Sounds That Resonate: Selected Developments in Western Bar Percussion During The Twentieth Century by Robert Paterson

SOUNDS THAT RESONATE: SELECTED DEVELOPMENTS IN WESTERN BAR PERCUSSION DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Musical Arts

by Robert Anthony Paterson January 2004

SOUNDS THAT RESONATE: SELECTED DEVELOPMENTS IN WESTERN BAR PERCUSSION DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Robert Anthony Paterson, D.M.A. Cornell University 2004 Of all of the acoustic instrumental groups, none has had a greater impact on the development of concert music in the twentieth and twentyfirst centuries than percussion. Of this group, the subset that has been developed most extensively is the group known as bar or mallet percussion. These instruments have not only been dramatically altered and modernized from their original, pre-twentieth-century ancestors, but the techniques used to play these instruments have been developed and improved upon as well. These new developments with the instruments and the techniques used to play them have enabled many composers to write music with sounds and timbres that did not exist in written music prior to the twentieth century. The main focus of this study is the exploration of newly developed notational devices, instruments and techniques and the impact that these developments have had on concert music written during the twentieth century. Chapter 1 explores new developments in Western bar percussion instruments. Chapter 2 deals with mallets and related technical issues such as stroke, mallet head placement on bars and articulation. Chapter 3 explores new, unorthodox methods of sound production and alteration. Although this chapter is not meant to be comprehensive, it generally surveys and explains many of the most modern, innovative

techniques used to create new sounds on bar percussion instruments from the beginning of the twentieth century until today.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Robert Paterson was born on April 29, 1970 in Buffalo, NY. He has had performances of his music in the United States and abroad by many outstanding ensembles, including The Chicago Ensemble, the New York New Music Ensemble, Ensemble Aleph, the Aspen Contemporary Ensemble, the Eastman Percussion Ensemble, the Ithaca College Percussion Ensemble and the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra. His works have also been played by the Society for New Music, at the International Trumpet Guild Annual Conference and by the Percussive Arts Society in Poland, as well as at the 2001 Imagine Festival in Memphis and the June in Buffalo New Music Festival. He is the winner of the Finger Lakes Chamber Ensemble New Music Competition, the recipient of the Tampa Bay Composers’ Forum 1st Prize for Excellence in Chamber Music Composition, the Brian M. Israel Prize, the ASCAP Morton Gould Young Composer’s Award (1998, 2000), Cornell University’s William James Blackmore Prize and the Barbara Troxell Award. He has also been granted additional awards from ASCAP, the American Music Center and the National Foundation for the Advancement of the Arts. He has received fellowships to The MacDowell Colony, the Aspen Music Festival and the Hambidge Center for the Creative Arts and Sciences. He received his Master of Music degree in composition from Indiana University and his Bachelor of Music degree from the Eastman School of Music. His past teachers include Samuel Adler, Warren Benson, Frederick Fox, John Harbison, Aaron Jay Kernis, David Liptak,

iii

Eugene O’Brien, William Ortiz, Christopher Rouse and Joseph Schwantner. He began graduate studies at Cornell University in 1997 where his teachers included Roberto Sierra and Steven Stucky. Robert is also active as a percussionist. He has pioneered the use of a six-mallet technique and has given numerous master classes across the United States on the use of this technique on keyboard percussion instruments. In 1993, he gave the world's first all six-mallet marimba recital at the Eastman School of Music.

for Victoria

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Since I began working on this document more than ten years ago, many wonderful people have been kind enough to help me along the way. Although I will inevitably and unintentionally leave many out, I will attempt to thank all of those people without whose help this dissertation could not have been written. First and foremost, I would like to thank my two excellent composition teachers from Cornell University, Steven Stucky and Roberto Sierra, and conductor and teacher Mark Scatterday. All three helped me to clarify my ideas and see beyond the world of percussion. I would also like to give general thanks to the many other faculty members at Cornell University and elsewhere who helped in small but no less important ways. I am also particularly grateful to my former percussion teacher John Beck and also to Gordon Stout: their suggestions and constructive criticism helped enormously. There are a handful of other percussionists who helped locate examples, including Greg Byrne, Matthew Gold and James Strain. Dennis O’Brien, former president of the University of Rochester and my fatherin-law, was always very helpful in offering acute observations, great suggestions and sage advice. Eugene O’Brien (not related to Dennis), one of my former composition teachers at Indiana University, offered his wisdom in such subtle ways that I only realized long after I left his office the implications of what he said. I would also like to give a few special words of thanks to instrument maker Doug DeMorrow. Doug was kind enough to chat with me many times at length about the finer points of tuning and building bar percussion instruments.

Finally, I would like to give extra special thanks to my wife Victoria, my wonderful parents and the rest of my family: their continuous love and support is what enabled me ultimately to complete this dissertation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Biographical Sketch

iii

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

viii

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Illustrations

xviii

List of Photographs

xix

Chapter 1: Developments in Western Bar Percussion Instruments

Chapter 2: Mallets and Related Technical Issues

Chapter 3: New Methods of Sound Production and Alteration

136

Appendix: Roll Chart

228

Appendix: Mallet and Bow Pictogram Key

230

Appendix: Sticking Permutations

231

Bibliography

233

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LIST OF TABLES

2.1 2.2

Chart of mallet use on Western bar percussion instruments according to different variables

Approximate contact time of mallet heads on bars—relationship between different variables, i.e. head material and shaft material

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

1.7 1.8

1.9

2.1

Manufactured ranges for Westernized marimbas throughout the twentieth Century

Harmonic series and ideal first three modes of vibration of Western keyboard percussion instrument bars and tubular chimes

Excerpt from Moving Waters (2001) for clay marimba by Ward Hartenstein

An approximate representation of pelog and slendro scales used in gamelan ensembles

Excerpt using the Diamond marimba in Barstow (Version VII, 1968) by Harry Partch, mm.1 – 5

Excerpt using a xylorimba from Le marteau sans maître (1953 – 1955, rev. 1957) for chamber ensemble by Pierre Boulez mm. 54 – 59

Excerpt from Preghiere (1962) for baritone and chamber orchestra by Luigi Dallapiccola, 2 m. before rehearsal 65

Excerpt from Des canyons aux étoiles (1971-74) for orchestra by Olivier Messiaen, rehearsal 14 – 1 measure after 15

Excerpt using a xylomarimba from Dmaathen (1976) for oboe and percussion soloists by Iannis Xenakis, mm. 8889

Percussion and timpani excerpt from Nocturnes (1899) for orchestra by Claude Debussy, mvt. 1. Nuages, 6 measures before rehearsal 17

2.2

Excerpt from Hector Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique (1830) for orchestra illustrating one of the first times specific mallets are called for, fourth movement, mm. 1 – 6

Excerpt from Dmitri Shostakovich’s Polka from The Golden Age, Ballet Suite (1930), Op. 22 for orchestra, mm. 6 – 16

Excerpt from David Felder’s Six Poems From Neruda’s “Alturas…” (1990-92) for orchestra, mm. 33-35

Excerpt from Charles Wuorinen’s Janissary Music (1966) for solo percussionist, p. 13, in which the percussionist must hold a mixed set of mallets

Excerpt from John Beck’s Jazz Variants (1972) in which Player I is asked to use specific, name-brand mallets on the vibraphone, two measures before rehearsal letter D

Example using an equal set of soft, medium or hard yarn mallets across the entire range of a five-octave marimba with approximate sound profiles

Excerpt from Leigh Howard Stevens’s B Minor transcription of J.S. Bach’s Sonata in A Minor (1720), Fuga, mm. 63 – 67, with accompanying mallet suggestions from Stevens’s performance notes

Excerpt from Rain Tree (1981) for percussion trio by Toru Takemitsu, p. 5, system 1, mm. 1 – 6

2.10

Passage that could work well with two-tone mallets

2.11

Repeating chords using a direct stroke (the two arrows above each chord indicate a direct downward and immediate upward hand motion)

2.12

Parallel chords (illustrated with curved arrows)

2.13

Scale, alternating with two hands, (illustrated with curved arrows)

2.3

2.4 2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.14

2.15

2.16

2.17 2.18

2.19 2.20

2.21

2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25

Xylophone excerpt from Triplets (ca. 1919) for xylophone and band or piano, accompaniment by George Hamilton Green

104

Example of a very fast passage on a marimba that would probably be impractical if played on the centers of the bars

108

Example of chord played by right hand that utilizes the outer edge of a bar (assuming the left hand is already occupied)

111

Marimba line in which most or all of the notes can be played on the centers of the bars

114

Passage that might sound better if played on one spot on the bars rather than another when blending with the piccolo and flute

115

Excerpt from Beaten Paths (1988) for solo marimba by Milton Babbitt, mm. 54-56

120

Percussion 1 doubling the phrase played by flute I, oboe 1 and violins in Jacob Druckman’s Aureole (1979) for orchestra, m. 9

122

Example from Alban Berg’s Drei Orchesterstücke, Op. 6 (1915) for orchestra that has stacatti in the oboe parts but not in the xylophone part

124

Bar percussion part, as written, with unmatched articulations

126

Same example with added articulations, mallet choice and verbal indication

126

Example of staccato piccolo part doubling high xylophone part that has no staccato articulation markings

127

Example of a figure in which a melodic line could be implied

128

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2.26

Three examples showing a group of chords that could be voiced in different ways

129

Excerpt from Eugene O’Brien’s Rhyme & Reason (1993) for solo marimba, section 24 (stickings added)

133

Three possible sticking solutions for the Marimba 1 part (mallets labeled 1–4, left to right) in Steve Reich’s Nagoya Marimbas (1994) for two marimbas, mm. 59-60

135

Excerpt from Islands from archipelago: Autumn Island (1989) for solo marimba by Roger Reynolds, p. 5, mm. 10 – 12

137

Excerpt from See ya Thursday (1993) for solo marimba by Steven Mackey, mm. 1 – 5

138

Rolled half-note chord notated as “metered” thirty-second notes

139

3.4

Four categories of hand motion

142

3.5

Example that utilizes combined roll types

143

3.6

Metered, one-note roll with two different sticking solutions for moving to a higher or lower note with the same mallet

145

One-note roll with two different sticking solutions for moving to a higher or lower note with a different mallet

145

One-note roll on lowered keys moving to raised keys and accompanying illustrations

146

One-note, one-handed rolls on lowered keys moving to raised keys and accompanying illustrations

147

Example of a one-handed roll from Graffito (1988) for solo marimba by Marta Ptaszynska, systems 1 – 4

149

2.27 2.28

3.1

3.2 3.3

3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

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3.11

Switching on vibrato in George Crumb’s Music for a Summer Evening, Makrokosmos III (1974) for two amplified pianos and percussion (two players), p. 8, system 1

152

Adjusting the speed of the vibrato on the vibraphone while chords are ringing

153

Playing notes and adjusting the speed of the vibrato on the vibraphone at the same time

153

3.14

Example of hand vibrato on the orchestra bells

154

3.15

Example of mouth vibrato on the vibraphone

155

3.16

Example of slide dampening or opposite hand dampening

157

3.17

Example of touch-tone dampening

158

3.18

Example of adjacent-note mallet dampening

159

3.19

Gradual dampening (gently dampening intervals with soft dead-strokes)

160

3.20

Example of delayed dampening

161

3.21

Example of delayed dead-stroke dampening

161

3.22

Dead-stroke dampening (fully and abruptly dampening chords with dead-strokes)

162

Example of mallet head buzz dampening (dead-stroked chords lightly dampened with hard rubber mallets so that the “buzz” of the attack is notated and heard)

163

3.24

Example of hand or finger dampening

164

3.25

Example of intricate finger dampening

165

3.26

Two different ways of notating playing on the nodes

166

3.27

Example of moving from the center of the bar, to the node and back to the center on a vibraphone

167

3.12 3.13

3.23

xiv

3.28

Example of moving from the center of the bar, to the node and back to the center in Ode for Marimba (1979) by Gordon Stout, mm. 17 – 20

167

Excerpt that demonstrates pitch bending from Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) for solo vibraphone by Christopher Deane, mm. 134 – 140

171

Example illustrating bar cut-off with damper bar and approximate resulting ring time

173

Example of diminuendo from low to high on the vibraphone

174

Example of even dynamic in vibraphone with same example in figure 3.30 (p. 172), but with an uneven cutoff and possible orchestration solution

175

3.33

Excerpt utilizing full pedaling

177

3.34

Excerpt utilizing half pedaling

178

3.35

Excerpt utilizing flutter pedaling

179

3.36

Excerpt utilizing after pedaling

180

3.37

Vibraphone excerpt from Funeral Procession (1989) for violin, viola and chamber ensemble by Bent Sørensen, mm. 64 – 66

181

Vibraphone excerpt from Funeral Procession (1989) for violin, viola and chamber ensemble by Bent Sørensen, mm. 107 – 112

181

Sustained, smooth sound on orchestra bells, achieved by rolling with soft mallets

184

3.40

Example of ricochet on vibraphone

187

3.41

Example of col legno on vibraphone

188

3.42

Example of col legno battuto on marimba

188

3.29

3.30 3.31 3.32

3.38

3.39

3.43

Vibraphone example illustrating beginning with the frog and the tip of the bow

190

Excerpt demonstrating playing with mallets shafts in Velocities (1990) for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner, mm. 1 – 2

192

Excerpt demonstrating playing with mallet shafts from Velocities (1990) for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner, mm. 255 – 265

193

Excerpt from condensed score of Quintus (1996) for chamber ensemble by Robert Paterson, mm. 74 – 76

195

Marimshots in condensed score of Quintus (1996) for chamber ensemble by Robert Paterson, mm. 1 – 2

197

“Splash/clusters” found in Rhythmic Caprice (Second Edition) (1989) by Leigh Howard Stevens, mm. 137 – 143

198

Clusters in Koishi To (1976) for marimba and piano by Takefusa Sasamori, system 2

200

3.50

Example on marimba of playing with six wooden dowels

201

3.51

Clicking and bouncing mallet shafts together in Robert Paterson’s Links and Chains (1996/2000) for violin and marimba, mm. 110 – 118

203

3.52

Example of using brushes on a vibraphone

204

3.53

Section that uses fingernails in Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) for solo marimba by Hans Werner Henze, p. 6, staves 2 – 3

205

Using fingers/fingernails on the marimba in Zwei Stücke für Marimbaphon solo: Laudate lignum (1980) for solo marimba by Werner Heider, mm. 14 – 15

207

3.44

3.45

3.46 3.47 3.48

3.49

3.54

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3.55

Using a prepared metal stick (metal spring) on the vibraphone in Asko Hyvärinen’s Obscure Contours (2001) for clarinet and small ensemble, mm. 1 – 2 and m. 23

209

Excerpt using notched sticks made out of wood in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970) for percussion quartet, mm. 76 – 80

210

Excerpt utilizing rattle mallets in Michael Udow’s Tennei-Ji (1999) for solo marimba, mm. 161-168

213

Playing the vibraphone bars with a cymbal in Asko Hyvärinen’s Obscure Contours (2001) for clarinet and small ensemble, mm. 7 – 9

214

Usable resonator tube ranges on the marimba and vibraphone

215

3.60

Two different ways of notating playing on the resonators

216

3.61

Example of resonator glissando on the marimba

217

3.62

Playing the end of the instrument in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970) for percussion quartet, mm. 88 – 90

218

Altering sound of resonators with aluminum foil covering the ends of the tubes in Jay Alan Yim’s Jam Karet I (1994) for two percussionists, mm. 66 – 67

220

Singing while playing in Sydney Hodkinson’s Limb, mvt. III. Arioso (1996) for solo marimba, p. 1, Rehearsal B

222

“Stomping” a foot while playing in Howard Yermish’s six-mallet marimba solo To Play, To Dance (1990), mm. 26 – 30

223

Example from Mauricio Kagel’s Dressur (1976/77) for percussion trio, mm. 206 – 220

225

3.56

3.57 3.58

3.59

3.63

3.64 3.65

3.66

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1.1

Tuning and re-tuning adjustments

1.2

Top view of oblong resonators on a marimba

1.3

Balancing resonator sound

1.4

Tuning and keyboard layout for one of Ward Hartenstein’s clay marimbas

2.1

Approximation of mallet shaft flexibility

2.2

Pictogram of a graduated set of mallets using one each of a soft, medium-soft, medium-hard and hard yarn mallet

2.3

Pictogram of a possible combination of mixed mallets

2.4

Direct stroke and glancing stroke

2.5

Bar with arrows showing various playing areas

100

2.6

Stickings labeled left to right, low to high

131

3.1

Illustration of mallet head and shaft positioning for the chord on the first beat in the left-hand of the marimba part of Quintus, mm. 74 – 76

196

Diagram of how to play splash chords in Rhythmic Caprice (Second Edition) (1989) by Leigh Howard Stevens, footnotes

199

Symbols used in Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) by Hans Werner Henze with alternative symbols

206

Illustration of notched stick made out of wood used in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970)

211

3.2

3.3 3.4

xviii

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

1.1

Two performers playing an Amadinda xylophone

1.2

Chiapan-born virtuoso Zeferino Nandayapa (center) leads his four sons Javier, Norberto, Mario and Oscarin in the Mexican marimba band Marimba Nandayapa

1.3

Bergerault orchestra bells with resonators and pedal

1.4

Lacquered, polished brass tubular resonators on a DeMorrow marimba

1.5

Cutaway of a Yamaha Acoustalon™ xylophone bar

1.6

Stalactite organ at Luray Caverns in Luray, Virginia

1.7

Close-up shot of rubber hammer used to strike a stalactite in the instrument in Photo 1.6

Photo of the Celestaphone and Clair Omar Musser working on it in his lab

1.9

Octarimba by J. C. Deagan Company, ca. 1930s

1.10

Detail of Octarimba and Octarimba mallets by J. C. Deagan Company, ca. 1930s

1.11

Clay marimba by Ward Hartenstein

1.12

Cloud Chamber Bowls made by Harry Partch being played by Partch

1.13

Diamond Marimba made by Harry Partch

1.14

Mallet KAT by Alternative Mode, Inc.

1.15

Marimba Lumina by Buchla and Associates

1.8

xix

2.1

Two hands holding four mallets, a yarn-covered cymbal rolling mallet, two hard rubber mallets and a brass mallet (photo by author)

2.2

Musser mallets with Two-Stage Fiberglass handles

3.1

Musser Orchestra Bells, 2.5 Octave Steel with Hand Dampener

183

Assembled rattle mallets used in Michael Udow’s TenneiJi (1999) for solo marimba

214

“Buzz” type effect accomplished by placing folded paper over the tops of the resonators

219

Folded hand towels placed between the bars in order to muffle them

221

Musser marching orchestra bells with harness

224

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Chapter 1: Developments in Western Bar Percussion Instruments Westernized Bar Percussion Instruments and Mallets: A Brief History A few hundred years from now, the twentieth century, and especially the first half of the twentieth century, will most likely be viewed as the Golden Age for bar percussion instruments. Never before in history have these instruments been developed and improved to such a high degree. Although the original, indigenous marimbas and xylophones from areas such as Central America and Africa were—and often still are—unique from one to another, Westernized instruments being built by the early 1900s by companies such as J.C. Deagan and U.G. Leedy were much more standardized and homogenous. These readily available, chromatic instruments enabled Western-style composers and performers to notate parts accurately and to begin the creation of a body of written music for these instruments. Of course, this is not a value judgement: this is just to say that once bar percussion instruments became more standardized, they were more easily assimilated into the Western tradition of written music. The more individualized instruments that existed prior to these new technical developments were primarily used by cultures with oral traditions, such as by marimba players in Latin America and by certain tribes in Africa. Many of the new developments that occurred with bar percussion instruments during the twentieth century resulted from seemingly minor

2 improvements to instruments that were already being used by revolutionary performers such as Sebastian Hurdado in Guatemala during the late 1800s. During the years 1874-75, Hurdado is documented to have presented a chromatic marimba with wooden resonators to the Guatemalan public. Previously, resonators were often made out of gourds, or in the case of some much older instruments in Asia and Africa, the bars were placed above pits dug into the ground. The centuries old, African tradition of placing bars above pits still exists today, even at the beginning of the twenty-first century. In the early 1900s, the two important American percussion instrument manufacturers mentioned previously, J. C. Deagan and U. G. Leedy, added metal resonators to marimbas and xylophones. These new resonators, coupled with carefully tuned bars, made it possible to design instruments that are more accurately pitched than most previous instruments. One of the most significant improvements occurred in 1929 with the introduction of bars with harmonic tuning. For the first time, bar percussion instrument makers were able to make xylophones and marimbas that truly sounded different from each other. Before the advent of harmonic tuning, the only major distinction between a xylophone and a marimba was its range. The wood used for the bars of marimbas and xylophones was also standardized. Although different manufacturers experimented with many types of woods, the wood that finally became standard for bars during the twentieth century is Honduras rosewood. There are many advantages to using this wood, one being that it is somewhat flexible, so it will not crack as easily when struck with mallets. In this sense, other types of hardwood such as ebony would be poor

3 choices for wood bars because they are brittle and might crack more easily. Unlike more common hardwoods such as oak, Honduras rosewood also has a tight grain: this means that the bars can be sanded to a very smooth finish and are resistant to splintering. To a great extent, the Second Industrial Revolution (ca. 1870 – 1914) which took place in the United States led to the manufacturing of bar percussion instruments with a much higher degree of refinement. Previously, almost all of the steps in making these instruments were done by hand without the use of electric tools. Not only was this timeconsuming and labor intensive, but the amount of refinement that a maker could accomplish was somewhat limited. For example, it was only during the late part of the twentieth century that curved resonators and oblong resonators on the low end of marimbas were introduced. The specialized manufacturing processes used for making these resonators are tricky, and prior to the invention and use of electric tools would have been extremely difficult. It is interesting that new developments in bar percussion instruments have been constantly introduced as many other modern inventions came about, especially with the harnessing of electricity. Without electricity, we would probably not have carefully-tuned, chromatic, five-octave marimbas and we most certainly would not have vibraphones with electric motors and MIDI bar percussion instruments.

Instrument Specifications The sound of a bar percussion instrument is a combination many factors. Although there are major differences between the sound of each of the instruments in this family— marimbas, xylophones, vibraphones, orchestra bells and tubular chimes—they all basically produce sound in the same way. First, the mallet strikes the bar. Then, a tiny fraction of a second later according to the speed of traveling sound, the resonator—if there is one—amplifies the sound. The major differences between each instrument such as bar materials, tuning, resonators and range are what determine whether the instrument sounds like a marimba, xylophone, vibraphone, orchestra bells, or even something entirely different. This chapter explains the many important aspects that differentiate the types of bar percussion instruments; their ranges; the materials, acoustics and tuning of bars; and the materials, acoustics and tuning of resonators. Types of Instruments The five basic types of Western bar percussion instruments are the marimba, xylophone, vibraphone, orchestra bells and tubular chimes. As will be explained later in this chapter, there are many subtle variations within each instrumental type, and there are also other instruments that are radically different from standard instruments even though they fit the general definition of a “bar percussion instrument.” Two basic subsets of bar percussion instruments were manufactured during the twentieth century and continue to be manufactured in the

5 twenty-first century—those with wood bars and those with metal bars. The two instruments with wood bars are the marimba and the xylophone and the two instruments with metal bars are the vibraphone and orchestra bells. A third instrumental subset would be the tubular chimes. Although this is a metal instrument and in theory is part of the bar percussion family, it is usually played with no more than one or two chime mallets at a time and is not usually used in a soloistic or virtuoso sense. Of the two types of instruments with wood bars, the xylophone is perhaps the oldest, having originated in Africa long before Westernized xylophones of the twentieth century. The term xylophone is a combination of the Greek words xylo(s), meaning wood and phono(e), meaning sound.1 The two essential differences between Western xylophones and marimbas are that the marimbas usually have a larger range and the bars for each instrument are tuned differently. The marimbas found in Mexico and Guatemala, for example, are usually very large instruments that occasionally encompass up to seven octaves. These instruments often have a “buzz” effect built into the resonators to help distinguish the melodic line and three or more players usually perform together on these larger instruments. Mexican and Guatemalan marimbas are also tuned to a chromatic scale like Western instruments. In contrast, traditional African xylophones such as the Ugandan Amadinda usually have a much smaller range and have single rows of notes tuned to scales that are very different from those used for Western instruments. However, some African instruments such as the Ethiopian Ambira xylophone and

1 James L. Moore, “The Marimba: A Detailed Acoustical and Cultural Study,” Percussive Notes (1966).

6 the Balangi marimba from Sierra Leone also have buzz resonators, very similar to the instruments of Mexico and Guatemala.2 One major similarity between how Latin-American marimbas and some African xylophones are played is that multiple players usually perform together on one instrument. On Latin-American marimbas, the players stand side by side. When playing an African xylophone, the players are usually seated on opposite sides of the instrument. This makes sense, since African xylophones have only one row of keys and LatinAmerican marimbas are tuned chromatically like a piano and often have a very large range. The photos below show two instruments, the first one an African xylophone with two players and the second a Mexican marimba with five players:

2 John Beck, ed., Encyclopedia of Percussion (New York: Garland Publishing, 1995).

Photos 1.1: two African performers playing an Amadinda xylophone3

3 Unknown, Seminar Für Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, Workshop Amadinda-Xylophon [Web Site] (2002 [cited June 21 2003]); available from http://www.fu-berlin.de/verglmus/amadinda.htm.

Photo 1.2: Chiapan-born virtuoso Zeferino Nandayapa (center) leads his four sons Javier, Norberto, Mario and Oscarin in the Mexican marimba band Marimba Nandayapa4

These non-Western playing techniques can also be used on Western instruments. Multiple players on one side of the marimba would work particularly well with five-octave instruments since there would be room for a few people to stand side by side. Players standing on both sides of the instrument would probably work best if the music is memorized. Unlike the xylophone or marimba, the vibraphone and Western orchestra bells—as opposed to non-chromatically tuned metallophones such as the saron used in Indonesian Gamelan orchestras—do not have such a long history. The vibraphone is essentially a twentieth-century

4 John Beck, Encyclopedia of Percussion (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995).

9 invention, an American innovation first conceived by the Leedy Company in 1916.5 Orchestra bells are also known by the German name glockenspiel and the Italian name campanelli and have a significantly longer history in Western music than the vibraphone. Range The ranges of Westernized bar percussion instruments have been altered many times during the twentieth century, often for financial and practical reasons rather than musical ones. Of all of the standard, Westernized bar percussion instruments, the marimba has probably gone through the most changes regarding range. The following example shows the common, basic ranges of marimbas built during the twentieth century: Marimba

& ?w 4 octaves ca. 1900

w 4 1/3 octaves 1946

4 1/2 octaves 1978

4 1/2 octaves + 1 ca. 1980

5 octaves ca. 1980

Figure 1.1: manufactured ranges for Westernized marimbas throughout the twentieth century

I was unable to locate an exact manufacturing date for the first fouroctave marimba. Some of the first marimbas were not resonated and imprecisely tuned so an exact date is difficult to establish. However, many 5 Linda L. Pimentel, “The Marimba Bar,” Percussive Notes 18, no. 2 (1980).

10 examples of precisely resonated, four-octave marimbas survive from the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1946, Clair Omar Musser and the Musser Marimba Company manufactured the first four and one-third octave marimbas. In 1973, the Yamaha Corporation introduced one of the first low ‘F’ marimbas, made at the request of world-renowned Japanese marimbist Keiko Abe: “Through the 1970’s, Yamaha’s development of marimbas with larger and larger ranges was the direct result of the development of Keiko Abe’s musical ideas.”6 The note ‘F’ was probably chosen as the lowest note because vibes and xylophones traditionally have low ‘F’ as their lowest note, and also because ‘F’ happens to be a facile bottom note for the design and manufacturing of the frame and resonators. In the early 1980s, the marimbist Leigh Howard Stevens worked with Ludwig/Musser Co. to manufacture the Musser M-450-LHS marimba with an added low ‘E’ below ‘F’. This additional note enabled percussionists to perform more literature such as guitar transcriptions as well as transcriptions derived from Baroque music for lute and violoncello. At this point, manufacturers were beginning to manufacture instruments with curved or oblong lower resonators. These larger resonators enabled them to build instruments that had full-sounding low notes. Thus, in the 1980s, five-octave marimbas with ‘C’ as the lowest note become the standard for marimbists who wanted to play solo or other concert literature. A range of five octaves enabled percussionists to play even more transcriptions than ever before and also expanded the possibilities for composers writing new music. 6 Rebecca Kite, Keiko Abe: Her Quest for Marimba Sound (May 1997 1997 [cited May 2002]); available from http://www.band.calpoly.edu/Drums/abeyamah.html.

11 It is fascinating to note that some marimbas that were built during the twentieth century had up to a six-octave range, and sometimes even up to seven and one-half octaves. These instruments had truncated, straight, tubular resonators for the low notes that did not enable the notes to resonate properly. Many factors probably caused these very large instruments to stop being manufactured, such as poor sales, a dearth of literature, high cost and probably even the sheer size of the instruments. The Marimba Doble of Central America has a chromatic range of 6 1/2 octaves. This instrument has resonators with a built-in buzz effect and they are generally not used for Western-style literature. In the Guatemalan Republic, the Guatemalan Marimba is the most popular instrument and represents a symbol of national independence. A few companies such as the French company Bergerault have recently made marimbas larger than five octaves with truncated resonators, although these have since gone out of production. The German manufacturer Kolberg Percussion GmbH recently made a seven and onehalf octave marimba although I was unable to locate any photos or further information on these instruments. It is important to note that these instruments are extremely large and very difficult to find. If a composer needs very low marimba notes, percussionists will usually suggest that they write for a bass marimba if one is available. Composers must make sure a bass marimba is readily available before writing for one, as they are not currently as common as regular marimbas.7 7 There are a few American instrument builders who focus on making bass marimbas and even contra bass marimbas such as Christopher Banta. He also has a book that explains how to make and tune marimba bars: Christopher Banta, Marimba Bar Fabrication and Tuning, Third ed. (Seattle, WA: Dandemutande: Zimfest Association, Inc., 2003).

12 Although marimbas with various ranges continue to be manufactured, there are no set rules that dictate which ranges are appropriate for various settings. Four-octave instruments are usually found in grade schools and high schools, but also in many orchestras. Four and one-third octave instruments are very common and found in most settings. Four and onehalf octave instruments are often found in many colleges and universities. Five-octave instruments are usually not used in orchestral music due to their large size and—up until the end of the twentieth century—their limited availability. The lowest notes of these instruments also do not “cut through” in many orchestral situations. However, professional marimbists often own five-octave instruments. As a general rule, composers would be wise to write for a four and one-third octave range for large ensembles and for up to five octaves for soloists or some chamber music situations. It is generally a good idea to check with the percussionist or ensemble you are writing for to see what instrument is available before the part is written. For various reasons, students are often reduced to playing on instruments with small ranges. Although young players should ideally play instruments that are slightly smaller in size, instruments with less than normal ranges can ultimately hinder a student’s progress. When writing music for young players, composers should take these points into consideration.

Bars: Materials and Tuning

Bar Materials Throughout the history of bar percussion instruments, the bars of the keyboard have been made out of many different materials. The following list gives the most common materials for the bars (or in the case of chimes, the tubes) of the most common bar percussion instruments:

Marimba:

Honduras rosewood, synthetic material (plastic)

Xylophone:

Honduras rosewood, synthetic material (plastic)

Vibraphone:

Aluminum, magnesium and copper, stainless steel

Orchestra Bells:

Stainless steel

Tubular Chimes: 1 1/4 – 1 1/2-inch brass tubing8

There are significant differences between natural rosewood marimba bars and synthetic bars. Synthetic bars are more durable than rosewood; have superior resonance but inferior tone quality to rosewood; are more consistent in density and appearance; are often more brittle sounding but do not go out of tune nearly as easily. 8 Tubular chimes have end plugs that increase durability and also dampen very high frequencies. These end plugs also lower the frequency of the first few “nodes” (overtones or undertones).

