Re-Working Segal: Adaptation of Rigid Building Methods to Different Dwelling Cultures

Re-Working Segal Adaptation of Rigid Building Methods to Different Dwelling Cultures

Student: Eliz Derderyan, 881416 Rowan Hamid, 879806 Supervisor: Prof. Cristina F. Colombo Politecnico di Milano School of Architecture Urban Planning Construction Engineering - AUIC Bachelor Degree in Architectural Design A.Y. 2019/2020

Table of Contents Abstract

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Introduction

15

Part 1: Wood and the Segal Method

19

Wood in Architecture

23

Advantages

26

Disadvantages

34

The Segal Method

37

Walter Segal

39

Building Technique

40

Translation into Design

50

Part 2: Applicability of the Method in Bulgaria and Sudan Bulgaria

55 59

History and Geology

60

Traditional Architecture

68

Evolution of the Dwelling

72

Applicability of the Method

82

Sudan

87

Introduction

88

Historical Settlements

92

Evolution of the Urban Layout

108

Effects of Instability on the Economy

114

The Role of the Family in the Neighborhood

118

Architectonic Language and the Search for a New identity

124

Applicability of the Method

142

Conclusion

149

Bibliography

152

Image Credits

156

ABSTRACT

Walter Segal conceived a building method aimed at making a larger number of the people able to own a private house. He utilized the principles of modern architecture and the researches focused on the industrialization of architecture to create his own process. The procedure he proposed is based on the ideas of participation and sustainability. His method goes beyond the tools he provided for the pragmatic design and simple construction to transcend into an ideology that fosters individuality and promotes social integration. The modest dwelling design rejects overbearing techniques and costly materials; it values the essence of the ancient dwellings made by wood, but does not reminisce in the past. He metamorphosed the traditional hut into a modern structure capable of hosting all the modern activities.

The method, despite its rigidity, is mouldable into different architectonic forms that can satisfy the needs of a variety of inhabitants. To test the expanse of the adaptability of the so-called Segal Method, the thesis studies two drastically different contexts, in terms of geographic, economic and social features that define their unique dwelling cultures: Bulgaria and Sudan. The objective is to determine the extents of the spectrum to which the system could be applied to.

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Bulgaria is a country where the architecture is shaped largely by the geographical and economic conditions.

Here, construction materials are easily acquirable and skilled labour is readily available, so architecture embraced residential modern solutions, in part distant from the traditional dwellings, especially in the urban areas. Still, wood is a diffused building material that people have been using for generations and provides a chance to work collectively. Wooden houses are still diffused in rural villages.

In Sudan, instead, architecture was strongly affected by the political dominance and the conservative social setting and has evolved from the mixture of Islamic and Colonial styles. Importing materials is not cost-efficient, and in some cases unattainable, in this country and the limited knowledge of the modern building techniques benefits simple, not-specialised procedures. Wood could be sourced locally here, creating a self-sufficient alternative for other construction materials and the simple structure ensures the average citizen to be able to achieve satisfactory standards.

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Moving from these considerations, the Thesis considers wooden construction as a suitable solution for both the countries, and investigates the possibility to adapt the Segal Method to opposing dwelling cultures. Introducing this method in Bulgaria would give to people a possible alternative to the crammed living conditions in the compact apartments of the overbuilt cities. The internal organization of the common contemporary apartment was derived from the socialist blocks, where no extra spaces were permitted. Moving from the city to the suburbs would provide the freedom of designing a private house, based on the desired proportions, as well as re-introducing peculiar internal spaces for socialisation that later got lost. Meanwhile, Sudan’s imposed import sanctions, lack of adequate building regulations and political tensions create a dire need for a solution that tackles these issues without imposing a long-lasting effect on the existing architectural language. The Segal method fosters the natural evolution of the architectural identity of the country, which is not yet defined, and the preservation of typical spaces as the outdoor family yard. It also ensures the repurpose of a local material, provide structurally safe spaces and communal projects for public participation.

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INTRODUCTION

In a time when the world is shifting towards innovation and globalisation, and architecture seems to be in search for spectacular solutions, sometimes indifferent to peoples’ effective needs, one can end up overlooking pre-existing tools that can help to solve modern issues in a more social, economic, and environmental way. Looking at the past researches and methods with a new perspective, one can uncover some findings that can be repurposed and adapted into new solutions. The importance of rediscovering and unearthing previous methods can help us shed more light on the issues for which they were targeted, how they were implemented and study their effects.

The natural and anthropic environments cannot be ignored in these times, when the climate change effects loom over the current and the future generations.

The sustainability of the building construction has to become a common standard. The possibility of using more carbon neutral materials through environmentally conscious sourcing should be encouraged. This sustainability consciousness should also extend towards economic strategies, which could benefit from the ethical sourcing of materials. The latter could provide fair job opportunities and wages for all parties involved and an economic advantage for places that adopt these policies. Resilience was often associated with permanent or long-lasting buildings, which has lead to a trend in the selection of construction materials favouring composite materials like reinforced concrete. On the other hand, natural materials like wood were linked to

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environmental damage, temporality and lower standard of living. Despite wood needing more maintenance, it is however a versatile material with a great potential in construction.

It is also a time when the planning and building process has shifted in the sector towards a top-down approach. This causes a disconnection between the interior spaces provided and the final user. The value of the space is often stemming from an emotional connection that is achieved when the inhabitant are included in the design process or, at least, when they can personalize the dwelling. This shows the need for the community to be involved in defining their own spaces and reversing the design and construction process into a from a bottom-up approach, in harmony with the local cultural and social setting. Walter Segal is known to be an advocate for these principles, and he emerged as a pioneer of the participatory building process. His method was initially created to solve the expensive housing epidemic in the United Kingdom, however it becomes a tool that could be used in different contexts.

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The Thesis provides the parameters of the material properties and the basis of the Segal Method as a synthetic introduction to the study of its applicability in two different contexts: Bulgaria and the Sudan. The first part provides a general overview of the core properties which are essential for an unbiased evaluation of the material’s suitability and the specificity of the building technique developed by Walter Segal. The second part defines the geographical, economic and social differences between the two countries, Bulgaria and Sudan, and their influence on architecture. Then it investigates the applicability and adequacy of the Method into these settings, the potential advantages that can derive, the challenges it addresses.

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PART 1

Wood and the Segal Method

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The man is willing to make himself an abode which covers but not buries him. Some branches broken down in the forest are the proper materials for his design. He chooses four of the strongest, which he raises perpendicularly and which he disposes into a square. Above he puts four others across, and upon these he raises some that incline from both sides. This kind of roof is covered with leaves put together, so that neither the sun nor the rain can penetrate therein; and now the man is lodged. Indeed, cold and heat will make him sensible of their inconveniences in his house, open on every part; but then he will fill up between the space of the pillars, and will then find himself secure. (‌) The little rustic cabin that I have just described, is the model upon which all the magnificences of architecture have been imagined. (‌) Pieces of wood raised perpendicularly, give us the idea of columns. The horizontal pieces that are laid upon them, afford us the idea of entablatures. In fine the inclining pieces which form the roof give us the Idea of the pediment. See then what all the masters of art have consessed. But then we ought here to be very much on our guard. Never principle was more fruitful in consequences. It is easy from hence to distinguish the part that enters essentially into the composition of an order of architecture, from those which are introduced only by necessity, or which have not been added thereto but by caprice. It is in the essential parts that all the beauties consist (‌). Do not let us lose sight of our little rustic cabin. 1

1

Marc-Antoine Laugier, An Essay on Architecture (London: T. Osborne and Shipton, 1955), 10-13.

(1) Allegorical Engraving of the Vitruvian Primitive Hut, reproduced in An Essay on Architecture,

by Marc-Antoine Laugier.

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(2) Soomeen Hahm and Igor Pantic, Steampunk Pavilion at Tallin Architecture Biennale 2019.

Wood A feeling of nostalgia for the contact to nature is persistent in architecture and the interiors, where the use of wood has an Idyllic resonance. It’s a certain peaceful feeling for the users that mimics the emotional quality of being in a natural setting. This chapter talks about the general tangible qualities of the material to provide an unbias basis to evaluate the suitability of the material in different contexts.

23

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Wood is one of the first natural materials people learned how to use and it continues to be a substance of great importance in the construction and interior finishes alike. In his famous Essay on Architecture, Marc-Antoine Laugier identified in the “primitive hut”, constructed with branches and wooden elements, the archetype of architecture, indicating necessity and comfort as the guiding principles of its composition. Describing the hut, Laugier defined a set of fundamentals drawn from the imitation of nature – that consist of the basic components of Classical architecture: column, entablature and pediment – forming a structural-functional basis for the architectural composition. Though Western architecture progressively opted for more solid and lasting materials like stone and bricks, especially for religious, monumental and public buildings, wood continued to be used, in particular in regions rich in forests like the Scandinavian countries.

Wood has been a popular material for construction for centuries and its use has currently been implemented, following researches on sustainable architecture and environmental preservation.

Wood construction has become more favourable for the material’s properties as well as the customisable degree of prefabrication, ease of automation of the production process and consistency of the quality of the assembly. It is also a renewable source with potential to become a sustainable source for Wood Harvested Products (HWPs). It has been detailed, by the United Nations Economic Council Europe (UNECE) Strategic Plan for Forests 2030 , that implementation of regulations and increasing investment in the forests sector would create a green economy and consequently provide green jobs for the locals.

The adoption of wood as the main building material entails some advantages and disadvantages.

(3) Atelier Vecteur, Oscillating Timber Tunnel in Nantes.

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Wood: Advantages Renewable source Wood has two eco-cycles unlike other materials, which makes it more sustainable since it does not have to be sent to landfills. One cycle is for the trees in forests, while the other is for the HWPs. The later, involves the products that carry the displaced Carbon in the form of stored Carbon Dioxide and is reused and repurposed. An example of reusing is breaking down the larger pieces of wood products, like doors and panels, into smaller particles. This could include smaller edge-glued panels, coarse chips for Particleboards or shavings for Oriented Stranded Boards. It could also be reintegrated into a new product like Cement bonded particleboards. After the reuse, the wood could then be employed as biofuel and then the carbon is released, which in turn would be absorbed by the forests and cycle repeats.

From an environmental perspective, wood has the potential to be a sustainable material, should a large-scale aboption be properly sustained by regulations to govern the raw wood’s farming and forests protection. Even though many initiatives, like the SW4SW adopted by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF), set guidelines for the lifecycle of wood products that help transitioning into low-carbon economies and help in monitoring wood industry practices, the negative practices are persistent and deterred the growth of the industry.

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The values above may vary depending on numerous facts, including energy type, transport and production methods. A Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) usually compares functional units such as kg/m2 floor area in a floor structure. Carbon storage in wood is not reported in this diagram.

(4) Wood’s natural ecocycle.

(5) Carbon emissions from manufacture of construction materials.

