Scientific Racism: How is the scientific theory of races in the enlightenment era was used to justify black inferiority, reflected through 17th-18th century art?!
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To quote Castagna "Whites created different 'sciences' and 'scientific' theories to justify, legitimise and maintain the existing social order" (Dei, 2003,). What this essay aims to do is look at how the effects of scientific racism could be seen reflected in the art of the enlightenment period. Focusing on the painting A lady and her children relieving a cottager by William Redmore Bigg the aim of this is to analyse the work and discuss how it reflects the social values of white people towards black people back in the 17/18th century. Art can be seen as a window into looking at the social climate of times gone by; which is why using A lady and her children relieving a cottager is integral to understanding the views white western European society had towards blacks. As a result of the dehumanisation of black people through scientific theories such as polygenism and physiognomy as well as the original creation and development of psychiatry initially having the sole purpose of ‘proving the intellectual inferiority of black people’(CCR, 2010) you’ll see that in the paintings that depicted black folk in the enlightenment period they are either depicted extreme caricatured and almost animalistic looking or objectified and shown to be nothing more than subservient accessories to be added to a painting like a vase or a fancy dog. By dissecting the Redmore Bigg painting as well as comparing it to another oil painting from the same period we will see how these racial theories effected how people viewed and treated black people in the 17/18th century.!
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! William Redmore Biggs created this oil painting in 1781 depicting a woman of obviously high rank with her two children, the youngest sibling is giving the poor older woman some money for herself and what looks like her sick babe. What we will be wanting to focus on in this image however is the young black boy off to the left side. !
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Your eyes do not naturally inclined towards him due to his positioning, keeping him off to the left of the painting means that he is almost naturally ignored by the viewer. Which means as the viewer you have begun to subconsciously dismiss him as a non important factor of the image. Compared to the other people in the painting who are all positioned in away to keep focus on them and the area their in the young boy is positioned with both the goat and umbrella both items which slope rightwards to bring focus away from himself and back to the women. It’s like the boy is merely a prop for used to help bring focus to the ‘charitable’ display we see in front. The way that the black servant is represented within this painting isn't just happenstance “Oil painting did to appearances what capital did to social relations. It reduced everything to the equality of objects. Everything became exchangeable because everything became a commodity.” (Berger, 1972) The painter chose to paint the boy like this, he chose to position him so that he was far enough ways from the other figures so that he would be seen as other and had him hold the Ladies objects the way he does to highlight the purpose elf what he is truly there for. To be a walking coat rack, his purpose is to carry objects, to be valuable in is ability to not be a person who suffers or feels, but instead to be an accessory to this woman’s charity. His almost non existent expression hold no emotion because the white populous of Europe generally didn’t believe that black people had emotion, ‘the Negro felt less pain than any other race and lacked in emotions’ (Das Gupta, 2007). The idea of white and other that we see displayed within this painting is formed in the theory of polygenism. The theory of Polygenism is based on the idea that all ethnicities have different racial origins therefore making them different ‘breeds’ of human. This theory was to juxtapose the commonly held belief of biblical monogenism which was the most widely accepted idea at the time in the Christian western world that we are all the descendants of Adam and Eve. Though this new theory was progressive in that it allowed scientist to begin to separate god and the church for social and biological science allowing for further development in the sciences. The main issue with this theory was that it now allowed white intellects to justify themselves in the myriad of abuse and forced colonisation they delivered onto the darker races by suggesting that they weren’t even human.!
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In the image above it is clear to see from the boys position in the painting and the way the boy holds the Lady’s coat and parasol with practised ease and great care that he is either a servant or slave to these people. His life is that of servitude, as was the life of most black people who lived in 17th and 18th century Europe, making up to 80% of the workforce of sugar, cotton and other product producing colonies black people were working long hours for no pay and abysmal working conditions. However scientists and scholars such as M.le Romain described the negro race in the encyclopaedia britannica as ‘idleness, treachery, revenge, cruelty, impudence, stealing, lying, profanity, debauchery, nastiness and intemperance’ (Eze,1997) creating and cultivating the lazy negro stereotype that still exists to this day. As Rabbi Marc H. Tanenbaum says ‘Negros are lazy and unreliable..prehaps one of the most diabolical myths of all’ (Tanenbaum, 2002) and although you had lots of images like these depicting young black people as hard working the social standing at that time was that black people had to be forced to work via violence like dogs other wise they’d laze around all day. !
