Jodmse vol 4 no 1 jan 2014 by Vivekananda University, Coimbatore Campus

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION ISSN : 2229-5143 Volume 4

Number 1

January 2014

CONTENTS Editorial board

iii

Instruction to authors

Editorial

Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at Primary Level: C. Renuga Devi

1-15

Whole Word Patterns of Phonology in Children with Learning Disability : Narasimhan S.V.

16-22

Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill among Children with Mild Mental Retardation : Dr. T.V. Sunish Dr. S. Rajaguru

23-30

Success Story : Visionary experience of a visually challenged person

87-88

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION Journal of Disability Management and Special Education (JODMSE) is a bi-annual publication of the Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Univeristy (RKMVU). The journal publishes original articles in the area of Disability Management and Special Education. It includes research articles, book reviews, success stories of persons with disability, news about conferences, letters to the editors and forthcoming events. The purpose is to promote research in the area of disability rehabilitation. The subscription rates are given below: Single copy: ` 200/-

One year : ` 400/-

Three years: ` 1000/-

Mode of payment: Payment should be made by cheque or Demand Draft drawn in favour of the “Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University” payable at Coimbatore FORM: IV Statement about ownership and other particulars about Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

1. Place of Publication : Coimbatore 2. Periodicity of Publication : Bi-annual 3. Printer’s Name : Vidyalaya Printing Press Nationality : Indian Address : Ramakrishna Vidyalaya Printing Press, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 4. Chief Editor’s and Publisher’s Name : Dr. A.T.Thressiakutty Nationality : Indian Address Ramakrishna Mission Vivekanada University, Faculty of Disability Management and Special Education, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 Tel: 0422 2697529, Mobile: 76392 66343 5. Name and addresses of Individuals & : Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, shareholders holding morethan 1% of Faculty of Disability Management and the total capital Special Education, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 Tel: 0422 2697529 e-mail: jodmse@gmail.com, fdmedu@gmail.com I, Dr. A.T. Thressiakutty, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. ii

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION ISSN : 2229-5143 Volume 4

Number 1

January2013

EDITORIAL BOARD CHIEF ADVISOR Swami Atmapriyananda

Vice-chancellor, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University

ADVISORS Swami Abhiramananda

Administrative Head, FDMSE, RKMVU

Br. Pradeep

Asst. Administrative Head, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

Dr. M. Chandramani

Dean, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

CHIEF EDITOR Dr. A.T. Thressiakutty

Professor, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

EDITOR Abhishek Kumar Srivastava Asst. Professor, RKMVU, FDMSE, Coimbatore

EXPERT MEMBERS Dr. Jayanthi Narayan

Dr. N. Muthaiah

Principal, College of Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Coimbatore

Former Deputy Director, NIMH, Secunderabad

Dr. Asmita Huddar

Dr. S. Venkatesan

Principal, Hashu Advani College of Special Education, Mumbai

Professor, Clinical Psychology, AIISH, Mysore

Ms. M. Annakodi

Sri N. Narendiran

Asst. Professor, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

Audiologist & Speech Pathologist

iii

Instructions for Author(s) The chief editor invites original, scholarly articles and research papers within the aim and scope of the journal, that have not been published previously or submitted elsewhere, and that are not under review for another publication in any medium (e.g. printed journal, conference proceedings, electronic or optical medium) should be submitted to the Chief Editor, Journal of Disability Management and Special Education (JODMSE). A declaration by the author(s) that the paper(s) has/have not been sent elsewhere for publication/presentation is also required. Copyright clearance for material used in the article should be obtained by the author(s). It will be assumed that submission of the article to this journal implies that all the foregoing conditions are applicable. All articles and correspondence related to contribution should be addressed to the Chief Editor, JODMSE on the following e-mail: jodmse@ gmail.com

an Abstract of not more than 150 words, stating the purpose of the study, the methods followed, main findings (with specific data and their statistical significance if possible), and the major conclusions. Main body of the text: Articles must be concise and usually follow the following word limitations: 1 Research Papers (3000-5000 words normally, 6000-8000 words in exceptional cases) 2 Short communication (1000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3000 words) on new ideas/new areas work/innovation/ action research/ ongoing investigations/ conference and seminar and work shop outcomes. 3 Book reviews (1000-2000 words) Organization of the text: The general organization of research papers should be as follows: 1. Introduction should include important review of relevant studies which leads to the need, scope and objectives of the study. 2. Methodology should include sampling techniques, tool(s)/tool development and details of validation, data collection procedure and scheme of data analysis. 3. Results and discussion. 4. Conclusion. 5. Appendices may be used to amplify details where appropriate. Tables: Tables/figures should be typed at their apt position in the text. There should not be duplication of information by giving tables as well as graphs. Footnotes: Footnotes to the text should be avoided. References: References should be indicated in the text by giving the name of author(s) with the year of publication in parentheses. References should be alphabetically listed at the end of the paper. References should also be in tune with APA style.

Copyright: The authors are responsible for copyright clearance for any part of the contents of their articles. The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the authors, and do not reflect the objectives or opinion of RKMVU, FDMSE. Peer review: All Contributions submitted will be subjected to peer review. Format: The whole text manuscript must be typed in double space on one side A4 paper (including references) and should have oneinch margin at three sides and wide margin to the left side of the text. Every page should be numbered correctly including the title page. The article should confirm to APA style. Soft copy of the article should be attached and submitted to the above-mentioned e-mail. Title page: This should contain the title of the manuscript, the name of the author and at the bottom the address for correspondence including email ID, the number of authors should not exceed three. Abstract: The second page should contain iv

Vol. 4. No. 1 January 2014

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

Editorial

ISSN: 2229-5143

Quality Indicators and Evidence-Based Practices for Research in Special Education In the previous issue, the importance of qualitative research in special education was discussed. As a continuation, it has been found appropriate to provide brief information on quality indicators and evidence-based practices for research in special education especially for three types of research designs namely: Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Group Designs, Single subject design and Correlational Research referring the article published by Division of Research, Exceptional Children (2004, fall).

1. Quality Indicators for Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research: Quality indicators for experimental and quasi-experimental group design specified features of research that include a) conceptualization of the research study, b) participant description, c) implementation of treatment and comparison conditions, d) outcome measures, and e) data analysis. In their paper, Gersten et al. also provide a checklist that translates these indicators into questions. Separate sets of questions were developed for evaluating research manuscripts (for journal reviewers) or research proposals (for grant reviewers), given that the interpretation of the quality indicators changes slightly depending on how they are used. Evidence-Based Practice for Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research; To guide practitioners and researchers in the identification of evidence-based practices, Gersten et al. propose two sets of guidelines. One set of guidelines specify the level of evidence necessary to clearly support a practice as being evidence-based. For evidence based practices, two or more high quality studies, or at least four acceptable quality studies, with mean weighted effect sizes significantly different from zero, must support the effectiveness of the practice. 2. Quality Indicators for Single Subject Designs Horner et al. specify quality indicators for seven features of single subject design studies: description of participants and setting, dependent variables, independent variables, baseline, experimental control/internal validity, external validity, and social validity. These indicators are like the concept of external validity, such evidence for individual practice occurs through systematic replications in studies that possess the indicators of high quality. Evidence-Based Practice for Single Subject Designs Horner et al. proposed guidelines for the types of evidence that are necessary for a practice to be documented as evidence-based using single subject design literature. For a practice to be established as evidence-based, it must be supported by five high quality studies published in peer reviewed journals. The studies must have been conducted by three different researchers in three different geographical locations, and include a total of at least 20 participants (i.e., across the five studies). v