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On a research published by State University of New York they state: Life-cycle analysis results for the steel-framed vs. wood-framed home showed that the steel-framed home used 17 percent more energy; had 26 percent more global warming potential; had 14 percent more air emissions; had over 300 percent more water emissions and had about the same level of solid waste production. Analysis results for the concrete- vs. wood-framed home showed the concrete-framed home used 16 percent more energy; had 31 percent more global warming potential; had 23 percent more air emissions; had roughly the same level of water emissions and produced 51 percent more solid waste. 1

It is important to note the wood has a significantly lower impact on the environment, requiring less energy to produce, emitting less pollution to the air and water and contributing lower amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere than other construction materials. During forest harvesting operations, carbon is released to varying degrees depending on the product being harvested and on emissions from the machines used in the process.That value of CO2 emission in forest operations is a result from direct core emissions related to fuel used by machines. However, these emissions are rather low when considered in a global context. For example, in countries with high forest coverage, such as Sweden, these specific emissions amount to about 1% of total national emissions. Also according to an article titled “Carbon Footprint of Forest Operations under Different Management Regimes� by Giulio Cosola, Stefano Grigolato, Pierre Ackerman, Sergio Monterotti and Raffaele Cavalli: CO2 emissions per cubic meter depend on the level of machine maintenance. In fact, the maintenance shortage affects negatively the productivity by increasing the time lost on repairs. 2

This research shows that the CO2 emissions and displacement for Harvested Wood Products can be limited by using clean energy machinery.

1 Jason Guiles, Evaluating the Environmental Performance of Wood Building Materials (New York: State University of New York).

2 Guglio Cosola and others, Carbon Footprint of Forest Operations under Different Management Regimes (Padova: University of Padova).

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Fast construction Wood as a material is used mainly in a dry construction methods when a house is assembled from prefabricated modules.

Prefabrication helps reducing the long construction times, which are typical for the conventional construction techniques. Not only that building with wood requires less time, but also this does not affect the stability of the structure and it maintains the high quality.

The wooden components necessary for the construction can be prefabricated off site and delivered ready quickly. In this way, the work on site could be significantly reduced which optimises the time as well. The rapid building makes the edifice ready to be occupied sooner, leading to more profitable construction projects.

(6) Balloon-timber frame house during the construction process.

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Physical properties Wood is a relatively lightweight material, still it is characterized by high compressive strength, providing rigidity and toughness.

In contrast, the tensile strength of this material is lower when the forces are acting perpendicular to the grain, so it needs support in order to stop bending and snapping. However, it is very strong to tensile forces acting parallel to the grain. Lumps of wood have non-uniform inner structures leading to it possessing different properties in different directions, which is why wood is classified as an anisotropic material. For this reason, wood must be cut along or across the grain, to serve the required needs for the product.

The most common type of wood for construction is currently cross laminated Glulam. It is a type of engineered wood that combines smaller pieces of wood to achieve a structurally stronger member. These engineered woods are suited to be used for columns and beams because of the reduced impact of imperfections, which are inevitable with larger timbers, due to the fibre distortion around knots.

There is only a very small risk of defects, such as large knots in several laminates, occuring in the same section. A single knot can significantly worsen the strength of a solid plank.

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(7) The lamination effect.

Although wood is stiff, when compared to a material like steel, it is rather flexible. Another advantage of wood is its high resistance to external forces, making it a very good choice for buildings in seismic zones, since the construction is flexible enough to undergo an eventual earthquake with a possibility of bending, but not breaking.

(8) Bending strength.

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The thermal conductivity of wood is low due to its porosity; this is also why the thermal conductivity is low when perpendicular to the grain. It decreases also as the moisture content of wood decreases. Which is the reason wood buildings are suitable and popular preference for indoor temperature regulation in a wide spectrum of climates.

Even though wood is a combustible material, it is at the same time fire-safe since it burns in a slow, predictable and measurable way. When under fire, the outer burning layer of the wood turns to coal but plays the role of an insulating layer that prevents excessive temperature rise in the core: solid woods carbonise at a rate of 0.8 mm per minute. Therefore, wood is considered fire-safe, since it does not collapse easily on fire. Wood usually ignited between 250–300 °C and in order to reduce the flammability of wood some fire retardants can be used, like protective cladding which reduce the flammability of wood or high-pressure water mist sprinklers which stop or slow down the combustion process. 1

Before fire

After 30 minutes

After 60 minutes

1 “Fire properties of wood”, Wood Products FI, https://www.woodproducts.fi/content/ wood-a-material-4

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(9) Fire stability.

With a variety of over 5000 tree species around the world, there is an extensive range of types of wood to choose from, according to several parameters: economic and environmental sustainability, availability, cost, technical performances, aesthetics. Wood is a versatile material, which can be used not only as a construction material, but for the furnishing as well. Being equally adapted in interiors and exteriors, it is used not only as a finish material, which brings warmth and natural beauty, but also to create pieces of furniture. Each type of wood has specific characteristics, design and colour and it could be painted and varnished in order to become darker, brighter or assume a different tone.

(10) Natural wood species samples.

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Wood: Disadvantages Biotic deterioration Deterioration and destruction of wood are consequences of what biotic (biological) and abiotic (non-biological) agents can cause. The former include decay, mold fungi and insects, while the latter are sun, wind, water and fire. Wood is an organic good, which means it could act as a nutritional product for plants and animals.

Wood decay is a process driven by the fungi, for which the necessary conditions are a temperature of 25-30°C and an adequate supply of oxygen, essential for their growth. In order to avoid decay, the wood should be kept dry and different preservatives should be used.

A variety of insects, categorized in different groups, can also cause damage to wood. As an example, subterranean termites harm untreated wood, which is in contact with water, soil or other sources of moisture. By contrast to them, less damage are causing the dry wood termites, which attack and inhabit wood, dried to moisture contents of 5-10%. While some insects drill holes, others create tunnels through the wood in order to use it as a shelter and lay eggs there.

Minimizing the problems of wood as a material includes careful selection of the variety and treating it with preservative substances, in order to avoid decaying. Coating and drying are also considered as a way to provide protection and prevent from degradation.1

1 “Wood as a Building Material; It’s Benefits and Disadvantages”, Republic of Turkey Ministry of culture and tourism, https://www.ktb.gov.tr/EN-98769/wood-as-a-building-material-it39s-benefits-and-disadvan-.html

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Abiotic deterioration Frequent rain or damp conditions are not very good for wood, since after absorbing water, the material expands and warps, causing structural problems. Over time, the swelling due to humid air conditions can cause an even bigger problem, since the wood gets softer and susceptible to wet rot and fungus.

Even though wood is porous, there are some species, which resist water better than the others do. In general, hardwoods are considered to have better water resiliency than softwoods, as less absorption is possible due to the tightly packed fibres.

Additionally to that, waterproofing stains, finishes and stabilizers can be used, while sealers, applied directly over the wood, create a waterproof barrier. However, when the air is dry, wood loses moisture and it shrinks and appropriated treatments can protect it from external attacks.

(11) An example of wet rot in wood.

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Segal Method With many wood construction based methods, the Segal method is not limited to construction only. The ideology of Walter Segal and the method itself are explained to understand the potentials and shortcomings of the method. The method has been transformed by many into different modules to fit their contexts and necessities. However, the method explored is the original method developed by Segal.

(12) Framework of a Segal-Method house under construction.

(13) Carpentry on-site by two self builders.

(14) Walter Segal meets a self-builder on site at Honor Oak Park, Lewisham, London.

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(15) Walter Segal.

Walter Segal The method is named after the architect who dedicated his career to promote the Self Build movement. Walter Segal began his early career taking commissions for residential and office buildings, writing for magazines like the Building and Architect & Building News and publishing books on architecture. He worked primarily in London and it was not until the 1970s that he started dedicating himself for the development of his Self Build method. It was not well received in the Tech-Lead and Postmodernist period The main criticism was towards the method’s failure to provide a guideline for the visual re-integration of the building into the context. It encourages self sufficiency with no regard to the social realm or common spaces. However, Segal argued that ‘the inhabitants are involved in place making, not in sharing a made space.’ That emotional connection from the people’s involvement in the project is what he believes makes a space into a place. Despite the criticism, the method has been gaining more popularity as the construction prices surge and the dangers of environmental pollution keeps rising.

The method he developed is often perceived as a construction method, however he argued that it is a mental attitude. The projects developed on the basis of the method allows the future residents to be in charge in the planning process and design the spaces to suit their needs. If the project is a residential building, its a scale that can be undertaken by the residents themselves and if the project is of a larger scale, like a community centre, it can become a communal project which strengthens the bond between the neighbours or it could be managed by a local organization. The method is based on a tartan grid, with standardized dimensions of elements and sets pre-determined components. This kept the method simple enough for self construction by individuals with minimal or no architectural or construction knowledge. It is based on a logical step-by-step common sense approach where the components are dry assembled by basic tools and do not require ‘Wet Trades’ which are done by craftsmen.

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Building Technique The structure is characterized by portals made of beams, posts and rafters. These individual frames are assembled on the ground, then erected and connected by horizontal elements: joists, rafters and purlins, spanning between them. The frames are rigid in one direction, but they have to be braced together in the other in order to resist wind forces. In the perimeter of the building the floors are supported by single beams, while at the centre of the structure they are supported by double beams.

This way, all the beams carry a similar load.

This type of timber-frame construction consists of a vertical support system, a horizontal load-carrying and a lateral load systems. The vertical support system is made of posts, which run the whole height of the structure which allows construction of a building with a maximum of two floors. Whereas, the studs span one floor, which provide support for the wall panels. The horizontal load-carrying system is made out of floorboards, which pick up and convey the vertical loads to a series of closely spaced joists (rafters) supported by primary beams that transfer loads to the vertical system. The diagonal bracing and the joint gussets represent the lateral system.

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(16) Stages of construction.

(17) Section-perspective view of a Segal Method module.

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The Tartan grid This grid is knows as a tartan grid, which is set by a 50-600-50 mm units with a maximum span between posts of 3,85 m. The floors are generally tongued and grooved softwood boarding on joists. The ground floor is raised above the ground level, which is the reason why insulation against extra heat loses is needed.

The services are stored in the space in between, which makes it easy to be accessed.

50mm

50mm

50mm 600mm

50mm

600mm

50mm

600mm

50mm

600mm

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(18) Tartan grid dimensions.

3850mm

3850mm

3850mm

3850mm

(19) Plan of the structural module that shows the columns, plinths, beams and joists.

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The foundation The foundations are constructed on the existing ground level, without levelling the site. They consist of concrete blocks 600 x 600mm with depth depending on the soil conditions. The posts rest on the blocks without any mechanical link. Pads like lead and rubber are placed in between as a barrier against water and moisture. Friction provides resistance against slippage, but the structure has no resistance against rocking, because the simply supported posts cannot transfer the tensile forces to the ground. In order to prevent rocking, the method is used for constructions with large plant and low height.

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(20) Illustration showing the foundation elements and their dimensions.

The services area The services are accommodated in the voids of roofs, floors and walls, which are accessible by unscrewing a batten or lifting out a panel. The ceiling void is used for the lighting wiring, while the spaces between the wall panels at joints are hosting the wires to the light switches. The floor void accommodates the pipes for heating, gas, hot and cold water, while the waste pipes are suspended in the space below the ground floor.

Made out of painted plasterboard, the ceilings are laid between the joists of battens. The width of the boards is usually 600mm and the modification required is a simple trimming in length in order to fit. For achieving a special half hour fire resistance, the ceiling below the first floor is designed using sacrificial timber linings which are fixed to the joists. In the event of fire, these linings burn, while protecting the structural joists.

