Architecture Without Physics 2017

AWOP 3.0 Architecture Without Physics – A Rhetorical Look At Super Modernism and Futurism THE UGLY STUDIO

abraham brodsky + utkin cook chernikov ledoux piranesi sant’elia woods jessica taylor ji ya zhang saloni shah daniel lord andres guzman romero mashror ishraque thomas kim roger xu, editor yew-thong leong, professor

[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Raimund Abraham

Raimund Abraham, born in the 1930’s in Austria is an architect, an artist, a philosopher and a teacher among many other things. Most of his works were not actualized, but the works that were, proved to be iconic for many reasons. To name a few, the Austrian Cultural Forum in New York was his most well received work, while other major architectural feats including the House for Music. One of the things that separated him as a powerful figure in architecture from the rest was his drawings.

He believed that creating and designing architecture was not merely just an act but a discipline or a concept. Therefore, his drawings were just as much architecture as the built form.

He states, “As an architect it is 01

very important that you distinguish between di erent realities.

There’s the reality of the drawing and the reality of the building.

So one could say, or at least it is the common belief that architecture has to be built; I always denied that, because ultimately it is based on an idea. I don’t ever need a building to verify my idea.” His drawings exemplified the spaces within his work by using texture and colour, allowing the viewer to get a real sense of what the space would be like if actualized. His architectural stance also differentiated him from the rest. He was a functionalist of his time and prioritized site and space with in his work.

His ideas of space were based upon the great philosopher and physicist Ernst Mach. He es[ESSAY] Jessica Taylor

Jessica Taylor

sentially appropriated Ernst’s Mach’s theory and used them to explain space within his own works. Furthermore, he was an architect who lived through the postmodern period and had a powerful stance against it by staying true to his beliefs about site and the ideals of functionalism. His intuitive functionalist ideals stemmed from childhood and are carried out through his entire architectural career.

As an Austrian in the generation that Raimund Abraham grew up in, memories of war and the militarism of land and air, stayed with him from his childhood.

During the 19th century, politics and military power were almost inseparable. So most of the new architecture at this time served a purpose and its function which

was to progress political and military power. Therefore, because Raimund Abraham was exposed to functional architecture serving for the military and politics, this could have been a potentially major factor into his architectural standpoint on being a functionalist. In architecture, functionalism is the principal that architects design based on the buildings purpose, essentially the idea of function over form.

Fundamental elements such as site, program and space are the most important to a functionalist architect. These elements dictate the outcome of the architecture created. Raimund Abraham, was extremely passionate about the site and believed it was the key to developing successful architecture. He states, “for it is my belief that the intervention and transformation of a site is the true beginnings of architecture”. His stance on functionalism in architecture can be proven through his aversion for the postmodern period. As Abraham continued his architectural practice, an architectural era that challenged his principals and beliefs about functionalism was the post-modern era. His opposition to post modernism reinforced his architectural stance and emphasized to the architectural world what is principal within his work.

The postmodern period started with written ideals proposed by Robert Venturi, discussed in his book called Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture.

Robert Venturi believed that architecture should embrace the complex layers from older methods of architecture, more specifically from antiquity. He expressed that architecture

nowadays does not embrace the possibilities of variety and that architects just expresses essential paradoxes like inside outside, movement and immobility etc. He is extremely concerned with the oversimplification of architecture and criticizes the skyscrapers and living conditions of the modern society. He believes humans are too complex in their behaviour that one simple unified building does not reflect human complexities. A minimal living space or building creates a blank canvas for the user however architecture like this ignores all desire for visual stimulation. However, Venturi does appreciate the purely functional architecture but believes it has its place and calls for balance just like the complexities of decoration. Venturi concludes that he sees an obligation to the whole, he states that “It is the di icult unity through inclusion rather than easy unity through exclusion.”(Venturi 1966) Essentially this means that he believes the di icult method of bringing all complexities together will establish accomplished architecture, rather than preferring a style or order to conceive architecture.

Unfortunately, some architectural practitioners interpreted his stance on architecture a little di erently, believing that we had to look back in time and imitate the architecture from the classical periods, thus bringing architecture into postmodernism.

Postmodernism can be briefly explained by using decoration or forms from antiquity and integrating them with modern buildings. Architecture from antiquity is refined and performs as art. Architecture from post[ESSAY] Jessic Taylor

modernism is not graceful in its approach to revive antiquity.

Some examples of postmodern buildings are the Philips Johnson’s AT&T building. The key feature on the building that categorizes it as a postmodern piece of architecture is the gabled roof with a hole directly through the peak. This feature almost seems completely detached from the rest of the design. Another iconic postmodern built form is the Piazza d’italia by Charles Moore. It is reminiscent of a stage set using primary colours and emulates classical Greek architecture.(Winston 2015) Raimund Abraham was against postmodernism and believed that the forms that were created served no true purpose other than to mimic a form or idea from history. He made his stance fairly clear when he designed and built the Austrian Cultural centre in New York. This building was built in the postmodern period and it defies exactly what the postmodernists are trying to express, complete functionality.

The Austrian cultural centre is based purely on what existed, not on any forms from antiquity.

The footprint of the built form is no wider than a typical townhouse. The interesting quality of this building is the height.

Raimund Abraham completely challenged the space given on the site and utilized the element of height to his advantage. The driving factors in creating this de sign were purely based o of the site, the zoning and the codes, other elements that were not thought of from the beginning were triggered unconsciously as the process continued to develop. Furthermore, the clever thing 02

betwen the buildings which allows the Austrian Cultural Forum to stand out. Because of the contrast the element of height becomes very prominent as well as the facade design.

This drawing shows how the spaces within are rendered by hand. Rendering by hand gives the spaces a different narrative than any other medium. Abraham was able to play with colours and texture of the pencil and allowed the view to be able to envision them- selves within Austrian Cultural Forum the spaces. It is clearly evident that there is three main areas of This model shows the relationship between Abraham’s building the building. The large spaces in the basement, the vertical stairand the two other building beside it. It is evident that there is case space on the back portion a completely different language of the building and the room that Abraham did to this design was project the existing site on to the façade of the Austrian Cultural centre. Therefore the façade wasn’t just a random act of creating a totem but rather examining the horizontal context and projecting it vertically onto the façade. (Brillembourg 2001) Conclusively, this is a powerful building because it stands for his ideals in an architectural era that went against them.

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spaces in the middle and front portions of the building.

Raimund Abrham’s functionalist ideals also developed from the philosopher and physicist Ernst Mach. Ernst Mach made major contributions to physics, philosophy and physiological psychology. He lived from 1838- 1916, approximately 50 years later Abraham discovered his works and applied them to his ideology and the way he manifests his architecture. Ernst Mach proclaimed to be a logical positivist which meant that all truths are limited and truths are always evolving. Thus no theory could ever completely explain things and it is believed to be impossible to make conclusions and de-

scribe the reality of what exists.

For the longest time, he studied truth in science but then abruptly turned his interest to psychology and physiology. Ernst Mach was studying and playing with the idea of space. Ernst Mach concludes that there is two types of space. Physiological space and geometric space. Ernst Mach declared that physiological space is not something that we intentionally create, but rather it is a product of unconscious adaption. Physiological space is intertwined with basic emotions, therefore a trigger in physiological space brings about a lot of different emotions that trigger far away in physiological space.

Geometrical space is an intellectual construction, it is essentially the abstraction of physiological space. (Mach 1901) Raimund Abraham adapted his ideas on physiology and geometry and applied them to his architecture.

Abraham states that architectural space can only be defined as a collision of geometric and physiological space. Raimund Abraham also believes that physiological space is limited to sensory experiences while geometric space is just purely the invention of our mind reflecting upon the infinite. When it comes to architecture he believes that there is a definite limit to geometry as the language of architecture and that geometry alone cannot produce an architectural idea. Therefore, because he believes that architecture has memory and geometry alone cannot hold memory but physiological space can, physiological space and geometric space go hand in hand to produce an architectural event.(Abraham

1982) An example of how he interpreted this idea based from Ernst Mach’s theory on space is from a vivid architectural dream he experienced. Within his dream a man that he describes that looks like Jim Stliring guided him towards a construction site.

The surroundings of the built form were without and recognizable geographical identity. The actual built form is described to have a concrete slab base and it is raised 1 foot above the soil of the ground. There was four steel cubes that were placed on each corner of the concrete floor slab, each of these steel cubes were connected by a steel joint, which functioned as a pin hinge. Each of these steel cubes supported a wooden column. Because these steel cubes beneath a column were on pin hinges, the columns had the ability to move in all directions. Lastly, in the middle of this slab there is a steel pedestal that allows someone to stand upon it and be present within the ever-changing space.

(Abraham 1983) The design that was created within his dream demonstrates physiological and geometric space. The geometric space can constantly change because the posts are on hinges, there is an infinite amount of variations in space. The way that this architecture develops physiological space is through the materiality and through the structure. If this architecture was a pure geometric form then there would be no physiological space, but once the geometry has materiality applied, restrictions arise to the geometry and a narrative is created. The narrative then evokes some emotions [ESSAY] Jessic Taylor

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and creates a memory developing physiological space. This particular design has no real function but purely demonstrates how space can be manipulated both physiologically and geometrically to develop infinite possible architectural events.

This plan shows the distance between each column and the unique part about this plan is that the shadows show the stages or components to the completed column which is on the bottom This elevation demonstrates how the pivot works and the kind of angles the pivot allows. This also shows the juxta- position of the straight column and a tilted column.

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This is the elevation of the column that shows the steel box that pivots on a hinge. This connection allows the column to move in all directions.

This close up detail shows the texture, colour and a possible materialty of the column. Immediately when something is given texture, colour or materality it strikes a memory or an emotion within us. This gives a narrative or a character to a geometry. Therefore, these elements that apply create physiological space.

This image is of a model built

by Abraham showcasing each componenent to the whole This image showcases the se[ESSAY] Jessica Taylor

quences of how it was built and also demonstrates the infinite possibilities of the different spaces there could be.

Architectural events were always the end goal for Raimund Abraham. This is what he sought after anytime he would design architecture, whether that be on paper or actualized in built form.

Raimund Abraham himself is a strong character with grounded stances and optimism towards architecture and art which is why he was a prominent player in the architectural world. “You don’t have to become a slave in a corporate o ice or groupie of a celebrity architect, because all you need is a piece of paper, a pencil and the desire to make architecture”(Abra ham 1983),

he says, which expresses that he believes architecture is a discipline. Over the course of his entire life his discipline was defined by functionalism which he then narrowed down to site and space. Both site and space are extremely evident and what gives each of his architectural works narrative. Raimund Abraham’s works will continue to be used as powerful precedents as time goes on.

ture_2nd_ed.pdf Winston, A. (2015) The Dezeen Guide to Postmodern Architecture and Design. Retrieved from, https://www.de zeen. com/2015/07/23/guide-to-postmodern-architecture-design-glenn-adamson/

References Abraham, A. (1982). Perspecta.

Negation and Reconciliation, 6-13.

Abraham, A. (1983) Design Quarterly. Site: The Meaning of Place and Art in Architecture, 4-15 Abraham. A (1983) The Dream. Retrieved from https:// lebbeuswoods.wordpress. com/2010/02/14/raimund-abra hams-dream/ Brillembourg, C. (2001) BOMB Magazine. Raimund Abraham.

Retrieved from http://bombmagazine.org/arti cle/2421/raimund-abraham Mach, E. (1901). The Monist. On Physiological, as Distinguished from Geometrical, Space, 321338.

Quirk, V. (2012) Raimund Abraham’s Final Work / Photographer Thomas Mayer. Retrieved from http://www.arch daily. com/252167/raimund-abrahams-final-work-photographer-thomas-mayer Venturi, R. (1966) Complexitiy and Contradicition in Architecture . Retrieved from https:// monoskop.org/imag es/2/2f/ Venturi_Robert_Complexity_ and_Contradiction_in_Architec-

[ESSAY] Jessic Taylor

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Personal Manifesto Fear In todays society, as technology advances we are given the privilege ego access knowledge, form the internet and other sources to give us insight into the lives of others different parts of the world or to bring our attention to the conflicts happening around us. We are exposed to a lot of tragedy and loss and to the inhumane issues that we should be fighting against, because of this we are less naĂŻve in the sense we are aware of what is happening and we have control and access to the knowledge around us. However, knowing does insinuate fear, but because we are exposed to so much, the magnitude of fear has been diluted. Fear in our society has become a vague, undefined feeling due to multiple stances or improper comprehensive understanding of what one is fearing.

Fear is a very instinctive feeling. Fear is our most prominent reaction to things happening around us because of our need and will to survive. Anything that threatens us or tries to challenge our security and comfort, our defense mechanism surges within us and we become fearful.

I believe most of our actions and our choices are done out of fear because we want to feel assured and safe. We want to live a life that poses no threats. However I believe when someone is challenged, when someone fears something or overcome as fear, they learn something far greater about themselves than just growing up with a stable life and no threats imposed. Therefore, 07

I believe architecture should insinuate confrontation. Something that makes people face the truth and to be afraid because they are vulnerable. One of the most powerful concepts is to create architecture because you cannot run away form it. You are constantly confronted with architecture, as you live within it, wake up to it, surrounding you, and view is almost daily.

Therefore, to create architecture that induces fear that makes us vulnerable, will pus our boundaries and comfort zones to experience something rawer, exposed and defenseless something that rarely exists in our society today.

Context I took a look at the history of Yonge, a very prominent street in Toronto and I analyzed how it changed over the years. Conclusions that I derived from reading the history were changes on Yonge made out of fear, and a need for more security, this change diminished the personality of Yonge. In 1947, A LAW IN Ontario was passed which permitted cocktail bars to serve mixed drinks. This attracted crowds, which flocked to these bars and bistros to drink and also be entertained. From this birthed the music scene all along Yonge Street. From the 1960s on, Yonge street had adopted many genres of music such as blues, rock and r&b. in 1975 thing started to really transform along Yonge, the disco music scene liberated local laws which changed gogo dancers to strippers, which birthed strip clubs,a dn the adult night scene. This was all to change when Toron[MANIFESTO] Jessica Taylor

to was exposed to the death of Emanuel Jacques in 1977. This was the first call to start cleaning up the streets on yonge. Many enjoyed the seediness an grit on Yonge street but the death of a young 12 year old boy shocked the entire city, enough to take action to clean thing sup. From this point on, Yonge became more retail focused, taverns shut their doors, many theatres closed and Yonge slowly but surely started to lose its character. The need for safety birthed form fear completed changed the dynamic and atmosphere of Yonge. That one fateful night in 1977 that shook Toronto. The rebellion or uncertainty that gave Yonge its character died from fear, fear of the unknown and fear of the unsafe qualities that people believed Toronto to have.

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[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Brodsky and Utkins

Jia Yi Zhang

The fundamental of the architecture practice is to create a space that can embody the representation of a certain principle or purpose. Buildings that withstood time often show a glance of the past and the social and cultural context of its era. In order to truly appreciate works from the past, the work must be perceived through the lens of that period in time. The Russian architects, Alexander Brodsky and Ilya Utkin, were able to express their opinions on the state of Soviet architecture and project them into numerous pieces of work. In order to truly understand their work, the history must be understood first. The architecture in the Soviet Union historically was not merely used to provide shelter, it was also a 09

strong form of visual propaganda. During the 1917 Revolution, over half of the country were uneducated, therefore graphic art and architecture became the primary system for distributing information about the new government. The early movements such as Constructivism and Rationalism worked with and for the State, this encouraged the involvement in the practical aspects of the society planning, allowing futurist designs to promote a new social reality.

However, the days of social and aesthetic experimentation soon gave way following the Revolution for a more direct utilization of architecture by the increasingly rigid government system. To which it resulted in designs that are the reflection of the political [ESSAY] Jia Yi Zhang

shifts and changes in leadership.

The constant shifts in architectural styles and experimentations had led Russia through a number of paths, from the “correct� aesthetics of classicism to modernism to the over-decorated style of neoclassicism, but it all eventually came to a halt in the 1950s. The over-scaled and overbearing classical structure evoked a prosperity and cultural sophistication even though it was not sustainable with the actual social and economic conditions of the Soviet Union at the time, which ultimately led to the expected end. The integrated cultural heritage was then replaced with a canon of unembellished utilitarianism, started an uprise in modern technology such as prefabrication and stan-

dardization to produce urgently needed mass housing. The faceless functionalism continues to dominate throughout Brodsky and Utkin’s upbringing as the government censored and controlled the ideologies of architecture.

The Upbringing Brodsky and Utkin were students during their moment of the encounter as they met for the first time in 1972 during their first year at Moscow Institute of Architecture (MArkhl). They both have an extensive family background regarding the field of the visual arts. Brodsky’s father was a well-known architect, graphic artist as well as a book illustrator, and Utkin’s came from two generations of architects. The two work closely to each other throughout their studies and produced a joint thesis project together as the modernism era reigned over their school years.

MArkhl was commonly regarded as one of the best education for architecture in the country and it was a privileged environment also had a few elderly professors that were excellent in instructing the craft of traditional rendering techniques. Their teachers consisted of veterans from the constructionist period and experts in architectural history, allowing them to prosper and not be confined by the narrow architectural context of their present time. They seek knowledge from the past in order to develop and create for the future. The duo worshiped the past architecture, they were seduced by the sheer beauty of its forms, especially when contrasted with the state

of the architecture during their time of upbringing.

as a propaganda that the government can hardly ignore.

The Paper Architects

The Crystal Palace

Upon graduation, international competitions sponsored by foreign magazines was a form of creative outlet for those who wish to carry on with the field of design despite the confinement state the country was in.

These competitions tended to be theoretical rather than practical, which was one of the most appealing aspects to the young designers. Frustrated by institutionalized barriers to their creativity and grieving the loss of Moscow’s architectural legacy, Brodsky and Utkin took refuge in their imaginations, making practical drawings for whimsical structures. The pair along with a few of their friends would go on to produce numerous of such projects couple years to come and the group assumed the name of “Paper Architects”. The Paper Architects often worked in small teams and often competed for the same prize, but it was a constructive environment that allowed the designers to gather and give critiques to each other’s works prior to sending them off.

The group was capable enough to support themselves throughout the years and through multiple projects from gathering the sums from the winning entries.

This is their form of escape and shelter for their creative minds, it was their platform to produce architecture that reflects them as designers in the Soviet Unions.