Thressiakutty / Editorial

3. Quality Indicators for Correlational Research In addition to specifying quality indicators about specific features of research design, the correlational research subcommittee extended their identification of quality indicators to features of outcome reliability and statistical interpretations of studies. Quality indicators were proposed for measurement, practical and clinical significance, macro-analytic interpretations of outcome, use of confidence intervals for reliability, and effect size estimates. Evidence-Based Practices for Correlational Research Although experimental group designs, quasi experimental designs with sufficient controls, and single subject designs are experimental (i.e., they actively “manipulate” an independent variable while document changes in the dependent variable, infer causal relationships), some research questions are not amenable to active manipulation. In such situations, sophisticated correlational designs, such has structural equation modeling or hierarchical linear modeling, may be used to make causal-like inferences. Thompson et al. proposed that this may be done in two ways— through statistically testing rival hypotheses and by logically discounting rival hypotheses. Conclusion An attempt has been made to briefly explain the quality indicators and evidence based practices for research in special education especially, Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Group Designs, Single subject design and Correlational Research. Ever since UGC has made mandatory to publish two research papers before submitting PhD thesis, many PhD scholars come forward with research articles. I do hope this information would help to determine if a study is of high quality and whether it provides evidence of the effectiveness of practices in special education. References: Gersten, R., Fuchs, L., Compton, D., Coyne, M., Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. (in press). Quality indicators for group experimental and quasi-experimental research in special education. Exceptional Children Horner, R. D., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S. L., & Wolery, M. (in press). The use of single subject research to identify evidence-based practices in special education. Exceptional Children Thompson, B., Diamond, K. E., McWilliam, R., Synder, P., & Synder, S. (in press). Evaluating the quality of evidence from correlational research for evidence-based practice. Exceptional Children Odom, S.L. (Chair), Brantlinger,E., Gersten,R., Horner,R.D., Thompson,B. & Harris,K (2004) Quality Indicators for Research in Special Education and Guidelines for Evidence-Based Practices: Executive Summary, Exceptional Children (fall)

A.T. Thressiakutty, PhD Chief Editor, JODMSE vi

Vol. 4. No. 1 January 2014

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education ISSN: 2229-5143

Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at Primary Level *C. Renuga Devi

Abstract Individual specific needs of students with disabilities can be accommodated through Computer Based Instruction (CBI) in the learning environment depending on their individual learning styles. Many research studies have established the idea that students with different learning styles benefit from various computer technologies. Multimedia applications facilitate and promote the learning of students encountering difficulties through usual print mode. Instructional software teaches specific skills and knowledge, often narrowed to a specific content area and grade range. ADOBE FLASH is multimedia software where teachers can create the content interactive, engaging and pedagogical resources for their pupils. An animated instruction was developed using ADOBE FLASH for the selected content of primary level mathematics curriculum followed in inclusive schools in the state of Tamil Nadu. Single case analysis design was applied among five students with Autism Spectrum Disorder, one each from I to V standard studying in inclusive schools at Coimbatore district. The developed animated instruction was implemented among the samples for 30 sessions. The effect of the instruction was recorded using visual observation and achievement test by the researcher. The analysed data indicates that animated instruction improves learning of mathematical content among the selected sample at primary level. Key words: Animated Instruction, Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Mathematics curriculum, Inclusion

Introduction

stands for a type of education that is quite specific and special in nature specifically or specially designed for meeting the needs of special children, whereas integration focus upon educating children with disabilities in regular schools with special attention and in inclusion the schools are restructured in such a manner to accept and provide for the needs of all students

Children with disabilities are in great requirement of appropriate educational measures for helping them in meeting out their special needs and to cope with their deficits or extraordinary abilities. It is therefore essential for having an appropriate way to organize adequate educational services for the exceptional children (Mangal, 2007). There are various educational service provisions available for children with disabilities such as special education, integration and inclusion where special education in its simple meaning *

India has signed and ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) which re-affirms existing human rights in the context of disability

Assistant Professor in Special Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Faculty of Disability Management and Special Education, Email id: renugajp@gmail.com

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and focuses strongly on the discrimination that disabled people worldwide face on a daily basis. Article 24 on Education of the convention aims at an inclusive education system at all levels and lifelong learning directing the full development of human potential and a sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free society.

as far as possible, and Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation, rather than Board examinations. Universal Design for Learning Applications Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a theoretical framework developed by Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) to guide the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Meyer & Rose, 1998; Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000a, 2000b, 2002; Rose, Strangman, & Meyer, 2000; Dolan & Hall, 2001; Pisha & Coyne, 2001; Rose, 2001;). Uniquely UDL calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind, so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. In a traditional curriculum a student without a well-developed ability to see, decode, attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can. In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. A UDL curriculum takes on the burden of adaptation so that the student doesn’t have to, minimizing barriers and maximizing access to both information and learning.

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE), which was passed by the Indian parliament on 4 August 2009, describes the modalities of the provision of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution. The Act rightly puts that, “All children have similar potential for learning. If one child is doing better than the other, the problem is not with the child, but the different nurturing processes and systemic inputs. It therefore puts the onus of learning on the school and the system, and does not prescribe punishing the child through failure, detention and expulsion”. The Act prescribes a learning environment that does not cause fear, anxiety and trauma to children, promotes their all-round development rather than only excellence in school subjects, building up child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent, imbibing values enshrined in the Constitution, learning through activities, discovery and exploration in child friendly and child centred manner, using the mother tongue as medium of instruction

The UDL framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of 3 principles. These 3 principles parallel 3 fundamentally important learning components and 3 distinct learning networks in the brain: recognition, strategy, and affect (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The common recommendation of these 3 principles is to select goals, methods, assessment and materials in a way that will minimize barriers and maximize flexibility. In 2

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

this manner, the UDL framework structures the development of curricula that fully support every student’s access, participation, and progress in all 3 essential facets of learning.

Affective learning: The third UDL principle recommends affective learning by providing multiple, flexible options for engagement. Computer simulations and virtual reality can be important tools in ensuring that students across the board are engaging with learning.

Virtual Reality/Computer Simulations and the Three Universal Design for Learning Principles Recognition learning: The first UDL principle recommends recognition learning by providing multiple, flexible methods of presentation. Virtual reality and computer simulations, as part of a diversified toolkit of classroom materials, can help curriculum designers and teachers achieve this end. Another route toward teaching patterns is to highlight their critical features. Virtual reality and computer simulations incorporate multiple media into a single presentation, offering a rich, multi-sensory experience of a pattern.

Researchers Sykes and Reid have even said about virtual reality, “There is simply no other way to engage students as virtual reality can” (Sykes & Reid, 1999). These tools make certain types of content unusually accessible and enable students to work with that content in a way not normally possible. Because computer simulations and virtual reality are programmed and digitized, it would be realistic for a teacher to offer students a selection of different environments and simulations with different content. Computer Based Instruction

Strategic learning: The 2nd UDL principle highlights support strategic learning by providing multiple, flexible methods of expression and apprenticeship. This principle and its associated teaching methods guide teachers in anticipating barriers to strategic learning and in selecting materials and practices that are flexible enough to overcome these barriers. Digital environments such as computer simulations and virtual reality can provide students with rich, multi-sensory models, and it is relatively straightforward to offer students a very large number of such models to choose from. Feedback provided during the course of learning is most effective (Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2002). Digital materials like computer simulations and virtual reality offer a relatively facile means to integrate ongoing feedback into practice and learning. Students can get immediate feedback from the program about their success.

Computer-based instruction refers to individualized instructions that are administered by computers. They can be used to teach new skills or to help improve subjects that a student has been experiencing difficulties with by expanding the learning experience. Computerbased instructions are extremely effective for implementing a structured curriculum and making the students to work at their own rate. It also performs a task of accommodating students depending on their learning styles. Research studies have been done to establish the idea that differing learning styles benefit from various computer technologies. Multimedia applications have major improvements for students who encountered difficulties learning in a usual print environment. Multimedia learning principle occurs when we create mental representations from combining text and relevant graphics into lessons. Multimedia 3

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instructional design combines words and graphics to enhance learning effectiveness. Multimedia presentations can encourage learners to engage in active learning by mentally representing the material in words and in pictures and by mentally making connections between the pictorial and verbal representations.

education environment. To ensure useful and quality elementary education for all children with disabilities in inclusive system the performance of the school system has to be improved. Children with autism spectrum disorder should attend regular education with support facilities provided to them. The curriculum and instruction offered to such children should focus on child’s strengths and needs, highly structured, with inbuilt social and communication skills with functional approaches to reduction of problem behaviour. Children will learn better if the environment is carefully created so that the events are predictable with proper scheduling of routine activities. Siegel as quoted by Cowley (2003) estimates that 25 percent of classically autistic children respond to intensive interventions and that 7 percent do well enough to attend mainstream schools and lead normal lives. The response rates are much higher among mildly affected children and experts agree that stimulation given is the key to success.

Computer animation in the form of animated simulations can provide an engaging, effective and flexible medium of instruction to perform the tasks. Flexibility in animated instructions caters to the varied needs of the children thereby establishing indirect relation between instructions and behavior acting as effective medium of instruction. In the present study animations for the selected content was developed using ADOBE FLASH a multimedia computer software. In the context of education, Flash is an open canvas where teachers create the content. This means producing interactive, engaging and pedagogical resources for their pupils. ‘…students want an education that serves their needs. For many that means an education that is convenient, accessible and most importantly, relevant.’ (Macromedia Whitepaper 2004).