(21) Section perspective displaying the fitting of services in the ceiling and floor slabs.

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The Roof After assembling the frames together, the next step is constructing a roof. Variety of forms for it are available, but a flat roof has been proved to be the most convenient choice because of its advantages. Being quick and economical, this roof can be used to cover any plan shape with no difficulties. Considering the possibility of later expansion of the building itself, this type of roof could be easily extended in any direction without problems.

The roof deck is comprised of woodwool slabs with no need of cutting, which are laid on the joists. On top of the deck is the waterproof membrane, which is made out of a three-layer felt, bonded to each other. This connection could be a self-build operation if it is done with cold bitumen or a single layer butyl rubber membrane. If it is made with hot bitumen, it will require a professional roofer. Laid loose on the deck, this membrane is free to expand and contract without restraint. In this way, a failure of the membrane due to wrinkles and tears at the edges is avoided. Shingle keeps the membrane on its position without any further fixing, but by its weight. It serves as a protection for the felt from direct sunlight. For this kind of roof, the insulation could be done on the outside as an inverted roof where the waterproofing membrane is beneath the insulation, but also by ventilating the void above the ceiling in order to avoid interstitial condensation.

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(22) Illustration showing the elements that make up the roof.

400mm

400mm

(23) Plan and section showing the roof elements.

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The stairs have simple design in order to avoid complicated setting out and cutting of the pieces. Supported on posts or cantilevered beams, the threads lap over the risers at right angles.

Following the modular arrangement, the staircases can adapt variety of different solutions, but curves are not possible to create due to the structural grid.

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(24) View of the stairs.

Besides the simple construction process, the documentation is also simple and consists of small free-hand diagrams of the layout and structure with standard details of junctions, a schedule of materials and a set of instructions. The list of materials functions as the bills of quantities and specifications, required by the British building regulations, and at the same time provides a basis for accurate ordering and cost control from the outset. The materials are chosen with regard to their performance and cost, having standard dimensions as these that are sold on the market, without the need of modifications. They are easy to work, using simple hand power tools and are of an easily handled size and weight.

(25) Walter’s Way, designed using Walter Segal’s Method in the 1980s.

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Translation into Design External form Oswald Mathias Ungers argued on Casabella’s ‘10 opinions about the type’ that a typology, which he defines as the ideology of the process, can be limiting. He believed that with a consistent process the final result is in danger of ending up as a cliché́ or repetitive. This monotony is evident in the method, where the limitations create a tighter grip on the variety of design and form externally and internally. The forms are dictated by the proportion of the grid and load-capacity of the joints and material.

Elements like balconies and cantilevered spaces are only achievable by supporting them with posts as raised platforms. This is however uncommon due to the fact that this method of building is based on precise optimisation of resources and total calculation and that results in increasing the material cost. The façade has fewer constrictions since the walls don’t carry weight, It allows large openings within the grid, like windows, doors and glass panels.

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(26) View of the terrace.

(27) Diagram showing different plan variations.

(28) Walter Segal-designed House, London, United Kingdom.

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Internal organization The method is pragmatic in the design and construction process; creating an attitude that celebrates simplicity. However, this simplicity could lead to a repetitive typology and organization of internal spaces. This is due to the rigid grid of the method that has a limited bay area dictated by the position of the posts.

The different spaces with different functions can be completely merged and the position of posts could be a way of indicating a threshold between one space and another. The stairs has to conform to the proportions of the grid established by the structure, leaving few variations plausible. The interior is very easy to furnish; it can be simple and cost efficient by keeping the beams and posts exposed or it can be easily concealed and modernised. While sublevels and double heights are not achievable with the original method, it is achievable with a slight variation to the structure.

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(29) A Segal Method house which is modified to permit the realisation of sublevel.

(30) Internal view of the living space.

(31) View of the hallway.

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PART 2

Applicability of the Method in Bulgaria and Sudan

There are various design methodologies and ways to construct housing and organize internal spaces; however, what makes the Segal method of interest in this book is its malleability into diverse cultural contexts.

The thesis portrays the distinct characteristics of two very different contexts in terms of geographical, cultural, economic, social and political aspects. Each country falls on a different end of the spectrum in these categories. In Bulgaria the different mentality of the people ruling the country has played an important role in forming the architectural language of the country. The consequences of that now are a combination of building styles from very different historical periods. Bulgaria represents a more extroverted country, where the internal organization is not a specific one for every house, but rather based on the taste and vision of its owners.

Sudan is a relatively conservative country, where social and cultural traditions dictate the urban layout and the internal organisations of houses. The chapter explores the possibility of the application of the Segal method to provide a plausible solution, even if it’s temporary for some of the highlighted issues.

(32) Geographical location of Bulgaria and Sudan. Elaboration by the authors.

Bulgaria The country is situated in south-eastern Europe, occupying the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. With a population of over seven millions, out of which 74% is urban, the country covers an area of 111,000 square kilometres. Bulgaria is the only country in Europe that has not changed its name since it was first established in 681.

(33) Traditional Bulgarian architecture in the Old town of Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

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History and Geology The history of Ancient Bulgaria dates back to the time of about 400 BC, when a race called the Thracians inhabited these territories. After being part of the Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire, in 681 Bulgaria was established as a country.

This year marks the foundation of the First Bulgarian Empire, which is characterized by the Christianization and the Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture. This was followed by the Second Bulgarian Empire and the difficulties, which Bulgarians have faced during the nearly 500-year period when they were under Ottoman rule. In 1878, an autonomous Bulgarian state was created, even though remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. In 1908, the full independence for Bulgaria was declared.

All these historical periods and the different cultures have left their impact on the architectural language used in Bulgaria. The Islamic architecture in the country, represented not only by the mosques, but also by public baths (hamams), fountains (cheshmas), covered markets, clock towers and fortresses, is the result of the Ottoman Empire influences. In the XVIII and XIX century, Bulgaria has experienced a fast economic, political and cultural progress. The need of widening the horizon made Bulgarians, who could afford it, travel to Western Europe and bring back home the culture and mentality of the people there. This is how the modern tendencies of Western Europe have influenced the buildings, enriching them with wood carvings, pretty ornaments and wall paintings. During the period of Soviet Union influences in Bulgaria, many communist buildings were erected, distinguishable from the rest thanks to the monolithic, grey and often monstrous look they have, made out of concrete and metal with no ornamental decorations from the outside. Being characterized by their rough shapes, those edifices have interiors with huge wall murals of political figures or representing moments from the Bulgarian history.

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Geography Considering the relatively small area of Bulgaria, the natural landscape is quite diverse, consisting of lowlands and plains, foothills and plateaus, river valleys and mountains of varying elevations. The average altitude is 470m with more than two-thirds of the country’s territory being below 600m. Looking from north to south, Bulgaria is divided into the following geomorphological regions: Danubian Plain, Balkan Mountains, Transitional region and Rilo-Rhodope region. The eastern parts near the Black Sea are characterized with a hilly relief, which gradually gain height to the west. The rich nature of the country is also an important factor when it comes to building. The presence of forests with different tree species can provide wood not only for furnishing, but also for construction.

(34) Geographic map of Bulgaria.

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Climate conditions Detailed information regarding the climate of Bulgaria is necessary before the construction process starts. The country’s four seasons require both heating and cooling system, which should be chosen according to the specific temperatures of the area.

This is fundamental not only because of the differences from the mountains to the plains, but also due to the extreme temperature variations.

The climate of Bulgaria is mainly a moderate continental, influenced in the south by the Mediterranean. The former produces abundant snowfall and thus its influence is stronger during winter, when the latter causes hot and dry weather during the second half of the summer. The temperatures in the country conceal a wide variation as the records show with the lowest being −38 °C and the highest of 45 °C. The average annual temperature of 10.5 °C varies from -2.9°C at the highest peak of the country to 13.9°C, recorded in a town in southwestern Bulgaria.

The relief of the country has a strong influence on the climate.

Bulgarian mountains and valleys act as a barrier for air masses, causing sharp contrasts in weather over relatively short distances. This barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains is felt throughout the country, leading to a cooler northern Bulgaria, which receives more rain than the lowlands of southern Bulgaria. Even though it is far away from the country, the Atlantic Ocean is the reason for the cool and rainy weather in summer and the relatively mild one with abundant snowfall in winter. The other climate-forming factors are the Mediterranean Sea, which has a stronger influence on the southern part of the country, and the Black Sea, which affects only a narrow long strip along the coastline, because of its small area.

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In terms of seasons and territory, the precipitation in Bulgaria is uneven. In general, it rains throughout the year with more frequent and abundant thunderstorms in the mountains during summer. In the northern areas, the highest precipitation is during May and June, while in the southern parts, it is in winter.

The annual snow cover is unstable, lasting from twenty to thirty days in the lowlands to nine months in the highest mountains.

Mean annual precipitation ranges from about 450 mm in the northeast to more than 1,190 mm in the highest areas. This shows significant deviations both with regard to the elevation and the geographical location.

(35) Kรถppen climate types of Bulgaria.

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Natural hazards Climate changes in Bulgaria can significantly increase the occurrence of the weather-related disasters. The country is exposed to a wide range of natural hazards such as floods, earthquakes, landslides, strong winds and heavy snowfalls. The first three are the most noticeable events, since the disasters caused by them have negative economic and social impacts on the country.

Extreme temperatures can be recorded often, as well as floods, which are responsible for the greatest direct damage, affecting the population. In the past, the floods ruined many public and private buildings, damaged cultural heritage and activated landslides. Although floods are natural phenomena, being the results of heavy rainfall or intensive snow melting, their appearance is largely influenced by human interference in natural processes.

Looking in the past, Bulgaria has had some of the strongest earthquakes in European history, noting Richter magnitudes of 7.9 and 6.3 and a relatively low magnitude of 5.7. In recent years, the earthquakes have been relatively rare with the capital Sofia and its whole district facing the highest earthquake risk.

Based on the data of climate change scenarios for Bulgaria, a trend towards increased frequency of extreme events is foreseen. This is demonstrated in more often occurrences of heavy rainfalls, floods and landslides. The last occur as a result of natural factors as earthquakes, intensive rainfall or snowfall, fluctuations in the groundwater level and erosion. Nevertheless, human activities like deep excavations, road constructions and extraction of resources also play an important role.

Thanks to the data from previous natural disasters, the construction materials and the building method should be chosen carefully, taking into consideration the possibility of a future event like a flood or an earthquake, for example.

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1.1 1.5 2.3 3.2

(36) Seismic hazard distribution map of Bulgaria.

(37) Landslide hazard assessment of Bulgaria by administrative regions.