They were amazing at showcasing their minds, putting their thought as strokes on papers, as imageries people can see, and [ESSAY] Jia Yi Zhang

Brodsky and Utkin began creating visionary schemes in response to the gloomy professional scene of the tasteless buildings, narrating their thoughts on the layers of bureaucratic interventions and the evident lack of skilled labourer and built materials. Moscow during that time relied on standardized designs and prefabricated concrete panels to cut costs and complete projects on time, and city blocks were cleared to make way for stolid, uninteresting apartment complexes. But negative criticism is not common in the Soviet Union, criticism is often only used to glorify government supported projects. But they did critic, their work was a powerful form of architectural criticism through the use of graphics. They created visual commentaries on what was wrong with the social and physical reality and defined their vision of how the state can be remedied. The Crystal Palace was the winning entry piece from a 1982 Japanese Competition that helped the pair breakthrough and created their persona of excellent visual expression. The Crystal Palace is a collection of drawings that aim to define the journey of a pilgrim of discovery, far from the dark political reality of an unnamed city to the sparkling tower in the center of the landscape. The narrative that seems to reflect strongly the political shackles of the Soviet duos contain both elements of conventions in order to draw the 10

contrast between the two and communicate the said contrast from their minds to the paper then to the viewers. But their political intents were fundamentally “dissidents, not revolutionaries�.

The designs were more intended to illuminate the flaws in an oppressive communist regime than seeking to support an enlightened, technologically enable socialism.

The Intent Even though they are native of Moscow, they always insisted that their work is not a direct representation of the particular city, but it is meant to reflect any large modern city. But surely, their projects puts a strong emphasis on the heinous results of the Soviet Union’s inept urban planning. Through their work, they merely wish to imagine a better world necessarily involves the critique of the current one. Utopias exist to primarily encourage the consideration of alternative; it was a process that is brimming with political potentials, to which Brodsky and Utkin articulated through explicit architectural means. Brodsky and Utkin had a resilient belief that the modern city is a dying organism. However, they believed that they can save it, that it can be changed through imaginative transformation. They were willing to ask the questions when no one dared to. What is it like to live in such environment? How might they be improved? Does our built environment mirror the impoverished souls that live in it? They wonder and they created, so other people are able to reflect on the questions they 11

asked and experience their answers. That was the fundamental of their architectural practice.

Bibliography Brodsky, A. Utkin, I.(2015).

Columbarium Architecture (Museum of Disappearing Buildings). JAMA, 314(19).

Cole, T. B. (2006). Columbarium Architecture (Museum of Disappearing Buildings). JAMA, 314(19).

A., Brodsky, & I., Utkin. (2015).

Brodsky & Utkin. New York: Princeton Architectural Press

[ESSAY] Jia Yi Zhang

Personal Manifesto In our physical realm, architecture defines a space that we as individuals are able to engage with. These environments are crafted by the imagination of its creators and are explored and translated by people’s senses upon their stay.

aspect of characterization and lead to the functional repetition of modern era built art form.

Construction and the erection of a built form involved more connection in the past. Structures of the past would be crafted by hand, only made possible if the architects have a clear understanding of the assembly, and the end products would reflect the people that created it. Details and the craftsmanship, material and the tectonics, will always be the products of time and effort that acts as the response to the context and the bridge between the architect and the users.

Walls of concrete with a texture that will engrave a sensation on your hand as you place it on the surface. The roof of wood forming a lattice as it filters in light in an enclosure creating a calming sanctum. Floors of tiles that reflects and emphasize a culture or religion.

Details advances along with discoveries and innovations.

Well-crafted spaces have history From the stacking with stones and context, a story that can be to the casting with concrete told and enhanced through the to the framing with wood, new fine details that form the bound- construction methods are being aries encasing a world that the explored. Due to its constant architects envisioned. Details, evolution, the honesty of details as a mean of communication as is constantly being challenged. well as a practical tool, is vastly The uncertainty exists to quesdifferent today in comparison tion if new technologies are just to the past. As time progressed methods that mimic and belittles and as we shift from one era of the craft of the past or if it is the the industrialization to another, technology triumph that allows the emphasis on materials and for same effects to accomplish tectonics evolved along with it. through easier means. There are many aspects of how technology Everything at one time starts out has impacted on construction unrefined. Materials and tecton- details, but it cannot deny that ics in architecture are no differ- innovations also allowed for ent. Shelters created from what- more creative freedom in the ever that is available from the modern built form. immediate surroundings was the origin of the process of creating Progression in technology a space. The current civilization helped refined existing details is one that is motivated by indus- and developed new ones. Matetrialization. Industrialization is rials are used in ways that were the ultimate fruition of functionnot possible and the process of alism. The journey to rationalize construction are re-imagined at andperfect details in terms of a regular basis. The progresperformance compromised the sion can be utilized as a form [manifesto] Jia Yi Zhang

of convenience or as a form of admiration for the advancement.

We often reject the unfamiliar as many innovations in the past was a host for controversy. But as time carry on, progression are accepted and integrated. The materials and tectonics that form the built world is on a course of constant evolution, it should be used as new opportunities to explore and breach the borders of possibilities. The integration of advancement in details would open doors to new forms of expression and the create spaces that cannot be envisioned before.

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[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: ARCHITECTURE AS PROPAGANDA IN THE 1960S Peter Cook

Saloni Shah

The sixties remain a deto air more futuristic and radialong the Cuban Missile Crisis fining decade for Britain. Within cal ideas. On the other hand, where an “U-2 flight over Cuba a span of ten years, London had fashion mirrored the vast social took photos of Soviet nuclear transformed “from the bleak, changes in the sixties as well. weapons being installed and anconservative city, only just beShorter dresses, skirts, bright nounced the confrontation next ginning to forget the troubles of coloured clothing and generally day between the United States the Second World War, into the a more ‘playful’ appearance lib- and the Soviet Union”, threatcapital of the world” full of freeerated women and gave a new ening the world with nuclear dom, hope and promise (n/a, sense of femininity. The hippie war (n/a, 2015). As the missiles 2000). It was the hub of all the movement started to build its are announced to be situated in One of the most famous projects developed by Archigram was the excitement, where anything and reputation at this time as well, Cuba, thePlug-in-City nation fears with the rule of countless dwellings and plastic tubes as connectors. a combination a series of everythingcapsule was possible.

People while society moved towardsIt wasthe Soviet Union of from the conwere that finally given freedom more independence, especialstant threats are imposed. ideas were worked onofbetween 1962 and 1964 which were concrete mega that structures.

It can speech and the opportunity to ly for women rights.

Moreover, Ultimately, with the large be applied to any terrain as it would be manoeuvred by cranes operating from a railway atmilitary the stand up for what they believed technological advances drastibuild up in the 1960s, the “Soviet apex of the structure. contained "several electronic machine installations in. While families wereThe splitinterior and cally changed the lifestyle of the and Union was able to consolidate intended replace present operations" with from as bathrooms, living rooms, pain was to caused during the day work citizens.

There was an everything “increase itself a superpower during world war,centers, the post-war lifestyleandineven employment increase in Brezhnev’s rule” (n/a, 2000).

It shopping workplaces car silosand (Cook, P., 1999).

It can be stated that an option was immensely different and sigmoney” allowing people to afford was a terrifying period where of mass destruction and a world against the utopian traditions was taken into consideration. the nificant to the nation. The youth leisure and entertainment (n/a, world’s two superpowers came Archigram was trying to create a solution that served mass consumers with the thought of during had less restrictions in music, 2001). Color television and pock- closest to nuclear conflict unlimited supply ofthe material. an alternative all the necessary elements fashion, media and generalIt was et transistor radiosway wereofaliving com- with the Cold War. Consequently, way of thinking thanItbefore.

Fa- mon household item and to top modular considering the series of events needed to survive. is interesting to see experimentation with technology, mobility mous music groups such as The it off, by the end of the decade from the past, it aids in connectthrough environment and space capsules in the traditional London landscape. It was a strong Beatles and The Rolling Stones Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin ing the actions and thoughts that dialogue between preservation intervention parts which dramatically unique. minds It can began revolutionary trends that and become the firstof men to walk onseem came across in people’s be as changes a replacement where capsule a replacement of the the1960s. house, or in other willdescribed bring many to the citythe moonthe in 1969.

In is between during industry. with that the economic growth for Architecture was changwords an Experimentation urban environment canhigh be programmed and and structured change. Relying heavily new sounds was just the begin- soaring prosperity across the ing at the time as well and ideas on cranes to move these structures, many of their plans had blurbs talking about future ning as television shows started nation, the year of 1962 brought were proposed that seemed technology that would solve certain problems were difficult to figure out in the sixties.

Saloni Shah 13 [ESSAY]that

far-reaching and extreme by Ron Herron and Mike Webb in architects such as Peter Cook.

1961. At that time, magazines The outcome of the condition were not enthusiastic about and circumstances of Britain showcasing student work or during the 1960s, raises chalanything beyond the Bauhaus lenges and more unlimited image regarding architecture, design options. Born on October which Archigram thought need22, 1936 in England, he studed to change. They began their ied at Bournemouth College of own magazine to spread these Art and then entered the Archiideas across the nation and as tectural Association School of a response to the media as well.

Architecture, graduating in 1960 The name Archigram, was de(Cook, P.,1999). Peter Cook rived from the notion of “a more continued on to become an simple and urgent item than a English architect, lecturer and journal, like a telegram” which writer on architectural subjects. were introduced in the 1960s His passion for design led him to (Cook, P., 1970). Essentially it start his own design firm known was a way to put architecture on as CRAB Studio, in partnership display with Gavin Robotham. He won- through media to gets ideas and dered about the future of archi- opinions across about events tecture and it’s vast occurring at the time. Archigram ARCHITECTURE ASpossibilities PROPAGANDA IN THE 1960S while being influenced by the pondered over what a new world power from other nations, adwould look like in the case of vancing technology, space colo- nuclear destruction; it was not nization and the media. To carry about how ugly or beautiful the out his designs, he founded an design was, but rather the comorganization called Archigram fort and excellent lifestyle for its with six other architects. They users. There were three major were interested in critizing proj- projects which were planned by ects, releasing their design ideas the group that created a dramatto the media, making competiic broadening of the perceptions tion projects and creating some and visions of the 60’s. They interesting design proposals. “came through a succession of reactions to the boredom and

Archigram was founded obviousness of post-war English

by Peter Cook, Warren Chalk, office blocks and local authorDennis Compton, David Greene, ity housing” (Cook, P., 1970)

[ESSAY] Saloni Shah

as they steered clear of the proposed modern architecture forms. David Greene wrote a poem in the first edition of Archigram magazine and stated that “a new generation of architecture must arise with forms and spaces which seem to reject the precepts of ‘Modern’ yet in fact retains those precepts. We have chosen to bypass the decaying Bauhaus image which is an insult to functionalism”, directly opposing the accepted and valued standard at the time. The Bauhaus was a renown modernist art school which had an influential approach to teaching and understanding of art’s relationship to society and the technology which had a major impact in Europe and the United States, even after it closed in 1933. It’s founders and professors believed in modern architecture being simple, functional and practical.

The Bauhaus movement tried to “bridge the gap between art and industry by combining crafts and arts through architecture and geometric design” which would then be mass produced (n/a, 2015). Focusing on the ‘honesty’ of materials without changing the pure characteristics and nature of it seemed absurd and impractical to Archigram. The outcome of their work therefore is more

One of the most famous projects developed by Archigram was the Plug-in-City with

14

To continue, one may consider the Plug-in-City theplaspeak of creativity at the time in radical, shocking and strongly less capsule dwellings and other words an urban environLondon. However, in 1964, architect RonasHerron from the Archigram continued to expressed to the nation.

In gentic tubes connectors.

It was a ment group that can be programmed eral, it wasand an propose avant-garde combination of aofseries ideas and structured for change.

Redevelop thesearchiradical ideas in case massofdestruction due to the Cold War. The tectural group neo-futuristic, that were worked on that between lyingswiftly heavilyacross on cranes to move Walking Citywith consisted of 40 storey-high machines would move landscapes. anti-heroic views and pro-con1962 and 1964, which were these structures, many of their The insight came from the body function mega and ease of movement These movable sumerist.

It wanted to declare to concrete structures.

It can from plansinsects. had blurbs talking about robots could arranged onto any as seen image on the left the world that itbewas influential beterrain, applied even to anywater terrain, as it in the future technology thatabove. would inThey architecture and provided by lengths cranes ifsolve certain were would move with their longwould legs be thatmaneuvered could change needed.

Theproblems activity that would solutions to possible crisis that operating from a railway at the difficult to figure out in the sities. remain undisturbed inside the machine and would cater to all user's needs. This was drastically may occur in the near future in apex of the structure. The interidifferent geometrical from the Bauhaus movement and was changing thethe the sixties.from Theythe created many influences or contained “several electronic

Another project was design proposals, eachvalues revolving andhad machine installations Instant City,advanced which proposed modern architecture as they a vision of a muchintendmore technology world. around concepts of movement, ed to replace present day work the idea of a travelling city that massive Another heights and imaginary operations” everything from can essentially be intervened on project was the Instant City,with which proposed the idea of a travelling city that can structures which would all rely bathrooms, living rooms, shopany piece of land.

It was a city essentially be intervened on any piece of land. It was a city designed to travel like a circus on technological advances in the ping centers, workplaces and designed to travel like a circus however simulated citysilos culture which would only stay for a week and future.

Thecontaining inspiration real mayor have even car (Cook, P., 1999). however containing real move or sim-on to thederived next location. vital design element was that the projection rebeen from the A high level It can be stated an option of television ulated city which culture could which be would ofprojected progression from parts the early six-city of screens mass destruction and worldwasonly stay for floating, a week and move at other of the as well. As thea city essentially with no ties in Britain.

They too, wanted against the utopian traditions on to the next location.

A vital physical presence on the ground, it created a statement that about "architecture not needing to be freedom in expression of ideas was taken into consideration. design element was the projeca monument, or really having exist at allwas except as to a number offered features" (Cook, that were debated by many to beto Archigram trying create oftion of television which could P.,1970). InArchigram addition,used the open areas would formmass a "highly serviced 'land beach' where impossible. ar- park a solution that served be re-projected at other parts chitecture tool to showcase consumers with and the thought of of athe city screens as well.

As a membersas of athe public can plug in an appliance get air coolers, telephone, an air bed and their power by creating their own unlimited supply of material. It the city was essentially floating, picture" (Cook, P.,1970). This instinct of a 'home' and 'continuity' and compatibility of the new ‘brand’ while putting Britain on was an alternative way of living with no physical presence on with the old waslevel. a radical create an image for the English the work being itcompleted the international They way had towith all the necessary elements ground, created a during statea new approach to urbanism needed to survive. It is interest- ment that about “architecture with reversed traditional percep- ing to see experimentation with not needing to be a monument, tions of infrastructure’s role in modular technology, mobility or really having to exist at all the city. They drew inspiration through environment and space except as a number of offered from technology to create a new capsules in the traditional Lonfeatures” (Cook, P.,1970). In reality that would cater to mass don landscape. It was a strong addition, the open park areas consumers and ultimately gain dialogue between preservation would form a “highly serviced power and fame. and intervention of parts, which ‘land beach’ where members seem dramatically unique. It of the public can plug in an One of the most famous can be described as a replaceappliance and get air coolers, projects developed by Archigram ment city where the capsule is a a telephone, an air bed and a was the Plug-in-City with count- replacement of the house, or in picture” (Cook, P.,1970). This 15 [ESSAY] Saloni Shah

ARCHITECTURE AS‘continuPROPAGANDA IN THE instinct of a ‘home’ and influence onto1960S the designs in the cessfully. They saw the patterns ity’ and compatibility of the new sixties. To add onto the presand direction of growth of the with the old was a radical way to sure, fear of nuclear war threat- society socially, politically and create an image for the English ened the nation for its safety and economically and created a rework being completed during the future. Peter Cook saw this as sponse to it. The new way of life, early 1960s. They created a new an opportunity to use architecwith the rise of new and more relationship between the moving ture as a solution to the society’s creative ideas come together to parts, the range of their environ- fear and a way to gain power. It inherent qualities of mass promental potential and degree of creates potential for Archigram duction for a consumer orientatflexibility and control that can be to become a heroic icon of the ed society are those of repetition offered by the programmers of nation with all the answers and and standardization, but parts the transporting city. shelter from possible destruction can be changeable or interto serve mass consumers for changeable depending on indiTo continue, oneradical may consider the Plug-in-City the peak of vidual’s creativity at theand timepreferences in In conclusion, the various long periods of time. Archigram needs design proposals from in Archiused architecture as propaganandgroup givencontinued a world market, could London.

However, 1964, architect Ron Herron from the Archigram to gram’s projects illustratethese a manda ideas internationally publishing feasible develop and propose radical in case of by mass destructionbe dueeconomically to the Cold War. Thedue to ifesto as a single idea.

Despite their ideas in their own magainflation.

The sixties have truly Walking City consisted of 40 storey-high machines that would move swiftly across landscapes. the cynicism of the public, there zines and broadcasting through- been a decade of rapid change The insight came from the bodyout function and ease of movement from insects. These movable was a continuation of strong the nation and opposing the with a “note of optimism and the robots could be arranged terrain, even water as seen in theability imagetoondream the left spirit of experiments and an onto any most influential Bauhaus image forabove. something They would move with their long legs that could change lengths if needed.

The activity would almost science-fictional way of that was seen as the only apbigger and better” (n/a, 2001). thinking regarding architecture. proach to design at the time.

As Peter Cook stated in the 3rd remain undisturbed inside the machine and would cater to all user's needs. This was drastically Archigram cities They wanted beBauhaus seen as movement a Edition Archigram, differentbelieved from thethat geometrical influences fromtothe andof was changing“we the must should generate, reflect and ac- powerful, prominent and leadextend the conventional barrimodern architecture values as they had a vision of a much more technology advanced world. tivate life while being structured ing group that can fight with the ers and find people without any and organized to precipitate lifethe issues by the proposed Soviet Union formal Another project was Instant given City, which the idea of a architectural travelling citytraining, that can and movement (Cook, P., 1970). and the United States. It wanted producing concepts showing a essentially be intervened of land.

It was a city designed to travel like a grasp circus of current During the 1960s, there wason anytopiece be the reason for Britain to marked intuitive however city showcase culture which would onlyattitudes stay for related a week and move on optimism andcontaining prosperityreal run-or simulated grow and its signifito city images the next A vital design element was the projection which(Cook, could P., be 1999) reningtoacross thelocation. nation regarding cance and dominant image at of television and the rest” social, political anscreens international level.

Architecto create futuristic as he projected at and othereconomic parts of the city as well.

As the city was essentially floating,ideas with no views.

When everything finally ture was used as a weapon to did.

Archigram definitely physical presence on the ground, it created a statement that about "architecture not needing toleft bean seemed to be working toward move forward in society. They unforgettable mark in the archia monument, or really having to exist at all except as a number of offered features" (Cook, a brighter future, architecture relied heavily on the expansion, tectural movement in the 1960s.

P.,1970).

