Tao Qian and The Chinese Poetic Tradition - II by Kim Hyeong Jun

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Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTraditian

contemporary taste and expectations that he was essentially All Yan Yanzhi said of Tao the artist is that "in writing he aimed communicating meanings," while Shen Yue did not even about appraising Tao's writings in his biography in Song shu.Liu Xi never mentioned Tao in his monumental work;28 Yang Xiuzhi 82) thought he "does not excel in verbal refinement" (H 1.:L0); Zhong Hong placed Tao in the middle rank of his three-tier grada of poets, having to defend his "plainness and directness" (zhizhil pointing out expressions of "elegance and grace" (H 1:9). Even sympathetic Xiao Tong, who considered Tao's works "unique and superb in all genres" (TYl10), was confined by the taste of his age to, include but nine of Tao's poems inWen xuan (Selections of Literature), compared with thirty-two by Xie Lingyun. It is perhapa

doubly ironic that Tao's ability to convey the essential spirit experience was perceived early without being understood. For Zhong Hong's remark recalls Dong Zhongshu's (c. 179-<.104 B.C.) that "poetry articulates sentiments, and so is good insofar as it iE plain," which Su Yu explains thus: "Poetry expresses sentiments, which cannot be false; thus it is described as plain. " To Zh:u Ziqing'i explanation that "plainness means nafuralness ,"2e one might simply add that zhizhi implies a fidelity to original essences, an art of Na in which Nature speaks through the poet as much as he speaka through it. The Neo-Daoist aesthetic has come to fruition at an almost unnoticed spot.

Luminosity of the Unconscious: The Ineffable Truth l'erhaps the best clue to Tao's link to Neo-Daoist aesthetics lies in two of his mostmemorablelines: "Inthis thereis a truemeaning;/ Iwould lrxplain it, but have forgotten the v/ords" (Tyl 89). For "getting the

meaning and forgetting the words" is a basic principle in Neol)aoism and its chief mode of communication; it aims at transcending the limits of language (indeed all instrumental forms) to reach for ineffable essences. Already discussed in Zhuangzi-"Tfie fish trap cxists because of the fish; once you get the fish you forget the fish trap. . . . Words exist because of meaning; once you get the meaning you forget the words" (226 / 4H9)-the issue finds a more poetically rrriented articulation in the "Appended Remarks" to Yijing: "Writing cloes not fully represent language, and language does not fully (txpress meaning; , . . thus the sages set up images in order to express lneaning thoroughly."l Combining the two statements, Wang Bi nrrives at his own formulation: Nothing excels images in fully expressing meaning, and nothing excels language in fully representing images. Since words arise from images,

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Luminosity of the Unconscious: The lnffible

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

may perceive images by plumbing the words' And since images arise from meaning, \^/e may perceive meaning by plumbing the

a simple datum of his existence, the first line also defines the poetagainstthe literati of his age, for "hut" denotes notjustaphysical setting but an existential choice distinct from the practices we have seen: the self-justifying "court-reclusion" or "city-reclusion"; the "comfortable retreat" in which the "hermit" lived in material ease trnd mixed \^/ith high officials; or the notorious "fake-reclusion." Making no dramatization of lofty insulation, though, the phrase "in the realm of man" shows Tao firmly rooted in a cherished humanity, cchoing what he confesses elsewhere: "It is just because of my family and old friends /That I have not the heart to consider living apart"

images....Thuswordsareformanifestingimages;onceyougetthe

images you forget the words. And images are for preserving meaning; once you get the meaning you forget the images'2

Neither an end nor to be discarded altogether, \^/ords and images are expedient meansbywhichmeaning maybe attained. Bythis premise, xianyan shi is an attempt to secure meaning without the imagistic medium, Xie Lingyun'sverbal flamboyance an overattachment to the and up ay a itself,and Tao's work a praxis of the aesthetic in perception FiveWillows's rn"ihodology. One recalls the laconic Gentleman of the interest in meaning rather than words, in inner illumination rather than pedantic explication: "Though fond of reading, he did not seek thorough comPrehensíon of details; but every time some meaning flasheďupon him he would become so happy as to forget to eat" (TY| L75). There is no doubt he commands Tao's total sympathy, for we have seen how the "meaning" exuding from the poet's writings is often just the spiritual state embodied by the model that gives him strength and faith in hardship. In fac! described by Yan Yanzhi as ,,freeing himself from the strife of the times and setting his purpose beyonďworldly bound s" (H1':1),Tao's outlook on life is precisely an existential application of "getting the meaning (inner truth) and

forgetting the words (material pursuits)." We are now in a position to examine "Drinking Wine" #5, a deceptively transparent poem that brings together the distinct quali' ties of Tao's verse:

ffi ,ů'E'{u Éffi # # Ř ffi T ,6 ** -E ffi Ú {* ÚJ ffi, E tH R ' )Ě t + É'Ř Ř 'Ř,Ř aX *F F ,$ á r"1

{EI

Ég

build my hut in the realm of man, And yet there is no clatter of carriage or horse'

You ask me how this can

be?

remote'

The heart detached, the place naturally Picking chrysanthemums beneath the eastern fence,

Far away I see the southern mountains' The mountain air is fair at sunset; Flying birds in company In this there is a true meaning; I would explain it, but have forgotten the words.

refurn'

FYI

57). The positive description

in line 1 gains depth in line

8e)

through the foil of a "negative" delineation-the clatter of carriage

nnd horse

definedbyits absence. Againthe line

morePÍegnantthan

meets the eye, for the "clatter" applies not only to anglers of riches and

lronor who "a11 day drive their carriages along" (Tylgg)-who do not call on him because he is an "outsider" with no favors to dispensebut to the Eastern ]in elite for whom reclusion does not mean settling r.1own. This of course contrasts with the poet's sifuation: what is for them an ironic discrepancybetween appearance and reality is for him n r.rnity that gives peace in an accessible world without its hustle. The Itrternal relationship of the first couplet is thus a complex one: it nroves along in a dialectic of presence and absence to define his life,

nnd yet the two elements are not antithetical to each other. This is ernbodied by the logical-grammatical connective er casually linking lltc lines, which is both "yet" suggesting incompatibility on a profane t'vel of perceptiory and"and," intimating the truth experienced by lrimself. But because this truth appears as a paradox, line 3 serves as a gr'l f-directed rhetorical questioninvitingbothreflection and resPoÍrse; llrrc 4 becomes an intertext to the first couplet by providing what is nr issing there-the spirit of the hut-dweller that is the key to a clatterfrec abode. With another quiet zl presenting the natural logic of line 4, r'ven the connectives show a progression, from the er that suggests a paradoxical truth to the zr that integrates the four lines and conveys á ll()w self-evident truth. The remark carries easy f

1hilo1ophical

(rvl

185

Giving

\ /e

ffiŘ'7E' ^É ffi ft É,.E

Truth

Luminosity of the Unconscious: The lneffableTruth

1-86 Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition persuasion not only because it has been prepared for by the first couplet and ieems valid in the abstract, but because it is shared with us as an insight distilled from the poet's existential praxis. And with every statement thus far carrying a subtext (or "countertext") for hig contemporaries (e.g., "If the heart is not detached the place will never be remote,,), Taohas subtlymarked his positionin anunsympathetic world without denouncing it in the manner of Qu Yuan. what comes across is a direct and unfeignable voice of one communicating a heartfelt insight into the WaY. with line 5 the poem seems to restart on another plane. Hitherto Tao has, however gently, defined the self in contradistinction to other, as if the poem were again charting a spiritual dialectic in course of which his faith is reaffirmed. This renewal also coinci with a shift of focus to Nature: did the inner process rendered by four lines, then, take place within the temporal frame of the fifth whi he is picking chrysanthemums? One cannot be sure, but the possib ity is iufficient to link it with the preceding lines and integrate all fi into a unit. This possibility is strengthened by the symbolic tions of the flowers, though we know they are picked for hea reasons as well. For even in "On the Ninth Day, in Retirement" he writes "chrysanthemums can arrest declining yeats" (Wl39), flowers function as a symbol of purity as the poem ends by the reclusive choice. Indeed we have seen more than once how are paired with pines as symbols of loftiness (TY I 61, 161 )' The it in line 4 thus finds testimony in Nature even as it is made immediate through the quietly presented slice of life' Then, without being poised for anything, the poet looks up and catches sight of the southern mountains afar. Another modest scene of simple beatÍy,line 6 crosses its localbounds and resonates with symbolic meaning through his works. For mountains have always been what he loves by n ature (wl 40), and years ago he "strained hig eyes to make out the southern mounta ins" (Tyl 73) while passing the area on official d,tty., On this level, the third couplet becomes an imagistic embodiment of Tao's existential stance and the poem'8 elevation to a higher plane; any contrast with the world previously (

1.87

implied has given way to a sense of unity with the larger framework taken to indicate the distance of the mountains by Lu Qint (fY/ 89) and 'lao's spiritual state by Suzuki Torao,a probably means both in that it points not only to objective scene and lyric sensibility but to their cssential oneness. Already wandering serenely, the poet's spirit is lost in communion \Mith the spectacle beheld, time and space dissolved in an enlightening luminosity of the unconscious. Su Shi rightly decries the proposed variant oÍ wang (watch) fot jian (see) in li ne 6 as one that would destroy the spontaneity of the communion (H l:29): as Cowper says, the "mercurial" intellect must yield to a meditative "quiescen[ce]" and "indolent vacuity of thought" before cosmic understanding is possible.s Significant is the word"vaculty," for it brings one back to Zhuangzi' s point about the need for the mind kr fast until, emptied of all desires and preconceptions, it becomes frcely receptive and impartially responsive. As Wordsworth writes, It is "with an eye made quiet by the power/ Of harmony" that "we ace into the life of things."6 We are, of course, yet to fathom the essence of what Tao "sees lnto," which is retrospectively given in the fourth couplet after his nromentof illuminationhas passed. The poem's meaning has quietly risen from the existential to the cosmic, for this is the only couplet in w lrich the self is "absent. " The shift is achieved by the dingzhen device enrrying the lastword of thesixthto thebeginningof theseventhline, w h ich at once effects the smooth transition and marks the union of the lwo perspectives. It is significant that among the things in the scene bcheld, Tao is struck by two sets of details, a microcosmic within a lnircrocosmic one: birds homing to the mountains in a fair sunset atmosphere. For it may be recalled that by analogy or contrast, the blrd is often associated with the poet in his soaring aspirations, his petrse of weariness and conÍinement, or his liberating reclusion (TY/ I17, 1,61,40). One more example will suffice to reinforce the point: of Nature. This is brought out by the descriptiv e youran, which,

^ ftt ,Ř

s fr,É' /&Íf qH

As the sun

sets all activities cease; Homing birds head for the woods, chirping.

188 !ffi

Luminosity of the Unconscious: The Inffible

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

ffi H

W'{F1+

T W +.

S+

lhe existential and the cosmic in the same flash of imagistic

whistle freely below the eastem eaves' Having somehow regained my life again'

("Drinking Wine"

Truth l?g illumina-

tion. #7, TYI 90\

while in this excerpt the analogybetween the birds' and Tao's associa" is drawnby sequential juxtaposition, in the presentpoemthe

6 and tion is made more subily by the dingzhendevice: between lines perception poet's g, the mountains have turned from an object of the and into the destination of the birds' journey, the direction of his eyes common is the line their flight merging at the same point. The seventh macrocosmic framework embracin8 man and bird: a "Íait" atmo-

s sphere at the close of day, a time when all activity and striving for rest and return. What is more, between man and bird "iop motion ,,o rtuti. affinity: in the wordfeiTao is witnessing the birds' level the that constitutes a parallel to his own path. On this symbolic

homing birds, long appreciative friends (zhiyin) and the natural embodiment of his spirit, become the focus of the poem's imagistiC a structure in offering an epitome of both the truth of Dao and personal quest that has brought him to where he is' The poem'o symbo1ic árift thus turns back to the beginning, as if the fourth couplet supplied in its overtones the experiential background that pr"cedes the choice in line 1. With the reading of every line entailing a,,ciÍc]l!aÍ"re-reading of previous lines, the bidirectional poem is almost a closed circuit with no clear beginning or end' Almost, but not quite, for we have said this couplet moves to a A higher plane inbeirrg uttirrrugistic embodiment of immanentDao' and ,p"or,turt"o,, s " fasting" of the mind (1' 6) to a vacuous/ quiescent' the into self the luminous state (Z 4/28,23/69-70) has dissolved universal reality, in what Hsti Fu-kuan would" call an aesthetic indepen' experience: not the insulated western aestheticism pursued aátly or ,,nonaesthetic" standards,7 but that which, seeing the high' est báauty in the dynamic oneness and harmonious equality of Nature,s translates into spiritual experience in the poet's lyric vision. The subsumption of the human within the natural is marked by the formal absence of the t'I"; ttte poem has risen to sublimity by uniting

Coming round from the "absent-mindedness" of his epiphanic moment, thepoet "reenters" the consciousworld inline 9. Musingon |ris experience, he can only speak of "a tÍue meaning" in' "this," a vague word aptly rendering his sense that it lies beyond the means of l;rnguage. This isparalleledbyhis inability to gobeyond hinting atthe zlrcnyi assimilated, even though it clearly affirms his existence, and zhen hnďs frequent expression as the principle of Nafure, the essence of his socialideal, the standardbywhichtheworld is gauged, and the goal of his quest in life (TY I 55, 24, 1.45, 75).e rďhy then the holding back? Here, it seems, all the strands of "true meaning" have merged in a total illuminatiory and it is this undifferentiated wholeness that entirely eludes intellectual ordering and linguistic fragmentation. A r:cntury earlier Lu Ji wrote that artistic truth "cannot be verbalized / ( )r captured precisely by adorned \,vords," attributing the trouble in poetic articulation "less to the difficulty of knowing than to the rlifficulty of doing"lo-in other words, to the limitation of human ability. Tao's understanding, on the other hand, is rooted directly in thc Daoist perception of the Way as a unitary "uncarved block" before lxring broken up (Z 7 /35, L 28), and of language as an inherently rl is torting medium finally to be "forgotten. " "Words str ain, / . . . slip, alic{e, perish, / Decay with imprecision," so writes T. S. Eliot, "[and] a Í'ter speecfu rcach / Into the silence. "11 Just as Five Willows's insights ttí'ten come from intuition rather than a mercurial intellect, Tao's rrrind seems to have "fasted" to a point of silent void where he feels "great explanations find no words" (Z 2/59), and poetry too must rt.turn to the ineffable (t 1). Not only does language lose its limited r t i i ty once the truth it conveys is grasped (Z 26 / 4849), but the more atrcnuously this crude tool is wielded, the less it often ends up s g rr ifying. The point is not any formulaic claim that this poem is in its r'ltrsing silen ce opento infinite interpretation. Rather, recognizing the rnisguidedness of any reductive attempt to specify truth, the poet p,ivcs up his lyricism as the only way to preserve the artistic and plrilosophical integrity of his poem and experience,12In the same way r

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Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

Luminosity of the Unconscious: The Ineffable

that Dao can ultimately only be affirmed as real and elusive (L21,,

6/29), the least limiting use of the finite verbal medium in face of ineffable truth lies in acknowledging its assimilable but indefinable presence, through a negative mode of expression that becomes at once a positive evocation of the absent. Just as the essence of Five Willows stands independently without the man's name/ and a Chinese landscape painting depends for its constitution on empty space,

so it is the intimating silence of the final disclaimer-its verbal emptiness and restraint from rattonalization-that crowns the poem with a mystical charm. Felt in the form of nonbeing, the impact of the open ending sends the reader back to the poem in search of the unsaid. But the symbiotic unitybetween art and philosophy is felt above all in the images embodying the cosmic principle (ll. 5-8). For while Tao's epiphany can be understood as an intuition of the oneness and harmony of all, here it comes from a poet who "out-Zhuangzis" Zhtangziwith an imagistic scene as commonplace as it is profound, The effectiveness of the images may be seen via a brief comparison withsome samples of English "mystical" versebyCowper,Tennysory and Blake, all predicated on a perception of cosmic oneness in a world of multiplicity: Not a flow'r But shows some touch, in freckle, streak, or stain, Of [God's] unrivall'd pencil. He inspires Their balmy odours, and imparts their hues, And bathes their eyes with nectar, and includes In grains as countless as the sea-side sands, The forms with which he sprinkles all the earth.