Children with autism spectrum disorder even though physically included in the regular schools out of the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) schemes were not provided with adequate educational facility to accommodate them in regular schools. This happens not only due to the inadequacy in education system that prevails but also due the lacunae that exist in preparing such children with modifications to accommodate them in regular schools with non-disabled children which will focus upon with providing an instructional programme with essential components of inclusive education to

Need of the study India being a signatory to various forums and legislations is promoting inclusive education for children with disabilities, in order to achieve the goal of Universalization of Primary Education (UEE). Full inclusion refers to instructional practices that seek to accommodate students with disabilities in regular education class, such that the students’ primary placement is considered as regular 4

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

promote functional inclusion of children with autism spectrum disorder.

behavioural change an individual exhibits as a result of some treatment.

Thus, it has become necessary to provide a comprehensive instructional programme with required modifications to cater to the needs of such children with autism spectrum disorder to accommodate them in inclusive set up. Hence this study attempts to study the effect of animated instructions developed considering the recommendations of UDL principle in mathematical learning of Children with autism spectrum disorder.

Subject Selection Criteria The sample for the current study was selected from inclusive schools in Coimbatore District. Children with Mental Retardation having Autism Spectrum Disorders studying in inclusive schools under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan were selected as sample for the present study. The following inclusion and exclusion criteria was followed in sample selection. Inclusion Criteria • Certified Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Objectives of the study 1. To determine the current level skills of the children with autism spectrum disorder in mathematics curriculum at primary level 2. To develop an animated instruction for mathematics curriculum at primary level. 3. To implement the developed animated instruction in mathematics curriculum among the selected sample.

•

Studying in Inclusive schools under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan

•

Age range between 6 -11

•

Studying at primary level from Standard 1 to V

Exclusion criteria • Children with any other associated conditions

4. To compare the pre and post-test performance scores of the selected sample after implementation of animated instruction.

•

Studying in special schools and integrated schools

•

Studying in inclusive schools not covered under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan

•

Below age 6 and Above age 11

•

Studying in middle or secondary level

Methodology The objective of the current research is to develop and implement an animated instruction for the mathematics curriculum followed in inclusive education at primary level. The present study adopts single subject research design also referred to as single-case experimental designs that can be applied when the sample size is one or when a number of individuals are considered as one group. These designs are typically used to study the

Sample size Five children with Autism Spectrum Disorder studying in inclusive schools of Coimbatore District at primary level under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan were selected as sample for the present study. The detail of the sample for the present study is described in the table below: 5

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Sl.No

Age

Class

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

Gender

Locality

Total

Male

Female

Rural

Urban

Grand total

Research Procedure A systematic procedure is applied to carry out the current study so that objectives can be achieved meaningfully. Animated instruction for mathematics at primary level was developed for the study considering the current level and need of the sample. The developed animated instruction was validated by experts working with these children in inclusive set up with informed consent. An achievement test based on the curriculum to assess the entry level and the level of the selected sample after the implementation of the intervention was prepared and validated by circulating it among the experts handling these children.

for a period of six weeks, 1 hour per day for 5 days per week totalling to 30 sessions and an achievement test was administered after the period of implementation. The collected data through visualized observations and achievement test was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at conclusion for the present study. Based on the analysis of the data interpretation of the study was drawn and recorded. Nature of the tool Animated instruction was developed at different levels for the mathematics content offered in inclusive schools at primary level. The mathematics content selected for developing

The developed instructional package

animated instruction is listed below:

was implemented among the sample selected

Details of Mathematics curriculum adapted at five levels are described below: Sl. No Items

Description

Shapes

Identification of different shapes ( Circle, Square, Rectangle, Triangle, Cone)

Numbers

Identification, arranging in ascending and descending order before and after number identification from 1 to 75

Addition

Single digit and double digit addition with carry over

Subtraction

Single digit and double subtraction with borrowing

Application oriented problems

Word problems from which the child has to understand the application part and solve. 6

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

An instructional 2 D animated (Creative suite CS5.5) package for the selected mathematics content according to the level of the sample was developed using flash for five levels from I to V standard at primary level. The developed package is user friendly, can function without graphical support and consumes less storage space and highly interactive.

the items in that level. Once the user selects the items he wish to learn the teaching process will start and the user can attend to it. The user after completing the learning of specific item in specific level can move back for learning the next item. This process can be carried out any number of times until the user understands the content to be learned. Functioning of developed animated instructional package for mathematics curriculum is given below:

Each level has separate buttons. The user has to select the level in which he has to learn at home page and it will further guide to choose

Fig.1 represents the flow of instruction in animated instruction package 7

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Fig. 2 represents the screen shot of mathematical content in instructional package 2. Circle the correct option

An achievement test with items for evaluation focused on testing the Knowledge, Understanding and Application skill of the sample in the learnt content was developed. Appropriate instructions were given to the students. Test items for evaluation were constructed in the following manner from the content taught to them:

3. Match with similar objects 4. Fill in the blanks The responses from the sample in the administered test were recorded and based on their performance level scores were awarded on the basis of the following five response criteria:

1. Tick the correct option Sl.No

Response Criteria

Description

Score

Correct

Performs independently

Visual Clues

Performs when prompted with visuals

Verbal prompt

Performs when verbally prompted

Physical prompt

Performs when provided with physical assistance

Incorrect

Totally dependent

3.4.5 Reliability and Validity of the tool The reliability of the tool was established using Karl Pearson Coefficient of correlation by administering the animated instruction on 10 children with autism spectrum disorder studying in inclusive set up and retest was conducted in next 10 days interval. The reliability coefficient based on test â&#x20AC;&#x201C; retest for developed animated mathematics instruction for 5 levels are tabulated below: 8

Level

Reliability Score ( r)

0.87

0.77

0.73

0.82

0.74

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

Validity of the tool was established by distributing the developed tool to 5 special educators working in inclusive set up and 5 technical experts in animated instruction and the items which scored above 80% only were selected for the tool.

Current level performance of the child in mathematics curriculum offered in inclusive education was assessed by administering an achievement test. An animated instructional package was developed for the mathematics content selected based on the current ability level of the child and minimum level of learning required in inclusive set up. The developed package was administered to the case for 30 sessions which spread over for 6 weeks.

Results and Discussion Case 1 Case 1 aged 6 years diagnosed with classical autism is studying at 1st standard in inclusive school under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan.

Table 1 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case1 in animated mathematics instruction Sl.No

Content

Pretest

Post test

Shape identification

Number identification 1 - 10

Ascending order 1 - 10

Descending order 1 - 10

Before numbers 1 - 10

After numbers 1 - 10

Figure 3 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case1 in animated mathematics instruction

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After 6 weeks of intervention same achievement test used for pretest on the mathematics curriculum was administered and the scores were obtained. The post test performance scores of 18 out of 24 in all the items as against the pre test scores of 8 out of 24 in level 1 mathematics curriculum indicates that there is a considerable level of positive effect in learning mathematics after the administration of animated instruction.

Siksha Abhiyan was medically certified as child with classical autism under the spectrum of autism disorder. An animated instructional package was developed for the mathematics content selected based on the current ability level of the child assessed by administering an achievement test and minimum level of learning required in inclusive set up. The developed package was administered to the case for 30 sessions which spread over for 6 weeks.

Case â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 2nd

Case 2 an 8 year old child studying at standard in inclusive school under Sarva

Table 1 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 2 in animated mathematics instruction Sl.No

Pretest

Post test

Shape identification

Number identification 1 -10

Ascending order 1 - 10

Descending order 1 - 10

Before numbers 1 -10

After numbers 1 -10

Addition 1-5

Content

Subtraction 1-5 0 Figure 4 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 2 in animated mathematics instruction

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

After 6 weeks of intervention same achievement test used for pretest on the mathematics curriculum was administered and the scores were obtained. The post test performance scores of 30 out of 32 in all the items as against the pre test scores of 5 out of 32 of the case in level 2 mathematics curriculum indicates that there is a considerable level of positive effect in the perfomance of mathematical content after the administration of animated instruction.

inclusive school under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan. In order to assess the current level performance of the child in mathematics curriculum offered in inclusive education an achievement test was administered. An animated instructional package was developed for the mathematics content selected based on the current ability level of the child and minimum level of learning required in inclusive set up. The developed

Case â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3 Case 3 aged 9 years diagnosed with classical autism is studying at 3rd standard in

package was administered to the case for 30 sessions which spread over for 6 weeks.