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The black boy’s colouring blends into that of the background of the painting, implying that much like the cottage, and fields the boy is just there for decoration. to quote John Berger ‘the european oil painting served a different kind of wealth. it glorified not a static oder off things, but the ability to buy and furnish and own.’ (Berger 1972) in this painting we see the latter being done, this painting in relation to the black servant is all about the Lady’s ability to own him, she is able to own this young african boy and dress him in fine clothes, but these are not his clothes, we comprehend that from his submissive stance and subservient role within the painting. He is the Lady’s to decorate,
he is merely a symbol of her wealth, not his own person but a status symbol who is there to ‘simply demonstrate what gold and money could buy at the time’ (Berger 1972). The black slave is dressed well to be used as an accessory isn't something limited to this painting, we see it time and time again in different 17/18th oil painting such as ‘portrait of Louise de Kérouaille’ by Pierre Mignard 1682 and ‘The Paston Treasure’ by Unknown Dutch artist 1670. What each of these painting say is that black people are not humans but products and object to be bought and sold as away of you exploiting your wealth. Just as African Scholars Noble and Goddard said ‘the most effective way to keep Black people oppressed and powerless is to provide them with the ideas that justify and certify our status and condition. A powerful approach to the empowerment of marginalised groups is to work together to develop critical consciousness, to develop together the tools to critique frames of reference,ideas,information and patterns of privilege’ (Nobles & Goddard, 1985), which is what painting like this do. They reaffirm these ideas that black people can be no more than well dressed servant and have neither the beauty nor intellect to be anything else.!
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Overall this image shows how black people were literally placed in the background of 17th and 18th history, seen as no more than an object that represented a submission of a lesser race who were seen as only good for menial and manual labour, yet were stereotyped as cruel and lazy. !
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This image of ‘A Picture of the Present Countess of Exeter to the ….. with her Brother and A Blackamore’ by Nicholas Dixon,(Dixon,1668) shows a different side of enlightenment era racism. This image depicts how blacks where used not only as status symbols but where objectified and used as visual tokens to promote disguising the oppression and subjugation of black people as civilising and educating the black people on how to become ‘human’. The way the countess dismissively avoids eye contact with the young page and the way her brother rest his hand on the
boys head without any other bodily indicators suggest that neither of them acknowledge the boy as being worth the effort of interacting with. The paintings positioning and the way the characters interact suggests that to them this black boy is both there and not. He is merely and object that shows the existence of blacks with whites but he is obviously neither important or significant enough to be addressed in this image. He is merely and exotic item that represents wealth and white supremacy. !
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The 17th/18th century was when major empires and countries such as the British Empire and USA began to abolish slavery, although most of the ‘liberal intellects’ and evangelical christians were for this none of them liked the implications that came along with it. Though black people were now, free and were not to be tread like property they still weren't seen as fully human ‘although white people had started to see black and brown people as men and brothers they did not see themselves as equal and believed the blacks to be lesser men and lesser brothers’ There was still this ethos surrounding black people that they were uncivilised savages who had no sense of culture. ‘ it was hierarchical racial order but one in which it’s a question of culture and civilisation… they certainly don’t think black people are equal to them at this time. Maybe in the future they will be equal’ (Hall,2010) This is then something the scientist who believe in racial hierarchy latch them selves onto, the studying of they way the blacks, they see black people as emotionless, client beings with high pain tolerances that are either too stupid to be civilised or to naive to understand the social complexity of the colonialised new world. In this painting we see examples of this with how the young white boy treats the black page, resting his hand on his head as if he is a dog or hand rest for him. Christoph Meiners once said ‘the Negro felt less pain than any other race and lacked in emotions’ (Das Gupta, 2007) however how reliable can these sources be when admitting that black people had emotion and feel grief humanises them and men like Meiners wanted to instate this idea that black people hd only the most basic of instincts like cattle. These types of tales spun to make black people look inhumane such as Meiners obvious propaganda tale where he saw a black man get burnt at the stake and just act as the nothing was happening only speaking to ask for a cigar, which he lit with the embers of the fire. These influential men spreading anti-black propaganda along side the growing western white populations frustrations that the black ex-slaves and other indigenous black people were not adapting to the imperial culture and christian ideals forced upon them began to dismiss all Negros as dumb and uneducated. This alongside paintings such as these are nearly perpetuating black inferiority ideals created from scientific racism. !