14 Ideally, xylophone bars are made from the inside of the log of the Honduras rosewood tree where the grain is much tighter and the wood is harder. Quite often, xylophone bars are made from leftover wood used to make marimba bars. Wood for xylophone bars is often not chosen because it has good clarity of pitch, even though it should be. Compared to marimba bars, xylophone bars are usually smaller, narrower, thicker and played with harder mallets. Marimba bars are usually cut from the outside of the log where the grain is looser and the wood is a little softer. Since marimbas have a lower range, the lower bars ring longer and they are meant to be played with softer mallets. The thickness of the bars in relation to their length determines, largely, the relative strength of the various overtones of the pitch. Xylophone bars are thicker than marimba bars in relation to their length in order to withstand harder playing.9 One advantage of making instruments with synthetic bars is that they can be played with very hard mallets. In order for synthetic bars to sound just as good as wooden bars, the tone quality must be just as good. If a percussionist can tell the difference when passively listening, then the quality is not good enough for purposes in which an authentic sound is

9 Moore, “The Marimba: A Detailed Acoustical and Cultural Study.”

15 required. This does not mean that synthetic bars are not useful: there are many situations in which instruments with synthetic bars would be a much better choice than rosewood bars. For example, synthetic bars are good for functional purposes, such as for practice instruments and for institutions with young people. They are also good for marching, especially if there is a risk that bars made from rosewood will be damaged by weather and/or hard mallets. Synthetic materials enable percussionists to play instruments outside without fear of the bars being ruined by temperature and humidity. Variations in these conditions also seem to have very little effect on the elasticity of the bars, regardless of the bar material. However, temperature and humidity seem to make a difference in the actual sound of wood bars. Wooden keyboard instruments will occasionally start out sounding very good and then the sound will worsen as the hall heats up and becomes more humid from lights and audience. Instruments with synthetic bars do not seem to have this problem. We can speculate that one reason wooden bars (and perhaps all wooden instruments in general) sound more pleasing to our ears is because of the following hypothesis, presented by the German scientist Herman Helmholtz: in wood, the mass is lighter than in metal. The

16 internal structure of the bars is also rougher and full of countless interstices, the elasticity is comparatively imperfect and the overtones, especially the high ones, die away quickly, or at least more quickly than the overtones of bar percussion instruments with metal bars. These high overtones often contribute to people’s ears becoming tired after listening to certain instruments, particularly ones with strong, high overtones such as the piccolo. This is why vibraphones probably sound more pleasant than orchestra bells, wooden flutes mellower than metal ones.10 Vibraphone bars today are made almost exclusively from aluminum or a mixture of magnesium and copper. In the past, some bars were made from stainless steel or chrome-plated steel. Orchestra bell bars are still often made out of chrome-plated steel.

Bar Tuning It is important for composers to understand how bars are tuned so that they will have a better idea of how these instruments will sound, either in solo settings or while blending with other instruments. A better understanding of tuning may also shed light on why certain instruments such as marimbas and vibraphones blend so well and certain ones such as xylophones cut through almost any musical texture. One of the most common questions that composers ask percussionists is what the 10 Ibid.

difference is between a xylophone and a marimba and why they sound so different. As we will see, the key distinction between the two—other than the range—is in the way the bars are tuned. It would be ideal for bars to be “triple harmonic tuned,” i.e. the fundamental and the next two overtones. This is easier to accomplish with materials such as metal and plastic, and is also easier with lower bars rather than higher ones. Tuning wooden bars poses more problems since each piece of wood is noticeably unique; wood is an organic material with built-in inconsistencies. Although a detailed study of the intricacies of the acoustics of bar percussion instruments is beyond the scope of this work, it would be beneficial for both composers and percussionists to read James Moore’s dissertation “Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments”11 for more thorough information. It is difficult to tune more than the fundamental in the upper register of bar percussion instruments, particularly with high-pitched instruments such as orchestra bells and xylophones. The relatively short ring time of the high-pitched bars on any instrument makes using a tuning device to tune the bars very difficult. Nevertheless, good instrument makers attempt to carefully tune the bars to the best of their ability, and it is easier to be more accurate now than it was fifty years ago due to better tools and improved tuning techniques. Each type of bar percussion instrument is tuned differently. Figure 1.2 shows the harmonic series and ideal first three modes of vibration of a uniform theoretical bar, marimba bar, marimba xylophone (xylorimba) 11 James L. Moore, “Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments” (Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1970).

18 bar, xylophone bar, vibraphone bar, orchestra bell bar and tubular chime12:

12 Figure1.2 adapted from Ibid.

#9:1œ

#10:1 œ w

œ 5.4:1 œ # œ 2.75:1

Uniform Theoretical Bar

œ 6:1 œ 3:1

Xylophone Bar

# œ 10:1 œ 4:1 w

œ œ #œ

Subtones (Very Weak)

œ Modes 4, 5, & 6 b œw œ œ (G) — Fundamental

Tubular Chime

Mode 3 (heard as fundamental)

2.75:1

5.4:1

Vibraphone Bar Orchestra Bell Bar

Identical Modes of Vibration

# œ 10:1 œ 4:1

# œ 10:1 œ 4:1 w

Xylorimba Bar

Marimba Bar

Figure 1.2: harmonic series and ideal first three modes of vibration of Western percussion instrument bars and tubular chimes.

• Whole notes: sounding pitches (i.e. first mode of vibration, fundamental or first harmonic) • Black notes: ideal second and third modes of vibration (first and second partials) • A nominal A2 110 Hz fundamental is used to directly compare the ratios of the ideal modes of vibration. However, only the marimba and possibly the xylomarimba currently produce a 110 Hz. fundamental. • Harmonic Series: the musical notation presented here indicates the tones that most nearly approximate the frequencies of the members of the harmonic series. The 7th harmonic is considerably lower than the note 'G'. • Uniform Theoretical Bar: approximate musical notation is given for the inharmonic partials. A uniform theoretical bar is one that is perfectly uniform and has not been ground to increase or decrease certain frequencies to bring the bar "in tune." The second mode of 2.75:1 is decidedly low for comparison to the 3rd harmonic which is E4, being 51 cents (hundredths of a semi-tone) above D4 and 49 cents below D4. The third mode of 5.4:1 is decidedly low for comparison to the 6th harmonic which is E5, being 19 cents above the musical note D5. • Marimba: not triple harmonic tuned for the top octaves. • Xylorimba (Marimba Xylophone): essentially tuned like a marimba, but with half of the high xylophone octaves on top. These instruments usually go to high 'F' and not high 'C' (i.e. the 'F' above the highest 'C' on a normal marimba). • Xylophones: currently only triple-harmonic tuned for the first 1 1/2 octaves from the bottom note (i.e. 'F'), or even just the first fifth of the range from the bottom note.

Notes

? œ 2:1 w

8:1 7:1 6:1 5:1 4:1 3:1

œœ & # œœœ

Harmonic Series

Ideal Ratios of Modes of Vibration

20 There are both differences and similarities in the way bar percussion instruments are tuned. The most noticeable difference in tunings between instruments that use the same or similar bar materials is between marimbas and xylophones. One surprise that becomes apparent from looking at Figure 1.2 above is that the overtone series of the marimba is more similar to that of the vibraphone rather than the xylophone. On lower-pitched instruments such as the marimba and vibraphone, the second partial two octaves and a major third above the fundamental is fairly easy to hear.13 On higher-pitched instruments—or even with the higher pitches of the lower instruments—the second and higher partials are very difficult if not virtually impossible to distinguish. For example, the overtones of orchestra bells die out quickly and are not audible because they are out of the range of human hearing. In order to emphasize the first overtone on marimbas, vibraphones or xylophones, percussionists can touch the bar firmly at the center with a mallet head or finger and strike the bar on the node. This works best on lower bars of bar percussion instruments. This is important for composers to know since they can only ask percussionists to produce node sounds on lower bars and not high ones. Chimes, on the other hand, present a unique acoustical phenomenon: the pitch that you think you are hearing as the fundamental is really the third partial. The fundamental and second partial are “subtones.”

13 The company Marimba One used to tune the second partial on marimba bars to three octaves, not three octaves and major third.

21 Although they are sounding, they are not heard. Chimes are unique in that the note of vibration is not even close to the pitch of the strike tone.14 On wooden bars, a simple experiment can be used to hear the second partial: mute the center (anti-nodal point) of the bar lightly with a mallet head or finger and then strike the bar firmly over the nodal point with a hard mallet. This will enable you to hear the second partial clearly and establish whether the bar is from a xylophone or a marimba or even a “xylorimba” (see section on xylorimbas later in this chapter). When instrument makers tune a bar, they use many techniques at their disposal to make sure that bars are tuned correctly. Tuners often tune bars using the following method: tune the fundamental, then tune the second harmonic (i.e. the double octave or first partial) and then the third harmonic (second partial). If one looks at the same note of a marimba and xylophone bar side-by side, one of the first observations that is most apparent is that the arch under the xylophone bar is not as deep or even the same shape as the marimba bar’s arch. This is due to the need to allow different partials to be heard on each instrument. Shaving or sanding the underside of the bar lowers the pitch; the underside of the bar is one of the most critical adjustment areas. Once the bar is cut to its basic length, the pitch of the fundamental is most affected by shaving or sanding in the center. The second partial is most affected by shaving near the nodes. Cutting or sanding the end of a bar raises the pitch. This is a less critical adjustment area and requires more cutting to make a change in pitch. 14 Thomas D. Rossing, “Chimes and Bells,” Percussive Notes, Research Edition 19, no. Number 3 (1982).

22 When wooden bars age, they often go out of tune. This is usually a slow process that occurs very gradually over many years, and is due to bars “stabilizing.” This means that the bars acclimate to the area where you have the instrument and the moisture content in the wood becomes stable. When older wooden bars go out of tune, various areas are ground in order to re-tune them, as seen in the following illustration:

23 Typical Bar Areas Ground for Tuning or Re-tuning

Bar Flattens Fundamental

Flattens Second Harmonic Resonator Flattens Third Harmonic

Sharpens Pitch if 10 - 30 Cents Flat

Notes

Partially-Drilled Holes (One, Sometimes Two on Both Sides): Sharpens Pitch if 1 - 10 Cents Flat

• There are 100 cents between each half-step. If the pitch is more than 30 cents flat, the flat ends of the bar will need to be ground. This destroys the visual continuity of the bar with the surrounding notes and also shifts the node points to new nodal centers. • The ground and drilled areas are approximate and may differ from tuner to tuner and from bar to bar.

Illustration 1.1: tuning and re-tuning adjustments15

Percussion instrument makers have refined these techniques during the twentieth century and continue to discover new ways of tuning and retuning the bars. While sometimes unsightly, these adjustments bring the fundamental and harmonics of the bar much nearer “in tune.” 15 Adapted from illustrations and principles found in Christopher Banta, Basic Marimba Bar Mechanics and Resonator Principles, Third ed. (Seattle, WA: Dandemutande: Zimfest Association, Inc., 2003).

24 Percussionists are often surprised at how strange some of their wooden bars may look after a tuner is done sanding and grinding them to make them “in tune” again.16

Resonators: Materials, Acoustics and Tuning17 Almost all modern, Western bar percussion instruments have resonators. The Western marimba is always resonated. The xylophone may or may not have resonators, but most modern xylophones are resonated.18 In general, the xylophones that do not have resonators are early twentieth century models and/or “pit” xylophones. One of the reasons that some older, early twentieth century Westernized xylophones do not have resonators is that since the pitch of the instruments is very high and the decay is short, some percussion instruments makers probably thought that resonators might not make much of a difference in the sound. Bar percussion instruments are also tuned a little more accurately today than they were during the early twentieth century. If the bars are tuned very carefully and all other conditions are optimal (i.e., the wood is of a high quality and resonates well, the resonators are well made, etc.), then resonating the bars makes a more noticeable difference. No matter what the type of instrument is,

16 For a more detailed explanation of bar are resonator tuning, please refer to Ibid. 17 Material from this section taken from Leigh Howard Stevens, “Resonator Acoustics,” Percussive Notes 32, no. 5 (1984). 18 Moore, “The Marimba: A Detailed Acoustical and Cultural Study.”

25 resonators only activate the fundamental and the odd-numbered partials, i.e. 1 (the fundamental) and partials 3, 5 and 7. Of all of the different types of bar percussion instruments, orchestra bells are the instruments that most often do not have resonators. Although the reasons for this might be speculative, there are two that make sense: orchestra bells are very high in pitch and relatively small resonators may not add much amplification to the ringing notes. Also, the range of orchestra bells is somewhat limited and the bars are usually mounted in a case. Adding resonators would significantly add to the bulk of the instrument and heavy instruments are usually something that percussionists want to avoid if they can at all help it. Nevertheless, some companies, such as the French manufacturer Bergerault, have manufactured orchestra bells that not only have resonators, but also have a dampening pedal. It is wise for composers to note that as enticing as the thought of a set of orchestra bells with a pedal might be (think about it: a very high-pitched vibraphone!), they are very rare and currently hard to come by, especially in the United States. A photo appears below:

Photo 1.3: Bergerault orchestra bells with resonators and pedal

Resonator Materials Resonators may be made from many different materials, including metal (brass, aluminum or steel), gourds or wood.19 Many indigenous African instruments have resonators made from gourds, and many traditional Latin American instruments have wooden resonators, as previously shown in photo 1.2. We may surmise through previous research and historical digs that xylophones (i.e. primitive, un-resonated instruments) probably originated in Southeast Asia and eventually made their way to Africa hundreds of years ago. African slaves brought on ships by Dominican Friars then took some form of the xylophone or marimba to Chiapas, probably ca. 1545.20 19 Ibid. 20 Beck, Encyclopedia of Percussion.

Marimbas were most likely then brought to the United States via slaves traveling on ships from Latin America. At this point, marimbas were still fairly primitive and had single rows of bars. Also at this time, marimbas probably made their way from Chiapas to Guatemala. It was the percussionists from Chiapas and Guatemala who first arranged the bars in “keyboard” fashion (with two rows of bars), extended the range to six or more octaves and eventually replaced the gourd resonators with individual wooden resonators. Although some modern instrument builders have made instruments with individual wooden resonators or wooden cavity resonators that resonate more than one note, most manufactured resonators made during the twentieth century are made of metal. Metal resonators have three distinct advantages over those made of wood: they are generally lighter; they are less affected by weather and they can be more carefully tuned and re-tuned, i.e. with tunable resonator plugs or caps. Different types of metals for modern resonators have been used, two of the most common being aluminum and brass. If resonators are made of aluminum, they usually have a painted finish that is baked on at a very high temperature in order to resist chipping and peeling. If they are made of brass, they are usually either finished with a high quality lacquer—and sometimes polished to be highly reflective—or left bare. Brass resonators can also be made with either a non-polished or a polished finish. Polished brass resonators are extremely beautiful but they must be handled with care. Any significant scratches will show up very easily. If brass resonators are lacquered, they have the advantage of being more resistant

28 to scratches. In general, brass resonators are heavier than resonators made from aluminum, but they are somewhat more resistant to denting.

Photo 1.4: lacquered, polished brass tubular resonators on a DeMorrow marimba21

Resonator Acoustics and Tuning The instruments that most often have adjustable resonators, whether they are “tuned” by raising or lowering the entire bank or by adjusting individual resonators, are the marimba, and less often the xylophone. Since it is the humidity and temperature of the air that causes the bars to loose volume, it would be beneficial for vibraphones, and perhaps even orchestra bells to have adjustable resonators as well. However, due to the design of vibraphones (with the rotating fans) and the high range of

21 Tony Paterson, “Demorrow Marimba Resonators,” (Ithaca, NY: 2002).

29 orchestra bells, adjustable resonators for these instruments have probably thus far seemed to make less sense to instrument-makers. One common misconception is that resonators make bars “ring” longer. In actuality, resonators do not make bars ring longer: only good bars can ring longer than bad bars. Resonators only serve to amplify the “ring” of the bars. The pitch of the tube needs to match the pitch of the bar. This is determined by the distance of the open end to the plug, “or even more accurately, a little past the open end to the plug.”22 There are two main reasons that percussionists tune their resonators: first, to equalize the sound of the keyboard, and second, to get the best possible sound in any performance situation.23 There are two basic types of resonators: tunable and “un-tunable.” Although un-tunable resonators are not designed to be adjustable, they can be “friction tuned.” Friction tunable resonators have caps that may be adjusted with a broom handle or hammer. However, this is not an ideal solution, so tunable resonators with easily adjustable resonator caps or plugs have been invented. Up until the last part of the twentieth century, almost all resonators were designed with the intent of being “bank tuned,” with immovable caps held in place inside the tubes by tight friction. Many percussionists who own these instruments take it upon themselves to adjust the “immovable” caps themselves by pushing the caps one way or the other, even though they are really not meant to be adjusted. These banks of resonators are “tuned” by raising or lowering the entire bank by one or 22 Stevens, “Resonator Acoustics.”

30 two notches into a lower or high slot at the low end of the instrument, depending on the different factors that effect the sound. The lower slots are meant for a hot environment and lower pitch center and the higher slots are meant for a cold stage and higher pitch center. Tunable resonators have many advantages over un-tunable ones: the performer can customize the sound of the instrument to the hall’s acoustics; the ring and volume of each individual bar can be controlled and the performer can accurately compensate for temperature and humidity. There are potential problems that percussionists run into when attempting to tune resonators that are not meant to be tuned. With fixed resonators, the resonator stops have usually been painted in place; the seal between the cap and the tube is extremely tight. The percussionist will have to break the paint seal to allow the stopper to move.24 In some older instruments, the caps are riveted in place and can only be moved with major repair work. Therefore, it is usually not a good idea to try to tune these types of resonators.25 Many different types and shapes of resonators have been designed. One of the most common concepts is to have a graduated bank of resonators from bottom to top — all of them tubular. According to the marimbist Leigh Howard Stevens, this method of making resonators provides “the sweetest sound.” In my personal experience, I also have found that there is a definite difference in the way that resonators with different shapes amplify the bars. The more different the shape is, the 24 Rebecca Kite, “Tuning Marimba Resonators,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 2 (1992). 25 Ibid.

31 more different the sound will be. Oval tubes and rectangular resonators — such as those used from some Kori marimbas — do not activate harmonics in the same way as round tubes. According to the marimba maker Douglas DeMorrow, it is difficult to tell the difference between straight tubes and “bent” tubes (i.e. those with miter joints), although the bend seems to get in the way of the tube’s ability to activate the high partials. Theoretically, it would be ideal for all resonators to be completely straight, no matter how low the notes are, but this would mean that the percussionist would have to elevate the marimba or other instrument much higher than normal playing height. The problem of long, unwieldy resonators leaves instrument designers with two basic options: either design the resonators so that they are curved (see p. 25, photo 1.4), or make resonators that become wider as they get lower, i.e. “cavity” tuned instead of “frequency” tuned.26 The following example shows an illustration of oblong resonators:

26 On most instruments with lower resonators that are oblong and/or “cavity tuned” the upper resonators (i.e. from ca. low ‘A’) are tubular.

Oblong Resonators from Low End of Marimba (Top View)

Illustration 1.2: top view of oblong resonators on a marimba The more gradual the transition of resonator tube sizes for mallet keyboard instruments, the smoother the transition of sound from the bass to the treble will be. It has proven to be cost prohibitive for makers to completely graduate all of the resonators with the same refinement that the bars are made with. The resonators usually go through a few different cavity sizes, with enough graduation to make the sound from bass to treble very smooth. Regardless of shape, a resonator’s effectiveness is determined by three factors: temperature, humidity and the acoustics of the performance space. The following illustration shows adjustments that are necessary depending on various factors:

Balancing Resonator Sound: Relationship Between Pitch of Resonator and Bar Goals: optimum sustain, volume and timbre, full, rich fundamental and smooth decay

Resonator

Lower Temerature/Humidity = Move Plug Higher

Adjustable Plug Move Plug Lower Higher Temperature/Humidity =

Resonators Uniform Pitch Change lower temperature/humidity = very flat higher temperature/humidity = very sharp

move plug higher move plug lower

Bars lower temperature/humidity = slightly sharp (bars contract) higher temperature/humidity = slightly flat (bars expand)

Notes • Percussionists often prefer the resonator to be adjusted slightly sharp to the bar. • The higher the resonator the more it is affected by temperature changes. • Moving bank resonators does not compensate for resonator/bar inconsistences since the space between the top of the resonator and the bar is primarily what changes. • The pitch change with wood bars is minor but inconsistent due to unique grain, elasticity and hardness of the wood. • General characteristic of a resonator that is too sharp: too short decay time. • General characteristics of a resonator that is too flat: tone sounds thin and weak, a lack of volume and the decay of the fundamental is long, but the after-ring is inaudible.

Illustration 1.3: balancing resonator sound27 As the above illustration shows, the warmer the temperature is, the sharper the resonators will be. Resonators go sharp in hot weather because

27 Stevens, “Resonator Acoustics.”

34 the speed of sound increases at higher temperatures.28 If the instrument is moved to a warmer environment, the percussionist can compensate by adjusting the resonator caps to a lower position so that the tube is longer. In contrast, if the instrument is moved to a cooler environment, the caps can be moved higher. If the resonators are sharp, the decay time will be shorter. Cool temperatures will make the resonators go flat, and the resulting tone will sound weak and thin. “It will be lacking in volume and fundamental and the decay time will be long, but most of the after ring will be too soft to be heard in the audience.”29 The resonator must produce the same frequency as the note it is resonating in order to function properly as a resonator. While a certain amount of resonance will occur in an incorrectly lengthened resonator without a noticeable pitch change, maximum resonance is obtained when the resonator is coupled with the frequency of the bar above it.30 When adjusting the resonator’s tuning plugs, the fundamental is emphasized in order to increase volume. This is at the expense of decay or “ring time” which is shortened by de-emphasizing the overtones. However, a resonator tuned to the fundamental frequency of a bar does not affect the first overtone because the frequency of the overtone is far from the fundamental’s frequency. The amount of adjustment that is necessary also depends on where the resonator is in relation to the range. In general, tuning cap adjustments are usually made between 1/8 and 1/2 inch. Even in the lowest range, 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Moore, “The Marimba: A Detailed Acoustical and Cultural Study.”

35 adjustments are usually fairly small. It is often surprising how little adjustment it takes to make a major impact on the volume. Sometimes adjustments can be as much as two inches, but this is usually due to very severe changes in conditions from one performance space to the next, such as going from a very hot, dry climate to a cooler climate with almost 100% humidity. Percussionists need to be aware that moving the resonators too far away from the bars will “decouple” them and make them lose volume.31 The amount of change necessary to tune the resonator decreases as you go higher in pitch. This is because the sound waves of the higher pitches are geometrically shorter than the sound waves of the lower pitches; the length of the sound wave of the highest note is approximately 1/32 of the length of the sound wave of the lowest note.32 At an octave above middle ‘C’, any necessary adjustments to the tuning caps are usually extremely small. This is why many companies manufacture bar percussion instruments that only have adjustment slots at the bottom end. Since the bottom of the instrument is affected by variations in temperature and humidity more than the top, there is less need to adjust the top notes—or at least this is their philosophy. In reality, the top notes usually benefit greatly from these minor adjustments. High notes on a marimba that have the tuning caps adjusted correctly usually ring more and have more clearly defined pitches than those that are not adjusted correctly. The ideal ring time for each bar should be slightly shorter than its lower neighbor.

31 Stevens, “Resonator Acoustics.” 32 Kite, “Tuning Marimba Resonators.”

36 For example, a ‘D’ should have a slightly shorter ring time than the ‘C’ immediately below it. Because of the nature of organic materials such as rosewood, it is very difficult to achieve consistent weather correction due to variations such as temperature and humidity. Different wooden bars tuned to the same note are frequently inconsistent due to variations such as the wood’s unique grain, density and elasticity. Individual resonator tuning is the most accurate way of tuning a whole set of wooden bars at once. “Resonator set tuning” cannot compensate for the variations in each individual wooden bar. Temperature change principally affects the columns of air in each pipe rather than the bars themselves, and “the frequency of [their] vibrations will change in exactly the same ratio as the speed of sound.”33 Also, certain acoustic spaces will accentuate certain frequencies and cause certain notes to ring longer than others, sometimes much longer. Individual resonator tuning is really the only way to compensate for this phenomenon. Another factor that complicates matters is that the acoustics of performance spaces often change dramatically once an audience fills the space. Usually the air temperature of a hall becomes warmer once it fills with people. In a similar respect, if a performance is outside, the changing temperature and humidity can adversely affect the instrument. If the instrument has just been moved, it will need to adjust to the room, hall or outside temperature for at least four hours, at which time the sound will need to be reevaluated.34 33 Sir James Jeans, Science and Music (New York: Dover Publications, 1937). As quoted in Stevens, “Resonator Acoustics.” 34 Kite, “Tuning Marimba Resonators.”

37 In an ideal world, percussionists would be able to tune the resonators of their bar percussion instruments immediately before the performance, sometime after the audience has seated and the temperature, humidity and acoustics of the hall have stabilized as much as possible. Of course, this situation would not only be a luxury, but is unrealistic. The next best solution for the percussionist is to adjust the resonators as close to the performance as possible. The percussionist should be able to play on the instrument before it is adjusted in order to hear how it sounds in the hall. This may seem obvious, but even the most seasoned players sometimes forget to check the acoustics after an instrument has had its resonators adjusted. As noted earlier, smaller resonators on the top end of a marimba are more affected by the temperature of the moving air than the low resonators. Upon close analysis, there is an obvious reason for this. Although the length of the decay is shorter with higher pitches and there is less air moving, the small amount of air must be moving in the right way because there is so little room—or time—for error. There are definitely certain methods within the percussionist’s control that can ensure that a bar percussion instrument with adjustable tuning plugs will sound optimal. Ideally, the percussionist should use an assistant when tuning the resonators. When tuning, you should have an assistant strike each bar at a moderate speed while you pull the cap to the bottommost position and gradually adjust the cap upwards (shorten the tube) by very small increments. The goal is to achieve maximum resonance. If you do this yourself without an assistant, you should be in a position to hear

38 the sound of the bar after you adjust the resonator plug, or you should adjust the plug and then listen from above as you play the note. Percussionists can accurately assess the decay time by using a stopwatch. They can listen for the fundamental and the partials, and ultimately locate the resonator position that produces the longest ring and the most pleasing sound. Another helpful tuning technique is to isolate the resonator sound from the sound of the bar. You can then blow across the top of the resonator. Doing this will allow you to hear a faint pitch: this is the pitch of the resonator. The goal is to match this pitch to the pitch of the bar.35 Sometimes, if the ring of a bar is too short, it might have nothing to with the resonator, the temperature or any other normal factor: it might just be that the bar is bad. One way percussionists ascertain whether it is the resonator or the bar is to play the bar un-resonated. “The bar will not ring quite as long with the resonator open as with it closed, but the consistency of sound should be the same. If you have a bad bar it will be obvious at this point.”36 You can easily cover up the resonator by sliding a flat, smooth object on top of the resonator tubes. The further sound travels through the air, the more sharpness and power is lost. In still or dry atmospheres, sound carries for longer distances than in atmospheres that are patchy or polluted. For instruments with wooden bars, there are certain acoustical points to keep in mind. In hotter temperatures, there will be less ring and the sound will be tubbier. In 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid.

39 cooler temperatures, there will be a thin sound with no projection. As a performance area heats up with lights and the presence of an audience, the sound may get worse. Instruments can be manufactured to take some of these considerations into account. Different instrument makers manufacture instruments that sound better in either large or small halls. If performers know what to look for, they can choose an instrument that works well for the type of music they play and for the halls they play in. For example, the Japanese marimbist Keiko Abe had Yamaha make her an instrument that would project more than a Musser instrument when playing with an orchestra in a big hall, yet have a clear pitch and tunable resonators.37 String tension also affects the sound of the bars. The string tension should be somewhat loose, yet give some spring. Looseness will prevent the bar from buzzing against the string. Some lesser-quality instruments do not give percussionists the option of adjusting the string tension. In this case, it would be beneficial to have the string re-done so that the tension can be adjustable.

New Instrumental Developments Bar percussion instruments have been altered dramatically during the twentieth century, with everything from the range of the instruments all the way to the material that the bars are made of. In fact, some instruments, such as the vibraphone, did not even exist prior to 1900. 37 Morris Lang, “A Talk with Marimba Virtuoso, Keiko Abe,” Percussive Notes 24, no. 4 (1983).

40 There are a few distinct developments that took place during the twentieth century and are continuing into the beginning of the twenty-first century, including the use of different bar materials, different tuning systems, variations of previously existing instruments and even entirely new instruments. In fact, the relative ease with which bar percussion instruments can be designed and built has encouraged many independent builders to make their own marimbas and related instruments, often with unique designs and tuning systems. Evidence of this can be found by typing the word “marimba” into any online search engine on the internet. Different Types of Woods As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the main type of wood that Western bar percussion bars are made of today is Honduras rosewood. However, other types of wood are sometimes used for Western instruments. Yamaha currently makes less expensive marimbas that have bars made of Padauk wood. In Africa, Asia and the Pacific region where Honduras rosewood does not grow, other types of wood are used such as wood from the male Shea Butter tree (Ghana)38 and “Mai ching chan” hardwood for Ranad-ek xylophones from Thailand.39

38 Author Unknown, Marimbas [Website] (African Treasures, 2002 [cited May 2002]); available from http://www.africantreasures.com/musical-instruments/marimbas.asp. 39 Author Unknown, Thailand (2002 [cited May 2002]); available from http://www2.ouk.edu.tw/yen/chinese/World%20Music/tai.htm.

41 Synthetic Materials During the last years of the twentieth century, various percussion instrument companies began experimenting with synthetic materials. Two companies in particular, Ludwig Drums with the Musser line40 and the Yamaha Corporation of America, continue to manufacture entire lines of instruments using synthetic materials. Ludwig Drum’s Musser line uses a synthetic bar material is called Kelon®, while Yamaha’s is called Acoustalon™. Both materials sound remarkably similar to wood, but different enough that experienced players can usually tell the difference between the synthetic bars and real wood bars. Nevertheless, synthetic bars have proved useful for outdoor situations—particularly those that do not demand a wood sound, such as some marching corps—and also for schools that cannot afford instruments with wood bars.41

40 As evidence of how the musical instrument business has not been immune to the restructuring, mergers and acquisitions that have defined corporate America during the last few decades, note that the Musser Marimba Company was bought out by Ludwig Drums and relabeled Musser. Ludwig Drums is a division of The Selmer Company, Inc. The Selmer Company, Inc. is a subsidiary of Steinway Musical Instruments, Inc. In January 2003 the Selmer Company and United Musical Instruments, Inc. merged into one entity under Conn-Selmer, Inc. 41 It is interesting to note that companies who make sound libraries for synthesizers often sample synthetic bar percussion instrument bars. This is fairly easy to hear, as the sampled notes often have a “glassy” sound that is not reminiscent of real wood. These companies also sometimes sample one note and then transpose it for all of the notes on the keyboard, thus creating a very artificial-sounding xylophone or marimba.

Photo 1.5: cutaway of a Yamaha Acoustalon™ xylophone bar

As described on the Yamaha Corporation of America website, Acoustalon™ bars “are produced from fiberglass reinforced plastic in a one-step manufacturing process to provide exceptional durability and a pure tone. The scientifically designed Sonic Tone Holes produced in this process give Acoustalon™ bars a pure tone similar to rosewood.”42 Other Materials Although wood and metal continue to be the main materials used for bars, other materials have been used in the past and are used today. Some of the oldest instruments ever discovered are lithophones— percussion instruments made with bars of stone. Stone specimens made of flint have been recently discovered that are thought to date from 30,000 – 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic era. According to Ezra Subrow, professor of Anthropology at the State University of New York at Buffalo, these particular stones may have doubled as flint tools, spear heads, blades and burins.43 42 Description and photo 1.6 taken from Yamaha Corporation, Description [Website] (2002 [cited May 2002]); available from http://www.yamaha.com/. 43 Donovan, Patricia, Researchers Hope “Music of the Spears” Will Illuminate Origins of Cognition, State University of New York at Buffalo News, November 29, 2000, located at http://www.buffalo.edu/news/fast-execute.cgi/article-page.html?article=49570009.

43 A lithophone called a Dan Da was discovered at Ndnut Lieng Khak village, Darlac, in the South Vietnamese Highlands on February 2, 1949. Musicologists concluded that this lithophone existed ca. 3000 BC. It consists of eleven stones and produces a five-tone scale similar to the Indonesian pelog scale (see p. 50, figure 1.4). The mountain people in this region played this lithophone with wooden hammers during ritual ceremonies.44 Percussion instruments that use stone as the sound-producing material are not limited to ancient ones found at archeological digs. The Stalactite Organ, an organ-like instrument located within the Cathedral of Luray Caverns in Luray, Virginia, is the largest natural music instrument in the world and consists of stalactites in a cave played with hammers controlled by a keyboard:

44 Khanh, Hoang Viet, The Lithophone, http://www.csun.edu/~hbmen024/music/litho.html, July 2002.

Photo 1.6: stalactite organ at Luray Caverns in Luray, Virginia45

Photo 1.7: close-up shot of rubber hammer used to strike a stalactite in the instrument in Photo 1.646

45 Photo provided by Luray Caverns staff, August 25, 2003. Used with permission. 46 Unknown, Stalactite Organ Rubber Hammer (www.oddmusic.com, 2003 [cited August 25 2003]); available from http://www.oddmusic.com/gallery/om25450.html.

Leland Sprinkle, a mathematician and scientist who worked for the Pentagon in Washington, DC, conceived this instrument in 1954. The organ spans over three and one-half acres of the caverns and uses 37 stalactites to form its notes. His monumental three-year project consisted of searching the vast chambers of the caverns and selecting stalactites that precisely match a musical scale. Electronic mallets were wired throughout the caverns and connected to a large four-manual console. When a key is depressed, a tone occurs as the rubber-tipped plunger strikes the stalactite tuned to concert pitch. Although the organ is fully capable of being played manually from the keyboard console as Sprinkle did for many years, it is currently automatically played by a pianola-like system. The main similarity between this unique instrument and ancient lithophones is that they both use stone as the source of sound. There are other modern instruments made with stone bars; there is even a one-of-akind instrument made by Clair Omar Musser called a Celestaphone that is almost entirely made from melted-down meteorites. These are more or less experimental instruments that are not used for concert music due to their uniqueness and limited availability.

