970’s, extreme events have been developing in both frequency and intensity. The increase of extreme destructive and disruptive events has 35

concept as the delivery function value is illustrated by Fig.1.

DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

Fig. 1. Change of system’s delivery function over time (Henry and Ramirez-Marquez, 2012) [7]

drawn the attention of international scientific community towards more holistic understanding and study of disasters including the concept of resilient communities [1].

This aspect pinpoints the need to have methods and approaches focused to define/evaluate/measure the resilience metrics within interrelation between human dimension and environmental dimension including as well the infrastructural systems (i.e. energy, water, transportation, informative and tele communication).

The main goal of the current research is to develop an integrated methodological approach to resilience assessment and selection of the best recovery strategies within the infrastructure dimension utilizing both quantitative and qualitative approaches and summarizing the outcome into the general algorithm.

EXISTING CONCEPTS OF RESILIENCE The word ‘resilience’ originates from the Latin words ‘resilire’ and ‘resilio’, meaning the ‘ability to rebound or jump-back’ [2] and by this time there was no single, clear definition of ‘resilience’ that could be applied universally. The term ‘resilience’ was first proposed in ecological research by Holling et al. (1973) [3] to describe a system (the ecosystem, society or organization system) that remains within the equilibrium state limits under extreme conditions.

Several definitions and, thus, scientific approaches have been developed overarching the distinct disciplines, such as geology, ecology, economy and sociology, and finally disaster management [4]. Cutter et al (2008) [5] describes the different temporal and spatial perspectives that tend to be encountered across domains focused on the “...the ability of a social system to respond and recover from disasters that includes those inherent conditions that allow the system to absorb impacts and cope with an event”. Bruneau et al. (2003) [6] addressed the attention to resilience- involved engineered systems and four main parameters of resilience (robustness, redundancy, resourcefulness, and rapidity). Within this perspective, a loss of functionality (or quality) of the system is introduced to represent the extent of disruption and recovery time, which is illustrated by the “resilience triangle”.

Henry and Ramirez-Marquez (2012) [7] suggested to express the resilience of a system through its ability to deliver products or services. This scheme identifies the specific “Figure-of-merit(s) (FOM)” that describes the value of the function that has been identified as a representative for the system (i.e. delivery function). Based on the resilience concept description, the value of the resilience corresponding to a specific Figure-of-merit is expressed by Eq. (1).

RF (tr | e j )

F (tr | e j ) F (td | e j ) F (t0 ) F (td | e j )

, e j D

(or more generally as R(t)=Recovery(t)/Loss(td) )

(1)

where: tr – time at recovery stage, tr (td , tf); F(tr | ej) – delivery function value at time tr; F(td | ej) - delivery function value in disrupted state. The resilience 36

Infrastructure represents one of the main vital components of urban systems. Thus, understanding of how the resilient energy systems contribute to the overall urban resilience is a topical and significant issue. A novel method for choosing the most effective restoration strategy of the networked infrastructure systems has been developed and hereafter summarized with reference to the complete study proposed by Rochas et. al. (2015) [4].

Within this approach, the development of an algorithm for choosing the best available sequence of segments to be recovered is based on the outcome from work by Henry and Ramirez-Marquez (2012) [7]. This description of the resilience concept has been developed and specifically adjusted to the district heating (DH) system, proposing a dedicated model, and further applied in a case study for the DH of Salaspils town. However, the proposed algorithm implemented in the model can be deemed applicable to the entire infrastructure dimension, not only to the district.

The methodology is presented in the form of a schematic algorithm and results in quantitative calculation of the Resilience Index [4]. The calculation is based on a final multicriteria analysis taking into account the vulnerability and risk indicators incorporating different sustainability dimensions.

The methodology consists of several preparatory steps including the identification of the study goal and the type of system to be analyzed. The final steps for selection of the best reconstruction strategy employ a multicriteria analysis based on selected FOMs. It was recognized that the basis for strategy comparison should address the idea of the Bruneau resilience triangle. It was realized that the area between the resilience curve, resilience axis and resilience benchmark (R = 1: 100 % of functionality) must be minimized for the most efficient restoration strategy.

a)

b)

Fig. 2. Damaged segments in: a) Disruption 1, b) Disruption 2 [4]

CASE STUDY AND RESULTS A part of Salaspils Town district heating system was chosen as exemplary application of the developed assessment approach (see Fig. 2).