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The black image in both of these paintings reflects the intimate relationship between blacks and whites in this era. Both images pertain a sense of otherness depicted through their composition and colouring, they are designed in these paintings to be both seen and not, to be emphasised for they’re differences in comparison to there white counterparts while not being the centre of attention. Both the children in these painting are not well shaded and are heavily defined in their features, there skin colour and different racial features are exoticsised, there faces lack the depth and complexity in shading showing that they are in the painting purely to display the novelty of there darkness. This is all done to emphasise the European ideal of racial superiority as suggested by George Mosse ‘Eighteenth century Europe was the cradle of modern racism’ (Mosse,1997) paintings like these alongside studies made by Voltaire whom said that black people ‘ are not men, except in their stature’ (Voltaire, 1835), and Immanuel Kant who believed that physical traits were marker for intelligence using to dismiss the notion of of black intelligence even when examples of intelligent black people were put forward. On the grounds that ‘this fellow was quite black from head to toe, a clear proof that what he said was stupid.’ (Smith, 2013).The philosophers and theorist behind these racial sciences used these ‘theories’ as a way of building upon the ideals of racial superiority through the arts and science. Once at the core of these two major subjects that are the bedrocks of modern western society, the viewing and treatment of black people seen as racially inferior was seen as common place and acceptable within societies eyes. !
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However even around these times of the ever growing roots of racial hierarchy taking root in modern society there where still theorist and artist whose work and ideas counteracted the racial
inferiority of the black image and its representation in art.
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In comparison to the two previous pieces of art works looked at in this essay, Study of Francis Barber by Joshua Reynolds circa 1770 is one that counteract the general ideals of black inferiority. His posture, the way he is centred in the frame, shoulders back regal and proud rather than holding a submissive posture, which is how most black people where depicted at the time. This image holds no other people within it. There is no need to use other people or animals to show superiority. The Study of Francis Barber questions everything that enlightenment racial theorists and artists depicted and stood for, this image shows a black man as powerful, educated, strong and thoughtful. The expression of thoughtfulness alone could be seen as a defences of the socially accepted of the time, it implies that black people have free thought, that they are not just there to serve but think and theories. It questions George Cuvier idea that ‘The Negro race ... evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism.’ (Cuvier,1798) by showing a ‘negro’ in a noble and intellectual light. This idea of black barbarism cultivated by enlightenment sciences is also questioned Anton Wilhelm Amo, a respected black philosopher in the late 17th/ early 18th century who argued against the racial hierarchical theories being developed within the social science community however a reflection of the ever developing racial tension within european society forced Amo into fleeing Europe after a smear campaign set against him due to his creed and a public lampooning in Halle. Later he was imprisoned in Ghana by white colonialist to prevent the sowing of ‘dissent among his people’ ( Esuruoso,2014). The fact that they locked him up reveals something about white European supremacists that they consciously refuse to acknowledge they know that black people are more than just animals, they understand that black people are not naturally inferior or they wouldn’t have to worry about things like this. The Enlightenment eras sciences and arts that focused on showing black people as less where merely tools of propaganda, made by those who feared the rise of the non-white intellect and the development of a non-euro centric civilisation. ‘Amo therefore died not with recognition as the intellectual, highly educated, and influential
philosopher he was, but in a reflection of what philosophies of Kant and others would make of him, as being entirely defined by something as trivial as the colour of his skin’ (Esuruoso ,2014) this really summarises the painted depiction's of black people the first two paintings in this essay, they are merely the reflections of how an enlightenment society wanted to view black people, not what or who they actually were, which is why the last painting can be seen as a more trustworthy viewing of how black people really where while the first two are depictions of how black people were really viewed. ! !