Table 1 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 3 in animated mathematics instruction

Sl.No 1

Content

Pretest

Shape identification Number identification 1 -30 Before numbers 1 -30 After numbers 1 -30 Addition 1 - 15 Subtraction 1 - 15

Post test

2 4 1 4 0 3 1 4 1 3 1 3 Figure 5 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 3 in animated mathematics instruction

2 3 4 5 6

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Case â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4 Case 4 aged 10 years diagnosed with classical autism is studying at 4th standard in inclusive school under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan. An animated instructional package was developed for the mathematics content selected based on the current ability level of the child assessed by administering an achievement test and minimum level of learning required in inclusive set up. The developed package was administered to the case for 30 sessions which spread over for 6 weeks.

After 6 weeks of intervention same achievement test used for pretest on the mathematics curriculum was administered and the scores were obtained. The post test performance scores of 21 out of 24 in all the items as against the pre test scores 6 out of 24 of of the case in level 3 mathematics curriculum indicates that there is a considerable level of positive effect in learning mathematics after the administration of animated instruction.

Table 1 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 4 in animated mathematics instruction Sl.No

Content

Pretest

Post test 4 4

Shape identification

2 3 4 5 6

Number identification 1 -50

2 2

Before numbers 1 -50

After numbers 1 -50

2 1 0

3 3 2

Addition 1 - 20 Subtraction 1 - 20

Figure 6 - Pre and Post test performance scores of Case 4 in animated mathematics instruction

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

After 6 weeks of intervention same achievement test used for pretest on the mathematics curriculum was administered and the scores were obtained. The post test performance scores of 18 out of 24 in all the items as against the pre test scores of 7 out of 24 of the case in level 4 mathematics curriculum indicates that there is a considerable level of positive effect in learning mathematics after the administration of animated instruction.

is studying at 5th standard in inclusive school under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan. The current level performance of the child in mathematics curriculum offered in inclusive education was assessed by administering an achievement test. An animated instructional package was developed for the mathematics content selected based on his current ability level and minimum level of learning required in inclusive set up. The developed package was administered to the case for 30 sessions which spread over for 6 weeks.

Case â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5 Case 5 a 11 year old child diagnosed and certified as a child with classical autism

Table 1 - Pre and Post test scores of Case 5 in animated mathematics instruction Sl. No

Content

Pretest

Post test

Shape identification (Circle, Square, rectangle , triangle and Cone)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Number identification 1 -75 Before numbers 1 - 75 After numbers 1 - 75 Addition without carry over 1 - 50 Addition with carry over 1-20 Subtraction without borrowing 1-50 Subtraction with borrowing 1 - 20 Word Problems Figure 7 - Pre and Post test scores of Case 5 animated mathematics instruction

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 in

3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4

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After 6 weeks of intervention same achievement test used for pretest on the mathematics curriculum was administered and the scores were obtained. The post test performance scores of 31 out of 36 in all the items as against the pre test scores of 12 out of 36 in level 5 mathematics curriculum of the case indicates that there is a considerable level of positive effect in the performance of mathematics content after the administration of animated instruction.

of content and tools because their nature is so vastly different from those typically made available in the classroom. The non-print, interactive, multi-sensory, 3-dimensional, and in some cases hands-on nature of these tools can be highly engaging for students. Hence animated instruction will act as an effective instructional mode for children with autism Spectrum Disorder who mainly depends on visual stimuli and structured environment for learning and thereby promotes their functional and full inclusion in general schools.

Suggestions for future implementation Following suggestions can be carried out as inclusive instructional strategies for effective transmission of content to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in inclusive educational set up in future: •

Modelling and direct instruction can be provided.

•

Additional demonstrations using a stepby-step approach can be provided.

•

Role-play and simulations can be used.

•

Variety of modes for learning activities which does not rely on passive listening using hands - on activities, ‘active learning’ (models, video recordings, computerassisted instruction etc.) can be used.

•

Variety of modes for responses (do not rely solely on written responses, use diagrams, tape recordings, construction of posters, models, videos etc.) can be followed.

•

Self-management strategies wherever possible (self-monitoring, self-correcting, self-reinforcement) can be incorporated.

References Dolan, R. P., & Hall, T. E. (2001) Universal Design for Learning: Implications for Large-Scale Assessment http://www.cast.org/system/galleries/ download/byCAST/udlassessment.pdf retrieved on December 15, 2012. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2006). Inclusive Education A Practical guide to supporting diversity in the classroom, Australia: Allen & Unwin Macromedia Whitepaper (2004) Macromedia Accessibility Project (MAP): A Colloboration of the League for Innovation in the Community College, Macromedia, Inc., and Pima community College (PDF, IMB) http://www.scribd. com/doc/ retrieved on December 15,2012. Mangal,S.K. (2007). Educating Exceptional Children An Introduction to Special Education, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited

Conclusion The introduction of virtual reality and computer simulations into the classroom will greatly improve teachers’ ability to offer choices

Pisha, B., & Coyne, P. (2001). Smart from the Start the Promise of Universal Design for learning http://rse.sagepub.com/ 14

Renuga Devi / Effect of Animated Instruction in Learning Mathematics

content/22/4/197.abstract?ijkey=f6307 dbd2c7b31d76334daae7ae61025dd6 d54cd&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha retrieved on December 15, 2012.

Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000b). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(1), 67-70. http://aim.cast.org/learn/ histor yarchive/backgroundpapers/ differentiated_instruction_udl retrieved on December 15, 2012.

Roa, I., Prahladro, S., and Pramod, V. (2010). Inspired by village schools Moving Away from schools, Bangalore: CBR Network

Singal, N. (2009). Education of children with disabilities in India, Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010 Reaching the marginalized http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0018/001866/186611e.pdf retrieved on July 15, 2011.

Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Universal Design for L ear ning. http://www. ebscohost.com /uploads/imported/ thisTopic-dbTopic-1073.pdf retrieved on December 15, 2012. Rose, D. H., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2000). Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/ backgroundpapers/differentiated_ instruction_udl retrieved on December 15, 2012.

Sykes., & Reid. (1999). Virtual Reality/ Simulations with UDL http://aim.cast.org/ learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/ virtual_simulations_udl retrieved on December 15, 2012. Tuli, U. (2008) ed., Maitra, K., Saxena, V. (2008). Inclusion Issues and perspectives, New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers

Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000a). Universal design for individual differences.Â Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43. http:// aim.cast.org/lear n/histor yarchive/ backgroundpapers/differentiated_ instruction_udl retrieved on December 15, 2012.

Ysseldyke, E, J., and Algozzine, B. (2009). Special Education A practical approach for teachers, New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.

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Whole Word Patterns of Phonology in Children with Learning Disability *Narasimhan S.V.

ABSTRACT Recent investigations in the arena of phonological assessment have concentrated on the measures of whole word patterns. Although studies have addressed the whole word patterns in typically developing children, very few studies have concentrated on the disordered population. The present study was planned to document the uniqueness in the whole word patterns of phonology in children with learning disability. Spontaneous speech samples from 20 typically developing subjects (group 1) and 20 children with learning disability (group 2) were elicited and the three whole word measures were calculated. The results of the Kruskal Wallis tests showed that mean values of two of the whole word measures were significantly (P<0.05) higher among typically developing subjects compared to children with learning disability. The present study also advocates the practice of whole-word approach in the assessment of phonological disorders. Key words: Phonological Assessment, Learning Disability, Whole Word Patterns.

Kamhi, 1992). Ingram (2002) proposed four simple whole word measures which are effortless to use and has high reliability. They are: Phonological Mean Length of Utterance (PMLU), Proportion of Whole Word Proximity (PWP), Proportion of Whole Word correct (PWW) and Proportion of WholeWordVariation (PWV).