The chosen part of the district heating system is located in Salaspils Town (Latvia) and indexed as Budeskalni Village. The heat consumption of the village is 7.466 MWh/a and the total heat load is 1.56 MW. The total length of the pipelines within the village is 2.39 km. The total length of the pipelines within the boundaries of the chosen system part is 2.57 km [4]. This part of the network consists of 31 consumers (houses) and 62 pipeline segments. The number of pipeline branching points is 31. Estimation of costs and recovery time for each a)

b)

Fig.3. Resilience computation results: a) for Disruption 1 – FOM1: two best and one worst strategy; b) for Disruption 2 – FOM1: two best and one worst strategy [4]

segment is based on the following assumptions: recovery time is not less than 24 hours plus 50 hours per cubic meter of volume; recovery costs are not less than 1,420 € and 11,380 € per cubic meter of volume.

The analysis of Salaspils DH network was made only for three Figures-ofmerit(s): FOM1 – total heated area, [m2]; FOM2 – number of inhabitants in the heated dwelling; FOM3 – overall quality of the network (expressed as a total length of functioning pipelines), [m].

It is interesting to observe the restoration of the system and change in the resilience index for different scenarios representing different types of disasters. Current study proposes two scenarios of disruption: 1) disruption of elements within one particular area caused by major flood due to the proximity to the river of the examined system: segments c3-c4, c4c5, c5-D, c4-c6, c6-c7, c3-c9, c9-c12 (see Fig. 2a); 2) a number of random elements over the entire system, which may be disrupted by corrosion and inappropriate maintenance: segments, b-c, c2-c3, c4-c6, c9-c12, a2-a8, a8-a9, a8-a13 (see Fig. 2b).

As a result of computations using the algorithm written in Java, two best recovery strategies and one worst for each Figure-of-merit were derived based on the objective function (reference area).

Resilience assessment for Disruption 1 – FOM1 shows that Strategy 1 (blue line) is slightly better in the third step if compared to the Strategy 2. Two best strategies are compared with the worst possible (after the filtration stage) 37

strategy – Strategy 126 (see Fig. 3). Resilience assessment REFERENCES for Disruption 2 140 possible sequences of restoration were derived after the filtration stage. Even though the two best 1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, The IPCC Special Report on managing the risks of extreme strategies (Strategy 1 and 2) are similar (see Fig. 3). events and disasters to advance climate change adapThe output of computations of the objective function for tation. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2012. all acceptable strategies (satisfying the requirement that the segment can be restored if it gets connected to the network 2. Dalziell E.P., McManus S. T. Resilience, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity: implications for system performance. at once) for each Figure-of-merit was integrated into the Stoos, Switzerland: 1st International Forum for Engimulti-criteria analysis (MCA) to decide which strategy is neering Decision Making (IFED) (2004, 5–8th Decemmost suitable depending on the importance assigned to ber), p.17. each Figure-of-merit. Four criteria were included: heated area, people connected to the grid, length of functioning 3. Holling, C. S., 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics pipeline, and resilience per unit cost. Prioritization of 4, 1–23. criteria was performed according to AHP [8], where the priority within each pair of criteria was assigned by utilizing 4. Claudio Rochas, Tatjana Kuzncova, Francesco Romagnoli. The concept of the system resilience within the Saaty 9-point scale. infrastructure dimension: application to a Latvian case.

The final outcomes from the MCA results after the Journal of Cleaner Production 88 (2015) 358–368. normalization for disruption 1 show that the best result among all strategies for the base scenario is represented 5. Cutter, S.L., Barnes, L., Berry, M., Burton, C.G., Evans, E., Tate, E.C., Webb, J., 2008. A place-based model for unby the reconstruction sequence: c3-c4, c4-c5, c5-D, c4-c6, derstanding community resilience to natural disasters. c6-c7, c3-c9, c9-c12 (Total Overall Weight = 0.99874), this Global Environmental Change 18, 598–606. represent as well the optimal sequence for Disruption 2 scenario with the Total Overall Weight = equal to 0.99985. 6. Bruneau. M, Tierney K., 2007. Conceptualizing and Measuring Resilience. A Key to Disaster Loss Reduction. TR News 250, 14–18.

CONCLUSIONS 7. Henry D., H.E. Ramirez-Marquez., 2012. Generic metrics and quantitative approaches for system resilience as a The current research proposes an innovative approach for function of time. Reliability Engineering and System assessing the recovery strategies within the infrastructure Safety 99, 114–122. dimension with a major focus on energy infrastructure and 8. Chen S.-C., Ferng J.-W., Wang Y.-T., Wu T.-Y., Wang J.-J., general objective to the development of an analytic tool 2008. Assessment of disaster resilience capacity of hill aimed to provide a schematic guideline to be used after slope communities with high risk for geological hazards. occurrence of a disaster (i.e. the most sensitive moments Engineering Geology 98, 86–101. within the process of crisis management) involving the resilience concepts.