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Forests and wood availability Nowadays, one of the most important ecological aspect of the forests is the prevention or reduction of climate changes through carbon absorption. Forests play the role of natural obstacles against degradation and soil erosion, while influencing the water balance as well. Bulgaria has diverse terrain and several mountains, which are the main source of timber. Forests cover around 30% of the country’s territory with a bigger part of them on the slopes of over 20%, which makes harvesting and reforestation very difficult. The average age of Bulgarian forests is about fifty-sixty years. Out of all these young forests, around 75% are state owned, while the remaining are owned by private companies or individuals. When it comes to the diversity of Bulgarian forests, a greater amount of deciduous forests is present, while coniferous forests are just 30%. The most common species of the former are beech, oak and ash tree; when for the latter, they are white and black pine, Scotch pine, Norway spruce and fir tree. Dispersed throughout the country, forests are organised in two major categories: 40% are timber producing and 60% are in protected territories. The lower share of timber producing forests has reduced the potential for more intensive timber production and made sourcing of local timber more expensive and challenging. This is also influenced by the expansion of protected forests in the country. Difficulties in timber harvesting come from the mountainous terrain and the lack of developed logging infrastructure.

One of the main lumbering areas in Bulgaria are Rila and the western Rhodope Mountains. The wood and in particular, logs and particleboard are exported to Greece and Macedonia, while the countries from which wood is imported are Germany and Italy. Despite the fact that Bulgaria is a producer of both hard and softwoods, substantial amount is also imported due to the needs of the wooden furniture industry.

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(38) National Land Cover Dataset of Bulgaria, 2009-2010.

(39) Distribution of mapped virgin forests in Bulgaria, 2006.

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Traditional Architecture Slavic people have many traditions when it comes to building a house. The materials used in the past were mainly stone and wood with a special attention to the decorations. While Bulgaria was under Ottoman rule (1396 - 1878), wooden constructions in a combination with bricks were the most common, not only on the territory of this country, but on the whole Balkan peninsula.

The reason for that is the availability of the wood thanks to the many forests present in the area, as well as the durability of this type of constructions.

Most of the wooden houses in Bulgaria belong to the National Revival period, called also the Bulgarian Renaissance. Being a time of socio-economic development, it is impressive because of the characteristic architecture which can be found in old towns as Tryavna, Koprivshtitsa, Plovdiv and many others.

In architecture during the Bulgarian National Revival period, the evolution in the wooden houses goes through three different sub-periods: Pre-Renaissance, Early and High Renaissance.

The first one is from the end of the XVI century to the XVIII century. One-storey wooden houses are characterized by low ceilings of 1.70m and doors of 1.50m which made the spaces very dark. Hence, the fireplace was not only used for heating, but as a source of light as well. During the Early Renaissance period of the XVIII century, the wooden houses were of two levels with a stone ground floor. On the front faรงade of the building, an external wooden staircase was placed. High Renaissance covers the period from the middle of the XVIII century to the middle of the XIX century. The evolution of the dwellings led to a clear composition of the spaces in plan, rather than having one single room, combining all the functions. The houses were decorated with wood-carvings and iron hardware. Some of the buildings were three stories high and they already had an inner staircase.

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(40) Wooden house with a stone ground floor in the village of Bozhentsi, Bulgaria.

(41) Wooden house of the Bulgarian National Revival period in the Ethno village Etar.

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The different historical periods and the different cultures on the territory have influenced the architecture, going from detailed to less detailed buildings like the ones, constructed during the Socialist period (09.09.1944 – 10.11.1989). After the Second World War, it became impossible for the architects to demonstrate any signs of individualism, since the Bulgarian socialist state forbade the private entrepreneurship in 1948. Being isolated from the countries outside the Soviet bloc, Bulgaria was developing according to the Soviet model. In a time of a fundamental change for the country, transforming it from agricultural to industrial, the aim was construction of many high-rise buildings in order to host more people. They were moving from rural to urban areas in search for more opportunities. The increased population in the big cities needed housing quickly, which could not be satisfied by using the traditional monolithic buildings, since their construction requires more time.

Considered as a direct consequence of the influence of socialism in the country, reinforced concrete panels are constructed using a quick and cheap method for buildings up to eight floors.

Nowadays, they are no longer desirable, due to their rapid deterioration. This skeleton-free large panel construction system aims to minimise the area of the corridors and any additional spaces. The outcome of that is a small practical apartment, where there are not any extra square meters, if not necessary.

Another common technique from 1970s is the monolithic in-situ cast concrete, using formwork. It is good for multi-storey buildings and the seismic loadings are well absorbed, which is very important, since Bulgaria is situated in the centre of the most seismo-active region of Europe – the Balkans. The third most common method during that time is called lift-slab construction.

It is a technique of pouring concrete slabs on the ground, one on top of the other, and then lifting the slab into position over the columns, with the help of hydraulic jacks. This construction method, which is used for very tall multi-storey buildings, achieves substantial savings in formwork.

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(42) Socialist residential blocks in the neighbourhood of Trakiya in Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

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Evolution of the Dwelling Not only the construction methods and the exteriors have changed throughout the time, but the internal organization as well. It has evolved, starting from the traditional one-storey family house with a total area not more than 25sqm. For those houses, the toilets were not part of the main building and no baths were present, since public ones were used in the cities. The situation in rural areas was the same, except that public baths could be found only in bigger villages or the ones where mineral springs were available. Later, in the beginning of XX century, the toilet and the bath were combined in one room, already situated inside the house. However, public baths in Bulgaria stayed open until 1990.

During the 80s of the XX century, even though still elementary, the first two-storey wooden houses were erected and later, a variety of buildings with different areas were available, going from 40sqm to 160sqm. When comparing a single storey and a two-storey house, the benefits of the former are that it is more compact and it is a better solution for old people, since it does not have staircase. While the latter has more space for extra bathrooms and terraces, as well as, a clear separation between a day-time area, which is the first floor and a night-time area, which is the second floor.

Back in the past, the homes of the wealthy Bulgarians were characterised by wooden carvings on the ceilings. Even though, wood was used more often for decorations, many houses were constructed out of it during the National Revival period in Bulgaria.

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(43) Interior of a traditional wooden house in the city of Tryavna, Bulgaria.

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The wood folk house is a valuable source in order to get familiarised not only with the ancient history, architecture and construction used on the territory of Bulgaria, but also to give an idea about the culture, the lifestyle and the historical traditions of Bulgarian people. Because of that, homes were quite similar to each other, especially the interiors of the same city or a village.

The most significant architectural element in the house, which remained from the past, is the stone fireplace. It is especially important for the mountain villages where the winter is very cold and people are using the fireplace, not only as a decorative element, but for its main purpose of heating. In the past, the room where the fireplace is was used for cooking and warming water as well. Typical characteristics of a traditional Bulgarian kitchen in a rural house are the wooden beams on the ceiling and the walls, painted in white.

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(44) Interior of an old wooden house in the city of Koprivshtica, Bulgaria.

The pieces of furniture inside an old suburban Bulgarian house were not many, but only the most necessary. That is the reason why the plans of the houses from the past are showing rather the division of the spaces and the position of the fireplace than the furniture itself, as it is in the architectural plans nowadays. In the main room a small round wooden table with typical three-legged small wooden chairs played the role of a space where the family gather for dinner. The wooden floor of the rooms was usually covered with rugs, which brings the feeling of cosiness.

The schemes below show the change in the spatial organization from a one-storey house of two rooms to a two-storey house, consisting of five spaces per floor. This also gives an idea of the plan’s diversity and the evolution going from the two-spaced house of the Pre-Renaissance period, through the square or rectangular shape during the Early Renaissance, to the closed form of the High Renaissance.

(45) Evolution of the spacial organization of the typological group of Koprivshtica, Bulgaria.

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(46) Exterior and Interior of a typical suburban wooden house, built in 1831, situated in the city of Koprivshtica, Bulgaria.

(47) Exterior and Interior of a prefabricated house in southern Bulgaria, built in 2016 with a total built area of 374 sqm, representing a modern wooden house.

In recent years, wooden houses in Bulgaria are more likely to have two floors with the services such as kitchen and bathrooms situated downstairs and bedrooms upstairs. When looking at the layout of the spaces, generally the position of the bathroom and the kitchen is such that they share a wall in between for the drainage pipes. Those two spaces can be arranged also in another way, if they are at a distance and not facing each other.

As it could be seen on the previous pictures, despite the fact that the construction material is still wood, the houses look very different from each other. The reason for that is not only how diverse the exteriors are, but also the contrast between the interiors. The old internal spaces were organised in a traditional way, while the new houses follow the modern European tendencies.

Bulgarian rural houses are in harmony with the nature, not only because of the use of natural materials, but how the houses fit into the picturesque landscape, where situated. The undeveloped land of the property is usually dedicated to a garden full of greenery.

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(48a) Front faรงade of a log house.

(48b) First and Ground floor plan of a log house.

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(2) Front faรงade of a log house

Nowadays in Bulgaria prefabricated wooden houses are designed by companies, specialised in that field of constructions.

Some of the most popular types of those include not only the log house, but structures made out of wooden panels or wooden skeleton constructions.

Except the quick building process, thanks to which a home could be erected in two-three months, those houses are characterised by high quality and low price, as well as being environmentally friendly. Even though the country is full of forests with suitable wooden material, this type of construction is still not very popular in Bulgaria and the knowledge and experience gained in that field are not broad.

(49) Log house in a village near Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

(50) Exploded axonometry of a one-storey house made out of wooden panels.

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Applicability of the Method As a consequence of the industrialization during the Socialist period in Bulgaria, many small towns and villages were left empty.

Most of the people were replacing their life in a spacious suburban house with a life in a tiny apartment of one of those residential blocks, typical for the time. Even though, they were newly built due to the current need of more residential buildings in the big cities, they were not a better place to live in, when compared to a wooden house in a village. However, people were moving in search for more opportunities and better jobs, since working in the field was not what the new generation wanted to do.

Unlike now, at that time, people had to live in the same place where they work, since travelling every day back home was unthinkable. By contrast, nowadays this is not an issue anymore, since almost everyone has a car and people prefer to live further away from the noisy centres of the cities or even the cities themselves. That is the reason why in recent years many people made a choice to move back to the villages, keeping in mind that having a whole house for the family is much better than living the whole life in a small apartment in the centre of an overbuilt city.

This is the reason why the Segal Method can be a great solution for the ones, who want to build their own house quickly. Wood as a building material is a typical one Bulgarians have used for a long time, which means they already know its advantages and limitations. This knowledge helps them minimise the disadvantages of the material itself. This quick and easy building method does not require big and heavy machines, but just the neighbours’ help. People from different Bulgarian villages are known to be very warm-hearted, hence they would like to help for the construction. In this way, there is a stronger connection between neighbours, which is most likely to be missing, when living in a tall residential building in any big city.

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(51) Socialist apartment block of prefabricated concrete panels in Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

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Buildings erected using this method are customisable and upgradable. The possibility of enlarging the house by adding more rooms, instead of searching for a new home or staying in the current one when it became already small for the amount of people living in it, is one of the advantages of the Segal Method.

It is a good choice not only because of the wood’s availability, thanks to the variety of forests present on the country’s territory, but due to the material’s good performance in seismic zones.

The idea of filling up the “dead” Bulgarian villages with wooden houses, realised using the Segal Method, would bring back the atmosphere of the old wooden houses which are typical for the time of the Bulgarian National Revival period, as well as the warm feeling of wood in the interiors.