Introduction Researchers have spent a long time in assessing the patterns of acquisition of speech sounds and their substitution. Phonological assessment in children does not frequently concentrate on the nature of vocabulary in children. Attempts have been made to quantify phonological development with the help of normative studies (Olmstead, 1971) and tests of articulation (Hodsen & Paden, 1991). Commonly, the scores on vocabulary tests are considered as part of phonological assessment to index the receptive vocabulary in a given child. Expressive vocabulary has been seldom taken into account due to its inaccuracy in revealing language abilities of the child. However, recent investigations have concentrated on the measures of whole word patterns (Ingram, 2002; Masterson &

P M LU i s a w h o l e - w o r d m e a s u re for quantifying the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s phonological development. Just as Mean Length of Utterances (MLU) relates to sentences, the PMLU relates to phonology. PMLU relies on two features: the number of segments present in the word spoken by the child; and, the number of correct consonants produced by the child. The number of segments is focused on the point with more complex results in longer words spoken. Scoring consonants reward the

Lecturer, Speech-Language Pathology, J.S.S Institute of Speech and Hearing, Ooty road, Mysore-570025, Karnataka. Email id: narasimhanslp@gmail.com

Narasimhan / Whole Word Patterns of Phonology in Children with Learning Disability

child not only for using a consonant, but also for matching the target phoneme.

includes lining up the transcription of the word spoken by the child against the actual adult form of pronunciation. The word is marked correct if both there is a perfect match between both. Once the number of correct words is established, PWW is computed by dividing the correctly spoken words by the total size of the sample. For example, if a child’s first 50 words contain 5 correct whole words (example, no, my), then the PWW is 0.10 or 10%. The final measure proposed is the Proportion of Whole-wordVariation (PWV), which is meant to give an indication of the consistency with which target forms are produced. Together, these measures covercorrectness, complexity

The reliability of a measure such as pMLU refers to the consistency with which test items produce analogous indices of the capability being evaluated. Reliability can be artificial by a sum of influences, such as, in the case of pMLU, the situations of soundtrack, the accuracy of transcription, and the size of the sample. Ingram (2002) suggests that at least 25 words, and preferably 50 words, are mandatory to attain reliable pMLU calculations. Ingram (2002) demonstrated this sample size rule by calculating pMLU on three different 25 word samples taken from a corpus of a single child. The obtained values ranged from 6.2 to 6.6. Thus, it was established that the proposed sample size was indeed satisfactory for the purpose at hand. The practical effectiveness of pMLU not only pivots on the reliability of the measure, but also on its validity. That is to what extent pMLU replicates other domains of language proficiency, such as, the child’s morphosyntactic development. Ingram (2002) in Lexical class rule, excludes function words from the analysis, because these words are usually short and, hence, lower the overall pMLU score in morphosyntactically progressive children. However, this guideline does not seem to absolutely eliminate the effect of morphosyntactic factors.

and consistency of whole-word productions. Ingram (2002) also proposed to split phonological development into six steps by means of PMLU as his index. These steps are not reinforced yet by developmental data. As soon as data on normative aspects are available, these stages might be used to equate the complexity of the child’s phonology to that of his age-matched controls. Every stage has a range of PMLU scores with midpoints. Table 1: Stages of phonological development using PMLU (Ingram 2002) Stages I II III IV V Beyond V

Further, considering the Proportion of Whole Word Proximity (PWP), PWP is obtained by computing the target word’s PMLU and then dividing that into the PMLU of the child’s production. Proportion of Whole Word correct (PWW) is the easiest feature to measure. The words spoken by the child are scanned to identifythe presence of errors. The process

Range 2.5 – 3.5 3.5 – 4.5 4.5 – 5.5 5.5 – 6.5 6.5 – 7.5

Midpoint 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Delay in the phonological development or the phonological disorder arises when children do not develop the capability to produce any or all sounds required for speech that are 17

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typicallyacquired at his or her age. Depending on the age of the child, the symptoms of phonological disorder change significantly. It is frequently challenging to identify this condition, as the child with phonological disorder acquires speech sounds sluggishly than his peers. Several studies indicate that a child with language disturbances significantly lag behind in their phonological development compared to their age matched peers. According to Wolk & Edwards (1993), limitations on language development, may limit the morphosyntactic structure, the phonological utterance and cause an influence on lexical ability and word acquisition. These kinds of language disturbances are very common evidenced in

respectable academic performance. Learning disability can hinder a child’s capability to read, write or compute mathematical problems. Few studies done by Ingram (2002) have focused their attention on the aspects of PMLU and have proposed a preliminary data on PMLU among English speaking children. Helin, Makkonen & Kunnari (2006) found higher PMLU amongchildren speaking Finnish than those reported for children speaking English language. Radish &Jayashree (2008) reported increased PMLU scores as the age increased in Kannada speaking normal children. Gerrits and Bree (2009) also studied the early language development of Dutch children at family risk of dyslexia and compared the results with groups of Specific Language Impairment (SLI) children and typically developing controls. This study evaluated the children’s phonological abilities by using two whole word measures of phonology. The results of the study showed that the two metrices yielded very similar results. The weakest results in both the PCC and pMLU were obtained by the children with SLI, the second-weakest by the children at risk of dyslexia, and the best results by the typically developing controls. Further, the study also predicted that the impaired expressive phonology in dyslexic children seemed to be related to a deficit in speech perception. Lambrecht Smith (2009), on the other hand, assessed the phonological and lexical characteristics of 30-month-old children acquiring English and correlated the results with respect to the data on the same children’s reading skills. The study reported that children with a reading disability had lower pMLUs at 30 months than the children in the at risk groups.

children with learning disability. “Learning disability is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g. sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instructions, psychogenic factor), it is not the direct result of those conditions of influences” (Larsen et al 1981). Children with learning disability usually have average or above average intelligence. Poor scholastic performance is one of the identified signs of learning disability since these children, regardless of being intelligent, are incapable to process information in a way that is vital for 18

Narasimhan / Whole Word Patterns of Phonology in Children with Learning Disability

Although studies have addressed the PMLU in English, Finnish and Kannada language, all these above mentioned investigations attended the phonological aspects among typically developing children and only very few studies have concentrated on the disordered population. Thus the current study was planned to investigate the uniqueness in the whole word patterns of phonology in the utterance in native Kannada speaking children. The present study aimed at comparing the PMLU, PWP and PWW between Kannada speaking typically developing children and the children with learning disability in the age range of 5-7 years.

participants were in generally good health and ruled out hearing impairment through informal hearing screening. Procedure: All data were obtained inthe Speech Science Lab at JSS Institute of speech and hearing, havingminimal ambient room noise. Existing in the room were the participant and the primary investigator (in all cases, the author). The subjects were seated comfortably on a chair opposite to the investigator across the table and later rapport was built by speaking with the subjects, in order to get the co-operation. The spontaneous speech samples with at least 25 random words were elicited from each child using picture narration task. The picture narration depicting the fable of â&#x20AC;&#x153; the thirsty crowâ&#x20AC;? was used to elicit the speech sample as it provides verbal responses both at descriptive and interpretative level. The data collection was carried out in a single sitting and the time consumed was around one hour per participant. The stimuli were recorded using Sandisk m200 digital recorder. During the recording, the microphone was placed at a distance of 8-10 cm from the mouth. The recorded utterances were digitized at a sampling frequency of 16 KHz using a 12 bit A/D converter. Further the three whole word measure namely PMLU, PWP and PWW were calculated as per the guidelines proposed by Ingram (2002) (Appendix 1).

Method Participants: A total of 40 Kannada speaking participants with the age ranging between 5 to 7 years were selected for the study and were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 consisted of 20 typically developing subjects, who were screened for any speech, language, hearing, cognitive and neurological deficits. Group 2 included 20 children with learning disability. All the children of group 2 were diagnosed by a qualified professional from the Department of Psychology. The parent of each participant was asked whether they would allow their child to participate in the research study and as a part of ethical principle, the informed signed consent from each parents was obtained. The first twenty participants under each group who agreed to participate constitute the pool of participants. Each parent signed the free and informed consent form agreeing their childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in the study and to the dissemination of results. All

Results & Discussion The present study aimed at analysing the PMLU, PWP and PWW between the normal childrenand the childrenwith learning disability. As a part of descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation values were calculated for both the groups on all the three measures. 19

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Additionally, Kruskal-Wallis test was done as a part of inferential statistics to compare the PMLU, PWP and PWW between the normal and childrenwith learning disability using SPSS (version 13).

also done to find out the correlation of PMLU, PWP and PWW. It is also evident from the table 4 that, there was a high positive correlation between all the three whole word measures. Table 3: Correlations between PMLU, PWP and PWW.

Table 2: Mean and SD of PMLU, PWP and PWW for group 1 and group 2 subjects.

PMLU

Group 1 (N: 20) Mean SD 7.5 0.5

PWP

0.99

Groups

0.01

Group 2 (N: 20) Mean SD 7.4 0.78 0.9

Measures

Correlation values

PMLU & PWP

0.809

PWP & PWW

0.904

PMLU & PWW

0.706

Results indicated that the PMLU, PWP and PWW were higher for typically developing subjects than the subjects with learning disability. The results of the present study also indicate that the normal children are superior in acquisition of whole word patterns of phonology than the children with learning disability.These results are in consonance with the results of the study reported by Gerrits &Â Bree (2009) and Lambrecht Smith (2009). Both these study results indicated low scores on whole word measures among dyslexic children compared to their typically developing peers.