The scientific significance of this study is the development KOPSAVILKUMS of an integrated approach by extending the concepts of Publikācijā aprakstīts pētījums, kas veltīts krīzes un existing quantitative assessment of infrastructure resilience katastrofu pārvaldībai, kā arī infrastruktūru izturētspējas using the multi-criteria analysis, aimed to identify the analīzes metodikas izstrādei. Pētījuma gaitā ir izstrādāta best recovery strategy. The methodology was summarized inovatīva pieeja priekšlikumu stratēģiju noteikšanai, lai into a general algorithm and implemented in Java tool for veiktu infrastruktūras sektora pēckrīzes sakārtošanu, galveno calculations. uzmanību veltot enerģētikas infrastruktūrai. Vispārējais mērķis ir izveidot analītisku instrumentu tādu vadlīniju izstrādei, kuras izmantojot, varētu analizēt rīcību katastrofu gadījumos.

Pētījums sniedz nozīmīgu zinātnisku ieguldījumu integrētas pieejas un principu attīstībā, paplašinot esošos infrastruktūras izturētspējas kvantitatīvos vērtējumus.

Lai noskaidrotu labāko pēckrīzes sakārtošanas stratēģiju, pētījumā izmanto daudzkritēriju analīzi. Aprēķinu metodika ir ilustrēta ar algoritma palīdzību. Pētījuma rezultāti ir iegūti, izmantojot programmas Java modeli.

38

Institute of Aeronautics

Departments

Scientific centres

Department of Aeronautic Technologies

Aerospace Research and Technology Centre;

Department of Avionics

Aviation Constructions and Space Equipment Testing Laboratory

Department of Aircraft Theory and Construction

Department of Transport Systems and Logistics

NOTAM MESSAGE REGARDING UAS OPERATION IN RIGA FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Transport and Aeronautics Institute of Aeronautics

â&#x2013;śMg.sc.ing.

Monta Lacane

â&#x2013;śDr.habil.sc.ing., Prof.

Aleksandrs Urbahs

ABSTRACT

An aircraft is subject to different requirements: international, regional and local. Several documents, the format of which is strictly regulated, are needed for safe and supported operations. NOTAM, or notice to airmen, is one of them.

It is a short message, which gives information to all airspace users concerned about particular activities on the ground or in the air. In order to notify other users about unmanned aerial system operation, such message shall be submitted.

As there are some technical and operational differences between manned and unmanned aircraft, some additional information included shall be into standard NOTAM format. Organization of its format would facilitate understand of NOTAM content by both respective service providers and airspace users.

Keywords: NOTAM; air traffic control; unmanned aerial systems; Riga Flight Information Region

Purpose of NOTAM message NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) is a short message, which gives information to all airspace users about specific activities in a particular flight information region (FIR), airport, or specific area. Such information can be related to establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure, or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.

When airspace classification or type of operations requires, the unmanned aerial system (UAS) operator or other person concerned shall fill in a NOTAM form. The text in this message must be written in English, using specific phraseology, codes, or plain language.

UAS are systems with specific operational issues and requirements to be considered, therefore current NOTAM content shall be slightly adjusted to satisfy both UAS operators and other airspace users, but at the same time keeping the official NOTAM format, which was introduced by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), as the source of this notification. Some NOTAM messages already been issued in different countries informing other airspace users about UAS activities.

Examples of NOTAM messages Below are two examples of unmanned aircraft operations provided, which were issued in the United Kingdom.

40

Q)EGTT/QWCLW/IV/M/AW/000/005/5105N00020W001 CAPTIVE UNMANNED HELIUM BALLOON WI 0.5NM RADIUS 510454N 0001948W (WARNHAM, HORSHAM). MAX HGT 300FT AGL. ONSITE CTC, TEL 07968596417. 14-03-0311/AS 5.

is intended to be used for Riga FIR, according to ICAO Doc7910 Location Indicators the indicator EVRR shall be used.

EVRR- Riga Flight Information Region • NOTAM code consists of five letters. The first letter is usually Q. The second and third letters denote The first example above says there will be an unmanned the identity of the subject of the message. All codes helium balloon in operation within 0.5nm radius from the are given in PANS-ABS Doc 8400. All abbreviations specified geographical point, the geographical coordinates are divided into four groups: aerodromes, air traffic of which are given following ICAO format. The operation management, communications and surveillance, and will be from the ground to 300 feet above ground level. navigation warnings. The second letter in this code NOTAM also contains a telephone number of the UAS depends on the group, to which the content of the operator given, as well as the date of the flight.

NOTAM is referred. Subject of the message groups are shown in Table 1.