Specific characteristic of those houses is their exterior and the fact that they could not be immediately recognised as wooden ones. This is because their facades are painted, usually in brown and white, though some are more colourful and have ornamental decorations. The interiors, keeping the natural finish of wood, help improving productivity and concentration. The reason is that wood-based environments contribute to increased happiness and reduced stress levels. This shows that living in a wooden house can also improve the quality of life people have.

The method could be a possible solution for the current issue of the empty villages all around the country, since a wooden home could perfectly fit the magnificent landscape of the country. The constructions out of wood were one of the most common in Bulgaria back in the past, hence the new will remind of the great time in Bulgarian architecture.

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(52) National Revival style houses in the Old town of Plovdiv, Bulgaria.

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Sudan Sudan is a country governed by traditions. The history and trauma it experienced throughout the centuries is reflected in the architecture of the country. The relatively conservative culture is also full of contradictions as a result of the layered and complex history. The country’s social habits, which hasn’t seen much change for decades, form the architectural language of the country.

(53) Kushite pyramids near Jebel Barkal.

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Introduction Sudan has been a term that referred to the general sub-Saharan area west and south of Egypt. The Republic of Sudan was established in 1956 from the Anglo-Egyptian border and in 2011 it no longer includes the southern region now known as South Sudan. Sudan’s area of 1.886 million kilometres squared makes it the 3rd largest African country. However, the majority of the population is in rural areas with only 33% in urban cities.

The population of almost 43 million people puts Sudan in the 35th rank globally. The median age of the country is 19, with 41% under the age of 15 and 20% aged between 15 and 24.1 This youth population, as defined by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, could become a asset for the country in the form of a work force. It can be utilized by field investments and proving more jobs for the next generation to succeed.

Sudan stretches over multiple climate zones. The majority of the northern region is arid dessert, while the southern region is classified as tropical. The country however, experiences rainy seasons between April and October. The heavy rainfall and poor drainage cause flash floods, displacing thousands and injuring hundreds according to a report published on 29 August 2019

by Aljazeera news.2 This is a recurring disaster in Sudan especially in villages and cities along the Nile. The challenging climate has not been addressed in the design or construction methods widely used in Sudan. In addition; the loose building codes do not provide enough restrictions to ensure safe construction and living conditions.

The maps show the meeting point of the Blue and while Niles near Khartoum and the areas affected by the flooding near the White Nile, which is faster than the Blue Nile, in 2019 according to images captured by NASA’s Operational Land Imager (OLI).

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1 “Sudan Population 2019,” World Population Reveiw, http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan-population/ 2 “Death toll in Sudan’s flash floods rises to 62” Al Jazeera News, Aug 2019, https:// www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/08/death-toll-sudan-flash-floods-rises-62-190826071404948. html

(54) Geographical Map of Sudan.

(55) Map of Sudan showing White and Blue Niles junction in Khartoum where the Nile is formed.

(56) Satelite images of the flooding zones on the banks of the White Nile.

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Historical Settlements and Colonization’s Influence on the City To understand the urban fabric and the living habits of the people, one must understand the layout of the city and the factors that drove its evolution in the urban scale first before looking at the neighbourhood scale. The political history of the country has deeply influenced the built environment and the urban layout which in effect shaped the modern living habits of the people.

Every region in the country is culturally diverse and very versatile from one another. These unique traditions and differences are attributed to the early settlements of the different tribes. The focus here is on the capital, Khartoum in the urban scale, which has a complex and layered history and external influences which in turn, shaped the current architectural trends and issues.

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(57) The Charge of the 21st Lancers at Omdurman.

In prehistoric Sudan, circa 7000 BC, hunters and nomads moved from the harsh sub-Saharan desert towards the Blue and White Nile rivers. There, they settled in the land of Nubia on the banks of the Nile river and cultivated the land for farming which gave rise to the first villages. These tribes built their simple shelters from mud obtained from the river and reinforced it with straw.

One of the most notable villages lied on the junction of the two rivers, which forms the Nile, this area looks like the trunk of an elephant, hence it was later name Khartoum.

The illustration below shows the Nouen African village along the White Nile. Where they built their houses from straw and mud from the banks of the Nile river. Created by Girardet after Bolognesi published on Le Tour du Monde Paris 1862.

(58) Ancient native africans in their huts made by mud and straw in a village close to a river.

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(59) Pictures of The Nuba, Sudan.

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In 1821 the Turco-Egyptians took control of Khartoum, which they declared to be the capital of the country and transformed it into a typical ottoman city with a protective wall and gates surrounding it. Islam was also introduced to the country with many mosques being erected in the capital. The city’s buildings were mostly built in brick by the Turks who were skilled in firing brick.

The islamic architecture has already been introduced to other parts of modern day Sudan. The Ottoman Empire had taken over the port city of Suakin in 1517, where their influence on the architectural language is evident in the ruins visible today.

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(60) Suakin Island.

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(61) Mosque of Sennar in 1821.

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(62) Mosque On Mainland El-geyf, Suakin.

(63) National Bank of Suakin.

(64) Stairs Inside A Ruined Ottoman Coral Buildings, Suakin.

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The leader of the national insurgent movement Al-Mahdi seized Khartoum in 1885 from the Turco-Egyptians. Soon after, the English General Charles George Gordon attempted and failed to retake it in favour of the Egyptians who were their allies at the time. The capital moved to Omdurman and Khartoum was left in fragments. Most of the materials used to build the capital was stripped and used for new buildings in Omdurman.

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(65) Portrait of Muhammad Ahmed, known as Al-Mahdi.

Horatio Herbert Kitchener defeated the Mahdi troops and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was formed in 1898. The capital was re-established in Khartoum. Khartoum consists of three main areas: Khartoum, south of the Blue Nile, which was dominated

by British culture, while Omdurman was still largely influenced by Arabic-Islamic traditions and Khartoum North that was evidently and slowly turning into a poorer urban area.

(66) Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener.

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(67) University of Khartoum, previously called Gordon Memorial College.

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(68) Presidential Palace, Khartoum.

(69) Main Library Building, University of Khartoum.

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(70) Omdurman Municipality.

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(71) Omdurman’s Main Mosque in 1936.

(72) Farouq Mosque.

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(73) View of Suakin Houses, 1928.

(74) Khalifa House, Omdurman.

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Evolution of the Urban Layout The Islamic City Omdurman was never planned as a whole, the resulting network of roads and streets and the formation of blocks was a result of the spontaneous division of the area during the Mahdi rule. The city was used as a military base after the Mahdi’s death and his successor Al-Khalifa took charge. It was characterized by a mosque in the main town square, which was used as a market, which resembles a Persian meydan in layout and function. A military headquarter, an ammunition depot and a treasury were built around the square as well and the Khalifa house sat in proximity to them. The surrounding wall remained enclosing the organic and relatively chaotic and spontaneous urban layout that severely lacks green areas.

In Omdurman it is clear that the building took precedence over the street, which indicates the presence of a social hierarchy that favours the resident rather than the street or the public realm.

(75) Khartoum in 1935.

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(76) Map showing the development stages for Khartoum, Omdurman and Khartoum North.

(77) Postcard Showing Omdurman.

(78) Postcard Showing Khartoum.

(79) Map of Khartoum and Omdurman, Sudan, in 1905 by Thomas Cook.

The Colonial City Khartoum was initially not much different to Omdurman in layout, which was difficult to control for Kitchener.* He wanted to redesigned the city completely, possibly with the help of W.H. McLean, into a more formal layout that lives to the standards they were accustomed to in Egypt and provides easy access routes for mobilizing the soldiers in case of an attach. He was also influenced by Howard’s Garden City, which can be seen in the orthogonal superimposed grid of his plan, that allowed certain districts to flourish. The approach could also be compared to Haussmann’s renovation of Paris, that took place between 1853-1870.* It disregarded the existing city layout and ran large roads through it, which opened up the city, provided space for a new sewage system and made it easier to move the soldiers and military equipment through the streets. The public buildings and the Governor’s Palace were situated on the Blue Nile bank.

The Victoria avenue ran south from the palace towards the central station, with the main square Maidan Abbas sitting on its west. The Arabic and European markets as well as the Khartoum Grand mosque sat at the heart of the city. The Gordon University was established as well as the All Saints cathedral in addition to many commercial and private buildings in the colonial style.

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(80) Map of Khartoum and Omdurman,1952.

Effects of Instability on the Economy After the independence of Sudan, on January 1st 1956, the city has seen a halt in the construction sector due to the political instability. The construction sector has seen a halt as the resources were directed for military funds instead of it being directed towards infrastructure.

In a study conducted by Akram Elkhalifa from the faculty of Architecture at University of Khartoum titled: The Construction Industry of Sudan: Potentials and Challenges, he states: The real growth of the sector’s output was either negative or near to zero till the mid 1990s, it had a positive value in 1997(‌). Despite the growth that the construction sector enjoyed during the 1995-2003, the share of this sector to GDP showed a decreasing pattern (fig 1).

The share of construction as percentage of GDP averaged 4.7% during 1982-1998 whereas it accounted for 2.7% during 1999-2009. 1

This shows the large drop in the main construction sector and its subsectors. They are also largely affected by the general market which suffers from large economic limitations which are stemming from mismanagement of resources.

1 Akram Elkhalifa, The Construction and Building Materials Industries in Sudan (Khartoum: University of Khartoum).

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(81) Photograph capturing the atmosphere in a typical local local market corner.

Photo: Deterioration

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Much of the population displaced from the suburbs or immigrants arriving from other countries moved to larger cities. The drastic urbanization and these unorganized immigrations were unpredictable and strained the sector further, causing a large gap between demand and supply. The country’s attempt of fighting the slums was by implementing a program that would allow lower or middle class families to acquire affordable land with the condition of completing a predetermined minimum amount of construction over a set period of time. This however created another persistent and widespread issue seen nowadays, the houses are mostly never built beyond the required minimum construction level. However, the taxes imposed on construction materials leads to use of alternative materials and gives rise to squatter residences.

The family’s resources are mostly spent on the auctions to acquire a plot, which are sold only in multiples of 200 squared meters which is what the government considers to be the minimum dimension for a family house, and the remainder of the funds is spent on fees for infrastructure and the minimum construction level required. The family is then left unable to afford to complete the construction process.

The strict and expensive permits fees including the issuing title rights all contribute to the increasing gap between lower and middle class living conditions. Some of these faulty policies include the minimum building requirements set for each of the 4 building permit types. These 4 permits correspond to the classification of classes of the citizens, which are evaluated based on the family’s financial status and affluence.

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(82) A squatter settlement in Um Badda.

(83) Inhabited unfinished house.

The Role of the Family in the Neighborhood One of the most prominent social habits that persevered through the centuries, is the social or family groupings. The different tribes that settled in and around Nubia, created strong ties between family and neighbours for centuries which is reflected in the current organization of neighbourhoods. The family becomes the pivotal pole of the neighbourhood, which governs not only the social life, but the moral values also. In a book published by Sandison he elaborates on the phenomena and describes it: Neighboring families have intermarried over a period of many years or even centuries, and a network of relationship and friendship has spread over much of the residential area. With this network goes a system of moral control exercised by the older people over the young, a control which costs nothing and whose efficiency is testified by the extremely low crime rate of the whole town.1

This form of communication and relationship building can only manifest in the nurtured communities, where the houses layout encourages interaction between the neighbours. The typical layout of residential areas in Omdurman is strictly rigid, with plot walls being shared and not exceeding 2 meters high. With daily interaction and greetings from morning until evening, the boundaries between neighbours are blurred. This proximity is one of the main reasons these neighbourhoods flourish as the community needs were met internally by the residents. The urban layout of some of the neighbourhoods in the suburbs is very dispersed with less chances for the neighbours to stay connected and aware of each other’s needs which makes it difficult to self supply each other’s needs.