In addition, the The open park areas wouldand form a "highlyinserviced 'land beach' where remained brutally stagnant. improvements inventions

In conclusion, the various members of the public can plug in an appliance and get air coolers, a telephone, an air bed and a Bauhaus movement that ended the technological fields in order radical design proposals from in the 1930s(Cook, still continued for theirofdesigns work sucArchigram’s projects illustrate picture" P.,1970).itsThis instinct a 'home'toand 'continuity' and compatibility of the new

with the old was a radical way to create an image for the English work being completed during

[ESSAY] Saloni Shah

16

5

a manifesto as a single idea.

Despite the cynicism of the public, there was a continuation of strong spirit of experiments and an almost science-fictional way of thinking regarding architecture. Archigram believed that cities should generate, reflect and activate life while being structured and organized to precipitate life and movement (Cook, P., 1970). During the 1960s, there was optimism and prosperity running across the nation regarding social, political and economic views. When everything finally seemed to be working toward a brighter future, architecture remained brutally stagnant. The Bauhaus movement that ended in the 1930s still continued its influence onto the designs in the sixties. To add onto the pressure, fear of nuclear war threatened the nation for its safety and future. Peter Cook saw this as an opportunity to use architecture as a solution to the society’s fear and a way to gain power. It creates potential for Archigram to become a heroic icon of the nation with all the answers and shelter from possible destruction to serve mass consumers for long periods of time.

Archigram used architecture as propaganda internationally by publishing their ideas in their own magazines and broadcasting throughout the nation and opposing the most influential Bauhaus image that was seen as the only approach to design at the time. They wanted to be seen as a powerful, prominent and leading group that can fight with the issues given by the Soviet Union and the United States. It wanted to be the reason for Britain to grow 17

and showcase its significance and dominant image at an international level. Architecture was used as a weapon to move forward in society. They relied heavily on the expansion, improvements and inventions in the technological fields in order for their designs to work successfully. They saw the patterns and direction of growth of the society socially, politically and economically and created a response to it. The new way of life, with the rise of new and more creative ideas come together to inherent qualities of mass production for a consumer orientated society are those of repetition and standardization, but parts can be changeable or interchangeable depending on individual’s needs and preferences and given a world market, could be economically feasible due to inflation. The sixties have truly been a decade of rapid change with a “note of optimism and the ability to dream for something bigger and better” (n/a, 2001).

As Peter Cook stated in the 3rd Edition of Archigram, “we must extend the conventional barriers and find people without any formal architectural training, producing concepts showing a marked intuitive grasp of current attitudes related to city images and the rest” (Cook, P., 1999) to create futuristic ideas as he did. Archigram definitely left an unforgettable mark in the architectural movement in the 1960s.

References Cook, P. (1970). Experimental architecture. New York: Universe [ESSAY] Saloni Shah

Books.

Cook, P. (1999). Archigram. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Cook, P. (2003). The city, seen as a garden of ideas. New York, NY: Monacelli Press.

Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian. (2000). Retrieved February 02, 2017, from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis The 1960s The Decade that Shook Britain. (2001). Retrieved February 02, 2017, from http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-1960s-The-Decadethat-Shook-Britain/ The Bauhaus Movement. (2015).

Retrieved February 02, 2017, from http://bauhausinteriors.com/blog/ the-bauhaus-movement/ All images are taken from ArchDaily.

Personal Manifesto

narily quiet and still. To achieve true internal bliss, individuals The mind is constantly distracted must be able to control their or occupied with noise through- mind. In addition, it is vital the mind is unaffected by external out the major portion of each day. It is essential to pause and influences, by pushing away overflowing thoughts, feelings, revitalize ourselves to disconand emotions. Attaining mednect from external influences.

Yonge and Dundas Square is a itative practices allows one to vibrant yet chaotic hub. We find see external circumstances very clearly as well as the inner self it difficult to search for a place with objectivity and clarity. Medito isolate our self within it. We tation or self-reflection trains the search for an escape, a breakaway, from the rushed lifestyle. mind to regulate itself by giving We strive to find answers within it the ability to focus on one our self and free our minds from thing constantly without break. stress and pressure. However, in If practiced properly, it is a conorder to reach this state mental- sistent reconnection with your ly, our psyche must be extraordi- true inner self. Furthermore,

[manifesto] Saloni Shah

architecture can provide an experience for the mind and body to detach from its surroundings.

The silence of architecture is a responsive, remembering silence. A powerful architectural experience silences all external noise; it focuses our attention on our very existence and makes us aware of fundamental solitude.

Time and space eternally locked into one other in these silent spaces. Matter, space and time fuse into one singular elemental experience, the sense of being.

18

his fact was deeply influential throughout his career as his past in the country is reflect

[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: signs on Agronomic Architecture from the 1780s to the 1790.

Claude-Nicholas Ledoux

Andres Guzman Romero

as bridges, churches, factories, period, Ledoux was introduced and granaries. The most noLedoux was born in 1736 in to his first patrons which retable project he was hired to Villa of Dormans, Marne. Lesulted in his first commission design during this period was: doux’ upbringings suggest that of a coffee house in 1762. The the Saline de Chaux.This design he grew up in an agricultural popularity of this commission society. Therefore, he was very opened many doors for Ledoux commissioned by Luis XV was ure 1 Maison des Gardes Agricoles. Retrieved fromhttp://c1038.r38.cf3.rackcdn.com/group4/building39530/media/qlmy_p1010 the first project in which Ledoux familiar with farming and agwho later continued designing ricultural practices. His family villas, mansions and chateaux expressed an architectural style After 1784, a villa forThis theperiod estate of Marquis Anne-Pierre de thatthe became his trademark.

His must have been Ledoux either poordesigned or for wealthy clients. in a very modest living condicollages nicknamed this style for Ledoux is characterized by tions. In 1749, he received a the predominance of classicism architecture parlante. Unforaupertuis in which he designed ‘HouseNotable for the Agricultural Guards’ among tunately, this project was not other b scholarship to study classical inthe his designs. projects finished by Ledaux due to lack studies at Collège de Beauvais, for this time are Chateau de of resources by the crown which in Paris. However, at age 15 he Benouville, Hotel dUzes, Café he program consisted of a houseMilitaire, that provided for the needs of the farmer including roo decided to study drawing inHotel d’Hallwyl among was facing much more serious problems. Other commissions stead. He became an engraver others. Back in the 18th centuorder to make a living. During received

by Ledoux during on this an und ry, the and design an orage,insleeping quarters, kitchen, andwork stables.

Theof building would be placed this time, he became a pupil of architect was not only restricted time included theaters, governJacques-Francois Blondel who to buildings. Architects also built mental buildings and prisons. taught Ledoux architecture. roads, and uare shaped pad surrounded bybridges, courtyards.

It many was pubdesigned with the shape of a sphere Between the 1770s and 1789, Since Blondel was a defender lic and service projects. Thus, of classism, Ledoux was deeply Ledoux was hired to build sevLedoux designed several masonic As partofofNewton the by by him.Étienne-Louis During this eralBoullée public works such of motif influenced also used inprojects his design thetemples.

Cenopath in 1 19

[ESSAY] Andres Guzman Romero

brotherhood, the architect was expected to design the lodge.

As a result, Ledoux designed about 12 temples throughout this time. His temple designs is characterized by the use of pure forms such as pyramids, cylinders, spheres, etc. Additionally, masonic symbolic motifs were ubiquitous in his architectural approach. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, Ledoux lost most of his commissions. Many of his projects were destroyed by the revolutionaries and it was not until 1792 that he was able start his practice again.

Unfortunately, he was arrested by the revolutionaries and accused because of his close links to the bourgeois class. He was eventually released in 1795. Facing financial and personal difficulties, he was unable to restore his career. It was during his last eleven years Ledoux that heClaude-Nicolas put his thoughts to paper and wrote his book Prospectus, Journal des batiments, and L’Architecture de C.N Ledoux where he published many designs and proposed his views of the “ideal city.”

Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Architecture of the Social Reform Ledoux is one of the most recognized architects of the 18th Century. He is regarded as one of the most influential architects in the neoclassical period. His architectural style departed from the conventional classical style, which was the norm at the time, to a more geometrical and symbolic style. Throughout this essay, we will attempt to examine the intricacies and complexities of Ledoux architectural approach by analyzing the socio-cultural

context that surrounded him and influenced the architect throughout his career. Let us imagine we are going back in time to France during the 18th Century.

Imagine a world dominated by the European colonization: The French, Spanish, and British Empire were expanding in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. This was a time very influenced by the Enlightenment, the printing press, and many developments in Mathematics, Chemistry, Philosophy among other sciences. In France, an environment of revolution was emanating as social disparities were increasing and the impoverished population resented the elite, the clergy and the monarchy. Keeping in mind all the events and changes that France was experiencing, it is now possible to imagine the world that influence Ledoux’ architectural approach.

Upbringings: The Agronomic Architecture

It is well known that Claude-Nicolas Ledoux grew up in a small villa located in Champagne- better known as Marne after the French Revolution. This area is nowadays recognized as the wine region of France and where champagne (the drink) originated. In the 18th century, Champagne was not only a wine region but also an agricultural one. Wine, as well as other crops and agricultural practices, was flourishing. Ledoux grew up with his mother, Francoise Dominot, and his father, Claude Ledoux, who was a merchant. At the time, merchants were associated with the rural and agricultural industry.

Grand scale agriculture production was non-existent and most merchants who lived in rural areas engaged in trades when there was no work available.

The insufficiency of agriculture and the influence of capitalism

[essay] Andres Guzman Romero

20

rank. One of his most recognizable designs was the House of the River Authority. The building itself has a form of a cylinder around a tunnel. Across this tunnel, there is a river that passed through, just to culminate in a waterfall. Similarly to his design for the House of the Agricultural Guards, Ledoux planned this design with bedrooms, workshops, and deployed them around a central double height space: a central fire place within a common space for people to gather. However, in contrast to the House of the Agricultural made commerce a suitable way enne-Louis Boullée in his design Guards, this house was deto make a living. Therefore, it is of the Cenopath of Newton in signed for the river surveyors. very likely that Ledoux grew up 1784. Ledoux was interested The purpose, therefore, was in very modest (if not very poor) in the life and needs of a small not agrarian but instead surveilconditions.

(Henri Sée , 1927.) farmer including the need for lance. Consequently, the house ementiere de la Ville de Chaux. Retrieved from http://static.panoramio.com/photos/large/78531671.jpg Ledoux spent his first thirteen ventilation, and hygienic drainhad to enable a constant view of years living in the countryside age.

Therefore, the building had the river while finishing his architectural training at the College of Beauvais, Ledoux received his performing their of Champagne. Thus, he was three floors. On the lower level, daily chores inside the house. familiar with the countryside he placed greenhouses By creating these houses, Leions. This period is characterized by a more classical approachand in his designs from his childhood. This fact was accommodations for animals. doux intended to provide the deeply influential throughout his On the second level, also the architectural training provided by Blondel. His first commission was theworkers with an architecture that career as his past in the counground level, one would meet the essential needs try is reflected in his designs on would find four sleeping quarters of active members of society. a coffee shop called Café Gordeau in 1762. café awas visited by Agronomic Architecture from the with aThe kitchen, set mainly of common Both the House of the Agricultur1780s to the 1790. areas, and a fire place in the al Guards as well as the House officers of the French army. The intent center of the design was to provide these of the building.

The upper of retired the River Authority provide After 1784, Ledoux designed a level would mainly act as an attic good examples of Ledoux’ unveteransvilla with place of relaxation (Vidler, 2006, 24). Therefore, many and appreciation of forathe estate of the Marquis space.

Thep.building itself rep-he added derstanding Anne-Pierre de Maupertuis in resents the idea that everyone the French countryside where he which he designed the ‘House must have access to architecture grew up. His desire for change for the Agricultural Guards’ and that architecture has the and social reform became more among other buildings. The pro- power to create social reform. apparent as he matured as an gram consisted of a house that In fact, his agrarian approach architect. Unfortunately, most of provided for the needs of the aimed to get rid of ‘chaumière’ these projects were not realized. farmer including rooms for stor- orthatched hovels traditional of As a matter of fact, most age, sleeping quarters, kitchen, Western Europe. of the ones he was commisand stables. The building would sioned to build, happen at an be placed on an underground Around the same period of earlier stage. These commistime, Ledoux designed a series sions consisted of villas, maisquare shaped pad surrounded of dwellings for the workers at sons, and chateaux for wealthy by courtyards. It was designed Chaux. Once again, he consid- clients. with the shape of a sphere which ered the needs and functions of is a motif also used by Étithe employees according to their 21 [ESSAY] Andres Guzman Romero

Education and First Commissions During his time at the College de Beauviais, Nicolas Ledoux studied architecture under the instruction of Jacques-François Blondel. Blondel was an architect and educator who condemned the extreme ornamentation of the Rococo and defended classicism. Influenced by Abbe Marc-Antonie Laugier’s idea of the primitive hut and the return of architecture to its origins, Blondel sought symmetry, logic, simplicity, and functionalism in his designs. Some of the most important things that Ledoux learned from Blondel is the concept of the Caractère. By this he meant that “all the different kinds of works that belong to architecture should bear the imprint of the intended purpose of each building, all must possess a character that determines their general form and that announces the building for what it is” (Vidler, 2006, p. 18). The challenge that Ledoux had to face regarding characterization of architecture was to find a suitable means of architectural expression between the character of the building and the organization and distribution within it. Michael Foucault called this the “theory of the mark and the theory of the organism” (Vidler, 2006, p.

18). In order to solve this division between representation and function, Ledoux transformed his buildings in such a way that they would visually communicate their intension. Thus, recreating what is now known as Architecture Parlante or speaking architecture.

Most designs by Ledoux ina single ray of light penetrates tend, one way orRoyal another, the dome from the apex. AcFigure in 5 Perspective of the Saltworksto at Chaux.

Retrieved from https://s-media-cacheak0.pinimg.com/originals/d3/83/b6/d383b6cba42c358db3f09c03c2d7876e.png express their purpose visually. cording to Ledoux the dome is However, as he matured as an meant to represent “the image of architect, Ledoux became more nothingness.” This project may open about the use of Architec- be considered the peak of Leture Parlante. An example of this deux’s architecture parlante as it architecture can be seen in the achieves the “sublime” by using design of the Coopers House a vast scale, simplicity and simwhere Nicolas Ledoux designed ple geometries that are highly the structure of the building out symbolic (Vidler, 2006, p.139). of two intersecting cylinders which are grooved in such a way After finishing his architectural to look like barrels. Like most of training at the College of Beauhis residential projects, Ledoux vais, Ledoux received his first intended to create a hieroglyph commissions. This period is to signify and identify the build- characterized by a more clasing while providing a functionsical approach in his designs al space. This approach was thanks to the architectural trainunique at that time and was not ing provided by Blondel. His first associated with classical archicommission was the decoration tecture. Another example of his of a coffee shop called Café use of symbolic architecture is Gordeau in 1762. The café was the Cemetery of Chaux, where mainly visited by veterans and the juxtaposition of the geometry officers of the French army. and symbolic interpretation is The intent of the design was used to express the purpose of to provide these retired offithe building. The cemetery is a cers and veterans with a place half-buried sphere built into an of relaxation (Vidler, 2006, p. excavated area surrounded by 24). Therefore, he added many catacombs. From the outside, classical themes that are assoone can only see the dome built ciated with victory and heroism. out of smooth stone while its For example, he added twelve interior is vast and hollow. Only triumphal columns around the [essay] Andres Guzman Romero 22

fluence of recent achievements and developments in science and philosophy. Many concepts originated as result democracy, personal liberty, capitalism, socialism, scientific method, logical innovation, etc.

room that seemed endless by come. It will be for the future to using mirrors strategically lodecide the aim, the nature and he Theatre of Besançon.

Retrieved from cated inside the room. These the limits of this revolution,the wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ledoux,_Theatre_of_Besan%C3%A7on.jpg/1280pxemblems were carved on bas drawbacks and disadvantages C3%A7on.jpg relief against the smooth surface of which posterity will be able to of the walls. Just as with later judge better than we can.” Jean projects such as the Royal Salt d’Alembert (1759) When Nicolas works of Chaux, these decoraLedoux was born, France was tive elements meant to provide a already going through a period narrative of heroism and idealof revolution. A revolution that ized sociability (Vidler, 2006, p. still affects today. This revolution 24) while providing a visual dec- significantly changed the view of orative element that is reduced the world in a social, scientific, to its simplest form. economic, political, and sociological way. Nicolas Ledoux was The simplified classicism apabout to witness a revolution that proach used by Ledoux for would give birth to the modern his first commission is further world. In fact, before 1789, when showcased within the first years the French revolution had eruptof practice. Here he was comed, there were two revolutions missioned to design for a wide already ongoing: the American range of clients which consisted Revolution, in the USA, and the of friends and other people from Industrial Revolution, which behis social circle. Many of these gan in England but later expandprojects were houses, hotels, ed throughout the world. These and villas. revolutions, indeed, were the direct result of the Enlightenment The Enlightenment and France and architecture itself was tranWithin Revolutions scending into a new phase. By the end of the 17th century and “A most remarkable change in the beginnings of the 18th centuour ideas is taking place, one ries, Europe was going through of such rapidity that it seems to an ideological transformation promise a greater change still to which emerged due to the in23

[ESSAY] Andres Guzman Romero

This period is commonly known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment came about by the influence of John Locke and Isaac Newton near the end of the 17th Century in Britain. They both stressed the use of empiricism as the means to obtain knowledge by experience and experimentation, challenging superstition and religious belief.

Locke also expressed the idea that all humans are born good without Original Sin and thus they are all born with the right to life, liberty, and property (Janson, Davies, & Janson, 2011, p.

785). He also emphasized that the government has the responsibility to protect these rights, otherwise, the citizens have the right to remove the government peacefully or by force.

These ideas rapidly expanded throughout Europe and the world and consequently more texts, treatises and theories began to emerge. Some of the most influential writers of the time included Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, and Jean d’Alembert. Just as France and Europe were undergoing extreme transformations, architecture was also experiencing a period of transition from Classicism to Neoclassicism. In the 1770’s it was notable that architecture definitely shifted the interest from traditional Greek and Roman styles to pure

aude-Nicolas Ledoux

1

benevolent design of a Mawas associated to prestige as it sonic institution; and it is most referredserve to theas organization geometric forms and grandIn the 18th Century, the idea that space and symbolism could a bridge ofto reform fervently to be wished, that the masons into guilds as “freemen” er scale. This challenged the conduct of every member of the instead of “bondsmen” (Langimportance of the monarchy, as well as those pub- ford, 1991, p10).Vidler, The organizachurch, anddeeply other traditional in- fraternity, cial values was entrenched in freemasonry.