(Cowper) Little flower-but if I could understand \Ă /hat you are, root and all, and all in all, I

should know what God and man is. (Tennyson)

Truth

191-

To see a World in a grain of sand, And a Heaven in a wild flower, Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand, And eternity in an hour. (Blake)13

Evident in all the excerpts is a pantheistic sentiment variously rendered through comparable imagery. While Cowper's religious poetry openly praises the Divine presence in all natural forms, a similar tone in Tennyson comes from a first-person voice (in contrast to Cowper's third) that gives a closer sense of heartfelt experience. It is i n Blake that we find the most intense expression, with the second line summing up Tennyson's excerpt plus three other lines each evoking the divine macrocosm with a microcosmic image, superimposed on one another to make up a total effect. Yet Blake still shares with Cowper and Tennyson a direct cxposition of wisdom; after all, philosophical verse is a time-honored tradition in the West traceable to Aristotle's Poetics, where poetry is valued above history on the grounds that poetry, in its imaginative irnd comprehensive treatmentof possiblehuman experience, is more philosophical and concerned with "the universal."14 Blake's images are united into a sequence in fus visiory but sand, flower, hand, and hour are disparate and do not integrate by themselves. Tao's images, on the other hand, resonate with each other and form an intrinsically t'oherent whole that enhances their individualities: chrysanthemums, rnountain, evening air, and homingbirdsblend into an aura of placid ptrrity embodying the cosmic truth. But since poetry is necessarily an ordering of experience, one rnay ask whether the man-Nature communion in the fourth couplet is really one in which Tao "loses" himself. In other words, does there rcmain any subject-object dualism detracting from the fullness of the r.xperience, a gap between the spirit feeling the sublimity and the Way which is the ontological source of that communion? I would suggest not, for the dissolution of the self into the whole is reflected by the lilrmal absence of the "I." While its individuality is lost in the uniĹĽy,

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Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

ií so that there can be no subject-object dualism which is predicated on a consciousness nonexistent at this instant. It is only when the poet reverts to the realm of consciousness that he comes to recall the timeless moment-and he does not claim it to be an epiphany. Wang Guowei surely means spiritual selflessness rather than physical absence when he speaks of "absence of the self" (wuwo) in the poem.ls As it moves fromyou zlo (presence of the self) towuwo and back to youwo again, we also relive the material content of the poet's spirifual experience, which is not so much qingjing jinorong as shenwu jiaorong, an "interfusion of spirit and world," oÍ ÍDuwo liangwang, a "mutual oblivion of world and self.,, The inescapable paradox, of course, is that Tao must operate within the fragmenting medium he distrusts. |ust as the fish trap may be used to catch Íis!r. (Z 26 / 48) and the pointing finger to orient us to the moon,16 the poetic mode of language, in embodying instead of explaining, suggesting rather than defining, offers the best aid to comprehending what lies beyond conceptual-linguistic tentacles. As Zhuangzí demonstrates in his own way/ the signifying potentialof imaginative language may be fully developed to transcend its own limitations. But on this score the poet necessarily goes beyond the philosopher, for however profound his distrust of langua ge, Zhuangzi qua philosopher must employ its resources for the sake of persuasion; and however incisivelyhe deflates rational discourse, he himself mustaim atsome degree of logical coherence and systematic genetalization. It is the poet, communicating via a Ýerbal strucfure that often embodies its truth rather than directing it to a referential contexll7 who remains truest to the Dao of evocative inspiration. In every sense an epitome of Tao's poetic achievement, this short poem subtly condenses his personal quest, the ultimate of his poetics, and the Way's immanent truth into a simple slice of life, moving simultaneously on the lyric, existential, aesthetic, and cosmic levels. Yet even as it seems to reveal such an amazingly tíght organization and complex strucfure where eveÍy line resonates with every other, sustained by unobtrusive structural and formal markers, the poem retains all the qualities of natural liquidity-and casual directness the spirit is not even aware of

Luminosity of tfu Unconsciaus: The Inffible

Truth

193

characteristic of Tao's best work. Without even the help of the parallelisms used in "Return" #1,, its sense of completeness is brought to new heights by the interpenetrating coherence of its internal units on all planes, by the spontaneous stream of natural imagesls that seems but a pure flow of spirit. How such flawless art can be seamlessly fused into a natural lyricism is one of those rare artistic wonders that mark the limits of critical analysis: perhaps the movement of the poem is the rhythm of Nature and the course of the poet,s life.

Art as Embodiment of Life: N atur alnes s and Tntthfulne s s In the final analysis, every salient feature of Tao's poetry is an index of the being it reveals. Marked by a unitybetween tenor and vehicle,

between feeling, scene, insight, spirit, and objects, his art is above all one of zhen andziran,where Nafure, at once his home, the pointer to his nafure and ideals, and the incarnation of Dao, is embodied in a compatible language that fuses lyric, artistic, existential, and cosmic meanings into a totality. Undramatic as the words "truthfulness" and

"naturalness" seem, they indicate his actualization of the highest n rtistic potential of the Daoist vision. For if in classical Daoismzhen is tlre reality oĂ?Dao andziralz the naturalprinciple by which everything proceeds, in Neo-Daoism they are also seen symonymously as cosmic nnd existential norms: as Guo Xiang puts it, "truthfulness is being n;rturally so (ziran) without the mediation of things" (Zl 6/1.:242).It ls thus in keeping \^/ith his being that Tao's verse flows naturally like n depth of limpid water, plain, resonant, and profound. When traditional critics make remarks like "All sumpfuousness shed, there emerges true purity" (H 7:72\)t and "Not even a single word is not

1-96 Tao Qian and

Art

the Chinese PoeticTradition

pure and truthful" (H 1,:102),2 it is clear they are commenting on bo the man and his sťyle. Considered conceptually, however, this unison of man and does not quite elucidate Tao's uniqueness as a poeť the same maybe said of Xie Lingyun's elaborate ornateness, Du Fu's seriousness, or Xin Qiji's bold heroism. That artistic style is often rooted in the personality is a perception shared by critics of various times and places: one thinks of Longinus's (first-third centu "Sublimity is the note which rings from a great mind"ts Edward Gibbon's (1737-94) "Style is the image of ch atacter" ;! gghopenhauer'o (1788-1860) "Style is the physiognomy of the mind";s Liu Xie's " follows the bent of his heart [and styles] differ like faces" (WD

/ painting-all largely come from the heart [in a corresponding way)";'Ye Xie's 2:97) ; Zhane |ie's

(f1.

1 1

35) " P oetry, prose, calligraphy,

writing "Hunger came and drove me ollt," Master Tao unwitťingly dropped into the pitfall. Du Fu, unwarily, beat up the lingering In

waves. . . . Once students of poetry become tainted with the habits of these writers, they are like defiled white silk that ultimately cannot regain its whiteness. Keep away from [such habits]r. (H1:178-79)10

precise.

language of such matters infuses his style as well. Undramatic as always, thís deceptively simple fact marks a double achievement that points to the independence and originality of a truthÍul, natural spirit, I do not mean merely that Tao surpasses his age in ignoring the contemporary code of taste and reader expectations imposed on every writer, for what he ends up breaking are heavier fetters which traditional values have implicitly placed on Chinese poetry. As Octavio Paz notes, there is a system of approvals and prohibitions in every society ranging from the express to the implici! unvoiced prohibitions are especially powerful in that they are taken for granted and thus unconsciously and automatically obeyed.s It is in the face of one such taboo that Tao wrote the poetry for which he is best known. For since the time of the Shijing folk songs, material concerns have seldom found entry into literati poetry, due in part to the Master's

Truthfulness 197

llictum that " a superior man sets his mind on the Way rather than a living" (A 1,5/32).' When he censured Fan Chi for asking about lrtrsbandry (A1,3/4), what Confucius inadvertently did was to stigrnatize livelíhood as a vulgar matter which became a literary taboo as well. The lyricism of Tao's tianyuan sful becomes doubly resounding when heard against this prohibitive silence of what should not be said-a silence thatexpresses itself as intermittentcriticism of hím for ndulterating poetry with inelegant language and unfitting material. When Zhong Hong defended the poet against the charge of "farmer's lďords," he was reflecting more than the slighting response of a period taste to such earthy poetry. Likewise, when Mao Xianshu (1620-88) protested against Tao's "vulgarisms" (H L:184), or when Wang Fuzhi (L619-92) wrote

(1627-1703) "Poetry is the voice of the heart, . . . thus one's poetry io often seen from the person [and vice versaf."7 Whether each cast mind always finds a correlative mode of expression is beside the point here, but the proposition is too broadly valid for any appraisal to be One clue to Tao's artistic genius,I think,lies in the dual attribute that even as livelihood issues lend substance to his lyricism, the

as Embodiment of Ltfe: Naturalness and

they were voicing a deep-seated cultural bias all the more emphatir:nlly, since Tao's status has never been seriously challenged since Song times. Yet it is precisely such objections that highlight the uniqueness

Tao's tianyunn shi in clearing a new path for poetrp never atlcmpted in literati verse before and seldom written with the same Blrreness of touch afterward. For while he has made the daily moods nttd events of rural life worthy subjects and enriched poetic diction with his simple language, few of his emulators can write with the sitme authentic stroke that stems unfeignably from personal experit,nce. Tao made no vehement declaration against the inherited code of poetic taboos, but what is sure is that he would have betrayed the rca ity of his life-hence his artistic conscience and identity-had he lirllowed that code. Thematically and formally, what his poetry rt flects is a total trust in zhen andziran capable of transcending even lorrg-standing cultural orientations. Measured against these and the rrf

1.98

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

general experiential horizon of the literati, Tao's poetic

Art a

takes on a larger cultural significance. If his lyricism is rightly as truthful and natural, it is also because, in restoring the ma basis of spirifual life as the "infrastructure" of poetry, it unwi

redresses a cultural slant perpetuated in literati verse most of time. Not thatTao was set onbeing a poetic and cultural iconoclas! we have seen all along, he was following the guide of his intuition experience. Yet it is a telling index of both traditional values and poet's genius that even when the modern critic Lu Xun called appreciating him as a "total matt" interms of his tranquil and a sides (H L:286), his focus still remained on Tao's inner spirit. But as his ideals are not disjoined from praxis, the material and spiri sides of the poet's life merge with the form-content unison of fus into a polyhedral uniťy that reveals in a total sense how Tao's is really the man. And if this is what marks the literary and c originality of his "total art," ttre p aradox must remain that it comes times almost as a literary by-product not unlike that of his spi

mentor Zhuangzi, who also wrote some of the most fascinati

literature in the Chinese tradition in the course of expressing a of life. Often hailed by the Song poets as a paragon of "natural beau (Hpassim), Tao is the unwitting prophet who laid down a aesthetic tfuough truthful expression. It is useful to remember that a poetry of zhen and ziran does not mean artistic automatism/ as some Song critics seem to imply when they say Tao "does not write poetry." Shi Decao's statement that he "turns whatever he sees into poetry . . . without the least action" (H 1:56) is no isolated remark,butreflective of a commonperception comes perilously close to making his art a mystical Midas touch. But as always, the key to the poet's art lies inhis life: just as his quest windo its course from anoriginalinnocence through a complicatedworld to a higher simplicity that incorporates the wisdom of experience, so hlt poetry is distilled from a sure instinct through the artistic process to a higher naturalness and lucidity. If language necessarily mediater

and distorts truth, Tao must have known that a less contrived

as Embodiment of Ltfe: Naturalness

andTruthfulness 199

language which does not make itself a goal of pursuit, and returns to simpliciťy much like Zhuangzi's notion of "forgetting" mentalexertion, at least comes nearer to the spirít of Dao; his "bland," natural rrtyle is thus best seen as the confluence of a life vision, spontaneous instinct, and knowing choice. We have shown how Tao transcends tlrc intellectual gymnastics of xuanyan shi, the escapist fantasy of t1ouxian shi, anď the flamboyant taste which infected poets of his age, but it is more crucial to recognize that this artistic choice is part of a total quest for an undeflected "true meaning" in life. It is perhaps pnstoral verse which offers the best touchstone for Tao's approach to ptrctry: not as a self-sustaining structure of art, but a lyric expression o[ experience and vision. But still Shi's remark would only make sense if taken to mean zuuwei,the absence of artificial effort other than wlratpertains to "naturalart." To see the naturalness of Tao's poetry E$ pure spontaneous overflow is to overlook the artistic process and tltr nature of language; to take it as an impression or a deceptive ploy born of manipulation is to be confined within the process and nrcdium while missing the underlying spirit. The prismatic simplicIty of the person is at once the crystalline transparency of his poetr , srrc{ the direction of the artistic quest becomes a symbolic parallel to tlrc direction of the existential quest. Here, it seems, \4/e are in a position to see the multiple signifirtnrrce of the poetry to the artist. Whether or not Tao consciously worked with an "existential poetics" one cannot be sure, but in expressing his sentiments often as a substitute for communication lncking in the world, in recording the path of his existence and spt.aking the truth of the Way, poetry becomes both witness to his bcirrg and inspiration to his ideals, standing in mutualistic accord with his life. The lyric and the aesthetic converge in a total endeavor Itsclf authenticated by the truth of Nature, and poetry will always er.rve as an available reel of experience which he can turn back to l'elive the memorable moments of his life, moments of faith and lllrrrnination that will sustain him through a shattering reality. And while we marvel at the rare sublimity that comes from the fusion of e nntural art and a truthful spirit, we realize the paradox that this

200

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

sublimity is ultimately not meant as art: for those who see into the zhen,ziran,andshanof things, itis nomorethan a crystallization of the intrinsic verve of original forms.l1 Tao never made the statement himselí but the unity of art and life is no stale dictum for the quintessential artist of life.