1 Paul James Sandison, “Problems of Low-cost housing in the Sudan,” Sudan Notes and Records 35, no. 1 (1954): 75-9.

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(84) Neighbours resting in a Rakooba where Tea-ladies serve drinks.

(85) A gathering of the men of the neighbourhood to have Iftar meal together

Sudan’s history is tainted by suppressive leaders and policies that does not promote the communal activities and strive on public separation. The public sector has been purposefully neglected to aid the government, and earlier the English colonizers, in suppressing the communication places for the public as a suppression and control tactic. These factors are what shaped the current trends seen in the city, like the lack of public spaces and the absence of communal centres or organized communal activities. The need for the public’s participation in place making is dire to solidify the relationships between neighbours and provide a stable social sphere that can support individuals and boost productivity even during political unrest periods. In Kenneth Frampton’s ‘Critical regionalism’ and the liberation movement he defines critical regionalism: Regionalism has dominated architecture in almost all countries at some time during the past two centuries and a half. By way of general definition we can say that it upholds the individual and local architectonic features against more universal and abstract ones. In addition, however, regionalism bears the hallmark of ambiguity. On the one hand, it has been associated with movements of reform and liberation; (. . .) on the other, it has proved a powerful tool of repression and chauvinism (. . .). Certainly, critical regionalism has its limitations. The upheaval of the populist movement – a more developed form of regionalism – has brought to light these weak points. No new architecture can emerge without a new kind of relations between designer and user, without out new kinds of programs(. . .). Despite these limitations critical regionalism is a bridge over which any humanistic architecture of the future must pass.1

Sudan’s recent protests and revolution against the dictatorship of the president mark’s the country’s step towards that transition. During these protests the public’s restructure of public spaces is noticeable and shows a lust for a new architectural language and spaces of expression.

1 Kenneth Frampton, Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance (London: Pluto Press, 1983): 16-30.

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(86) A protester in the crowd that occupied the empty space infront of the military headquarters.

(87) Covered Market, Omdurman.

(88) A typical street with shops in Amarat, Khartoum.

(89) A Meydan used by the boys of the neighbourhood to play football.

Architectonic Language and the Search for a New Identity Traditional Houses The lack of public spaces lead to the house becoming a rather semi-private or shared space, where intimate and entertaining spaces merge and gave birth to new particular spaces. In Omdurman where spaces within houses have been predominantly scattered, have seen some shifts in the internal organizations of the houses to minimize the material required by clustering the spaces rather than keeping them scattered within the plot. However,

the typical house layout didn’t change drastically for decades, with the internal organization being reduced to the essential spaces and the form kept strictly pragmatic.

Due to the restrictive urban layout and the division of plots, most blocks were cut into equal rectangular plots. That meant that the form of the built is forced to follow the function and has to be restricted to the same plot space. The diagrams show the different forms based on the function of the building, erected on the same plot size. These are the variables of the built form in most neighbourhoods in Khartoum, which shows how limited the margin are for different forms to emerge. This another distinguishable difference between Omdurman and Khartoum, where the form of the house in Omdurman has traces of the Islamic architectural tones, while Khartoum remains largely influenced by the colonial style. They both however, share the same introverted spaces, with a clear separation of the living spaces from the street.

124

(90) Different form alterations for the same plot to accommodate different functions.

125

126

127

The house is an extension of the street, with a portion of the house plot being typically a small garden that provides shade and sometimes fruits for the street user. The Zeer is also another typical element that is usually situated in front of the house, which is a terra cotta pot that keeps water cool to provide for the passer by a way to combat the heat. This type of passive interaction is important for the strengthening of the community which is contradictory to the fact that the houses usually have no openings towards the street and the introverted house plan.

The house plot usually has two entrances one for the residents which leads to the private spaces of the house directly and the other leading to the main front yard. Beyond the plot wall starts a new inner plan, which could be described as a house within a house. With a main cluster of the house which includes the rooms and living spaces and detached spaces like bathrooms, the kitchen and sometimes a particular space called Rakooba.

A space called Sala is typical for larger houses, where the separate room opens towards the front yard and is for entertaining men. The front yard becomes an extension of the room, with a space for extra beds or a seating area around the front garden.

A small toilet is usually situated in a corner in the front yard, with external faucets and bench along the wall for ablution purposes.

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(91) The main door to a house, usually left open, with a small garden.

(92) A lower class neighbourhood with house activies extending to the street.

(93) A Zeer inside the public front yard of a house and an open door towards the street.

129

130

(94) Zeer is a terra cotta pot filled with water provided by a housee resident to the street users.

Meydan

Street 1.8000

WC Front Yard 6.0702

Neighbour Room 1 4.5000

3.6298

Veranda

20.0000

Veranda

Room 2

4.2500

1.4500

Courtyard

5.8000

Rakooba

3.6000

Kitchen

2.8000

3.8000

Neighbour

(95) Plan of a typical middle class house.

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The bedrooms are usually open towards a central space, traditionally that space was semi-open with a colonnade or arches open towards the front yard and sometimes towards the backyard as well, it is known as a Baranda or Veranda. This space is usually semi-private for entertaining women and is the residents main living space. The space evolved into a closed Saloon with windows and doors yet the traditional Branda is still largely present in most middle class houses.

A bathroom is usually placed on the far end of the back yard detached from the main cluster of rooms and facing it. The Kitchen is also detached and positioned along the far end of the back yard with another space attached to it or in close proximity known as a Rakooba. The space was originally built using a wood frame and a roof made of straw that allows the hot air to rise up and out, although some houses replace the straw roof with ribbed zinc sheet due to the rain season since it required less maintenance.

Some types had no walls or sometimes the walls were made using straw as a screen for extra shade. The Rakooba was either attached to the kitchen or the back yard’s wall. This space was for the purpose of extending the space of the kitchen which is usually very poorly ventilated due to lack of windows. The Rakooba provided the needed space and good ventilation for cooking with traditional appliances which require open fire.

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(96) A traditional Rakooba, where most of the family lounges.

(97) A typical house layout illustration showing the heart of the house, the Varanda.

(98) A typical backyard with a zinc Rakooba where the house chores are performed.

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(99a) View of a the Varanda open towards the intimate backyard garden.

(99b) The backyard hosts the private services, like the bathroom.

Reclaiming an identity Sudan has never contributed nor taken part in the global debate about architecture. It has always been in the dark when it comes to documentation of urban and architectural development as well as in terms of exposure to innovative building methods that tackles the pressing issues for them. The University of Khartoum has opened the first architecture department in Africa, yet it failed to advance the field mostly due to the crippling policies that do not govern the construction within the country.

The gap between the African vernacular buildings and the colonial architecture has not been addressed in the past. We can see recent attempts of inno-native buildings that are trying to balance traditional elements with the modern needs for a good quality of life. Some of these recent attempts is the Aga Khan award winning hospital in Khartoum, Salam Cardiac Centre for surgery by studio Tamassociati. It was a project that succeeded in providing sustainable solutions catered for the specific environment. One of the examples of good utilization of the context, was to repurpose the abandoned shipment containers in the city into the cafeteria. The use of shipment containers could be an unconventional material for construction, with some cases where it ends up costing more than the local materials of the area. However, in this case it was effective, since it transformed an issue into a product at a lower cost than the production of a different material and helped decluttering the environment.

The design was pragmatic with a limited budget yet it provided some spaces inspired by the traditional elements, like the Areesha, which is a larger and more public version of the Rakooba that served as the main waiting area. They also used the woven straw panels to provide shade in the colonnades.

(100) Elevation of Salam Cardiac Center.

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(101) Site plan of Salam Cardiac Center.

Photo: Salam Center

(102a) The main Varanda of the center.

(102b) Cafeteria terrace of the container medical compound.

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(103) Container medical compound building site.

139

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(104) Prayer & Meditation Pavilion by Tam Associatti.

(105) Elevations and Section of the Medical Housing Compound.

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Applicability of the Method Sudan is known for forests and woodworking for furniture, yet it is not a common material for construction in the present. It is a material commonly used for windows, doors and traditional Areesha or Rakooba.

It provides a chance for the native material to be repurposed for a larger role while keeping the traditional quality of spaces as a self sufficient solution for the economic restrictions.

The country’s dependency on wood has not decreased, however the supply has seen a drop. This could be attributed to the lack of good quality controlled wood treatment facilities that’s required to provide safe timber for construction. The forest lands are concentrated majorly in South Sudan, which indicates that the split between the north and south affected the supply of wood. However, this could be seen as an opportunity to strengthen the two economies and trade between the two countries. Despite Sudan being rich in resources; mismanagement and corruption has caused them to become depleted and for the currency to drop internationally causing alarming inflammation. This has hindered investments and the architecture and construction fields until this day. Private construction became unaffordable for the majority of the population, most relied on house sharing between family members and moving to the suburbs. The concrete, used for the construction, is often imported, which in turn, causes the prices to increase drastically. The most affordable method of construction is brick but due to the lack of knowledge in brick construction and reinforcement in addition to lack of building safety regulations enforcement, it poses a threat in terms of safety on the unskilled builder and resident.

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The method is not intended as a solution for the city’s identity crisis, it however, provides an immediate solution to the poor living conditions and social unrest in the political transitional period.

The streets long for an immediate response to the unavailability of shelters and public spaces. The city’s current lack of regulations and resources for the built environment is what makes the use of this method as a relief strategy, suitable. A large-scale change would be intrusive and traumatic for a city and population that has not found its identity yet. An efficient building method that fits into the existing layout and provides a safer and higher quality of life for the people instead of the slums, as well as provide spaces for communication, sharing knowledge, expression and pass on traditions and wisdom would serve the city’s immediate needs while a long term strategy is established.

In a research conducted by Ismaila Rimi Abubakar and Petra Leisenring Doan on Building New Capital Cities in Africa, in criticism of the modernist town planning strategies based on theoretical assumptions rather than local knowledge, they state: Each of these new towns was designed and implemented by foreign consultants with little involvement of the local community. This is not surprising because the modernist model is top-down, context-independent and based on scientific but not local knowledge. 1

This proves that the up to down planning process only succeeds in alienating the poor further and is disconnected from the social reality of the people. This is the reason a minimally intrusive method that tackles the pressing issues like the safety and poor living conditions is more adequate. Since it allows for the natural social and economic progression within the economic margins of the country rather than a large-scale intervention that could strain the public financing to maintain.

1 Ismaila Rimi Abubakar and others, Building New Capital Cities in Africa, (September 2017): 1-20.

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The method provides an opportunity for the people to rebuild their connections through local cultural centres or children shelters that gets the neighbourhood in its entirety involved. This further strengthens the street’s safety through stronger interactions during the construction that help build on the resident’s sense of unity.