According to Anthony Nicolas stitutions which used classicism lications, that discover the prin- tion became more prestigious ciples which actuate them, may after as the absolute architectural doux was surrounded by patrons and whomankind belonged order and may have been tend peers to convince that to the the London Greathe Fire of 1666 style. Among the many archiand the unification of the four tects of this period such as Ma- the grand object of Masonry is to promote of the the London lodges in 1717. Many Peyre, Étienne-Louis tiated rie-Joseph before 1773 (Langford, 1991, p. 70).the Hehappiness emphasizes use "Freemasonic repertoire of human race.” [George Washing- respected scientists and geomeBoullée, and Claudeton, letter to the Grand Lodge of tricians among other educated Nicolas Ledoux believed archigyptian' motifs, all-seeing eyes,Free fasces, tables of the law, columns” Ledoux and Accepted Masons for double professionals becameininterested tecture couldthe alone change the the Commonwealth of Massain the organization and joined faith of humanity (Claude Lethe brotherhood. In 1725, the doux, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux 12 chusetts, January 1793] chitecture (Langford, 1991, p.

50).

It is understandable why one may feelmigrated tempted to provide January 31, 2017). Ledoux most organization to Paris Freemasonry originated in but it was not fully accepted and notorious project at the Salt Englanduse around 14th Cenandby many Free MaMines atby Chaux best represents ch argument looking at the extensive of the geometry and recognized symbolism Ledoux. tury. The term originates from sons lived in anonymity. In the his ideology. the French “mestre mason de mid-1740s, free masonry began cording to Vidler, the ideas of sociability in architecture can only be explained through his franche peer, master freestone to emerge in France with the Freemasonry and Temple Demason or mastet of the pierre construction of permanent lodgsign franche, a fine-grained stone, es while members of the aristocmbolism and use of geometry if one references free masonry (Vidler, 2006, p. 134). suitable for carving” (Langford, racy became associated with the “To enlarge the sphere of so1991, p. 9). In England, the term organization. Around this time, cial happiness is worthy of the

[essay] Andres Guzman Romero Figure 5 Perspective of the Royal Saltworks at Chaux. Retrieved from https://s-media-cache-

24

Saltworks, the Chapel located within the Director’s building.

The chapel is invisible from the outside as it is inserted into the attic of the building. Ledoux designed a grand staircase wide as the chamber itself leading up to the chapel where a three-part Palladian window floods the altar with light. Vidler associates the staircase with the concept of a hierarchical mountain which accommodates the worshipers according to their hierarchy.

The building itself has a double square plan and triple widows on the front and side facades, referencing the model of Masonic freemasonry embraced symbols longed to the order and he may temple construction. Additionally, have been initiated before 1773 Vidler argues that the entrance and ideas Retrieved such as from Greek and ouse of the Director. http://farm6.static.flickr.com/5244/5280225315_e5cd467d47.jpg Egyptian Mythology, the Temple (Langford, 1991, p. 70). He em- of the gatehouse also references phasizes the use “Freemasonic Masonic temple construction by of Solomon, the mason’s hewn repertoire of ‘Egyptian’ motifs, stone, cubic with pyramidal the incorporation of two massive point, alchemy and hermeticism the all-seeing eyes, fasces, taDoric columns and pyramidal (Langford, 1991, p. 15). Masonic bles of the law, double columns” roof. Vidler claims that exteriin Ledoux lodges became spaces where or of the Director’s building is members expressed and specu- architecture (Langford, 1991, reminiscent of the restoration of p. 50). It is understandable why the Temple of Solomon and may lated ideas in the midst of religious and political censorship of one may feel tempted to provide have been inspired by “Perrault’ the 18th France. Finally, in 1773, such argument by looking at the s or Fischer von Erlach’ s drawextensive use of geometry and French Freemasonry became ings of Solomonic architecture.” consolidated with the formation symbolism by Ledoux. According (Langford, 1991, p. 63). to Vidler, the ideas of sociabilof the Grand Orient. The idea ity in architecture can only be of the masonic lodge by itself The gate at the entrance of the relates to the model of sociable explained through his symbolRoyal Saltworks also offers space which becomes a “space ism and use of geometry if one many Masonic references acreferences free masonry (Vidler, cording to Ledoux. The Doric of happiness achieved through the brotherhood” (Vidler, 2006, 2006, p. 134). portico features is presumably p. 133). Sociable space is a designed after the Athenian reoccurring theme in Ledoux ar- Nicolas Ledoux extensive use Propylea (Langford, 1991, p. chitecture throughout his career. of motifs, masonic patterns 63). The most enigmatic feature and traits are well documented of Leudox’s gate is the grotthroughout his career. Vidler’s In the 18th Century, the idea towithin colonnade. The grotto analysis of the Masonic symbol- is made with natural stone that that space and symbolism ism by Leoux at the Royal Salt- contrasts dramatically the rest of could serve as a bridge to reworks of Chaux examines the form social values was deeply the internal and external design many buildings designed, and in of the gate. This purpose of this entrenched in freemasonry.

According to Anthony Vidler, particular, the Saline Chapel, the contrast could be interpreted as Nicolas, Ledoux was surrounded House of the Director and the a Masonic “ritual of initiation” Monumental Gate. At the Royal which consists of “a terrifying seby patrons and peers who be25 [ESSAY] Andres Guzman Romero

ries of steps towards knowledge and belonging” (Langford, 1991, p. 64). Many symbolic elements within the grotto (such as the rough-hewn stone, the Doric columns and the references to the tree as primitive hut) represent the state of constant metamorphosis (Alchemy) visualized as the juxtaposition of opposed forces: nature and culture, chaos and reason. (Langford, 1991, p. 36).

It is highly possible that Ledoux career was highly influenced by Freemasonry despite of the lack of validity provided by Vidler.

After all many of his clients and friends where devoted to the order and therefore they must have influenced him regardless of his membership. One thing can be concluded with certainty and that is the fact that Ledoux’s concern with sociability (just as the freemasons were), led him to believe that architecture could change society. The result of

tecture design and urban planning at that time. His plan of the city of Chaux featured a number of independent buildings to prevent the spread of fire. These buildings were to be arranged in an elliptical plan. The layout intended to allow for better control and more efficient movement of goods and supplies. The city was intended to have a capacity of about 800 workers living within the residences encircling the central plazas where the director house would be located.

This positioning of the Director’s House intended to provide visual control over the entire city.

Ledoux concern for surveillance also reflected in the positioning of the Guardian’s building at the entrance where visual control would be exercised from the House of the Director as well as the Guardian’s building adjacent to it. The desire for sociability by Ledoux is clearly visible architecturally as the design features this attempt is clearly seen in the communal halls within the resproposal of the ideal city for the idential areas as well as in the city of Chaux. external buildings surrounded the city. Interestingly enough, The Ideal City and Utopianism the expansion of the design for the Royal Saltworks had been When Nicolas Ledoux proposed envisaged by the administration the design of the Royal Saltand displayed in the late 1790s works at Chaux, he envisioned in the entire forest showing all it as a progressive government the routes for the provision of sponsored industrial town. the Saltworks. The Saltworks is Despite the fact that the projshown as a semicircle. However, ect was never conceived as he the expansion the entire oval imagined, he designed all build- was delineated providing room ings that this “ideal city” would for future development. The map require such as temples, public also shows a north-south axis baths, markets, houses, a broth- road that commences at the Rivel, barracks, a church, law er Loue and terminates inside courts, and recreational buildthe forest at the intersection of ings. Many of these buildings three main routes where there departed from traditional archiwas to be a giant obelisk similar [essay] Andres Guzman Romero

to the Washington Monument in the USA. The importance of this map is the fact that it details the ideas of Ledoux regarding the future idea of the Ideal City.

It provided a narrative for a city that was like no other at the time: a city where social justice prevailed and where architecture was given to all regardless of their rank and social status.

Conclusion There is no doubt that Nicolas Ledoux was a creative thinker concerned about ideologies of social reform. When analyzing the many details about his life regarding the socio-cultural environment in which he grew up, it is possible to discern the factors that influenced his career.

Undeniably the most determinant factors that determined his architecture where: His infancy in the countryside in France, Blondel’s influence during his studies in Paris, the Enlightenment, his ties with freemasonry and his commitment for a social cause.

His stopped practicing as an architect once the French revolution broke out. Ledoux was considered to be have been incarcerated for about a year and miraculously escaped the guillotine while many of his friends and peers did not. He was imprisoned and accused to have worked for the French nobility and being involved with the Treasury. Ironically, despite his close relation with the nobility, Ledoux was very influenced by the revolutionary ideas. He sought to create social change 26

by delivering architecture that reduced the separation among the social classes. The dream of reducing the social disparities through architecture is a recurrent theme that many utopian architects -like Le Corbusier, Antonio Santeria, Frank Lloyd Wright among others- have tried to resolve. As technology develops architects may finally have the chance to close the gap and find solutions to the housing needs of humanity. Hopefully, one day everyone will have access to architecture according to their needs as Ledoux once wished.

References Claude-Nicolas Ledoux - The Saline of Arc-et-Senans (2012, January 27). Retrieved January 31, 2017, from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=O9EqlvLGnrs

freemasonry. It analyses historical and architectural content and tries to explain the use of symbolism and motifs from a masonic approach. Eaton, R. (2002).

Ideal cities: utopianism and the (un)built environment. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson.

This text is about utopian architecture. It provides a chapter in which discusses the life and ideas of Nicolas Ledoux in particular the ‘ideal city’ and the Royal Salt works. The content was supported with imagery of Ledoux work. Economic and Social Conditions in France during the Eighteenth Century. Henri Sée , Edwin H. Zeydel. (1927).

Social Service Review, 1(4), 678-678. doi:10.1086/630325

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice-Hall. This book is a historical encyclopedia of art.

It tells the history of art from antiquity to the modern world.

It is a very comprehensive text but it is limited as it touches on the topic but it does not go in depth. It is an useful resource to analyze Ledoux from a historical perspective and find historical relationships.

Ledoux, C. N. (1983). Architecture de C.N. Ledoux: premier volume, contenant des plans, élévations, coupes, vues perspectives ...: collection qui rassemble tous les genres de bâtiments employés dans l’ordre social. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press.

This journal was an extensive analysis of the social conditions and life style of people in France This book was initially written by during the 18th Century. It ratio- Ledoux at the beginning of the nalized the economic structure 19th Century. It is mainly a coland how this affected society at lection of drawings that Ledoux the time. It emphasized the agri- produced throughout his caThis video is a documentary cultural economy and industry or reer. It is very useful to find and about analysis of the functionthe region. analyze his work, However the al and historical aspects of the El-Khoury, R., & Lee, J. H. text is limited. Therefore careful Royal Saltworks at Chaux. It (2006). See through Ledoux: ar- analysis of his drawings. was filmed by Richard Copans, chitecture, theatre, and the purStan Neumann in 2004. The suit of transparency. San Rafael, McPhee, P. (2013). A companion video provides a synopsis about CA: ORO Editions. Claude-Nico- to the French Revolution. Chichthe project which could be furlas Ledoux 21 ester, West Sussex, UK: John ther analyzed by using additional Wiley & Sons. Claude-Nicolas resources.

This book is an essay in which Ledoux 22 the author attempts to describe Langford , M. (1991). Une Archi- the most notable projects by This book is a very detail collectecture Murmurante: An Expres- Nicolas Ledoux from a first tion of historical essays about sion of Freemasonry in Claude- person. Instead of looking at the French Revolution. It exNicolas Ledoux’s Propylaea for Ledoux from outside it tries to plores the causes, effects and Paris? (Master’s thesis, McGuill interpret his view by referencing consequences of it. It was not, University, 1991). Montreal: Mc- his texts and work and art. however, written from an archiGuill University. Claude-Nicolas tectural approach. Therefore it is Ledoux 20 This thesis is a thor- Janson, H. W., Janson, A. F., & a good reference to analyze the ough analysis of the connection Janson, H. W. (2004). History of social from a temporal perspecbetween Nicolas Ledoux and art: the Western tradition. tive that affected Ledoux.

27 [ESSAY] Andres Guzman Romero

Vidler, A. (2006). Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: architecture and utopia in the era of the French Revolution. Basel: Birkhäuser- for Architecture. Vidler has possibly created the best analysis about Ledoux life. He is the Dean of Cooper Union architecture school and he is also one of the leading architectural historians. The book analyses Ledoux life in a very detailed way. It goes in depth in all aspects of Ledoux career and attempts to explain the reasons behind Ledoux work.

Visionary architects BoullĂŠe, Ledoux, Lequeu, University of St. Thomas, Houston, October 19, 1967 - January 3, 1968, City Art Museum of St. Louis, Jan. 22.1968-Febr. 27.1968.

(1968). Houston, TX: Univ. of St. Thomas.

This text is a comprehensive collection of utopian architects from the 18th century. It focuses on the ideas of these utopian architects and analyzes their work in a concise manner. The most important aspect of this book is that it explores each project individually rather than trying to explain all of them at the same time.

[essay] Andres Guzman Romero

28

Personal Manifesto

and history becomes secondary. ment of cities in Europe, for exInstead, they have been focusample. To achieve this, the archiThe world in which we live now ing on creating buildings for tect must analyze and account is characterized by the domimagazines that produce images, for the many complex intrinsic in nance of capitalism as an ecowhich are attractive and appeal- social, political, and economical nomic structure. Technology, ing to the eye. Thus, these imforces that drive society. Howevmass media, and the advances ages but do not seem to belong er, for the architect, complexity is in communications, have further where they are: they become not necessarily a negative thing. the dissemination of a capitalplaceless. This attitude towards Instead, complexity provides a ism worldwide. This has led to a architecture has resulted in an diverse set of parameters, opglobalized economy that merges architecture that is rather gener- tions and opportunities depenall cultures and affects societies ic or standardized. For instance, dent on our current demographsimilarly across the globe. As if one goes to Berlin or Dubai, ics. To address these issues, the a result of globalization, socione must expect to stay in the architect must remember that ety has been influenced by the same type of hotel regardless of architecture is a tool and not an concepts of supply and demand, the different cultures, climates, object. capital accumulation and powhistories, etc. Consequently, this This is when architects become er of acquisition. The latter has standardization for architecture empowered to create something led us to believe that we can has led people to lose the sense that transcends his capabilities. acquire goods if we have the of ownership for architecture.

The architecture of the future capital to pay for it (“Everything Clearly, this lack of ownership is must be democratic by reconcilhas a price”). Thus, all societal a byproduct of globalization and ing the old and the new. It must constructs, including perceptions departs from the needs and con- be transparent, open, accesand expectations, have been cepts of a specific society and sible, and sustainable. It must affected by this monetization of culture. We cannot assume that address the different cultures the world and architecture is not a specific architectural device is and bring them together. The arexempted from this. The effects good for everyone. We are all chitecture of the future must stop of capitalism in the 21st century different and unique and therelooking at the city from within have led people to perceive that fore architecture must provide the building, but instead, it must architecture is a for what’s different and unique read the city for its social use. commodity. It has simply been to each one of us. I am not This is a truly democratic archidowngraded as product; some- claiming that architecture must tecture that is representational thing you can buy with money. address every single individuand symbolic of its people.

People do no longer see archial separately. On the contrary, tecture for what architecture pro- architecture must address evvides to them but they assume eryone at the same time within “good” architecture can easily the social context and go back to be obtained and fabricated if identify the problems and issues enough resources can be devot- that affect and symbolic. This is ed to it. Undouble capital invest- the only way we can once again ment of great importance for create architecture by the people architecture. There is not denial and for the people. Therefore, of that. However, if we perceive the architect is to become the money as a consequence and mediator of this collective effort a resource, we have to look at to achieve an architecture that architecture likewise. Architects is representative of its people. are to blame partly for it, as they An architecture such as this will have reduced architecture to a consequently enable and emmere publicity device, in which power people- this is the type of its connection to a place, culture, architecture seen in the develop29 [manifesto] Andres Guzman Romero

30

the Tsar and his government. The revolution believed the industry of

he country powerful and therefore the workers should be running the [Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Yakov Chernikhov nd theories were Daniel the start of socialism and communism in Russia.

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s made up At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was in a very fragile place. The country was on the verge of a revolution. The people were rising up against their controlling government, however, creating a new government that was still controlling in a different way. Russian architects at this time were exploring new ways of creating space with different forms; exploring the idea of constructivism. Architects such as Yakov Chernikhov went beyond the ideals of constructivism and used their drawings as propaganda for the revolution; their designs and drawings were used to represent the ideas of the revolution and to revolt against the control of the government within the architecture profession. Chernikhov truly rep31

resented the power of industry and embodied the ideas of the revolution through his drawings, making his work a revolution with architecture. ​ Towards the end of the 1800’s, Russia began to see a rising industry within their country, and with that, becoming a rising power in the world. Tsar Alexander III was persuaded by the government leader Sergei Witte to build a modern industry in Russia as without it, the country would be at the mercy of stronger powers in the world (Kenez, 7). Their rising industry made Russia an attractive country to foreign investors. Factories were built and were highly favoured over entrepreneurial businesses by the government [ESSAY] Daniel Lord

since factories produced more product for less of a cost (Kenez, 7). The factories produced terrible living and working environments for the workers. Witte believed the workers were used to the hard habits of rural life and therefore were easily satisfied; “low wages appeared as a fortunate gift to Russian enterprise” (Orlando Figes). The factories were crammed with dangerous machinery and most workers were prone to accidents. Many workers lost limbs and since there was no legislation for the workers, they received hardly any compensation (Orlando Figes). Many workers were also uneducated. An industry as large as Russia’s needed educated people to run it, however, the tsarist government feared the

and to create unique spaces (Constructivist, ​worldof

power of education and refused to support general education (Kenez, 7). Because of these conditions, Russian workers conducted the most strikes in Europe and three quarters of the workers went on strike in 1905-06 (Orlando Figes). An event known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ occurred where many workers on strike were massacred by Russian troops (Orlando Figes).

The Russian people began to assassinate tsarist leaders, ultimately creating revolutionary crisis in Russia; the working class wanted to be liberated from the control of the tsarist government. ​ The first world war interrupted the efforts of the revolution. All focus was put into the war effort, however, Russia was still a very fragile country. The Russian military was made up of peasants combined with Russian troops, and throughout the war, the officers and troops began to see eye to eye with the peasants and their views of the tsarist government (Orlando Figes). After World War One ended, Russia was at a fragile place. Having all industry being focused on the war effort, lower class life was not all that great. The people of Russia were not happy with their government. In February of 1917, workers went on strike to protest against food shortage and factory conditions(Kenez, 15). This was one of the largest demonstrations Russia had seen. From this demonstration rose a leader, Vladimir Lenin.