Epilogue

A Destiny betuteen Fate,

Nature, and Heazten's Decree At the beginning ofhisfu"Moved by Literati Not Fitting Their Time,,, Tao states that since of all creation man alone is endowed with

spiritual capacity, he should always be true to his nature: dt *ilr]t É& il lt tr rŠĚ ft

'Hlfi

WZiFft *r)ffi'EÍ

One may delighthimself with the jirang game or bring great benefit to mankind.

Neither niaing nor leaping ill-fits his nature;

Forhealwaysnoblyr.rit hi"feelings.

Qyl147) Tlrese two wishes, as we have seen, define the fundamental tension

of his inner spirit. Fulfillment of his social mission followed by a

return to Nature would have constituted an ideal life, but while the slli "hopes to improve his virtue to match the time, / The time, when It comes, proves unpropitious" (w! L47). Instructed as he is by the ancients that "the way of Heaven. . . ever aids goodness and supp.rts humanity" (TYl L48), the poet is at times shaken by his painful

202

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

A Destiny

experience and the tragic destinies of worthies like Bo Yi and Yan to question the moral efficacy of Heaven:

tr # ffi lE tr

Z# W,

Ěz

ffi

wonder if the requital of virtue should be thus; such works are falsely laid down.

I fear

ÉE)Effi

Azure Fleaven is so remote,

EiTilHE

Who can fathom its workings?

The tinge of resignation in the question is soon dispersed by a right nense of humor with which he looks at his ,,corpse,,:

íEiE 7Í Ě E+ A^ iÉT í+ E'

tÉt * fH iX Á # É)Esx ffi ffi & á;* ťš

Human life is like the changes of an illusion, Ultimately returning to blank nothingness.

s*EE

'íEÍ

ffi

I tie

myself to dusty bonds?

Still,borninto times that cannotbe altered for all one's idealism, "Better be firm in adversity and follow one's bent / Than stoop and burden oneself" (Tyl148). The poet's innate truthfulness is througha lifelong questinto ahigher composure, and contemplating his death in the poems "In Imitation of Burial Songs," his voice ie objective and calm: +.,Y.lHft,

+ {tF.ft{E 't#

kT',rí*t

E'FtÉEH

Where there is life there must be death; An early end is not at the urging of fate.

(#1., .1

Those who earlier came to escort me

Others have already begun singing. (#3,

TYI142)

The weeping of the first two poems gradually gives way to sounds

of ainging, for death is as much a passing event as life, which soon ťt:verts to normal from its brief interruption. Just as Zhuangzi asks "l{ow do I know that the love of life is not a delusion and that. . . rJt:ath is not like. . . a homecoming?" (Z Z/TUTT), Tao speaks of dc'ath as a refurn to his ,,old abode,t (jiuzhai) or ,,original abode,, (benzhai).l If Wordsworth reconciles himself to dear Lucy,s death in cecing her "Rolled round in earth's diurnal course, / With rocks, and stones, and trees,"2 Tao knows with the same inner serenity that he la returning to the universal cradle embracing and equalizing all:

nl*t á ťl

Attainment and loss are no longer known, Right and wronB/ can they be felt?

with its portrait of a

Nowrefurryeachtohisownhome. My relatives may feel some lingering grief;

Born into the illusion of a dream,

(rYI el)

^ Why should

desolate scene, but the depiction forms part of a factual, subdued c'lescription of the circumstantial differences between life and death, which is conveyed in the same balanced tone without lapsing into a sclf-pitying plaint about separation. Likewise, while the first half of #3 describes a bleak natural scene that seems to deepen the pathos, the lntter is soon put into perspective:

fih

E*.#nP

I only regret that while alive, I did not have enough wine to drink.

The pathos of death seems a little stronger in

Bitterly he laments "I learnt the Way when my hair was bound tufts; now, white-headed, I have accomplished nothing" (TYI I And at the nadir of his faith, he even verges on a pessimism that life as emPťy of meaning:

^+.Íun #{HÉ 4ffi

Decree 203

(#1, TYI1,41)

CYI

tu'

between Fate, Nature, and Heaaen's

ífi lEl

Ffrit t!

[nI

Dead and gone, what is to be said? The body, entrusted to the hillside, has become one

with it. TYI1.4t)

(ryl142)

204

A Destiny

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

with a clarity of vision reminiscent of the concluding insight in

"Body,Shadow, and Spirit," the poet sees his "death" as a reunion of individual with cosmic being. Meanwhile, echoing Sima Qian's eulogy of Confucius, he be' queaths his unfulfilled ideal to his sons in what is meant to be a testament: In the Songs it is said: "The lofty mountains I look up to, / The bright road I waŘ." Though incapable of this myself, I revere the ideal with all my heart.3 Take heed [of the Way]! \Átrhat more can I say? (WJ

89)'

telling that Confucius's vision constitutes the content of the poet'Š "wiII," for it reveals not only ttre shi's idealism to the last but a meaning Tao's writings hold forhim, one that, relatingnotto hi but to posterity, connects his personal identity as a poet to his la identity as a trustee of the cultural heritage. fust as ConÍucius himself as a guardianof culturetransmitting (shu)theWay (A9 /5,7 It is

putatively compiled the Spring and Autumn Annals aÍtet failure of his social mission in order to make his way "known to ages" (Sl 47 / 6:1943),the poet hopes the link he has secured with L), and

express the cares of my heart' I do not trans rrrit (shu) themnow, how can later generations hear them? (TYl 106)s

Decree 205

confidence to pray that his verse "With star-like virtue in its place may shine, / Shedding benignant influence on all future generations,"6 he certainly hopes to carry on the spirit of Dao through the sentiments

conveyed in his writings: the eulogies of historical and fictional worthies, the recording of illuminations amid Nature, the delineation of the utopian society-all become signposts to archetypal ideals at a lime when they seemed completely lost. It is in part this undying sense of vocatiory moving "precisely because he is not all tranquility and mildness," as Lu Xun puts it (H 1:286), that sustains the poet to the end. "Life and death are a matter of decree, riches and honor lie with Heaven," he instructs his sons (TYI 1'8n, quoting Confucius again (Á 12/5). Just as classical ConÍucian texts teach the shl to "cultivate himself according to the W ay" and lcave fate to take its course, "do what is proper to his position, . . . live n ease of mind and await his destiny" (Mn 1,I4; M 7A' / ), Tao knows Irc must leave aside the inscrutable part of Heaven's dictates (ming) while striving to fulfill its moral decree (tian ming): I

LxŽ

'tfr niliE^ziĚ*

worthies can be extended into the future: As the year draws to its close, sadly

between Fate, Nature, and Heaaen's

To revere the established decrees of Heaven above And model oneself on the bequeathed writings of the sages.

(rv|1,47)

Lr the ironic outcome, it is partly the altruist's failure that makes for the poet,s immortality, as later generations came tobe inspiredbythe, of one forced to the fringe of -o'oir,g expression of the life and ideals his time and his world. The need to "illuminate the Way" remaing

even as one lives obscurely in hopeless times (X 22/4344), and writing as a transmission of truth becomes a substitute fulfillment oí public duty, shown graphically in the words he bequeaths to his sons, on this level of concerry Tao is not just yearning for a kindred spirit to understand the funes of his heart, but using literature as a meang of preserving culture. If he does not have Wordsworth's proud

llut while affinity to mankind and Nature may both be natural, Tao ln compelled by history to a painful termination of his social effort. In lltc outcome, the "rightÍul destiny (fen)" that he fulfills (TYI 98) pt'rtains only to the Daoist side of his disposition, and it is in Nature llrrr t he manages to "find delight in Heaven's decree" (TYl162).Thrs rk.light, to be sure, is a distillate of dense complexities and an erluilibrium of tensional sentiments, just as the prismatic lucidity of Itis trrt is one that refracts into contrastive hues. Still, as he looks back r xt lris life in his elegiac piece to himselí the poet ultimately finds no rt'gret for the "solitary course" he has taken in fidelity to his heart: 3r,tf ffitS

,t)'+J'H nE

My toil was free from excessive weariness; My heart was filled with constant ease.

206

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

#x.#fr

A Destiny

Content with Heaven and accepting my lot, have lived out my hundred years.

lilEÉ+

14)tffiÉ'

Remaining unyielding in my poor hut

EfiAAFfi#

I drank to my heart's content and wrote poeÍrs.

ffiiEi!fr E#ÉE E|

* +#

recognized fate and knew my destiny, Though who can be without concern? As I now undergo this transformation, I can find no cause for regret. I

ě tY,

EI J-) ffiŤE

(rvl1 Indeed, anguished as he is at the solitary turnings in his

wisdom that lights his way. Given the frustration of his social idealism which no contentment can quite mollify, the seesawing tension between and delight disquietude and peace of mind, solitude and i dence is ultimately irresolvable: the poet sustains himself with the inner torch of

'Ér'lBffit ]L aa_#ffies,

Back and forth, [the bird] finds no stable resting-place, From night to night, its voice turns more moumful.

(rvl pffiffiH

áxĚffiŤÍ!

{ŤT W'B'í+k'+'

ffitíWIfi^R

whistle freely below the eastern eaves, Having somehow regained my life again.

wish to talk, but there is none to answer; So I raise my cup and urge my lonely shadow. QYI1.

tuĚ*H,6#

'ě{E[FÍ

Even if no kindred spirit exists, Let it be. What is there to be sad about?

Decree

207

living acceptance of the way lies the fundamental capacity for self-transcendence. If Qu Yuan remains fettered because he cannot surrender his spirit to a larger frame of being,T Tao attains bliss and enlightenment during the lyric moments when he loses himself in Nature. "b1 a moment's glance I embrace the universe," he writes (Ty/ 33), and the line rings of Mencius as of Zhua ngzi (M T A 1.8, Z Z / / 77), his confucian and Daoist sentiments coming to a unison. If the self cannot fulfill its destiny in "perfect[ing] the empiÍe,,,it can at least "return to purify [it]self" (M7A/9,SA/7;TyI 1.47,145) in a mode of existence to which it can faithfully belong. True piety is acting on what one knows, and understanding is lost if not translated into action. Riding tfuough his lifelong triar with an abiding truthfulness, tl're poet knows that the choice of an authentic exisience is never lreroically made with a single leap of faith. The quest winds its couÍse lhrough an unending spiral, passing and returning to the same existential signposts at different levels of beckoning. Úr action predictrted on self-knowledge, in honest living amid an illuminating Nature and an epiphanic vision that unites him with the way, Tao attains the shifting repose he longs for. A shifting repose, indeed, for It needs to be revitalized every day of fus life, every moment afresh and anew. But in a

between Fate, Nature, and Heaaen,s

Notes Notes for Introduction a summary of the historical controversy over the still unsettled issue Tao's dates,seeD2:189-92.Ihave adopted the traditional dates inthe absence of compelling evidence to overturn them.

For of

Throughout this study

I shall be using "sentiments" in a broader sense than that understood in eighteentti-century Western aesthetics to refer

to "an attitude, thought or judgement permeated or prompted by

feeling: a complex of emotion and idea" (Webster's Third International Dictionary).

Notes for Chapter

The Spirit of the Age

The "bonds" are those between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, while the "rules" cover one's relationships with one's paternal uncles,brothers, relatives of the same surname, maternal uncles, teachers and elders, and friends. See Ban Gu (8242), comp.,

Baihu tongyi, "Sangang liuji,"

2 3

LinngHan zhi bu, 2:452-53.

Zhongguo zhexu.eshi zilina

xuanji-

For a detailed analysis of the issue, see Yii, "Individualism and the Neo-

Taoist Movement in Wei-Chin China," l11.4g.

Stri.tly speaking, the term "Neo-Daoism" is not quite indicative of the intellectual movement in Wei-fin China; thinkers like Wang Bi, He yan,

21-0

Notes

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

FrtE+á+ra' Ztffi-ÍĚt'-EffiP E : r z#Rgt lE]E ? l sf f| : ri*ffilEl ? l lttršsŤa, E+zŘ&' tÉH r=#&" -l

and Guo Xiang are basically syncretic, being Daoist in their meta ics and Confucian in their social and political philosophy. "Neo-Daoism" remains a convenient term to describe the general

Inlin shu this incident is attributed to Ruan Zhan and Wang Rong (/S /5:1363), but the point remains the same. All translations are mine unless otherwise stated; translations of official titles follow Hucker, Dictionary of offickl T itles' Ci Mather, ttans., Shih-shuo hsin-yil: A N ew Account of Tales of the World,101.

of an intellectual movement centered around the texts of Laozi Zhuangzi. Manifested mainly as "abstruse learning" (xuanxue) "pure conversation" (qingtan), the movement is a multi-faceted

characterized by a transcendental air, finding expression in ics, art and aesthetics, life-style, and religion.

Liu Shao, Ren wu zhi,13 (ch. ). For an English translation of Liu's see J. K. Shryock, The Study of Human Abilities, Thelen Wu Chih o/ Shao (New Haven: American Oriental Society,1937). The term is used for convenience here; for a discussion of the problem of authorship of Laozi,see Lau, trans., Tao Te Ching, 147- 2,

1rr

Ch'en, "Tao Yuanming

Ibid., 1:390.

1ll

See ch. 6 for a

zhi sixiang,"

1:390-95.

discussion of the fin literati's identification of Nature with

Dao. 1q

See Z

Again thename refers less to the person thanto the spiritrevealed in text that bears his name, especially its first seven "iÍlÍleť'chapters.

See Gao Heng, ed., Zhouyi dazhuan,205, 308. Cf. Ching, or Book of Changes, 78,132.