Photo 1.8: photo of the Celestaphone and Clair Omar Musser working on it in his lab47 Some other materials that have been used for bars during the twentieth century include sheet glass, hollow metal pipes and tuned saw blades. Some of the most interesting and unique instruments were invented and manufactured by the J.C. Deagan Company and the Leedy Drum Company during the first half of the twentieth century. One of these innovative, yet short-lived instruments was the Leedy Octarimba, described on the Percussive Arts Society website as follows: “Each playing note of the Octarimba consists of two adjacent rosewood bars tuned one octave apart, each with an appropriately tuned resonator. The bars are played simultaneously with doubleheaded forked mallets. The result is a four-octave sounding range from an instrument with a three-octave playing range.”48 47 Photo of the Celestaphone and Clair Omar Musser Working on It in His Lab (Percussive Arts Society, ca. 1990 [cited August 17 2003]); available from http://www.pas.org/Museum/tour/1299.cfm. 48 Quote and photos 1.9 and 1.10 taken from http://www.pas.org/Museum/tour/0497.cfm, March 24, 2003.

Photo 1.9: Octarimba by J. C. Deagan Company, ca. 1930s

Photo 1.10: detail of Octarimba and Octarimba mallets by J. C. Deagan Company, ca. 1930s John Calhoun Deagan was one of the most important inventors of Western bar percussion instruments during the twentieth century. His influence as an inventor and innovator has probably touched the lives of virtually every percussionist and musician in America, either indirectly or directly. Through careful research and experimentation with different

48 types of wood, he is responsible for selecting Honduras rosewood as the most appropriate wood for bar percussion bars. This is still the preferred wood for bars made today. He also had a major influence on the pitch that many orchestras tuned to for most of the twentieth century. “In 1910, [Deagan] persuaded the American Federation of Musicians to adopt A=440 as the standard universal pitch for orchestras and bands.” Although he was not primarily a composer, he inspired many composers of his time to write for his often innovative and wholly unique instruments, including Percy Grainger who wrote ‘In a Nutshell’ Suite (1915-16) for orchestra, piano, and Deagan percussion instruments.49 Ward Hartenstein, a percussionist, composer and instrument designer from the United States, has also invented many unique bar percussion instruments for which he has written original music. Some of his instruments have bars made out of unglazed stoneware clay:

49 Material from this paragraph taken from James Strain, John Calhoun Deagan [Electronic] (Percussive Arts Society, 1999 [cited 2, 6 Vol. 36, 37]); available from http://www.pas.org/About/HOF/JCDeagan.cfm.

Photo 1.11: clay marimba by Ward Hartenstein50 The particular instrument shown above uses hexatonic tuning. Among the many interesting features of this instrument is that unlike with Western-style instruments, two players can easily play the same notes on either side of the instrument. This is similar, of course, to how traditional African xylophones are played. According to Hartenstein, this instrument “has a bright and glassy sound with a sharp attack in the upper register. In the lower register, the sound is fuller and more resonant with a clear sense of pitch and a decay time of 3 – 4 seconds.”51 The following illustration provided by Hartenstein shows the tuning and keyboard layout for the clay marimba shown above:

50 Ward Hartenstein, “Clay Marimba,” (Rochester, NY: Ward Hartenstein, 2001).

Illustration 1.4: tuning and keyboard layout for one of Ward Hartenstein’s clay marimbas52 In the fifth measure of the following excerpt, notice how the unique design of his instrument allows the performer to play rapid melodic patterns in octaves:

51 Clay Marimba

q = Ç 240

4 1 3 4 1 3 j 2 3 2 2 3 11 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ŒŒ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ &8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ

œ3 1 b œ3 œ1 œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ œ bœ bœ œ bœ œ bœ & œ œœ b œ œ œ b œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ b œ b œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ b œ b œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ b œ œ œ b œ œœ Œ Œ J 4 2

4 2

etc...

Figure 1.3: excerpt from Moving Waters (2001) for clay marimba by Ward Hartenstein53 Percussionists in particular are known for being adventurous and open to building and playing new instruments. One book that gives directions on how to build fairly simple, yet useful instruments is called Sound Designs.54 This book even includes directions for building instruments similar to those made by well-known composers such as the Cloud Chamber Bowls invented by Harry Partch (see p. 51, photo 1.13). There are also websites and journals that explore innovative instrument designs, such as the online magazine Experimental Musical Instruments55 and the website www.oddmusic.com.

53 ©2001 Ward Hartenstein—used by permission of author. 54 Jon Scoville Reinhold Banek, Sound Designs: A Handbook of Musical Instrument Building, Second ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1996). 55 Experimental Musical Instruments (2003 [cited August 17, 2003 2003]); available from http://www.windworld.com/emi/index.htm.

52 Different Tuning Systems One of the greatest assets of bar percussion instruments is that they do not go “out of tune” very easily. Whereas stringed instruments often have to be re-tuned at least once during a concert and often twice, bar percussion instruments usually do not need a second tuning for many years. This asset makes it possible and relatively easy to make instruments that have exact microtonal and other exotic tunings. Since the microtones are stable and do not have to be fingered, as with stringed instruments, very difficult parts can be written for these instruments that otherwise might be extremely difficult or time-consuming to pull off.56 Non-Western, “exotic” tunings are not new, and they are certainly used in many types of music other than modern Western music. For example, traditional African xylophones have been tuned to unique, nonWestern scales for hundreds of years, if not longer. Indonesian gamelan ensembles are also tuned with non-Western scales. Examples of these gamelan tunings appear below:

56 I will note here that sometimes when bar percussion instruments go “out of tune” there is an unintentional phenomenon of one instrument sounding out of tune (or like it is quarter-tone tuned) when played with another instrument. This is especially common when a new marimba or xylophone that is in tune is played at the same time as an older instrument that is out of tune.

53 Javanese pelog scale

&œ

+30 cents

+50 cents

bœ

nœ

+60 cents

-30 cents

bœ

-30 cents

bœ

+40 cents

nœ

Javanese slendro scale

&œ

+30 cents

-30 cents

+20 cents

bœ

-30 cents

Note: each semitone is divided into 100 cents using equal temperament as a reference tuning system.

Figure 1.4: an approximate representation of pelog and slendro scales used in gamelan ensembles Traditionally, twentieth century bar percussion instruments meant for “Western” concert music have been tuned using the chromatic scale as the basis for the tuning system. Many important composers have experimented with microtonal tuning, whether with percussion instruments or not, such as Alois Hába or the most pertinent example, Harry Partch. As is generally well known in the world of twentieth century composition, Partch invented whole ensembles of unique microtonal percussion instruments as well as compositions for these instruments. He built them in order to achieve the unique tunings he needed for his works.57 Some of his instruments—such as his Cloud Chamber Bowls shown below—are so unique that if one of the bowls breaks, it is virtually impossible to replace it with another one with the exact same tuning. The bowls give a bell-like tone, and each has at least one inharmonic overtone.58 57 An informative book on Partch, his music and his tunings, is Harry Partch, Genesis of a Music, Second ed. (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1974). 58 Information and photo taken from http://www.corporeal.com/instbro/inst05.html, May, 2002.

Photo 1.12: Cloud Chamber Bowls made by Harry Partch being played by Partch59 Among the many unique instruments Partch constructed is the Diamond Marimba. Built in 1946, this instrument has thirty-six bars arranged in diagonal rows. “One sweep of the mallet will sound an arpeggio-like chord. Strokes with the right hand are major; those with the left hand are minor (from top to bottom). The range is almost three octaves, beginning with the approximate C-sharp above middle C.”60

59 Fred Lyon, Partch Playing Cloud Chamber Bowls (Corporeal Website, Unknown [cited August 25, 2003 2003]); available from http://www.corporeal.com/instbro/inst05.html. 60 Jonathan M. Szanto, Diamond Marimba Description [Website] (Harry Partch Foundation, 19962003 [cited August 25 2003]); available from http://www.corporeal.com/instbro/inst05.html.

Photo 1.13: Diamond Marimba made by Harry Partch61 Partch used the Diamond Marimba in Barstow (Version VII 1968), a chamber work scored for rhythmic speaking and/or singing voice (baritone), chorus voice (baritone-tenor), Surrogate Kithara, Chromelodeon I, Diamond Marimba and Bamboo Marimba I. The excerpt that follows is from an edition of the score by Richard Kassel. It is a transcription “into standard notation, incorporating just intonation extensions by [the American composer] Ben Johnston.”62

61 Fred Lyon, Diamond Marimba (Corporeal Website, Unknown [cited August 25, 2003 2003]); available from http://www.corporeal.com/instbro/inst05.html. 62 For an in-depth essay that provides an analysis of this work and a comparison between a facsimile of Partch’s original manuscript and Kassel’s transcription, please see Harry Partch, Barstow: Eight Hitchhiker Inscriptions from a Highway Railing at Barstow, California, ed. American Musicological Society, A-R Editions (Madison, WI: American Musicological Society, 1968 Version).

Figure 1.5: excerpt using the Diamond marimba in Barstow (Version VII, 1968) by Harry Partch, mm.1 – 563

57 The American marimbist Robert Van Sice helped develop a quartertone extension for the marimba made in his name by Adams Percussion. This addition works in tandem with the standard five-octave Robert Van Sice marimba also made by Adams. Throughout the history of written music, many important composers have taken it upon themselves to invent or re-invent instruments that they needed. This phenomenon is not new: Richard Wagner helped to design the Wagner tuba, and Carlos Salzedo designed a modified harp called the Salzedo harp. Alois Hába helped to invent many quarter-tone instruments, including a quarter-tone piano, harmonium, clarinet, trumpet and guitar. Variations on Previously Existing Instruments and New Instruments Some composers have requested instruments for their works that were entirely new to the twentieth century. Many prominent composers have asked for xylorimbas in some of their works. The “xylorimba”—also known as a “xylomarimba” or “marimba-xylophone”—can be defined as a xylophone with the low notes of a marimba or a marimba with the high notes of a xylophone. Conceptually, a xylomarimba is essentially a xylophone and marimba rolled into one. They often have tuning problems because the instrument is a hybrid of the two instruments.64 Xylomarimbas or marimba-xylophones appear frequently in the music of various, world-renowned twentieth century composers such as Pierre

63 Harry Partch, Barstow: Eight Hitchhiker Inscriptions from a Highway Railing at Barstow, California (Version VII 1968), ed. American Musicological Society, A-R Editions (Madison, WI: Harry Partch, renewed and assigned to Schott Musik International, 1956). 64 Moore, “The Marimba: A Detailed Acoustical and Cultural Study.”

58 Boulez, Luigi Dallapicola, Olivier Messiaen and Iannis Xenakis. The following examples show excerpts from works by these composers:

Figure 1.6: excerpt using a xylorimba from Le marteau sans maître (1953 – 1955, rev. 1957) for chamber ensemble by Pierre Boulez mm. 54 – 5965

65 Pierre Boulez, Le Marteau Sans Maître (1955) (London: Universal Edition (London) Ltd., 1957).

Figure 1.7: excerpt from Preghiere (1962) for baritone and chamber orchestra by Luigi Dallapiccola, 2 m. before rehearsal 6566 66 Luigi Dallapiccola, Preghiere: For Baritone and Chamber Orchestra (1962) (Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1963).

Figure 1.8: excerpt from Des Canyons aux étoiles (1971-74) for orchestra by Olivier Messiaen, rehearsal 14 – 1 measure after 1567

67 Olivier Messiaen, Des Canyons aux étoiles (1971-74) (Paris: A. Leduc, c1978).

61 Xylomarimba

Xylomarimba

Vibraphone

Drums

~ Ç 52 (average, moyenne) q=

& 44 œ # œ œ œ # œ # œ n œ œ # œ œ œ n œ # œ œ # œ œ b œ n œ œ n œ b œ b œ n œ n œ b œ b œ (F) r & 44 # œ #œ œ nœ nœ œ œ. œ. œ p (F) 4 ∑ ã 4

Ÿ~~~~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~~ œ œ œ œ æ! ( ) ≈ æJ ( œ ) ≈ æJ ( œ ) & œ # œ n œ # œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ π œ 8 (var. 2. 8)

X.M.

Vib.

& 89

Drums

œ Ó

j œ π

‰

≈.

peaux

œ ƒ

Figure 1.9: excerpt using a xylomarimba from Dmaathen (1976) for oboe and percussion soloists by Iannis Xenakis, mm. 88-8968 In Dmaathen, Xenakis specifies that he wants an instrument with a range of low ‘A’ to high ‘C’ (four-octaves above middle ‘C’), a 5 1/3 octave instrument. Depending on your perspective, the range of this required instrument is either one octave higher than a normal 4 1/3 octave marimba or approximately 1 1/2 octaves lower than a standard xylophone. It is not apparent whether Xenakis is really just looking for a wooden-

68 Iannis Xenakis, Dmaathen (1976) (Paris: Éditions Salabert, c1976).

62 keyed instrument that has a super-extended range, or if he really wants the sound quality of a xylophone, a marimba, or a combination of both. In the two-measure example above, Xenakis uses the entire range all the way from the low ‘C’ up to the second-highest ‘C’, but he gives the player the option of playing the rolled trills in m. 89 starting on the highest ‘C’. The lowest note he asks for in the entire work is located in m. 83 where he asks for a low ‘B’. Here, he first asks for the B below middle ‘C’ but says that a “variation” would be to play the ‘B’ below the lowest ‘C’. Luckily, he gives enough flexibility with the range that the percussionist, if necessary, could use a four-octave marimba if a “xylomarimba” is not available. A xylophone could probably not be used in this work, since Xenakis writes notes that are below the lowest ‘F’ of a standard xylophone. In Le Marteau sans maître (1954) by Pierre Boulez, the notes at the beginning of the work specify a xylorimba with a written range of a standard xylophone: third ledger line F below middle C to – C three octaves above middle C, sounding one octave higher. Boulez has said that “the xylophone is an un-resonated (C-C4) instrument, while the xylorimba and xylomarimba is a resonated instrument of three-and-a-half octaves (FC4) or, in some works, four octaves (C-C4). The marimba is a four-octave resonated instrument.”69 Boulez seems to imply that the xylorimba and xylomarimba are essentially xylophones with resonators. One could not discuss the use of bar percussion instruments in Western music of the twentieth century without mentioning Olivier Messiaen. The excerpt in Figure 1.8 from Des canyons aux étoiles (1971-74) by Olivier 69 Beck, Encyclopedia of Percussion.

63 Messiaen demonstrates how he often features percussion instruments in his works and uses them in a virtuoso, soloistic sense. In this work, he capitalizes on the xylorimba’s capability to play accurate, high pitches and make wide leaps in order to mimic the sounds of birds. He requests a four-octave xylorimba with a range from middle ‘C’ to four octaves above. In this case, the xylorimba seems to be more-or-less an extended instrument a perfect fourth lower than a typical low’ F’ xylophone. It is interesting to note that during the last part of the twentieth century the xylomarimba seems to have been replaced with carefully tuned and resonated marimbas and xylophones. In fact, it is currently virtually impossible to find companies that make new xylorimbas. It is also difficult to find many parts post-1976 that call for xylorimbas, and even if they do, percussionists often substitute marimbas, xylophones or both. As with the xylomarimba, some developments of bar percussion instruments are not new but are mostly slight variations of pre-existing, acoustic instruments.70 Some of the most innovative work currently being done with bar percussion instruments is in the area of bar percussion MIDI controllers and electronic bar percussion instruments. These instruments have many advantages over acoustic instruments, such as a limitless range, consistent bar size, a seemingly endless supply of sounds, portability, adjustable sustain and velocity sensitivity. Two particularly interesting versions of electronic bar percussion instruments currently being manufactured are given below: 70 At a Percussive Arts Society convention in the 1980s, I remember playing an instrument that had wooden bars with metal strips firmly glued to the sides of each bar. This instrument was unique in that the bars had the sonority of wood bars but with the added resonance of metal bars; it was almost like combining the sound of a marimba and vibraphone into one instrument. I was unable to track down information on this instrument for inclusion here.

2 OCTAVE EXPANDER INPUTS

MIDI IN/OUT JACKS

36 NOTE FSR PLAYING SURFACE

SUSTAIN/VOLUME 4 FOOT SWITCH FOOT SWITCH INPUTS INPUTS

VOLUME HEADPHONE JACK CONTROLS

BREATH CONTROL UNIT

4 LINE BACKLIT PROGRAM/SOUND LCD ADVANCE PADS DISPLAY

SOLID METAL CHASSIS

Photo 1.14: Mallet KAT by Alternative Mode, Inc.

Photo 1.15: Marimba Lumina by Buchla and Associates Of course, there are many other unique bar percussion instruments that have been built throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century—the previously mentioned instruments are but a few. Nevertheless, this will give the reader a good idea of the fertile ground for design exploration and ingenuity of both percussionists and composers in the world of bar percussion.

Chapter 2: Mallets and Related Technical Issues

The mallets that a percussionist uses can make the difference between whether an instrument sounds superb or horrible. Part of the art of playing bar percussion instruments is learning which mallets to choose for a given situation. Since mallets are constantly being invented, altered and discontinued, this is a lifelong process. Nevertheless, percussionists can develop an acute sense of which mallets will be appropriate, often just by looking at them or knowing who made them. Sometimes, very experienced percussionists can also discern the type of mallets being used while listening to a recording. Prior to the twentieth century, mallet choice was somewhat limited. Wood, natural rubber and latex were probably the most common types of materials that mallet heads were made of. Other less-common materials that were used were metal (for orchestra bells), sponge, mallets with felt coverings and occasionally yarn-covered mallets. Due to the limited availability of mallets in general, and also because of the initial novelty of using bar percussion instruments in a Western concert music at all, mallet choices were often not specified unless something out of the ordinary was wanted by the composer. For example, Claude Debussy gives a special direction for one of the percussionists to use timpani mallets on a suspended cymbal in one of his orchestral works, Nocturnes (1899):

65 Percussion

Même mouvt

? 68

∑

15 8

6 &8

∑

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TIMB.

∑

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∑

Figure 2.1: percussion and timpani excerpt from Claude Debussy’s Nocturnes (1899) for orchestra, mvt. 1. Nuages, 6 measures before rehearsal 171

Before 1900, it is difficult to find any written music that indicates mallet choice. One of the first composers to ask for specific mallets is Hector Berlioz. Berlioz asks the timpanists to use sponge-covered timpani mallets in his Symphonie fantastique (1830):

1 Claude Debussy, Nocturnes (1897-1899), Three Great Orchestral Works (New York: Dover, 1983; reprint, Dover).

Figure 2.2: excerpt from Hector Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique (1830) for orchestra illustrating one of the first times specific mallets are called for, fourth movement, mm. 1 – 62

The specification of exotic mallet choices in late nineteenth and early twentieth-century music directly coincides with the composition of timbrally-oriented works of many composers of the time, including Gustav Mahler, Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, Alexander Skryabin, Sergei Prokofiev and Béla Bartók, among others. In fact, just when bar percussion instruments were beginning to be used regularly in concert music, many composers began writing music that used these instruments as an integral melodic and harmonic part of the music rather than merely as reinforcement or enhancement of the main, non-percussion parts. An example of this is the xylophone part from Dmitri Shostakovich’s Polka from The Golden Age, Ballet Suite (1930), Op. 22:

2 Hector Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique (1830), ed. Edward T. Cone (New York: W. W. Norton, ca. 1971).

67 (Allegretto. M. M. q = 84 )

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Figure 2.3: excerpt from Dmitri Shostakovich’s Polka from The Golden Age, Ballet Suite (1930), Op. 22 for orchestra, mm. 6 – 163

68 In this movement from The Golden Age, Shostakovich features the xylophone both at the beginning and the end. The xylophone lines are on equal footing with the lines played by other instruments such as the saxophone in B-flat and the piccolo clarinet. These lines are accompanied by pizzicati played by the strings and Shostakovich makes sure the xylophone will be heard in a soloistic fashion by asking the strings to play piano and the xylophone to play forte. Since composers of the day such as Shostakovich did not specify exactly which mallets were needed, the choice was left up to the percussionist. Then and now, clear and effective scoring often compensate for ambiguous or absent mallet choices in the music. Synthetic materials such as plastic and rubber were first widely used for mallet heads with the arrival of the twentieth century. The use of these new mallet head materials enabled manufacturers to make mallets with much finer gradations than were possible before. With the introduction of synthetics, a new world of timbral possibilities became available. Composers and percussionists could now make even finer distinctions of dynamic and attack, with gradations ranging from extra soft all the way to extra hard. This enables percussionists to easily correct the mallet choice by moving up or down in the level of hardness if the mallets are graduated and within the same family of mallets. Although some composers give specific instructions as to which general mallets to use, this often does more harm than good. Many factors can influence how the mallets will sound, such as the instruments and 3 Dmitri Shostakovich, Polka from the Golden Age, Ballet Suite (1930), Op. 22, Philharmonia Partituren (Vienna: Wein: Universal Edition, 1943).

69 type of mallets being used, the hall, the conductor, etc. If “hard yarn mallets” are called for, a variety of different brands or makes of mallets may be tried before the right mallets are chosen. Percussionists will often have a variety of mallets that sound good and feel comfortable to use in the performance spaces where they play. The differences between one brand of mallet and another can be dramatic. For example, a medium rubber mallet made by Mike Balter Mallets might sound more like a hard rubber mallet made by Musser, or a soft rubber mallet made by another company. There are many factors that determine how hard or soft mallets will be. Some of these factors are the size and shape of the mallet head, the material used, the density of the material, the flexibility or non-flexibility of the mallet shafts, and as mentioned above, the instrument being used and the performance space. It is also important to consider whether the percussionist will need to change mallets or not when switching between two or more instruments. The following example is from David Felder’s Six Poems From Neruda’s “Alturas…” (1990-92):

70 Percussion 1

{q = 120}

(med. yarn)

5 œ œ & 44 œ b œ œœ # # ˙˙ f °

(vbf.)

glock.

44 # œœ ..

∑

œ #œ œ J ‰ J Œ.

Figure 2.4: excerpt from David Felder’s Six Poems From Neruda’s “Alturas…” (1990-92) for orchestra, mm. 33-354

In the example above, there are four possible solutions for switching between the vibraphone and orchestra bells. The first option is for the percussionist to use the same mallets on the orchestra bells, but this might not be the best option since medium yarn mallets on the orchestra bells will not provide an optimum sound. The second option is for the percussionist to switch mallets very quickly. At the indicated tempo, this would be very difficult, or at least somewhat tricky. Since there is a fournote vibraphone chord that occurs right before the excerpt, four mallets need to be held, so the third option could be for the percussionist to hold six mallets, two of them being orchestra bell mallets. Since most percussionists currently do not yet play with six mallets, this is probably not a feasible option.5 The last option is to divide the part in two, with one

4 David Felder, Six Poems from Neruda’s “Alturas…” (New York: Theodore Presser Company, ca. 1992). 5 Although a thorough exploration of different grips and playing techniques (i.e. Stevens, Burton, traditional, six-mallet, etc.) is not covered here, it is worth considering within the context of twentiethcentury bar percussion development.

71 percussionist playing the vibraphone and another playing the orchestra bells. If this option is taken, the problem is solved.6 It is quite common in modern Western music for percussionists to be asked to play one bar percussion instrument immediately after playing another, or even while playing another. In fact, percussionists are often asked to play many instruments at once, especially in multi-percussion set-ups. There are many examples of this in the music of American composer Charles Wuorinen, in works such as New York Notes (1982) and Janissary Music (1966). In these works, since there is often little or no time to pick up or put down mallets, the percussionist is often asked to play two or more instruments at once with the same or a mixed set of mallets. If the instruments are similar—such as the marimba and vibraphone—this works out fine. However, if the instruments are diverse and the composer requires a variety of mallets to achieve an optimum sound, using the same set of mallets could prove to be difficult, as shown in the following example:

6 A few years ago, I had the fortune of recording the Percussion 1 Part for Felder’s CD, a pressure triggering dreams (Mode 89). This particular part was in fact divided between Patricia Cudd and myself.

Figure 2.5: excerpt from Charles Wuorinen’s Janissary Music (1966) for solo percussionist, p. 13, in which the percussionist must hold a mixed set of mallets7

In the example above, the percussionist must choose mallets that work well on as many of the instruments as possible. Wuorinen asks the percussionists to use a soft mallet on the low metal instruments and hard mallets (i.e. metal mallets) on the high metal instruments. The sound of one or more of the instruments could be slightly compromised if appropriate mallets are not used. There are often ways to work around this dilemma such as holding three or more mallets, using double-headed 7 Charles Wuorinen, Janissary Music (1966) (New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, ca. 1967).

73 mallets or using mallets that have one sound when played soft and another when played loud (i.e. two-tone mallets). The following photo illustrates one possible scenario for the excerpt in illustration 2.5:

Photo 2.1: two hands holding four mallets, a yarn-covered cymbal rolling mallet, two hard rubber mallets and a brass mallet (photo by author)

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it is fairly common for percussionists to use double-headed mallets. Some companies make mallets that have yarn heads on one end and plastic heads on the other, and there are other double-headed combinations as well. Although these mallets are sometimes difficult to find, it would be easy for percussionists

74 to acquire them or make them if they do not already own them. Some possible double-headed combinations are: yarn head on one end, plastic head on the other; yarn head on one end, drumstick on the other; plastic head on one end, drumstick on the other, and yarn mallet on one end, rubber head on the other. Although these combination mallets are not as common, it is possible for percussionists to acquire them or make them if they do not already own them. Part of the art of being a percussionist is to know which mallets to choose for the right situation. Since composers can almost never determine what all of the variables will be when writing a piece of music, they must rely on percussionists to be well-informed as to which mallets are available and which ones will be appropriate for a given piece of music. One way some composers have tried to deal with the ambiguity of the issue of mallet choice is by specifying exact types and brands of mallets:

* The effect of bending a pitch on Vibes is achieved by placing an [Musser] M-3 Marimba mallet on he node of the bar, striking the bar with a Vibe mallet (Damper off) and pulling the M-3 mallet (with pressure) through the remaining length of the bar.

Figure 2.6: excerpt from John Beck’s Jazz Variants (1972) in which Player I is asked to use specific, name-brand mallets on the vibraphone, two measures before rehearsal letter D8

Beck calls for specific mallets because he is certain that this model of mallet will work for this effect.9 In this case, he asks Player I to bend the note by placing a hard rubber mallet on the surface of the bar and bend the note with it, as described in Figure 2.6. Although the specific model of mallets that Beck calls for were available when the piece was written, they are not available anymore, at least under the same model number. The best that the percussionist who is playing the Player I part can do is to research and approximate—if no examples of the mallets exist—which mallets will work best for this effect. The main problem here is that mallet 8 John Beck, Jazz Variants (Boston: Boston Music Company, 1972). 9 John Beck is also a well-known percussionist who is currently on the faculty of the Eastman School of Music. He is a percussionist, has decades of experience and is well aware of specifically which mallets will work best for a given situation. Composers who are trained percussionists perhaps have an edge over non-percussionist composers in this area.

76 manufacturers sometimes change model numbers for different models of mallets. Specifications may change on how hard or soft the mallets are, even within the same make brand of mallets. Manufacturers also go in and out of business, so specifying exact models of mallets in a piece of music is not recommended. Having written all of this, it becomes apparent that the best way to deal with the issue of mallet choice is to have some sort of general expectations of the percussionist. If the “optimum sound” is wanted, as is often the case, then usually nothing needs to be said: the percussionist can be expected to use mallets that sound best on the instrument in the hall in which the instrument is being played. If a special sound is wanted, such as soft yarn mallets on the low end of the marimba, then they can be specified in the part. Other than making general specifications, it is most helpful to add a description of the desired sound if necessary. The seven basic types of mallets to consider when deciding which mallets to write for or use for a piece of bar percussion music are yarn, cord, rubber, plastic, latex, wood and metal. Although there are many variations such as different types of metal, rubber, plastic and even different types of yard and chord, these are the general types that most percussionists own or can acquire. Certain mallets are generally used for certain instruments, situations and dynamic levels. The following chart gives an idea of which mallets are used for which instruments, and/or for which situations:

77 Table 2.1: chart of mallet use on Western bar percussion instruments according to different variables Yarn

Cord

Latex

Rubber Wood Plastic

Metal

Marimba Xylophone Vibraphone Orch. Bells

Key: = used very often = sometimes used = not used very often = used very little = never used

1. Yarn Yarn mallets come in various hardnesses, generally extra soft, medium-soft, medium, medium-hard, hard, extra hard and even two-tone mallets (see section on two-tone mallets on p. 90). Some lines of mallets include medium soft and medium hard mallets. For marimba music, these mallets are often the first mallets a percussionist will try to use, especially for solo or chamber music playing. Using yarn mallets generally guarantees that there will be very little or no impact sound when the mallet heads strike the bars of the instrument.

78 2. Cord Cord mallets often have fewer gradations than yarn mallets. These mallets often come in soft, medium and hard. Cord mallets are generally harder than yarn mallets and have a firmer impact sound. These mallets could be described as sounding closest to being a hybrid between rubber mallets and yarn mallets. As shown above in Table 2.1, these mallets are generally used for the vibraphone but are also often used on other instruments such as the marimba.10 3. Rubber As with yarn mallets, rubber mallets come in various hardnesses, generally extra soft, soft, medium, hard and extra hard. Some lines of mallets include medium soft and medium hard mallets. The relative softness and hardness can vary dramatically between different mallets by different companies. However, depending on the instrument and the range, it can generally be assumed that a soft rubber mallet will produce a relatively soft sound with a soft impact sound. However, rubber mallets generally have a harder impact than yarn or cord mallets. Percussionists often choose mallets based on how they feel, and also by whether the mallets produce a “tick” sound or not. Mallet tick is the impact sound of the mallet head connecting with the bars. Percussionists generally want to avoid this tick sound as much as possible, as it interferes 10 I am taking the opportunity to mention here that in general, yarn mallets are usually used on instruments with wood bars—especially the marimba—and cord mallets are most often used for instruments with metal bars, especially the vibraphone. The reason for this is that cord is a tougher material than yarn and can withstand the harder impact and rougher texture of un-polished vibraphone bars better than yarn. Yarn mallets tend to produce a fuller tone on marimba than cord mallets. However, cord mallets usually produce a more pronounced attack than yarn on any instrument, often times because they are more tightly wrapped than yarn mallets. The gradation between hard and soft cord mallets is also usually more slight than with yarn mallets.

79 with the general sound of the notes being produced by the bars. Rubber mallets can produce a slight “tick” sound if not properly coupled with the right instrument or appropriate range on the instrument. I will emphasize here that the hardest yarn mallet will usually have a noticeable impact sound, whereas the softest rubber mallets will have little or no impact sound. It is a good idea to hear percussionists play with various mallets on different instruments and in different performance spaces in order to have an idea of what they sound like. 4. Plastic Although there are different types of plastic that are used to make these mallets, there is no general hardness scale within one type of plastic. Rather, different types of plastic are harder or softer compared to one another. For example, mallets with acrylic plastic heads are harder than those made with “Low Density Poly” heads by the same company. Most plastic mallets sound relatively similar; percussionists usually choose one set over the other based on the size of the heads and the subtle variations between the different types of plastics. It is especially wise for composers not to specify which plastic mallets should be used since the sound difference between one set and another can be very minute. 5. Latex Latex mallets are often used for Guatemalan marimba playing, but they are also sometimes used in Western-style concert music. They often produce a slight “slap” sound, especially with the softer models. This is the result of the many layers of latex wrapped around the mallet head. The

80 sound of latex mallets is very similar to that of rubber mallets, with the same general scale of gradations. Latex mallets generally tend to be a little softer than rubber mallets: the softest latex mallets are usually noticeably softer than the softest rubber mallets. 6. Wood Mallets with wood heads are used much less often than they used to be and they have many disadvantages. Wood heads crack, they can only be used on instruments with bar materials harder than the wood heads themselves and they usually cannot be used on instruments with metal bars. They were used more frequently before the wide availability of plastic or rubber mallets. 7. Metal Mallets with metal heads are used for only two types of instruments, orchestra bells and crotales. They cannot be used for vibraphones or instruments with wooden bars because they would damage the bars. The two types of metal most often used are brass and aluminum. Brass mallets are usually used for orchestra bells: brass mallet heads have a lower density than the metal used for orchestra bell bars. Similarly, mallets with aluminum heads are often used for crotales since they are made of a lower density metal than that of the crotales. Mallets with aluminum heads seem to be used less frequently than mallets with brass heads; this might be due to their lightness and relatively thin sound. On both orchestra bells and crotales, mallets with plastic heads are used quite often, sometimes more so than mallets with metal heads.