Lenin gave speeches during these strikes to motivate the workers and he soon became the face of the revolution. Towards the end of February 1917,

the tsarist government resigned (Kenez, 15). This was mainly due to the fact that Russian soldiers were turning against their government and joining the revolution with the workers (Kenez, 15). After the government resigned, the Tsar also resigned, ending a three hundred year dynasty. As the revolution went on, more and more people looked to Lenin as their leader.

Lenin wanted to bring the power of the government to the people.

He believed that the industry and its labourers were the root of the country, not its monarch

(Orlando Figes). This was the start of a new kind of government that revolved around the marxist dialect, creating what is now known as communism. At the end of 1917, Lenin organized the many different political parties and leaders into one united government, ultimately creating the Soviet Union. Lenin’s new government was centred around the people. He reduced working hours and allowed for general education (Orlando Figes). The beginning of the 1900’s saw a major change for Russia. The people rose up against their

constructivist art and architecture is a general one, h

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32

The new government follow

government and their monarch, and created a new government based on the rights of the factory worker and the country’s industry. ​ It was during this time in Russia that architect and futurist Yakov Chernikhov made a name for himself and his ideas.

Chernikhov was born in Ukraine at the end of the 1800’s and died in 1951(Architectural, thecharnelhouse.org). He saw Russia and the Soviet Union through both World Wars and its revolution. The ideologies of the revolution largely influenced Chernikhov’s work both in architecture and in education and it is evident that he supported these ideas.

Before architecture, Chernikhov was an artist. He studied at both Odessa College of Art, and the Imperial Art Academy (Architectural, thecharnelhouse.org).

While at the Imperial Art Academy in Petrograd, he switched to the architecture faculty. He went on to study teaching and completed his teachers training in 1917 (Architectural, thecharnelhouse.org). Chernikhov was ex33

tremely passionate about teaching. He published many books on graphic arts and architecture, many being used as textbooks.

He completed his architecture degree in 1925, having been interrupted by the revolution.

He worked at many different architectural firms and taught classes on graphic art subjects (Architectural, thecharnelhouse. org). Chernikhov was influenced by the politics of his time. He practiced at a time in Russia that was ever changing; seeing different governments in power, all with different ideas. Chernikhov used his designs and his art to represents the ideas he believed in and revolt against the governments that he did not support. ​ Yakov Chernikhov was a constructivist architect and artist.

Constructivist art and architecture is a mixture of straight lines and geometric forms, it is a minimal form of art and is experimental using different forms to create unique spatial qualities (Constructivist, worldofleveldesign.com). Constructivist architects took advantage [ESSAY] Daniel Lord

of new materials such as steel to explore unique forms and to Marxism-Leninism, the idea create unique spaces (Constructivist, worldofleveldesign.com).

This definition of constructivist (Khmelnitsky, 12). This kind art and architecture is a general one, however, Chernikhov had his of how construca own verytheory controlling governme tivism is perceived. He believed constructivism is a way of experiencing space through architects dared different not to oppos connected forms and structures; an aspect of architecture based the Stalinist era, Arc onDuring the discovery and perception of different forms and spaces (Khmelnitsky, 10). He states in drastic turn.

Soviet architect his publications that constructivism comes from the aspect of construction; the making and building of things. Chernikhov defines construction as artistically developed structure of reality that is also of an abstract and imaginary subject (Khmelnitsky, 10). He states whether it is a line, space, or building, construction has the same process. Chernikhov sees modern architecture as a way of showing abstract forms and playing with the imagination. “Abstract construction does not impose restrictions on our students, but instead frees them from outmoded conservative methods and allows them to give their imagination free rein” (Khmelnitsky, 10). Chernikhov was very passionate about his teaching and his philosophies of teaching architecture and graphic art.

He believed constructivism and modern architecture and art of that time allowed his students to open their imaginations and explore different forms and spaces. “If we can in any way convey our thoughts and ideas in visual form, with no claim to correctness, and if this image mirrors

(Khmelnitsky, 12). Chernikhov received many critical reviews of his theories presented in his This was mostly because our imagination, thenpublications. we can came to power and the created the have a clear conscience”(Khmel- Soviet Union. association of architects in the Soviet Union nitsky, 8). In his teaching, he did ​ not prescribe certain was techniques Chernikhov his drawcontrolled by the governmentused and was to his students, he focused on ings as a revolution in architecways of exploring theisolated use of within the ture, depicting the not ideals of the country and could materials and different forms and revolution through his designs ideas outside of the government's spaces (Khmelnitsky,express 7). Many and drawings.

Even when the critics believed constructivism new government was created ideology. Chernikhov continued to express his was destroying art, however, and Stalin rose to power, his Chernikhov believed ideas, it washowever, a drawings continued to reprehe did not get many of his “contemporary phenomenon” sent a revolution against the (Khmelnitsky, 12). Chernikhov’s During from the time designs built andgovernment. his name disappeared ideologies closely matched of the revolution, Chernikhov architecture earned world later in his career. those of the Russian the Revolution. a great reputation with During the revolution, factory his drawings, however, when Constructivist architects at the the beginning 20th century were exploring new ideas and architecture of the Soviet Union, workers were striking against the Stalin became leaderofofthethe he did not have to fall in place control of the tsarist government. Soviet Union and the Stalinist creating futuristic forms in their designs. They were straying away from the classical look of with the government; he had The revolution was based on era began, Chernikhov’s name more freedom forand histheorists ideas. The the idea that the labourer andand exploring disappeared. the revolubuildings differentAfter spaces and different geometries.

Architects such consequence for this freedom the factory workers are what tion and when the new Soviet was he received Yakov took constructivism one step andthe usedisolation their drawings and designs made the country, notasthe TsarChernikhov government was situated, the further and his government. The revworld of architecture was forced from the architecture profession in the Soviet Union (Khmelnitsky, olution believed the industry of to turn away from Chernikhov 12). Chernikhov received many the country is what makes the and his theories. The new govcritical reviews of his theories country powerful and therefore ernment followed Marxism-Lethe workers should be running ninism, the ideals of communism presented in his publications.

This was mostly because the the government. These ideas (Khmelnitsky, 12). This kind of and theories were the start of government is a very controlling association of architects in the socialism and communism in government and other architects Soviet Union was controlled by Russia. Chernikhov’s drawdared not to oppose their ideol- the government and was isolated within the country and could ings clearly depict the power of ogies. During the Stalinist era, the factory. Constructivism as Architecture took a drastic turn. not express ideas outside of the a whole is based on the idea Soviet architecture began having government’s ideology. Chernikof creating spaces from many a more classical look rather than hov continued to express his different shapes and forms. Most modern. The buildings Stalin and ideas, however, he did not get many of his designs built and of Chernikhov’s drawings depict his government commissioned his name disappeared from the factory like buildings made up of had a hierarchy to their form, architecture world later in his different geometric forms; almost showing the power and control as though the buildings are still of the government. Chernikhov’s career. ​ under construction. His drawdrawings represented the opConstructivist architects at the ings almost mimicked that of the posite. His designs represented revolution. Through his drawings the power of the factory and the beginning of the 20th century were exploring new ideas and he was constructing the new labourer. His work began getRussian agenda and represent- ting criticized by other architects creating futuristic forms in their designs. They were straying ing the framework of the new of the Soviet Union, otherwise Russia. Chernikhov’s work was these architects would be speak- away from the classical look of buildings and exploring different a representation of his idea of ing against their government. spaces and different geometries. construction and the construcThe fact that Chernikhov had Architects and theorists such as tion of communism as Lenin an exterior role in shaping the [essay] Daniel Lord 34

Yakov Chernikhov took constructivism one step further and used their drawings and designs to represent the ideas of the future.

Chernikhov represented the ideas of the Russian Revolution through his drawings, expressing the power of the factory and the labourer. Chernikov’s work and ideas embodied a revolution within itself. He was revolting against the control of both the old and new government, showing that architecture can be a powerful tool in expressing the ideologies of the people and undergoing a revolution of its own.

University Press, 2006. PDF ebook.

Khmelnitsky, Dmitry S. Yakov Chernikhov Architectural Fantasies in Russian Constructivism.

Berlin: DOM Publishers, 2013.

Orlando Figes. “Orlando Figes.” orlandofiges.info. Last modified February 2, 2017. http://orlandofiges.info/index.php. ​ ​

Bibliography ​ “Architectural Compositions by Yakov Chernikhov, 1924-1931.” thecharnelhouse.org. accessed February 2, 2017. https://thecharnelhouse.org/2014/06/06/architectural-compositions-by-iakov-chernikhov-1924-1931/.

Barris, Roann. “Russian Constructivist Architecture as an Urban Carnival: The Creation and Reception of a Utopian Narrative.”

Utopian Studies 10, no.

1 (1999): 42-67. http://www.jstor. org/stable/20718008.

“Constructivist Architecture ” worldofleveldesign.com. Last modified October 12, 2008. http://www.worldofleveldesign.com/categories/ architecture/constructivist_architecture/constructivist_architecture.php.

Kenez, Peter. History of the Soviet Union From the Beginning to the End. New York: Cambridge 35

[ESSAY] Daniel Lord

Personal Manifesto

people have a ‘frame of reference’ or a ‘happy place’ where one feels comfortable. When moving through

Architecture is the most public of all art forms. It is some- space, people like a ‘frame of referthing everyone encounters and ence’ to keep them grounded and help them feel stability while expeexperiences everyday of their riencing a certain space. When you lives. People are confronted take away the ‘frame of reference’ with architecture whether they like it or do not. This being said, and therefore take away the stability, a person might begin to feel lost architecture today is not being and anxious, and feel vulnerable expressed as an art form, rather, architecture is highly budget within the space. With vulnerability, driven and therefore is becoming we can begin to face our fears and push our limits. When we open up bland in terms of the experience. Architects are focusing so our vulnerable side without fear of judgement, we can start to feel much on the economic side of the profession, most are forget- comfortable with ourselves and our fears. When we face ourselves, we ting the artistic side; the way accept ourselves, and we show our a person experiences a space purity as human beings. and the way people feel when experiencing that space. ArchiHuman emotion is a very comtecture, in my opinion, has the ability to evoke specific feelings. plex topic. As humans, we expeWhen one experiences architec- rience many different emotions ture in its purest form, that being depending on the certain situation architecture designed based on we find ourselves. I believe architecexperience, the space and form ture has the ability to evoke certain emotions. When designing with can bring about feelings within pure forms of architecture, with the mind. light, shadow, texture, scale, and The world today is at a very frag- sound, we can create specific feelings within the spaces. In this way, ile place within humanity. Todays world is full of judgement, whether architecture can be used as a tool to create human emotion and let peoit is based on race, religion, sexual preference, gender or nationality, we ple experience their true emotions.

A space can induce fear and anxiety, all experience some sort of judgement and we all experience that fear but also create happiness and tranof judgement. Fear is an emotion ev- quility. Architecture should be about eryone feels. Without fear we cannot the experience; about the space perceive danger and therefore pro- within and the feelings that space tect ourselves from various threats. can create. Architecture should be a place where people can test their With fear comes anxiety; a feeling emotions and push their limits of of worry, unease, and nervousness when put into a specific situation. In fear and anxiety; a place where we my opinion, everyone feels anxious can feel human emotion at its purest at some point in their lives; whether form. With authenticity in architecyou have a fear of heights, of closed ture we can create authentic human spaces, of public speaking, of being emotion. judged, we all feel anxiety. In order to relieve an anxious feeling, most [manifesto] Daniel Lord

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[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Giovanni Battista Piranesi

Mashroor Ishraque

Piranesi was an extraordinarily talented artist and was also considered to be a master engraver and etcher during the 18th century. Throughout the course of his career, he spent recording and archiving fantastic locations and architecture as well as ruins around Rome titled the Vedute di Roma (Views of Rome). His series of architectural fantasies and dark visions of imaginary prisons, the Carceri d’Invenzione (Imaginary Prisons)2, have fascinated people around the world since there first production. They have made significant impact in art, culture, and literature of later times leading to the 21st century. Today, Piranesi’s work is considered as a great form of expression of bewilderment, of the world’s massive oppression 37

of man. These magnificent images that Piranesi created arouses the question of how did an artist conjure such powerful means of expressionism? Theorists, architects, historians, and scholars throughout the years have analyzed his works to find the true meaning behind his etchings where few have traced his work back to the social time period and psychological attributes involved with Piranesi himself. The following essay discusses the historical elements of the 18th century time period, the etchings that Piranesi had created, and his influences on cultural works in the future as understood from class lectures as well as reading materials.

History of Piranesi and his Surroundings [ESSAY] Mashroor Ishraque

At the time, Italy was undergoing a turmoil socially, politically, and culturally. The aristocracy was sanctioned to be oppressive and stern thus the social structure of Rome was under duress causing artisans to take action in order to remain relevant. The Grand Tour was formulated to allow for individuals to journey across Europe and return with goods, information, and experience to further their work and provide them with commissions in the future. Venice had seen success in their Grand Tour so Rome had proposed to do the same. The concept of Enlightenment by theorists and artists traveled all over the Europe including Paris, Dresden, and London. With news brought contemporary

forms of artistic movement such as veduta (view), capriccio (art and music), and veduta ideata (drawings). Architectural expression were also on the rise like topographical view, architectural fantasy, and accurate renderings of ancient monuments. These are introduced in response to the demand of increased visitors traveling in and around Rome. Piranesi was one of the astute artistic during the time who showcased promise in these movements, delivering and capturing the unique beauty

perspective composition alongside architecture. His plethora of prints and drawings illustrated his understanding of dramatic perspectives and architectural fantasies. Around the age of twenty, Piranesi left Venice and settled in Rome where he began to study the city’s historical architecture in detail. He started by etching imaginative views of ancient ruins and modern Roman structures from the sketches he recorded from his travels and observations, preliminary etchings which earned him acclaimed fame, and later began a series of etchings of fantastic prison interiors known as Carceri d’Invenzione. During his fifties, Piranesi took an interest in archaeology which drove to start an expedition to southern Italy. There he produced various works around Greek architecture. It was not until he fell ill during his journey that he would return to Rome die at the age of fitty-eight. His life’s work left a pivotal imprint in history consisting of incredible drawers, designers, and draftsmen many of whom would be influenced to create wonders around Europe and beyond. Movements such of Rome, and its surroundings through his sketches, paintings, as Neo-Classism, Surrealism, and Romanticism held deep ties and etchings. to Piranesi’s work conveying vivid designs and literature simBackground ilar to his extensive visions. His etchings would be reprinted and Giovanni Battista Piranesi was born in Venice 1720 and died in distributed to the far reaches of 1770. He was an Italian etcher, Europe mainly to Grand Tourists archaeologist, designer, theorist, who were fascinated in seeing and architect. He was mentored more of Rome and soon after in the art of drawing by his uncle, would continue to be reprinted a designer as well as a hydrau- today. lics engineer. During his early Social and Political Triggers years, Piranesi studied stage design and intricate systems of [essay] Mashroor Ishraque 38

Early 18th century Europe presented fortunate young impressionists and artists who could afford the opportunity to travel across the continent in search of inspiration. These young aristocrats would visit neighbouring cities such as Paris, Venice, Florence, and above all Rome, as the culmination of their classical education. Hence, the concept of the Grand Tour emerged.

This practice introduced far regions of Europe and the West to become acquitted with the art and culture of France and Italy for the next 300 years. Most Grand Tourists would stay for brief periods during their expedition as they had a shortage of wealth to spend and an agenda to complete. They were intrusted with scholarly intentions, accompanied by a teacher or guardian, and expected to return home with souvenirs of their travels as well as an understanding of art and architecture formed by exposure to great works from other cultures. During the 18th century, there was heavy political imbalance and resistance occurring around Europe. Many artists and tourists would become patrons of the great Pi-

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ranesi’s prints as his work provides a glimpse into the Roman history and architecture. “Gothic buildings, not much esteemed before the late eighteenth century, were seldom cause for long excursions, while monuments of Greco-Roman antiquity, the Italian Renaissance, and the classical Baroque tradition received praise and admiration” as stated

by Jean Sorabella of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rome, being the developing center of the Grand Tour, became a new meeting place and intellectual capital of Europe for the leaders of a new movement in the arts.

Not only was the Grand Tour attracting tourists, dealers, and antiquarians, many new artists and architects were entering the city in search of inspiration. One distinctive feature of Piranesi’s work is based on the interpretation of Classical antiquity by adding his imagination to increase the originality. The remains of Rome kindled Piranesi’s enthusiasm.

He ventured parts of Europe and captured sketches of the Colosseum, Pantheon, Pyramid of Cestius, Arch of Trajan, and more. Piranesi was intrigued by the Greco-Roman debate in

[ESSAY] Mashroor Ishraque

1760s which was founded by the Etruscans and completed by the Roman centered on the belief that the Italian civilization would be the root from them all. Piranesi’s reproductions of real and recreated. Roman ruins were a strong influence on Neo-Classicism. The belief that artists have a right to have their own original ideas and that he regarded Rome as the cultural destiny became the backbone of his creative work. His work is the result of his imaginative mind combined with the spirit of the Eternal City as depicted in much literature regarding his work.

Vedute di Roma, the Fascination of Ruins Piranesi developed a fascinations of the ruins in Rome. He popularised the ruins and antiquity with his own ideological slant. Ruin are powerful subjects in his and other 18th century artisans’ works as it evokes an emotional response. “Piranesi infected the great public with a taste of ruins that was hither to limited to just a few artists and poets,” as quoted by a critic in the San Diego Museum of Art,

meaning Piranesi was a driving force in visualizing the great architectures of the past for all to behold. The taste for developing the ruins came at a right time in Europe as the enlightenment was underway hence a rise in interest for the classical, antiquity, and science. He was able to interrupt certain elements through an artist’s lens, being under the pressure of representing a grand Roman legacy which can be seen in the etchings of the Colosseum and Pantheon representing the roman architecture through fantastic angles and formwork. The use of ruins as well as fantasy can also be seen from this works in the Vedute di Roma such the statue of Minerva from his title page. Minerva was the Roman equivalent of Athena who is emphasized as the powerful Goddess of War, Arts, and Wisdom. His portrayal of Minerva in the etching was to demonstrate the rich and glorified history that Rome and how that in turn represented the essence of beauty. Piranesi stated in his writings “when I realised in Rome the majority of the ancient monuments were lying in forsaken in fields or gardens or even now serving as a quarry for new structures I resolve to preserve their memory with the help of my engravings I have therefore have attempted to exercise the greatest possible exactity,” expressing his desire to preserve ruins through his etchings as they were invaluable means of history and wonder. Many of his work over time were lost, modified, and discarded, however he asserted the truth in that which he saw in and around these monuments. The fantasy driven

element behind his engravings create a sense of awe and draws in the viewer’s interest. In reality, such massive structures would not truly exist as Piranesi skews the line between realism and surrealism in its earliest form. Light is omnipresentin his interior perspectives as seen in the Pantheon. The juxtaposition of light and scale create a fantastic image that heightens the imagination. Piranesi helped in elevating the art objects found in the ruins and over time the ruins themselves worthy of preservation and admiration. By acquiring fragments of the past, Piranesi reformulated the pieces to create a new meaning behind the ancient ruins which would be able to exist in and outside of time as exquisite etchings of 18th century Rome.