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In conclusion, throughout this essay it becomes obvious to see the synthesis between art and social theory when it comes to race. The theories and philosophies of the time built around race were all for the purpose of creating a racial imbalance between the whites and other people of colour, especially blacks. The need for black inferiority comes from the need of excusing years of slavery and maltreatment, by saying that it’s because they’re scientifically inferior becomes an excuse for not acknowledging guilt or the whole of western societies new founded modern civilisation being built of the bones of other people. The art created in this time was on a whole made to reflect the concept of black inferiority towards the general public, the art and sciences became anti-black propaganda and is the foundation of modern racism. Racial sciences used art as away of communicating visually the otherness of black people while keeping the in almost constant subservient positions helped establish black peoples inferiority to the common white European of the enlightenment era. !
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Bibliography! amonshango (2010) Psychiatry creating scientific racism. Available at: https://youtu.be/ RWbFLtdvvXc .! Banki, J.H., Fisher, E.J. and Tanenbaum, M.H. (2002) A prophet for our time: An anthology of the writings of rabbi Marc H. Tannenbaum. United States: Fordham University Press.! Berger, J., BBC, the and al, et (1972) Ways of seeing (A pelican original). 35th edn. London, Eng.: British Broadcasting Corp. and Penguin Books.! Brown, M.K., Carnoy, M., Duster, T. and Currie, E. (2003) Whitewashing race: The myth of a color-blind society. Berkeley: University of California Press.! Byrd, C.W. and Hughey, M.W. (2015) Born that way? ’Scientific’ racism is creeping back i n t o o u r t h i n k i n g . H e r e ’s w h a t t o w a t c h o u t f o r. Av a i l a b l e a t : h t t p s : / / www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/09/28/born-that-way-scientificracism-is-creeping-back-into-our-thinking-heres-what-to-watch-out-for/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! Chandler, N.D. (2013) X: The problem of the negro as a problem for thought. 1st edn. United States: Fordham University Press.! Christian, M. (ed.) (2002) Black identity in the twentieth century: Expressions of the US and UK African Diaspora. London: Hansib Publications.! Curran, A.S. (2011) The anatomy of blackness: Science and slavery in an age of enlightenment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.! Cuvier, F.G. and Cuvier, G. (2012) A classified index and synopsis of the animal kingdom: Arranged in conformity with its organization, volume 16. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.! Dei, G.S.J. (2003) Anti-racist feminism: Critical race and gender studies. Edited by Agnes M. Calliste. Canada: Fernwood Publishing Company.!
Esuruoso, A. and Koepsell, P.K. (eds.) (2014) Arriving in the Future: Stories of Home and Exile. 2nd edn. Germany: Neopubli.! Eze, E.C. (ed.) (1997) Race and the enlightenment: A reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.! Foucault, M. (2001) The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. London: Routledge.! Ghosh, P. (2015) DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34809804 (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! Gupta, D. (2007) Race and Racialization: Essential readings. Edited by Tania Das Gupta. Canada: Canadian Scholars Press, Canada.! Gupta, D. (2007) Race and Racialization: Essential readings. Edited by Tania Das Gupta. Canada: Canadian Scholars Press, Canada.! Hoad, N. (2007) African Intimacies: Race, homosexuality, and globalization. United States: University of Minnesota Press.! Hutson, M. (2014) Whites see blacks as superhuman. Available at: http://www.slate.com/ a r t i c l e s / h e a l t h _ a n d _ s c i e n c e / s c i e n c e / 2 0 1 4 / 1 1 / whites_see_blacks_as_superhuman_strength_speed_pain_tolerance_and_the_magical.ht ml (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! Jones (2007) The Oxford companion to black British history. Edited by David Dabydeen, John Gilmore, and Cecily Jones. New York: Oxford University Press.! Malik, K. (2013) ON THE ENLIGHTENMENT’S ‘RACE PROBLEM’. Available at: https:// kenanmalik.wordpress.com/2013/02/13/on-the-enlightenments-race-problem/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! McCluskey, A. (2015) Hollywood and the whitewashing of history. Available at: http:// www.counterpunch.org/2015/07/17/hollywood-and-the-whitewashing-of-history/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! Mirzoeff, N. (1999) Diaspora and visual culture: Representing Africans and Jews. Edited by Nicholas Mirzoeff. New York: Taylor & Francis.! Mosse, G.L. (1985) Toward the final solution: A history of European racism. New York: Howard Fertig.! Nobles, W.W. and Nobles], W.W. (1985) Africanity & the black family: The development of a theoretical model. Oakland, CA: Institute for the Advanced Study of Black Family Life and Culture.! Pan Afrikan (2013) What scientific racism did to the blacks world wide. Available at: https:// youtu.be/3f1_VcVWpkI .! People of color in European art history (no date) Available at: http:// medievalpoc.tumblr.com/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! Pinder, K. (2002) Race-Ing art history: Critical readings in race and art history. Edited by Kymberly N. Pinder. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.! Smith, J.E. (2013) The enlightenment’s ‘race’ problem, and ours. Available at: http:// opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/10/why-has-race-survived/?ref=opinion&_r=1 (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! tw19751 (2012a) John Berger / ways of seeing , episode 1 (1972). Available at: https:// youtu.be/0pDE4VX_9Kk .! tw19751 (2012b) John Berger / ways of seeing , episode 3 (1972). Available at: https:// youtu.be/Z7wi8jd7aC4 .! Voltaire (2001) Euvres complètes de Voltaire: Nouvelle édition. Tome 10. Adamant Media.!
Citations, Quotes & Annotations! amonshango (2010) Psychiatry creating scientific racism. Available at: https://youtu.be/ RWbFLtdvvXc .! (amonshango, 2010)! "proving the intellectual inferiority of black people’" (amonshango, 2010)! Note: (CCR, 2010) - from Video! "it was hierarchical racial order but one in which it’s a question of culture and civilisation… they certainly don’t think black people are equal to them at this time. Maybe in the future they will be equal’" (amonshango, 2010)! Note: (Hall,2010) - This Video Is where Hall Quotes this! Banki, J.H., Fisher, E.J. and Tanenbaum, M.H. (2002) A prophet for our time: An anthology of the writings of rabbi Marc H. Tannenbaum. United States: Fordham University Press.! (Banki, Fisher, and Tanenbaum, 2002, p. 77)! Berger, J., BBC, the and al, et (1972) Ways of seeing (A pelican original). 35th edn. London, Eng.: British Broadcasting Corp. and Penguin Books.! (Berger, BBC, and al, 1972)! Brown, M.K., Carnoy, M., Duster, T. and Currie, E. (2003) Whitewashing race: The myth of a color-blind society. Berkeley: University of California Press.! (Brown et al., 2003)! Byrd, C.W. and Hughey, M.W. (2015) Born that way? ’Scientific’ racism is creeping back i n t o o u r t h i n k i n g . H e r e ’s w h a t t o w a t c h o u t f o r. Av a i l a b l e a t : h t t p s : / / www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/09/28/born-that-way-scientificracism-is-creeping-back-into-our-thinking-heres-what-to-watch-out-for/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (Byrd and Hughey, 2015)! Chandler, N.D. (2013) X: The problem of the negro as a problem for thought. 1st edn. United States: Fordham University Press.! (Chandler, 2013)! Christian, M. (ed.) (2002) Black identity in the twentieth century: Expressions of the US and UK African Diaspora. London: Hansib Publications.! (Christian, 2002)! Curran, A.S. (2011) The anatomy of blackness: Science and slavery in an age of enlightenment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.! (Curran, 2011)! Cuvier, F.G. and Cuvier, G. (2012) A classified index and synopsis of the animal kingdom: Arranged in conformity with its organization, volume 16. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.! (Cuvier and Cuvier, 2012, p. 50)! Dei, G.S.J. (2003) Anti-racist feminism: Critical race and gender studies. Edited by Agnes M. Calliste. Canada: Fernwood Publishing Company.! (Dei, 2003, p. 19)! Esuruoso, A. and Koepsell, P.K. (eds.) (2014) Arriving in the Future: Stories of Home and Exile. 2nd edn. Germany: Neopubli.! (Esuruoso and Koepsell, 2014, pp. 17–19)!