Segal argued that the communality is not embodied in the image of connected urban spaces, but in the collaborative action and the inhabitants are involved in place making, not in sharing a made space.

His interest is the process of housing and inhabitation, not the product of architecture. The interactions would not be unregulated, they would be rather structured and governed by a hierarchy to ensure the self monitored quality of construction. By establishing a committee that oversees and teaches the method, similar to the initiative taken by Russ foundation, it ensure the consistency of the quality of building.

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(106) Protesters infront of the Military HQ, Khartoum.

(107) Encounters in South Sudan.

145

Perhaps the strongest criticism of Segal’s position is this lack of space for the collective, for the social realm. His buildings do not become part of the city and do not assist in its visual re-integration. This poses no issue in Sudan’s urban layout and the structure of the house, since the internal organization of the building is independent from the urban layout.

In fact it proves to be beneficial as it provides an easy expansion module for the economic conditions and social structure of the house in the neighbourhood. As the family grows, it is common for them to build extra spaces within the plot rather than moving. Neighbouring plots are sometimes bought to provide space for extended families to build a single complex of private and shared spaces to remain close and partially to reduce living costs. This clustering provides a small but crucial advance towards the issue of low density and urban sprawling which are some of the main contributors for the unavailability of public services in scattered neighbourhoods. In a journal by Zuhal Eltayeb Awad on Sustainable low-cost housing in Sudan, he provides urban plans of the Low-Cost Housing projects in 1989 and 2007, in which the latter notably limits the open space and concentrates more on creating a larger and more dense module. The 1989 project cluster module consists of 14 plots grouped around a 20x20 meter open space accessed by a narrow passageway of 3 meters. While the 2007 project’s cluster is increased into 64 plots with two symmetrical semi-public open spaces of 30.4x40 meters and elaborated the planning proposal by specifying that every six clusters would be grouped around a larger public open space. The proposal provided hierarchy in open spaces and roads within the neighbourhood. This module shows how the Segal method could be integrated into the existing urban fabric without intrusion.

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20.0

10.0

18.0 10.0

20.0

3.0

12.0 10.0

13.2

20.0

30.4 40.0

10.0

(108) Low-cost housing project in 1989.

(109) Low-cost housing project in 2007.

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CONCLUSION

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Wooden constructions characterizes the traditional architecture of many countries worldwide and are still very diffused, especially in residential buildings.

Moving to the countries investigated in the present Thesis, we can say that wood is certainly one of the traditional materials used in Bulgaria. In this context, wood is suitable for construction due to the familiarity that the local population has with its use and their skills in minimizing the technical disadvantages it presents.

This knowledge has been passed through generations and the use of a rationalised assemblage system as the Segal Method gives the chance to work collectively and consequently strengthen social relations. These connections are, indeed, what is missing for those Bulgarians who live in urban apartment blocks, typical of the Socialist period, besides a lack in domestic spaces devoted to hosting people.

The low cost of a house built using a method like Walter Segal’s, with its quick building process and the non-requirement of skilled professionals, could favour a counter-movement from over-crowded cities to low-density villages. This gives people the chance of building personally their desired house and reconnect to the local culture of dwelling that was overcame in the second half of the Twentieth century by the imposition of the socialist, homologating block.

149

The scenario changes in Sudan. In a setting where the inhabitants of a former-colonized and oppressed city never had any involvement in place making, they became indifferent to the public realm. However, with an inevitable globalization resulting from the diaspora’s diffusion into the country, the citizens are progressively becoming conscious of the two realms that govern their lives; and so, their attitude is shifting to a longing to be proactive in their communities. Hence, after a growing movement of protests, people started to look at the past in search for direction to lead them into the future, not to go in blindly.

As the peculiarities of the past become appealing, they manifest into a promising future that carries the symbols of popular pride. This epiphany of the existence of two forces and the struggle to balance the national culture and a universal civilisation. Kenneth Frampton defined this paradigm as Critical Regionalism.

Fundamental strategy of Critical Regionalism is to mediate the impact of universal civilization with elements derived indirectly from the peculiarities of a particular place.1

Unlike Regionalism, Critical Regionalism urges one to mediate their own cultural values and the modernism that tries to appropriate it to the global rational in the urbanism sphere. This is the time for the Sudanese people to find the elements that define the peculiarities of their culture and living habits, to preserve their identity in a historical moment in which the country heads into modernism. The application of the Segal Method – or an equivalent construction system that could guar1

150

Kenneth Frampton, Towards a Critical Regionalism (London: Pluto Press, 1983)

antee low costs, easy assemblage, and most of all the possibility of keeping typical dwelling spaces – could allow a non-traumatic transition into modernity.

The Segal Method takes advantage of the modern architectural advancement, yet, as its inventor stressed, the most original benefit of its application consists in the in the building process and not in the architectural value of the finished house. This can be interpreted in alignment with Frampton’s belief that the modernism should be critically adapted to the geographic, economic, social and cultural context.

To provide the tools for a community to be independent ensures the success of a building intervention. Sudan is known to start large investments into interventions which risk to fail, due to their unsustainability over a long-time span. The introduction of a construction method using a material that could be available almost locally could even favour the rise of a larger economy and eventually attract investors. One last remark consists in the possibility of implementing and enlarging a structure conceived using the Segal Method, which is a particularly relevant advantage for a family-oriented culture as the Sudanese, used to the progressive expansion of the house in family-owned sites.

Walter Segal’s self-build method was here taken as an example to investigate the possibility of re-interpreting traditional timber frame building systems not only to reach the technical and spatial standards of modern architecture, but to adapt to different antrophic contexts and dwelling cultures.

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Image Credits 1

Charles-Dominique-Joseph Eisen, Allegorical Engraving of the Vitruvian Primitive Hut, 1755, Illustration, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Essai_sur_l’Architecture_-_Frontispiece.jpg.

2

Tõnu Tunnel, Steampunk, 2019, Photograph, Estonia, https://www.archipanic.com/steampunk-pavilion/

3

Atelier Vecteur, Oscillating Timber Tunnel in Nantes, Photograph, France, https://www.parisdesignagenda.com/french-studio-atelier-vecteur-completes-oscillating-timber-tunnel/

4

Swedish Wood, Wood’s natural ecocycle, Diagram, https://www.swedishwood.com/about_wood/sustainability/den-grona-fabriken/

5

Swedish Wood, Carbon emissions from manufacture of construction materials, Diagram, https://www.swedishwood.com/about_wood/choosing-wood/ wood-and-the-environment/wood-is-a-sustainable-construction-material/

6

Dylan Perrenoud, Balloon-frame timber ‘house’ in Lausanne, Photograph, France,https://static.designboom.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ house-1-installation-epfl-campus-lausanne-alice-designboom-09.jpg

7

Swedish Wood, The lamination effect, Illustration, https://www.swedishwood.com/about_wood/choosing-wood/wood-and-wood-based-products/ structural-elements/

8

Swedish Wood, Bending strength, Illustration, https://www.swedishwood. com/about_wood/choosing-wood/from-log-to-plank/properties-of-softwood/

9

Swedish Wood, Fire stability, Illustration, https://www.swedishwood.com/ about_wood/choosing-wood/from-log-to-plank/properties-of-softwood/

10 Versatile Wood Products, Natural Wood Species Samples, Photograph, www.versatilewp.com natural-wood-delivers-timeless-beauty wood-species-samples 11 Christopher Bivins, Wet rot, 2018, Photograph, https://www.swedishwood. com/about_wood/sustainability/den-grona-fabriken/

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12 Jon Broome, Framework, Photograph, http://www.uncubemagazine.com/ blog/16519151 13 Jon Broome, Carpentry on-site, c 1970s, Photograph, http://www.uncubemagazine.com/blog/16519151 14 Philip Sayer, Walter Segal meets a self-builder on site, 1988, Photoprint, https://www.architecture.com/image-library/RIBApix/image-information/ poster/walter-segal-meets-a-selfbuilder-on-site-at-honor-oak-park-lewisham-london/posterid/RIBA34753.html 15 Taran Wilkhu, Walter Segal, Photograph, https://www.homebuilding.co.uk/ news/walters-way-the-self-build-revolution/ 16 Studio Praxis, Segal Method 1962, Illustration, https://studioglobalpraxis. wordpress.com/studio-actions/postcards/walter-segal-self-build-housessegal-close-and-walters-way/ 17 Charlotte Ellis, Illustration, https://www.architectural-review.com/buildings/ from-the-archive-walters-way-self-build-schemes-lewisham-london-by-thesegal-method-march-1987/10042352.article 18 Tartan grid. Illustration by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

19 Structural plan. Illustration by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

20 Jon Broome, Figure 33, Illustration, in Broome, Jon. “Special Issue: the Segal Method.” Architect’s Journal 183, no.45 (November, 1986): 31-68.

21 Jon Broome, Figure 83, Illustration, in Broome, Jon. “Special Issue: the Segal Method.” Architect’s Journal 183, no.45 (November, 1986): 31-68.

22 Jon Broome, Figure 57, Illustration, in Broome, Jon. “Special Issue: the Segal Method.” Architect’s Journal 183, no.45 (November, 1986): 31-68.

23 Roof plan and section. Illustration by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

24 Taran Wilkhu, Walters Way and Segal Close, Photograph, https://www.anothermag.com/design-living/gallery/9826/walters-way-and-segal-close/4 25 Martin Charles, Walter’s Way, designed using the Walter Segal method in the 1980s, Photograph, London, https://darkroom.ribaj.com/800/4fcaf973fe7b9c428a25ef0cf90cec72:ac66dcf83e05b66ef50e730fce4e7720/walter-sway-designed-using-the-walter-segal-method-in-the-1980s

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26 The Modern House, Segal Close, Photograph, London, https://www.themodernhouse.com/past-sales/segal-close/ 27 Charlotte Ellis, Segal House Plans, Drawing, Lewisham II, https://www.architectural-review.com/buildings/from-the-archive-walters-way-self-buildschemes-lewisham-london-by-the-segal-method-march-1987/10042352. article 28 Tomo Taka, Walter Segal-Designed House, Photograph, https://thespaces. com/walter-segal-designed-home-goes-on-sale-london-lewisham/ 29 The Modern House, What We’re Seeing: Celebrating Segal, Photograph, https://www.themodernhouse.com/journal/what-were-seeing-celebrating-segal/ 30 The Modern House, Segal Close, Photograph, London, https://www.themodernhouse.com/past-sales/segal-close/ 31 The Modern House, Segal Close, Photograph, London, https://www.themodernhouse.com/past-sales/segal-close/ 32 Geographical location of Bulgaria and Sudan. Illustration by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

33 Traditional Bulgarian architecture in the Old town of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Photo

by Eliz Derderyan, 2019.