0.7

PWW 0.98 0.03 0.76 0.16 Mean and standard deviation of PMLU, PWP and PWW of both the groups are depicted in table 2. It can be evidenced from the table 2, the mean PMLU, PWP and PWWvalues were higher among the group 1 subjects. Even though the PMLU was seen to higher among group 1 subjects compared to that of group 2, the difference between the two groups across PMLU was subtle. It was also noted that the standard deviation scores were seen to be lower for group1 subjects compared to that of group 2 subjects reflecting a higher variability across all the three measures among

As accordingly to the present results, PWP and PWW were significantly higher for normal subjects and PMLU was not significantly higher compared to that of subjects with learning disability. Thus it could be inferred that the PWP and PWW are better measures for the assessment of phonology in language disordered children than the PMLU. The results of the present study are also in consonance with the study done on normal Kannada speaking children (Radish & Jayashree, 2008) which showed that the PMLU for the normal children speaking Kannada are higher in comparison with English speaking children as reported by Ingram (2002). The present

childrenwith learning disability. Kruskal Wallis test at 95% confidence interval was administered to compare the differences between group 1 and group 2 subjects in terms of PMLU, PWP and PWW. The results of the Kruskal Wallis test revealed that there was a significant difference (p<0.05) observed between groups 1 & 2 across both PWP and PWW. However, subjects of group 1 and group 2 did not differ significantly across PMLU.Spearmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rank correlation test was 20

Narasimhan / Whole Word Patterns of Phonology in Children with Learning Disability

study also shows the PMLU scores of typically developing children speaking Kannada were greater than that reported by Ingram (2002). This may be supported by the fact that the speech sounds of some languages are acquired earlier than others.

References

Conclusion

Helin, K., Makkonen, T & Kunnari, S. (2006). The Phonological mean length of utterance: the methodological challenge from cross linguistic perspectives. Journal of Child Language, 33, 179-190.

Gerrits, E., & Bree, E. de (2009). Early language development of children at familial risk of dyslexia: Speech perception and production. Journal of Communication Disorders, 42, 180â&#x20AC;&#x201C;194.

In this study, the three whole word measures namely PMLU, PWP and PWW were measured in the childrenwith Learning Disability and it was found that the normals had significantly high PWP and PWW compared to that of childrenwith Learning Disability. The obtained data will exemplify our understanding of the phonology and its assessment ofthe Learning Disability population. It will provide a thrust to the long felt need for research in the field of assessment of phonology in the disordered population. Further, these analyses should be done on other speech and language disorders which cause the problem in the acquisition of phonology to better understand the whole word approach as an assessment tool for phonological acquisition. In summary, the study proposes that the objective of phonological development is to attain word that are in vicinity to and ultimately match the adult form of the word. The objective of evaluation then turns on judging the success of a child in accomplishing this through the use of whole-word measures. Children having low PWW and PWP scores would be highly unintelligible and ought to be expected subjects with phonological disorder. Intervention will concentrate on the whole-word goals, and not just goals to attain the individual speech segments. Thus, the practice of whole-word approach presents an additional dimension in the intervention of phonological disorders.

Hodson, B. & Paden, E. (1991). Targeting intelligible speech: a phonological approach to remediation. Austin TX: Pro-ed. Ingram, D. (2002). The measurement of wholeword productions. Journal of Child Language 29, 713-733. Kumar, R.B., and Bhat, J.S. (2009). Phonological mean length of utterance (PMLU) in Kannada speaking children. Languages in India, 9, 489-501. Lambrecht Smith, S. (2009). Early phonological and lexical markers of reading disabilities. Reading and Writing, 22, 25â&#x20AC;&#x201C;40. Larsen, S.C., Hammill. D.D., Leigh. J.E and Gaye Mc Nutt. (1981). A new definition of learning disabilities, Learning Disability Quarterly. 4(4) 336-342. Masterson, J, & Kamhi, A. (1992). Linguistic interrelationships in school age children with and without language disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35, 64-75. Olmstead, D. (1971). Out of the mouth of babes. The Hague: Mouton. Wolk, L. & Edwards, M. L. (1993). The emerging phonological system of an autistic child. Journal of Communication Disorders, 26, 161-177. 21

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Appendix– 1

are typically of low reliability. Syllabic consonants receive an additional point in the same way as nonsyllabic consonants.

Rules for the calculation of the Phonological Mean Length of Utterance (pMLU; Ingram, 2002).

Calculation of PMLU: Each segment in the child’s word was counted and given a single point. An additional point was given for each correct consonant. The minimal score that a word can receive is 1, if the child only produces a vowel. Because most children produce at least a consonant vowel (CV) syllable in their first words, it is expected that the earliest scores will begin with 2. A score of 3 was given for a word either if a final consonant was added or if there was a correct consonant. Finally the PMLU was calculated by adding the total number of points assigned to a selected set of words and dividing that number by the number of words.

1. Sample-Size Rule: Select at least 25 words, and preferably 50 words for analysis, depending on sample size. If the sample is larger than 50 words, select a selection of words that cover the entire sample, e.g., every other word in a sample of 100 words. 2. Lexical-Class Rule: Count words (e.g., common nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions and adverbs) that are used in normal conversation between adults. 3. Compound Rule: Do not count compound words as a single word unless they are spelled as a single word. This rule simplifies the decisions about what constitutes a word in the child’s sample.

Calculation of PWP: PWP was determined by calculating the PMLU of a target word first and then dividing that into the PMLU of the child’s production.

4. Variability Rule: Only count a single production of each word. If more than one occurs, then count the most frequent one. If there is none, then count the last one produced. Counting variable productions may distort the count if there is a highly variable single word.

PWP=

PMLU of target word PMLU of child's production

Calculation of PWW: The procedure for calculating PWW involved lining up the transcription of the child’s word against what was considered the standard adult pronunciation. If there was a complete match, the word was marked correct. Once the number of correct words was determined, the proportion of whole words correct (PWW) was calculated by dividing the number of whole words correct by the total sample size.

5. Production Rule: Count 1 point for each consonant and vowel that occurs in the child’s production. Syllabic consonants receive one point. Do not count more segments than are in the adult word. For example, a child who says ‘foot’ as *hwut+ has two consonants counted, not three. Otherwise, children who add segments will get higher scores despite making errors. 6. Consonants Cor rect Rule: Assign 1 additional point for each correct consonant. Correctness in vowels are not counted since vowel transcriptions

PWW = 22

Number of whole words correct Total words in sample

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EFFECT OF DRAMA PRACTICE FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF PRAGMATIC SKILL AMONG CHILDREN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION *Dr. T.V. Sunish **Dr. S. Rajaguru

ABSTRACT Language and literacy skills are considered to be vital ingredients for a child’s success in school and for being able to become independent in today’s society. The main difficulty areas in language development of children with mental retardation are limited vocabulary, poor understanding of word meaning (semantics) and inability to use words in a proper context (pragmatics) during conversation. It seems that in many cases, valuable opportunities for developing language and communication skills of children with mental retardation are missed. Therefore, this study titled “Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill among Children with Mild Mental Retardation” mainly endeavours to find out the effectiveness of drama for enhancing the pragmatic (use of words) skills of children with mental retardation. Using multi stage sampling technique, 40 children with mild mental retardation (comprising 20 children each for the experimental and control group) were selected from Kottayam districts of Kerala. Pre-test-Post-test-control design was used. Experimental groups received drama practice on pragmatic skills, whereas the control groups received conventional classroom teaching on the same skills. Investigator developed language assessment test (Pragmatic Skills Assessment Test) was administered on them. The data obtained was analyzed by applying ANCOVA. The result of the study showed that drama practice method significantly enhanced the pragmatic skills of children with mild mental retardation (p < 0.01). Key words: Children with mental retardation, Pragmatic Skill, Noun and Verb words, Drama

Introduction Human beings are social beings. One of the most important skills that make individuals socially fit is the communication skill. Communicating effectively or not can spell the difference between success and failure in human relationships. Thus, human communication becomes a remarkable process. Through the use of words, signs, and symbols we share meanings, perceive, evaluate and respond to the world around us.

languages noted so far can be transmitted via speech. Both speech and language are parts of the larger process of communication. In fact, “communication is the primary function of language” (Muma, 1978). Communication is a gift which should be preserved and involves the use of abilities which are gradually acquired. Language is an abstract concept which serves as a basis for communicative actions. For most children, the process of language development enfolds more or less automatically. Many children with mental retardation experience difficulties in speech

L anguage is a unique vehicle for communication (Diamond, 1993). All the *

Lecturer, Inter University Centre for Disability Studies, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam Email ID: sunishtv@gmail.com

** Associate Professor, College of education Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Coimbatore

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and language development (Kaiser, Hester and McDuffie, 2001). And although language and literacy skills are considered to be important for a child’s success in school and for being able to become independent in today’s society, limited attention is given to the development of these skills in children with mental retardation. This is quite worrisome, because much of the problem behaviours these children show, stem from difficulties in the acquisition of language and communication skills (Sigafoos, Arthur, and O’Reilly, 2003). It seems that in many cases, valuable opportunities for developing language and communication skills of children with mental retardation are missed (Elman et al., 1996).