Ch'en, "Tao Yuanming zhi sixiang yu qingtan zhi guanxi," 1:383.

Chuci, "Yufu," in Hawkes, trans., Songs of the South,206-7

Commentary on L 1, 25,19;inWangBi,Wang Blll [jiaoshi],1.:1,77, Cf. Rump and Chan, trans., Commentary on the "LaoTzu" by Wang Pi,

Chen Shou, Sanguo zhi,Wei shu21./3:606; also SX18/2.

Watson, Chinese Lyricism,75. Among those who wrote poems entitled " Zhaoyin" are Zhang Haa,Luli, Zuo Si, ZhangZai, Ltiqiu Chong, and Wang Kangju; see XQH 7:622,689-92,734-35,740,750,2:953. The list does not include poets who wrote on a similar theme or mixed itwith others in poems that are not entitled "Zhaoyin"; see for instance Pan Ni's "Yimin yin" and Guo Pu's "Youxian shi," XQHL:769-70,2:865-67 .

Ge Hong, Baopuzi, "Wai pian L: Jia dun," inhis Baopuzi nei wai pian,

88,78. See also Mather, "The Controversy over Conformity and

Nafura

during the Six Dynasties," esp.1'64-65. 10

Ch'ery "Tao Yuanming zhi sixiang," 1:383.

See Yti, "Individualism and the Neo-Taoist Movement in

China," 14143. 12

Hsiao, History of Chinese Political Thought,

For Wang Bi, see Chen Sho u, S anguo zhi, W ei shu 28 / 3: 795, commenta quoting fromHe Shao's Wang Bibiezhuan; also quoted inSX4 / 6,n.2. Guo Xiang, s ee SX 4 / 17 . For a summary of the life circumstances of Yary Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu, and Guo Xiang, and the sPirit of compromise permeating their commentaries, see Demiéville, 830-37.

1'4

21-1.

1: 612;

"Sigui yin: xu," XQH

see also D 1':198-200.

230

Notes

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

80 ÉEaUÉnz,+Ťffi , *ÍW,Últ o Ě*ffi=fiŤÚ' #^ÉiE o RE-iffi^ zjtffiÉ-Effi r o zj<ijF,t , T't#W. . e^)E ' *lĚ "' E{t4 )y. , F ffi -ffi-ffi . &_a ffitr íill fsí+)Ea ' frffi#e.-É##ryn o

Notes for Chapter

Efrze^Eě* , 7n'íEŤlt #.. "

See QTS 4:1257 -58, 11:3995; H 2:33940.

Mountains associated with recluses and those seeking tobecomexian,'

See

Chuci, "Zhao hun," in Hawkes, trans., Songs of the South,224-25.

"Li sao," ll. 203-64, in Hawkes, trans.,

Songs of the South,73-:/5.

shihua,'J. / la.

Zhao Y i, Oubei

Zhuarrgzihas a penchant for using extreme examples to make his while affirming Dao's presence even in shit and piss (222/ 45),he not show Dao in the context of daily living as convincinglyas Tao

Watson, Chinese Lyricism, 53.

Zuo has a long "Poem on my Lovely Daughters" ("fiaonii shi," 1.:735-36), a lively but slightly distanced portrait in which the father not as personally involved as in Tao's poem. It may also be noted parent-child emotions generally feature less in Westem than in Chi poetry, no doubtbecause the family does not occupy an equal place the individual's life (see Schwartz,World of Thought,99-102).

89 90

3 4 5 6 7 8 I

ájÉ'Í, EH 'ft4ffisHH:iRzFfrÉft o |*_ áffiffi , FÍÍHzfr' ff,Ž'ffi '

Wang Guowei, Renjian cihua,l/2. 91.

For a discussion of Zhang Xie's descriptive nature poetry, see Sun Chang, Six Dynasties Poetry, 54-57; idem, "Description of scape in Early Six Dynasties Poetry," 112-14.

Wang Guowei, Renjian cihua,22/ t"

42.

,,Shu zhi

#5, "Daerh Guo shi', #3,and Da Xi Kang shi" #2 and #3 f or Xi Xi. In XQH

shi,, #2

:48O, 487, 48g,

poems-in Confucian moral and sociopolitical terms_were in existence b efore xuanyan shi: see Íot instance Cao Cao's "Du Guanshan" and "Dui jiw," XQH l:34648; Fu Xian,s (239-94) "Xiaojing shi," "Lunyu shi," "Maoshishi," "Zhouyi shi,,, ,,Zhougwan shi," and Zuozhuanshi," XQH 1:603-5. The writings of Yu and Fluan are no longer extant, while the one remaining poem by Xu is irrelevant to our purpose. Corroboration is also found in fiang Yan,s (444-505) imitation piece, meant to capture the essential flavor of a Sun Chuo poem; see XeH

2:1576.

Yti, "Neo-Taoist Movement," 129.

ftElJ" El7t#^FÍEzfr.,,Llě+H** t{'8ilBffi& "

550. Philosophizing

Philosophical Poetry and ,,Abstruse-Language Verse,'

S"" "Dai Qiuhu ge shi" Íor XiKang

Wang Shaoying, ed., Soushen houii,6; see also /S 94/8:2448.11 is uncer' tain whether or not this story existed when Tao mentioned Liu in "Peach BlossomSpring." The only mention of Liusure tobe earlier than Tao is in Deng Can's (?-<. 3 84) I inj i, where Liu is portrayed as a vi recluse rather than one interested in immortality.

23L

l0 I 12 I

In Tan Daoluary Xulinyangqiu.

Xiuo Zixian,NanQi shu,52/3:908(Remarks onthe Biographies of Men of Letters); in Guo Shaoyu, ed' Zhangguo lidai wenlun xuan, 1,:265. ZongBing, "Hua shanshui xu," in Zhongguo meixueshi zilino xuanbian, 1:177-78.SeeBusl1 "TsungPing's Essay on PaintingLandscape and the

'Landscape Buddhism' of Mount Lu," 14446.

A*o.tg those presentwere Wang Xizhi, Xie An, and Xie Wan, as well as Sun Chuo and Xu Xun. A total of thirty-seven poems were written. An image for unburdened, purposeless freedom; allusion to Z

82/1,1,.

A" Wu.g Xizhi wrote in the preface: "Looking up to behold the vastness of the universe, and looking down to survey the richness of the various phenomena, we letour eyes roam and ourhearts ramble about, finding enough to fully gratify our senses of sight and hearing,, IS gO /7:2099). Ironically, the preface is more lyrically resonant than the poems. Was Wang aware that his feelings had not found expression in the two poems he wrote for the occasion? See poems by Yuan Qiaozhi, Wang Xuanzhi, Wang

Binzhi, XQH

Huizhi, and Wang

2:911., 91.4.

This is Xie Lingyun's remark on his grandfather in Shanjufu, XLI 320. The second one opens with two parallel couplets, but parallelism does not constitute a key attribute of the poem as a whole.

232 13

Expression borrowed from Kao, "The Aesthetics of Regulated Verser" 372.

1'4

Cf. Wordsw orth, The Excursinn:

77-a0;in Poetical Works,592,

The free drinking and talking are temperate by Neo-Daoist standardsr, and more reflective of a genuine liberation of spirit than the conscioug self-indulgence of the "Eight Free Spirits."

George Eliot, "The Progress of the Intellect " in idem, Essays of EIbt,31,.

See Frodsham,

References in this couplet are to Hexagrams 18 and 10 inYiiing. See Gaoi Heng, ed., Zhouyi dazhuan,205,1.42; cf. Wilhelm, trans., I Ching,79,46,

20 21'

22 23

"Origins of Chinese Nature Poetry."

Ailusion toL2O. Allusion to

L'1,0,

These two lines allude to

Z 16/1,-2.

Mair and Mei, "The Sanskrit Origins of Recent Style Prosody," 3g3,, Discussing his verse as representing a stage in the development of recent-style poetry, Mair and Mei see Xie as "a master of the antithetical

24 25

As the same George Eliotespousinga "correctgeneralisation" is aware; see Gordon S. Haight, ed.,The Gmrge Eliot Letters, T vols. (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, L954-56),4:300.

Mair and Mei, "Sanskrit Origins,"

The remark is by Fang Dongshu (1772-1851); H

Hexagram 29, Image. In Ga oHeng, ed., Zhouyi dazhuan, trans., I Ching, 1,1,6.

couplet." Lin Wen-ytie h, " Zhongguo shanshui shi de tezhi, " in idem, Shanshui yu

gudian,49-50.

Xie's contact with Nature was in fact largely precipitated by exile ensuing from factional strife, a forced retreat with little sense of being a joyous liberation: "A traveller's heart is ever sad; / Grief succeedg grief in relay" (XLI 68). See Xie's biography inSS 67 /6:1753-54. Cf. Yeh's analysis in "Cong Yuan Yishan Lunshi jueju tan Xie Lingyun yuLiuZongyuan de shi yu ren," inher Zhongguo gudian shige pinglun ji, l 3741,. f

Hexagram

427J8; 32

33 34 35 36

52,

398. 1,:225.

fudgment and Image. In Gao Heng,

ed.,

27 4; cf

.W ilhelm,

Zhouyi dnzhuan,

cf. Wilhelm, trans.,I Ching,201,-2.

Wang Zhihuan, "Deng Guanquelou."

Li Bai, "shanzhong wenda." su shi, "Ti Xilin bi," inhis su shi shiji,4:1219. Su Shi, cl poem to the tune "Dingfengbo," in Tang Gu izhang, ed., Quan Song ci,L:288.

Letter to fohn |. Reynolds,3 February

Notes for Chapter

L22.

233

Shen Deqiary ed., Qing shibiecai,3 ("Fanli" [Guide to Usage]). Oh! many are the Poets that are sor4/n By Nature; men endowed with the highest gifts, The vision and the faculty divine; Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse, . . .

1'6

Notes

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

181"8;

in Keats, Letters,96.

"Farmstead Poetry" and the Westem Pastoral

Th" term is usually not clearly defined by critics and historians of classical Chinese literature,buttaken as understood fromcompositions

by poets like Tao, Wang Wei, Chu Guangxi (707-<.760), and Fan Chengda (1.12643).

noth literary critics and intellectual historians have done so. See for instance Marie Chan, "T'ao Ch'iery" in Nienhauser et al., eds.,Indiana Companion,768; Michael S. Duke and C. S. Chang, "L1t'{1r," ibid.,610; "Index," ibid.,7047, which likewise gives "pastoral poetry" as the translation fot tianyuan shi. See also Joseph f. Lee, biographical entry on "Ch'u Kuang -hsi," in Sunflower Splutdor : Three Thousand Y ears of Chinese Poetry, eds. Wu-chi Liu and Irving Y. Lo (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press,1975),552; Tu Wei-ming, "Profound Learning, Personal Knowledge, and Poetic Vision ," 2U Lin Mao-sung, A Comparatioe Study, 33. The latter explicitly claims tianyuan s/rl to be the Chinese generic equivalent of pastoral verse.

234

Notes

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

See "Pastoral" in Holman and Harmory Handbnk to Literature,36'1,.

Abrams,

Poetry."' 6

Wells, Idylls of Thmcritus,6648.

Ibid.,91,-92.

Marinelli, Pastoral, 39.

Eclogue 1,;Lee, trans., Virgil: The Eclogues,35.

Eclogue 3; ibid., 47-53.

1.1.

Eclogue 5; ibid., 65.

Marinelli, Pastoral,lO. On one level, of course, the pastoral presence the Scriptures simply points to a fact of life in the ancient Mediterra. nean. The Samaritan text of the Pentateuch dates from the fifth

1,4

"A Discourse on Pastoral Poetry" (which

Fraguier, "Dissertation conceming Pastoral Poetry" (excerpted and translated by Michael de la Roche in 1710), quoted in Congleton, Theories of Pastoral Poetry in England, L684-1798,158.

See Kermode, ed., English Pastoral Poetry,74,

In his subdivision of poetry into eight main denominations, for instance, Sir Philip Sidney (15541-86) ranks pastoral the last, calling it the "lowest hedge" which all "will soonest leape over." See his "An Apology forPoetry," in Kaplan, ed., Criticism:Twenty Major Statements,

of the

inMay and Metzger,

Old Testament, theSeptuagint,datea

In Barrell and Bull, eds., English P astor aI V erse, 78.

See Quixote's description of the golden age in Cervantes, Don Quixote, 85-86. Quixote constantly imagines life in terms of his readings: "FIave

Thus while pastoral life is light-heartedly described in "March" and rejected for an active dedicated life in "May," its material content is not

...

," ibid.,97

Ibid.,902, referring back to U244, U7

Itwas this flaw that eventually prompted a minorwave of antipastoral verse in the eighteenth century, as more poets furned away from nostalgia for a golden past to confront the harsh rural realities of their time.

T ao Y uanming, 51-52; ZhongY oumin, T ao Y uanming lunj Kang-i Sun Chang, Six Dynasties Poetry,22-23.

SeeLiao,

In Barrell and Bull, eds., English Pastoral Verse,77.

1,6

Cervantes, Don Quixote, 86, 902.

Pope, Poetry and Prose ll. 59-:7 6, ibid., 13-14.

A. S. F. Gow,

Poggioli, Oaten Flute: Essays on

In the November,2Eglogue

i, 1,53-

The Greek Bumlic Poefs (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.

Press, 1953), xxiii. the Pastoral and the Pastoral

ldea,76.

Dido "is enstalled nowe in heauens hight"l in Milton's poem Lycidas is "mounted high"-words virtually duplicated by Pope in "Winter," where Daphne also "mounts on high." oggioli, O aten Flute, 1-2. See also Laurence Lern er, The Use of Nostalgia: Studies in P astoral Poetry (New York: Schock en, 1972\, 19, 40.

SeeGenesis 2.L5, in May and Metzger, eds.,New Oxford AnnotatedBible,

54;

Alexander Pope,8. See for instance "Summer,"

eds., Nan Oxford Annotated Bible,3.

at issue.

1,6.

you not read, sirs

prefaces his own

110,121.

B.C., while the Greekversion from the third century B.C. Genesis 2.9,

Pope,

"Pastorals"), in idem, Poetry and Prose, 4-5.

Glossary of Literary Terms, "PastoĂ?al," 127. For s discussions on ttre subject, see ibid., 127-29; Holman and Harmon, Handbook to Literature, 361'- 2;J .E. Congletory "Pastoral," in PremingeĹĽ et al., eds., Princeton Encyclopedin,60S-6. For a more detailed discussion of tianyuan slrl and its differences pastoral verse, see Kwong, "The Rural World of Chinese 'Fa

235

Expression adapted from Bruno Snell, The Discoaery of the Mind: The GreekOrigins of EuropeanThought, trans. T. G. Rosenmeyer (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1960), 286.

