R NOAH SANNES
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CHARACTERISTIC WINDOWS OF TUSCANY AND THE VENETO
INTRODUCTION
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WINDOW (n) An opening especially in the wall of a building for admission of light and air that is usually closed by casements or sashes containing transparent material (such as glass) and capable of being opened and shut. Merriam Webster Today, windows, with rare exception, are treated as simple apertures carelessly plastered onto the facades of modern buildings. In the past, however, windows were key transmitters of information. In fact, the window’s role on the exterior was valued over its function on the interior. In Florence, windows captivated the palazzo facades, and the architects were required to carefully handle the placement, scale, and decoration of these apertures to reflect the owner’s wealth and status. Windows also conformed to – or established – a strict hierarchy. The grandest windows emphasized the piano nobile. Even now, windows function to communicate the past using the language of architecture. For example, the Guelph cross windows found in Rome and Florence signify that the building’s original owner may have been a cardinal or bishop. Likewise, the biforate windows of the Palazzo Medici, which mimic the apertures of the city’s municipal buildings, suggest that the family identified as a supreme civic authority. Palladio’s use of the thermal window confirms his study of ancient Roman architecture as he did not merely copy, but revive the form to solve a modern problem using ancient conventions. Traveling through the cities of Northern Italy, I was overwhelmed by the many different functions of window architecture - to light, beautify, protect, and portray history. I observed how the heaviness of Michelangelo’s “kneeling window” served a defensive function, while the porousness of the weightless, Venetian Gothic windows absorbed the light reflected off the canal. I designed my study as a pattern book - a visual and written guide - categorizing and analyzing the predominant window types found in Tuscany and the Veneto. Diagrams specifying window parts and placement are included for reference. Further, the prototype or first precedent of each type (if known) is identified, followed by a series of later iterations.
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TOPIC I | EARLY APERTURES
EARLY APERTURES
In the ancient world, the use of the clerestory, a high section of a wall that contains slits to allow the admission of light and air, originated in Egyptian temples. Similarly, light wells were employed to illuminate the Minoan Halls found at the Palace of Knossos on the Greek Island of Crete. Before the formalization of a defined window form, these elements were successful in keeping inner realms out of the dark; however, these unprotected apertures provided little protection from rain, insects, and dust.
EGYPTIAN CLERESTORY | http://www.memphis.edu
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EARLY APERTURES
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In early civilizations, apertures in the stone or mud walls served a functional purpose: to allow light to filter into the interior cubicles. At Ancient Akrotiri, a site on the Greek Island of Santorini, the residential structures featured windows reinforced by trabeated wooden posts. Window apertures were centered on the interior rooms, creating an irregular facade composition. These apertures were often left unadorned, without a permanent screen. Instead, fabrics may have been used to prevent the influx of bugs and dust as well as filter sunlight.
AKROTIRI WINDOW
EARLY APERTURES
As a famous Roman aperture, the oculus is a circular opening located at the center of a dome. The Pantheon, a temple situated in Rome, Italy is crowned by the finest Classical example of an oculus. The Pantheon’s opening is unglazed and permits rain to flood into the interior rotunda. This circular form tracks the movement of the sun throughout the day. On April 21, the sun’s rays strike the entrance of the temple. The oculus serves a functional and aesthetic purpose as the spectacle of the incoming light is overwhelmingly beautiful.