Q)EGTT/QWULW/IV/BO/AW/000/004/5129N00009W001 UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS OPERATING WI. Table 1.

0.25NM RADIUS OF 512855N 0000841W (BATTERSEA NOTAM codes indicating the subject of a message POWER STATION, LONDON). MAX HGT 300FT AGL. Subject Meaning OPS CTC, TEL 07525 657199. 14-03-0117/AS 5. of the message The other example is also issued in the United Kingdom for unmanned aerial systems in operation within 0.25 nm AGA – aerodromes radius of specified coordinates. The brackets contain the name of the place or building given for a better perception L Lighting facilities of the location of the area where UAS flight will take place.

It will be from the ground to 300 ft above ground level. Like M Movement and landing area the previous example, telephone number of the operator is given, as well as the date of the flight.

F Facilities and services These two NOTAM examples show that the general NOTAM format remains the same. In addition, there ATM – air traffic management is the type of unmanned vehicle that will carry out the A Airspace organization management mission, described in plain English. It might sound enough, but on the other hand, there is not enough S Air traffic and VOLMET services information given to other airspace users to understand what kind of flight it will be and how much risk to others P Air traffic procedures it can cause.

In order to identify what and how should be adjusted in current NOTAM format, there is a description of ICAO’s NOTAM message format, which later on will be used to create the adjusted NOTAM for UAS operations.

NOTAM format description in accordance with ICAO requirements

CNS – communications and surveillance C

Communications and surveillance facilities

I

Instrument and microwave landing systems

As mentioned before, there is a special NOTAM format G GNSS services introduced and adjusted by ICAO Annex 11, PANSATM Doc4444 and Aeronautical Information Services N Terminal and en-route navigation facilities - Aeronautical Information Management Study Groups (AIS-AIMSG).

Navigation Warnings At the beginning of the message, there is a description of information contained within NOTAM and up to R Airspace restrictions eight fields separated by a stroke (/). All information is separated in the text for clearer understanding and it shall W Warnings be represented in the following order and format: • NOTAM series number is identified by a letter and a O – other information four-digit number. The number is followed by two digits for the year, in which the flight is taking place: There are also special codes used for messages associated B0001/14 • FIR designator is expressed by using four-letter ICAO with the airspace organization management. These codes indicator of the affected FIR. As this NOTAM format are shown in Table 2.

41

Table 2. NOTAM codes of airspace organization NOTAM code

Meaning

Abbreviation

AA

Minimum altitude (specify en-route/crossing/safe)

mnm alt

AC

Control zone

ctr

AD

Air defense identification zone

adiz

AE

Control area

cta

AF

Flight information region

fir

AH

Upper control area

uta

AL

Minimum usable flight level mnm usable fl

AN

Area navigation route

rnav rte

AO

Oceanic control area

oca

AP

Reporting point (specify name or coded designator)

rep

AR

ATS route (specify)

ats rte

AT

Terminal control area

tma

AU

Upper flight information region

uir

AV

Upper advisory area

uda

AX

Significant point

sig point

AZ

Aerodrome traffic zone

atz

If a NOTAM message includes information relating to some airspace restrictions (R), then codes shown in Table 3 should be used.

Table 3. NOTAM codes relating to airspace restrictions NOTAM code

Meaning

Abbreviation

RA

Airspace (specify)

RD

Danger area (specify)

.. d ..

RM

Military operation area

moa

RO

Overflying of ... (specify)

overflying

RP

Prohibited area (specify)

.. p ..

RR

Restricted area

.. r ..

RT

Temporary restricted area (specify area)

Tempo restricted area

reservation Airspace reservation

Identification

Meaning

A

Availability

C

Changes

H

Hazard conditions

L

Limitations

XX

Plain language (English only)

If it is necessary to inform other airspace users about the UAS flight in RIGA FIR, which will take place on a specific date, then it should be written as: QAFLW AF – flight information region (second and third letters as the subject) LW – will take place (fourth and fifth letter as the condition) • The third section is assigned to the type of traffic. In case of IFR, letter “I” is inserted, letter “V” for VFR, “K” if the NOTAM is a checklist, “IV” if flight rules are combined.

Since UAS does not operate in accordance with any of these conditions, then it is suggested to use a specific letter for such flight.

U – Unmanned aerial system in operation • As for UAS operations and the fourth section concerning the flight purpose, a code for a NOTAM concerning flight operations should be used.

O- NOTAM concerning flight operations • Scope of the flight A- aerodromes E- en-route • The sixth and seventh sections shall specify the upper and lower limit of the altitude at which the UAV will operate.

Each altitude shall be expressed using a three-digit code.