Congleton, Theories

Kermode, ed., English Pastaral Verse,7l, quoting Puttenham.

of Pastoral in

England,298.

236 35

Notes

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

of commented that the "farmstead" or "farmers' poetry" (tinniia shi) 2:56)' (H 1':170-71" Tao from Wang Wei and Chu Guangxi is derived Tang poets Indeed without calling Tao a "farmstead poet " many High (689Haoran Meng clearly saw him as such-through their own lenses' eremitic Tao's 740), for exarnple, echoed Wangfi (585-644) in admiring in the delights "dailyindulges Tao how of enviously life whenhewrote

This phrase is used by Zhong Hong in his Poetry Ratings in partial appraisal of Tao's language.

See

1 :9

;

Guo Shaoyu,

ed., Zhong guo lid'al

wenlun xuan, 1:322, entry on Tao Qian. 36

This is not to overlook the |ian'an poets' reflection of the hardshipe

endured by the populace during the wars, famines, and disorder of the

period. 3/

From He Xiu's (129-80) commentary onGongyang zhuan, Duke Xuan, 1 Sth year (558 B.C.); in Guo Shaoyu, ed ., Zhongguo lidai w enlun xuan, l:5'

Among the early literati-farmer hermits were fieyu, Changju Jieni, and, the anonymous old man mentioned in the Analects (18/5J), whom C onf ucius (551"47 9 B.C. ) and his disc iple Zilu (5 42-480 B. C. ) met in 487 B.C. For some idea of the line of literati-farmer recluses leading up to Tao, see forinstancethebiographies of ZhengPu (firstcentury B'C'), HS 72/1.0:3056;of Chunyu Gong (d. 80), Xu Zhi (c.97-168),Xu Yin (c. 16G' 208), and "Recluses," in Fan Ye, HouHan shu, 39 / 5:1301, 53 / 6:17 83 / 10:2755-77 ; of " Recluses," f S 94 / 8:2425- 3.

4648)

Attributed to a "fiÍty-year-old man," this song was first quoted (with a slightly different last line) by Wang Ch ong (27-97?) inhis Lun Heng, chi. 27; see Lunheng zhushi, annot. Dept. of History, Beijing University, 4 vols. (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1979), 2:491'.

Two Han poems, Liu Zhang's (d.

178 B.C.) "Gengti ata ge" and Yang Yun's (d.54 B.C.) "Ge shi," read ostensiblyliketinnyuan shi,butactually use the farmstead subject allegorically; see respectively XQI{ 1:9243 and HS 38/6:1991,-96, XQH 1':112-13 and HS 66/9:288948. I have located only two other relevant but far less significant poems: Shu Xi's (264?-303?) "Blooming Millet," a song eulogizing rich harvests in the manner of precedents in the Book of Poetry; and Zhang Xie's (d. 307) "Miscellaneous Poems" #9, which mentions the poet ploughing but is really about the joy of reclusion and the beauty of the landsc ape; XQH

'l:640,747.

In point of fact, while "tianyuan shi" hasbecome an established

critical

term among modern scholars, its origin remains somewhat obscure; none of the relevant works (histories, dictionaries, articles) I have come across discusses whether the term was used by premodem Chinese poets and critics. As far as I can trace, Zhangfie (fl. 1130) has remarked how "later poets wrote on the farmstead thepe [after Tao]" (H 1':59), while Zhong Xing (1,547-1624) and Zha Shenxing (1650-1727) have

237

ofthefarmstead"(QTS5:'l'619,2:478)'HeandWangWei'ChuGuangxi'

"Íarmand others wrote poems whose titles or lines contain the words appeals what though even rt-S, ers" or "farmstead" (QTS vols. Passim), harsh rural life to them about Tao's verse is not so much his sometimes

aswhattheysawtobetheself-containedfreedomandcasualcontentof a reclusive world'

42 43

Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, ch' 14,2:6, 5' Wordsworth,

The Prelude,

2 /

272,

/ 150,

11' /

348, in

Wordswo tth'

oeti-

cal Works, 506, 496, 573.

Coleridge, Biographia Literaria,

c}:.'

1'4,2:6'

Notes Íor Chapter 8: Crystallinity of Language and Style

'l 2

,,rccinct discussion of the aesthetics of the Six Dynasties, see Kao, "The Aesthetics of Regulated Verse," 346-51"

Fo.

S"" SS

67 /

6:IZS4and Shen Yue's postface to Xie's biography, SS

6:1778-'9.For discussion of Xie's literaryinfluence, see ZhongYoumin, Xie Lingyun lungao,2g740,262- 9; Kang-i Sun Chang' Six Dvnastfus a

Poetry,79-80.

3 4 5

Su"Knechtges, HanRhaPsodY,4243' see for instance Mei sheng's (d. 140 B.c.) "Qi fa" (Seven Incitements)' tg While open to various definitions, here the terrn aerisimilitude reÍets of truth or u -uy i presenting details in order to create a semblance 521' to Literature' Handbook reality. See Holman and Harmon ,

6 É)Eftt}*' ÍŘMlu' ffi'l*ÍE(ŘZl,-' ffiuastŽ# tt'5etJ]flt ' ntpztpjL'7ií'[EfiHil ' ffiffi ffitE]F ' 7

" "'

Wu Feng et al., ed s.,linnmingZhongguo gujicidian(Changchun: Jilin wenshi chubanshe, '1987),433, entry on Song shu'

See

238

Notes

Tao Qinn and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

|txtr'+z/tB' fruiE*lÍ "

tfÉí-bJzá

'rÉ,1ltfrEfr,L\Hfu , &+'y.}H)J

In his "Wen fu," LuJi draws the distinction that while shl "follows the feelings" (yuan qing),fu issuitable for "describing things" (ti wu);in Guo Shaoyu, ed., Zhongguolidairautlun xuun,l:171. To complete the picture, it may be recalled that since the end of the Han, expression of personal feelings and experience that is the defining quality of shl has also found a place inf, resulting in a more lyrical kind of 7fu in contrast to the descriptive variety. See Watson, trans., Chinese Rhyme-Prose, 8-l9.

239

Unless he is compelled by a specific occasion or purpose to write obscurely, as in "Shu jiu."

Conversely, simplicity of style may be a matter of artistic choice, without entailing a cosmological and existential vision of natural truth being immanent in the ordinary.

Wordsworth, "Goody Blake and Harry Gill," ll. 1-4, 13-16, in his Poetical Worlcs,420.

Interestingly, Ye Xiaoxue has made a similar commentwith reference to another example; see Xie, Xie Lingyun shixuan,93, n.6.

Shuitianju shifa, quoted in Li Wenchu , Tao Yuanming lunlile, 190.

One of the most successful examples of reduplicating a polysyllabic word is Shakespeare's "Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, / Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, / To the last syllable of recorded trme," where the repetition of "tomorrow" gives a graphic sense of the painful dragging of time. See Macbeth 5.5:19-21', in

Qian, Guanzhui

Shakespeare, Complete W orks, 867.

shi detezhi," inShanshul yu gudian, 41,-46; Kang-i Sun Chang, Sl x Dynasties Poetry, 52-53. To give some more examples: of the t'^/enťy-two lines in "Ascending the Toweť by the Pond" (XL] 63-64), tlrre first eighteen are done in full parallelisma except for the fifth couplet, while the last four are what may be called "half-baked" parallelisms, clearly intended to be parallel as shown by the marks of labor. Again, in "On the Way from South Mountain to North Mountairy Viewing the Scenery from the Lake" (XLJ 118), only the final couplet is not parallel; the sixth and tenth are half-baked, leaving sixteen out of twenty-two as fully parallel lines.

1'4

ian, 4:1393.

See also Lin Wen-yiieh, "Zhongguoshanshui

Seven-character verse became established in the fifth century. Most "ancient-style" verse and all "recent-st5rle" verse use lines of either five or seven characters; the former may use both five- and seven-characteť lines.

ís+tr '

ffi*

In these two couplets the "both/and" formula has not been translated literally, for obvious reasoÍls of awkwardness.

See for instance "Ascending the Tower by the

Pond" and "Ascending

Solitary Islet in the River," XLI 63-64,83-84. /

a separate study of

sound effects, involving linguistic, musical, psychological, and imaginative-associative dimensions which might combine to suggest some clue as regards the matching of sound and meaning. 25

Transcription follows Li Fang-kuei, "Shanggu yin yanjiu," 1-il. yAi first appeared in Shijing #1,67: "Long ago, when we set out, / The willows were light and tender." Hence the use of ancient Chinese pronunciation for explanation. Shuangshuang is the name of a beast rn Shanhai iing and a bird in Gongyang zhuan,buthadnot been used in the present sense before Tao.

Apart from the excerpts illustrating the use of reduplications, there are many examples of unobtrusive parallelisms (which should be read in context) forming part of Tao's natural poetic rhythm: "The departed swallows leave not a shadow; / The arriving geese raise lingering sounds" (TYl 39); "Our clear singing diffuses fresh sounds; / Green wine unlocks pleasant faces" (Wl 49); "A chill wind brushes the withered branches; / Fallen leaves cover the long path" Qy] 1'19).

is{EI

A full understanding of this issue would require

Frankel, Flowering P\um,1.46.

Í6 É.ft'Mv' *#Íu' ; fi4Bffi ' l#TÍÁÍ.o *,Ďát #tr'R ' H_f tH'rR' É*rt Í o

ttť9f!í^dbttzfr+ , r&f&#tilfiFzzfr,' FRŘ't E ZE ' lŘ' iR#Effi Ží'R ' !É!tEÉ,HŽ#'[xEěHÉŽÉÉ'WEE,

2tl

"Yu Xie Minshi tuiguan shu," in Su Shi, Su Shi wenji,49 / 4:1'418; Su Shi xuanji, ed. Wang Shuizhao (Shanghai: Guji chubanshe, 1984),420.

240 29 30

31'

33 34 35 36

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

An allusion

Notes

Z 6 / Zi,signifying the natural process of change in time.

Tao's expression comes Írom Huainanzi, ch' ]': "The sage values not a foot of jade but an inch of shadow [i.e. time measured on a sundial], for time is hard to get and easy to lose." More immediately, his great: grandfather Tao Kan is quoted in his biography as having said this: "Even the great sage Yu values an inch of shadow; . . . how can one idle about in drunkenness? Not benefitting one's age in life nor being known to posterity after death is to relinquish oneself" (S 66/ 6:1774),

19 65), 106-7

Zhu Ziqlng, Biaozhun yu chidu, "Richang shenghuo de shi,', inhis Zhu Ziqing ji,680.

one of his more often used adjectives is "Íait" (jia), whose generality suggests a congenial quality without reducing it to specificity: "Today the weather is Íai.r" (TY| 49); "Spring and autumn give many fair days,, (Tyl 57); "Autumn chrysanthemums have a fair hue" Qyl 90).

See Rickett, "Method and Intuition: The Poetic Theories of Huang T'ing-chiery" in idem, Chinese Approaches to Literature from Confucius to Liang Ch' i-ch' ao, 97 -1.19. Jin, ed., Song shi sanbai shou, 1.69.

"Preface to Lyrical BaIIads," in Kaplary

ed,.,

Criticism: kaenty Major

Statements,28l,286.

Shijing,l33 to Zhuangzi,T3 to Shiji,7O to Chuci, and Tao Xie shi zhibijiao,152.

Liu Shao, Renwuzhi,5 (ch.L,"Jiuzheng"); emphasis mine.

Ibid.,4-5.

"Wanji lun," in Yuhan shanfang ji yishu, vol. 59, 4a.

EffiffiĚ ' #ffiffi's bŘ " Ě+ÉHH ' E7ÍFď* + .

l3 l4

Neo-Daoist Aesthetics and the Art of Nature

SunChuozi, quoted in annotation of Lu Chui's (470-526) Xin kelou ming;

of Dao. This kind of witty, at times mystical, conversation had ite precedent in Zhuangzi, and in turn became an inspiration for the technique of gongan in Chan Buddhism.

3 4E5#á rETE -l # " #llr',E$|]ffiyÉ1 , ÉJ.)Ep.ffiffi ,l'LE : rE^ ? l *E z tÉo -t #Elx#EtrE : r#E z , ilFí+* ? -] *h+*EŘ o #ff*#ínÍ E ié ' Bt}tffi " 'sE

Ch"tr Shou, Sanguo zhi, Wei shu 29/3:821, quoting from "Guanlu l

Whose meaning differs from its uplifting import in the line "Abiding by rusticity (zhuo),I have returned to my farmland" (TYl 40). Song Qi (998-1061), cl to the tune "Yulouchun," in Tang Guizhang, ed., Quan Song ci,'L:1.16.

ZhangXian (99U1078), cl to the tune "Tianxi anzi," ibid.,

1,:70.

Wang Anshi, "Bochuan Guazhou," inWang Wengong wenji, ed.Tang Wubiao, 2 vols. (Shanghai: Renmin chubanshe, 1974),2:744. Emphases in these three excerpts are mine.

be "removed" as contexts vary and so do not "reach" the absolute truth

biezhuan."

Lunyz. See his

1' 7 33/76; cf. also Liezi 4, "Confucius," in Yang Bojur; ed,., Liezi,'J,4'!". 2 Predicated on distinctions with limited validity, specific meanings can

140 references to

67 to

in Xiao Tong (501-31), ed, Wen xuan,6:2429.

Kang-i SunChang, Six Dynasties Poetry,ll.

Notes for Chapter

According to Shen Zhenqi, there are in Tao's poetry

The one parallelism (ll. 3-4) in the eight descriptive lines of the poem merges into its flow.

EPFE,l : r É*ffi,Ů' +R * , FlL\É#^,} ' ffÁ * ? l Éá^HHÉa. fl7AE : rB{niszJt*Í&' EÉffiffi ifi '

16ffiEfrH# oJ-FsÍÉs't)lE4iĚ"

Cf. Jane Austen's powerful description of the autumn scene, charged with the feelings of the heroine Anne Elliot, in Persuasion, ed. D. W,

Harding (Harmondsworth: Penguin,

24L

Chuci, "Yu fu," in Hawkes, trans., Songs of the South, 207. An identical version of the song is foun d in M 4A / S,but there the "moral,' is that one is responsible for others'treatment of oneself.