81 Although composers sometimes suggest mallets in their music, the choice of whether to use mallets with metal or plastic heads is usually left up to the percussionist. Percussionists will choose the most appropriate mallets according to various factors such as the size of the hall, the volume needed, the “feel” of the mallets in their hands and whether the mallets produce a “tick” sound or not. Composers are wise to let percussionists choose their own mallets, except when a sound that is out of the ordinary is needed. Mallet Shafts As with most aspects of percussion instrument and mallet manufacturing, there is no real standard for mallet shaft length. During the entire twentieth century, the only real trend regarding this is that mallet shaft lengths generally became longer. This was most likely due to percussionists needing a little extra length in order to use four or more mallets at once. In his method books, George Hamilton Green specifies that mallet shafts should be thirteen inches. At the time when his method books were written, Green and other players were almost always playing with one mallet in each hand. Once percussionists began to play with four mallets, the length of mallet shafts generally increased due to the extra length needed to push the mallets further down in the hand. This development was probably initially geared toward “cross-stick” grips such as the “traditional grip” and the Burton Grip. During the twentieth century, there were many experiments with different types of mallet shaft materials. Two companies in particular, J.

82 C. Deagan and Musser, successfully manufactured mallets with shafts made of synthetic material. The Deagan mallets are no longer manufactured, but mallets with Two-Stage Fiberglass handles are still made by both the Musser and Mike Balter companies.11 These “twostage” handles are made of a fiberglass “core” with a rubber handle. This produces mallet shafts that are virtually indestructible and also have a comfortable grip with a little bit of “give”. The following photo shows an example of these mallets:

Photo 2.2: Musser mallets with Two-Stage Fiberglass handles

Synthetic shafts are particularly useful for school percussion sections in which the mallets might be subjected to extreme temperatures,

11The synthetic material made by the J. C. Deagan company tended to warp slightly; this may be why they were discontinued.

83 humidity or rough use. This is a valid consideration, since natural materials such as rattan and wood tend to be affected by weather and have more of a tendency to break if not properly cared for. The most common types of mallet shaft materials are currently wood and rattan. Stiff shafts made of wood are often the preferred choice of percussionists playing marimba and vibraphone, especially if they are using four or more mallets. The refined hand movements needed to manipulate four or more mallets necessitate the use of stiff shafts so that the mallet heads do not move around unnecessarily. Rattan shafts, if they are not stiff enough, could make manipulating more than one mallet in each hand excessively difficult. However, vibraphonists and some marimbists sometimes use mallets with very stiff shafts made of rattan. Rattan shafts are more commonly used for two-mallet playing, and especially by orchestral percussionists. The benefit of using shafts made of rattan is that they are a little more flexible, and therefore are a little easier on the hands. Less hand movement is necessary if the rattan handles provide a little bit of give. The following example shows a rough approximation of the flexibility of shafts made from wood or rattan:

84 Mallets with Wood Shafts

Mallets with Rattan Shafts

}

Mallet Shaft Flexibility

Illustration 2.1: approximation of mallet shaft flexibility

As with many aspects of mallets, shaft material and length are personal choices, since these factors directly influence the way the mallets feel in the percussionist’s hands. The shaft material and length also determine how much work the percussionist has to do in order to achieve a good sound. Too much flex might cause the mallets to move around too much, too little flex might make the percussionist work harder than necessary to move the mallets. In general, the material the shafts are made of often has very little to do with the actual sound of the mallets, especially if used by a seasoned percussionist. However, depending on the instrument used, the shaft material (e.g. very stiff wooden dowels versus a material like flexible rattan), the mallet head material and the shaft length, the mallet heads may give more or less contact sound when striking the bars. The following chart illustrates the approximate relationship between mallet head material, shaft material and contact time:

85 Table 2.3: approximate contact time of mallet heads on bars— relationship between different variables, i.e. head material and shaft material Plastic

Flexible Rattan

Stiff Rattan Flexible Birch

Stiff Birch

Yarn Cord Latex Rubber Wood Plastic Metal

Key: = more contact time

= less contact time

As illustrated by the chart above, the harder the material of the mallet heads and the more stiff the shafts, the more chance there will be contact sound on the bars or more contact time of the mallet heads on the bars. The length of the shafts also plays a role: the shorter the shafts, the stiffer they will be and the less they will be able to rebound. This will cause the mallet heads to be in contact with the bars for a split second longer. Percussionists compensate for this by consciously lifting the heads away

86 from the bars more quickly. The stiffer the shafts and the harder the heads, the more they might lift. This, coupled with the type of material the heads are made of, directly influences how much contact sounds or “tick” might occur. Although the contact time could probably be measured in fractions of a second, the impact sound of the mallet striking the bars will definitely sound different if two dramatically different mallets are used on the same instrument, but with the same amount of lift. This may seem like a trivial detail to a non-percussionist, but too much contact sound can make bars sound somewhat un-pitched and non-resonant. Other Shaft Materials There are a few instances where the shaft material does have an affect on the sound. For example, the American percussionist Julie Spencer wrote a work called Tribeca Sunflower (ca. 1990) that requires the marimba to have a “buzz effect.” The mallet manufacturer Mike Balter makes mallets designed specifically for this piece with thin dowels surrounding the handle. When performing with these mallets, the thin dowels slap against the handle to create a “buzz” effect. Although it will not sound quite the same, this could be an alternative to playing on a bar percussion instrument altered with other materials (i.e. paper, aluminum foil) or instruments with buzzing membranes in the resonators. Conclusion The twentieth century saw the introduction of seemingly endless varieties of mallets. Although there are many types to choose from, certain types of mallets are definitely more appropriate for certain

87 situations than others. It is usually wise for composers to let the percussionist choose which mallets will be appropriate for a given situation unless a special sound is desired.

Mallet Combinations There are four distinct types of mallets that percussionists consider when deciding which mallets to use for a piece of bar percussion music: an equal set, a graduated set, a mixed set or two-tone mallets. 1. Equal Set An equal set consists of two or more mallets that are as equal as possible to each other. This is probably the oldest of the four concepts above. There are five merits and pitfalls of using an equal set of mallets: 1. The inherent characteristics of each range of the instrument will show through clearly; i.e. a set of four medium yarn mallets will sound full and sonorous in the middle register, slightly “ticky” in the upper register and slightly “brittle” in the lower register. 2. Percussionists will easily be able to achieve contrapuntal and melodic uniformity when using any of the mallets within the same range. 3. The feel and weight of the mallets will be equal. 4. Controlling a set of the same mallets is far easier than controlling a set of mixed mallets.

88 5. The lack of variety in mallet choice can hinder a potentially unique approach to voice leading. When larger instruments started being built during the last few decades of the twentieth century, percussionists had the added responsibility of finding mallets that would work across the entire range. It is definitely a challenge to achieve a registerally characteristic sound across the entire range of the instrument and in any piece of music with a set of equal mallets. In the low octave of a five-octave marimba, a medium set of yarn mallets might sound slightly brittle if played at a forte dynamic. In the top octave, the same set of mallets might sound too soft, with too much contact noise. In the middle range, the mallets will sound just right. Ironically, even though many beginning percussionists start out using an equal set of mallets, developing a great sound with them is often more difficult than with a graduated or mixed set of mallets. If the mallets are graduated from soft to loud, bottom to top, then the sound will be more even as long as the mallets are always playing in order from bottom to top (i.e. 1-2-3-4). However, percussionists rarely play music that consists entirely of chords or passages that can be sticked from bottom to top. The following figure shows how an equal set of soft, medium or hard yarn mallets might sound across the entire range of a five-octave marimba:

Marimba

Brittle Sound Brittle Sound / Contact Noise (“tick”) Contact Noise (“tick”)

& 44 ? 44

F œœ

œœœ

œœ

œ œœ

Figure 2.7: example using an equal set of soft, medium or hard yarn mallets across the entire range of a five-octave marimba with approximate sound profiles

2. Graduated Set A graduated set of mallets may be defined as a set that progresses from the lowest mallet (being the softest, and often least dense) to the highest mallet (being the hardest, and often most dense). In the following illustration, “MS” and “MH” stand for “medium-soft” and “medium hard” respectively:

MS MH

Illustration 2.2: pictogram of a graduated set of mallets using one each of a soft, medium-soft, medium-hard and hard yarn mallet

Graduated sets of mallets have increased in popularity during the last part of the twentieth century. The possibilities are seemingly limitless: percussionists can use various combinations that may include yarn, rubber, cord, latex, or even plastic. If using orchestra bells or crotales in a set-up, metal mallets may also be used as long as they are only used on those instruments. There are various merits and pitfalls when using a graduated set of mallets: 1. Percussionists can easily achieve a smooth, full sound out of the bars whether they are in the lowest or highest octave of the instrument. 2. It is more difficult for percussionists to achieve contrapuntal and melodic uniformity when switching mallets in the same range. 3. The weight and feel of the mallets might be unequal, but will work best when smoothly graduated. 4. The variety in mallet choice can lead to effective interpretations of many pieces of music, particularly regarding pieces that enable the

91 percussionist to keep each mallet in a relatively good-sounding range. 5. Controlling a set of graduated mallets might be slightly more difficult than controlling a set of mallets that are the same, due to the increased need to pay attention to which mallet is where on the keyboard. 3. Mixed Set The set with the most variables, the mixed set, may be defined as a set of mallets of any density or hardness, placed in any order, usually according to the demands of the music. Mixed sets offer the most variety—and present the most challenges—even for a very experienced percussionist. There are both merits and pitfalls when using a mixed set: 1. It is somewhat more difficult than with an equal or graduated set to achieve a smooth, full sound out of the bars whether you are in the lowest or highest octave of the instrument. 2. A mixed set often presents the most difficulties in achieving contrapuntal and melodic uniformity when switching mallets in the same range. 3. The feel and weight of your mallets will be unequal and the weight and feel will not be smoothly graduated. 4. The variety in mallet choice with a mixed set has the most potential in leading to effective interpretations of many pieces of music, particularly pieces which work well with the particular combination you have in mind.

92 The following example is an excerpt from a transcription of J.S. Bach’s Sonata in A Minor by Leigh Howard Stevens that illustrates a musical situation in which a mixed set of mallets would work successfully when playing one instrument:

Note: stickings are noted 1 – 4, left to right. II. Fugue: The notated stickings are based on the principle of assigning one mallet (one tone color) to each voice, with ease of execution a secondary consideration. This procedure maximizes the contrapuntal separation of the voices. Mallets: The notated stickings will not make musical sense unless the following mallet combination is used: One—very soft; Two—medium hard; Three—medium soft; Four—hard. The performer will notice that the editor has alternately used combinations of mallets 1 and 3, 2 and 4 in some of the episodic passage work. This procedure creates considerable interest in the form of alternating bright and dark tone colors.

Figure 2.8: excerpt from Leigh Howard Stevens’s B Minor transcription of J.S. Bach’s Sonata in A Minor (1720), Fuga, mm. 63 – 67, with accompanying mallet suggestions from Stevens’s performance notes12

A mixed set would also work well when you need to play two or more very different instruments at once. For example, you can play a vibraphone with one hand and orchestra bells with the other if different mallets are held in each hand. In the following example from Rain Tree 12 J.S. Bach, Sonata in B Minor; Original: Sonata in a Minor for Violin Alone (1720), ed. Leigh Howard Stevens, Second ed. (Asbury Park, NJ: Keyboard Percussion Publications by Marimba Productions, ca. 1990).

93 (1981) by Toru Takemitsu, Percussionist C is asked to use medium mallets, as indicated by the pictogram above the treble clef:

Figure 2.9: excerpt from Rain Tree (1981) for percussion trio by Toru Takemitsu, p. 5, system 1, mm. 1 – 613

In the above figure, if the percussionist uses a mallet for the crotales that is slightly harder than the vibraphone mallets, the sound might be matched more closely. This will enable the crotales to act as an extension of the vibraphone’s range. 4. Two-Tone Mallets Whether percussionists are using an equal set, a graduated set or a mixed set of mallets, they have yet another choice to make: whether any or all of their mallets be two-tone or not. A late twentieth–century development, two-tone mallets produce a softer, sometimes non-articulate sound when played at a soft volume and a harder, sometimes more brittle sound when played at a loud volume. They are very useful for situations 13 Toru Takemitsu, Rain Tree (1981) (Japan: Schott Japan Company, 1981).

94 in which a dramatic change of color is needed instantaneously. They are an offshoot of a type of mallet called “mushroom head mallets,” the difference being that the more recent two-tone mallets usually have no stitching at the top of the mallet head. This means that the tip of the mallet head can also be utilized in situations that demand a delicate sound, not matter how the center of the mallet head is wrapped. Typically, two-tone mallets are wrapped fairly loosely with yarn or cord, and the core of the mallet is fairly hard. The yarn or chord is wrapped loosely so that when the mallet is played with a great deal of force, the core has room to slap against the yarn; the core has a split second to penetrate the yarn and impact with great force against the bar. Loose wrapping also enables the player to play at moderately soft levels without the hardness of the core sounding through. Depending on variables such as the wrapping and the size, weight and density of the core, there are an infinite number of possibilities in designing and playing with two-tone mallets. One company in particular, Kp3 (formerly Malletech) has produced a whole line of two-tone mallets. Although they are very useful, composers have only recently begun to explore the compositional possibilities offered by these mallets and companies have only recently started to manufacture them. Here is an example of a passage that works well with two-tone mallets:

Marimba

q. = Ç 100

œ^ b œ

b œ^ œ

œ^ b œ œ^ œ œ bœ 5 œ bœ œ & 8 b œœ .. A b b œœœœ b œ bœ p F ßp ß ß ß non-sforzando notes always piano b œ . œ ? 85 ∑ ∑ ∑ Œ 4

S/H

^ 42 b œJ ‰ Œ ß ç 42 Œ œ vI

Figure 2.10: passage that could work well with two-tone mallets14

Obviously, the possible combinations are limitless. For example, when playing with six mallets, a percussionist could hold a two-tone, soft/hard (S/H) mallet as mallet number one (the outer-most mallet) in the left hand, while also holding two medium yarn mallets. In the right hand, the percussionist could hold two medium rubber mallets and one hard rubber mallet on the outside. The rubber mallets in the right hand will provide a sound that has more firmness and attack. A pictogram of this possible combination can be seen in the following illustration:

14 Music examples are by the author unless otherwise indicated.

S/H

Illustration 2.3: pictogram of a possible combination of mixed mallets15 There has been some debate over whether composers should use pictograms or text for indicating mallets. The obvious advantages to using pictograms are that they are somewhat universal, are more visual and do not rely on descriptive phrases. The main disadvantages are that they usually need to be explained in a key at the beginning and they take up space on the page. It is up to the composer to choose, perhaps depending on the situation. In modern chamber music or solo percussion music, they might be more advantageous. In a simple orchestral percussion part, it might be simpler and easier to use a phrase such as ‘2 soft yarn mallets.’ In the figure above, a description would be somewhat long, so a pictogram seems like a better choice. No matter which mallets are used, it is important that the mallets used produce the most ideal sound possible for the given situation. Percussionists work hard to make sure this ideal sound is not hindered by anything, including their mallet choice, playing technique or their instruments.

15 The pictograms I use for two-tone mallets are, to my knowledge, my own innovation. Throughout this document, I also place traditional pictograms horizontally, a technique that the American composer Christopher Rouse uses in his scores. Horizontal pictograms are useful for orchestral scores in which space may be at a premium. Please see the “Mallet and Bow Pictogram Key” section in the appendix (p. 226) for detailed descriptions.

97 The mallets that are specified should produce a pure sound with as little contact noise (or “tick”) as possible, assuming that this is what you want to hear. Sometimes contact noise is desirable, such as when a composer knowingly writes for soft rubber mallets on a set of orchestra bells. However, most of the time composers will probably want to specify mallets that will aid in achieving an optimal sound. Whichever sets of mallets are specified, composers should be open to new and interesting possibilities. The important point to keep in mind is that the demands of the music are what should dictate which mallets are used.

Attack This section on attack covers the following six areas in the order given: stroke; mallet head placement on bars; kinesthetics (muscle memory); dynamics; articulation, and voicing. It is important for composers to be aware of how percussionists approach playing their instruments so they will write effectively. Before percussionists determine mallet head placement on bars, they must know how to strike the bars and have an efficient stroke. At some point while learning how to do this, they will develop a kinesthetic sense, or muscle memory. This will enable them to play with a refined sense of dynamic control and also to voice chords properly. Obviously, all of these issues involving attack are intertwined with rolling and sticking.

98 Stroke When percussionists play bar percussion instruments, they use two basic types of strokes, direct and glancing:

Illustration 2.4: direct stroke and glancing stroke Most percussionists instinctively use either of these strokes presented in the above example when necessary. However, sometimes percussionists choose to use glancing strokes even when playing stationary, repeating chords. The reasons for this are varied: sometimes percussionists are moving from one instrument to another, such as from a marimba to a vibraphone. Other times, percussionists may be using unnecessary motion because they think that this will make the performance look more exciting. In this case, unnecessary motion may look different and exciting, but it will probably not help the sound. In fact, extra, unnecessary motion may cause the percussionist to make mistakes; the shortest, most direct path is often the best one. Direct strokes may be defined as strokes that have an up and down motion, without any sideways movement. These strokes are usually employed when playing repeating notes or chords, such as in the following example:

Marimba

Molto Aggressivo, q = Ç 120 etc...

R.H.

& 43 œœ œœ œœ œœ œœj ‰ > F L.H. f > œ œ œ œ ? 3 b œ œ œ œ œœ ‰ 4 J

j j œœ œœ ‰ œœ œœ ‰ > f F >œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ J J

j j j œœ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ b b œœ ‰ b b œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ > ƒv œ œ ‰ œ ‰ b œj ‰ b œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ J v >

Figure 2.11: repeating chords using a direct stroke (the two arrows above each chord indicate a direct downward and immediate upward hand motion) Glancing strokes may be defined as strokes in which the percussionist strikes the bars with a glancing motion, always when moving from one note or chord to another. The following two examples show basic instances where the strokes would be “glancing”: Marimba

q = Ç 96

& 44 œœ ? 4 œœ 4

œœ œœ

œœ œ œ

œœ œœ

œœ œ œ

œœ œœ

œœ œ œ

œœ œœ

j œœ ‰ œœ J

Figure 2.12: parallel chords (illustrated with curved arrows)

‰

100 Xylophone

q = Ç 84

œ œ œ œ œ 2 œ œ œ &4 œ œ œ œ œ œ etc...

or R L

L R

7:4

œ R ‰.

7:4

etc...

Figure 2.13: scale, alternating with two hands, (illustrated with curved arrows) Bar percussion instruments demand a different physical approach to strokes—and standing position—than other percussion instruments such as the snare drum. Whereas when playing a snare drum a percussionist generally needs to use a more stationary stance and more-or-less vertical attack, bar percussion instruments demand that the percussionist’s stance be flexible and often employ horizontal motions, and that their strokes sometimes glance the bars rather than strike them directly.16 Although observations on how percussionists play bar percussion instruments are quite obvious to most seasoned percussionists, they are not necessarily obvious to composers; it will be revealing to explore them in more detail in the following sections.

16 Kristen Shiner, “Focus on Performance: Practice Techniques for Efficiency in Learning Mallet Keyboard Instruments,” Percussive Notes 29, no. 1 (1990).

101 Mallet Head Placement There are five different areas on bars that produce distinctive sounds. These areas are the center of the bar (over the resonator tube); 1/3 way between node and center; 2/3 way between node and center (over the edge of the resonator tube); the node (harmonic); and the edge.

Second Partial Predominant Third Partial Predominant

Similar Sound

Edge

Node

1/3

2/3

}

Note: the predominance of specific partials on different playing areas of the bars is particularly evident on xylophones

Center

Bar

Second Partial Strong Fundamental Weak

Resonator

Illustration 2.5: bar with arrows showing various playing areas The example above illustrates that the edge of the bar and two-thirds of the way from the node to the center seem to produce approximately the same sound due to the varying strengths of weaknesses of the second and third partials. Many percussionists and researchers such as James

102 Moore17 have equated the sound of playing on the edge of the bar with playing in the center. However, on a good instrument that is “in tune,” it is easy to hear that the sound of the edge sounds more similar to the sounds made when playing two-thirds of the way from the node to the center due to the predominance of the second partial. The sound of the center of the bar has a fuller, richer (and perhaps warmer) sound than playing over the edge of the resonator, whereas playing over the edge of the resonator may produce a slightly more noticeable “attack.” Playing on the center of the bar usually produces a sound with a stronger fundamental and third partial than when playing on other areas of the bar. Of course, gradual shifts can be made between these areas and subtle shadings can be achieved when the percussionist plays between these areas. However, composing music with all of these specific areas in mind may prove to be perilous. These shadings are similar to some of the subtleties stringed instrument players achieve by bow placement on the string. Requesting playing over the nodes could be considered similar to stringed instrument players playing harmonics instead of regular notes. Obviously, the more specific the bar placement directions are in a piece of music, the less room the performer has for creative leeway in the area of shading. The piece also becomes increasingly more difficult as more specific directions are given to the percussionist. Nevertheless, composers can request different playing areas if they are positive that they want that much control over the sound.

17 James L. Moore, “Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments” (Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1971).

103 Even when writing music with specific areas of the bars in mind, such as writing notes to be played on the nodes, these subtle shadings will probably only be heard under optimal conditions in small ensemble settings. In large ensemble settings, such as within the percussion section of a large orchestra or wind ensemble, these shadings will be more difficult to hear. Therefore, bar shadings are probably most effective when written into solos or chamber music or with music in which the instruments are amplified. Regardless of all the options available for distinctive shadings on areas on different areas of the bar, a more important issue that is constantly debated is where the percussionist achieves the “optimum sound” in the first place. This debate has no doubt been going on for the last hundred years. There are two distinct—yet, as I will explain later— intertwined concepts. These are the ease of performance concept and the optimum sound concept. Ease of Performance Concept The Ease of Performance Concept probably started first in Western percussion music with the development of chromatic bar percussion instruments. This concept is based on the principle that the ease of performance—e.g. not missing notes—is somewhat more important than whether you are striking the “center of the bar.” This is why bar percussion instruments are designed so that the accidentals overlap the naturals. In many non-Western cultures, bar percussion instruments are not chromatically tuned and are designed with only one level of bars. Good

104 examples of these instruments would be traditional African xylophones (see p. 6, photo 1.3) and Indonesian metallophones and xylophones used in gamelan ensembles. Since traditional, African xylophones are not designed with a two-tiered bar system as with modern Western-style bar percussion instruments, playing on the edges of the bars becomes an issue specific to the playing style: two players play one instrument, one seated on each side, facing one another. In gamelan performance practice, metallophones and xylophones are played on the centers of the bars, one person on each instrument. In both of these cases, playing on the edges or the centers is tied to the playing style specific for each instrument. Therefore, “ease of performance” or “optimum sound” concepts are intrinsically linked to the playing styles. This Ease of Performance Concept is clearly exemplified in the method books and recordings of George Hamilton Green, the legendary ragtime xylophonist from the beginning of the twentieth century. Green’s music and almost all other bar percussion music from the early twentieth century was meant for two-mallet playing. It was generally assumed that fast passages would be played on the centers of the lower level of bars (i.e. the naturals) and mostly on the edges of the upper level. Since Green’s xylophone rags demanded speed as well as complete note accuracy, it is likely that he probably almost always played on the edges of the accidentals, especially in the low register of the xylophone. The following example is from Triplets (ca. 1919), one of Green’s jazz fox trot rags for xylophone:

105 Xylophone

œ œ œ. œ œ.

Introduction

†C

œœ œ œ C

L R L RL R

œ œ . # œ œ . œ œ . n œ œ œ œ œ b œœ . œ n œ . # œ œ œ >œ œ œ # œ >œ œ œ œ . œ. #œ . . œ‰Œ J‰ J 3 D7

L R LR

L R RL R

R L

R L R L

RL R R L

L R LR

L R L

Figure 2.14: xylophone excerpt from Triplets (ca. 1919) for xylophone and band or piano, accompaniment by George Hamilton Green18 In his method books, Green says that “when striking the bars containing the sharps and flats, always strike them on the extreme end of the bar nearest you.”19 There are other factors that probably made this way of playing seem most logical. Figure 2.15 is supposed to be played on a xylophone rather than on a marimba. The shorter decay time of a xylophone cuts down on the remote possibility of anyone hearing that Green played on the edges of the bars rather than on the centers. Granted, if a player plays right on the edges of the bars of a xylophone, the difference in sound from playing on the centers (or “near centers”) is very minimal. If the audible decay time were longer, such as on a marimba, the sound difference might be more noticeable: playing on the centers of marimba bars—depending on the instrument and mallets—will often provide a slightly longer decay time of the fundamental. Another factor that probably influenced playing technique during the beginning of the twentieth century was the invention of the phonograph. George Hamilton Green, his brother Joe Green (also a xylophonist) and other percussionists were recording for many of the first recording 18 Randy Eyles, ed., Xylophone Rags of George Hamilton Green (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1984). 19 Ibid.

106 companies, including one of Thomas Alva Edison’s companies, Thomas A. Edison, Inc. The sound of the xylophone lent itself perfectly for these recordings, and even for Edison’s personal, musical taste. It is interesting to note that Edison himself wanted to make the decision as to which recording artists were good enough to appear on his recordings. Edison and his company—as opposed to the main, competing phonograph companies at the time such as the Victor Talking Machine Co.—were much more interested in the quality of the sound of the recordings rather than the artistry involved.20 Many of the recordings made by Thomas A. Edison, Inc. consisted of instruments that produced a clean sound and singers that used little vibrato.21 The xylophone probably proved to be the perfect vehicle for Edison’s artistic and technical vision. It was easy to record due to its high pitch and very short decay time and there was no vibrato to worry about. Of course, this is all speculative, as there seems to be no written evidence as to whether Edison preferred the xylophone over other instruments, but it is interesting to note that Edison’s company was initially the one that championed the xylophone for recordings. Although the quality of the Edison xylophone recordings was fairly clear, to the untrained ear, it is essentially impossible to detect whether the Green brothers were playing on the edges of the accidentals. Reading Green’s method books, we can assume that due to the speed and accuracy issues mentioned above, he was probably playing on the edges of the bars most if not all of the time. 20 Paul Israel, Edison: A Life of Invention (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998). 21 Ibid.

107 Of course, modern recordings have come a long way from the original wax cylinder and disc recordings made in the early 1900s. Today, digital audio recordings are much clearer and have a fuller sonic spectrum from low to high. With digital recordings, if your ears are good enough, in certain passages, it might be possible to discern whether a percussionist is playing on the edges or the centers of the bars: this is discussed more in the following section. Optimum Sound Concept The Optimum Sound Concept as a whole is a more recent development. This concept is based on the principle that as well as playing fast and not missing notes, the percussionist needs to achieve the fullest, richest sound on the instrument, as often as possible. Although I cannot draw specific conclusions, this playing style coincides with the development of twentieth-century atonal music. With regard to the optimum sound concept, there are a few factors that percussionists usually keep in mind: 1. It takes more energy and physical effort to play in the center of the bars than on the edge, hence the acceptance and usage of the Ease of Performance Concept. 2. It is very difficult in an ensemble setting or on some recordings, to hear a distinction between playing on the center of the bar and on the edge. This is especially true if the percussionist is slightly

108 compensating by playing with a little bit more volume when playing on the edge of the bars. 3. It is very possible to hear a difference between the edge and the center when the percussionist is performing live and/or in an intimate hall, and when the percussionist is performing on an instrument that has a long decay, such as a marimba or vibraphone. The sound difference between playing on the center and the edge is especially apparent on the lower register of bar percussion instruments, and even more apparent when playing at a loud volume in the low register. The lower register has more “ring”; this gives the ear more time to distinguish between a note played either on the center or the edge of the bar. If the percussionist is playing fast melodic passages—especially in the high register—it is especially difficult to hear and distinguish between whether the notes are being played on the edges or slightly off-center. In the end, this distinction is mostly apparent to a percussionist who is standing directly above the instrument, and especially in a live situation. 4. There are some instances when playing on the center of the bars would probably be impractical, such as in the example below:

109 Marimba

e. = Ç 120

? 16 6

œ n œ # œ b œ œ n œ # œ RÔœ ®≈ ≈ ‰ . œ œ # œ b œ œ # œ œ œ œ bœ œ nœ #œ bœ nœ nœ #œ ƒ f 2

Figure 2.15: example of a very fast passage on a marimba that would probably be impractical if played on the centers of the bars 5. The sound of playing exactly on the center of the bars is undeniably different than playing slightly off-center of the bars or on the edge of the bars. This is because playing in the center brings out slightly different partials than when playing slightly off center or on the edge. 6. The sound of playing exactly on the edge of the bar is virtually indistinguishable from playing on the exact same spot from the node on the other side of the bar (see p.98, illustration 2.5). A particular instance when you can undeniably hear that a percussionist is playing on the edge of the bars is when the percussionist is playing on the accidentals of the top octave of a marimba—particularly the top Fsharp, G-sharp and A-sharp—with medium or softer mallets. In the top octave of the instrument, playing on the center of the accidentals is no more difficult than playing on the edge because the bars are generally smaller and closer together. Playing on the middle of the bars on the top octave is no more cumbersome than playing on the edge of the bars in the lowest octaves of even the most modest-sized marimbas, such as a four-octave marimba.

110 7. Many times, it is physically and spatially easier for percussionists to play chords with three or more notes using both the edge and centers (or “slightly off-centers”) of the bars. Playing fast chordal passages is often easier when not playing on the edge of the bars, especially from the standpoint of accuracy. 8. The different playing spots on the bars (see p.98, illustration 2.5) can be utilized by performers—and by very seasoned composers—in the performance and composition of music. Obviously, all of the factors presented in this chapter—as well as most of the other sections of the book—need to be considered. 9. No matter how much a percussionist practices, a fast or complex passage may flow more easily when the performer utilizes the edges of the accidental bars. However, percussionists must always make sure not to confuse how a given passage feels in their hands with how it sounds to their ears and their minds. Many percussionists often make the mistake of falling in love with how idiomatically graceful something feels to their hands and forget that the best sound is ultimately what matters most. Of course, it is wonderful when passages feel good to play and sound great when played well. In fact, in the music of many great composers the two are often intermingled. Having mentioned all of these considerations regarding achieving an “optimum sound,” the following factors ultimately determine where percussionists play on the bars:

111

1. The type of music or type of piece that is being played. For example, it would be stylistically appropriate to play the accidentals in a xylophone rag from the beginning of the twentieth century on the edges of the bars. 2. If the music is from an era where with a certain “performance practice” (such as with the music of George Hamilton Green), the percussionist needs to decide whether to emulate the sound of the day or produce the “optimum sound” on the instrument. Keep in mind when listening to old recordings that recording technology is better now than it was then. Of course, where a percussionist chooses to play on the bars when performing this type of music is a value judgement. The difference is so subtle that it is debatable whether anyone— especially non-percussionists—can really hear the difference at all. 3. The type of bar percussion instrument that is being played and how refined that instrument is. If the instrument sounds “dead,” the percussionist might want to try to play the notes that might normally be played on the edges of the bars on the centers instead. 4. In which range of the instrument the percussionist is playing, and for how long the percussionist is playing in that range. For example, if the top octave of the marimba is being played for an entire section of a piece, the percussionist can probably play all of the notes on the centers of the bars.

112

5. Whether the percussionist is rolling or not and what types of rolls are being played. Some rolls, such as Guatemalan rolls, need to be played using the edges of the bars. Also, some chords (especially when using six mallets) have such awkward positions that rolling the chords would be very difficult or impossible without utilizing the edges of the bars. The following example illustrates this:

# œœ # œ & 42

Marimba

Figure 2.16: example of chord played by right hand that utilizes the outer edge of a bar (assuming the left hand is already occupied)

6. The type of figurations that are being played in that range. When playing runs—especially chromatic ones—from the top of a large bar percussion instrument down to near middle ‘C’, it is usually easier to play the line on the centers with the inside mallet of the right hand (the outer mallets are moved out of the way).

113

7. What mallets are being used: certain mallets will sound fine in the centers of the bars but not as good on the edges of the bars. For example, mallets made of very soft rubber might get a better sound out of the instrument if they strike the centers of the bars rather than the edges, especially in the upper octaves. 8. The hall you are playing in. Some halls will be more “washy” and forgiving than other halls. If the hall is particularly dry and the percussionist is playing a solo (i.e. not covered up by other instruments), you might hear more refinement in the sound than if the hall is very large and reverberant. 9. What type of ensemble the percussionist is playing in, whether it is a percussion section in a large ensemble, a chamber ensemble or a solo, and how exposed the part is. The larger the ensemble and the more that is going on at once, the less likely you will be able to hear whether the percussionist is playing on the edges of the bars or the centers. This does not mean that the percussionist will not give the effort to try to play in the centers or near centers as a matter of protocol, but that whether the percussionist’s intention is “honorable” or not, you will either be able or not able to hear the difference. 10. Whether the percussionist is playing in a recording or not, and how well made and clear the recording will be. Modern recordings enable performers to be as clear as possible. Knowing this might influence

114 how meticulous the percussionist will be about mallet head placement on the bars; the percussionist can often control how attuned the microphones will be to picking up the sound. 11. What the technical aspects of the music are, such as whether the music in question is a chordal passage or a fast, very loud melodic line. Some music will expose more colors from the bars than some other types of music. 12. Where you are coming from and where you are going in the music. If you have a very long melodic line that goes from middle ‘C’ to the very top of a marimba, you may choose to play more rather than less notes in the centers, especially if the melodic material consists of mostly accidentals. The following example illustrates a situation in which it would be feasible to play most of the notes—if not all of them—on the centers:

115

q. = Ç 96

& 68

∑

Œ.