Implementing drama, within the classroom as a great option for educators, not only can drama be used and adopted across the curriculum, but it can also be served as a catalyst building individual skill that students can later use in everyday life situations. Peter (2003) and Slade (1998) expressed the idea that different contexts within drama would offer a range of different communication possibilities, enabling participants to develop a greater self-awareness. However, the dearth of evidence about the effectiveness of drama raises the question whether it is ethical to engage people in interventions that are lacking an evidence base. Therefore it becomes vital to look closely at these claims and the evidence behind them when using drama for children with mental retardation. With this purpose this topic has been selected to prove the effect of drama on the enhancement of pragmatic skills of language among children with mild mental retardation.

Drama can be fundamental in establishing better communication, because it shows many aspects of life and includes elements related to creativity and fantasy. Thus, in School, we can use drama, although until recent times it has not had got enough recognition. At the same time, by using drama, we can help people to develop oral skills. If we treat drama as a resource we will use oral expression in a dynamic way in different contexts and situations. (Bailin, 1998).

Statement of the problem The present study is entitled as ‘Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill among Children with Mild Mental Retardation’.

Need and significance of the Study The acquisition of language is one of the most remarkable achievements. Generally, children acquire the essential components of language by the age of 3-4 years. However, this may not be true for children with Mental Retardation (MR). There are various kinds of problems as compared to non-retarded children. Language disorders are now believed to be the underlying problem in the academic, social and emotional difficulties of many adolescents and young adults with MR.

Objectives of the study 1. To study the effect of drama practice on the pragmatic skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation 2. To study the effect of drama practice on the pragmatic skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation studying at the primary and secondary levels 3. To c o m p a re t h e p r a g m a t i c s k i l l s enhancement of primary and secondary 24

Smish & Rajaguiru / Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill

level children with mild mental retardation learnt through drama practice

After selection there were two experimental and two control groups consisting of 10 students each at the primary and secondary levels. To determine whether there were any significant differences between the experimental and control groups on pretest, the independent tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; test was employed. Result of the t- value indicated that both experimental and control groups at both the primary and secondary levels did not differ significantly in the pretest mean scores at 0.05 level.

4. To study the effect of drama practice on the pragmatic noun and verb skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation Hypotheses 1) There will be no significant effect of drama practice on the pragmatic skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation.

Development of the tools A. Pragmatic Skills Assessment Test (PSAT) Pragmatic Skills Assessment Test (PSAT) has been developed to measure the effectiveness of drama in teaching the use of Malayalam words for children with mild mental retardation. The final tool of PSAT consists of 48 functional words having use in day to day conversations.

2) There will be no significant effect of drama practice on the pragmatic skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation studying at the primary and secondary levels. 3) There will be no significant difference in the pragmatic skills enhancement between primary and secondary level children with mild mental retardation learnt through drama practice.

Categories PSAT is divided into two sections 1. Pragmatic Noun words: This section consists of 36 functional noun or naming words.

4) There will be no significant effect of drama practice on the pragmatic noun and verb skills enhancement among children with mild mental retardation.

Methodology

2. Pragmatic Verb words: There are 12 functional verb or action words in this section.

Research design: this piece of research employs experimental method and adopted pre-test post test control group design.

Administering the test and scoring PSAT is an individual oral test. Investigator sits with each case and asks the use of each word selected in the test after showing the word card which consist word with four options of use in a context. The response of the students will be checked with the answer key already prepared. Response of the students scored as follows

Sample design: Population of the present study include children with mild mental retardation attending special schools in Kerala. Using multi stage sampling technique, 40 children with mild mental retardation (20 experimental group and 20 control group), age 8 to 16, studying in primary and secondary classes were selected from three special schools from Kottayam districts of Kerala. 25

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Validation

Scores ‘1’ and ‘0’ were used for the scoring of PSAT. The score 1 is given for the correct answer and score 0 is given for the incorrect answer. The possible maximum score is 48 and the minimum score is 0.

The script of the drama has been circulated among eight special educators and two professional drama script writers for their suggestions. The final script has been prepared with the modifications suggested by the experts.

Establishment of reliability and validity Validity: The validity of the tool has been ensured through item validity. In order to establish the item validity, the researcher circulated the final tool PSAT to ten professionals including 8 special educators and 2 subject expert. Test has been modified based on the suggestions and corrections given by the experts.

Try-out Investigator has conducted a try-out of the study among ten students with mild mental retardation studying in primary and secondary classes, in order to find out the practical difficulties which could be faced in the actual situation. The try-out of the study helped the researcher to modify the drama and teaching strategies according to the level of the students selected for the study. It also helped to control the extraneous variable which can influence the study.

Reliability: Test-retest method: The reliability of the test was established by using Karl Pearson (Pearsonian) Coefficient of Correlation formula. The reliability coefficient based on test - retest for PSAT was determined as 0.95.

Intervention for experimental and control groups The experimental groups include 20 students with mild mental retardation studying at the primary (10) and secondary (10) levels. In 30 days intervention, both primary and secondary group received practice in drama for one hour each. Every day researcher selected 2-3 words, which were used in the drama. To teach the use (pragmatic) of words through drama, investigator has prepared lesson plans for each day. The investigator demonstrated each and every role and use of words in the drama. The researcher had also given importance to the punctuation, clarity of speech, context in which the words used, and dramatic expressions while practicing the drama. Post-test has been conducted after the intervention.

B. Drama for the intervention Drama is the independent variable in the present study. The researcher went through different story books for children and selected four stories which can be used for children’s drama. Selected stories have been circulated to five experts requesting to give the rank with a view of the age, taste and cognitive level of the children selected for the study. As per the rank given by the experts, the story titled ‘Oru theruvum Kunju Swapnagalum’ (‘A Street and Small Dreams’) has been selected for the drama. Researcher expands the story and made the script for the drama in Malayalam language. A conscious effort has been taken to incorporate the selected words in the script to teach the use of it. The duration of the drama has been limited to 20-25 minutes. 26

Smish & Rajaguiru / Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill

The control groups include 20 students with mild mental retardation studying at the primary (10) and secondary (10) levels. The existing class room teaching method was used for the control group to teach the use of words selected for the study. The researcher used

appropriate teaching learning materials to teach the meaning of words. Instructional time taken for this approach was one hour each for both primary and secondary groups. Post-test has been conducted after the intervention of 30 days.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Table 1 Mean, SD and F- value of pre and post-test pragmatic scores of experimental and control group children with mild mental retardation

Group Experimental Group Control Group

Test

Mean

Pre-test

5.45

1.73

Post-test

34.80

3.65

Pre-test Post-test

20 20

5.31 12.35

1.69 1.53

** Significant at 0.01 level The mean scores and summary of ANCOVA of experimental and control group reveals that, there is statistically significant difference between the post-test mean values of experimental and control groups, when considering the pre-test scores as covariate (F= 1176.00, p< 0.01). This indicates that

F- Value

1176.00**

the drama method was highly effective to enhance the pragmatic skills of children with mild mental retardation. The result of the study rejected the null hypothesis. Hence it can be concluded that drama has significant effect on the enhancement of pragmatic skills among children with mild mental retardation.

Table 2 Mean, SD and F- values of pre and post-test pragmatic scores of experimental and control group children with mild mental retardation studying in primary and secondary level Level Primary

Secondary

Group Experimental Group Control Group Experimental Group Control Group

** Significant at 0.01 level

Test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

N 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 27

Mean 5.20 33.60 5.10 11.90 5.70 36.00 5.60 12.80

SD 1.87 3.50 1.97 1.37 1.64 3.56 1.46 1.62

F- Value 494.16**

912.26**

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

The summary of ANCOVA reveals that after adjusting the pre-test scores as covariate, there is a statistically significant difference in the post-test mean values of experimental and control group (F= 494.16. & 912.26, p< 0.01). This result indicates that the drama

method was highly effective to enhance the pragmatic skills of children with mild mental retardation studying at the primary and secondary levels. The result of the study rejected the null hypothesis.