One is reminded of the triumphant moment in "Mulan', when the heroine, home at last after her war service and bouncing about in

242

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTrsdition

Notes

happiness, sings of her excitement in four lines each with the word ato in the second position:

*ĚH#* ' ffi*+iiĚ . Ě+rs& ' tf qěĚt.]&E*. ; 4' š'šĚ'ffi ďě4z*flĚ o ..: ÉÁt # Ffr UlÁ*;t+am,sÉ i . 4aFfru# É' í+Ěffit&

I open my east chamber door,

Sit on my west chamber couch, Take off my wartime gown, And put on my old-time clothes. 20

See

ZhauYi liieli, "Mingxiang,,, in Wang Bi, Wang Bi ji,2:609. "Southern Mountains" has been used as a symbol of longevity since shij ing (#166), buthere itrefers to Lushan, situated southeast of Chaisang

where Tao was living. (Both lie south of modern Jiujiang in fiangxi province.)

Wang Yunxi and Gu Yisheng, eds., Zhangguo wenxue piping shi, I:89-

118.

Frankel, review oÍThe Poetry

The cultivation of simplicity can be an equally drawn-out process, but I believe Tao is one of those few who write in a largely instinctive way, for whom craftsmanship is a secondary process.

of T'ao

Ch'ien,3L+-15.

Suzuki, Td Enmei shikai,273.

The T ask, f{ / 282, 29 1, 292 ; in Cowper, p oetical Worlcs, 1 g& 1 g9.

"Tintern Abbey," ll. 4749; in Wordswofth, poetical

See Frederick P. W. McDowell, ,,Aestheticism,,, in preminger et al., eds.,

"Preface to Lyrical BaIIads," in Kaplary ed' Criticism: Twenty Majof S t at

24 25

ement s, 282, 293-9 4.

Another Daoist-Confucian amalgam.

ĚÉ^FÍ't)*a{ŘBr'EíFffi TÉE B t& o *Ě jéĚffi,' t ,ltÍ *?

Quoted in Hu Zi, ed., Tiaoxi yuyin conghua,

See Hightower,

1,:1,6.

"Allusion in the Poetry of T'ao Ch'ien," 108-32, esp.

109-21..

243

Mingedition of Wenxindiaolongthere is an added paragraph of about four hundred characters in ch. 40, "Yinxiu," in which Tao's name is mentioned. Most scholars since the time of Ji Yun (1724-1805) have considered it a forgery, and Zhan Ying's recent proposal that the Ming edition was based on a genuine Song edition does not resolve the issu , See Zhan Ying,Wenxin dinolong defengge rcue,78-94.

P r in c et on En cy cl op edia, 6-7

Notes for Chapter 10: Luminosity of the Unconscious: The Ineffable Truth

"Appended Remarks" toYijing, partl, ch.12, in Goa Heng, ed., Zhouyl dazhuan,541.42; cf. Wilhelm, trans., / Ching,322. t

See Hsri, Zhongguo yishu jingshen, 45-'1.43, esp. 4g_56, 7O_g7, lg2_36.

In much the same l4ray as ren (humaniťy) is treated constantly elucidated but never completely definable.

"W en f1)," in Guo Shaoyu, ed., Zhongguo lidai wenlun xuan,

the Analects,

1,:17

!70.

Four Quartets, "Burnt Norton

It may be interesting to note that Tao is quoted in his biography as having said: "As long as I appreciate the rerish of the lute, *rrytotn". with the sound of the strings?,, See lS 94/g:2463; H 1:12.

In a late

Dong Zhongshu, Chunqiufanlu, "Yubeipian/'Su Yu, Yizheng. Quoted in Zhu Ziqing, Shiyanzhibinn,21.

Woilcs, 1,64.

V, in T. S. Eliot, Collected poans, 194.

Cowper,The Task,Ilrl / 240-46; Tennysory,,Flower in the crannied wall,,, "Auguries of Innocen ce,,, ll.1-4. In Nicholson and Lee,

lI. 4-4; Blake,

eds., Oxford Book of Mystical Verse,8g,'1.62,.1,05. t4

Preminger et al., eds., ClassicalLiterary Criticism,ll7 (IX).

Wang Guow

Daisetz T. Suzuki, trans., The Innkfrvatfrra Sfrtra (London: Routledge,

ei, Renj inn cihua,'!. / 3,

H 1 :265.

1932), 169 (3:7 6), 193 (6:82).

I have in mind Roman fakobson's broad distinction (among others) between the referential and poetic functions of lang,ragel see his "Closing Statemenh Linguistics and poetics,,' esp. 353J2.

244 18

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

Notes

Yu-kung Kao characterizes the inner couplets of this poem as a "continuous sequence" rather than of Regulated Yerse,"

"parallel pattem"; see his "The Aestheticg

"A slumber did my spirit seal,,' ll.7-8; in Wordswo

37"1,.

149. J

Notes for Chapter

11:

Art

as Embodiment of Life: Naturalness and Truth.

fulness

1 2

Yuan Haowery "Lunshi sanshi shou," in Yang Chunqiu Iunshi i ueju xuan,'158.

al., eds., Lidal

xilnQiji, ci poem to the tune "ZheguÍianJ,'Tang Guizhang, ed', Quan

"On the Sublime," inKaplan, ed., Criticism: Twenty Major Statements,

Memoirs, quoted in Abrams, The Mirror andtheLarnp,23l. See pp. 35 for a succinct discussion of Western views on this issue.

Arthur Schopenhau

er , The

f. Payne, 2 vols. (New

Woild as Witt and Representation, trans

York Dover,

ed., Lidai shihua

1:458-59.

Ye Xie, Yuan shi, "Waipian: shang," in Ding Fubao, ed., Qing 2:597.

Paz, Sor luana,5.

10 1'1

A more practical factor, of course, is that many literati did not need concern themselves with earning a living.

rAllzFffi{k*l ' #E&{Ér lfIr.*n#'ffEá*iE' "' BÉ=s*_.*ftWžzE'Éffi*iŤ, t*TnI'1Fá 'É*z* l pfia.

This contrasts, for instance, with Sidney's view of turned golden by poetry.

brazen Nature to

Notes forEpilogue: A DestinybetweenFate, Nature, and Heaven's

See SI 47 / 6:1947; the Shijing quotation is from #21g.

#E : rarl H]L, Ř1Ť'ÍŤlLoJ EÉZ^ÉVa,E,L, t#Ž " lk Hfttr | E'íFf'iIĚ " ffi.Er * , fi[*t,a(,E , +4y,4lt

"(x+.rďHff Though Tao did not write a history to set the record straight, nor would he presume to equate his role with that of the Master. !

Wang Guoyi ng, Zhongguo shanshui shi yanj iu, 39g.

1969),1:446.

Zhunglie, Suihnntang shihua, in Ding Fubao,

rth, poetical Works,

"Prospecfus oÍ The Recluse," ll.89-90, printed with the preface to The Excursion (18í{); in Wordsworth, poetical Works, S90.

Song ci,3:1963.

245

S"" "Miscellaneous Poems" #7 and,"Elegy for Myself" (Tyl119,197\.

Selected Bibliography Abrams, M. H. Ă Glossary of Literary Terms, Sth ed' Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1.988. The

Mirror and

the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition.

Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1953. Balazs, Ă&#x2030;tie.'',e' Chinese Citsilization and, Bureaucracy, trans' H. M. Wright. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, L964. Ban

EE..Han shu i##,12 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1962.

Barnhart, Richard. Peach Blossom Spring: Gardens and Flowers Paintings. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1983.

Chinese

Barrell, fohn and John Bull, eds. The Penguin Book of English Pastoral Verse. Harmondsworth: Penguin" 1 982. Bauer, Wolfgang. "The Hidden Hero: Creation and Disintegration of the Ideal of Eremitism." In Munro, ed., 757-97.

Cyril, ed. Studies in Chinese Literary Genres. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1.974.

lSirch,

Bloomfield, Morton W., ed. Allegory, Myth, and Symbol. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 198L. Bodde, Derk. Essays on Chinese Civilization, ed. Charles Le Blanc and Dorothy Borei. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981. Bush, Susan. "Tsung Ping's Essay on Palntlng Landacape and the 'Landscape Buddhism' of Mount Lu." In Theoiles of the Artd in China, eds. Susan Bueh and Christian Murck, Prlnceton: Princeton Unlv, Preaa, 1983,13244,

248

Tao Qian and the Chinese poeticTradition

Selected

Cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. J. M. Cohen. Harmondsworth: penguin, 1950.

Chadwick, Charles. Symbolism. London: Methueru 1971.

Chan, wing-tsit, trans. and comp.

source Book

Princeton: Princeton Univ. press, 1963.

Chinese philosophy,

Chang, Kang-i sun. "Description of Landscape in Early six Dynasties poetqr.,, In Lin and Owery eds., 105-29. The Eoolution of Chinese Tz'u poetry: From Late T'ang to Northern sung. Princeton: Princeton Univ. press, 19g0.

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ZhaoYi ffiH.

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W, #ffi.

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Glossary anshenliming -*nfr

Anslpnlun ba da

Bai)uyi Bao lingyan Bao Zrao Baopuzi Baxian lun bi Bo Yi

CaiYong Canglang

Cao Cao Cao Pi CaoZ]:i. Chaisang

-H-#

/\Ě

áEa

fiEffiĚ fituffH

ffifl.Ť /\H-#

ltŘ

#É

shihua iAiŘ##

clwn

Changiu Changsha chaoyin

Chen Chen Shidao

t* t6 tÉ #*

ffi

ŘiE

E14 ffiffi ffi

mffiĚ

ChenZuoming

ChiChao

Chu

ChuGuangxi

chuanslen Chuci a

cida cixing Da zhao Dan danggu Dao

Dao de lun itaoli de DengCan diezi dingzhen

ffi+FEE Effit

re ffit # ísffi Efr+

ffi

ffiĚ +n

xffi

B tffi Ě ĚíffiĚft

ĚE

'í#

tfi#

E+ IHfii

DongZrongshu t'í+ffi DongfangShuo H .W ilu ffi Du Fu

ÉH

268

Glossary 269

Tao Qinn and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

Xuan

Fa yan Fang Dongshu

IAE

EŽ ÉEg Huangfu )Gzhi Effi Ž hundun EyE

feidun

EEE

Duan Yucai dun

EEE#

F&f

EIJJ ffi

fengli

Í"

Fu Jia

Fufian FuXuan FuYuan Fuxi Gan Bao ganying

Gongď

GongSheng gongti shi

8u Gu Kaizhi

1ÍE

Ég ffiŽ

Řw

ft* E* I -H.

IfiE

*ffi Effi

B'ffi#

ffi{HŽ

GuYanwu GuanLu GuoPu GuoWen GuoXiang

ffi^fi Éffi

Han HanWu gushi HanWudi

E E tffis

neizhuan

Ěmffiru

HanYu HeIong HeYan HeYisun Houhan

HuanWen

TIJX

žF*

Huan

HuangTingjian

fiaMi Yi lnn |ian'an JiangJi jinng wu tong Jiangzhou Jianwen ď Jieni ]in JingKe jingjie fingjie jingshen lingu Iingwei jingxue ]ingyuan jirang liu ge juffi Jia

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fr-

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Wffi

fl{ffilE iIl'N

ffilffi #ffi

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ít'ÉŤ

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Lanting

ffi+

ffiE

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H.MVI 'ei#kť'

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EiA

Hffi Hffi

KangSengtrruan

Laozi li Li Bai

ffiÉ'{

I+.

LiYing

Liang

Liji

ě'ĚÚ

LiangCh'i-ch'ao Rtrffi Liezi ,T+

liqu mei

Liu Bei Liu Shao

stt

LiuYi LiuYu

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LiuXie

Liu Yuxi

LiuZiji

LiuZongyuan Liuxia Hui Lu

LuJi LuXun

MaoXianshu MengHaoran Ming ming (name) ming (destiny) mingjiao mingshi

flJf,B,

gll $ g]É#a

pJŤffi ffiFRn

I'[TH

Wffi

Bifl +ftffi tifift\ w

QuYuan

Renwuzhi Ruanfi Ruan Xiu RuanZlran rushen shan

Shnnhai jing

Shanjufu shanshui

Ell

Shanyanggong

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OuyangXiu

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Shen Deqian ShenYue Sherurong

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(Liu) Song

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ffiffi

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Lou #F * umF Ě Qlns qingjing jiaorong'EFtmq qingli 1ÉE qingtan ŤĚ-# qingyi ltffi qiqi HÉ Qiyuan '6H Qian

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shl shi sfui

(poetry) ffi (service) It

ShiChong Shi Decao Shi pin Shi

silun

É#

}Eí*ffi ffiffi ffiÍÁ fr

270

Glossary

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

shi yan zhi

Shijing

shili Shishuo xinyu

shizu Shu Shu Qi Shujiu S run

SimaJizhu Sima Qian

SimaXangru Sima Yan SimaYu Sima Zhao

Sotg Song Lian Song shu Soushen houji Soushen ji

Su Shi

SuYu SunChuo SunDeng SunEn SunSheng Sun Si SunTong Taikang Taiyuan Tan Daoluan Tang

Tao Kan Tao Qian

TaoYuanming Tian Chou tian ming

H'J EI

#tr

't)\

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Tianshi dao tianyuan shi tiwu tongda

tongshi

ffi

ME ffi

aE+Ě

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aEŤEín

AEft.

aEs

wang

W*g Anshi

ww'&ěe

&ffi4 ffiffi

ffi,8

ffiffi

Wen xuan

vŘ,ffi,

wuwei wuwo

tŘ

wuwo linngwanS

X7E

EĚŘ

WtrL

WW ffii#HEE

Effi

xfr'

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EEffi

tĚ

ffiÉ Effi

Changling WangCheng Wang Dao

W".g

E&, J/h@

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ffiW

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ffiE R# ffiÉ

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Wang Bi

WangFuzhi W*g Guowei WangKangju WangMeng WangWei WangXizhi WangXuanzhi Wang Yan Wei WeiYingwu WenQiao