PANTHEON OCULUS
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TOPIC II | TYPOLOGIES
TYPOLOGIES
BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN | http://holycrossrumson.typepad.com
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TYPOLOGIES
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THERMAL WINDOW DIOCLETIAN WINDOW
TYPOLOGIES
DIOCLETIAN WINDOW | Calder Loth
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TYPOLOGIES
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The Baths of Diocletian (306 A.D.) are the only to survive intact from antiquity. The enormous complex, now serving as the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri, once contained multiple pools. The Frigidarium, or the cold pool, was situated in a grand hall lit by huge windows located at the upper tier of the side walls. The semi-circular apertures were divided into three sections by thick vertical mullions. Initially, these apertures were supported by brick construction and featured stone moldings and decoration. The Diocletian window is useful in maximizing the amount of light able the enter the grand halls supported by barrel/groin vaults. Specifically, the semicircular shape celebrates the pure geometry of the internal space (curve). The simplicity of the window is free of any unnecessary materials that may obstruct the influx of sunlight (or air). On the exterior, the geometric form is a distinct, delicate compositional element. Coined the ‘thermal’ window in reference to the thermae - Latin for warm bath - this aperture developed into an architectural icon. The form was adopted by Andrea Palladio in the 16th century, primarily in Venice, and appeared in the design of many of his Renaissance churches and villas. Some historians suggest that the window may have evolved into the Serlian motif with the addition of two narrow, square-headed apertures.
TYPOLOGIES
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A
B
C
THERMAL WINDOW PARTS The three-light window (B) is separated by thick mullions (C). At the Baths of Diocletian, a brick Roman arch (A) frames the aperture.
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A
B
MAXIMUM LIGHT Comparison of aperture size between a typical arched window (A) and the thermal window (B), situated beneath a groin vault.
TYPOLOGIES
UPPER TIER View, from below, of a thermal window at the Baths of Diocletion, later decorated in the Baroque style.
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TYPOLOGIES
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THERMAL BENEFIT Thermal windows are typically embedded into the uppermost portion of the wall, allowing seasonal sunlight to flood in.
TYPOLOGIES
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VILLA POIANA, VICENZA Three of the villas in I quattro libri dell’architettura feature Diocletian windows. Here, Andrea Palladio graces the Villa Poiana with a small, framed thermal window above the main entrance.
VILLA FOSCARI, MIRA The famous three-light window at Villa Foscari punches through the pediment. The aperture is enormous and reduced to essentials. The geometry is complimented by thick mullions and rustication joints.
TYPOLOGIES
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SAN GIORGIO MAGGIORE, VENICE Designed by Palladio, the nave and transept of San Giorgio Maggiore are lit by thermal windows. The revival of classical forms, such as the Diocletian window, is a characteristic of the Renaissance style.
SAN GIORGIO MAGGIORE, VENICE The church is noted for its light interior, lit by a clerestory. In contrast to the colorful stained glass of the Gothic architecture, the thermal windows contain subtle pane details.
TYPOLOGIES
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CHURCH, VENICE The thermal window captivates the streetscape with its curving form. Here, the aperture is seamlessly embedded into the stucco facade lacking a proper frame.
SAN MARCUOLA, VENICE Surrounded by an incomplete facade, this window features subtly expressed mullions. Inspired by Palladio, many architects added three-light windows to older churches to improve lighting conditions.
TYPOLOGIES
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SANTA MARIA DELLA PRESENTAZIONE, VENICE Designed by Andrea Palladio, the major facade of Le Ziette is captivated by an ample Diocletian window. The aperture boasts a thick frame and mullions.
SANTA MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE The Baroque church exhibits a decorated version of the Diocletian Window. The central light is crowned by a stone head. The apertures light the church’s barrel-vaulted side chapels.
TYPOLOGIES
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BATTISTERO DI SAN GIOVANNI, FLORENCE The facade of the bapistry’s apse references the Diocletian form. The contrasting white and green marble, reworked in the Romanesque style, depict a semicircular geometry divided by thick vertical panels.
RECAP The thermal windows found at the Roman baths have served as precedent for later design projects throughout northeastern Italy. The form, therefore, functions as an architectural signifier of continuity.