000/999- form ground to unlimited 000/003- from ground to 300 feet AGL • Coordinates or radius of the area where the UAS will operate. The brackets should include the name of the place or building located in the area of UAS operation for better understanding and perception of the information.

565928N0240430E (EVRS, Spilve Airport) After consideration of typical NOTAM format and introduction of possible changes related to UAS operations, an example follows below, which might be used to inform other airspace users about UAS activities in Riga FIR. NOTAM example for UAS operation in Riga FIR

The fourth and fifth letters in this code signify the subject condition. There are also five groups, each of which is designated for a specific condition. Table 4 shows all groups described in ICAO Doc 8400.

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Table 4. Condition of a subject in NOTAM message

A) indication of the affected FIR EVRR- Riga FIR B) time and date when the activities will start in the following order: year, month, date, time in UTC (yymmddtttt) 1404031230 C) time and date when the activities will end in the following order: year, month, date, time in UTC (yymmddtttt) 1404041400

D) if the activities are anticipated to take place for more days, then this section should include indication of time, within which the planned actions will be carried out daily: DAILY 1230-1400 In addition, there should be information written in plain English, which describes the intentions of UAS more in detail. This part of the NOTAM should consist of six parts: E) message written in plain language UAS TYPE should be specified, including maximum operational speed expressed as indicated airspeed nautical miles and designator IAS should be added as well.

UAS TYPE: XXXXX MAX IAS: 190KTS LATERAL LIMITS of the area, within which the UAS is going to operate. It should be given in geographical coordinates or, if the area is a circle, as a radius from specific geographical point. Information should be given in nautical miles and coordinates following WGS-84 format (XXXXN0XXXXE).

LATERAL LIMITS: 0.25NM RADIUS OF 565928N0240430E VERTICAL LIMITS should specify the minimum and maximum altitude of the intended flight. Information should be given in feet.

VERTICAL LIMITS: FROM GROUND TO 300FT AGL TIME OF ACTIVITY should specify the time in hours and minutes when the event will take place. It should be given as UTC. If not, then it should be noticed. (UTCUniversal Time Coordinated; LCL – local time). Words “FROM” and “UNTIL” should not be omitted.

TIME OF ACTIVITY: FROM 12:30 UTC UNTIL 14:00 UTC. OPERATOR LOCATION should be added as well because UAS operates as a system: the UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) and the operator. In case of emergency or any other extraordinary situation, this information might be useful. It should be expressed following the WGS-84 format for geographical coordinates.

OPERATOR LOCATION: OPERATOR LOCATION: 565928N0240430E (EVRS, Spilve Airport) CONTACT DETAILS of person involved. UAS NOTAM should also include a telephone number of the UAS operator.

TEL. + 371 2745 45 45 F) once again, there should be given the lower altitude at which the flight will be carried out. In this case: GND- ground E) once again, there should be also given the upper limit, at which the flight will operate. In this case: 300ft- 300 feet Consequently, the whole NOTAM message should look like this: EVRR- RIGA FIR B0001/14 NOTAM Q) EVRR/QAFLW/U/OE/000/003/565928N0240430E A) EVRR B) 1404031230 C) 1404041400 D) DAILY E)UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEM OPERATION TYPE: XXXX/ MAX IAS 190KTS. LATERAL LIMITS: 0.25NM RADIUS OF 565928N0240430E. VERTICAL LIMITS: FROM GROUND TO 300FT AGL. TIME OF ACTIVITY: FROM 12:30 UTC UNTIL 14:00 UTC OPERATOR

LOCATION: 565928N0240430E (EVRS, Spilve Airport) TEL. + 371 2745 45 45.

F) GND G) 300FT CONCLUSIONS NOTAM format is strictly regulated by ICAO, but it is still possible to include some additional information for better understanding of its content. Concerning UAS, it would be useful to add the following details: type of UAS used and its maximum indicated airspeed, lateral and vertical limits of the airspace where the flight will be carried out, type and time of planned activity, as well as location and contact details of the operator. Reading all this information, other airspace users would have better understanding of the situation and would have more chances to avoid possible incidents, accidents, or other safety related problems.

References 1. ICAO. Annex 2 to the Chicago Convention of International Civil Aviation. Rules of the Air. Tenth Edition.

ICAO. - July 2005. 3.3.1.2.

2. ICAO. Annex 11 to the Chicago Convention of International Civil Aviation. Air Traffic Services, ICAO. 3. ICAO. Doc 4444 ATM/501. Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Air Traffic Management. Edition. ICAO 4. ICAO Aeronautical Information Services- Aeronautical Information Management Study Group (AIS-AIMSG).

Fift h meeting. Montreal, 7 November, 2011. Agenda Item 3: AIM information and data assembly, exchange and promulgation. NOTAM Guidance.