34 Geographic map of Bulgaria, February 2013, Map, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bulgaria-geographic_map-bg.svg 35 Adam Peterson, Köppen climate types of Bulgaria, September 2016, Illustration, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bulgaria_ Köppen.svg 36 Bulgaria Seismic Hazard Map, January 2013, Illustration, https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bulgaria_Seismic_Hazard_Map.svg 37 Boyko Berov and others, Landslide hazard assessment of Bulgaria by administrative regions, June 2017, Illustration, https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/318151369_Analysis_and_Mapping_the_Landslide_Hazard_in_ Bulgaria

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38 Agency for Sustainable Development and Eurointegration Ecoregions (ASDE), the Remote Sensing Application Center (ReSAC) and experts from the FAO-UN, National Land Cover Dataset of Bulgaria based on FAO LCCS 2009-2010, 2010, Illustration, http://bsdi.asde-bg.org/data/Lccs/pdf/lccs_ RL_2010_v02_EN.pdf 39 Peter J. van der Veen and Ivan Raev, Distribution of mapped virgin forests in Bulgaria, 2006, Illustration, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Virgin-forests-in-Romania-and-Bulgaria%3A-results-of-Veen-Fanta/8cf10b4f12aab9c0bae40e43c026443a8cc53069/figure/1 40 Wooden house with a stone ground floor in the village of Bozhentsi, Bulgaria.

Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2018.

41 Wooden house of the Bulgarian National Revival period in ethno village Etar, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2018.

42 Socialist residential blocks in the neighbourhood of Trakiya in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2019.

43 Interior of a traditional wooden house in the city of Tryavna, Bulgaria. Photo

by Eliz Derderyan, 2018.

44 Interior of an old wooden house in the city of Koprivshtica, Bulgaria. Photo

by Eliz Derderyan, 2019.

45 Stephan Stamov, Evolution of the spatial organization of the typological group of Koprivshtitsa, Bulgaria, Illustration, in Stamov, Stephan. The Wooden Folk House – Taxonomy and Typology. Sofia: BetPrint, 2007.

46 Exterior and interior of a typical suburban wooden house, built in 1831, situated in the city of Koprivshtica, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2019.

47 Sweet home Bulgaria, Prefabricated house in Southern Bulgaria, Photograph, Southern Bulgaria, http://sweethomebulgaria.com/en/built-prefab-houses/ house-in-southern-bulgaria/ 48 Simeon Yordanov, Figure 243 Front façade and plans of a log house, Illustration, in Yordanov, Simeon. Contemporary Bulgarian Prefabricated Wooden Buildings – Constructions, Technologies, Montage. Sofia: Mailbox Ltd, 2016.

49 Log house in a village near Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2018.

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50 Simeon Yordanov, Figure 220 Exploded axonometric drawing of one-storey house made out of wooden panels, Illustration, in Yordanov, Simeon. Contemporary Bulgarian Prefabricated Wooden Buildings – Constructions, Technologies, Montage. Sofia: Mailbox Ltd, 2016.

51 Socialist apartment block of prefabricated concrete panels in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2019.

52 National Revival style houses in the Old town of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Photo by Eliz Derderyan, 2018.

53 Jonathan Tyrrell, Kushite pyramids near Jebel Barkal, 2008, Photograph, Sudan, www.retrospectivetraveller.co.uk 54 NASA, Sudan, Image, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12379431 55 Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, Two Niles Meet, 2013, Image, Sudan, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/81186/two-niles-meet 56 Lauren Dauphin, Floods Swamp Sudan, 2018, Image, Sudan, https:// earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/145589/floods-swamp-sudan 57 Richard Caton Woodville, Jr., The Charge of the 21st Lancers at Omdurman, 1898, Painting, Walker Art Gallery Liverpool, https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:RCWoodvilleJr_21Lancers_Omdurman.jpg 58 Girardet and Levy, Nouen African village along the White Nile, Engraving, Sudan, https://stock.adobe.com/de/images/ancient-african-tribe-in-his-village-made-by-straw-and-mud-huts-sudan-created-by-girardet-and-levy-after-bolognesi-published-on-le-tour-du-monde-paris-1862/185334822?asset_id=185334822&continue_checkout=1&content_id=185334822 59 Jack Picone, The Nuba Mountains, 1994, Photograph, Sudan, https://www. jackpicone.com/the-nuba/swfrjjrd11gkcw1n1bals46sv0z8u8 60 Juergen Nyhuis, Suakin Island, 2011, Photograph, Sudan, https://www.flickr. com/photos/j-pics_info/13335179865/in/album-72157628447640091/ 61 Frédéric Cailliaud, Mosque of Sennar, 1821, Photograoh, Sudan, in Cailliaud, Frédéric. Voyage à Meroé, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sennar_ mosque.jpg

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62 Eric Lafforgue, Mosque On Mainland El-geyf, Photograph, https://thisisafrica.me/lifestyle/ruins-of-a-port-city-called-suakin-sudan/ 63 Juergen Nyhuis, National Bank of Suakin, 2011, Photograph, Sudan,https:// www.flickr.com/photos/j-pics_info/13335091665/in/album-7215762844764 0091/ 64 Eric Lafforgue, Stairs Inside A Ruined Ottoman Coral Buildings, Suakin, Photograph,https://thisisafrica.me/lifestyle/ruins-of-a-port-city-called-suakin-sudan/ 65 Rischgitz and Hulton Archive, The Mahdi, 1884, Illustration, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_Ahmad.jpg 66 BBC Hulton Picture Library, Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1st Earl Kitchener, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horatio-Herbert-Kitchener-1st-EarlKitchener/images-videos#/media/1/319651/72045 67 Tourism in Sudan, University of Khartoum, Photograph, https://torisuminsudanblog.wordpress.com/2017/03/25/university-of-khartoum/ 68 Africa Rankings, Presidential Palace, Photograph, Khartoum, http://www.africaranking.com/most-beautiful-presidential-palaces-in-africa/4/ 69 University of Khartoum, Sudan. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2018.

70 Abushakeema, Omdurman Municipality, Photograph, Omdurman, https:// www.arch2o.com/buildings-sudanese-diverse-architecture/ 71 G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection, The Main Mosque, 1936, Photograph, Omdurman, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sudan_ Omdurman_Main_Mosque_1936.jpg 72 Abushakeema, Farouq Mosque, Photograph, Omdurman, https://www.arch2o.com/buildings-sudanese-diverse-architecture/ 73 Claus Bunk, Suakin Houses, 2008, Image, Sudan, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Suakin_1928.JPG 74 Khalid Othman, Khalifa House, 2018, Photograph, Sudan, https://al-ain. com/article/house-of-caliph-sudan-mahdia-revolution

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75 El-Sayed El-Bushra, Khartoum in 1935, Urban Plan, Sudan, in El-Bushra, El-Sayed. An Atlas of Khartoum Conurbation. Khartoum: University of Khartoum, 1976.

76 El-Sayed El-Bushra, Stages in the growth of the three towns, Urban Plan, Sudan, in El-Bushra, El-Sayed. An Atlas of Khartoum Conurbation. Khartoum: University of Khartoum, 1976.

77 Postcard, Omdurman. Provided by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

78 Postcard, Khartoum. Provided by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

79 Thomas Cook, Map of Khartoum and Omdurman, 1905, Map, Sudan, in Cook, Thomas. Cook’s Handbook for Egypt and the Sudan. London: T. Cook & Son, 1906.

80 Sudan Survey Department, Khartoum, Sudan: Khartoum, 1952, Map, http:// www.themaphouse.com/search_getamap.aspx?id=133301&ref=AFR5845 81 Justin Ames, Khartoum Alley, 2009, Photograph, Sudan, https://thevelvetrocket.com/2009/11/09/visiting-sudan-scenes-of-khartoum/ 82 Altaghyeer Newspaper, Um Badda, 2017, Photograph, https://www.altaghyeer.info/ar/2017/04/19/2-‫نويلم‬-‫لزنم‬-‫ةجوح‬-‫ةيالو‬-‫موطرخلا‬-‫دسل‬-‫جفلا‬/ 83 Justin Ames, Khartoum, 2009, Photograph, Sudan, https://thevelvetrocket. com/2009/11/09/visiting-sudan-scenes-of-khartoum/ 84 Resting neighbours in a Rakooba, Sudan. Photo provided by Rowan Hamid.

85 Abd Al-Aziz Ibrahim, Iftar, 2017, Photograph, Sudan, https://www.alarabiya. net/ar/last-page/2017/06/14/‫روص‬-‫ةرافسلا‬-‫ةيكريمألا‬-‫يبلت‬-‫ةوعد‬-‫باش‬-‫ينادوس‬-‫ىلع‬‫راطفإلا‬ 86 Lana Haroun, Untitled, 2019, Photograph, Sudan, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tamerragriffin/sudan-protests-woman-car-iconic-photoalaa-salah 87 Covered Market, Omdurman. Photo provided by Rowan Hamid, 2018.

88 Street Politik Archive, Street, 2014, Photograph, Khartoum, https://spacepolitik.wordpress.com/2014/08/02/the-khartoum-grid/#_ftn4

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89 Street Politik Archive, Meydan, 2014, Photograph, Khartoum https://spacepolitik.wordpress.com/2014/08/02/the-khartoum-grid/#_ftn4 90 Street Politik Archive, Diagrams, 2014, Drawings, https://spacepolitik.wordpress.com/2014/08/02/the-khartoum-grid/#_ftn4 91 House Entrance, Omdurman. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

92 Street View, Omdurman. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

93 Front Yard, Omdurman. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

94 Zeer, Omdurman. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

95 Plan of a Typical House, Sudan. Drawing by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

96 Manou, VillageLlife Tuti Island, 2019, Photograph, Khartoum, https://www. bunchofbackpackers.com/what-to-do-in-khartoum-sightseeing-tips/ 97 Daiffallah, Plan of the Core Unit in El Shabyia, 1998, Illustration, in Awad, Zuhal Eltayeb. “Sustainable low-cost housing in Sudan between Theory and Practice.� International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science 7, no. 5 (September - October, 2019): 86-101.

98 Rakooba, Omdurman. Photo provided by Rowan Hamid, 2016.

99 Veranda, Omdurman. Photo by Rowan Hamid, 2019.

100 Studio Tam associati, South East Elevation, 2007, Drawing, Khartoum, https://www.archdaily.com/19061/salam-centre-for-cardiac-surgery-studio-tam-associati 101 Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Site plan, 2009, Drawing, https://archnet. org/sites/6874/media_contents/85178 102 Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Salam Centre for Cardiac Surgery, 2009, Photograph, https://archnet.org/sites/6874/media_contents/85178 103 Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Container Medical Compound Building Site, 2009, Photograph, https://archnet.org/sites/6874/media_contents/85178

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104 Raul Pantaleo and Marcello Bonfanti, Prayer & Meditation Pavilion by Tam Associatti, 2009, Photograph, Khartoum, http://www.herskhazeen.com/ prayer-meditation-pavilion/ 105 Studio Tam associati, Medical Housing Compound Elevations + Section, 2009, Drawing, https://www.archdaily.com/52911/medical-housing-compound-studio-tam-associati 106 Reuters, Military HQ occupied by anti-government protesters in Sudan, 2019, Photograph, https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/sudan-protestskhartoum-rsf-egypt-revolution-omar-al-bashir-a8950896.html 107 Isabel Corthier, Encounters in the South Sudan, 2014, Photograph, https:// ndawards.net/winners-gallery/nd-awards-2014/travel/5/gold-award 108 Housing cluster for Low Cost housing Project in 1984, Sudan. Drawing by Rowan Hamid.

109 Housing cluster for Low Cost housing Project in 2007, Sudan. Drawing by Rowan Hamid.

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