TYPOLOGIES
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KNEELING WINDOW INGINOCCHIATA WINDOW
TYPOLOGIES
KNEELING WINDOW
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TYPOLOGIES
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As legislation and decorum changed, shop fronts and open arches at the street level of the patrician palazzi became unfashionable. Around 1517, the open corner loggias at the Palazzo Medici Riccardo were closed off. As the designer, Michelangelo Buonarroti developed the prototype of the ‘kneeling window’ to adorn the closed-in arch. The kneeling window features two sets of brackets (consoles) supporting the upper pediment and the deep sill. The lower consoles, nearly reaching the ground, mimic two legs kneeling, hence the name. The scrolls bend with a simplicity full of charm. However, the entire composition has an extrusive, robust form. Adorned with metal bars, the window represents a guard securing the palazzo. The elaborate frame serves to mask the simple, rectangular window resting on the broad sill. The aperture, in contrast with the thermal window, is only found at the street level. The extruding forms of the window compliment the coarse, rusticated stone surrounding the arch.
TYPOLOGIES
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A
D
B
E
C F
KNEELING WINDOW PARTS Upper console (A); metal bars (B); lower console (C); pediment (D); rectangular window (E); deep sill (F).
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RENAISSANCE PALAZZO The kneeling window, as seen above, is exhibited only at the street level of the palazzo.
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PALAZZO MEDICI, FLORENCE The prototype of the kneeling window designed by Michelangelo.
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE A close copy of Michelangelo’s finestre inginocchiata. However, this aperture lacks the framing arch.
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PALAZZO PANCIATICHI, FLORENCE This kneeling window is crowned with a segmental pediment. Bat imagery is noted on the upper console and under the sill.
PALAZZO PITTI, FLORENCE The scrolls appear as tyiglyphs beneath the pediment. A crowned lion’s head extrudes beneath the sill.
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PALAZZO MEDICI, FLORENCE Profile of the lower scroll supporting the deep sill. The kneeling window extrudes out over the sidewalk.
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE While the profile mimics the prototype, the spiral of the scroll is etched in.
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PALAZZO PANCIATICHI, FLORENCE The relief of a bat is noted beneath the window’s deep sill.
PALAZZO NONFINITO, FLORENCE This mannerist interpretation of the kneeling window is heavily adorned with a shell and a cartouche (scroll).
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PALAZZO NONFINITO, FLORENCE This mannerist tympanum, surmounted by a shell, departs from the classical forms. The wings of a bat inspire the pediment’s curve.
RECAP Michelangelo’s prototype was adopted and copied by many later architects, and in many different styles.
TYPOLOGIES
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BI/TRI-FORATE WINDOW SIENESE WINDOW
TYPOLOGIES
BIFORATE WINDOW
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TYPOLOGIES
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In Siena, the Palazzo Publico (1297) was constructed with triforate, Gothic windows. Each light was divided by a slender colonette. The facade of the palazzo served as the legislative model for all houses and palazzo fronting the city’s main square - to establish a harmonious center. The later palazzo featured double (biforate) or triple (triforate) windows. While the homes were mainly brick, stone was used to distinguish the colonettes. Inspired by Gothic geometry, many of the apertures were capped with an ogive (pointed arch). The Near East inspired the ogival form. Often, the aperture was framed by a series of radiating voussoirs which elongated at the center. The multi-light windows maintained solid heads (tympanum) that bore the city’s shield or the family’s crest. In Florence, the biforate window became established as a hallmark of palazzo design. Resting on the string course, these apertures lined the upper levels of the palace (piano nobile). The window’s delicate form delightfully contrasted the rusticated stone of the exterior. While the ogival form dominated the windows of Siena, the softer, Roman arch form was more popular in Florence. According to documented proportions, the height of a standard biforate window was twice that of its width.
TYPOLOGIES
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A
B
D
E C
BIFORATE WINDOW PARTS Voussoirs (A); Head (B); Colonette (C); Crest/Shield (D); Glass Pane (E).
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HEAD VARIATION Throughout Siena and Florence, biforate windows are capped by either Roman, ogival, and trefoil arches.