5. ICAO Doc 7910 Location Indicators. Edition Nr.145., ICAO., September 2012.

6. ICAO PANS/ABC Doc 8400 ICAO Abbreviations and Codes. Eighth Edition. ICAO., 24th July, 2010.

KOPSAVILKUMS Publikācija veltīta bezpilotu lidaparātu sistēmu (BPLAS) integrācijai kopējā gaisa telpā. BPLAS iekļauj pašu lidaparātu, kas veic lidojumu bez apkalpes uz tā borta, kā arī virszemes aprīkojumu, kas nepieciešams lidaparāta kontrolei un vadīšanai. Jebkurā valstī pastāv noteikumi un ierobežojumi, kas nosaka attiecīgās gaisa telpas izmantošanas kārtību.

Drošības apsvērumu dēļ bieži vien visus potenciālos gaisa telpas lietotājus ir nepieciešams informēt par nestandarta situācijām, kas ir radušās attiecīgajā zonā. NOTAM jeb notice to airmen ir īss ziņojums, kas sniedz šāda rakstura ziņas. Tā var būt informācija par radionavigācijas sistēmu darbspēju, speciālas izmantošanas zonu aktivizēšanu, nestandarta lidojumu veikšanu u.c. NOTAM ziņojumam ir starptautiski noteikts formāts, kurā tiek izmantota gan speciāla kodu, gan arī brīva angļu valoda, lai izklāstītā informācija būtu viegli un ātri saprotama. Lai operatori vai citas iesaistītās personas varētu informēt par šādu lidojumu veikšanu, ir jānosaka ziņojuma saturs un formāts. BPLAS darbības zonas raksturojums, lidojuma augstums, laiks, kā arī īss bezpilota lidaparāta raksturojums varētu būt standartinformācija, kas jānorāda, veicot BPLAS darbību.

43

International Business and Customs Institute

Department of International Business, Transport, Economics and Logistics

Department of Customs and Taxes

Customs Advisory Centre

Entrepreneurship Logistics Research and Study Centre

SAFEGUARDING THE EU MARKET AGAINST ILLEGAL CIGARETTE IMPORTS International Business and Customs Institute Department of Customs and Taxes

ABSTRACT

For public health purposes as well as fiscal purposes, the European Union has raised the excise duty on cigarettes in recent years, which, in turn, leads to the increase in prices of cigarettes. The consumers benefit from our close geographical location to neighbouring countries where the prices of cigarettes are substantially lower than in the European Union. This increases the cigarette smuggling and the State is suffering losses on the excise duties. The problem of protecting the legal market by stoppage and reduction of cigarette smuggling is on the agenda on both the European Union and national level. Leading experts of tax administration and customs services are assessing the cigarette smuggling interaction with different types of processes in order to seek for new and more efficient ways of limiting the illicit cigarette flow. The priorities and challenges of the tax administration for the coming years are to protect the legal market of tobacco products, limit the illicit trafficking, fight the smuggling, stop illegal manufacturing and counterfeiting.

▶Dr.oec.

Māris Jurušs

▶Bc.oec.

Zane Rutkupe

Keywords: Customs, cigarettes, administration, illegal market

SITUATION OVERVIEW Despite the fact that, according to the KPMG data1, the total consumption of illegal cigarettes in the European Union from 2013 to 2014 has decreased from 58.6 billion to 56.6 billion, trafficking and smuggling of illegal cigarettes still remains an urgent problem in member countries of the European Union, especially in the Baltic States.

In Latvia, from 2013 to 2014 the percentage of illicit cigarette market has increased from 28.8 % to 29.3 % of the total cigarette consumption. In the annual study of the KPMG “Project SUN”2 for 2014 Latvia is mentioned as a country with the highest proportion of illegal cigarette consumption. International experts mention that one of the main reasons are changes in the excise tax legislation, namely, the need to increase the excise tax, thus rising the prices of cigarettes on legal market as well. As of 01 July 2018, the excise duty on cigarettes in Latvia should be 60 euros per 1,000 cigarettes, which forms 25 % of the maximum retail price and, consequently, the minimum tax amount will reach 100 euros per 1,000 cigarettes. By gradually increasing the excise tax every year in order to meet the European Union requirements within the indicated time limit, Latvia finds itself in a situation where the illicit cigarette market increased again in 2014 (see Fig. 1).