∑

bœ œ bœ œ

œœ

bœ œ œ œ 2 3 1 bœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ ? 68 œ œ œ Œ. # œ œ # œ # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ bœ 3

œ bœ 3

2 3

4 [2

œ œ œ bœ

2 3

bœ œ œ b n œ œ b n b œ œ œ nœ #œ œ bœ nœ R ≈‰ ‰

F ∑

∑

{

Smaller bars enable notes to easily be played on centers

Figure 2.17: marimba line in which most or all of the notes can be played on the centers of the bars 13. Whether the percussionist is trying to match the sound of something else, such as another instrument. If the percussionist has a refined sense of timbre, the sound can be more closely matched to another instrument depending on where on the bars the notes are being played. For example, the following passage might sound better if played on the centers of the bars when trying to blend with the piccolo and flute:

116 q = Ç 76

Piccolo

Flute

Marimba

Picc.

Fl.

Mar.

4 Ó † 4 Œ # œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œJ ‰ Œ π π F ∑ ∑ Œ œœœœœœœœœœœœ & 44 π ? 44

†

play directly over center of bar

œœœœœœœœ F

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œI ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > p F f

play 1/3 way from center (over edge of resonator)

∑

r & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰. Œ π f ?

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œI P ƒ

∑ Ó Ó

Figure 2.18: passage that might sound better if played on one spot on the bars rather than another when blending with the piccolo and flute 14. What the goal is for the concept of the piece. If the percussionist is trying to make the piece feel more improvised or is actually improvising, the percussionist may want to play on the edge of the bars; improvising and a feeling of spontaneity is usually easier when the performer has to exert less physical motion. 15. Whether the percussionist will need to match the sound of one or more notes by playing on different spots on the bars. For example, if three notes out of six need to be played on the edges of the bars, then playing the other three just slightly off center may match the sound of

117 those notes better than if you played them right on the centers of the bars. 16. How long the percussionist will have to learn the piece. If the player is under a tight deadline, it might make more sense to learn the music in the quickest, most comfortable way possible. This might mean making a sacrifice and not taking the time to find stickings and positions that allow the passages in question to be played on the centers of the bars. 17. How long the percussionist will need to know the piece. If percussionists think they might play the music again in the future, the will try to find the time to make good stickings that allow them to get the best sound. 18. Ultimately, how the music will sound in the end. Of course, the most important consideration when deciding where to play on the bars is the sound. So what does this all mean? It is now clear that this issue is not as easily dismissed as some percussionists may want it to be. The seasoned percussionist usually keeps both concepts in mind at all times (the Ease of Performance Concept and Optimum Sound Concept) and uses either one, or both at the same time, depending on the music and the situation. What are the appropriate settings? There are infinite variables when a percussionist decides where on the bars you should play something. This

118 is one reason why it is very beneficial for beginning percussionists to study with experienced players. Kinesthetics (Muscle Memory) Unlike with other instruments such as woodwinds and brass where fingers are constantly touching keys, there is almost always space between the instrument and the player. Therefore, factors such as kinesthetic movement and consistent playing situations are crucial for comfort and especially accuracy. Having an understanding of how percussionists maintain accuracy might prove beneficial for writing complex parts. Kinesthetic movement is crucial for the seasoned percussionist, not only for bar percussion instruments but also for other playing situations such as with multiple percussion set-ups and drum sets. Kinesthetics may be defined as having a physical or muscle memory of where your body and hands need to move without having to constantly predetermine these movements by looking down at the instrument.22 Experienced percussionists usually have an innate and refined kinesthetic sense that usually improves with experience. One of the main goals for percussionists is to reach a point while playing where they are no longer consciously aware of the individual notes but of groups or sections of notes. Coupled with this, their goal is for the whole performance to be a homogeneous mix of your mental, physical and emotional output—none of these abilities being more or less 22 The percussionist who has written the most on this interesting subject is undoubtedly Gordon Stout, a well-known pioneer in the world of bar percussion. More information may be found in Shiner, “Focus on Performance: Practice Techniques for Efficiency in Learning Mallet Keyboard Instruments.”

119 developed than the other. Percussionists work on being able to trust their sense of kinesthetic movement and are usually surprised at how much physical memory they subconsciously have of where to place the mallet heads on the keyboard. One of the crucial aspects of accurate kinesthetic movement is standing position. If a percussionist does not have a sense of the spacing of the instrument, or if you they are inconsistent with where they stand each time they play, their kinesthetic movement will be more difficult than it needs to be, and their playing will be potentially inaccurate. This is why percussionists need an adequate amount of space and also why the amount of standing or “moving” space needs to be consistent from one performance situation to another. Other factors determine kinesthetic movement besides standing position: whether the percussionist is able to practice with the same mallets used in the performance; using shoes with the same height (the same pair) or consistently playing barefoot; and especially using the same instrument on a consistent basis. Most stringed instrumentalists are fortunate in this sense because they have the same instrument to practice on day after day. This is not always true for percussionists, unless they have unlimited access to and/or own their own instrument. Practicing and performing on the same or similar instruments is especially crucial with marimbas since the variation in bar width and spacing from one instrument to another can be quite dramatic. Therefore, kinesthetic movement is probably more important now than it was at the beginning of the twentieth century because of the widespread use of very large instruments such as five-octave marimbas and large set-ups in general.

120 Obviously, having a refined kinesthetic sense is dependent on many other factors, such as how well percussionists practice and learn their music, and especially their strokes. Another factor that influences a percussionist’s kinesthetic sense is dynamic level. Dynamics One misunderstanding that many composers have had in the past is that percussion instruments are only capable of playing “loud.” Of course, this is not true, and most recent composers have a good enough understanding of bar percussion instruments to know that this is definitely a fallacy. In fact, the innate dynamic range of acoustic bar percussion instruments is much greater than that of any acoustic stringed instrument. The loudest volume that can be achieved by a xylophone with hard mallets is much louder than the loudest sound that can be achieved on a violin. The softest sound on any bar percussion instrument is generally softer than almost any soft sound by any orchestral instrument, with the exception of very soft, solo stringed instrument pizzicati or soft playing on the bottom notes of a piccolo or flute. One particular advantage that bar percussion instruments have over many other instruments is that they are exceptionally good at providing sudden contrasts in dynamic levels. These dynamic contrasts can also be highly dramatic since bar percussion instruments generally have a wider dynamic range than many other instruments, such as stringed instruments. These quick dynamic shifts are often found in certain styles of composition such as serial, twelve-tone and pointilistic music.

121 Milton Babbitt is one twentieth-century composer in particular who has exploited this natural advantage. The following example is from his marimba solo, Beaten Paths (1988):

Marimba

& 43 ≈

œ œ bœ

q = 72

œ. #œ. œ œ

ƒ f ? 43 ≈ œ b œ & œ b œ ‰ . ƒ

r œ œ œ œ. J #œ ≈ bœ bœ bœ

∏ œ œ ? bœ R

∏

œ b œœ œ œ ‰

f bœ Ï∏ œ bœ œ ≈ œ œ ≈Œ f

Note: accidentals affect only those notes which they immediately precede, without exception.

Figure 2.19: excerpt from Beaten Paths (1988) for solo marimba by Milton Babbitt, mm. 54-5623 Babbitt’s serial compositional style lends itself well to the marimba’s ability to shift dynamic levels quickly. In the example above, notice how Babbitt not only quickly alternates the dynamic level from extremely loud to extremely soft, but he also uses pitches that cover almost the entire range of a four-octave marimba—just in this two-measure example alone. This example clearly demonstrates how Babbitt takes advantage of the marimba’s natural ability to provide both very loud and very soft dynamics across the entire range of the instrument. Certain bar percussion instruments are naturally louder than others, especially with regard to range: orchestra bells played with plastic or metal mallets at a loud volume are naturally going to be louder than a 23 Milton Babbitt, Beaten Paths (1988) (Baltimore, MD: Smith Publications, ca. 1988).

122 marimba played in the middle range played with soft yarn mallets. This natural phenomenon can be used as an advantage: one of the most effective ways of enhancing certain lines or textures in orchestral or even chamber music is by doubling with the marimba. Using the marimba to double melodic and harmonic material does not become common until the twentieth century, and I was not able to locate any examples of the marimba being used within the orchestral percussion section prior to the twentieth century. There is a seemingly endless list of composers who have effectively used the marimba as a doubling instrument, including John Adams, Jacob Druckman and Witold Lutoslawski. Bar percussion instruments are often used to emphasize phrases and chords in orchestral music. The ringing quality of the vibraphone is particularly useful when looking for a way to add body or even a slight haze to phrases and melodic lines. In the orchestral work Aureole (1979), Jacob Druckman doubles the vibraphone with the first part of a phrase but lets the phrase finish out while the bars are still ringing:

123

Figure 2.20: Percussion 1 doubling the phrase played by flute I, oboe 1 and violins in Jacob Druckman’s Aureole (1979) for orchestra, m. 924

124 In the example in Figure 2.20, Druckman asks the percussionist to gradually lift the pedal as the notes are dying away. This helps to ensure that the vibraphone will fade into the texture rather than cut off abruptly. Doubling with other orchestral instruments is not limited to the vibraphone. Orchestral bells have traditionally been used to double the piccolo, while the xylophone is often used to double high woodwinds and strings. Articulation Although composers often mark dynamics liberally in percussion parts, articulations such as staccato and tenuto marks (i.e. those that are not necessarily volume-oriented such as accents and hard accents) are often left out or are considered superfluous or irrelevant. The following example from Alban Berg’s Drei Orchesterstücke, Op. 6 (1915) shows a typical scoring of a xylophone part in an orchestral work from the early twentieth century:

24 Jacob Druckman, Aureole (1979) (New York: Boosey & Hawkes, ca. 1979).

125

Figure 2.21: example from Alban Berg’s Drei Orchesterstücke, Op. 6 (1915) for orchestra that has staccati in the oboe parts but not in the xylophone part25

25 Alban Berg, Drei Orchesterstücke, Op. 6 (1915) (Wein: Universal Edition, ca. 1954).

126 Since some bar percussion instruments or certain registers of these instruments naturally have a staccato sound, it probably seemed useless to mark these articulations, even if the other non-percussion instruments doubling the same part had the same articulations, as in the above example. This practice is still continued by many composers, even as we have entered the twenty-first century. It should be noted that during the last half of the twentieth century, Western bar percussion instruments began to be tuned more accurately, encompassed lower ranges and were more precisely resonated. These improvements increased the audible decay time of the bars. It would be safe to say that modern technological developments probably coincided with more accurate and more detailed notation in bar percussion parts. From my experience as a percussionist, I can say that there are a few basic reasons why it is wise for composers to consider marking the articulations they are looking for into bar percussion parts. Great percussion instruments have bars that have a long “ring time,” especially in the lower registers. Depending on the mallets being used, the method of attack, whether the bars are slightly dampened with the mallet heads, pedaling (if the instrument is a vibraphone or orchestra bells with a pedal) or the player’s ability, percussionists are usually able to lengthen or shorten the ring time of the bars. If the articulations are written in one instrumental part and then mirrored in a percussion part that it is exactly doubling, the percussionist will work hard to match the sound of the other part. Figure 2.22 shows three parts as they are written, and figure 2.23 shows alterations that enable the percussionist to match the sound of the flute more closely:

127

Transposed Score

q = 84

Flute

Cl. in B b

Marimba

. & 44 œ f

& 44 œ f 4 &4

f ? 44 œ

œ̆ œ. b œ. œ. œ. b œ. œ. b œ.

˘ œ. b œ œ. b œ. œ. œ. b œ. œ.

bœ >

bœ

œ ∑

œ >

bœ >

œ ∑

œ œ #œ œ #œ œ # œ œ # œ bœ nœ bœ nœ œ > >

œ œ #œ

œ.

b ˘œ œ. . # œ¨ œ̈ œ̈ œ ‰ ‰. Œ

‰ nœ œ œ fl fl fl ƒ >>> ‰ Œ œœœ‰ œ ƒ b >œ >œ >œ ‰ Ó

bœ

Figure 2.22: bar percussion part, as written, with unmatched articulations Transposed Score

q = 84

Flute

Cl. in B b

Marimba

4 . &4 œ f & 44 œ f 4 &4

œ̆ œ. b œ. œ. œ. b œ. œ. b œ.

˘ œ. b œ œ. b œ. œ. œ. b œ. œ.

bœ >

bœ

play with a semi-dead-stroke

∑

œ >

bœ >

œ ∑

f . # œ. œ. # œ. œ. # œ. ?4 œ œ 4 . œ b œ n œ. b œ. n œ. œ. œ. # œ. œ. # œ. fl fl 2

b ˘œ œ. œ. # œ¨ œ̈ œ̈ œ. ‰ ƒ

bœ

‰. Œ

œ. ‰ Œ Ó

nœ œ œ fl fl ƒ fl

‰

œ̆ œ̆ œ̆ ‰

ƒ b œ¨ œ̈ œ̈ ‰

Figure 2.23: same example with added articulations, mallet choice and verbal indication

128 Of course, some situations work the other way around. If a piccolo is doubling a high xylophone part and the piccolo part is marked staccato, then the xylophone part does not necessarily need any staccato articulation markings since it is already playing staccato:

Score

Piccolo

Xylophone

7 †8 † 78

œ̆ b œ.

ƒ >œ b œ ƒ

>´ œ́ œ́ > # œ´ ¨ œ. œ́ b œ b œ œ́ œ́ œ́ 44 œ́ ‰ ‰ œ́ Œ Œ. ‰ 78 Œ

œ œ > b >œ b œ^ œ œ # œ œ œ œ 44 œ ‰ ‰ œ Œ Œ. ‰ 78 Œ

Figure 2.24: example of staccato piccolo part doubling high xylophone part that has no staccato articulation markings

Some music can be so broadly interpreted that articulation becomes a very personal decision for the percussionist. This is especially true in solo works in which the instrument might be very exposed and there are no instruments to match or blend with. Voicing Although seasoned pianists are masters of voicing, percussionists probably do not utilize this effective technique as much as they could, or should. Voicing helps bring out many aspects of music, such as a melodic line within a group of chords, individual notes in chords and melody lines over accompaniments. The following example shows a group of chords with an implied melodic line indicated by circled notes:

129

Marimba

> 6 & 8 f f b f f b # œœœf # œœœf b # œœ œœ œ Œ. ‰ œ # œœ b œœ # œœ f fœ # œf b f œ # œf b œf œf ? 68 ∑ q. = Ç 56

Note: circled notes = implied melodic line

∑

p b # œœfœ f b f j ‰ ‰ J ‰ ‰ Œf.

Figure 2.25: example of a figure in which a melodic line could be implied

Although another melodic line could be implied within the chords in the above figure (e.g. emphasizing the top notes in the chords), the circled notes are a logical choice since they continue the descending line of minor thirds one-half step apart. The next example shows a chord that could be voiced in many different ways:

130 Transposed Score

˙^

Maestoso, q = Ç 66

Flute

B b Clarinet

Vibraphone

& 44

>œ

4 >œ &4 ƒ b >f & 44 œœ ƒ

>œ œ >

b >fœ b œœ

>œ

v̇

Fi b ˙I ˙I

)

> œ ƒ b >œœ f ƒ

>œ œ >

b >œœ b œf

˙^

>œ

v̇

˙i b I Ḟ I

)

> œ ƒ b >œf œ ƒ

>œ

˙^

œ >

v̇

b >œœ b fœ

˙i b Ḟ I

)

Note: circled notes = implied melodic line

Figure 2.26: three examples showing a group of chords that could be voiced in different ways The first example in the figure above emphasizes the top notes. This traditional method of voicing works in many instances, but might not be the most appropriate option for voicing these chords. The second example emphasizes the bottom notes. Again, this might not be the best option. The third alternative emphasizes the middle notes in the chords. Since these chords are being played along with a chamber ensemble that is playing a melodic line starting on the second note from the bottom of the chords, then this might be the best voicing if the line needs more weight. The first note in this melodic line is also accented—accenting this note in the chord may help to bring it out. Percussionists can either graduate the voicing from bottom to top or top to bottom, or they can bring out one or more notes in the chords, i.e. the top line, the bottom line or notes in the middle. Mixed or graduated mallets can probably help when voicing chords.

131 Voicing is also useful for compensating for defective or poor-sounding notes. If an instrument has one or more notes that sound weak, the percussionist can compensate by playing the weak notes at a sufficient volume that makes the chord or chords sound balanced in the most appropriate way. As with the piano, voicing is largely dependent on various factors, especially the player’s ability. If the player’s technique is sufficient, voicing can be accomplished by shifting weight, fulcrum position and the angle and pressure at which the mallets strike the bars. Voicing is a subtle art: the slightest variations in pressure, fulcrum position, etc., can affect the outcome. It is most helpful when attempting to voice that the player has the best available instrument and mallets. Substandard equipment will make voicing substantially more difficult. As with other performance factors such as kinesthetics, it is also important that the player be accustomed to the instrument and mallets. Another way that voicing can be enhanced or accomplished more easily is by specifying different mallet combinations. (This is fully explained in the section entitled Mallet Combinations on p. 84.) It can generally be said that in connection with all of the other factors involved in “attack,” mallet choice becomes crucial to carrying out the desired sound. Sticking It is wise for composers to have some idea of how percussionists use stickings. Stickings are to a percussionist what bowing is to a stringed instrumentalist and what fingerings are to a pianist. They may be defined

132 as the markings made by a percussionist that indicate which mallet or combination of mallets will play which notes for a given passage. Throughout the twentieth century, different methods of sticking music have been used. It is my experience that the most common method for marking stickings (and also the method used throughout this text) is to label the mallets left to right, low to high, as shown in the following example:

133

Sticking Chart Two Mallets

Four Mallets

L. H. R. H.

L. H.

R. H.

{ {

Six Mallets R. H.

L. H. 2

Note: three mallets can be divided with two in the left hand and one in the right hand, or vice-versa (but always labled 1 – 3, left to right). Five mallets can be divided with two in the left, three in the right or vice-versa (but always labled 1 – 5, left to right).

Illustration 2.6: stickings labeled left to right, low to high This style of sticking makes sense to percussionists practicing. However, some percussionists (particularly jazz vibraphonists) still label mallets from right to left, high to low. Percussionists usually write in their own stickings, so it is usually unnecessary for composers to mark any in their music. How a percussionist sticks a piece of music is as personal as it is technical: there is no one right way to stick a piece of music. Everyone’s hands are different just as everyone thinks and phrases differently. However, as will be explored later, certain stickings can be more or less efficient or comfortable, and certain stickings will lend themselves better to a given piece of music. Percussionists try to understand a piece of music as completely as possible before they begin sticking it. Details such as form (structure, phrases, etc.), rhythms and any unfamiliar terms or notations within the

134 piece are usually figured out before they begin practicing or adding stickings. Percussionists will usually try to figure out as many markings and stickings as they can (or as many as necessary) before they begin to practice a piece of music. If their technical ability is well developed, it is possible for them to do most of the learning of a piece away from an instrument. This is important: they want to make sure they do not practice something the wrong way and then have to re-learn it. Figuring out stickings and other details before practicing a piece of music prevents them from learning it with mistakes or with too many inconsistencies. Stickings are often chosen for musical values and not just for physical convenience. However, if there is a choice between two equally musical stickings for the same passage of music, it is my experience as a percussionist that the sticking that is more physically convenient will be chosen. However, sometimes a percussionist may find it helpful to choose a sticking that changes mallets—as opposed to one that does not—simply because a sticking change may help to mentally subdivide a difficult passage. The following excerpt from Eugene O’Brien’s marimba solo Rhyme and Reason (1993) shows a passage that uses a sticking that changes mallets:

135 Marimba

{q = 126 Ç}

[34]

œ œ œ bœ œ œ #œ #œ nœ nœ bœ #œ bœ #œ & #œ œ nœ œ bœ bœ nœ

4 3

> bœ œ

b œ3 ≈ œ nœ > 2

Figure 2.27: excerpt from Eugene O’Brien’s Rhyme & Reason (1993) for solo marimba, section 24 (stickings added)26 Although the above passage can be sticked so that mallet ‘2’ in the left hand is used exclusively, dividing the left hand between mallets ‘1’ and ‘2’ may help the percussionist to organize the phrase both physically and visually. Whether one or two mallets are used in the left hand, the goal here would be to create a fast flourish that does not allude to which mallets are being used. The main physical goal for percussionists when sticking a piece of music is to reduce the amount of physical exertion and tension as much as possible while satisfying the demands of the music. Composers often think that if a sticking seems logical to them, it will be the sticking that a percussionist uses. In my experience, percussionists often choose stickings that are quite different from what composers explicitly write into parts or intend through notational devices such as cross-staff beaming and reverse stemming. In my opinion, it is wise for composers to consult with percussionists if there is any doubt about whether to write helpful stickings into the music. 26 Eugene O’Brien, Rhyme & Reason (1993) (Bloomington, IN: Composer’s Manuscript, 1993).

136

How Many Mallets? Another issue for composers to consider is the number of mallets that should be indicated for a given piece of music. Typically, a percussionist only uses two mallets for parts that can be played with two mallets. This seems obvious, but some parts that at first glance seem to warrant the use of two mallets might actually be played more easily with three or even four mallets. The following excerpt from Steve Reich’s Nagoya Marimbas (1994) for two marimbas shows an example of a part that can be played with three or four mallets instead of two27:

27 In 1999, I had the good fortune of playing Nagoya Marimbas with world-renowned marimbist Gordon Stout, with Steve Reich listening to the dress rehearsal and coaching us for the performance. We had an interesting conversation with Reich about the number of mallets we were using. Gordon was playing the first marimba part using three mallets and I was playing the second part using four. Reich was surprised when he saw this and said that he had originally intended each part to be played with two mallets! This is a good example of how flexible percussionists are when choosing the number of mallets they will use for a part.

137 q = 96-108

Two mallets: 1 Three mallets: 1 Four mallets: 1 59 (2x)

Marimba 1

Marimba 2

1 2 2

2 3 3

1 2 1 2 1 2

1 3 3

1 2 2 3 2 4

2 1 2 3 2 3 4 2 3

1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3

1 1 1 2 1 2

2 3 4

1 2 3 2 2 3

œ œ œœ ?3 œœ œ œ œ .. 4œ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 3 œ ? œ Jœ 4 ? œ œ œ .. . œ j J . &4 œ œ & œ œ & œ œ 4J œ œ œ ? 4 .. œ œ œ œœ 4 œ & œ œ

Figure 2.28: three possible sticking solutions for the Marimba 1 part (mallets labeled 1–4, left to right) in Steve Reich’s Nagoya Marimbas (1994) for two marimbas, mm. 59-6028 In the example above, the lines are written in such a way that a variety of stickings are possible. Since there is only one note being played at any given time in each part, each player is free to use as few as two mallets. Using more mallets does not necessarily make the part any easier, but might cut down on the amount of arm movement. Had Reich specified stickings in the parts there is a good chance that experienced percussionists would ignore them and write in their own.

28 Steve Reich, Nagoya Marimbas (1994) (New York: Boosey & Hawkes: Hendon Music, ca. 1996).

Chapter 3: Methods of Sound Production and Alteration

Rolls The most significant innovations during the twentieth century regarding rolls are the use of different types of rolls and corresponding new notational devices. It is interesting to note that as instruments and mallets became more refined and as different types of rolls came to be used more often, more attention seemed to be placed on roll speed. The most common goal for a percussionist when rolling—especially on one note—is to achieve the most fluid, consistent and continuous sound possible. It may help to imagine a vocalist singing a held note, the slight beats in even the cleanest, most continuous roll being similar to a singer’s seasoned vibrato.1 Percussionists are trained to carefully stay on the note or notes they are rolling on and not to move too soon. A sure sign of an unseasoned performer is one who plays stray notes while rolling the written ones. When rolling, percussionists can obtain a “quasi-legato” by matching the attack of the new note to the ring of the previous note. Depending on context, the usual goal is to disguise the attack of each successive, rolled note as much as possible, except the initial attack of the first rolled note. The idea is to make the successive rolls seem like fluid, sustained notes. Sometimes percussionists even double-stick the previous note with one

1 An interesting aside is that many players and singers often use vibrato for covering up a bad tone and not for innately enhancing a good tone.

136

137 hand before moving to the new note in order make the transition more fluid sounding. It is unfortunate that composers often think that all rolls will sound “choppy” and “ragged.” It is my experience that bad-sounding rolls are often the result of factors that can be fixed or compensated for such as poor mallet choice (i.e. soft yarn mallets played forte on the top octave of a marimba), an instrument with dead bars or inappropriate roll speed. Composers sometimes indicate mallets that are not appropriate for the effect they are trying to achieve. In this case, percussionists will often try to achieve the desired sound at the expense of using the exact mallets indicated by the composer. However, some composers do not always want a smooth roll sound and intentionally indicate rolls that are “awkward, unbalanced, and irregular” or “irregular, but rapid,” as seen in the following two examples: Marimba {q = 66-72}

& 44 Ó ? 44 Ó

‰ ‰

#œ. ñ

˙ p

œ. œ #œ #œ œ œ œ ≈. π Œ f

f ≈ œ #œ #œ ‰ Œ

® œ. @

œ æ

= irregular but rapid roll

Figure 3.1: excerpt from Islands from Archipelago: Autumn Island (1989) for solo marimba by Roger Reynolds, p. 5, mm. 10 – 122

2 Roger Reynolds, Islands from Archipelago: Autumn Island (1989) (New York: C. F. Peters, ca. 1989).

138 Marimba

q = 96

& 46 # wwæ .. π ? 46 ww .. æ

Begin slowing the tremolo so that it sounds awkward, unbalanced, and irregular (by not playing "into" the bar with quasi-dead strokes for the tremolo), like a mechanical failure. M. 5 should NOT sound like a sharp contrast to m.4.

44 æ wwæ > ≈ ‰ > ww > b œ œ Œ Œ bœ FÓ r ww 44 ww b œ æ æ >

3 wwæ > > 4 # œ œ > œ œ > bœ œ nœ Œ b œ ‰ Jœ Œ ww 3 œ œ bœ œ œ b œ 4 æ > >

Figure 3.2: excerpt from See Ya Thursday (1993) for solo marimba by Steven Mackey, mm. 1 – 53 Roll Speed The speed of a roll—and vibrato speed on a vibraphone—are determined by what the percussionist thinks the composer is looking for; the speed will be part of the total musical concept. In general, the goal of the percussionist is to start from nothing with a flat, sustained sound and to build in roll speed variation if musically necessary. Most times, only the most even roll speed is used in order to sustain the tone as purely as possible, but at other times the roll may be played more rubato. Varying roll speed and vibrato speed on a vibraphone4 is a percussionist’s expressive equivalent of a string player’s or singer’s vibrato. However, roll speed—especially when rolling from one chord to another—is not always varied and/or slow solely because it is idiomatically convenient.

3 Steven Mackey, See Ya Thursday (1993) (New York: Boosey & Hawkes: Hendon Music, ca. 1993). 4 This includes hand vibrato (vibrato produced by quickly waving the hand over the metal bars of various types of sustaining percussion instruments, i.e. the vibraphone and various types of orchestra bells) and mouth vibrato, which is produced by opening and closing the mouth. Mouth vibrato acts as a primary and/or secondary resonator over the bars of metallophones (mainly the high-pitched bars) at various speeds.

139 When practicing rolls, percussionists will often initially “meter” them: they will roll the chords using a simple rhythmic subdivision of the piece such as rolling thirty-second notes for a half-note chord in 4/4 time: Marimba q = 80

& 44 ˙˙æ ? 44 ˙˙ æ

Ó Ó

∑ practiced as

∑

roll notated as a “metered” roll

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Ó œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Ó œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ RÔ

The first notes in a roll are often played simultaneously in both hands in order to give the chord a clean, full-sounding beginning.

Figure 3.3: rolled half-note chord notated as “metered” thirty-second notes Once seasoned percussionists learn a piece, they usually do not strictly meter the rolls in a real performance situation. One obvious reason for this is that these rhythmic subdivisions might begin to sound like a specifically notated rhythm rather than a roll. During the beginning of the twentieth century, percussionists generally seemed to use more consistent roll speed. This assumption, although somewhat dubious, hinges on hearing early twentieth-century xylophone recordings and reading early xylophone technique books. Roll speed is determined by many musical factors such as tempo, dynamics and register. The bottom notes in a chord ring longer than the top notes and percussionists often roll low notes or chords slower than

140 high notes or chords. Softer dynamics also demand slower roll speeds than louder dynamics. Roll speed is also determined by factors related to the instrument and mallets: the type of mallets being used; the shape of the bars (certain bar shapes usually have more sustain); whether the insides of the resonators are clean or not (cleaner resonators allow more amplification); whether the resonators are in tune with the bars and with the acoustics of the performing space; whether the bars are clean and in good condition, i.e. not splintered, cracked or otherwise damaged; and whether the bars are made out of high-quality wood or not. Roll Types There are various types of rolls that are different from the typical traditional and one-handed rolls most composers are usually familiar with. These include the Stevens, Musser, irregular, Guatemalan and mandolin rolls. (See the Roll Chart in the appendix for further explanation and notational examples.) Almost all of these rolls can be played with many combinations of mallets.5 Probably the single most important literary contribution to the world of bar percussion technique during the twentieth century is “Method of Movement for Marimba” by Leigh Howard Stevens. In this book, Stevens exhaustively analyzes how a percussionist could approach physical movement and various strokes, or as he puts

5 Linda L. Pimentel, “Marimba Clinic,” Percussive Notes 20, no. 3 (1982).

141 it, “the mechanical principles of good technique.”6 His book also analyzes in explicit detail how most rolls are accomplished. “Method of Movement for Marimba” outlines four basic categories of hand motion that apply to most rolls: single independent, single alternating, double vertical and double lateral. The following figure shows examples of these four types of hand motion7:

6 Leigh Howard Stevens, Method of Movement for Marimba, Second ed. (New Jersey: Keyboard Percussion Publications, 1990). 7 These are but a few of the variations on these strokes. It is highly recommended that composers refer to Method of Movement for Marimba for a more thorough compilation of the variety of available strokes.

142 Single Alternating Strokes Deliberate alternation between any two notes using two mallets in one hand (can begin with outside or inside mallets)

Single Independent Strokes Played on any note using a single mallet, i.e. 1, 2, 3, or 4 (outside or inside mallets)

& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ?4 ∑ ∑ 4 Single alternating strokes merge into single-motion double lateral strokes as tempo increases

Double Vertical Strokes Notes played simultaneously in each hand, individually or at the same time

Double Lateral Strokes Single, fluid arm/hand motion that produces two successive pitches (can begin with outside or inside mallets) q = Ç 60 - 120

or 3 4 etc... 1

&œ œ ? œœ

œœ œœ

œœ

œœ œœ

œ œ œ œ œ œœ≈œ ≈œ ≈œ ≈œ ≈œ ≈œœ≈œ 6

∑

Figure 3.4: four categories of hand motion8 Within these categories of hand motion, there are various types of strokes since some of the types of motion have inside and outside versions and are varied according to speed. There are also other types such as the motion used for the “mandolin roll,” motions used for the varieties of dead-strokes, the raised mallet variation of the double vertical stroke used for the Musser roll (i.e. a one-handed “flam”) and the independent or onehanded roll.

8 Stevens, Method of Movement for Marimba.

143 Any of the roll types can be combined in various ways to notate other types of sustain, as shown in the following example: Marimba

(Stevens)

(traditional) q = Ç 88

> 3 bœ & 4 ˙æ F ?3 ∑ 4

#˙ 4 b˙. 3 >œ ˙ œ 4 4 #˙ # >œ œ œ œ #˙ 44 Œ ∑ ∑ ∑ ‰ . 3 4

(one-handed)

(mandolin)

(Guatemalan)

> œœ ‰ . ˙æ œ #˙˙˙ æ > œ ‰.

œœ œœ ‰ Œ Œ p

∑

Figure 3.5: example that utilizes combined roll types

Hand Leading With Alternating Hand Rolls There are two main methods that percussionists use when starting a roll with two or more notes: starting with two hands together (as shown in Figure 3.3), and starting with the melodic line(s) first, the harmony line(s) second. The advantage of the first method is that both voices will sound together instead of sounding staggered: the chord will have a very solid beginning. This method is especially effective with accented diads or chords. However, if not done very carefully, an accented chordal entrance is almost assured. If done carefully, this type of roll attack can make the beginning of a roll sound very clean and precise. The advantage of the second method is that it will not have an unwanted, accented beginning (unless you purposely give it one). With this method, the initial three strokes of the roll may be played faster or

144 slower, creating two distinct effects. Playing the initial three strokes faster creates the illusion of the voices starting simultaneously, without an unwanted accentuation or a double stop. When playing in the low register of the marimba, leading with the left hand (the hand closest to the low register) often “creates the illusion that all four notes move simultaneously because of the short delay in the lower register. This also helps in disguising the rhythm or pulse of the roll and smoothes out the overall texture.”9 It is important that composers understand how percussionists roll and also how hand-leading works. Although seasoned percussionists are very good at figuring out sticking solutions for almost any passage, having an understanding of how they move around their instruments will enable composers to write music that works well technically. One Note (“Independent”) Rolls When percussionists roll with two mallets on the same note, it is usually not significant which hand will lead. However, it is often easier for percussionists to think of going up the keyboard when beginning the roll—preceding the intended direction—with the hand closest to the direction you will go to. In other words, if the percussionist is about play an ascending pattern, the roll preceding it might be started with the right hand. If the roll is metered in duple time (i.e. eight 32nds equal a quarter note roll), then the right hand may comfortably play the next note after the roll: 9 Michael Burritt, “Focus on Performance: Four-Mallet Traditional Rolling,” Percussive Notes 29, no. 4 (1991).