Carceri d’Invenzione, the Darker side of Piranesi One of Piranesi’s ambitious works consists of his prison series titled Carceri d’Invenzione. It is in this series where he took liberty in expressing his labyrinthine spaces, illustrating a meaningful masterpiece revolving around the lost and the damned. Yourcenar’s essay, “The Dark Brain of Piranesi,” explores further into the confines of Piranesi’s inner thoughts and discusses them through her theories. She characterizes Piranesi being complex in nature, having multiple perspectives on history, art, and human exploration.

Yourcenar names the human exploration to being the English Gothic and Romantic movements as Piranesi romanticized his work in ways saw fit such as [essay] Mashroor Ishraque

in The Man on the Rack where it displays man’s impurity through, envy, greed, and murder in contrast with the true yet extravagant architecture of Imperial Rome. Piranesi’s fascination of the mind allowed him to manifest his etchings of Rome, immortalizing them by how he viewed and was able to represent them.

“Piranesi’s ruins are visual contemplations of man’s relation to the grandeur and fleetingness of his own history.” He transitions to a more subjective form of architecture when etching Carceri d’Invenzione. It can be seen as “visual metaphor,” as Yourcenar describes, of his mind consisting of dark and irrational spatial configurations. The vastness of the prisons and ornaments such as chains and barrels leave traces of the consciousness that is never-ending, yet can me confronted with obstacles in its path. These etchings provide viewers a glimpses into seemingly impossible chambers that both frightens and arouses curiosity. Piranesi display powerful works of emotions through his romanticized images influencing artists such as MC Escher to break down barriers and question the possibilities of the mind once place onto a medium. Both Piranesi and Escher possessed a labyrinthine mind which they took advantage of in creating equally complex, labyrinthine monuments through etchings and lithographs. The nature of Piranesi’s work and influence has provided insight on art, architecture, theory, history as well as psychology in ways that provide a truer understanding of the mind through artistic interpretation.

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The Mind of Piranesi As gifted and well-paced of an individual he was, Piranesi carried his own demons with him as did most citizens of Rome during the 18th century. Due to the aristocratic status and bureaucracy most individualists like Piranesi struggled to stay relevant by creating new etchings from their sketches collected from their Grand Tour and mass producing their works. Having to survive from one commission to the next can take a toll on most individuals’ mind, similar to a 21st century salaryman trying to make rent from a steady income.

Perseverance is critical at times of uncertainty and people often find something to hold onto during difficult times. Piranesi sought solace in his mind and in his art where he can freely roam and construct as he wished, interpreting want was around him through a larger than life perspective.

developing his prison series and etch forms that can only have come from his inner psychosis.

There is a clear dichotomy in his style from his earlier works leading to his later ones. For example, the Outside View of the Pantheon or Rotunda shows order and patience in his work while The Saw Horse shows a sense of uneasiness and haste.

Granted The Saw Horse was from his imagination hence likely would not hold the same level of intricacy as the Pantheon, but when comparing his other prison etchings most have similar techniques. This technique of adding and removing layers of etchings to show texture and contrast may imply nervousness from Piranesi. It can be from a state of worry or anxiety which would not be uncommon from the stress of his occupation and status of Rome was in. The Drawbridge can be a seen as a representation of prison within the mind as the bridges in the

Psychology of Piranesi Piranesi was said to be a complicated character, having a mind that was both meticulous and dark. He dreamt about one day having the title of “Venetian architect,” but instead managed to have an astute reputation as a theorist, historian, architect, and etcher through his productions which he acquiring from successfully completing his Grand Tour before running out of funds.

The genius that he was, Piranesi saw what most did not during his time which was a beauty within the dark and the forgotten.

He manifested his isolation by 41

[ESSAY] Mashroor Ishraque

image show no end or beginning to them . There is a sense of freedom due to the seemly infinite levels to explore as well as incarceration with an eerie atmosphere shrouded in dark tones and chains. This adequately represents Piranesi’s mentality as he found himself caught in a vicious loop where he possesses freedom of creativity, but is left to replicate his work in order to remain a float financially. Being chained by circumstance, but free to illustrate as he chooses was his own version of a prison.

The labyrinth forged by Daedalus can be compared to Piranesi’s work as it encompassed notions of architecture, exploration, human anxiety, and mental restrain. Thomas Bulfinch writes, “The creation of the labyrinth

by Daedalus may be connected with the creation of architecture.

The labyrinth serves as a metaphor of human existence and that Daedalus” creation of the labyrinth can seem as a para-

digm of order, “primordial ideal of architecture.” The intricacy of the labyrinth is similar to that of Piranesi’s fascination with his own mind, seeking to escape from his maze through art. This fascination of ruins and prisons have strong ties to his culture and personality as Rome during the time was facing social and political turmoil leaving artisans to provide a fitting distraction for the masses.

Interpretation vs. Memories Piranesi’s Vedute di Roma delineates his representation of historical architecture of Rome

which he was able to create from interpreting its construction by carefully sketching his observations while his Carceri d’Invenzione can be understood as fantasies that he was able to etch from his memories. However, the opposite can be said from a viewer’s perspective. A viewer of Piranesi’s Vedute di Roma can recollect memories of the building and immediately feel a sense of place and nostalgia from his work. Similar can be said for his Carceri d’Invenzione series where the viewer is left to his or her imagination to interpret what is truly happening in the spaces. The paradigm can be traced [essay] Mashroor Ishraque

back to his technique. Piranesi had to have a true eye for the subject he means to represent, able to display depth, texture, lighting, and shadow in all of his work. Piranesi is re-imagining past landscapes in relation of the observers made him a reference for many such that he was able to capture the essence of the architecture through classical and comparing the level of detail by analyzing the people and line work in Piranesi’s Ponte Salario monuments from unique perspectives while his prisons brought a freer form of expression of architecture that can be interpreted as sublime. His prints fused the Classical of past with the Neo- Classical modernity harmoniously. A similar process occurs in Piranesi’s interior designs where he designed objected that reflected upon antiquity.

Piranesi would draw inspiration from objects such as vases, chairs, statues, coins, and tripods to help detail his thoughts and produce his work. Being able to observe distinct features of the objects allowed him to surpass the extent of visual representation and apply it onto his medium. As a result, Piranesi simulated Classical design that is inspired by ancient concepts, bringing newfound appreciate for history into modern era. These creations cannot be considered as realistic nor superimposed representations, but are instead fantastic objects created to provoke discussion onto those who behold them. For Piranesi, Neo-Classicism is not simply about imitation or illusions of restitution; it is a historical tool of modern inspiration and is itself a facet of modernity. In addition, 42

to recover or to restore was not Piranesi’s purpose in creating his images. Re-instilling the beauty of old within the new and continuing the tradition of appreciating the lost would be a more meaningful understanding of his work.

The Influence in Culture and Media

elements present with its castles and dungeons. MC Escher’s lithograph Relativity can be seen as a testament to Piranesi’s The Gothic Arch where the illusion of an infinite set of stairs can be understood from focusing on its arrangement. Director Christopher Nolen utilized similar elements of looping stairs in Inception and Interstellar to formulate Over the course of his century science and human solidarity and beyond, Piranesi had influ- within the mind. This complex enced many visionaries to create fascination of space and how it works that hold grandeur in de- can be arranged makes Piranesi livering fantastic imagination to a strong influence on architecturthe world. The dystopian science al style in films and culture. It is fiction films such as Metropolis the ability to capture the viewer’s and Blade Runner can be seen imagination on a similar frequento have influences of Piranecy as the artist’s is what truly si’s work through emphasis on resonates from his works onto architecture over man, similar to modern culture and in media. many of his etchings in the pris- Overall, his etchings inspired on series. Piranesi’s knowledge films to create fantastic architecof theater stage design were ture which, besides in literature, implemented with films through would have been otherwise inpractical set construction and credibly complicated to manifest. computer generated imagery (CGI) such in Harry Potter hav- Conclusion ing Gothic and Neoclassical

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[ESSAY] Mashroor Ishraque

In conclusion, Piranesi was not only influential to 18th century artists, historians, and architects, but also to future artists, theorists, architects, historians, writers, and creators. Piranesi’s mind holds many fantastic creations and tells a vivid story during his time. The Grand Tour presented opportunities to broaden his horizons and return home with new found purpose.

The social and cultural aspects surrounding his time allowed Piranesi to draw influences from not only Roman, but Egyptian and Tuscan architecture as well.

By expending on his knowledge he acquired from his travels, Piranesi was able to produce a series of etchings during his career than brought him well-renown fame. The Vedute di Roma and Carceri d’Invenzione have become historical works of art which we revisit to interpret Classical and Neo-Classical architecture of Rome. The psychosis behind Piranesi can be analyzed further in depth to reveal intellectual responses to his technique and design direction.

His fascination with fantasies allowed him to created astonishing images that can be created from a curious and wondrous mind.

Today, we look back on the beautiful forms of architectural expressions he left behind for all to question, become inspired by, and journey to visit the ancient ruins that Piranesi saw through with his own lens holding great admiration and preservation for them all.

Bibliography ArtStop: Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Perf. Lucy Eron. YouTube.

The San Diego Museum of Art, 13 May 2013. Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=9N62YAZVNrk>.

Ek, Fatma İpek, and Deniz Şengel. “Piranesi Between Classical and Sublime.” Middle East Technical University Journal of the Faculty of Architecture (2007): n. pag. Print.

Girón, Javier. “Drawing and Construction Analysis From Piranesi to Choisy.” Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Construction History.

Second International Congress on Construction History, Queens’ College, Cambridge University, London. Vol. 1. N.p.: Short Run, n.d. 61- 87. University of Cambridge Department of Architecture. Web. 2 Feb. 2017. <http:// www.arct.cam.ac.uk/Downloads/ ichs/vol-1-61-88-giron.pdf>.

Jones, Jonathan. “Piranesi, and His Enduring Influence.”

The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 06 Nov. 2002. Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <https://www. theguardian.com/culture/2002/ nov/06/artsfeatures.highereducation>.

Leong, Yew-Thong, Kendra Smith, and Albert Smith. “Piranesi.” Theorists and Futurists Panel. Ryerson University, Architecture Building, Toronto. 26 Jan. 2017. Lecture.

Penny, Nicholas. Piranesi. London: Oresko. (1978). Print.

Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, and John Wilton-Ely. Giovanni Battista Piranesi: The Complete Etchings. San Francisco: Alan Wofsy, 1994. Print.

Piranesi, Giovanni Battista. The

Prisons (Le Carceri); the Complete First and Second States.

New York: Dover Publications, 1973. Print.

Robison, Andrew. Piranesi: Early Architectural Fantasies: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Etchings.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Web. Smith, Albert. “The Myth of Daedalus.” Architectural Representation Course. Ryerson University, Kerr Hall, Toronto. 1 Feb. 2017. Lecture.

Sorabella, Author: Jean. “The Grand Tour | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum. org/toah/hd/grtr/hd_grtr.htm>.

States, Bert O., and Victor Brombert. “The Piranesi Effect: Alone and Well in Prison.” The Hudson Review 32.4 (1979): 617. Web. Stock, Paul (2014) Diverse maniere: Piranesi, fantasy and excess. Criticks: the reviews website of British Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (28 Apr 2014) Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56597/1/ Stock_Diverse-maniere_2014. pdf>.

Thompson, Wendy. “Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720–1778)”.

In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pira/hd_pira. htm> (October 2003).

Wilton-Ely, John. The Mind and Art of Giovanni Battista Piranesi. London: Thames & Hudson, 1978. Print.

Wofsy, Alan. Giovanni Battista Piranesi: The Complete Etchings. Koln; New York: Taschen. [essay] Mashroor Ishraque

(2000): 394-431. Print.

Yourcenar, Marguerite. The Dark Brain of Piranesi and Other Essays. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1984. Print.

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Personal Manifesto

Architecture should, first and foremost, have a definitive concept. Having a strong narrative within one’s design allows the building to resonant not only to the one, but to the many thereby allowing it to rest successful within its surroundings; that being the history, context, and culture of the site. Fostering a sense of place by respecting its surroundings allows it to become personal and engaging to its users as it lets them communicate, connect, and explore through the spaces the architect had carefully calculated.

Promoting this form of synergy along with developing a healthy relationship with nature helps to positively narrate architecture on a humanistic scale. As humans, we tend to have a lot of problems that lead to frustrating outcomes which we seek to be resolved by searching for solutions that can negate our negative outlook.

Architects are innately problem solvers which makes them critical in the matter of positive reinforcement. Because architecture is predominately for humans, we tend to interact with the environments within the confines of physical dimensions, circulation, and programming that are most clearly defined.

Possessing an element of attraction not only exteriorly, but also interiorly establishes a more memorable experience for humans. Architects must hone a mantra that amplifies the humanistic approach in design and conveys it in a meaningful way, remembering that anyone can 45

experience architecture as long as they make an effort in seeking it.

mentation where reflections of man and nature would become an architectural construct as well as a narrative to dictate a Everyone is for architecture; direction in which we see, undertherein lies the true certainty stand, and experience s buildabout humanism. By saying ing. However, a building should everyone is for it means that not be centered on decorations each individual is not limited to without reason. Architects must interpreting, approaching, and primarily adhere to the human interacting with architecture the rationale so that it lets the users way he/she sees fit. However, to experience the design freely and preserve the sanctity of the word naturally. humanism, we must educate ourselves in its original meaning. It is imperative that we, as arIn its purist form, humanism in chitects, understand the human architecture can be understood rationale when approaching a as man being the measure of all space in which we would need things1. It is a divine way of un- to design. In The Art of War, huderstanding, but holds valuable manism is depicted as a rational insight on history of mankind as rather than an emotional apwell. As such, this notion can be proach to the problem of conflict; traced back to the primitive hut Sun Tzu showed how underwhere man sustained himself in standing conflict can lead not a space which he was able to only to its resolution, but even to build by scavenging materials its avoidance altogether3. Archiand surveying an ideal location tects, as a comparison, try their to dwell. The intent behind the best to avoid conflict in design primitive hut was for comfort, from an ethical and business security, and survival all of which perspective to ensure they, their are pure forms of human charclients as well as the occupants acteristics. By simply establish- of the building stay satisfied with ing an enclosed space with a the architect’s decisions. It is roof over one’s head, it served imperative that we, as architects, a purpose for the Neanderthals understand the human rationale allowing them to harness a when designing a space, but human’s capabilities2 during a also consider the beauty that time where tools were just being human expression can hold discovered. They had motivation if demonstrated purposefully for survival to build thus prothrough the practice. Michael gressing a path of humanistic Graves spoke about the human values. Motivation is another psyche being involved when we strong factor in how we perceive occupy buildings. It comes from architecture from a humanistic when architects who design point of view. For instance, the the buildings for occupation go Greeks were passionate believ- through the stories told from a ers in religion and idolised their series of myths that are passed gods to an extent where they down from centuries of histowere humanized through art and ry mankind has known of and architecture. This lead to ornasomehow bring that knowledge [manifesto] Mashroor Ishraque

of architecture from the past to the present. “Understanding the language of human behaviour as it is translated into form significantly to humanism and how it plays part with the human, body and psyche.”4 It is not a stylistic argument, but a human endeavour. Instead of focusing on designing a building that lasts or possibly stand the test of time, architects should shift their thinking towards humans and how we perceive the space that was designed initially for us.

Our experiences will ultimately leave a lasting impression on the project which as a result has the potential to last forever simply by being impactful to the user’s life.

This level of connection can be considered as a powerful depiction of humanistic architecture because architecture becomes testament of the human mind or expression thereby becoming timeless for the users.

tion or a creation from a purely aesthetical point of view. An architect should be meticulous about how the building will be experienced by others by looking ahead into the future, post-rationalising the design to a level of perfection that can be compared to a composer who equally pays meticulous attention to delivering an impactful piece for others to experience long after its creation. Construction changes into expression hence modern architecture becomes a subject of humanism.

As designers of the built environment, it is critical to design based around the human experience and how we as humans are, will, and should be experiencing the spaces. By engaging in discussion on the topic of human nature and how they can influence the design process is critical for all as it conveys a deeper understanding By having a sense of indepenof the subject and what it is able dence and capacity to manipto become as a result. Asking ulate a space through design, questions about the human bephysics, and construction archi- ing in the space, understanding tects hold endless potential to the relationship between history shape a modern building to sat- and present, appreciating proisfy the human rationale which in cess in designing, and having a turn hold potential to challenge grasp on the social and cultural time. Johanne Wolfgang von aspects are all valuable humanGoethe stated that “architecture istic implications that should is frozen music,” underlining the be considered when pursuing philosophy of expressionism architecture. that transcend in all forms of disciplines, in his case music.

Goethe’s philosophy suggests all processes of creation and invention are connected by a human’s need to express something, despite the final medium of construction.5 This expression can be understood as a new idea, an evolution of an existing solu[manifesto] Mashroor Ishraque

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[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Antonio Sant’ellia

History is defined as “a study of the past as it is described in the written documents left by human beings.” History will define Antonio Sant’Elia as “an Italian architect, born April 30, 1888 – died October 10, 1916, notable for his visionary drawings of the city of the future and authoring the Manifesto of Futurist Architecture.” A view of Sant’Elia’s life in the traditional, historical manner yields only what can be written down. To truly understand Sant’Elia as an individual, instrumental in the rise of the Futurist movement and worthy of being studied over a century later, an “Applied Architectural Historics” analysis is required. In order to being exploring Sant’Elia’s motivations and influences, the world and its connections at the time 47

must first be examined. The two major influences to his work can be found largely in the context of the Unification of Italy and the Second Industrial Revolution.

Prior to 1861, the Italian peninsula was divided into numerous kingdoms and independent states repeatedly being occupied as proxies by the surrounding kingdoms for political wars and expansion of territory. Leading up the unification, the kingdoms in the Italian peninsula were dominated by satellite rulers from the neighbouring empires of Spain, Austria, and France, each bringing new cultural and political motives. During this period of “Foreign Domination”, the only states able to preserve their independence were the Kingdom [ESSAY] Thomas Kim

Thomas Kim

of Sardinia, Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, all who would later join together to form the unified Kingdom of Italy. The identity of the people in the Italian peninsula during the foreign occupation was constantly changing, their lands being pillaged in the political war games of invisible monarchs uncaring of their concerns. Under the leadership of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a motion to unify the peninsula under one kingdom arose, one that is interested in the concerns of the people and able to protect the kingdom from outside influences. The movement to unify Italy, called Risorgimento, succeeded through the alliances of Britain and France in the “Wars for Italian Inde-

pendence” against the Austrian Empire. Once unified, the kingdoms around the Italian peninsula were finally given the national identity it desired; to pave their own politics, culture, and military development. While Italy was in the midst of forming the unified kingdom, the other neighbouring kingdoms and empires (most notably the United Kingdom) were going through a period of Industrial Revolution between 1760 and 1840. This period saw all aspects of life, family, industry, and government transition into the industrial process. The life expectance was drastically improved, cities became denser, and the industrial manufacturing process was the way the norm.