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PALAZZO PUBBLICO, SIENA Perhaps the prototype of the triforate window, the form features trefoil geometry, a shield, and Corinthian (composite) colonettes.
EARLY GRAIN MARKET, FLORENCE Resting on the string course, the market’s elongated window displays narrow colonettes, a decorated head, and trefoil arches.
TYPOLOGIES
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UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE This biforate window exhibits a composite colonette and arched openings. However, the characteristic voussoirs are missing.
PALAZZO RUCELLAI, FLORENCE Uniquely, the aperture’s colonettes support an entablature and divide rectangular openings. A painted eye window adorns the tympanum.
TYPOLOGIES
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LOGGIA DEL BIGALLO, FLORENCE This biforate window is decorated with painted colonettes and religious imagery.
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE Flanked by simple pilasters, the central colonette is distinguished beneath a fleur-delis. Crown glass panes are noted.
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PALAZZO MEDICI, FLORENCE The biforate windows, surrounded by painted rustication, adorn the walls of the interior courtyard.
PALAZZO STROZZI, FLORENCE This plain example of the biforate window features floral imagery, a low order colonette, and radiating voussoirs.
TYPOLOGIES
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PALAZZO VECCHIO, FLORENCE As a slighter wider rendition of the biforate form, the window exhibits a cross on the head. Trefoil arches animate the rectangular window panes.
PALAZZO DEL. A. GENERALI, FLORENCE This biforate window is distinguised by a light stone material, Corinthian colonettes, and a Star of David.
TYPOLOGIES
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PALAZZO PICCOLOMINI, PIENZA The white stone of the central colonette and curvilinear geometries contrast the rusticated facade. A thick horizontal mullion is noted.
PALAZZO PITTI, FLORENCE With the exception of the radiating voussoirs, the Palace’s unpleasing apertures lack many of the characteristics of biforate windows.
TYPOLOGIES
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GIOTTO’S CAMPANILE, FLORENCE Francesco Talenti included two and threelight windows in the Sienese style. To counteract perspective, the higher windows were built taller.
FOCUS
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CROWN GLASS
FOCUS
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CROWN GLASS
FOCUS
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Glass sheets did not become common in house windows until the 17th century. For centuries, openings were left unglazed or protected by operable shutters. However, many lavish structures and Renaissance palazzo featured crown glass. A crown is a small piece of glass spun into a flat disk. Typically, the crowns were formed by blowing glass into a hollow globe. The globe was transferred to a punty and flattened by centrifugal force. The disks were made to be thickest at the center. The small pieces of glass could be mounted into lead latticework and fitted into the window frame. Often, diamond-shaped shards of glass were cut to fill in the void space beneath adjacent disks. The lattice panel served a functional and aesthetic purpose by artfully filtering light and keeping out the elements.
FOCUS
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BARGELLO, FLORENCE Crown glass filters the light through the biforate window. The crowns are arranged diagonally.
PALAZZO DAVANZATI, FLORENCE This cross window features linearly arranged crowns. Variations in the lead lattice work highlight the irregularity of the material.
TYPOLOGIES
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VENETIAN GOTHIC WINDOW GROUPED WINDOWS
TYPOLOGIES
VENETIAN GOTHIC WINDOW
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TYPOLOGIES
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Inspired by Palazzo Ducale, opulent houses sprouted up along the Grand Canal in the Gothic Style. These palaces featured vast halls on the upper floors called portegos. Taking advantage of the city’s vibrant sun, the halls were lit by floor-to-ceiling, multi-light window groupings. Gothic tracery, balustrades, and colonettes dressed up the large apertures. While the clusters spanned across the entire facade, the individual windows were tall and narrow. To reinforce the hierarchy of the facade composition, Gothic window groupings were often trimmed by a stone (marble) frame. Special attention was given to the column capitals of the lavish Venetian palaces, particularly those designed in the Floriated Gothic style. The geometry of Venetian windows was influenced by Moorish, Islamic, and Byzantine architecture. Reoccurring forms include the lancet, trefoil, ogee, and segmental arch. Above the arcades, geometries were often combined to create quatrefoil traceries. Commonly, the outer quatrefoils were abruptly terminated by the enveloping stone frame.