1 2

Project SUN. A study of the illicit cigarette market in the European Union. KPMG. 2013 Project SUN. A study of the illicit cigarette market in the European Union. KPMG. 2014

45

40

37

31,6

1,2

mm sticks

1 0,8

25,8

30,7

28,8

29,3

30

1,02

25

0,83

0,75

35

0,73

0,68

0,75

%

1,4

20

0,6

15

0,4

10

0,2

5 0

0 2009

2010

2011

illigal market, mn sticks

2012

2013

2014

illegal market, % from total market

Fig. 1. Illicit cigarette market volume and proportion of total cigarette consumption in Latvian within 2009 to 20143

Increase in the excise duty followed by the price growth has created a fertile ground for expansion of cigarette smuggling on eastern boarders of the European Union. With a desire to save, the consumers search for cheaper ways to get the desired cigarettes, therefore they agree to buy them in the illicit market.

The eastern border of the European Union is the most risky geographical location with a large influx of illegal cigarettes from the neighbouring third countries – Russia and Belarus, currently being the greatest source of smuggled cigarettes.

Cigarettes in Belarus are more than 4 times cheaper than in Latvia. Growth in the excise duty increases the traffickers’ desire to earn on the difference in prices, thus significantly increasing the risk to incur losses of tax revenue. It should be noted that fight against the illicit cigarette influx is carried out not only on eastern boarders of the European Union but also in countries like France, which faces an extensive smuggling from Algeria, as well as in other countries.

Solutions Due to tightened control on Russia borders, cigarette smuggling in the EU significantly reduced. From 2012 to 3

2014 the influx of smuggled cigarettes has halved: from 0.43 billion to 0.21 billion cigarettes.

As can be seen from article published in “World Customs Journal”, its authors Adrian Cooper and Daniel Vitt point out that the illegal sales constituted 11 % of all cigarettes sold in 2011 and 10.4 % of the cigarettes were sold illegally in the European Union, respectively, which indicates that in more than 5 years no efficient enough methods have been found to reduce this amount4. Despite this, the European Commission has set a priority to stop the smuggling of goods, especially cigarettes, from neighbouring countries, such as Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and Belarus.

In order to implement this priority, the developed action plans provide for several specific operations including, for example, installing the latest generation of technical equipment (scanners, automated identification tools, and night vision equipment) at border checkpoints to help in smuggling discovery.

Development and implementation of Track&Trace system is mentioned as one of the latest possible solutions to control the illicit market5. There are two main principles.

First, it must provide a possibility to track the distribution of tobacco products, as well as for the controlling authorities to request and receive relevant information.

Second, the system provides for the establishment and implementation of specific, unique, secure and nonremovable markings allowing the control authorities of the member states to identify the origin of tobacco products, place of their re-routing, as well as to monitor and control the flow of tobacco products and their legal status. At present time, considering that implementation of Track&Trace system is a resource-intensive project and an optional activity for the member states of the European Union, Lithuania, for example, has already launched a pilot project. Countries like Ireland, Great Britain and Austria also support Track&Trace system.

Project SUN. A study of the illicit cigarette market in the European Union. KPMG. 2014.

Cooper A., D. Vitt The linkage between tax burden and illicit trade of excisable products: the example of tobacco. World Customs Journal. International Network of Customs University. 2011.

5 Report on implementation of Track&Trace excise goods (cigarettes) supervision system into Latvia. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia.

Retrieved July 1, 2013, from http://www.mk.gov.lv/lv/mk/tap/?pid=40281412&mode=mk&date=2013-08-06.

4

46

Experts of “International Tax and Investment Center” market and have identified several elements essential in the have studied the factors influencing the illicit cigarette fight against smuggling6:

Assessment of the key factors, such as production and export control, free zones and transit operations

Proportionate penalties and their preventive role

Development and strenghtening of cooperation between national authorities and international organizations Limiting demand in the illegal market by educating the public on irreversable consequences resulting from the increasing illegal market Sufficient Su financial resources for lawful action

Research on the volume of illegal market and inspection monitoringg

Cooperation with actors of the sector in order to create more efficient sector research process and have an access to their resources

Basic elements in the fight against smuggling

Proportionatee taxation policyy ax and efficient tax collection

Analysis of the existing laws and ensuring that they are respected

Development of strategy to fulfill plans that includes all state authorities involved and granting them with the necessary powers to work efficienty

Recognising illicite trade as a crime and timely destruction of the confiscated products and production euipment

Source: Modelled by authors using study materials from “International Tax and Investment Center”

As can be seen, most of these elements are already used to a greater or a lesser degree in Latvian Tax Administration and in controlling the flow of cigarettes; however, work on the improvement and practical application of these preconditions should be continued. Public has to be informed about the need and importance to support legal market; cooperation must be established with all involved parties in third countries as well as with local customs authorities.