While Italy was unable to participate in the first Industrial Revolution, it was able to take advantage of the Second Industria

ability to “finger death at their gloves’ end as they piece and repiece living wires” and portrayed in popular culture at the time as being a “mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature.” This mass industrialization across Europe created an ever hungry economy for raw materials and unrefined resources. Europe’s desperate need for resources, combined with the invention of railroads and steam powered locomotives, lead to a period of “New Imperialism” of Africa, known as the “Scramble for Africa”. Between the years of 1880 and 1913, the Great Britain, France, Italy, and Portugal seized control of ninety percent of the African continent, defeating the local populace with relative ease. The ease of transportation and communiRevolution during the period cation via telegraphs allowed between 1870 and 1914, ending from such rapid expansion of with the start of World War I. The Europeans across the vast Second Industrial Revolution African continent, satisfying the saw the rapid industrialization demand for raw materials such at a global level across Europe, as cotton, copper, rubber, cocoa, America and Asia, most notable diamonds, tea, and tin, previfor the inventions of the steam ously unavailable in Europe. turbines and mass availability Africa had become the new war of electricity. The ever changing ground for European countries, landscape of Italy, with conoften using colonies as “balance struction of industrial factories, of power” negotiations, building laying of railroads, installation armies and training local militia of electricity and light bulbs, to serve under their respective telecommunication lines across empires. The sudden explosion the country, and powerful, inof power and knowledge given dustrial steam turbines drove to man, compounded by effortman’s dominance over nature to less conquests during the 19th its peak. The unparalleled excentury, worked to nurture a depansion of scientific knowledge sire in countries to display their during this period engrained an dominance across Europe and attitude of “playing God” in the Africa. The growing struggle for men of he time, described by power in Africa naturally transRudyard Kipling as having the lated into stronger nationalistic [essay] Thomas Kim

and eventual fascist ideologies to take root in the societies of Europe. This was the world that formed the basis for Sant’Elia’s manifesto.

The era that Sant’Elia was born into was the combination and results of all these preceding events. It saw independent states unify to form the Kingdom of Italy, inventions of potentially limitless energy via steam turbines and electricity, and a growing arms race within Europe motivating a fascist attitude.

Sant’Elia would have been overwhelmed by the progress he was seeing around him, the seemingly impossible being realized at his door steps. The invention of iron reinforced concrete by Francois Coignet in 1853 is evident to have significant impact in Sant’Elia’s drawings of a futurist city with large, monolithic portions of his buildings fabricated in a material visually similar to concrete. Other inventions that would have influenced Sant’Elia’s visions of the futurist city are machine tools, glass making, and transportation systems. The industrial process created a method of manufacturing and manipulating forms with unprecedented precision and accuracy. The “violence in material” prevalent in the Futurist movement would have referred to this manipulation of materials, specifically iron, steel, and glass.

These construction materials are not naturally occurring in nature; they must first undergo extremely “violent” chemical refining processes of heating and molding before they are ready to be formed into steel reinforcing.

Perhaps the largest innovation 48

of the time was electrification of the city; With increasing demand for this new source of energy across the globe, larger and more powerful power stations able to generate enough energy were required, the first being the Deptford Power Station by British engineer Sebastian Ferranti.

In the span of Sant’Elia’s life, he would have likely seen his surrounds change in real time, living in an ever changing city with larger and more complex systems built to sustain the ever expanding, bustling, industrial ecosystem. The Italian attitude in the late 19th century would have also had a significant impact on his manifesto, with nationalistic tones clear in his rejections of the surround influences. Being a newly formed nation surrounded by France to the West, the German Empire to the North, and Austria-Hungary to the East, Sant’Elia would have been eager to show Italy as a major power in Europe, evident in the monumental scale of his cities.

The Risorgimento (Italian Unification) movement and label

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of “Italian” influenced Sant’Elia with his nationalistic ideals of creating a “New Italian” identity in all aspects of life, especially architecture. This identification of being Italian created the nationalistic attitude in Sant’Elia, fighting against the non-Italian decorations and styles - evident in older architecture surrounding him - such as ones from German, Egyptian, Ottoman, and Indian influences. His fascist attitudes stemmed from Italy’s theatres for imperialism in Africa, aided by propaganda of Italy’s military might against the enemies surrounding them.

His world formed the basis of his arguments, and in understanding his frame of mind, the message Sant’Elia was trying to convey in his Manifesto of Futurist Architecture becomes clear when the context of his writing is understood. Sant’Elia’s manifesto begins by stating the rejection of architecture after the year 1700, criticizing their perversion with foreign ornamentation of Egyptian, Byzantine, and Indian origins. The nationalistic attitude of the time rejects any-

thing that does not represent the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, and Sant’Elia adopts the idea that “cities should be the immediate and faithful projection of ourselves” as an architectural representation of his nationalistic attitude. He was dissatisfied that architectural education has been diluted to recopying classical models instead of creating solutions for the new issue. He could not understand why the youth architects at the time were still studying classicism when it was already a bygone era, unable to look towards the future opening up right in front of their eyes. When Sant’Elia states that “each generation must building their own city”, it is not a statement influenced by his desire to reject the past, but rather by his belief that because technology will progress exponentially, even his vision of the future will be an element of a bygone era. The future generations must create their own vision of the future, building on the advancements of technology they are presented with by their surroundings.

Sant’Elia desired to create a new

[ESSAY] Thomas Kim

style of architecture that showed his view of Italy: the powerful, ever expanding, dominators of the new world.

Sant’Elia had a strong sense of pride in Italy, and used the most powerful element of his time - machinery - to exemplify his pride. Sant’Elia’s drawings do not contain any classical ornamentation; He discards classical ideals for the ideals of the future, ideals only possible by machine precisions and accuracy.

His buildings are created with straight, strong, dynamic lines of consistent order. In examining the scale of the drawings, (which is difficult with no people) it is evident that his buildings are technically impossible. No factory could manufacture such precise, large masses of concrete, steel, and glass required to construct his buildings, and no amount of energy could sustain such massive communities. The forms he uses to create his buildings are dynamic but precise, a feat impossible in a period with no formwork or construction ability to be able to satisfy such monumental forms. But to Sant’Elia, it was not a far off future; in his mind, nothing was impossible because Italian industrialists will progress and reify his visions. In every aspect of his architecture, Sant’Elia wished to display the technological capabilities of man in plain sight; He placed lifts in central areas of his drawing, clearly emphasized by the dense lines representing of steel, with high towers of steel piercing the sky, exerting dominance over the winds and nature. Materials manufactured in factories have an inherent rustic and artificial

quality, qualities Sant’Elia desired to be expressed fully in his architecture. He viewed the application of paints or outer coverings to be distractions and misrepresentation of the Industrial era. The manufactured qualities of the materials themselves, with all the mechanical fasteners and support systems required to be the decorations themselves.

The same principles of functional decorations can also be applied to his representation of long, straight walkways, railroads, and automobile roads. With the technological capabilities of the railroads, humans are able to traverse his monumental buildings effortlessly and extremely quickly. Sant’Elia viewed the city as a large, well organized machine; the people, rail trains, factories, machinery, telecommunication lines, electricity lines, all working in a synchronized rhythm within the city. Sant’Elia wanted society to understand that his drawings are not just visions of “what may be possible”, but what “certainly will be possible”.

Sant’Elia’s visions for the future, communicated through his Manfiesto of Futurist Architecture and Citta Nuvoa was his reaction to his surrounding context. It is a reflection of a young, overwhelmed, inspired Italian Architect during the early 20th century. By examining the world that Sant’Elia lived in, the expanse possibilities running through his mind is now able to be understood. The clear rhyme and reason to his writing, the meticulous and purposeful linework of his drawings are all in an effort to communicate the fact that the world was in constant change [essay] Thomas Kim

around him. Sant’Elia was truly a man living in the future, eager to engage in what extraordinary marvels the future had to offer.

A visionary extinguished from the world too soon as another consequence of his era, World War I.

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References Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press.

Building construction. (n.d.).

Retrieved February 02, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/ technology/building-construction/Early-steel-frame-high-rises#ref105155 Leong, Yew-Thong (2017), ARC820 Course Outline.

Scramble for Africa (2017). Retrieved February 02, 2017, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Scramble_for_Africa An information page to identify and examine the history of imperialism in Africa Smil, Vaclav (2005). Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press Smith, Denis Mack (1997).

Modern Italy; A Political History.

University of Michigan Press The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (1998, July 20).

Antonio Sant’Elia. Retrieved February 02, 2017, from https:// www. britannica.com/biography/ Antonio-SantElia What Is History, Anyway? A Handful of Historians Explain.

(2016, August 06). Retrieved February 02, 2017, from http:// archneology. about.com/od/ hterms/qt/history_definition.htm 51

[ESSAY] Thomas Kim

Personal Manifesto The Social Issue Since the turn of the century, the availability of information has exploded at an unprecedented scale Any question, thought, idea has already been addressed With the overflow of information seeping out from every direction, the validity of each individual piece is lost A mob mentality of collective agreement overpowering the individual truths, amplified by the media Information seeks to be viralized, not validated by the truth Hidden agendas, Hidden motives, Hidden desires The importance of honesty is secondary to achieving the goal The world has lost its honesty The Architectural Crisis

Architecture must bring that Honest Vocabulary back into the practice and society Architecture must inherently embody an Honest Vocabulary Buildings form spaces in three dimensions. It is structured by forces in three dimensions Honest Vocabulary reifies ideas in three dimensions. It is structured by principles in three dimensions Honest Vocabulary is three dimensional â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Context, Material, Function Architects not only build a form at a physical location, but also at a point in time Architecture that responds is Architecture that is narrative Materials cannot lie; Materials contain an absolute truth

The emphasis of its strengths The current path of architecture and celebration of its weaknessmust be abandoned; otherwise es Functional architecture is humanity is doomed to perish ar- honest architecture chitecture of today is dishonest, Every detail done with purpose, the designers dishonest no afterthought necessary architects have lost their touch with the world and its natural beauty materials are misunderstood, misused, and poorly executed function and space Architecture must be supported is disregarded as secondary to by the Three Pillars of Honesty aesthetics the beauty of materials is perverted by paint and coverings architecture today only satisfies the ego an architect that must hid is no architect at all Architecture has lost its honesty The Honest Vocabulary [manifesto] Thomas Kim

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[Futurist] Theoretical Analysis: Lebbeus Woods

Lebbeus Woods was known as a visionary thinker, focusing on unbuilt work; through mediums of drawing, and physical models. Trained in engineering and architecture, he first worked with Eero Saarinen and Kevin Roche before deciding to focus purely on theoretical work. Lebbeus’s drawings are often characterized as a formal exploration of dystopia. This is especially attributed to his creative visions of alternate realities, and misinterpretations of “aestheticized crisis settings”, albeit his therapeutic intentions. However, to look at his projects purely from this view is a static understanding of his work, whereas if Lebbeus work is examined contextually, it reveals that he intended more than render imaginative fanta53

sies. Lebbeus work came from a period of conflict and ambiguity in the 1980’s. There was much uncertainty of the future in architecture despite the precise nature of where architecture left off. The scope of this paper will examine a thorough historical discourse, the postmodern context and rising capitalistic and globalization trends to examine its impact on Lebbeus’s work.

His projects shifted in a political nature after the effects of globalization resulted in extreme consequences such as the Bosnian war in Sarajevo.

[ESSAY] Roger Xu

Roger Xu

Modernity vs The International Style The architectural fallacies of the postmodern era derived from the ubiquity of the modernist period.

Before discussing postmodern work, modernist architecture must be carefully examined first. At the vanguard of modern architecture were Walter Groupis, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier. These three individuals celebrated a new form of architecture that celebrated the machine and efficiency. In 1930, Alfred Hitchcock and Phillip Johnson put together a publication that documented their work, resulting in the spread of the style they dubbed: The International Style. This publication interpreted the

modernist work through simplification and physical categorization in an attempt to characterize visual characteristics. This is not to deny a common language of expression in the three architects works, but rather that the publication lacked a deeper understanding of spatial and conceptual structures of architecture in dealing with obvious similarities of appearance. Architects began to blindly imitate this style, like a new fad, that created a homogenous ubiquity.

This publication caused several concequences, because instead of focusing on ideas, it categorized the physical observations to establish a generalized historical identity.

it’s history. While the criticism of modernity is valid, the blind plagiarism of the modernist’s work created an exaggerated lack of expression into architecture. To illustrate this idea, Mies’s Seagram Building can be compared to Skidmore, Owings and Merril’s (SOM) Lever House to understand the discrepancy in detail. The key difference in the buildings is the level of thinking behind the details, which sequentially informed the expression of the building. The Seagram building clearly communicates its formal logic that speaks to an era of the Industrial Revolution. The era radically transformed everyday life into a culture of secular beliefs. For the first time in history, materialism The mass spread of The Interna- has triumphed religion. Charles tional Style drew sharp criticism Jencks describes this phenomfrom several individuals that enon as a “pseudo-religion”, a began to question its validity, new faith in industrialism as the critiquing the architecture as vehicle towards the future. Mie’s problematic because it failed to work focuses on industrial matecommunicate with its users, nor rials and construction to express make connections to the city and its era with careful detailing. [essay] Roger Xu

The Seagram building clearly expresses this through an array of I-beams that ornament the façade yet signal a sense of structural and formal logic. However, in the three Lever House, SOM loss sight that resulted in creating the expression of simply a uniform massing. The originality of Mies’s intention was lost and any sense of detail and expression with it.

Postmodernism: Critique and Reaction Industrialization revolutionized the way people lived, but at the same time caused a collapse of vernacular traditions. Strong vernacularism can only arise from limitations to breed unique architecture. Through globalization, this has been lost and subsequently modern architecture has been criticized for disregarding human needs and identity.3 Robert Venturi reacted against the modernist movement in the form of a manifesto in his book, 54

revivalist themes to compete against the out of fashion standardized modern buildings. This Kitsch and Architectural Misinter- further pushed a superficial agenda into architecture, devalpretation uing it into nothing more than a marketing tool.

After Venturi’s publication, numerous buildings began to The hopes of architects to ornament their facades with challenge modernity ended up historical references in hopes becoming an antithesis to the of creating architecture with a richer vocabulary. However, this exact reason they were criticizing modern architecture for: was the exact opposite of what designing building with no signifHowever numerous other styles Venturi stood for. He wrote in his manifesto, “I am for richness icance to its user or context, and arose as an inherent need to even worse; in poor taste. The challenge modernity. This would of meaning rather than clarity of meaning, or implicit function majority of the work from the indicate that postmodernism more so follows a form of resis- as well as the explicit function.” 1980’s became an exercise on form-making and pointless decInstead, architects completely tance rather than avant-garde.

Jencks describes the Post-Mod- misinterpret his thinking, turned oration. The argument against around and did the exact oppo- the lack of ornamentation postern era as a time period that modernists used was somewhat site. “chooses us”, for the reason of a fallacy. In fact, Le Corbusier the extreme distaste in modAs a result, architecture like the was also artistically motivated, ernism. In Jencks exact words, Portland Building marked a new using expensive Swiss mortar to “Post-Modern has chosen use create pure walls and designing turn of controversy in architecbecause it is so precise and inefficient flat roof that leaked ture. In the early 1980’s, the ambiguous at the same time; extensively to the point where accurate about the port we have construction of office buildings Corbusier almost faced lawsuit. left and richly suggestive of the flourished, attempting to using “Complexity and Contradiction” in 1966. Famously known for saying, “less is a bore”, this acted like a rallying slogan, leading to the creation of numerous styles against modernist architecture. Many people characterize the movement as a return to classical revivalist forms to counter the homogeneity of the modernist movement.

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destiny for which we are heading”.

[ESSAY] Roger Xu

In the same way SOM misunder- tects faced. The problem of this stood untruthful architecture created the loss of craft and integrity Mies to completely strip ornain the buildings (much like the mentation, the improper use of way SOM failed to understand historical references resulted in Mies work). These references to poor taste because their histor- antiquity and classicism contribical references had no meaning uted no inherent value, and were other than for the sake of coun- also poorly constructed as well. tering modernism.

Facades were entirely constructed out of cheap materials like The idea of honest architecture stucco and wood for ornamental is somewhat counterintuitive. elements. These buildings notoHow is it that pagan temples of riously fell into disrepair, often in the Greeks and Romans are less than a decade. Lebbeus’s inherently classified as honest work made a clear statement on despite ornamentation? The his stance against this trend. reason is because their architecture was symbolic to their What is striking in Lebbeus work times, a clear expression of the is not a because of an ecstatic cultural and social values of its vision of a science fiction fantaepoch. Mies and Corbusier were sy but a clear representation of no different in the work, express- tectonic constraints in the way ing an idea about the Industrial people build that postmodernRevolution and the machine ist architects form the 1980s through their work. Ornamenta- attempted to hide. Even with tion has always played a role in today’s construction logistics and expressing an idea in the conmethodologies, architects need text of the architecture. Venturi to economize the construction was ultimately looking for archi- process, whether it is due to retecture that spoke to ornamenstraints on budget, human skill, tation because it has the power or available technology. The way to express an idea about the architects have built since antiqbuilding beyond a formal interuity has relied on this concept; pretation. From that viewpoint, relying on patterns, and stanhe critiqued Mies because his dardization. The future that Lebbuildings chose to ignore select beus imagines is no different. issues and focused on specific For many, the idea of tectonics context instead that allowed him is an inherent vulnerability, as it to create such strong formal constrains the way people build. architecture.

This is what makes Lebbeus’s work is incredibly inCraft and Integrity in Architecture spirational, it paints a vivid imagination of striking formal qualities With the premise of the postin architecture, by celebrating modern context established, it is the components as an integral evident that Lebbeus was clearly part of his architecture in his also concerned with the probdrawings and models. From a lem of the architectural trends at representational understanding, the time that many other archithis concept is clearly communi[essay] Roger Xu

cated in all his drawings, where he extensively rendered his work in great detail. His drawings illustrated the sheen of the metal, showed all the joints, and even depicted loose components such as wires and ropes. He drew his work in a way that appeared to capture the architecture as if it was real, despite it being fictitious and impossible with today’s technological capacity.