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xÉFĚ

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XahouXuan xian Xiang jun

TB JU

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Íi*

E*E t^&,é

ÍŽz EíiŤ

ffi

HŘ+rJ

Íaft

xiao knng

zJrH

yln yin

XiaoTong Xiao Zxian

ffiffi

YinJingren

XiangXiu

ffiŤffi

xiaocao

4'H

riaoyao

7É&

yongshi shi you wo youxian shi

Xiaowu di

XieAn

XieLingyun Xie Tiao XieWan XieXuan

XinMi Xin Qiii xing xingsi

ingyun liushui XuXun xuan xuanxu xuanxue xuanyan shi

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ÍEi

ffiA

ffiŘ tfrffi

ffiE H-

ERŽ {tlJ

,mE

YangXuzhi YangZhu Yao YeXie Yijing yijing

yili yivi

YueGuang

zan zashi

ffiH

ffi

yuanzhi

Žffi

YanHe YanHui YanYanzhi YanYu

iiE

YuBing Yulun YuLiang YuYou yileÍu

H+

{m.trlEt

Yongjia

fŤ=ffi^ "#il

Xunzi

JEl ďÉ

YingZ'ran yonghuai shi

ffiW

ffireŽ ffin rB

YunJing

Zra Z:arTartg ZtmgHelrq Z'tarqHua

ZrangJie ZrangWei ZrangXie ZrnngZttart Zl.arlrgye

lt4

ffi

E[Řtr PEÉ

*,8# t&H

il8ffi

Éffi, Ě{ilJ#

Eli E[É F ŘŘ'

E #Ř

#Ň

,H& r&

*ft# {F

ŘÍfu

ffi#

ffifi ffiÉ

ffiffi

ffi# ffifi

ffiffir

WffiŽ

Zhao yinshi zhaohun

zhaoyin shi zhen

Ď?&

ZhenDexiu

H Híff#

zheng zheng

]E W

Ě'Ě *ffi ffiR

Zrengshi

ffiffi ffiffiffi

EtÉ

271

272

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

zhi

Zri Dun zhi ming zhida zhiguai

zhiyin zhizhi ZrongHong ZrongHui

Ztou

ZruFashen

ZruXi

*E AEft,

Z,:ruZrqng ZÍlruangZ:'ou

Zruangn

ÍEĚ

Zhuangzi zhu

ffiĚ

zhuo

ffi[#

ziran

ZuoSi

ffitě

HÉ ffi

{ť'i*i*

ftŘ

Z:.lugeUang ZlJu

bngBng

Zuozhuan

trHĚ #E

#Ťiš #EŘ ffi

Htr

'ffi

EÍ4

Index Aeneid (Virgil), 137

"After Ancient Poems" (Tao Qian),

102 Allegory, 96-97, 226n.45, 227n.48; and symbolism, 10L #1, 92; #8, 22; #9, 99,

Analects,126,2l7n.7 "Anshen lun" (Treatise on Settling One's Life), (Pan Ni), 15 Aristotle, 191 As You Like It (Shakespeate),60,62 Bai fuyi, 710,'156,178 Bao lingyart, 56, 57

BaoZhao,!29

Baopuzi (Ge Hong), 64, 65 Baudelaire, Charles, 101 Bauer, Wolfgang,32

"Baxian lun" (Discussion on Eight Worthies), (Xie Wan), 15 "Begging Food" (Tao Qian),80

bl (comparison), 150

Blake, William, 790, 79t

BoYí,17,37,72l,202

"Body, Shadow, and Spirit" (Tao

Qian), 46, 63, 72, 204, 220n.76 Book of Songs. See Shijing "Bu chu Xiamen xing" (Walking out of Xia Gate), (Cao Cao),25

Buddhism, 227n.28 Bunyan, fohn, 97 Canglang shihua (Poetry Talks by [the Escapist ofl Canglang River),

(YanYu),119

Cao Cao, 77,25,46,706-8, t72,773 Cao Pi, 48,777

CaoZhi,147

carpe

diem,67,70

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 1 38, 139

Chan Buddhism, 1.1.9 Chang, Kang-i Suo 88 Changju,32

chaoyin (court recluse), 18 Chen dynasty, 148

ChenShidao,76Á4

Ch'en Yin-k'o , L'].",13-14,57 , 65,70 Chen Zuoming,l72J3 Chi Chao, 16, 17 Chinese aesthetics, 147,225n.37. 9ee also Spontaneíty in poetry and Tao Qian Chinese language, isolating nature

oÍ,754

Chines.e philosophical verse, 119, 131-02

274

Tao Qian and the Chinese PoeticTradition

Chinese poetry: culfural function of,204, premise of, 102; symbol-

ism and allegory in,98; and Tao Qian, 110, L15-16, 1,31,-3.2, 1.4546; and traditional values, 196 chuanshen (conveying the essential spirít of experience), 767,1'81 Chuci (Songs of the South) ,17,71L, 12+-25, 229n.75; description iry 150

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 83,

1,46,

180

Confucian VÝay,71 Confucianism, 1, 5, 9, 61,

66, 70,

71,

90, 100, 126,2L7n.1,; cultivation and spontaneity in,82; and da tong, 55; ideals of, 11, 43, 44, 53,

72; and political order, 27;

scholarhip of,10; and zhen,47 Confucius, 1,3,'l.,8, 23, 26, 28, 29, 43, 55, 80, 91, 94,'169,197,204,205; on Fan Ct, 79, 197; andPťeservation of culture,69 Cook Ding,82 Cowper, William, L87, 190, 797

Index

"Daren xiansheng zhuan" (Biogra-

phy of the Great Man), (Ruan Ji), 56

Davis, A.R., 48,78, 88, 223n.I2, 225n.36

"The Day of the Zha Sacrifice" (Tao

Qian),92

de,41,

Deng Cary 18 "Deng Yongjia Liiehangshan" (As-

cending Green Crag Mountain in Yongjia), (Xie Lingyun),127-

Emperor Xian (Han),40 Emperor Xiaowu (Jin), 16 The Faerie Queene (Spenser), 5

Fan Chi, 79,797 Farmstead poetry. See tianyuan shi

fen (destrny),71,205 fengli (inspired power), 25 Five-character verse, L06

Folk ballads, 106

30 diezi (reduplications), 156-5& 163 dingzhen device, 187, 788

Four Quartets (T. S. Eliot), 72 Frankel, Hans, 154, 177-78 French symbolism, 101 Frye, Northrop, 97, 226n.45

Don Quixote (Cervantes), 138

fu,

Dong Zhongshu, 182 Dongfang Shuo, 18 "Drinking Wine" (Tao Qian),

40,

9546, 772,

descriptive, Fu Jian, 23

#4,

93-94, 98, 703; #5, 131, 184-90; #7, 87-88; #8, 103; #14, 726-27 ; #79, 26; preface, 223n.72

Du Fn, 1'l.,0,156,196

DuanYucai,4l "Duange xing" (A Song in Short Meter), (Cao Cao),25

1.50;

15'1,, 1,64, 238n.9;

technique of, 151

"Fz on Calming the Passions" (Tao Qian),95-96 Fu Xuan, 18,48 Fu Yuaru 17

"Fuchun zhu" (The Island off Fuchun River), (Xie Lingyun), 130

Fukunaga Mitsuji, 47, 4243

da tong (great unity), 55 danggu purges, 10

Duke of Zhou, 55,6t,213n.17

Fuxi,23,55

Dao, 1L, 28, 69, 70, 81,'1.00, 102, 172, t21, 7 42, 188, 21 6n.48; manifestations of, 119; and Nature,44,95, 119, 721,; rational exposition of, 1.1.9; return to, 124; self-sufficiency of, 118; spirit of, 199 Dao de lun (He Yan), 117 Daoism, 1, 5, 9, 23, 67, 64, 66,7'!,, I89 ; and da tong,S5; and inner reconciliatiory 95; and Nature, 91, 100; religious, 106, 108; and spontaneity, 10-11,82; andTianshi dao,

Eastem Haru 106

Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 98 Ge Hong, 64,109 "The Gentleman of the Five Willows" (Tao Qian), 55, 78,80-81,

65; values of, 44,53,57,72,

216n.39 ; and zhen, 41.43, t95 ; and

ziran,195

daoli (principles of the cosmos), 10

Eastem Jin, 74, 78, 22, 28, 2:9, 57, 64, 65, 67,119, 150, 171., 195; and Nature, 719-20; poehy of, 117;

rational-aesthetic attitude to:

ward Nature, 127 Eclogues

(Virgil)

58, 735, 137 "Eight Free Spirits" (ba da), 19, 43 Eight Limits, 65 Eliot, George, 127, 1,30

Eliot, T. 5.,72,189

Emperor Ai (in),65 EmperorAn 0lr.),29 Emperor Gong (Jin), 29, 40

Emperorfianwen, L6

Emperor Wen (Wei), 18 Emperor Wu (Han), 18

87, 89, 92, 169, 784, 189, 190

Handynasty,9,67

Han Wu gushi (Sto es of Emperor Wu of the Han), 109 Han Wudi neizhuan (Intimate Biog-

raphy of Emperor Wu of the Han), L09

Han Yu, 156 Hashikawa Tokio,40 He Long, 16 He Yan, L17 He Yisun, 152

Hesiod,57,58,67

High Tang, 48, 145,

Horie Tadamichi,42 HouHan ji (Yuan Hong), 13 Hsii Fu-kuary 188 Huan Wen, 76,t17 Huan Xuan, 1,6, 26, 2U29, 57

HuangTingjian,'163- 4 Huangfu Xizhi,lT

Huaxu,57

hundun (chaos),31

ldylls (Theocitus), 58, 1,34, 735 Ikkai Tomoyoshi, 100 Imperial Academy (Han), 10 "lnlmitation of Burial Songs" (Tao

Qian),2021

Inner reconciliaťion, 95, 207 Jia Mi, 15

Gong.Sheng, 15

Jian'an,25

alace-sť5rle" poe try), 148

Great karning,3T

Great unity. See da tong

GuKaizhi,tT2

Gu Yanwu,41 Guan Lu, 168 Guo Pu,33, 108-9, 1,12,t73,1,48 Guo Wen, 19 Guo Xiang, L2, 73, 2L, 64, 795

18'l.,

Hightower, f ames R., 88, 98, 223n.12 "The Homing Bird" (Tao Qian),98,

Gibbon, Edward, 196 Goethe, lohann Wolfgang von, 103 Golding, William,9T g on gt i shi (" p

275

fia Yi, 15

liangli,IT2

Jieni,32 fin dynasty, 99,108

|ing Ke,8}{6,88 lingjie (sercne integrity), 44 jingshen (quintessential spirit), 17L jingxue (classical scholarship), L0

Jiufang Gao,l77 lonson, Ben,6Q 137{,8

276

Jungian psychology, 68 junzi (supeior man), 44,72,L79

Kang Sengyuan,

1^7

Keats, John, 132

KingWen (Ztou),55,61,

178,120-27

Lao-Zhuang,13 Laozi, LL, 1"4, 17, 18,

43, 55, 82, 779 )

and Nature, 91; philosophy of, 64; andwu wei,56

Laozi, 1L, 41, 42, 64,1L8,729,770, 220n.2

li (propriety),9,95 Li Bai, 48, 170, 112 "Li Sao" (Encountering Sorrow), (QuYuan),31 Li Shangyin,102 Liang Ch'i-ch'ao,41

Liang dynasty, 148

Liezi, 56, 67, 278n 9, 221n.19 ; "Y ang

Zhu Chapter" of,67-68 (Book of Rites), 66, 83

Wen-ytieh,72Lz9 Bei, 16

Taru 170 1'1.7, 71,8-19,

196; on poetic

LiuYi,57

757, 158, 182,

langtage,757

Liu Yu, 26, 28-29, Liu Yuxi, 110

40,

41,,

LiuZiji,109-10

Liu-Song period, 40,

Liuxia Hui,

47, 151,

Longinus, 196

Lord of the Flies (Golding),97 Lu Ii, 33, \16,747,150, 189

Lu Qinli,787,227n.28

Lu Xun, 798,205 "Lycidas" (Milton), 136

Lyric poetry,4-5

"Matching Recorder Guo's Poem" #1 (Tao

Qian), 140-41

Mather, Richard, 68,81 Mei, TsuJiru 128 Mencius, 23,82,207

"Messianic eclogue" (Virgil), 135

Metamorpho ses (Ovid), 58

ming (Íate),71',205 mingjiao (teaching of names), 10-11, 75, 60, 69 ; and being, 21,-22

"Miscellaneous Poems" (Tao Qian), 45; #7, 1'6L; f2, 47,759-ó0; #3,

L03;#5,760-61. "Mo shang sang" (Mulberry by the Path), (Cao Cao), 106-8

Mou Zongsan,42

"MovedbyLiterati Not Fitting Their Time" (Tao Qian),201

See yuefu

124 Neo-Daoism,'1,0, 72, 27, 44, 117, 729, 209n.3, 232n.76; aesthetics oí 1 71, 77 Z, I77, t82,'!.83 ; litet ary legary of , 167 ; and min gj iao, 1 3-14; sensuality of,70; simplicity of style, 1 69; and Tao Q ían, L68; and zhen, 195; and

ziran,L95

the

Sheepheard" (Ralegh), 138 "Nineteen Ancient Poems," 4546, 67,68,706,1,52 "The Ninth Day of the Ninth Month,

in the Year fiyou" (Tao Qian),

762- 4 Northern Sor{g poets, 110

See

qingyi (pve criticism), 1,0,t06 Qu Yuan, 15, 32, 80, 82, 9'1., 108, 110, 111.,1.86,207

Lanting

Ouyang Xiu, L14 Ovid, 58, 60, 6'1., 279n.1.6

Ralegh, Sir Walter, 138,739,'1.43

223n.12

Reclusion. See yin Reduplications. S ee diezi "Reproving My Sons" (Tao Qian),

Pan Ni, 15

"Return Homefu" (Tao Qian), 38-

"The Passionate Sheepheard to His Love" (Marlowe), 13S-36

"Returning to Live on the Farm-

Owen, Stephen, 30, 35, 78, 8L,

Pastoral, 733-39, L46, 219n.20,

Miltory]ohn, 136,737

"The Nimphs Reply to

(Tao Qian), 186

Orchid Pavilion.

PanYue,747

Menglia,77J8

Music Bureau poetry.