Eze, E.C. (ed.) (1997) Race and the enlightenment: A reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.! (Eze, 1997, p. 35)! Foucault, M. (2001) The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. London: Routledge.! (Foucault, 2001)! Ghosh, P. (2015) DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34809804 (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (Ghosh, 2015)! Gupta, D. (2007) Race and Racialization: Essential readings. Edited by Tania Das Gupta. Canada: Canadian Scholars Press, Canada.! (Gupta, 2007)! Gupta, D. (2007) Race and Racialization: Essential readings. Edited by Tania Das Gupta. Canada: Canadian Scholars Press, Canada.! (Gupta, 2007, pp. 25–26)! Hoad, N. (2007) African Intimacies: Race, homosexuality, and globalization. United States: University of Minnesota Press.! (Hoad, 2007)! Hutson, M. (2014) Whites see blacks as superhuman. Available at: http://www.slate.com/ a r t i c l e s / h e a l t h _ a n d _ s c i e n c e / s c i e n c e / 2 0 1 4 / 1 1 / whites_see_blacks_as_superhuman_strength_speed_pain_tolerance_and_the_magical.ht ml (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (Hutson, 2014)! Jones (2007) The Oxford companion to black British history. Edited by David Dabydeen, John Gilmore, and Cecily Jones. New York: Oxford University Press.! (Jones, 2007)! Malik, K. (2013) ON THE ENLIGHTENMENT’S ‘RACE PROBLEM’. Available at: https:// kenanmalik.wordpress.com/2013/02/13/on-the-enlightenments-race-problem/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (Malik, 2013)! McCluskey, A. (2015) Hollywood and the whitewashing of history. Available at: http:// www.counterpunch.org/2015/07/17/hollywood-and-the-whitewashing-of-history/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (McCluskey, 2015)! Mirzoeff, N. (1999) Diaspora and visual culture: Representing Africans and Jews. Edited by Nicholas Mirzoeff. New York: Taylor & Francis.! (Mirzoeff, 1999)! Mosse, G.L. (1985) Toward the final solution: A history of European racism. New York: Howard Fertig.! (Mosse, 1985, p. 1)! Nobles, W.W. and Nobles], W.W. (1985) Africanity & the black family: The development of a theoretical model. Oakland, CA: Institute for the Advanced Study of Black Family Life and Culture.! (Nobles and Nobles], 1985, p. 24)! Pan Afrikan (2013) What scientific racism did to the blacks world wide. Available at: https:// youtu.be/3f1_VcVWpkI .!
(Pan Afrikan, 2013)! People of color in European art history (no date) Available at: http:// medievalpoc.tumblr.com/ (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (People of color in European art history, no date)! Pinder, K. (2002) Race-Ing art history: Critical readings in race and art history. Edited by Kymberly N. Pinder. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.! (Pinder, 2002)! Smith, J.E. (2013) The enlightenment’s ‘race’ problem, and ours. Available at: http:// opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/10/why-has-race-survived/?ref=opinion&_r=1 (Accessed: 24 April 2016).! (Smith, 2013)! tw19751 (2012a) John Berger / ways of seeing , episode 1 (1972). Available at: https:// youtu.be/0pDE4VX_9Kk .! (tw19751, 2012a)! tw19751 (2012b) John Berger / ways of seeing , episode 3 (1972). Available at: https:// youtu.be/Z7wi8jd7aC4 .! (tw19751, 2012b)! Voltaire (2001) Euvres complètes de Voltaire: Nouvelle édition. Tome 10. Adamant Media.! (Voltaire, 2001)!
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Fig.1 Biggs, Redmore William (1781) ‘A Lady and her Children Relieving a Cottager’ [ Oil Painting] ! Fig.2 Dixon, Nicholas (1668) ‘A Picture of the Present Countess of Exeter with her Brother and A Blackamore boy’ [Oil Painting]!
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Fig.3 Reynolds, Joshua Sir (1770) ‘A study of Francis barber) [Oil Painting] !
Essay Word Count Total: 2,965! Bibliography word count: 1,604!
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