Much like how the futurist Sant’Elia aspired for a future of dynamism and technology to move forward with modernity, Lebbeus’s work speaks to the way architecture will inherently be communicated with a relationship to its construction, the joinery. Unlike postmodernist attempts at avant-garde, his work is about the future, about progress, that envisions the way we built to become honest, and the components into an integral part of the way buildings communicate. In fact he often describes his drawings as buildable, but just that we lacked the current technology to make it happen.

Lebbeus’ early works all share these characteristics like A-Project that investigates technology integration into cities. In a lecture he articulated this thought clearly: “So I am building in my drawings, I’m building using the detailed manner that I have developed: I’m interested in the connection of parts, in the nature of surfaces, in the exact way elements come together.”

Deconstructivism A generalized way of looking at 56

and promotion of the academic bourgeois.

It is arguable to say that Phillip Johnson is even partially responsible for trapping architecture into self-cannibalistic cycle, where architecture became a venture for trendy formal search in style. From the post-modernist movement, this mentality has propagated extensively into a search for a superficial obsession of novelty for sake of instigating avant-garde but in turn became argumentative for the sake of resistance. Lebbeus describes this architecture of resistance weak because, “it does not believe in progress but only to be effective in the present for those without a place to be.”

Trends in Globalization The superficial turn in architecture is part of a larger trend of globalization in the world, Lebbeus’s work is to categorize Instead Lebbeus argues that it as a part of the deconstructiv- these architects arose from the more specifically a product of a communication technology that ist architectural style. His work is literary and linguistic theorists allows a compression of the often published alongside other in which texts made multiple world into the size of a computer such categorized contemporar- meanings of coding and referscreen. National identities are ies such as Daniel Libeskind and ences. Architects then applied hybridized and cultural boundthis thinking into their work, aries become dissolved due to Frank Ghery . Incredibly, once and proposed architecture to this effect. This also allowed be understood as a separate again Phillip Johnson was the for the rapid increase in trade one to push forward a new agen- from the architect or client’s da, coining the term “deconstruc- intention, but as an autonomous through instant communication in the world. Communication has tivism” for the 1988 MoMA exhi- existence; that the meaning of accelerated global capitalizabition with Peter Eisennman, in architecture is to only be found tion.15 Such an interconnected a striking similar way to how he within architecture itself. Howinformation system has created pushed forward the International ever, architects hastily began to criticize them, with emergent a new global product: InformaStyle. Johnson simply derived thinkers that joined Christopher tion. This indeed has become the style from superficial visual Alexander’s idea of pattern lan- the ultimate capitalistic product similarities, tying into Jacques guage. They insisted that decon- which also brings further confirDerrida in hopes of creating mation behind the compulsion of a new avant-garde, to which structivism was the antithesis Lebbeus describes nothing more to architecture, that focused on architects rushing to categorize than a “marketing tactic”. abstraction only for the purpose buildings into styles; dismantling of creating chaos and confusion architecture into superficial and 57 [ESSAY] Roger Xu

a result of the pressure created from internal insecurity against each other because of interdependence. One example of this is the emergence of the Bos“…we don’t find work that ennian war from the dissolution of visions a social world widely improved by architecture. No the Yugoslavian Republic. The war turned into mass genocide, utopias of the sort that dot the map of architectural history up focusing on total elimination instead of victory. These cirthrough the post-Modern era cumstances impacted Lebbeus of the 70s and 80s of the last century. Today, their aspirations significantly, propelling his work forward into a new direction. To seem to have retreated before the advance of capitalism and develop his own narrative, he developed a new mature focus, liberal democracy.” creating his manifesto on war and architecture. This progress Lebbeus relates global conin his work no longer only fosumerism to the concept of utopia, because information has cused on a pure tectonic and formal stand point against postbecome widely accessible to modernism, but against war and everyone. A materialistic focus destruction as well, starting from that emerged has erased any social aspirations that Lebbeus the context of the three year hopes for. This mentality is more Sarajevo siege. evident when Lebbeus takes on His project in Sarajevo proposed a new in areas of tension and a reconstruction of the city, in a conflict. way to address the destruction War and Architecture that people faced form the war.

He categorized three principles War and genocide is one of the in post-war conditions that imextreme consequences of glopacted the way cities build. The balization, mainly described as first method was to restore to the trivial concepts. Lebbeus find this as the reason architecture has lost its inherent value:

pre -war condition, the second to demolish the damaged buildings and propose entirely new works.

These two ideas inherently indicated the societal need to return to normalcy. His final principle was one he came up with himself, to integrate scars or scabs of the war into the architecture, as a memory of the war, and a foothold to move forward.

The works Underground Berlin in 1988 (Figure x) and Berlin Free Zone in 1990 is another major project that explores the social-political grounding in his work. He imagined an underground community of civic spaces, free from constraints that only saw fit for human needs, developing a new kind of community and even mold for a new way of life. Through drawing, he describes that for him, they bring to project to life only by carefully drawing the “thin metal plates”, and “delicate instruments”, there would be a recognition of the contextual awareness.18 His series extensively continued to develop architectural solutions to social issues in context of crises

[essay] Roger Xu

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for the next decade.

ure 1995). This illustrates the capability behind his drawings Ultimately, Lebbeus woods to evoke a sense of emotion imagined a new social respon(although not in the way Lebsibility for architects, saying beus intended the drawing to that architecture has the power be represented). Lebbeus’s to shape cities. The globalized Woods was an original thinker trends have diminished the role and architect, that proposed of architects in the profession, in clear innovative ideas in an era which Lebbeus hopes to inspire, of ambiguous and self-damaging and evocate through his drawing thinking. in extreme contexts. Because he believes architects largely ignore Bibliography violet transformative environments like his work grounded on Botton, Alain D. The architecture political walls and wars, he feels of happiness. New York: Panthethat architects should not be on Books, afraid to step out of this domain. 2006.

Summary

lag, 2007.

Venturi, Robert. Complexity and contradiction in architecture.

New York City: The Museum of Modern Art, 1977.

Woods, Lebbeus. “LIBESKIND’S MACHINES.” December 11, 2009. Accessed February 02, 2017. https://lebbeuswoods. wordpress.com/2009/11/24/ libeskinds-machines/.

Woods, Lebbeus. “UTOPIA?” October 11, 2009. Accessed February 02, 2017. https:// lebbeuswoods.wordpress. com/2009/10/11/utopia/.

Curtis, William J. R. Modern architecture since 1900. London: Woods, Lebbeus. “ARCHITECOne of the most important ideas Phaidon, 1996.

TURE: the solid state of thought to Lebbeus Woods was building [complete].” worlds through his drawings; Jencks, Charles. What is December 09, 2010. Accessed that architecture could shape the post-modernism? London: Acad- February 02, 2017. https:// environment and the people in it. emy Editions, 1996. lebbeuswoods.wordpress.

In a nonprescriptive way, he put com/2010/12/10/architecturegreat effort into his illustrations Lebbeus, Woods. “Lebbeus the-solid-state-of-thought-comto first challenging the postmod- Woods THOUGHTS ON ARCHI- plete/. ern condition, and expanded into TECTURE OF a more social-political vision on RESISTANCE.” Accessed Feb- Woods, Lebbeus. “WAR AND the role of architecture. A hint to ruary 2, 2017. http://www.lebARCHITECTURE: Three Printhis was his involvement in the beuswoods.net/LW-Resistance- ciples.” December 15, 2011. set design for Aliens 3 before Text2.pdf Accessed February 02, 2017. the director chose to back out. https://lebbeuswoods.wordpress.

Universal studios plagiarized Salingaros, Nikos Angelos., and com/2011/12/15/war-and-archihis designs for a set in the film Christopher Alexander. Anti-artecture-three-principles/.

12 Monkeys, in which he rightchitecture and deconstruction. fully filed a lawsuit against (figSolingen, Germany: Umbau-Ver

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[ESSAY] Roger Xu

Personal Manifesto

builder and the designer became separated.

- Architecture can design intanTechnology has a contradictory gible ideas in the virtual world, effect on human culture. I refer Architecture is about the physby verifying with the analog first. to any technology that we must ical presence, and intangible rely on. This is a technology that forces that it creates. The virtu- - Architecture can be responsive allows shortcuts, that optimizes al world captures the physical, in static environments, by allowefficiency, and removes people but it cannot capture temporal ing movable components that from the process. Yet we cannot qualities. It allows for archipeople can control. reject technology, as it would be tects to create the building a rejection of progress in manwith less manpower than ever.

- Architecture can have dykind itself.

Furthurmore, the architect has namic static forms by having the capability to tag every little responsive systems that animate The most powerful technology component and plan the process space. currently is communication. The from half way across the world in search for a strong architectural the size of a screen. However it - Architecture can be unique identity has become obsolete cannot recreate a sense of with mass produced parts using since the world has now irrenovel combinations. versibly progressed towards a scale, and anthropological global culture. The strong level understanding of space. The - Architecture can design for of interdependence is so nested computer screen cannot reprehumans by taking advantage that it is therefore unfathomable sent the quality of space into the of customization, designing the to imagine anything to be disarchitectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind. Today, with the entirety of the building from its connected form the globe. use of the virtual technology, the crown mould to tabletop size design has become disconnectThe way architects communicate ed from the intangible aspects of their design follows a parallel architecture. trend, it has become exponentially faster, and less resource Neither traditional methods nor demanding. Architecture cannot technology need to be discardbe created without virtual teched for a solution. For either two nology, yet proper architecture being discarded makes architeccannot be conceived with it ture inherently weaker. However, alone either. Technology is an architects can embrace contraimpediment and the path to the diction. Architectural contradicfuture of architecture. It is our tions can embrace both aspects future because it revolutionizes of a problem by making use of the way we work. It is an imped- both their strengths in synergy iment because it removes us as a solution. from its essence. Architecture in the current epoch is a contradic- Solution: tion.

Below are a list of some methBefore architects, the role of the ods, but not a final list in which design and construction bethe architect can integrate both longed to trades. Their design ideas together. was always conceived with a strong sense of the final prod- Architecture can be adaptable uct in mind. With the birth of by allowing flexible methods of architecture as a profession, the division in rigid spaces. [essay] Roger Xu 60

[ A malgamation ] Andres Guzman Romero

The architect has the responsibility to create designs to reduce the effects of the physical limitations of the world in order to empower people.

We live in an age of diversity and continuous change. The Physical constraints of the world shape our minds and bodies. These constraints limit what we are capable of achieving.

The city grid, for instance, controls space and provides limits to the undefined. It also provides control and inflexibility to the physical capabilities.

However, there are exemptions to the ground pattern within the city; Dundas, for instance, is one of those. The historical road was laid out before the city grid. Therefore, it follows the land and the needs of those who built it. As a result, the meeting of the city grid and Dundas is what makes the site special. Through architecture, my design seeks to recreate what the philosopher David Levin called the assertoric and alethic gaze (The

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Philosopherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Gaze by David Levin). He defines assertoric as rigid, fixed, dogmatic, narrow, and exclusionary. The view is meant to control. On the other hand, alethic is based on necessity. It offers different modalities of truth. It allows different perspectives. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pluralistic, inclusionary and contextual. My design attempts to convey these ideas and represent them in a form based on the rigidity of the grid vs. fluidity of a path that breaks through it, in a similar way that Dundas breaks through the city Grid.

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[Project] Andres Guzman Romero

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This whole theoretical design project and studio in general was to say the least, a brand new experience. I signed up for the studio expecting a swift and easy exit from my bachelors degree, but it was probably the most challenging and mentally exhausting studio I have taken to date. This studio was more of a lesson in thinking as opposed to regurgitating the design process of the past 3 years. As the parable says â&#x20AC;&#x153;give a man a fish and he will eat for a day, but teach a man how to fish and he will eat for a lifetime.â&#x20AC;?

chance to pick them up. Unreal Engine 4 is just beginning to be used by architects for high quality, real time visualization of small spaces, so I know that by knowing even the fundamentals on how to use this program, I am preparing myself to be a highly competitive asset in the industry. For scrambling to complete a half decent archviz project, I am satisfied with what I managed to achieve. I know that with further work in the Unreal Engine 4, I can produce high quality architectural visualization projects.

This was my take-away from the studio. I am a changed student, unafraid to challenge ideas and keep digging for the core values and meaning.

The experimental nature of this studio allowed me to learn and experiment with many new programs such as FabricEngine and Unreal Engine 4. I have been eager to expand my skillset with these programs, and this project gave me the perfect

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[ oasis ]

T h o m a s Yu n H y u n g K i m

[Project] Thomas Kim

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[ crystal forest ] Mashroor Ishraque Designing the Stengal is a challenge in terms of circulation and elevation. Each play closely with one another in its overall design.The word Stengal is German for ‘stems’ which derived from the previous post relating to the Black Forest. The way each stem is place on the site acts as both a barrier and directional object, creating a indirect path as more are placed around it. The design is also given levels of dimensions or floors to explore raising one’s curiosity, anxiety, and excitement.

The experience of the space is meant to question the users in deciding to progress along the way they normally wouldn’t. By looking fragile and unstable, there is a sense of discomfort and anxiety that formed by its assembly. As the users progress further, they are given the opportunity to walk on the glass stairways that lead them to the glass levels ahead causing their curiosity and anxiety levels to elevate in the process.

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Within the urban complexity of Dundas Square presents an intervention that is meant to allow users to explore the location in a dynamic and unorthodox manner. The Crystal Forest is a structure that consists of tall, glass poles with platforms connect via stairways. It is meant to stimulate exploration as well as generate conversation. Able to engage and direct through the site as one desires gives it a level of freedom, motion, and character that the people around Downtown Toronto symbolizes.

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[Project] Mashroor Ishraque

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what is architecture? What is space? How do you experience space?

Architecture is about the experience. About the feeling a space can create within your mind. About the emotion a space can induce. Architecture is a journey. A discovery of emotion through your sense. The texture, the sound, the smell, the scale, all influence the way you experience a space.

Within the centre of Toronto there is a void. A place of solitude within the busy atmosphere of urban life. Even though being situated at the busiest intersection, Dundas Square is a void without chaos. Architecture has the ability to emphasize this void; this feeling of isolation. Using form and space, architecture can guide you to solitude in the midst of disorder. When alone and without your emotions, you begin to feel vulnerable.

As humans we experience a variety of emotions however at the core, the heart, the centre, of meaningful human experience. It brings uncertainty, risk, and emotional exposure but being vulnerable connects us with others and with ourselves. If we are brave enough, we can push our limits and free ourselves of the anxiety that comes with feeling vulnerable and use it to understand ourselves more clearly and better connect us with others. Vulnerability sounds like truth and feels like courage.

Do you have the courage to take the journey? To discover yourself and push your limits?

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[ S pace odyssey ] [Project] Daniel Lord

D a n i el Lord

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[ self revelation ] Sa lo ni Shah Buildings are externalizations of ourselves.

In many ways, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scale, time and space mediate between the world and yourself, the landscape and yourself, the past and the future. Using our five senses plus the 6th intellect sense, along with our perception of spaces, we can find meaning of architecture that surrounds us. Self-discovery is a process that is unique to every individual. During the process, we tend to place ourselves in certain situations to escape from the everyday lifestyle while sometimes we find ourselves doing it during other activities. The common thing about this is that we usually self reflect and think about introvert thoughts when we are alone. Even when we are walking in public we tend to become introverted and create our own sense of space, undisturbed and uninfluenced by our surroundings.

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VR Link 1

[Project] Saloni Shah

VR Link 2

Website

This whole theoretical design project and studio in general was to say the least, a brand new experience. I signed up for the studio expecting a swift and easy exit from my bachelors degree, but it was probably the most challenging and mentally exhausting studio I have taken to date. This studio was more of a lesson in thinking as opposed to regurgitating the design process of the past 3 years. As the parable says â&#x20AC;&#x153;give a man a fish and he will eat for a day, but teach a man how to fish and he will eat for a lifetime.â&#x20AC;?

chance to pick them up. Unreal Engine 4 is just beginning to be used by architects for high quality, real time visualization of small spaces, so I know that by knowing even the fundamentals on how to use this program, I am preparing myself to be a highly competitive asset in the industry. For scrambling to complete a half decent archviz project, I am satisfied with what I managed to achieve. I know that with further work in the Unreal Engine 4, I can produce high quality architectural visualization projects.

This was my take-away from the studio. I am a changed student, unafraid to challenge ideas and keep digging for the core values and meaning.

The experimental nature of this studio allowed me to learn and experiment with many new programs such as FabricEngine and Unreal Engine 4. I have been eager to expand my skillset with these programs, and this project gave me the perfect

VR Link

Website

[ fear in architecture ] J e s s i c a Tayl or [Project] Jessica Taylor

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[ transition cocoon ] R oger Xu

This project, Transition Cocoon, is about bringing the contradictory void site into a single funneled location. By bringing the sites core element of a public square into its centre: people, it brings forward a new paradigm in thinking about public spaces within Toronto and for Dundas Square. For a public square is not simply a void that creates a focal point in the city. It is one of the hearts of the city, or a place in the city, a transition centre of density, and a place where people come together.

The elements of this project makes use of rings, bridges, and platforms that are all covered in a reflective chrome metal. The rings have been developed to allow porosity to see through around the site, that does not visually block the surroundings, but distort it in a new way that creates a focus on new centre. Furthermore, there are varying rotations as it grows in height.

This gives a sense of density to the project, as this allows a variety of connections (from different angles) from the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s context to introduce

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circulation around the building to the ground level.

Yet these rings still create the raw sensation of enclosure, of being surrounded in a form of density, and people. At Yonge and Dundas, where there is a lack of context, or bitterly phrase, irregularly dispersed context, this project mediates this problem, by using bridges to bring the context in to the intervention, by funneling people into a central location. The circulation of people is then funneled around the rings onto platforms and circulate in a spiral orientation towards the ground. This intervention is hence titled Transition Cocoon, a new and perceived enclosure, with the layer of people that circulate around it, reimagining the qualities of a public square.

[Project] Roger Xu

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The design concept is to integraet my design manifesto with the site Dundas Square. This project is focused on creating an empowering space through contrast in details.

The structure extends from underground to above, with the ground plane acting as a mirror.

Positive being above ground and negative being underground, without seeing the section, it may be hard to connect the two together. However when people discover this hidden aspect, it will certainly create a few moments of awe.

The underground passage will be linked to the Dundas subway line and the underground parking currently below the square. Walking through this underground path will allow the users to look up and through the wooden structure see the empowering cantilever above.

The passage has a staircase that acts almost as a sculpture in the dark graced by light

from above. The staircase will lead the users through the exit point to Dundas Square, or itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s an opportunity to continue upward to the space within the cantilever. The cantilever will ultimately allow the visitors to arrive at a destination that provides an elevated view of the square.

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[ E cho ] J i a y i Zhang

[Project] Jia Ya Zhang

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