According to the State Revenue Service plans for customs technical support, modernization of technological equipment will be carried out within the period 2015 to 20167. During this period, it is planned to install several new cargo scanners at customs checkpoints, replace truck axle weights at Paternieki and Silene customs checkpoints, as well as take other measures. In 2014, an agreement has been concluded with the cooperation partners on development of video concept to be implemented in 2016, thus installing the security cameras on the eastern border

and Riga customs checkpoints. In addition, by the end of 2016 it is planned to complete a fully equipped border crossing point at Vientuli in order to ensure better control of the transport flow content.

Conclusions The intended development of technical resources of customs authorities gives hope that, despite growth in the excise duty accompanied by expansion of illegal market, the customs officers will be provided with adequate resources in their fight against smuggling, thus ensuring the protection of the whole market of the European Union.

However, we should be more active in considering the new ways of how to reduce the risks associated with illegal market and to charge appropriate taxes. We should pay more attention to the development of dog handler service. In addition, we need to develop training and refresher training for customs officials in improving the physical controls, for

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The Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products and How to Tackle It, International Tax and Investment Center, page 22.

Used and planned technical support, intensity and application efficiency for monitoring the European Union’s external borders, State Revenue Service, Riga, 24 February, 2015.from: http://titania.saeima.lv/livs/saeimasnotikumi.nsf/0/b3910df53b3a69c1c2257def00310c7a/$FILE/Izmantot%C4%81%20 un%20pl%C4%81not%C4%81%20tehnisk%C4%81%20nodro%C5%A1in%C4%81juma%20izmaksas%20izmanto%C5%A1anas%20intens....pptx

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example, using the confiscated vehicles and experience of detected infringements in the training process.

It is important to increase the staff motivation and evaluate the work of individuals employed in all control authorities by increasing their salaries, bonuses for the detected infringements and introducing other incentives.

Similarly, of importance is the cooperation among member states of the European Union as well as with the customs authorities of Russia and Belarus; in this context, the European Commission should provide more financial and logistical support for the control authorities of Latvia, as they actually ensure protection for the entire market of the European Union.

Successful interaction of the abovementioned factors should ensure a positive outcome for the protection of single market of the European Union.

References 1. Project SUN. A study of the illicit cigarette market in the European Union. KPMG. 2013, 2014.

2. Cooper A., D. Vitt The linkage between tax burden and illicit trade of excisable products: the example of tobacco.

World Customs Journal. International Network of Customs University. 2011.

3. The Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products and How to Tackle It, International Tax and Investment Center, page 22.

4. Used and planned technical support, intensity and application efficiency for monitoring the European Union’s external borders, State Revenue Service, Riga, February 24, 2015, from: http://titania.saeima.lv/livs/saeimasnotikumi.nsf/0/b3910df53b3a69c1c2257def00310c7a/$FILE/

Izmantot%C4%81%20un%20pl%C4%81not%C4%81%20 tehnisk%C4%81%20nodro%C5%A1in%C4%81juma%20 izmaksas%20izmanto%C5%A1anas%20intens....pptx 5. Report on implementation of Track&Trace excise goods (cigarettes) supervision system into Latvia. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia. Retrieved July 1, 2013, from: http://www.mk.gov.lv/lv/mk/tap/?pid=4028 1412&mode=mk&date=2013-08-06 KOPSAVILKUMS Publikācija veltīta tirgus aizsardzības, nelikumīgas ražošanas un tirdzniecības apkarošanas jautājumiem.

Sabiedrības veselības aizsardzības un fiskālajos nolūkos Eiropas Savienībā pēdējo gadu laikā cigaretēm tiek palielināts akcīzes nodoklis, kas likumsakarīgi izraisa arī cigarešu cenu kāpumu. Tā kā Latvija ģeogrāfiski atrodas blakus valstīm, kur cigarešu cena ir būtiski zemāka nekā Eiropas Savienībā, tad šis faktors palielina cigarešu kontrabandu, kā rezultātā valsts zaudē nodokļu ieņēmumus. Par to, kā nodrošināt legālā tirgus drošību, apturot un samazinot cigarešu kontrabandu, tiek domāts gan Eiropas Savienības, gan nacionālā līmenī. Nodokļu administrācijas un muitas dienestu vadošie eksperti, vērtējot cigarešu kontrabandas mijiedarbību ar dažāda veida procesiem, meklē aizvien jaunus un efektīvākus veidus, kā ierobežot nelegālo cigarešu plūsmu. Tabakas izstrādājumu legālā tirgus aizsardzība, nelikumīgās tirdzniecības ierobežošana, kontrabandas apkarošana, nelikumīgas ražošanas un viltošanas apturēšana ir nodokļu administrācijas prioritāte un izaicinājums turpmākajos gados.

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