TYPOLOGIES
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DOGE’S PALACE, VENICE Doge’s palace served as the inspiration for later Venetian Gothic works of architecture.
PALAZZO GRITTI, VENICE The five-light window exhibits crowned ogee arches and a distinctive marble frame. The round colonettes are fully expressed.
TYPOLOGIES
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UNIDENTIFIED, VICENZA The four-light Gothic window carriers the Venetian style to the countryside. Here, a simple frame distinguishes the trefoil apertures from the main facade.
PALAZZO DANDOLO, VENICE The six-light window, contained in a stone frame, contrasts the boldly colored surrounding facade. The quatrefoil tracery at the end jambs is abruptly cut off.
TYPOLOGIES
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CA’ D’ORO, VENICE The palace represents the Floriated Gothic style with quatrefoil elements, extensive tracery, and floral details.
PALAZZO CONTARINI POLIGNAC, VENICE Representative of the Romano-Byzantine style, this five-light window exhibits Roman arches, colonettes, and round windows.
TYPOLOGIES
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PALAZZO LOREDAN, VENICE The Late Gothic facade features a four-light window adorned with quatrefoil elements and a stone frame.
PALAZZO FOSCARI, VENICE A dramatic marble frieze caps this eight-light window. The trefoil arches of the upper portego are surmounted by quatrefoil apertures.
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UNIDENTIFIED, VENICE Typically, the portego’s window grouping is flanked by two singlelight windows dressed in a similar fashion.
PALAZZO PISANI, VENICE Pisani’s enormous portego is illuminated by a six-light window. On the upper story, pointed arches divide overarching Roman arch forms. Quatrefoil elements are noted.
TYPOLOGY
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SERLIAN WINDOW PALLADIAN WINDOW
TYPOLOGIES
BASILICA PALLADIANA
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TYPOLOGIES
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The large, tripartite Serlian window is an iconic form made famous by the Italian architect Andrea Palladio. While Palladio incorporated the Serlian arch in his secular and religious designs, he did not invent the form. Instead, the motif, inspired by the triumphal arches of ancient Rome, was first used by Donato Bramante. In addition, Sebastiano Serlio depicted the form in his book, I sette libri dell’architettura. The Palladian window features a central light, crowned with a semicircular arch, flanked by two rectangular side lights (of variable width). Several pilasters or columns carry an impost consisting of a small entablature. Typically, the central light is wider. As the Serlian motif became increasingly popular in the Veneto, the three-light aperture is referred to as the Venetian window.
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VARIATION
While the central light maintains a 2:1 ratio, the rectangular side lights may narrow or widen. Likewise, the column order may vary to suggest a hierarchy.
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CONTRA SANTA BARBARA, VICENZA This Palladian window exhibits a textbook form with Corinthian pilasters, an arch, and a balustrade. The Roman face keystone mimics the nearby Basilica Palladiana.
CALLE CONTARINI CORFU, VENICE Facing the Grand Canal, the window is capped by a triangular pediment. The aperture is adorned with simple pilasters, a fan light, and transom side lights.
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PALAZZO TREVES, VENICE The Serlian window at Palazzo Treves features a tall entablature, engaged Ionic columns, and a Roman face keystone. The central aperture is twice the width of the side lights.
CAMPANILE DI SAN MARCO, VENICE Adjacent to the Campanile, this Palladian window includes two additional arch forms over the side lights. Corinthian pilasters support an undersized entablature.
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TOPIC III | TRENDS
TRENDS
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ALTERNATING PEDIMENTS TRIANGULAR AND SEGMENTAL
TRENDS
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Noted throughout Tuscany and the Veneto is the alternation between triangular and segmental pediments. While there is little discussion regarding the rationale for this convention, the device affords a visual rhythm to multi-bay facades. Specifically, the alternation insinuates a visual lift that catches and carries the eye. Further, the feminine and masculine qualities of the two forms work to compliment and animate the facade. This trend traces back to the Temple of Vespasian at Pompeii - a site unseen to Renaissance architects. Palladio employed the alternation of window pediments on his design for the Palazzo Chiericati in Vicenza, Italy. In addition, this convention is noted on the facade of the Uffizi in Florence as well as the High Renaissance Palazzo Farnese in Rome, Italy. While the interchange of pediment forms has been used to establish a compositional hierarchy, there tends to be little consistency as to whether the triangular pediment trumps the segmental (or vice versa). However, the transposition is successful at drawing the viewer’s attention to certain bays.
TRENDS
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BAPISTRY, FLORENCE
PALAZZO, FLORENCE
TRENDS
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UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE Note the rusticated frame.
TRENDS
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PALAZZO BARTOLINI, FLORENCE
Note the palazzo’s unique cross windows, adorned with colonettes. Here, the pediments alternate vertically and horizontally.
UFFIZI, FLORENCE
TRENDS
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PALAZZO CHIERICATI , VICENZA
PALAZZO PORTO BREGANZE, VICENZA
TRENDS
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ILLUSION
TRENDS
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Across Italy, the symmetry and rhythm of facade compositions are occasionally maintained by illusion. Specifically, false windows - trompe l’oeil - are incorporated to mask irregularities of the site or interior plan. While window panes and mullions are the most frequently painted on elements, some buildings feature fake balustrades, frames, shutters, and decoration. Artistic shading may be used to achieve a realistic effect. To create a false perspective that suggests extra depth or height, architects may alter and distort the shape of a window. Michelangelo’s design for the New Sacristy in Florence exhibits a highly skewed form in elevation. However, from below, the shape of the aperture tricks the eye to make the space appear taller.
TRENDS
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MEDICI CHAPEL, FLORENCE
NEW SACRISTY, FLORENCE
TRENDS
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UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
PALAZZO SPADA, ROME
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SHUTTERS A POP OF COLOR
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Foremost, shutters act as a physical barrier protecting building interiors from excessive sunlight (heat), rain, dust, intruders, and insects. Shutters consist of many operable parts that can be opened or closed to change the air - cambiare l’aria. Shutters serve an aesthetic function as well. Although the city of Florence restricts shutter colors to dark brown, black, dark gray, or dark green, the occasional pop of color animates the cityscape. In Venice and Florence, the vast collection of shutters - opened and closed - introduces a chaotic, yet lively, dimension to the overwise flat urban facades.
TRENDS
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UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
TRENDS
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UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
UNIDENTIFIED, FLORENCE
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SOURCES
SOURCES
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Arslan, E., & Engel, A. (1972). Gothic architecture in Venice. (London: Phaidon Press. Calloway, S., & Cromley, E. C. (n.d.). The elements of style: a practical encyclopedia of interior architectural details, from 1485 to the present. New York: Simon and Schuster. CLASSICAL COMMENTS: ALTERNATING PEDIMENTS | Classicist Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved July 27, 2017, from http://blog classicist org/?p=5952 CLASSICAL COMMENTS: THE DIOCLETIAN WINDOW | Classicist Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved July 27, 2017, from http://blog. classicist org/?p=613 Cresti, C., Listri, M., & Rendina, C. (2000). Palazzi of Tuscany. Cologne: Konemann. Thomas, W. G., & Fallon, J. T. (1928). Northern Italian details: drawings and photographs by Walter G. Thomas and John T. Fallon ; with an introduction by John Mead Howells. New York: Scientific Book Corp. Trager, P., & Scully, V. (1992). The villas of Palladio. Boston: Little, Brown.