Okamura Shigeru,23 "On the Ninth Day, in Retirement"

277

115

Nature: and art, 106, 180, 182; and Dao, 43,95, 119,121; return to,

Shao,70,I77

Liu Xie,

Mair, Victor, 128 Mallarmé, StéPhane, 101 Mao Xianshu, 197 Marinelli, Peter, 134 Marlowe, Christopher, 135 16, 138, 743

Language, poetic mode oÍ,792 Lanting shi (Orchid Pavilion Poems),

Liji Lin Liu Liu Liu

lndex

Tao Qinn and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

234n.I2,235n.23;Elizabethan,60;

language oÍ,743 "Pastorals" (Pope), 136 Paz, octavío, L96 "Peach Blossom Spring" (Tao Qian),

51, 55, 57, 62, 86, 109-10, 141.42,

769; detailin,TT

Peach Blossom Spring, as natural social order,53, 54 Pei Kai, 171 Pei Xisheng, 13 Pilgrim's Progress (Bunyan), 97 Poems on historical subjects. See

yongshi shi Poems singing of thoughts and feelings. See yonghuai shi Poetics (Aristotle), 191 Pope, Alexander, 136

Preface to the Lyrical Ballads

(Wordsworth), 180 Prince Dan,83, 84 Pure Conversationists, 27, 779, t68 Qian Lou, 87,89,726 Qian Zhongshu,80, 152 Qin-Han period, 65

qingjing jiaororzg (interfusion of feeling and scene)/ 114,724

qingli (princíples of feelings), 10 qingtan (pure conversation), L0, 1.4, 706

39,112-1.4

stead" (Tao Qian), #L, 2912, 92, 9

4, L03, 1L3, 122-24, 129, 13L, 158,

1.59,'1.60,

193; #2, 33; #3, 3314,

775, 776J7 ; #4, 3415, 126; #5,

35,103,775-76

Rimbaud, Arthur, 101 "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (Coleridge),180 Ruan fi, 1Í,40,56,57

RuanJu,85 RuanXiu, 13,77,767

Ruan Yu, 17, 83 Ruan Zhan, 168 Russell, Bertrand,42

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 196 Sewing. See shi

"Seven Worthies of the Bamboo

Grove," 12,19 Seven-character verse, 238n.\4 Shakespeare, William, 60, 62, 83,

13718,139

shan (morul goodness), 43,200

Shan Tao, 19,777 Shanhai iirg (Mountains and Sea Classic), 109 Shanju fu (Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains), (Xie Lingyun), 18 shanshui shi (landscap e v erce), 127, 150, 181

Shen Deqiari, 124

Shen Yue, 40, 80, 179, 151, !82 Shennong,55

278

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Tradition

shensi (spirltual

verisimilítu de) , 772

Shenxian zhuan (Biographies of Divine Immortals), 109 The Shepherd's Calender (Spenser), 135,'1.36

shi (literatus) ,22,25,38, 54, 69,71,

102,201,2A,205

shi (poetry), 95, 757, 1.64,238n.9;

landscape in" 150; use of parallelisms in, 153-55 sfui (serving), 11, 18 Shi Chong,15 Shi Decao, 198,199 Sfuryi (Records of the Historian), 85, 86

Shijing (Book of Songs), 110, 115, 1.U,745, L58, 196; description ir9 150

Index

Southem Dynasties, 118,'1.48, 1,56,

78'1. See also

Sping and Autumn Annals (Con-

101

Shishuo xinyu (A New Account of Tales of the World), 13, 170,177

Taikang style,L47 Taiyuan reign,51 Tan Daoluan, 1L8

from Self-Interest), (Xi Kang), 45 "Shu jiu" (Telling of Wine), (Tao

Qian),40

Shu Qi, 17,31

Shun,55, 6L,62 Sima Sima Sima Sima Sima

faction" 10, 11

|izhu, 15 Qian, 85,88,204

Xangru,

151

Yu, 171 "Singing of |ing Ke" (Tao Qian), 8$86

"Singing of Poor Literati" #1 (Tao Qian),103-5

Six DJmasties, 54, 65,150,767 ; zhiguai stories of,1,09 Song dprasťy, 5, 18"]', 797, 798

Song Lian (Ming),41 Song shu (Shen Yue), 15'1, 182

Soushcn houji,709,110 Soushen ji (Accounts in Searchof the Supematural), 109

4849; reduplications in,

spontaneity of , 83,

Su Shi, 170, L60, 170, 779,'1,87 Su Yu, 182 Subject-object dualism, 191,-92 Sun Chuo, 19, 717-18, 119, 126, 172

Sun Deng 15 Sun En,29 Sun Sheng, 168 Suzuki Torao,10A,1.87 Symbolism, 97 -98, 103 ; andallegory, L01.,

17 8;

158;

symbol-

of, 96, 9ť700; attifude toward immortality, 6, 69; biographical writings oÍ,77; and Confucianism, 63, 207 ; contemplaťive verse of , 125 ; and D aoism, 63, 207 ; dt a-

matic objectiviiy of, 88; farmstread

poetry of, 35, 36, t39-A,

14H4,

74546; idealism of,32,70, 1t'!,, 184; indigence of, 36-38; lan-

gua ge and silen ce in,'189-9 0, 192i language and style oÍ,765, 1'69, 170-77;lyricism of, 1.02, 11,6, 731.; nature Poetry oÍ, 44, 89_96, 722, 1.42, 756; and Neo-Daoism, 1.67,

in poetry of,

231n.9

,'18-19, 66,118, 121,

Wang Yan, 13, 19 Watsory Burton, 115 "Way of the Celestial Master." See Tianshi dao

199 ; and

Wen xuan (Selections of Refined erature), (Xiao Tong), 182

of, 55-56,

61,; and xtnnyan shi, ouxian shi, 199 ; zhen in works of, 42, 45; and Zhuangzi, y

23,780,798

Tao Yuanming. See Tao Qian

"Taoyuan xing" (Song of the Peach Spring), (Wang Anshi), 53

Tian Chou,5Z 87 tian ming (moral decree),71,205 Tianshi dao (Way of the Celestial Master), 65, 66, 221n.27 t

Wang Xizhi,

Wei, 10,

Theocritus, 58, 60, 734, 135, t43

2I, 22,7 9, 19 6 ;achieveQian, ment of, 775, 787, 198; aesthetics of, 5, 171, 772; allego cal poetry

Wang Meng, 167 Wang Wei,80, 110

ismof,96,101-6; use of narrative by,87; use oÍ zhiguai,S4; utopia

Three Dynasties,55

7, 4,

183; parallelisms

Teaching of names. See mingjiao Tennyson, Alfred, 190, 791

102

Tang nature poetry, 156 Tang poets, 110 Tao Dary 66 Tao Kan, 22, 24, 162,240n.30 T ao

5, 25, 700, LLz, 133, 1,60, 179

public service of,24,26-27,

28,29; rcalism of , 110-116,'1,3943, 1,4546; reclusion of,36, 41,

fucius),204 "Stopping Wine" (Tao Qian), M, 95

Symbolist po etry,

"Shisi lun" (Discourse on Release

21,

80;

ziran

shili (principles of social institutions),10

158; philosophical verse oÍ,727; poetics of, 82, 106, 799 ; p oetry of ,

167,170 Spenser, Edmund, 5, 735, 136,'1,37 Spontaneiťy in poetry, 703, 178-19,

an shi (Íarmstead poetr y),'!'33, 139, 745, 236n.40, 236n.41.

i any u

"To Penhurst" (Jonson), 60 tongda (complete freedom), 18

tongshi (thorough understanding), 18

"Trees in Bloom" (Tao Qian),2516, 7't

Virgil, 58- 0,

61., 135,

219n23

Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang

L36, 737, I43,

11.,

1.1

Wei-Iiru 1,1'1.,64 Wen Qiao, 118

Lit-

Western aestheticism, 1 88 Western |in, 11, 15, 18, 1,47, 772; poets of,32,40

"Wood-Hitting Game Song," 74445

Wordsworth, William, 38, L46, L64, 178,780,L87,203,204 "Works and Days" (Hesiod), 57 "Written as I Passed Qu'e while Beginning My Service as Adjutant to the Defense Army General" (Tao Qian),26-27 zrz (nonbeing),70,t7 wu wei (nonaction), L0, t3, 56, 64, 199 wu wo (absence of the self), 192

Xi Kang,

17,'1.4, 15, 45,708, L77, 229n.75 Xi Shao, 13

xixi,7L7

Xiahou Xuary 171

xran (immortals), 64, 65

Anshi,53 Bi,

279

12, 64,'l..83

Changling,43 Cheng, 167 Dao, 19

Fuzhi, L97

Guowe i, 775-1,6, L92

Kangju, 18

Xiang Xiu, 12 Xiao Tong, 41,, 80, 96, 782 Xiao Zixian, 1.1.9

xinoyao (existential freedom), 10

Xie An, 16,17,L79,12L Xie Lingyun, 73, 18, 3'1,, 1 16, 148-50,

158-59, 760, L64, L68,776,779, 182, 1 96; landscape verse of, 12730; and Tao Qian, 1 2; use clf

280

Index

Tao Qian and the Chinese Poetic Traditbn

parallelismsby,

153, 15S-56;

bal pyrotechnics of, 151-52 Xie Tiao, 129,13011, Xie Warr, 15

ver-

Xie Xuan, 121

Xin Mi, 18 Xin Qiji, 196

xing (stimulus), 150 xingsi (Íormal verisimilitu de), 172 Xu Xun, 117 xuanxue (abstruse learning), 10 xuany[m poets,724,129 xuany an shl (abstruse-language poetry), 117, 727, 125-26,'130, 137, 'l..47, 1.67, 772, 781, 199; abstraction of, 169, 77 0 ; critteism of, 1 1 8, 1,19, 122;

and meaning, 1,U; and

TaoQian,162 Xunzi,26,82 Xunzi,66

Yan HuL 8L,202 Yan Yanzhi, 80,768, 782, Yan Yu, 119 Yang Bojun,67 Yang Xiuzhi, 182 Yang Yun, 275n.28

"Yonghuai shi" (Singing of My

Heart), (Ruan Ji),40 yongshi shi (poems on historical subjects),83 Yoshikawa KÓjir Ó, 7 0, 7 8 you @eing),17 you TDo (presence of the self), 192 youxian s/rl (wandering immortals poetry), 106-8, 1'l.,2, 777, 181., 199, 229n.75; of Guo Pu,33, 108-9

1u,62

Ye Xie, 196

Yeh Chia-ying, 41 Yellow Emperor,55 Yijing (Book of Changes), 14, Í29, 130,752,168,183 yijing (visualized scene), 115 yili (pnnciples of morality), 10 yin (reclusion),7I,18 Yin Hao, 170 Yin |ingrert, 38

(Cao Pi),48 Zeng Shangshulang Gu Yanxian" (Presented to Secretarial Court Gentleman Gu Yanxian), (Lu fi),

14748

ZhaiTang,T6

ZhangHua,48,'1,47

Zhanglie,796 ZhangWei,TT ZhangXie,776,150 ZhangZhan,6T "Zhaoyinslrj" (Summons for

a Recluse), 17 zhaoyin slri ('invitation to hiding'

poems),75,32,80 "Zhaoyin shi" (Invitation

Hiding

Poem), (Lu Ji), 33 zhen (truthfuIness), 41"-43, 189, 195, 197,200 Zhen Dexiu (Song),41

zhenren (true man) 23

1.68

zhiguai (recording anomalies) storíes,54,109 Zhong Hong, 48, 717, 1L8, 152, 1'68, !7L,18Z,797 A.rong {u|771' Zhongbei,ST

Zhu Fashery 19

ZÍ:ruge Liang, 16

zhuo, !24,774

ziran (spontaneiťy), 10-11, 14, 15, 56, 60, 82, 1,69, 195, \97, 200 ; and ziran-mingjiao, L2, 13; abuses of , 19; unity of, 17, 18, 79-20, 27, 43

ZhuXi,20,21,49

oí 13, 56, 64, 66, 787,

Zhuangzi, 7L, 47, 64, 114, 126, 129, 142, 1,68, 170, 183, 223n.9; chaos in, 31.; commentary ory 72;Confucius in, 73; and human confines, 14 Zhuangzi zhu (Guo Xiang), 13

beíng,21-2

Zhu Guangqian, 33

phy

"Zashi" (Miscellaneous Poems), "

zhida (communicating meanings),

69, 81', 82, 110-11, 712, 118, 779, 721, 727, \92, 203, 207, 230n.86 ; followers of, 19i and Nature, 91; Philoso-

110

1,84

ZhiDtn,L68,771

ZhuZiqtng,770,182 Zhtnngzi, 71, 77, 40, 42,

Yu Bing, 118 Yu fun, 15 Yu Liang, 117,119 Yii, Ying-shih,65 Yuan Hong, L3 Yue Guang, 1.67- 8,171

YunJing (Qing),41

"Ye fa Shiguanting" (Setťing out at Night from Stone Pass Pavilion), (Xie Lingyun), 158-59 Ye Mengde, 1L4

yonghuai,'1,08

thoughts and feelings), 83

yuefu (MusicBureau) poetry, 67 ,106 ,

langZhu,67,227n.79 Yao,55,61

YingZhan,43

yonghuai shi (poems singing of

281'

799

ZongBing,l79

Ztto Si, 33, 83-84, 86, 715, 230n.88 Zuozhuan,69,2!5n.32

po.rry

is art embedded in history and culture .In the most thorough study l of Tao Qian to appeaÍ in anywestern language, Charles Kwong examines China's greatest nature poet within the literary and intellectual traditions of his time. Drawing upon the full range of Chinese literury criticism and

intellectual history as well as Western literary perspectives and hermeneutics, Kwong reveals the essential unity of Tho's art with his existential quest. Moving from close textual readings to broader cultural and cross-cultural issues, Kwong highlights Tao Qian's distinctive place in the Chinese lyric tradition through a series of illuminating comparisons with Chinese and Western authors, genres, and literary movements. "Professor Kwong's insiýts are not only intelligent, but sometirnes euen deeply rnouing. . . . I feel genuine admiration for bis careful scbolarsbip, bis tplde-ranging knouiedge oÍ tbe

pertinent literature in botb Asia and tbewest, and bis perceptiue insigbts, so eloquently exPressed." Richard Mather

"Kuongš uork ls WÍar tbe best and rnost irnpoftant study oÍ Qian-one of Cbina's Sreatest poets-I haue read in recent years.It is remarkable tbat tbe autbor appears to be infull command oÍ tbe disciplines of traditional Cbinese literary scbolarsbip and intellectual bistory as well as recent aduances in Western literary criticism, bermeneutics, and comparatiue literature, I baue seldom seen in current scbolarsbip on Cbinese literature an atternpt to pl.ace a poet in as broad and solid an Tao

int etpre tiue

ntext." Shuen-fu Lin

Chades Kwong is Assistant Professor of Chinese and Director of the Chinese Program at Tufts University. He has published articles in Cblnese

Literature: Essays, Articles, Reuieuts, is an associate editor of an Antbologjt

of Cbinese Women Poets: From Ancient Tirnes to 1911 (Yale University Press, forthcoming), and is currently writing a book on the evolution of thc Chinese lyric vision of Nature.

Benter for Bhlnese Studlns o