145 q = Ç 84

Higher Final Note

œ J

2 & 4 ˙æ R

q = Ç 84

‰

œ œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ J ‰ Œ

R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L

Lower Final Note

& 42 ˙æ

j ‰ Œ œ

L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R

œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ

j ‰ Œ œ L

Figure 3.6: metered, one-note roll with two different sticking solutions for moving to a higher or lower note with the same mallet The example above illustrates a situation in which the percussionist will want to keep the roll at an even speed. If the roll is accelerated or decelerated at any given point, then the possibilities for creating workable stickings are vast. This type of sticking solution might work particularly well if there is a crescendo or diminuendo where the roll accelerates or decelerates: q = Ç 84

Higher Final Note

& 42 œæ. F

j œ@ Jœ ‰ Œ f

2 & 4 œæ. F

j œ@

q = Ç 84

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Jœ ‰ Œ 5 F f L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L

Lower Final Note

j ‰ Œ œ f L

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ 5 F f R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R

Figure 3.7: one-note roll with two different sticking solutions for moving to a higher or lower note with a different mallet

146 The position of two mallet heads rolling on a single bar matter most to a percussionist when preceding a move to a raised bar, i.e. a sharp or a flat. In this case, the hand that will go to the raised bar should be on the outside (farthest away from the percussionist) and the hand that will stay stationary should stay on the inside:

q = Ç 84

& 42 ˙æ

q = Ç 84

2 & 4 ˙æ

Higher Final Note on Raised Key

bœ J R

‰

Lower Final Note on Raised Key

j bœ L

‰

L E

Figure 3.8: one-note roll on lowered keys moving to raised keys and accompanying illustrations In the example above, if the percussionist tries to end the roll with the opposite hand, and if the roll is metered, there is a risk of the mallets becoming tangled. This is especially true if the percussionist wants to play on the center of the raised bar. One of the reasons that the outside mallet

147 should “lead” when going upward to a raised bar has to do with speed: there is less physical distance to be covered if the mallet head is already closer to the bar or spot on the bar where it needs to land. All of these issues of rolling assume that the mallet heads are such that one is slightly closer to the player and one is slightly farther away. If the mallet heads are small enough, the bars are large enough, or the percussionist is very good at rolling in the exact same spot on the bar (so the mallets are not overlapping at all), then many of these mallet head positioning issues become less important. The issue of mallet head positioning while rolling on a bar also applies to one-handed rolls, as seen in the following example:

q = Ç 84

2 &4 ˙ 4 3

4 F

Higher Final Note on Raised Key 4

bœ J

‰

q = Ç 84 Lower Final Note on Raised Key

& 42 ˙ 1 2

j bœ

h = one-handed roll

1 F

Figure 3.9: one-note, one-handed rolls on lowered keys moving to raised keys and accompanying illustrations

148 Three or More Note Rolls As with rolling with two notes, percussionists can either start with two hands together, or if circumstances dictate, start with the melodic line(s) first, the harmony line(s) second. When a percussionist uses more than four mallets at a time, there are obviously many more possibilities for creative rolling. For example, the outer mallets of each hand (mallets 1 and 6) could start the roll and then the inner mallets (2, 3, 4, and 5) could fade in or quietly sustain a loud attack. If four or more mallets are used, the percussionist can play a onehanded roll and also play something else with the mallets in the other hand. The following example is from Graffito (1988) for solo marimba by composer and percussionist Marta Ptaszynska, a composer who has written extensively for the marimba:

149

Figure 3.10: example of a one-handed roll from Graffito (1988) for solo marimba by Marta Ptaszynska, systems 1 – 410 One-Handed Rolls When playing one-handed rolls, percussionists concentrate on making sure that the inner and out mallets stay equal in intensity, i.e. volume. An interesting attribute of one-handed rolls is that no matter how close the mallets are when rolling, the percussionist will never be able to place the mallets so tightly that they are rolling on exactly the same spot of the bar: this is especially true on high notes. This means that it is crucial for the

10 Marta Ptaszynska, Graffito (1988) (King of Prussia, PA: Theodore Presser Company, 1988).

150 inner and outer mallets to be placed exactly equidistantly from the center of the bar to achieve a consistent sound. This information adds an interesting facet to the debate about whether the ideal sound of a bar being struck is in the exact center or slightly off center. This may be compared to playing membranophones, on which the ideal sound is usually considered to be slightly off-center. This is especially true on timpani, on which playing on the node—the center of the drum—is usually considered to be a special effect rather than the ideal “norm.” For percussionists, the type of mallets that are selected play a crucial role in deciding where the ideal playing spot is on the bars. Harder mallets tend to bring out higher partials—mainly the partial two octaves above the fundamental—in the lower register of the keyboard, especially on marimbas and vibraphones. In addition, the bars that are most likely to crack when played in the exact center are the bars in the lowest octaves since these bars are relatively thin at the center and the centers of the bars are structurally the weakest points.

Vibrato The three different methods of producing vibrato on the vibraphone are mechanical vibrato, hand vibrato and mouth vibrato. Mechanical vibrato is produced on a vibraphone by a variable-speed motor that rotates disks mounted inside the top openings of the resonators. The speed of the vibrato is not consistent between different vibraphone

151 manufacturers, but it is usually possible to at least request three speeds, slow, medium and fast. On some models, the speed is 25-250 rpm (rotations per minute), on others it is 25-150 rpm, but on others there is no specified speed. The motors usually have an on/off switch and a slider or dial with many speed notches, often up to ten. It is wise for composers to check with percussionists and see what the different speeds sound like if they are concerned with being absolutely precise. It is also difficult if not impossible on many vibraphones (especially older ones) to have the motor turn on and off with complete precision, exactly on a beat. However, new vibraphones have much more precise motors, so perhaps this problem will no longer be an issue in the future. Percussionists do their best to anticipate how the motor will work and if a composer specifies when to turn the motor on and off, the percussionist can usually make it sound close enough to be quite satisfactory. In the following example, George Crumb indicates that Percussion II should “switch on vibrato precisely with claves!” played by Percussion I:

152

Figure 3.11: switching on vibrato in George Crumb’s Music for a Summer Evening, Makrokosmos III (1974) for two amplified pianos and percussion (two players), p. 8, system 111 In the preceding example, Crumb’s scoring is both clever and effective: the loud note in the claves acts as a trigger for Percussionist II to switch on the vibrato. Crumb gives the percussionist just enough time to do this, and he even leaves the pianos out during this transition so that there are not too many events to line up at once and the vibrato will definitely be heard. All notes played on the vibraphone ring in this movement, and it is common practice to place a weight on the vibraphone pedal to keep it depressed at all times. 11 George Crumb, Music for a Summer Evening, Makrokosmos Iii (1974) (New York: C. F. Peters, 1974).

153 The speed of the vibrato can be adjusted while chords are ringing as long as the percussionist has a moment to reach down and adjust the controls: Vibraphone

#œ & 43 # # œœœ ƒ

motor on – medium

˙˙ ˙˙

fast

œœ ‰ œœ ˙˙ œœ ˙˙ œœ f (fast)

˙˙˙ ˙

medium

œœœ ‰ Œ b b ˙˙ ˙˙ œ p

motor off

˙˙ .. ii ˙˙ .. II

)

Figure 3.12: adjusting the speed of the vibrato on the vibraphone while chords are ringing Although somewhat difficult to coordinate, it is even possible for percussionists to play with one hand while turning the motor on and off or adjusting the speed of the vibrato with one hand, as seen in the following example:

Figure 3.13: playing notes and adjusting the speed of the vibrato on the vibraphone at the same time

Hand vibrato is another way of giving a little more body to the sound of ringing bars, particularly with orchestra bells but also with vibraphone.

154 The percussionist accomplishes this by rapidly waving one or two hands—with or without mallets—over the ringing bars: Vibraphone

q = Ç 56

œ œ b œ œh 4 œ b œ œ œ A œœœ &4 bœ > F f ° )

˙˙ .. i ˙ .I

hand vibrato *)

*) Hand vibrato: while holding the mallets, wave your hands over the ringing notes to create a subtle vibrato effect

Figure 3.14: example of hand vibrato on the orchestra bells Composers should keep in mind that this is an extremely subtle effect that is most effective in a solo or chamber setting and will most likely be lost in a thick orchestral texture; requesting a specific speed might be meaningless as the sound dies away very quickly. This effect is almost more visual or theatrical than aural, and composers would be wise to listen to this effect before requesting it. Another technique that is quite effective on the vibraphone and less so on the orchestra bells is called mouth vibrato. The percussionist accomplishes this by opening his or her mouth over the ringing bar and using it as a secondary resonator. A precise rhythm may be asked for or the rhythm may be left up to the percussionist. Although the following example is quite specific, it is also possible to simply write the words ‘mouth vibrato’ above the appropriate note or notes and leave the speed of the vibrato up to the percussionist.

155 Vibraphone

h = Ç 56, largo 2

('F' only)

& 32 ˙˙ ww F °

etc... *)

˙ w

Ó Œ ˙ w

motor on – medium

b ˙˙ ww Ii > )

*) Use mouth as a resonator: place mouth approximately 2 inches above ringing bar and produce an "ow" sound by opening and closing mouth. = open mouth = pursed lips

Figure 3.15: example of mouth vibrato on the vibraphone

Dampening Dampening probably first came into use with the invention of the vibraphone, and particularly by jazz vibraphonists such as Gary Burton and David Samuels. It is now a commonplace technique, even among classical performers. Although dampening is probably most effective on the vibraphone due to the long ring time of the bars, it is also a useful technique for all of the other bar percussion instruments. Dampening is usually done with mallet heads, although it can also be done with the mallet shafts (although there might be a slight “buzz” or “tick” sound), hands (e.g. fingers) or other implements. In general, percussionists usually do not want to hear the impact of the mallet head, shaft or other

156 implement dampening the bar unless that effect is deliberately wanted. When the impact sound is intentional, it is called a dead-stroke. Dampening can help you achieve clarity in executing melodies or phrases by preventing notes from needlessly ringing into each other.12 On the marimba, very subtle melodic or harmonic shading may be achieved by dampening specific notes. On percussion instruments such as the vibraphone, rolling is obviously not necessary to achieve a long, sustained tone. You can add or remove (dampen) notes to already sustaining notes to achieve harmonies. This does not defeat the addition of two mallets to facilitate six-mallet technique, for example, but adds to it. There are six distinct types of dampening13: slide dampening (opposite hand dampening); touch-tone dampening; adjacent-note mallet dampening; gradual dampening; delayed dampening; delayed dead-stroke dampening; dead-stroke dampening; mallet head buzz dampening and hand or finger dampening. Dead-stroke playing is not a dampening technique because it is generally considered to be an impact sound rather than a method of dampening. Opposite Hand or Slide Dampening Opposite hand or slide dampening is achieved when one mallet follows another (usually, although not always, from the opposite hand), by dampening notes in scale-type passages as they are played. The 12 Jerry Tachoir, Clarity in Executing Lines on the Vibraphone through the Use of Dampening (Ludwig/Musser, A Selmer Company, 2003 [cited June 21 2003]); available from http://www.ludwigdrums.com/education/vib_damp.html. 13 Ibid.([cited).

157 percussionist makes a smooth melodic line by dampening the previous note as the next note is played. Although the mallet that is dampening can “slide” from one ringing note to the next ringing note (i.e. not be lifted off of the bars), the percussionist can dampen more cleanly by lifting the mallet and dampening each note individually. Keep in mind that this depends on tempo: if the percussionist is playing a very fast passage, it will be very difficult to completely lift the mallet off of the bars. Obviously, this type of dampening works very well for scalar passages. If done correctly, the slide or shift from one note to another will not be audible. This technique is particularly effective when the percussionist uses yarn or cord-covered mallets. Vibraphone

q = Ç 120 4

& 49 œ œ F °

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œœ ..

œœ œœ J

)

œœ ..

œœ œœ >œ œ œ . J (ord.)

˙I

)

= slide dampening: dampen each note simultaneously with playing the next so that they do not ring into each other

Figure 3.16: example of slide dampening or opposite hand dampening14 Touch-tone Dampening Touch-tone dampening is primarily used for intervals: while one note is being played by one hand, the previous note is dampened by the hand 14 The notation used in this example is derived from standard harp notation found in Music Notation in the Twentieth Century by Kurt Stone (Norton). I chose not to use x’s for the note heads (i.e. the notation used by jazz vibraphonists such as Jerry Tachoir) since they are also used to indicate playing on the edges of the bars with mallet shafts.

158 that played it.15 To eliminate inaccuracy and excess hand motion, the percussionist can assign a specific area for each mallet. For example, the lowest mallet could cover the first octave of the vibraphone from ‘F’ to ‘F’ and the next mallet could cover middle ‘C’ to ‘E’ a twelfth above, etc. Notice that each playing area will overlap somewhat. This is important: knowing that each mallet has a specific playing area may help to determine how to write effective intervalic passages. The following example illustrates touch-tone dampening: Vibraphone

q = Ç 112

œ4 1 1 2 œ & 44 b œ b œ bœ f ° ) 3

b œ3

b œ2

œ4 ˙ i

= dampen each note simultaneously while playing the next so that they do not ring into each other.

Figure 3.17: example of touch-tone dampening

Adjacent-note Mallet Dampening A percussionist can accomplish adjacent-note mallet dampening using any mallet. This technique is for adjacent notes of either a step or halfstep. The object for the percussionist is to dampen the first note at the same time the next one is played, but with the same mallet. The goal for the percussionist is to have one smooth motion without hearing the

15 Tachoir, Clarity in Executing Lines on the Vibraphone through the Use of Dampening ([cited).

159 dampening attack.16 There is a very slight overlap of the new note with the previous note because the same mallet is being used, but if done quickly and quietly, this is almost imperceptible. It would make sense to use this technique on orchestra bells as the percussionist usually cannot pedal between chords. This technique is most easily accomplished by asking the percussionist to use yarn or cord mallets on vibraphone or low marimba and rubber mallets on orchestra bells: Vibraphone

q = Ç 92

œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ 3 & 4 œ b œœ b b œœ b b œœœ b b œœœ b b œœœ PJ PJ PJ P PJ J F 1 1 sim. °

œ œ œ œ œ œ b ∫ b œœœ œœ œœ PJ

U ˙. ˙˙˙ .. . u

Figure 3.18: example of adjacent-note mallet dampening

Gradual Dampening Gradual dampening is when the percussionist touches the bars with the mallet heads so as to muffle the bars and gradually—rather than abruptly—stop them from ringing. Gently dampening the bars generally works better for bar percussion instruments with metal bars because of their longer ring time. Gradual dampening is also effective on orchestra bells, crotales, tubular chimes and even very low notes of the marimba and xylophone. Yarn and cord mallets work best for this effect; if the

16 Ibid.([cited).

160 mallets are too hard, the contact sound of the mallets buzzing against the bars will be heard. Gradual dampening is demonstrated in the following example: Vibraphone

q = Ç 66

> 6> & 8 œœ ‚‚ ‰ œœ ‚‚ ‰ f ° ‚ = dead-stroke 2

9 >œœ ‚‚ ‰ œ ‚ ‰ œ ‚ ‰ #œ ‚ œ ‚ 8 > > F P

Figure 3.19: gradual dampening (gently dampening intervals with soft dead-strokes) Delayed Dampening Delayed dampening means to silently dampen the notes just after other notes are played. This effect may be utilized when the phrase or line is not closely spaced and there is ample time to dampen.17 This may be notated by placing a dampen sign on the stems of notes or by placing the sign directly above a rest, as shown in the following example:

17 David Friedman and David Samuels, The Friedman Samuels Mallet Duo, Pamphlet. (Ludwig Industries Inc., [ca. 1975]).

161 Vibraphone

q = Ç 72 motor on - medium speed

& 43 œ œ F °

˙˙˙ ˙

)

Pœœœ ‰ . œ˙ œ bœ ˙ .. I

œi

Œ ® P ‰. œi iœ 42 œ I œœ I œ

P = dampen P- = dampen at specific point Figure 3.20: example of delayed dampening

Delayed Dead-stroke Dampening Delayed dead-stroke dampening occurs when the percussionist plays notes (usually on a vibraphone with the pedal depressed) and then uses silent dead-strokes to dampen the notes. Although this technique could work on the lowest octaves of a marimba or even a xylophone, it is probably most effective on a vibraphone because of the long ring time of the bars: Vibraphone

q = Ç 132

Uœ . #œ 6 œ &8 œ ƒ ° ‚ = dead stroke 2

‚ (ñ)

‚

‚ #‚ ‰ ‰

Figure 3.21: example of delayed dead-stroke dampening

162 Dead-stroke Dampening Dead-stroke dampening is accomplished by playing a chord or notes with the pedal depressed and then dampening the notes so that the mallet attacks are heard when the bars are dampened with the mallet heads. These are different from dead-strokes in that the bars are ringing first (i.e. the pedal is depressed if the instrument is a vibraphone) before “deadstroking.” Marimba

q = Ç 66

> . > . ? 68 œœ ‚‚ ‰ œœ ‚‚ ‰ 4

f F

?6 œ ‚ ‰ œ ‚ ‰ 8 œ ‚. œ ‚ > > . ‚ = dead-stroke

> . > . > . 98 œœ ‚‚ ‰ # œœ ‚‚ ‰ œœ ‚‚ ‰ f F F P Pp 9 œ ‚ ‰ 8 œ ‚. # œœ ‚‚ ‰ œœ ‚‚ ‰ > > . > .

Figure 3.22: dead-stroke dampening (fully and abruptly dampening chords with dead-strokes)

The example in figure 3.22 is notated so that the percussionist will make an audible dead-stroke sound. In fact, it is possible to make a differentiation between a very hard dead-stroke and a gentle dead-stroke. It is even theoretically possible to place fractions above notes or chords that will indicate the intensity of the desired dead-stroke (i.e. dead-stroke 1/4, 1/2, 3/4). However, this is a detail that is probably better left up to percussionists due to other factors such as the instruments and mallets being used, the acoustics of the performance space, etc.

163

Mallet Head Buzz Dampening Depending on which mallets are called for in the music or used by the percussionist, many different dead-stroke effects can be achieved. For example, hard rubber mallets gently depressed on the bars (either on the centers, off-centers or nodes) can create a “buzz” type effect: Percussion

q = Ç 72

‰ bœ ˙˙˙˙ mmmm mmmm ‰ bN œœœ

4 Vibraphone

& 44 # ‹ b ˙˙˙˙ v ƒ °

≈ ˙˙ ..mmmmmmm mmmmmmm # œœ .. ˙˙ .. mmmmmmm mmmmmmm ˙

^ œœ .. mmm ^ mmm >œœ œœ mm i mmm œœ œœ .. mmm mm

? 3 b œœ

Marimba

mm = buzz mallet heads on bars

)

‰

v̇

F > ˙˙ mmmmmm mmmmmm œœ ii œœ œœ .. œœ mm mm f> P N

N = node

Figure 3.23: example of mallet head buzz dampening (dead-stroked chords lightly dampened with hard rubber mallets so that the “buzz” of the attack is notated and heard) Notice in the above figure that a squiggle line represents the buzzing of the mallet heads on the bars. If the notes of the chords are close together, the squiggle may represent more than one note, as in the first measure. As we will see later in this chapter in the section titled Miscellaneous Other Implements, objects other than mallet shafts and heads can be “buzzed” against the bars while they are being played.

164

Hand or Finger Dampening Hand or finger dampening, also called muffling, is easiest when dampening up or down by step, either half steps or whole steps, especially moving from the low set of bars—naturals—to the high set of bars, or accidentals. Finger dampening is very useful for half step progressions:

Vibraphone

q = Ç 88

˘ œ œ œj œ j j & 68 œœœ œœ b œœœ œ œœœ . œœ œœ #N# œœœ # # œœ b œœœ œ œœœ . œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ œœœ . œ œœ b œœ ‰ ‰ Œ . >P >P >P J J fl J F p P ƒ ° 3

muffle note with fingers of left hand

Figure 3.24: example of hand or finger dampening Of course, if the percussionist is only playing with one hand, the other hand is free to dampen the bars with either the individual fingers or the full palm of the hand because mallets are not being held. It is also possible for the percussionist to use fingers of one hand to dampen the bars while the other hand plays notes, especially while holding one mallet in each hand rather than two:

165 Vibraphone

P- P- P-

q = Ç 112

œ^ > > > b œ & 44 œ ≈ œ ≈ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ b œ 42 œ I œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ 43 ≈ b œ ≈ b œ ≈ œ ≈ œ ≈ ≈ > > > >> >> >> v >> >> vI > > ƒ f ± ° 4

œ b >œ œ œ (ƒ )

simile (muffle on 16th rests)

bœ œ Nœ bœ

œ œ bœ f

4 b‚ ‚ ‚ b‚ ‚ N‚ 4 œi ‚ ‚ b b œœ ..

œœ i I

= gently but quickly muffle with fingers = dead-strokes

Figure 3.25: example of intricate finger dampening

Nodes & Pitch Bending Nodes As seen in the section on “attack” in Chapter 2 (p. 94), there are various striking areas on bars that sound different from each other. One area in particular that is often exploited to great effect by composers and percussionists is the node. The partial that is most prominent when striking the node can be seen in the following example:

166 Marimba

& 98

∑

? 98 >œ >œ >œ œ^ ‰ œ^ ‰ œ^ ‰ N

∑ alternative notation...

∑

>o >o >o œô œô œô œœœ ‰ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ

( )( ) ( )( )

( )

N = node

Figure 3.26: two different ways of notating playing on the nodes Of the two different notational methods shown above, the first one is probably more useful. The second method is more specific about which partials should sound, but not all marimbas produce audible partial two octaves above the fundamental; some marimbas have audible partials that sound an octave and a twelfth above. If you want to notate exact partials you should consult with the percussionist before writing the part. If nonspecific partials are adequate, it is only necessary to specify that the notes should be played on the nodes, without notating the resulting partials, as in the first measure in the above example. For vibraphone, the first and most audible partial is always two octaves above the fundamental. It is important to keep in mind that isolated node partials are most audible if played in the lowest two and one-half octaves of a five-octave marimba (‘C’ to ‘C’) and perhaps the lowest octave of the vibraphone (‘F’ to ‘F’). Since orchestra bells are pitched so high and the bars are usually mounted with screws through the top of the bar instead of cord through the side, percussionists cannot obtain partials on these instruments.

167 Nodes can be played both as an isolated sound from the “normal” sound and can also be played by gradually moving from one area of the bar to another: Vibraphone

q. = Ç 44 2

& 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ I‰ ‰ . Œ . F f F ° ) N

= center of bar

= node

Figure 3.27: example of moving from the center of the bar, to the node and back to the center on a vibraphone Marimba nodes

norm.

nodes

norm.

nodes

norm.

& bb œœœœ> œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ bb œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ > >> > > SR S r l r l etc. poco a poco ƒ rit.

Slowly poco a poco accel.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & œ bb œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ # œ œ œ. œ. > > nodes

norm.

dim.

nd.

nm.

normal

nodes

cresc.

Figure 3.28: example of moving from the center of the bar, to the node and back to the center in Ode for Marimba (1979) by Gordon Stout, mm. 17 – 2018 18 Gordon Stout, Ode for Marimba (1989) (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Paul Price Publications: Distributed by Music for Percussion, Inc., 1989).

168

In figure 3.26, the notational symbols used indicating ‘center’ and ‘node’ are derived from those found in Eight Pieces for Four Timpani (1968) by Elliott Carter.19 Although Carter originally intended these symbols to be used for mallet placement on timpani heads, they also work well for indicating mallet head placement on bars. The advantage of using these symbols instead of others—such as note heads with different shapes—is that you can indicate movement from the node to the center, and if necessary, be even more specific about mallet head placement on the bars. The symbols also take up less space than descriptive words. In my experience, harder mallets will work better for this effect; the harder the mallet heads, the clearer the bar sound at the node will be. Harder mallets will produce less contact noise on the nodes. However, if the mallets are too hard, they might not produce a full sound on the center of the bar. Although I think it is always wise for composers to give some indication of the mallet choice they think will work best—especially if they ask for mallets that are out of the ordinary—the ultimate decision should be left up to the percussionist to pick the most appropriate mallets. Pitch Bending Pitch bending is most effective on the vibraphone due to the long sustain time of the bars.20 In fact, it is my experience that on any other bar percussion instrument this effect is essentially inaudible or even impossible. This effect has been particularly popular with jazz 19 Elliot Carter, Eight Pieces for Four Timpani (1968) (New York: Associated Music Publishers, ca. 1968). 20 It is important to note that the pitch can only bend downward.

169

vibraphonists such as Gary Burton. For example, the recording Crystal Silence (1973) recorded with Burton and Chick Corea contains a song called Arise, Her Eyes by Steve Swallow that contains multiple pitch bends. In concert music, perhaps the best-known solo vibraphone work that calls for pitch bending is Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) by Christopher Deane. In the performance notes for this work, Deane states that “this work contains a literal transcription of a Mourning Dove song” and the pitch bends in his work are meant to mimic the sounds of a mourning dove. The composer also instructs the percussionist to hold two bows and two mallets at the same time. The right hand mallet bends notes while the bows and the other mallet play notes. A percussionist, Deane goes to great lengths to instruct the performer on how to bend the notes: Bending Notes Pitch bending can be one of the most demanding technical aspects of this piece. The usual mallet used by the vibraphonist is a hard rubber mallet. This type of mallet works well in that the rubber minimizes the contact sound that can occur when the mallet first arrives on the bar. The composer uses a harder mallet of a nylon or Dalron material with a rattan shaft. (One example is the Innovative Percussion Co. product IP902.) This type of mallet allows for bending over a greater range of the instrument because of it’s decreased absorption of the bar vibration. The down side of this type of stick is that there is an increased danger of contact sound. It is recommended to place the mallet on the bar on the nodal point (place where the cord goes through the bar) with the mallet shaft at about a 70° angle. Press down so the shaft bends significantly, and move the mallet head in the direction of the bar center. Some bars work well with a motion that stays near one side of the bar. Some notes bend well with a semicircular motion from the bar edge towards the bar center or towards one end of the bar, away from the center. The performer should

170 experiment with each bar that is played using this technique to decide which motion works best. To minimize contact, a small circle of a soft material such as Moleskin may be placed at the top of the mallet to provide an arrival point. Once on the bar, the performer rolls the mallet head off the soft area to the exposed mallet head material and activates the note bend.21 The following example from Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) for solo vibraphone shows an example of pitch bending and also the author’s illustration of how to hold two mallets and two bows at the same time:

21 Adapted from the performance notes for Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) by Christopher Deane.

171 Vibraphone

b ≥œ i J ‰ Ó b ≥œ i J ‰ œ

{q = 80-88}

3 4 &

134

(

°)

138

≤ & œ ° ‰ J (

·) ˙ȯ

(

∑ ·) ȯ

b ≥œ i J ‰ Ó b ≥œ i œ b œ J ‰

b ≥œ i J ‰ Ó

b ≥œ i b œ J ‰

b ≥œ i J ‰ Œ bœ ‰ ‰ J J Œ

b ≥œ i J ‰

∑ 3

œ bœ

bœ

œ bœ

nœ

bœ

= This notation directs the performer to bend a note that has been sounded on a previous beat. The bend should occur on the rhythmic beat indicated without being sounded a second time. = This notation means to produ

Standard vibe mallet in left hand.

Pitch bending mallet in right hand.

Figure 3.29: excerpt that demonstrates pitch bending from Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) for solo vibraphone by Christopher Deane, mm. 134 – 14022

22 Christopher Deane, Mourning Dove Sonnet (1983) (Nashville, TN: Innovative Percussion, 1983).

172

Pedaling23 Pedals are usually found on all vibraphones. Vibraphonists—and those percussionists fortunate enough to have access to orchestra bells with pedals—usually use the right foot for pedaling, instinctively balancing their weight evenly on both the toe and heel of the left foot. Pedaling is often used for quick changes in harmony in fast passages or clearing harmonies in preparation for new harmonies. A common misconception by both performers and composers is that the pedal is used only for “on off” pedaling. If the percussionist is an experienced professional, the pedal may be used for half pedaling or flutter pedaling, described below. As with the piano, pedaling can be used very tastefully or very poorly, depending on the performer. Composers frequently request specific pedaling techniques, but unlike with many piano parts, composers usually expect the performer to do exactly what they call for, regardless of hall acoustics, varying mallets (if the composer was not specific about them), different instruments and possibly better pedaling ideas from the performer. One of the main reasons composers are often so strict when writing pedaling in vibraphone parts is that ringing bars have a more gradual decay than piano notes and harmonies can easily bleed into each other very quickly. Also, it is much easier for the purer, less complex sonorities of bar percussion notes to create a wash of ringing sound than with the piano, which has a much more complex overtone spectrum and 23 Some ideas for this section were taken from the article by Ted Pilzecker, “Vibe Workshop: Focus on Performance,” Percussive Notes 26, no. 2 (1988).

173 more distinctive note attacks. The decay of piano notes is tapered less gradually than with percussion instruments with metal bars. Another point to remember when writing pedal markings in percussion parts is that on some instruments, the higher bars will very often dampen a tiny bit more slowly then the lower ones. This is caused by many factors: the smaller sound waves and faster rate of vibration created by the smaller bars; the smaller surface area of the higher bars; the nature of the dampening mechanism on most vibraphones; and the amount of pressure of the damper bar that muffles the notes. This means that the percussionist needs a very quick cut-off, keeping in mind that the lower bars might cut off more quickly: Vibraphone

q = Ç 116

2Œ &4 Œ

œ bœ #œ œ ƒ °

œœ Œ

Brackets indicate cut-off time of chord.

Œ f b œœ Œ # œœ ƒ

œœ Œ

Figure 3.30: example illustrating bar cut-off with damper bar and approximate resulting ring time Seasoned percussionists will anticipate that the cut-off will be very slightly delayed with the higher notes of a chord. As shown in the example above, they can compensate for this by slightly graduating the dynamic from the bottom note to the top. Chords that are more closely

174 spaced (i.e. within the span on an octave) generally do not present a problem with delayed cut-off time. Similarly, percussionists can usually be assured that the lower bars will cut off when they are supposed to. This phenomenon can be an advantage: a chord or group of notes can be played from the bottom of the instrument to the top, and the percussionist will know ahead of time that the higher bars will ring a little longer: Vibraphone

q = Ç 116

& 42 œ b œ œ b œ œ œ œ f °

œœ

œ bœ nœ #œ F

œœ Œ

Figure 3.31: example of diminuendo from low to high on the vibraphone In the above example, the diminuendo occurs from the lowest note to the highest note. Since the higher notes are played more softly, the damper bar should theoretically cut off all of the notes exactly at once. If the dynamic level is even instead of graduated, the cut-off of the higher notes might be slightly delayed. This might work to the composer’s advantage for certain situations:

175 q = Ç 104

3 Flutes

3 Trumpets in C

& 42 2 &4

∑

∑ Vibraphone

Percussion I

# œœœ

2 & 4 œbœ œbœ œ f (sempre) °

œœœ

œ # œ b œ n œ œ

œœ œ

œœœ

≈

# œœœ ...

œœ

indicates approximate bar ring cut off from low to high

with straight mutes

Figure 3.32: example of even dynamic in vibraphone with same example in figure 3.30 (p. 172), but with an uneven cut-off and possible orchestration solution It should be emphasized that if the vibraphone damper bar is in excellent condition, the difference in cut-off time between the lowest and highest bars is very minimal. In fact, if the instrument is in top-notch condition, this phenomenon is essentially unnoticeable. Many modern vibraphones are made with more advanced dampening mechanisms that dampen the bars more accurately, so delayed cut-off time is less of an issue with many newer instruments. If the dampening mechanism is in excellent condition and adjusted properly, the difference in delayed ring time of the lower and higher dampened bars can be compensated for. However, if it is poorly calibrated, the opposite effect could be true: the lower bars will cut off more slowly than the upper ones. The ultimate goal that most percussionists want to achieve is for all of the bars to cut off at the same time, from the bottom to the top of the instrument, when they are

176 supposed to. However, the reality is that many vibraphones are often not calibrated correctly or maintained in excellent condition. This is often especially the case with instruments in grade schools and even high schools. If the dampening bar is bent, or if for some reason the tension is not completely even from the bottom note to the top, then specific dampening becomes a non-issue; the more important issue is then overcoming the inadequacy of the pedal dampening mechanism. In this case, it becomes strongly apparent that bar percussion instruments need to be built and maintained at a high level so that percussionists are able to adequately control the ring of the bars. Most well made instruments can do this, and older instruments can be maintained so that refined pedal dampening is not a problem. Professional percussionists are often very good at masking these mechanical deficiencies, but nevertheless, it is a good idea for composers to be aware of the idiosyncrasies of these instruments. The four distinct types of pedaling are full pedaling, half pedaling, flutter pedaling and after pedaling. Full Pedaling When full pedaling, the percussionist will completely depress the pedal in order to allow the ringing bars to sound:

177 Vibraphone

q = Ç 66, adagio

& 44 # œœœœ

f °

b bn œœœ bœ

œœ œœ

b b œœ # œœ

poco rit.

b œœ b œœ

# #n œœœ œ

b bn œœœœ

n nn œœœ œ

U ˙˙ ii I # # ˙˙ I u p

Figure 3.33: excerpt utilizing full pedaling

Half Pedaling Half pedaling differs from full pedaling in that some of the felt from the damper bar is allowed to touch the bars as they are ringing. Half pedaling may be used for articulation and phrasing emphasis and for creating a sustain that falls somewhere between pedaling and not pedaling. In order to achieve an effective half pedaled passage, the damper felt on the instrument must be a uniform distance and have a uniform pressure on each note for the entire range of the instrument when the pedal is depressed. Otherwise, some notes will ring when the pedal is depressed and some notes will sound short. Ideally, all notes should have an even decay in a half pedaled passage,24 yet the decay should be noticeably shorter than if the notes are left to ring to their fullest potential. Although the highest quality vibraphones are capable of capable of half pedaling to various degrees of sustain, it is wise for composers not to request more than a general half 24Of course, the length of the decay of the notes in a half-pedaled passage, let alone a full pedaled passage, is relative to the pitch and size of the bars, the tuning of the resonators (and whether the fan discs—for those instruments that have them—are anywhere from closed to opened or rotating, and even at what speed they are rotating), the acoustics of the room and whether the bar is in perfect condition or not.

178 pedaling effect until bar percussion instruments with pedals are built more precisely. Performers who are very familiar with their own instrument are capable of achieving varying degrees of shading with half pedaling. In this case, half pedaling with varying shades may be indicated. No two instruments are alike, so at this point in time, it is unwise to write anything more specific than general half pedaling for instruments that are as varied in quality and design as they are today. It is wise to consult the individual performer first before you write for half pedaling at all. Vibraphone

q = Ç 120

3 3 3 3 ä œ & 44 b œ œ n œ b œ œ b œ ‰ ‰ # œ œ # œ # œ œ- ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ b œ ‰ ‰ œ- ‰ ‰ œ- ‰ ‰ b œ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ Œ - œ3 3 F p f 3

1/2

(half pedal)

Figure 3.34: excerpt utilizing half pedaling Flutter Pedaling Flutter pedaling means to quickly, but lightly (in the style of halfpedaling) alternate the pedal up and down, to create a flutter effect. This is probably the most distinctive and “exotic” pedaling technique, being especially useful for improvisation of special effects in written compositions. This technique can be used for chimes as well as for vibraphone:

179 Vibraphone and Tubular Chimes

q = Ç 48 Vibraphone

i # œ œ ˙˙˙ ... i œ # 4 œ ˙˙˙˙˙ .... IIi & 4 œ bœ #œ œ œ ˙ .. I ƒ

1/2 flutter pedal

˙.i ˙˙˙ ... ii ˙˙ . I .I

Tubular Chimes

43 ∑

∑

Nœ

œ œ

œ bœ

bœ

1/2 flutter pedal

Figure 3.35: excerpt utilizing flutter pedaling25 Flutter pedaling is most effective when used in conjunction with half pedaling. The more lightly the pedal touches the bars, the more the bars will be able to fade out over a longer period of time. The speed of the percussionist’s foot coupled with the pressure of the damper felt on the bars will determine the duration of the fade out. After Pedaling After pedaling is accomplished by depressing the pedal immediately after the note or chord is struck, creating an echo-like effect. The pedal catches the ringing notes after a hard, staccato attack, creating a “staccato reverberation.”26 This technique can be used for forte-piano effects that require a quick yet audible decay. As with flutter pedaling, this technique is also very useful for improvisation or for special effects in written compositions. Unless the vibraphone is amplified, after pedaling is most effective when the bars are struck loudly. 25 The low ‘B’ used in this tubular chime example is rare, but may be found on chimes made by Adams Musical Instruments. 26 Kurt Stone, Music Notation in the Twentieth Century, First ed. (New York: Norton, 1980).

180

Vibraphone

q = 84, robotic

.. & 44 b b œœœœ œœœœ ........ b n Nb œœœœ œœœœ ...... vÿ vÿ ƒ ( π) ƒ ( π) 4

^´ œ æ . œ œ œ œ & b œ œ . œ b b œœ ‰ . vÿ ( π ) ƒ ƒ

œœ œœ # n œœœ vÿ ƒ

œœ œÿœ v

# œ œ .. œ œ .. vÿ ( π )

˙ ˙

œ ‰. Œ œÿ v ƒ

Figure 3.36: vibraphone part utilizing after pedaling

Bowing on Bar Percussion Instruments Bows are a particularly interesting addition to the arsenal of tools available to percussionists. With bows, percussionists can achieve a moreor-less continuous, sustained sound on the vibraphone or even on other keyboard percussion instruments. The “sustain” of a bowed vibraphone bar is much longer than if the bar is struck with a mallet and also does not necessarily diminuendo in volume. Bowed bars can actually crescendo in volume, but with a sound that is generally much smoother than if the bars are rolled with mallets. Some composers, such as Bent Sørensen, have composed very effective music using bowed bar percussion. The following two examples

181 are from Sørensen’s Funeral Procession (1989) for violin, viola and chamber ensemble: Vibraphone

Calmœ lontano {q = 54}

œ œ œ œ R Øpos. ° arco

& 43 ‰ .

œ œ

w 44 w

˙ .i ˙ . I (l.v.)

œ œ

f dim.

° al niente") al niente

Figure 3.37: vibraphone excerpt from Funeral Procession (1989) for violin, viola and chamber ensemble by Bent Sørensen, mm. 64 – 6627

Vibraphone

& 44

107

110

&Œ

Espressivo ma quasi lontano {q = 54}

nœ

Ø (poss. sempre) bœ

arco

(

œ bœ

Ø poss.)

arco

œ R ‰.

#œ œ œ #œ #œ (

œ bœ

˙.

bœ ‰. R

Ø poss.) 3

‰

[bowed part continues...]

Figure 3.38: vibraphone excerpt from Funeral Procession (1989) for violin, viola and chamber ensemble by Bent Sørensen, mm. 107 – 11228 In the first example above, notice how the percussionist is required to use two bows in order to bow both notes at the same time. The use of bows rather than mallets in this example not only enables the percussionist to make a very smooth, gradual crescendo over the span of

27 Bent Sørensen, Funeral Procession (1989) (Copenhagen: Edition Wilhelm Hansen, 1989). 28 Ibid.

182 many beats, but also allows the sound of the vibraphone to effectively blend with the strings that are playing at the same time. In the second example above, the percussionist is asked to bow many notes in succession. However, a descending line played with a mallet is interspersed within the bowed line, so holding a bow in each hand is difficult. The percussionist must hold one mallet in one hand and a bow in the other hand until m. 110. Then the percussionist can put down the mallet and pick up another bow before playing the E-flat in m. 110, thus enabling the notes from m. 110 onward to be continuous and smooth, with no decay between each note. Although this type of technical maneuvering is somewhat tricky, it is becoming increasingly more common as composers discover that they have the freedom to ask for somewhat complex bowed passages in percussion parts. Percussion instruments with metal bars—as opposed to those with wood bars— are usually the only instruments that are bowed. Many percussionists are often afraid that the wooden bars will be worn down by the friction of the bow on the edges of the bars. Perhaps it is mostly just the varnish that might be worn away, but nevertheless, refinishing wooden bars is much more costly than replacing strings on a stringed instrument. However, marimbas and xylophones with synthetic bars are a viable alternative if this effect is absolutely necessary. The composer can request instruments with synthetic bars in a note to the percussionist in the part. The deciding factor is the density of the material: a softer material will not wear away a harder material, or at least not as quickly. Therefore, bow hair will not wear away a vibraphone bar, but might wear away the finish (or even the wood) of a marimba. Another issue is that the rosin from the

183 bow can become imbedded into the wooden bars. This is less of a problem with metal bars because the rosin can be easily removed. The metal bar percussion instruments that lend themselves best to bowing are the vibraphone and crotales. Orchestra bells are most often constructed so that they are inside a case:

Photo 3.1: Musser Orchestra Bells, 2.5 Octave Steel with Hand Dampener This means that bowing orchestra bell bars is not usually possible. The bars can be remounted and individually removed if this effect is definitely needed, but this is sometimes difficult to do depending on how the instrument is constructed. Sometimes the bars are mounted in such a way that removing them means removing the screws that are holding the bars in place. Also, once the bar or bars are removed from the case, they need to be suspended in such a way that they can be adequately bowed. One way around this problem is to request that the percussionist roll on the orchestra bell bars with very soft mallets so that a very sustained sound is achieved:

184

Orchestra Bells

Smoothly, q = Ç 60

& 44 æ w ∏

2 very soft rubber mallets

wæ

˙I P

˙æ

# ˙æ˙ # ˙˙æ

N ˙˙ iI Ó F

Figure 3.39: sustained, smooth sound on orchestra bells, achieved by rolling with soft mallets In the example above, notice how the rolled notes are within the lowest 1 1/2 octaves of the instrument. Since the higher bars are smaller, the mallets may produce more of a “tick” sound of the mallet head contacting with the bars than the sound of the actual notes. This usually undesirable effect can be offset slightly by both increasing the density and decreasing the size of the mallet heads, but it is still more difficult to achieve a smooth, rolled sound in the highest octave. If a very high, sustained sound with a bow is wanted, crotales are an excellent alternative to orchestra bells. Ever since composers requested bowing bar percussion instruments, there has been some debate as to what types of bows are best for which instruments. There is no steadfast rule: whatever works best should be used for a given situation. Some percussionists prefer to use either a bass bow or a cello bow, and some players even use viola or violin bows or specially built bows meant for percussion instrument bowing. In general, there is probably one simple truism in regard to bow size for bar percussion instruments: smaller bows work better for smaller percussion instruments. Therefore, a violin, viola or even a violoncello bow would work better than a bass bow for most individual crotales. (The

185 exception here might be the lowest notes on a low octave set of crotales). A bass or violoncello bow would probably work better for vibraphone. The detail of which bow should be used should probably be left up to the percussionist. There are also specialty bows that are meant for bowing percussion instruments, but these bows are often hard to come by and somewhat expensive. Most experienced percussionists who play music that requires the use of bows own a variety of stringed instrument bows, often a bass or violoncello bow and sometimes more than one of each. If percussionists do not own bows, they can usually borrow or rent bows from schools or friends. Unlike professional stringed instrument players, percussionists can happily use synthetic bows that have synthetic horsehair. Although these cheaper bows are also much more inexpensive to purchase and maintain, synthetic horsehair might not retain rosin as effectively as natural horsehair; it is up to the performer to experiment and decide.29 Although there is much leeway as to which bow a percussionist will choose for a given instrument or part, the following guidelines might serve as a starting point: 1. Violin bow: works best on crotales 2. Viola bow: gives more body to sound of crotales because of the added weight of the viola bow

29 One important point that percussionists need to remember is to always loosen the bow hair when not in use. This prevents the bow hair from becoming too loose over time. It also eases pressure off the stick if it is wood, thus preventing it from warping or even breaking.

186 3. Violoncello & contrabass bow: both work best for bowing vibraphone, marimba, xylophone and other non-pitched percussion instruments (cymbals, tam tams, spring steel, etc.) 4. Percussion bow: this bow is designed to work on all percussion instruments that can be bowed30 There are two main points that percussionists consider when choosing a bow for an instrument or part: loose bows generally give a more legato quality, tighter bows give a faster response. As mentioned before, it is best to leave the process of selecting a specific bow up to the percussionist who will be playing the part. There are other details that need to considered when using bows. Percussionists will generally need to use softer rosin than what is used by stringed instrument players. This does not mean that if you are using a violin bow you will need to use bass rosin. However, you might have the best luck if you use the softest rosin available for the type of bow you are using. The reason for this is that metal instruments have much less “give” than strings on a stringed instrument. As with playing a bowed stringed instrument, the angle of the bow, the speed at which it is drawn, the place on which you bow (frog, middle or tip) and how much pressure you apply will affect the sound quality. For example, light bow pressure yields more noticeable high partials, while heavier pressure gives a fuller, coarser sound.

30 As mentioned earlier, percussion bows are extremely difficult to find. The American percussionist John Bergamo manufactured them for many years but they have since been discontinued.

187 In regard to bowing technique, much can be learned from classical stringed instrument performers and their parts. There is no reason that most of their bowing techniques can not be applied to bar percussion instruments. For example, ricochet (also called jeté) on one note is possible: Vibraphone

.... . 4 &4 ˙ P ricochet

Figure 3.40: example of ricochet on vibraphone Ricochet is produced by dropping the bow onto the edge of the bar and allowing it to bounce naturally, while at the same time moving the bow either up or down in order to make the bar ring. It should be noted that it is much easier to attempt this on the vibraphone than on the marimba: the vibraphone bars are a little rougher and will “catch” the bow more easily than marimba or xylophone bars will. Although this technique could be applied on a marimba or xylophone, the sound that will most likely be obtained is that of the sound of the hair rubbing against the bar because it is difficult to make wooden bars resonate with the bow. Col legno and col legno battuto (playing with the wood of the bow or tapping with the wood of the bow, respectively) on the edges of the bars is also possible:

188 Vibraphone

q. = Ç 92, misterioso 1

6 ‰ #œ #œ nœ #œ #œ & 8 œ. œI ≈ N œ with mallet

≈ (2 mallets) # œœ n œ œ . i ≈ #œ œ.I p ±

#œ #œ nœ #œ #œ œ œI ≈ N œ œI ≈ œ

π °

col legno

Figure 3.41: example of col legno on vibraphone

Marimba

q. = Ç 80, andante

? 4 œœ^ iI ‰ 4

col legno battuto (on edge of bars)

? 44 ‰

#œ #œ > > ƒ

‚ = dead stroke

‰

nœ >

I v >

& # # œœ n œ

‰

◊

^ iI

? ‰ b œœ

#œ #œ > >

Œ ‰

n‚ >

n œœ > Œ

# # œœ iI 42 ‰

42 ‰

>œ

F # >œ F

Œ Œ

Figure 3.42: example of col legno battuto on marimba As mentioned later in the section called Alternative Modes of Attack (p. 189), a similar effect to using the wood of the bow can be achieved by using mallet shafts. The main disadvantage when using shafts is that since they are short, the duration of the note will be brief when compared to using a bow.31

31 Since the edges of vibraphone bars are somewhat abrasive, inexpensive plastic bows are optimal when bowing col legno.

189 It should be obvious that bow control on a percussion instrument is usually more difficult than on a stringed instrument. Mallet bars have much more “give” than strings, and the bars are usually mounted at an angle that is not conducive to bowing. Bar percussion instruments were originally designed to be played with mallets, not bows. Another point to keep in mind is that only one note at a time can be bowed (or two, if a bow is used in each hand), whereas on a stringed instrument, one string provides many octaves of notes and more than one string can be bowed at once. As with stringed instruments, starting a note with different parts of the bow may provide different results. From my experience, the tone produced is easier to control initially when you start at the frog because more of the weight of the bow is concentrated there. Starting at the tip gives a good legato stroke. Stringed instrument players work hard to overcome the natural tendency to play louder at the frog than at the tip. As they become more experienced, the difference of where they begin a note on the bow becomes transparent. However, it is still usually more idiomatic—and traditional—to begin a phrase that has a strong beginning at the frog and begin a soft passage at the tip:

190 Vibraphone

q. = Ç 60, larghetto

12 ≤ & 8 ˙. π ° 2

. & ˙ ˙.

œ I. F ±

f ≥^ #œ.

œ .i Œ . œ .I

˙. Ó.

P ≥ œ i‰. ‰ Œ . . ‰ ‰ Œ N˙. œi # # ˙˙ .. v ≤ ƒ ∏ f

≤ œ œœ Ii ‰ ‰ Œ . Œ . . œ. π F

Figure 3.43: vibraphone example illustrating beginning with the frog and the tip of the bow In the example above, notice that the percussionist plays two notes at once. Although it is typical to use only one player per bar percussion instrument in Western music, most standard vibraphones and marimbas are large enough that multiple players can bow one instrument at the same time. A particularly effective technique would be to use two players on each side of the vibraphone, each player holding one or two bows. Bows that are meant especially for percussion instruments are sometimes designed so that the frog and tip are virtually the same. This minimizes the worry of whether the weight of one end of the bow or the other, or the balance of the bow, will drastically effect the outcome of the sound. A 75° to 80° bow angle seems to work well for most mallet keyboard instruments. Different makes of instruments and bows may give varied sounds: bars that are more slanted or rounded may provide less friction against the bow and might give a smaller sound than bars with sharper edges. Fuller-sized bars will probably provide more accuracy due to their

191 increased surface area.32 Sometimes bowing with the bow hair at an exact, perpendicular angle to the edge of the bar will provide the best sound. It is up to the percussionist to experiment with the bow, the instruments and with the music to find out which combination achieves the optimal sound.

Alternative Modes of Attack Although the usual method of playing bar percussion instruments is with mallets, there are other ways of eliciting sound from these instruments. Many extraordinary techniques for new sound production, such as the Marimshot, can only be found in relatively recent music at the end of the twentieth century. Mallet Shafts Playing with mallet shafts is probably one of the most common alternative modes of attack. This is a dramatically different sound that can be utilized without putting down the mallets. It can be used on all of the bar percussion instruments, except for instruments mounted inside cases such as orchestra bells. However, if the bars are mounted inside a case, another way of achieving a similar sound would be to use mallet shaft tips; this would require time for putting down the mallets and/or flipping them over.

32 Dean W. Anderson, “Bowing Mallet Keyboard Instruments,” Percussive Notes 22, no. 4 (1984).

192 You can indicate this effect simply by using an ‘x’ for each note head. Using an ‘x’ for the note heads also relates this effect to the Marimshot notation, discussed below. The following two examples are from Velocities (1990) for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner: Marimba

[q = 120] con bravura (relentlessly with energy and intensity) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

4 &4

> > > > > ) ( >) œ #¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ œ #¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

? 44 b œ bœ v v Ï p*2)sub.

poco

> ) ( > ) ( > ) ( > ) ( > ) ( >) œ #¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ œ #¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ (

b b œœ v v Ï p sub.

poco

*2) play on the edge of the bar with mallet handles

Figure 3.44: excerpt demonstrating playing with mallets shafts in Velocities (1990) for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner, mm. 1 – 233

33 Joseph Schwantner, Velocities (1990) (Valley Forge, PA: Helicon Music Corp.: sole agent, European American Music Distributors Corp., 1991).

193 Marimba

[q = 120] (delicato)

> > > 4 ≈> & 8 œI ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ œ I ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ œ I ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ œ I ¿ ¿ ¿ π cresc. p dim. b ¿ b ¿ ¿ b¿ b¿ ¿ b¿ b¿ b¿ ¿ b¿ b¿ b¿ ¿ ? 4 b¿ b¿ 8

255

> & 38 ¿ œI ¿ ¿ π b¿ ? 38 b ¿ b ¿

> ¿ œI ¿

259

263

& ¿ œ ? bœ >

> œ

bœ bœ

poco

> œ

bœ > œ œ

bœ >

b¿

> œ

> 7 œ 8

cresc.

bœ bœ >

7 b >œ 8 F

¿ œI

bœ >

b¿

> œ

poco

b¿

¿ œI

>œ b œ œ œ bœ bœ

bœ >

bœ a

> œ

b¿

∑

b œ >œ œ œ œ œ

3 8 3 8 ¿

Figure 3.45: excerpt demonstrating playing with mallet shafts from Velocities (1990) for solo marimba by Joseph Schwantner, mm. 255 – 26534 In the first example above, the marimbist is required play the ‘A-flat’ and ‘D-flat’ and then the ‘G-sharp’ and ‘C-sharp’ with the left hand and the other notes with the right hand. Notice that the subito ‘mallet shaft’ notes played piano emerge from the regularly played triple forte attack at the beginning of each measure. In the second example, notes played on the edges of the bars with shafts are interspersed with notes played with mallet heads. In this repeating Lydian mode-sounding passage (without the ‘G’), the ‘F’ in the 34 Ibid.

194 right hand acts as the predominant note until the ‘A-flat’ (played regularly) is introduced in the left hand in m. 260. However, it is only during measure m. 260 that the ‘A-flat’ acts as a virtual pitch center. The ‘D’ in the right hand is now played with a mallet head in m. 261, but a hard accent is added on the ‘F’, ensuring that it will still be the most prominent note in the texture. Starting in m. 260, the texture gradually shifts from notes played with the shafts to notes played regularly, one note at a time. This “additive” process continues from m. 259 until m. 264, at which point the entire phrase has finally completely shifted from the thinner-sounding notes played with the shafts to the fuller-sounding notes played with the mallet heads. This section reaches a mini climax in m. 265, at which point a ‘Gflat’ one whole-step lower is added to the previous six notes, completing a seven-note scale and adding a sense of resolution to the section heard thus far. It is important to note that in examples such as these two from Velocities, alternative methods of producing sounds are not used just for the sake of variety; they are an integral part of the texture that the composer is creating and the overarching artistic concept. In other words, using different sounds becomes less a novelty effect and more an aspect of the “art” of producing sound on the instrument. It is up to the composer to find ways of using alternatives methods of producing sound in ways that fit within the statement the composer is trying to make. The next example demonstrates how notes played on the edges of the bars can also be interspersed within a chord that contains notes played with the mallet heads:

195 Condensed Score in C 74

Clarinet

Violin

Violoncello

Marimba

q = 152, passionately driving

& 44 Ib w

> b œ œ œ 4 ‰ b œ œ œ & 4 Ib œ > ƒ f ƒ ^ i œ ?4 Œ Ó 4 (f) b ^‚ > 4 b ‚ Œ &4 bœ œ œ F f ? 4 ¿¿œ^œ ‰ œœ b ‰œ œœ œ≈ b œ œ œ‰ 4 3

b >œ œ ‰ bœ bœ œ œ p> π p

bœ bœ œ f ^i bœ Œ Œ F ¿¿œ^œ

^‚ ‚

˙ Ó

bœ

> œ

f b œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ≈ b œ œ‰ 3

Cl.

Vln.

Vcl.

Mar.

& bœ bœ œ π

> b œ œ ‰ bœ bœ œ & œ > ƒ ^œ i ? Œ Ó & Œ F ^ œ ? ¿¿œ

^‚‚

‰

bœ

> œ

f œ b ‰œ œ œ≈ b œ œ ‰œ œ œ 3

Figure 3.46: excerpt from condensed score of Quintus (1996) for chamber ensemble by Robert Paterson, mm. 74 – 7635 In the marimba part in the example above, the chords in the left hand with the ‘D’ and ‘F’ played on the edges and the ‘C’ and ‘G’ played with 35 Robert Paterson, Quintus (1996) (New York: Robert Paterson Music (ASCAP), 1996).

196 the mallet heads on the centers of the bars accentuate the first beat of every bar. The following illustration shows the positioning of the mallet heads and the shafts for this chord: C

Bars

Shafts Striking Bars

Illustration 3.1: illustration of mallet head and shaft positioning for the chord on the first beat in the left-hand of the marimba part of Quintus, mm. 74 – 76 Additionally, dead-stroked notes in the right hand (the notes with diamond-shaped note heads) are coupled with snap pizzicati notes in the violoncello part to provide a secondary beat that alters the pulse. Within these three measures, a total of three different colors are achieved at the same time. As with any exotic effects, composers should note that writing notes to be played on the edges of the bars might look easier to play on paper than they actually are in practice. Percussionists must stretch and move a greater distance in order to reach the edges, especially the outer edges on the higher bank of bars.

197 Marimshot This term ‘Marimshot’ was coined by marimbist Leigh Howard Stevens. The effect is achieved by simultaneously playing on the edge of the bar with the mallet shaft and the center with the mallet head. The resulting sound is similar to a snap pizzicato on a stringed instrument, but perhaps with less “snap” and more pitch to the sound. The following excerpt demonstrates the Marimshot effect: Condensed Score in C

q = 116, blistering

Violoncello

Marimba

Piano

?5 œ ≈ ≈ œ ‰ ‰ œ Œ 4 I I I Ï ∑ & 45 3

4 hard yarn mallets *) 3

?5 ≈ ¿‰ 4 œ v Ï & 45 ?5 Ó 4

‰ œ I‰ Œ

œI Œ ƒ Ó

pizz.

3 ‰ œ¿ ‰ ≈ œ¿ œ¿ œ¿ ‰ ‰ œ¿ ‰ œ¿ œ¿ œ¿ œ¿ œ œ œ Œ Œ 3

∑

Ï +**) œ v °

+ œ v

Œ Œ

+3 Œ œ Œ Œ ƒ

*) q¿ = "Marimshot": play note while simultaneously striking edge of bar with shaft of mallet.

**)

+ q = muffle (stop) the string with a finger before playing on the keyboard.

Figure 3.47: Marimshots in condensed score of Quintus (1996) for chamber ensemble by Robert Paterson, mm. 1 – 236

36 Ibid.

198 This effect can only be achieved by playing on one level of bars at a time, i.e. the lower or higher bank of bars. It is easier to achieve this effect with only one note in one hand rather than two (or three). Achieving the effect with more than one note in one hand is possible, but composers must keep in mind an interval span that is too large will prevent the shaft and mallet heads from striking the same note. In the Quintus example in Figure 3.36, this phenomenon was used as an asset. Other interesting sounds produced with mallet shafts are “splash/clusters.” One of the first instances of these can be found in Rhythmic Caprice (Second Edition) (1989) by Leigh Howard Stevens. The following two examples show an example of this effect as well as a diagram describing how to achieve it:

Figure 3.48: “splash/clusters” found in Rhythmic Caprice (Second Edition) (1989) for solo marimba by Leigh Howard Stevens, mm. 137 – 14337

37 Leigh Howard Stevens, Rhythmic Caprice (1989), Second ed. (Asbury Park, NJ: Keyboard Percussion Publications by Marimba Productions Inc., 1989).

199

Illustration 3.2: diagram of how to play splash chords in Rhythmic Caprice (Second Edition) (1989) by Leigh Howard Stevens, footnotes38 Although using mallets might be the most viable means of producing clusters, other implements can be used. Theoretically, any material that will not damage the bars is acceptable. Japanese composer Takefusa Sasamori, a former student of American composer Henry Cowell, uses a

38 Ibid.

200

variety of materials to produce cluster effects in his piece Koishi To (1976) for marimba and piano39: Marimba

( ƒ )œ

œ 3

Œ œ

Œ Œ

Ó rit. dim.

∑

Ó ∑

∏ ∑

D = drumsticks: slam down a few inches onto the bars from the top note down or the bottom note up. W = wire: a two-foot, thin, hollow aluminum tube, thinner than a ballpoint pen. Slam down or drop a few inches onto the bars from the top note down or the bottom note up.

Figure 3.49: clusters in Koishi To (1976) for marimba and piano by Takefusa Sasamori, system 240 The aluminum tubes that Sasamori requests are ca. two feet in length and light enough that they will not damage the bars, as long as they have no sharp edges and are dropped carefully onto the bars from a distance of a few inches. It might prove worthwhile for composers to experiment with other materials such as wooden dowels, plastic strips or even pieces of hard material covered with softer material such as felt or wound with yarn.

39 Greg Byrne, a percussionist who has performed this work, mentioned to me that in addition to clusters, Sasamori uses many other interesting effects. These include: running a mallet handle along the length of the resonator bank; inserting a mallet handle inside a resonator and swirling; rubbing a Superball on the bars, etc. Sasamori also created a set of mallets specifically for this work. They are laid out in the shape of a bow (bow and arrow) and the percussionist plays with two of these. On the shaft, there are several (ca. 12) small, wooden mallets that strike the marimba at once. 40 Takefusa Sasamori, Koishi to (1976) (Hirosaki: Composer’s Manuscript, 1976).

201 Mallet Shaft Tips If the percussionist has enough time to put down the mallets and/or flip them over, the tips of the mallet shafts can be used. The resulting sound is relatively thin compared to the sound of playing with the mallet heads, but could prove useful nevertheless. Alternatively, if there is enough time, the percussionist can pick up shafts that are essentially just wooden dowels without mallet heads. The advantage to using plain wooden dowels rather than the tips of mallet shafts is that the percussionist can hold four (or six) at a time, rather than only two: Marimba

q = Ç 120

& 85 b œœœ iI ‰ Œ . > p f >œ i b œ b œ œ ? 5 # # œœ i ‰ 8 I

with six wooden dowels

> bœ bœ œ bœ œ ∑

^ Œ b b œœœ iIi ‰ ‰ Œ

f^ i b N œœ I

‰ ‰

Figure 3.50: example on marimba of playing with six wooden dowels41 Another alternative to using mallets shaft tips would be to play the bars with hollow tubes made out of plastic. These tubes would probably be most effective if they are 3/4 – 1 inch in diameter with a wall that is thick enough to prevent them from breaking easily. If they are thick enough, the percussionist might be able to hold more than two at a time, 41 A highly-informative source for information on six-mallet technique and literature can be found in the following dissertation: Timothy Jones, “A Survey of Artists and Literature Employing Extended Multiple Mallets in Keyboard Percussion; Its Evolution, Resulting Techniques and Pedagogical Guide” (Dissertation, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 2003).

202 but then the sound of the tube striking the bars might not be as distinctive. If the tubes have enough “give,” then they will make a resonant sound when striking the bars. Care must be taken that the tubes are made of a material that will not harm the bars.42 This effect would probably be safest and most effective on a vibraphone or xylophone or the top octaves of a marimba. Clicking/Bouncing Mallet Shafts Together Not only do percussionists have the option of using a variety of different mallets and prepared mallets, they can also click the mallet shafts together, as seen in the following example:

42 Although I have never attempted to use hollow tubes on a bar percussion instrument, it seems that covering the ends of the tubes that are striking the bars with a coating of a rubbery substance might help to prevent the bars from being damaged.

203 > ^ œ>œ œœ. œœ œœ œœ. œœ. œœ b œœ œœ. œœ. œœ. œœ. œœ œœ œœ œœ # # œœ˘ œœ˘ N N œ>œ .. b œœ œ>œ œœ œœ 3 ≈ & 4 3 110

Violin

3 ã 4 Œ ¿ ‰ ¿ ‰ ^œ i (ƒ) ? 43 œœ Ii Œ Œ ƒ *)

Marimba

> ¿ æ

= click shafts of mallets together.

**)

> > ‰¿ ¿ ‰ ¿ @ @ æ ∑

‰

¿‰¿ ‰ ¿ ‰

∑

115 > b œœ œœ. œœ- œœ- œœ- œœ- # œœ. n œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ

**)

¿‰¿‰¿

∑ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ 5

‰ ¿‰¿ ‰ ∑

∑

suddenly quiet

2X > ‰ ¿ ¿ ‰ ¿ ‰ ¿ ‰ & œ œœ œ œœ .. b œ œœ œ œœ œœ b œ œœ œ œœ œœ .. bœ bœ œ @ @ > p Ï .. .. ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

æ = bounce shafts of mallets together to create a roll-like effect.

Figure 3.51: clicking and bouncing mallet shafts together in Robert Paterson’s Links and Chains (1996/2000) for violin and marimba, mm. 110 – 11843 The example above illustrates shafts being struck together to create a staccato effect and also to create a “roll-like” effect. The percussionist accomplishes the roll effect by letting the shafts bounce against each other. The natural elasticity of the shafts allows them to “bounce.”

43 Robert Paterson, Links & Chains (1996/2000) (New York: Robert Paterson Music (ASCAP), 1997).

204 Brushes Although this effect is not used very often, it is quite effective. The only drawback is that brushes are usually designed for use on drumset and not bar percussion instruments. Plastic and wooden brushes may be used on any bars while metal brushes can only be used on instruments with metal bars. Many other effects can be used with brushes including deadstrokes and playing on the resonators. The shafts of regular brushes are thick and percussionists can usually only comfortably hold one in each hand. Perhaps in the future brushes will be manufactured that are made with thin dowels for handles so that more than two at a time can be used for bar percussion instruments. Vibraphone

q = Ç 84, pensive 2

(plastic)

& 43 œ˙ . œ œ F °

(two notes with one brush)

œ ˙˙ ˙.

œ˙ . œ œ

˙æ >

>œ gl. œ œ

= mandolin roll: place one half of the brush above the bar and one half below and rapidly move up and down to create a roll-like effect

Figure 3.52: example of using brushes on a vibraphone

Hands, fingertips, fingernails and knuckles Hands, fingertips, fingernails and knuckles can also be used on bar percussion instruments. The lower the instrument (or the lower the range), the more effective this will be, i.e. using knuckles on orchestra bells may not work well. These effects can be coupled with other effects such as

205 dead-strokes, playing on the nodes and even playing the resonators or frame of the instrument. Some percussionists do not like touching marimbas or xylophones with bare hands or even fingers since sweat is thought to wear away the finish of the bars. It is always wise to ask the percussionist first if this effect will be possible before writing the part. In Hans Werner Henze’s Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) for solo marimba, Henze calls for hands, fingertips, fingernails, and knuckles, as well as an assortment of mallets and mallet shaft tips. The following example shows a passage that uses fingernails:

Figure 3.53: section that uses fingernails in Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) for solo marimba by Hans Werner Henze, p. 6, staves 2 – 344 In other sections of the same piece, Henze uses an open circle to indicate playing with the hand. It might be more effective and clearer to use a more distinctive symbol since circles could be confused with something else such as a muffle sign. Henze’s symbols for playing with 44 Hans Werner Henze, Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) (Mainz: Schott Musik International, ca.1982).

206 various parts of the hand appear below, as well as alternative symbols derived from pre-existing notational examples: Henze’s Symbols

Alternative Symbols

hand

hands (left or right)

fingertips fingernails

knuckles knuckles (left or right)

Note: modifier words may be used above each symbol, e.g. fist, palm, scrape, etc.

Illustration 3.3: symbols used in Five Scenes from the Snow Country (1978) by Hans Werner Henze with alternative symbols Playing with fingertips and fingernails can be somewhat imprecise. Some percussionists have longer nails while others will be able to obtain a more forceful attack due to variables such as the instrument or the performance space. In Zwei Stücke für Marimbaphon solo: Laudate lignum (1980) by Werner Heider, Heider indicates that the percussionist should use fingernails as much as possible, but using fingers alone is adequate. This is presumably to provide a firmer attack so the notes will be heard more easily:

207 Marimba

{e = Ç 60}

. œ. œ. #3 œ. # œ3. # œ. 5 . . 3 œ. # œ. 5 . 5œ. œ. # œ. œ. œ3. œ b œ . . 14 œ bœ J ‰. R ‰ J ‰≈ R ≈ J ‰ œ Œ b Rœ ‰ ® ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ® RÔ ® RÔ ≈ ≈ R ≈ R ≈ ‰ & π * Finger (sehr gleichmäßig) œ œ bœ J ‰ J ‰ J ‰œ ?(Œ) (Œ) ‰ b œ ‰ œj ‰ Jœ ‰ œ ‰ bœ œ ‰ J J J p (klangvoll) 3

* Finger

7 5 j ‰ bœ œ j r r Œ Œ ‰ ‰ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ b œ r &( ) ( ) œ œ œ œ bœ ≈≈ P ‰ p œ ‰ œ œ bœ bœ 3 œ # œ œ œ œ b œ b œ #œ bœ ? ‰ bœ ‰ ≈ bœ ≈ ≈ ≈ #œ bœ R J p F F 3 p F

3 ‰ j ‰ b œJ ‰ j ≈ œ œ ≈ œ & œ œ r œ œ œ b œ ≈ ≈ b œ œ œ b œ œp 3 ? N œr œ# œj # œ œ œ # œ ≈ b Rœ b œ œ ‰ b œ ( Œ) R J p F p 3

(* möglichst mit fingernägeln) "with fingers (with fingernails as far as possible)" Note: flats and sharps only apply to the notes they precede.

Figure 3.54: using fingers/fingernails on the marimba in Zwei Stücke für Marimbaphon solo: Laudate lignum (1980) for solo marimba by Werner Heider, mm. 14 – 1545 These effects are perhaps best utilized when the instruments can be amplified or when the performance is in an intimate setting. One advantage of asking percussionists to play with hands or fingers is that it

45 Werner Heider, Zwei Stücke Für Marimbaphon Solo: Laudate Lignum (Celle: Moeck Verlag, ca. 1980).

208 is very easy to pick up mallets or play other instruments that do not necessarily require mallets such as congas, bongos or maracas. Miscellaneous Other Implements Both percussionists and composers are continually searching for new ways of producing sound on keyboard instruments. Some composers are fortunate in that they are also percussionists. This gives them an added advantage in that they usually have extra insight into how to produce new sounds on these instruments. The Finnish composer Asko Hyvärinen is a composer who was trained as a percussionist. His music demands a wide variety of textures and new methods of sound production. The following two examples from Hyvärinen’s Obscure Contours (2001) for clarinet and small ensemble demonstrate two different effects:

209 Vibraphone

& 23

q ≈ 84

5 4

L.H. = metal stick

Cymb.

motor on

&Ó &

R.H. = hard mallets

Vib.

R.H.

j ¿ "f "

µµµµ Ó ¿.

"prepared" (metal stick)

j " – . µµ f

motor on

4 4

œœ .... Uœœ ®J f

with spring

j b – µm# F °

Figure 3.55: using a prepared metal stick (metal spring) on the vibraphone in Asko Hyvärinen’s Obscure Contours (2001) for clarinet and small ensemble, mm. 1 – 2 and m. 2346 In the first two measures, the percussionist “prepares” the bar by placing a metal stick (i.e. a long metal spring) on the vibraphone key and striking it with a mallet. In m. 23, the percussionist “bows” the edge of vibraphone bars with the metal spring. This is done in the same manner as with using a regular bow, but the resulting sound is much rougher. The sound could perhaps be compared to “over pressure” on stringed instruments in that it contains a significant amount of white noise. A similar effect to what is shown in m. 23 in the above example could be produced by rubbing any number of implements against the edge of the 46 Asko Hyvärinen, Obscure Contours (2001) (Helsinki: Finnish Music Information Centre, 2001).

210 bars such as a hair comb or brush. Composers need to be aware that there is a danger in using something relatively rough on the edges of the bars; anything too rough will damage them. As with mallet heads, the material that rubs against the edges of the bars needs to be softer and less dense than the bar material. Obviously, this means that percussionists cannot use metal springs on the edges of marimba or xylophone bars! An alternative to using a metal spring is to use a notched stick made out of wood, like the one Jan Bach calls for in his percussion quartet Woodwork (1970). The following excerpt demonstrates how he uses these sticks:

Figure 3.56: excerpt using notched sticks made out of wood in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970) for percussion quartet, mm. 76 – 8047

47 Jan Bach, Woodwork (1970) (New York: Highgate Press; sole agent, Galaxy Music Corp., ca. 1987).

211

Illustration 3.4: illustration of notched stick made out of wood used in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970)48 These sticks are designed by Jan Bach and as far as I know, are not commercially available.49 However, as per his instructions, it would not be that difficult for a percussionist to make these sticks if they are called for in this work or other works. It should be obvious that the percussionist will not be able to rub these sticks against the edges of wooden bars too aggressively as this will wear away the bars. On vibraphones, notched wooden sticks can be used quite forcefully as long as the percussionist is not concerned with potentially damaging the sticks. The description for these notched sticks that Jan Bach gives in his performance notes is as follows: “These are wooden rods approximately three-quarters on an inch in diameter and seven inches long; they are turned on a lathe to produce 35-40 notches approximately one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The composer’s sticks (turned by J. N. Bach) are made of black walnut and their notches are 48 Ibid. 49 Very similar notched sticks are available from Michael Udow’s company, Equilibrium Ltd.

212 approximately one-third of an inch apart. When applied alternately to the angled corner of any percussion instrument, the sticks produce a sound halfway between a quiro and the timbre of the selected percussion instrument. The composer knows of no substitute for this implement which will supply the sound the piece requires.” Along with using the myriad of common mallets that are available, percussionists can also use chopsticks (two at a time, for a very light, wooden dowel-like sound)50 and knitting needles on the vibraphone, orchestra bells or tubular chimes. Other exotic playing implements are rutes (sticks made of clusters of thin dowels that rattles against each other when struck against bars), and mallets with rattles attached to the shafts. Michael Udow uses rutes, “rasping sticks” (notched sticks), rattle mallets, props (including a mask and costume) and the performer’s voice in his highly theatrical solo marimba work Tennei-Ji (1999)51. The following excerpt demonstrates the use of rattle mallets:

50 Since chopsticks are so short, wooden dowels might work better when the percussionist needs to hold more than two at once. 51 Removable mallet rattles that slide onto the mallet shafts, pre-made thin and thick rutes and rasping sticks (notched sticks) are currently available from Michael Udow’s company, Equilibrium, Ltd.

213 Marimba

{e = 144}

[RH: Double stops: shake both mallets in the air alternating in a back and forth motion]

7 r j j j ÷ 16 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

161

? 16 7 œ J

œ œ r3œ J J œ 8 .

j 7 & 16 œj œ b œ

165

3 j j j 3 j 8 ¿ ¿ ¿ 16 ¿

3 œ. 16 J

r 9 r j j j j 7 ¿ 16 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ & 16 9 œ 16 J

8 œ œj b œj j 7 b œ n œ œ œ 3 œ . 16 œ œ 16 J J 8J J 8 # Jœ . Jœ œ œ 16 7 œ œ œ œ 38 œ . œ 16 J J J

[Add mallet shakes in air as desired through M. 176]

? 16 7 j œ.

œ J

œ j œ R œ

7 16

œ œ R J

Figure 3.57: excerpt utilizing rattle mallets in Michael Udow’s Tennei-Ji (1999) for solo marimba, mm. 161-16852 Udow’s instructions for making the four rattles and assembling the rattle mallets, as well as a photo of the assembled mallets, appears below: “Take 4 plastic film canisters [and] drill holes the diameter of the mallet shafts through the center of the top cap and bottom of each canister. Temporarily cover the outside of each drilled hole with tape. Place ca. 12 kernels of popcorn into the plastic canister and epoxy the lid onto the canister. Slide on a snuggly fitting neoprene/rubber grommet/washer 3/4 of the way up the shaft of each mallet. After the epoxy is dry, carefully remove the tape off of the top and bottom on the canister and slide the canister (top first) onto each shaft firmly against the washer. Then slide another neoprene/rubber grommet/washer snuggly against the bottom of the canister to hold the canister in place.”

52 Michael Udow, Tennei-Ji (1999) (Dexter, MI: Equilibrium Press, 1999).

214

Photo 3.2: assembled rattle mallets used in Michael Udow’s Tennei-Ji (1999) for solo marimba53 The final example presented here is also from Hyvärinen’s work. In these measures he not only asks the percussionist to clap a cluster of the bars with the top of a cymbal, but also to gliss. with the cymbal on the edge of the keys: Vibraphone

3 &4 Œ 7

œœ Ii ‰. R Œ F °

play cluster with the cym.

‰ j 4 – 4

gliss with cymbal on the edge of the keys

– R ‰ . ‰ œr ≈ Œ œ >

with cym.

Figure 3.58: playing the vibraphone bars with a cymbal in Asko Hyvärinen’s Obscure Contours (2001) for clarinet and small ensemble, mm. 7 – 954

53 Robert Paterson, “Tennei-Ji Mallets,” (New York, NY: 2003). 54 Hyvärinen, Obscure Contours (2001).

215 Playing the Resonators and Frame Percussionists can also play parts of bar percussion instruments other than the bars such as the resonators and frame. Playing the resonators on the marimba and vibraphone work best, as the xylophone has resonators that are too short to be utilized and orchestra bells most often do not have resonators. The resonator tube ranges that work best on the marimba and vibraphone are shown here: Marimba

& ?

Vibraphone

Figure 3.59: usable resonator tube ranges on the marimba and vibraphone It is possible to play lower resonators on five-octave marimbas, but the resonators are designed differently on various models of marimbas. On some Kori marimbas they are rectangular, on some Marimba One instruments they are oval and on DeMorrow and Yamaha instruments, they are tubular. If you are not worried about the potential (yet subtle) inconsistency in sound from low to high or you know the instrument you will be writing for, then these low resonators can be used. The resonator ranges above are almost always tubular and somewhat graduated, but it is always best to check with the percussionist you are writing for and hear what they sound like first before writing. The following example shows two different ways of indicating playing on the resonators:

216

Marimba q = Ç 116

& 43

∑

> >¿ ? 43 >¿ ‰ . ¿ ‰ . ‰ .

play resonators with mallets

q = Ç 116

& 43

∑

> >¿ 3 . ‰ ¿ ‰. ‰. ã 4¿ > f

play resonators with mallets

b >œ f b >œ f

œ bœ bœ œ

bœ œ ∑

œ bœ bœ œ

A œ^ œ nœ

F ƒ

A œ^ œ bœ œ nœ F ƒ ∑

Figure 3.60: two different ways of notating playing on the resonators Specific resonator tubes are indicated in the first two measures of the example above. If notating this way, it is wise to mark the resonators so the sound will be exact; i.e. the percussionist will not mistakenly play the wrong resonator tubes. If what is required is more a differentiation of sound from low to high, the notation can look more like the second two measures in the above example. Another resonator effect that is quite common in twentieth-century music is the glissando:

217 Marimba

& ?

q = Ç 132

∑

# œ^ # > 34 œœ Œ œ ƒ

gliss on resonators from ca. 'A' to a high resonator with mallet shaft slow

¿ F

gl.

—fast f

Œ Œ

gliss on resonators from highest possible note with mallet shaft

#œ nœ œ 44 # œJ n œ # œJ F 44

∑

œœ n b œœ œ b >œœ œ 7 J J 8 J ‰ Œ Œ. ƒ

>— slow . Œ f

b œœ iI Œ Œ .

∑

fast

(R.H.)

Figure 3.61: example of resonator glissando on the marimba As shown in the above example, resonator glissandi can accelerate or ritard. This effect can also be transferred to the tubes of tubular chimes. When the chime tubes are played rather than the chime end caps, there will be less ‘fundamental’ sound. If mallets or shafts are used when this effect is asked for, the player can quickly play the chime end with the mallet heads or shafts, although the sound will not be the characteristic “chime” sound that one most often hears when chime hammers are used. Playing the Instrument Frame Another effect that is called for in some twentieth-century works is playing on the frame of the instrument. This effect is somewhat dependent on the make and model instrument, as some instruments have solid end pieces and some do not. In Woodwork (1970) for percussion quartet, Jan Bach calls for this effect to be used in conjunction with temple blocks played by Player I:

218

Figure 3.62: playing the end of the instrument in Jan Bach’s Woodwork (1970) for percussion quartet, mm. 88 – 9055 Prepared Resonators and Bars It is possible to “prepare” both the bars and the resonators. Similar to the way in which American composer John Cage prepared pianos, bars can also be prepared in a variety of ways, with everything from rubber bands, clamps, coins or other objects loosely fastened to the bars, and even with hunks of oil clay. Oil clay can be placed anywhere on the smooth parts of wooden bars and anywhere on metal bars, and is useful for bringing out or deadening certain partials. One simple, yet effective technique is to place folded pieces of paper over the tops of the resonators to create a “buzz” type effect similar to the sound heard on many traditional Guatemalan marimbas:

55 Bach, Woodwork (1970).

219

Photo 3.3: “buzz” type effect accomplished by placing folded paper over the tops of the resonators56 Paper of various weights and any other paper-like material can be placed over the ends of the resonators. In the above photo, although the paper completely covers the openings, enough air will move when the bars are played to amplify the bars. In Jay Alan Yim’s Jam Karet I (1994) for two percussionists, both players are required to prepare the vibraphones by placing aluminum foil over selected resonators.

56 Robert Paterson, “Resonators with Paper,” (New York, NY: 2003).

220

œ œœ œœœ œ œœœ œ œœœ >œ >œ > ‹ # œ > > # œ # œ œœ œœ œ œœ U > > > # œ # œ œ œ 7 5 # œ . ® ‰ # œ & 16 # œ 8

Vib. 1

Vib. 2

{e = Ç 76}

8:7 Î ° >œ # >œ # >œ U > œ > 7 > # >œ ‹ œ ® ‰. & 16 # œ

Î °

∏ ° #œ #œ

5 8

∏ °

6:5

5:4

#œ

‹œ œ#œ

5:4

œ œ œ œ ‹œnœ œ œ #œ

8:5

14:9

Note: the specific notes in both parts in m. 66 are prepared throughout the entire piece by placing aluminum foil over tops of the resonators.

Figure 3.63: altering sound of resonators with aluminum foil covering the ends of the tubes in Jay Alan Yim’s Jam Karet I (1994) for two percussionists, mm. 66 – 6757 In the first measure of the above excerpt, both percussionists play all of the prepared notes together and then continue playing the prepared notes interspersed with unprepared notes. The sound of this effect could be likened to a vibraphone with a distortion pedal. This effect works on any bar percussion instruments with resonator tubes. Other materials such as rope, strips of paper or metal, strings of beads, metal pull chains, etc. could also be interwoven between the bars. These materials would not only create a “buzz” sound but also slightly muffle the bars. If a partially muffled sound is desired without an added buzz effect, folded hand towels can be wedged in-between the raised keys (sharps and flats) and the lowered keys (naturals), as shown in the following photo: 57 Jay Alan Yim, Jam Karet I (1994) (Evanston, IL: Composer Manuscript, 1994).

221

Photo 3.4: folded hand towels placed between the bars in order to muffle them58 Of course, many of these effects can be combined. Theoretically, a composer could ask for a virtual recipe of combined effects, such as using mallets shafts with shaker attachments, placing towels between the bars, placing paper or other material over the resonators—all at the same time. Singing and Other Body Movements while Playing Although playing while performing vocal sounds (i.e. singing, humming, speaking, whistling, etc.) is not technically a method of sound production on the instrument itself, it is a viable technique for making

58 Robert Paterson, “Resonators with Towels,” (New York, NY: 2003).

222 instruments sound different without using additional players or electronic equipment. The following example demonstrates a passage from Limb (1996) for solo marimba by Sydney Hodkinson in which the marimbist is asked to hum along: Marimba

{q = 63 ~ 66} H (add hum) *)

b˙ æ

U n˙ æ

- 31 42 3 1 42 3 4 3 œ # œ 1 # œ # œ a œ # œ # œ 2 œ4 1 # œ3 2 œ. >œ # œ2. >œ3 2 œ nœ œ #œ œ #œ œ nœ œ. æ

b˙ b˙ æ & æ π , placido, non espress. (trem. slowing) B

legato

p 3

P3 ß ß 3

*) Performance Note: as an option, during the slow, legato phrases (in I: ms. 20, 26, 36./throughout III) — indicated H — the player should hum the upperline, in any octave, while performing. Whether vocally accompanied or not, this ‘soprano’ line should always be brought to the fore.

Figure 3.64: singing while playing in Sydney Hodkinson’s Limb, mvt. III. Arioso (1996) for solo marimba, p. 1, Rehearsal B59 Performers can also produce vocal sounds and noises into resonator openings between certain bars. Without removing the bars, resonators that work well for this effect are the D-sharp, F-sharp, A-sharp and C-sharp resonators, as well as the bottom-most resonator. These are the resonators that are easily accessed and do not have bars covering them completely. In the next excerpt, the composer asks the percussionist to tap a foot while playing. This work was written for me, and I can say with first-hand experience that although very effective, it is not easy to tap your foot and play a complex passage with six mallets at the same time:

59 Sydney Hodkinson, Limb (1996) (Baltimore, MD: Smith Publications, ca. 1997).

223 Marimba

{q = 120}

N œœ .. œœ ‰ œœ # # >œœ >œœ >œœ Œ N & #œ. œ œ œ œ œ P ƒ œœ . œœ œœ >œœ >œœ >œœ ? ≈ . œœ œŒ 25

‰ . b œœ .. R Stomp foot on quarter notes to keep time for next section œ œ F œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ .. ‰ . b œ œ ‰ . b œ œ .. ‰. b œ œ ‰. b œ œ R R R R ..

(2x Only)

Ó.

∑

b œ . œ œ b œ . œ . œ œ œ b œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ b >œœœ ‰ œœœ b œœ .. b œ œ b œ œ œ œ b œœ œœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ & œ. œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 30

F ? ‰ . b b œœ œœ R

‰ . b b œœ œœ R

œ b œ œ ‰ . b œ œ ‰ . b b œœ œœ R R

œ b œ œ ‰. b œ œ R

‰ . b b œœ œœ R

Figure 3.65: “stomping” a foot while playing in Howard Yermish’s sixmallet marimba solo To Play, To Dance (1990), mm. 26 – 3060 There are numerous other instances of performance situations involving bar percussionists that verge on the theatrical, or are even just pure theatre. Some works use visual aids such as lighting, as in Toru Takamitsu’s Rain Tree (1981) mentioned earlier. Other composers, like Steve Reich, often use video, film or other images to enhance their works, essentially creating an integrated, multi-media event. American composer John Eaton has written many operas in which he has given percussionists important vocal parts and asked them to act out theatrical roles. The distinction here is whether the percussionist is theatrically involved, as in Eaton’s works, rather than just being a musical

60 Howard Yermish, To Play, To Dance (1990) (Marlton, NJ: Howard Yermish (ASCAP), 1991).

224 performer in a work that is a staged theatrical production, such as a traditional, nineteenth-century opera.61 There are other musical traditions in the Western world that are highly theatrical but are not often thought of as “classical.” American drum lines often use marching bar percussion players. The instruments are usually smaller instruments such as orchestra bells and xylophones and they are carried out in front of the players using sturdy harnesses:

Photo 3.5: Musser marching orchestra bells with harness62 Another example of theatrical percussion writing may be found in Mauricio Kagel’s Dressur (1976/77) for percussion trio:

61 More thorough writing on theatrical concepts relating to composition and performance may be found in Elliot Schwartz and Daniel Godfrey, Music since 1945: Issues, Materials and Literature (New York: Schirmer Books, 1993). 62 Ludwig Musser, Marching Mallet Instruments [Website] (2003 [cited September 3 2003]); available from http://www.ludwig-drums.com/marchmal.htm.

225

Figure 3.66: example from Mauricio Kagel’s Dressur (1976/77) for percussion trio, mm. 206 – 22063

63 Mauricio Kagel, Dressur: Schlagzeugtrio für Holzinstrumente (1976/77) (Frankfurt: Litolff; C. F. Peters, ca. 1983).

226 In Figure 3.66, notice how Kagel asks the marimbist to “almost disappear behind the marimbaphone” and “…finally stand on tip-toe.” Each part is explicitly notated and choreographed; diagrams and explanations are included that illustrate the player’s positions, physical motions and even facial expressions. This work is a great example of how mobile percussionists can be and also how they can often utilize their instruments and bodies to a theatrical end. Although playing bar percussion instruments is generally thought to be theatrical in and of itself, the addition of extra theatrical elements often serves to intensify the audience’s listening experience. With the recent invention of highly portable electronic instruments such as the previously mentioned Mallet KAT and Marimba Lumina, theatrical elements will no doubt continue to play an important part in the bar percussion music of the future.

Conclusion This dissertation has presented some of the most important pieces of information that shed light on the continuously developing world of bar percussion. My research covered new instrumental developments, new types of mallets and ways of using them and new techniques of producing sound on these instruments. There are certain areas that could stand more thorough exploration, such as the development of electronic instruments,

227

the use of bar percussion in orchestration, and other new methods of sound production and alteration that were not covered here. Sound and video recordings would prove useful to composers, percussionists, conductors or anyone wanting to understand this research. Bar percussion fonts that contain various symbols used here and perhaps a documentary that traces the history of many of these developments would also be useful. Recordings would help enormously to demonstrate the sounds of the examples; video would help to show details, show how idiomatic or non-idiomatic some of the examples are and give a sense of perspective that photographs are incapable of. Lastly, a documentary that presents old and new footage, and that interviews current composers and performers on this subject, would help to show how current most of the developments are in these three chapters.

APPENDIX

Roll Chart Name of Roll

Other Names Definition/General Information

Traditional

Alternating Hands, Hand against Hand, Double Vertical

This is above all the most common roll.

OneHanded

Independent, Mallet Independent

Leigh Stevens popularized this roll during the 1970s; it is now commonplace.

Stevens

Musser, Mixed, Double Lateral

According to Leigh Stevens, the difference between his roll (the “Stevens Roll”) and the “Musser” Roll is that his roll uses “a down and out scoop motion in the wrist—the ‘double lateral’ stroke. This controlled wrist motion better enables the player to vary the speed and the individual volume of the voices.”1 Stevens also calls this a “double lateral” roll.2

Notation How it is Symbol Accomplished

œæ

œ œ

Alternating double vertical strokes.

Two (or even three, alternating one and two) mallets in one hand that roll independently of the other hand. Mallets strike the keyboard using various permutations such as 1-2-4-3, 2-1-3-4, 1-2-3-4, 1-4-2-3, etc. (See Sticking Permutations in the appendix.)

When to Use This roll is the default roll unless the percussionist is asked to do otherwise. When the percussionist needs to sustain a roll in one hand.

When a different sound is needed; the sound is distinctly different from the traditional roll.

1 Leigh Howard Stevens, “Marimba Clinic: Rolls and Notation,” Percussive Notes 19, no. 1 (1980). 2 It is interesting that even though Stevens—the marimbist who devised the notation for this roll—wrote

in the article cited in the footnote above “Although I do not particularly favor having a roll named after me…” he devised a substitute for the three slashes which is a backwards version of the first letter of his last name: ‘S’. Although some composers and performers use an ‘S’ to notate this roll, the symbol used here seems more common and is also derived from the traditional three tremolo slashes.

228

229 Musser

Irregular

Mixed, “Flop”

Non-rhythmic Tremolo, Unmeasured Tremolo

Guatemalan

Mandolin

Note Above/Note Below

The inside mallet is held aloft and strikes the bar a little bit later than the outside mallet. This roll is similar to the Stevens Roll, except that the player is letting the mallet heads strike the bars in an uncontrolled rather than controlled manner. This is less a type of roll and more an indication of irregular roll speed. In theory, this indication could be used in conjunction with any of the other roll symbols presented here. This device is derived from Krzysztof Penderecki’s notation in both his String Quartet No. 1 and Strophen. This roll is derived from a Central American technique that only uses two mallets at once. Parallel lines on the sides of the traditional slashes to show that all notes are struck together, i.e. “simultaneous double verticals.” My notation of this is derived from the Stevens notation that is, as he puts it, “a graphic representation of the motion”: the vertical slash is the bar, the circles are the mallet heads. The copyist or engraver should make sure that the circles are large and centered on the stem so they do not look like half notes.

œz

œæ

œ∑

Like a flam in snare drum playing.

Percussionists often learn this before learning the Stevens roll.

Play the roll and randomly fluctuate the roll speed.

Use when a roll with an indeterminate roll speed is needed.

This is basically a traditional roll with both hands striking the keyboard simultaneously rather than alternating. The percussionist will play this roll as fast as possible.

Generally only used in transcriptions of Guatemalan marimba music.

In one hand, one mallet above the edge of the keyboard, one mallet below. If holding three mallets in one hand, two may go above, one below, or vice-versa.

There seems to be little reason to use this roll instead of a one-handed roll unless you are using five or six mallets.

230 Mallet and Bow Pictogram Key This key contains the horizontal mallet pictograms used for some of the figures used throughout the text. Although the pictogram graphics are somewhat standardized and may be found in various computer fonts and books3, the modifier words and/or letters are not standardized. When appropriate, modifiers are placed to the right of the graphic such as the ‘P’ in plastic mallets. Other modifiers can be used, such as extrasoft, extra-hard, plastic (for brushes), cord, and so on. For brass and aluminum mallets, a circle may be used with an ‘X’ through it, but in a manuscript, it might be mistaken for a crossed-out mallet head. 4

= soft rubber mallets

= medium rubber mallets

= hard rubber mallets

P = plastic mallets

= soft yarn mallets

= medium yarn mallets

= hard yarn mallets

S/H = two-tone mallets (soft/hard presented here)

MS = medium-soft mallets (MH for medium-hard) 4 4

= brass mallets

= aluminum mallets

= soft chime hammers

= medium chime hammers

= hard chime hammers

= Bows (may be modified by the words Cello, Bass, etc.)

= brushes (may be modified by the words Plastic, etc.)

3 Two books in particular that show mallet pictograms are Kurt Stone, Music Notation in the Twentieth

Century, First ed. (New York: Norton, 1980). Alfred Blatter, Instrumentation and Orchestration, Second ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997).

231 Sticking Permutations These tables contain all of the possible sticking permutations for three or four mallets.4 The tables without repetitions (i.e. 1-2-3-4 and not 1-2-44) might prove useful for choosing roll combinations, particularly for “double lateral” rolls. The tables with repetitions might prove useful in conjunction with various compositional procedures such as those used in serial music. All of the permutations in the tables without repetitions are found in tables with repetitions, for three or four mallets respectively. The mallets are numbered left to right, i.e. 1 – 3 or 1 – 4:

Table of all 6 possible permutations of sticking combinations for three mallets, without repetitions: 123 132

213 231

312 321

Table of all 27 possible permutations of sticking combinations for three mallets, with repetitions: 111 112 113 121 122 123 131 132 133

211 212 213 221 222 223 231 232 233

311 312 313 321 322 323 331 332 333

4 Various combinations are also possible with five and even six mallets, although five and six mallet

playing is still comparatively in its infancy. When considering the different combinations that are possible with five mallets, there are 120 possible combinations without repetitions and 3,125 possible combinations with repetitions. With six, there are 720 possible combinations without repetitions and 46,656 possible combinations with repetitions.

232

Table of all 24 possible permutations of sticking combinations for four mallets, without repetitions: 1234 1243 1324 1342 1423 1432

2134 2143 2314 2341 2413 2431

3124 3142 3214 3241 3412 3421

4123 4132 4213 4231 4312 4321

Table of all 256 possible permutations of sticking combinations for four mallets, with repetitions: 1111 1112 1113 1114 1121 1122 1123 1124 1131 1132 1133 1134 1141 1142 1143 1144

1211 1212 1213 1214 1221 1222 1223 1224 1231 1232 1233 1234 1241 1242 1243 1244

1311 1312 1313 1314 1321 1322 1323 1324 1331 1332 1333 1334 1341 1342 1343 1344

1411 1412 1413 1414 1421 1422 1423 1424 1431 1432 1433 1434 1441 1442 1443 1444

2111 2112 2113 2114 2121 2122 2123 2124 2131 2132 2133 2134 2141 2142 2143 2144

2211 2212 2213 2214 2221 2222 2223 2224 2231 2232 2233 2234 2241 2242 2243 2244

2311 2312 2313 2314 2321 2322 2323 2324 2331 2332 2333 2334 2341 2342 2343 2344

2411 2412 2413 2414 2421 2422 2423 2424 2431 2432 2433 2434 2441 2442 2443 2444

3111 3112 3113 3114 3121 3122 3123 3124 3131 3132 3133 3134 3141 3142 3143 3144

3211 3212 3213 3214 3221 3222 3223 3224 3231 3232 3233 3234 3241 3242 3243 3244

3311 3312 3313 3314 3321 3322 3323 3324 3331 3332 3333 3334 3341 3342 3343 3344

3411 3412 3413 3414 3421 3422 3423 3424 3431 3432 3433 3434 3441 3442 3443 3444

4111 4112 4113 4114 4121 4122 4123 4124 4131 4132 4133 4134 4141 4142 4143 4144

4211 4212 4213 4214 4221 4222 4223 4224 4231 4232 4233 4234 4241 4242 4243 4244

4311 4312 4313 4314 4321 4322 4323 4324 4331 4332 4333 4334 4341 4342 4343 4344

4411 4412 4413 4414 4421 4422 4423 4424 4431 4432 4433 4434 4441 4442 4443 4444

Appendix References Blatter, Alfred. Instrumentation and Orchestration. Second ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1997. Stevens, Leigh Howard. “Marimba Clinic: Rolls and Notation.” Percussive Notes 19, no. 1 (1980): 60-61. Stone, Kurt. Music Notation in the Twentieth Century. First ed. New York: Norton, 1980.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Dean W. “Bowing Mallet Keyboard Instruments.” Percussive Notes 22, no. 4 (1984): 65-68. Babbitt, Milton. Beaten Paths (1988). Baltimore, MD: Smith Publications, ca. 1988. Bach, Jan. Woodwork (1970). New York: Highgate Press; sole agent, Galaxy Music Corp., ca. 1987. Bach, J.S. Sonata in B Minor; Original: Sonata in a Minor for Violin Alone (1720). Edited by Leigh Howard Stevens. Second ed. Asbury Park, NJ: Keyboard Percussion Publications by Marimba Productions, ca. 1990. Banta, Christopher. Basic Marimba Bar Mechanics and Resonator Principles. Third ed. Seattle, WA: Dandemutande: Zimfest Association, Inc., 2003. ———. Marimba Bar Fabrication and Tuning. Third ed. Seattle, WA: Dandemutande: Zimfest Association, Inc., 2003. Beck, John, ed. Encyclopedia of Percussion. New York: Garland Publishing, 1995. Beck, John. Jazz Variants. Boston: Boston Music Company, 1972. Berg, Alban. Drei Orchesterstücke, Op. 6 (1915). Wein: Universal Edition, ca. 1954. Berlioz, Hector. Symphonie Fantastique (1830). Edited by Edward T. Cone. New York: W. W. Norton, ca. 1971. Boulez, Pierre. Le Marteau sans maître (1955). London: Universal Edition (London) Ltd., 1957. Burritt, Michael. “Focus on Performance: Four-Mallet Traditional Rolling.” Percussive Notes 29, no. 4 (1991): 64-66.

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