Table 3 Mean values SD and F- value of post-test pragmatic scores of primary and secondary experimental groups Group

Pre-test mean

Post-test mean

Primary

5.20

1.87

33.60

3.50

Secondary

5.70

1.64

36.00

3.56

The summary of ANCOVA given in the above table reveals that after adjusting for pre-test scores, there is no significant difference in the post-test mean values of primary and secondary group (F= 2.45, p>0.05). This

F- value 2.45

indicates that both primary and secondary group achievement on pragmatic skills is almost equal. The result of the study accepted the null hypothesis.

Table 4 Mean, SD and F- values of pre and post-test pragmatic noun and verb scores of experimental and control groups Nature of words

Group Experimental Group

Noun Control Group Experimental Group Verb

Control Group

Test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

N 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Mean 3.15 24.00 2.85 7.00 2.30 10.80 2.50 5.15

SD 1.69 3.13 1.18 1.49 1.22 0.95 1.19 0.81

F- Value

569.88**

498.21**

** Significant at 0.01 level The result of ANCOVA reveals that after adjusting the pre-test scores as covariate, there is a statistically significant difference in the posttest mean values of experimental and control group ( F= 569.88 & 498.21, p< 0.01 ). This indicates that the drama method was highly

effective to enhance the pragmatic noun and verb skills among children with mild mental retardation. It can be concluded that the drama method has significant effect on learning the use (pragmatic) of naming (noun) and action (verb) words among children with mild mental 28

Smish & Rajaguiru / Effect of Drama Practice for the Enhancement of Pragmatic Skill

retardation. The result of the study rejected the null hypothesis set for the objective.

performance. This shows the effectiveness of drama practice method. The study also proved that drama practice is significant to learn the use (pragmatic) of naming (noun) and action (verb) words. The findings and observations of the present study have supported the findings of Heathcote (1985), Makita (1995), Mages (2005), and Charles worth and Hartup (1967).

Implications of the present study • Children with mental retardation exhibit a wide variety of speech and language problems and the problems are highly individualistic in nature. Teachers can use drama to teach the use of words as well as sentences for the students with language disabilities, especially for children with mental retardation.

References: Bailin, S. (1998). Critical thinking and drama education. Research in Drama Education, 3, (2), 145-155

• The drama method is a proven strategy to develop the vocabulary of children with mental retardation. Therefore special educators can use this method in their classroom to develop the vocabulary of children with mental retardation.

Charlesworth, R., and Hartup, W. W. (1967). Positive social reinforcement in the nursery school peer group. Journal of Child Development, 38, 993-1002.

• In the case of children with mental retardation the fluency and intelligibility are the problem areas. The present study has observed the effectiveness of drama in the above skills development.

Diamond, J. (1993). Speaking with a single tongue. Discover, 78-85. Elman, J. L., Bates, E. A., Johnson, M. H., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Parisi, D., and Plunkett, K. (1996). Rethinking innateness. Boston: MIT Press.

• Drama can be used by classroom teachers to make the classroom more inclusive for the language and literacy learning of children with mental retardation.

Heathcote, D. (1985). “Learning, knowing, and languaging in drama: an interview with Dorothy,” Language Arts, 60 (6), 695-701.

• Drama itself is a stream of conversation. Drama provides ample opportunity to the children to interact with peers, teachers and audience. It can help children with mental retardation to develop their communication skills.

Kaiser, A.P., Hester, P. P., & McDuffie, A. S. (2001). Supporting communication in young children with developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 7, 143-150.

Conclusion The present study revealed that the drama practice method is highly effective to enhance pragmatic skills among children with mild mental retardation. Analysis of data showed that experimental and control groups showed significant improvement in pragmatic skills at post-test from the pre-test

Makita, Y., (1995). The Effectiveness of Dramatic/Role-Playing Activities. In: The Japanese L a n g u a g e C l a s s r o o m . Retrieved from http:// journals2. iranscience.net:800. 29

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

Mages, W. K. (2005). Drama and imagination: a cognitive theory of drama’s effect on narrative comprehension and narrative production. Journal of Research in Education, 11(3), 18-25.

Sigafoos, J., Arthur. M., & O’Reilly, M. (2003). Challenging behaviour and developmental disability. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Slade, P. (1998). The importance of dramatic play in education and therapy, Child psychology and psychiatry review, 3, 110-112

Muma, J. (1978). Language handbook. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Peter’s, M. (2003). Drama, narrative and early learning, British Journal of Special Education, 30, 21-27.

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

Success Story : Visionary experience of a visually challenged person I am L. Suresh, presently working as an Asst. Professor in the department of English of Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, College of Arts and Science (SF Wing).

challenges and passed SSLC/Matriculation in Navarasam Matric Higher Secondary School, Erode in 2003. Difficulties were faced in learning Mathematics and few Science topics for which the teachers happened to use Black Board. I have managed to overcome those problems through attending special coaching in the evening. As the School was a Matriculation Board, it had only Science streams in Higher Secondary Level. Considering Science Practical and the usage of Computers, I was forced to move to Tamil Medium School which contained only Arts Subjects. Many private schools, having Arts stream, hesitated and refused to give me admission in Higher Secondary because of my impairment. That forced me to change the medium and to join in Government Higher Secondary School, Karamadai. Initially it was very difficult to cope with the changes but an account of my teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s encouragement and continuous support; I passed Higher Secondary with 71% in 2005.

Born in a family who are farmers by vocation in a remote rural area of Erode District of Tamil Nadu, I had to confront challenges galore in reaching to the place I am now. To confess myself, I am congenital visually challenged with zero vision in my left eye and 20% vision in the right one. I overcame all the challenges posed by disability and presently after completion of my M.Phil. in English, I have registered for Ph.D. in the same stream. The whole credit goes to my parents who toiled more to provide me quality education, though they had to strive a lot for that. I have a vague memory of my earlier days but the only thing I remember that I had to encounter a lot of difficulties even though I didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t allow my disability to come on the way as a hurdle. I surmounted all the

Vol. 4 No. 1 January 2014

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

When I joined UG in the Department of English at Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore in June 2005, my entire life became colorful though I did never know what color is. All the necessary arrangements needed for Visually Challenged students were provided to me in the College. The management took special care and JAWS Software was installed in English Language Lab which helped me and other Visually Challenged persons to operate computer like sighted person. Proper training was provided by Dr. Sridhar, HOD of MCA. I learnt using MS Office, Internet and other basic operations of computer in IHRDC which boosted up my morale to pursue my degree in successful manner. Working day and night and concentrating fully in my study despite the challenges, I stood first in my class with 70% marks in English literature and was awarded with gold medal for standing first in 2008.

It’s very rare to see Self Financing Colleges considering and appointing Visually Challenged Persons as their faculty member. However, I got the golden opportunity to work as an Assistant Professor of English at Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science (SF wing) immediately after completing MA English Literature. It is all because I worked hard and never lose my heart. I would like to extend my sincere and hearty thanks to my guide Dr. R. Chandrasekar, Associate Professor and Head, who helped me a lot with his scholarly but humane touch. He made me feel the real spirit of all my academic achievements since I joined UG course in Vidyalaya. I am very much thankful to Vidyalaya management, all my teachers, friends, and my parents for their kind support and stimulating encouragement.

Yet another time I knocked the door of Vidyalaya, and my humble knock was paid heed to by Vidyalaya management and opportunity was given to me to pursue PG in the Department of English, Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya College of Arts and Science. It made me to grow stronger. Though there were only six members in my batch for PG, out of them the college provided admission to four visually challenged students which I think is really commendable. During the time of my study (2005-10) in the Department of English (both UG and PG), I received Academic Proficiency Award five times and Best Outgoing Award at the end of the PG course. I completed MA English Literature with Distinction (75%). All these were possible only due to the support of Vidyalaya.

I won a lot of prizes and awards in academics for excelling in it. I presented more than 25 research papers in various National and International Conferences and Seminars at various Universities and Colleges. One thing I would like share to all the challenged persons that we can overcome all the challenges and will never allow it to become a stumbling block if we have firm determination, continuous hard work, dedication and sincerity. I myself have done the same to travel up to this point but I have a long journey to cover and I’ll do it… 32

Swami Abhiramananda / Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationsit