Underwater Structure by Samael Coco

â&#x20AC;&#x153;You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build a new model that makes the existing model obsolete.â&#x20AC;? R. Buckminster Fuller

Structure for Underwater Worlds:

London south bank university Pg Dip / March In

Architecture Re/source Studio 22 2015/2016 Samael Ezio Coco Azemar

Structure for Underwater Worlds

Content:

1. Introduction.

2. Discovering underwater.

4. Transofming underwater.

5. Living underwater.

6. Waves and chemistry.

103

7. Ideal structure.

113

8. Conclusion.

122

9. Photographs.

Introduction

For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

Third law of motion.

“Any lightest solid [specific gravity] of a fluid, if placed in the fluid, will be flooded in such an extent that the weight of the solid will be equal to the weight of the displaced fluid” “A solid heavier [specific gravity] of a fluid, if placed in it, it will descend into the bottom of the fluid and if it will weigh the solid in the fluid, will be lighter than its true weight, and the difference i weight will be equal to the weight of fluid displaced

Archimedes’ principle.

ρflu > ρsol

ρflu = ρsol

ρflu < ρsol

Discovering underwater

Breathing tube and underwater mask by Leonardo da Vinci.

Underwater has always attracted human beings, people have always desired to explore the mysterious world of underwater. The first underwater structures were products of engineering studies and have been used for fields of scientific researches and observations, military purposes and obtaining energy for centuries. However, underwater is a new medium for human for accommodation and entertainment purposes; and correspondingly new subject which is worth to study for architects. Designing underwater structures became a race between architects and engineers during last years. Accordingly, underwater hotel and restaurant projects were realized. Currently, underwater structures can uttered as a fantasy and a new understanding for architecture, however in the future underwater may be suggested as a new accommodation area. Underwater have been always a challenge and struggle for human and oceans had been utilized firstly for research, mining, sea farming, recreation, and military purposes. It was believed that “if humans were to survive on this planet, they would have to enter the underwater world and remain there to explore, observe, and harvest the wealth of the oceans.” In the sixteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci created a device called “breathing tube”, During seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a prototype of the modern diving bell was invented by Sir Edmund Halley. In 1865, “a surface-supplied suit” was invented by Rouquayrol and Denayrouze. The diver wore a metal reservoir on his back and could remove the helmet to put the tube in his mouth and breathe directly when needed. Designing underwater has its own principles and characteristics and these should be asserted under the light of the study on former structures. On the other hand, basic criteria and purposes of architectural aspects for underwater structures should be defined to meet requirements of human. To achieve that, parameters will be pointed out and interpreted according to the conditions and limitations of the environment in order to set the fundamentals for architectural approaches to underwater design. Although, underwater structures can be stated as “a fantasy and a searching for new styles in architecture” for now; in the future, design and construction of underwater structures, even underwater cities, may be a need. At the beginning of 21st century designing underwater structures became a race between architects and engineers since these structures provide differentiations especially for commercial purposes. Greek divers used huge pottery jars for storing air while seeking sponge. Air could be drawn from a thin-necked amphra by using a hollow reed. It is possible that wide necked pots were early forms of diving bells. Alexander the Great ventured below the waters of the Aegean Sea inside a glass barrel around 333 B.C. He was reported to have seen whales and deep-sea life on his underwater journey. The ancient Athenians used divers in secret military operations. An account by Aristotle of 332B.C. Indicates the use of a diving bell by Alexander the Great at the battle of Tyre. Alexander is commonly considered the father of the diving bell due to his descent in a glass barrel in 330B.C. He was appalled by what he saw, which was how the fish, having swallowed smaller fish were soon swallowed by those still larger. Cornelius Van Drebble’s heavily ballasted twelve person submarine, made of wood and able to travel awash or just below the surface was observed by England’s King James in the Thames River in 1624. It was propelled by oars fit through watertight greased leather casings. Van Drebble, a physician, refreshed the air in the submarine by unstopping a vial of an undisclosed chemical liquor. In the mid 1600’s, Father Schott designed an “aquatic corselet”, an early diving suit adapted from the diving G bell concept. An inverted leather pail, braced by iron supports and strapped to the shoulders of the diver, had small circular glass windows set at eye level. Maneuvers required balance as the contrivance was bulky and cumbersome. Among the numerous plans of this period Q is that of Buonaiuto Lorini who drew the diver sitting upon a platform suspended by cable from a surface ten-X ding ship. Over the diver’s head was a rawhide tube; IL the diving bell concept. Borelli, another Italian, surrounded the diver’s head with large bladders inset with a transparent occults (view port). He also indicated fins for the swimmer’s feet. The intended use of these devices is probably salvage. During the 1700’s, an English shipwright, Day, successfully dived in 30 feet of water in his wooden vessel ballasted down by weights which were released to ascend. Unaware of water pressure’s increase with depth, his second attempt, in 132 feet of water, was unsuccessful; the hull collapsed.

Glass diving bell, c 330 B.C.

“Snorkel” by Leonardo Da Vinci, c. 1480

Rennie’s diving bell

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Aquatic corseletâ&#x20AC;? by Father Schott, c. 1650

Elmet, Air pump and Diving suite, c 1837

Submarine development has mostly been the fruit of military necessity:

The first truly operational one man submarine was the “Turtle” designed and built by David Bushnell. It was egg-shaped and driven by two hand cranked screw propellers; one for vertical propulsion and another for the horizontal maneuver. A 700 pound lead keel 1776 kept the iron hulled Turtle upright. In 1776, the “Turtle” was deployed against the 64 gun British flagship under commander-in-chief Lord Howe. ,The H.M.S. Eagle, anchored off Governor’s Island in New York Harbor, was attacked by the Turtle’s first trained military submariner, Ezra Lee. He attempted to attach 150 pounds of gunpowder to the submerged portion of the flag ship’s hull. The hardwood screw, meant to attach the charge, could not pierce the heavy copper sheathing of the warship. Ezra Lee made his escape with the returning tide. No casualties occurred with the Turtle’s use. She was sunk by the British while docked and unoccupied. In 1798, Kleingert of Beslau designed a system for forcing air from the surface down to a diver introducing the utility of the air pump concept. The diver took breath by way of an ivory mouthpiece fed by flexible pipe into a tin helmet which resembled a hot water boiler. A second flexible pipe carried out the nasally expelled air. A pair of bellows were employed to force the air. Heavy weights were required to overcome the bouyancy of this structure. Leather sleeves and pants kept the diver dry from the waist up, depending on the fit. Augustus Siebe’s “open dress” diving suit also employed an air pump and an improved (less cumbersome) helmet. Robert Fulton’s motive intent in designing his Nautilus, a twenty-one foot by seven foot submarine, was the obsolescence of the world’s navies and the invocation of universal disarmament. His innovations included two options for propulsion; a deployable mast and rigging for setting sail upon the surface and a hand cranked propeller for submerged thrust. He also introduced horizontal rudders (predecessor of the hydroplane) for maintaining steady depths and compressed air for hull ventilation on long dives. Fulton’s submarine project was supported by the Emperor Napoleon who, from the quay nearest the Hotel des Invalides on the Seine, watched Fulton man the Nautilus in1801, remaining indifferent to his dreams of disarmament. Soon -after, at Brest, using the Turtle’s method of deploying a charge, Fulton utterly destroyed a target schooner so completely, French Admirals would have nothing to do with the awesome power displayed by the weapon. Similarly, in 1809, at the request of Britain’s Prime Minister, William Pitt, Fulton’s submarine demolished the target brig Dorothy so quickly and easily that the British Admiralty, terrified, refused to use the devilishly devastating war engine. Disillusioned, Fulton returned to America to develop his famous steam boat. During the Civil War, the Confederacy built three “Little David” submarines in Mobile, Alabama-. One of these, the twenty-five foot iron boiler plate hulled Henley, sank the Union’s Sloop-of-war Housatonic with a demolition charge carried at the end of a long spar. The Henley’s propeller was manually crankshafted by her crew of eight. All eight were drowned as the Henley also sank in the backwash of the explosion. By 1872, Augustus Siebe had perfected his closed type diving dress. The incorporation of rubber in the suit made this possible. Surface to undersea contact was accomplished through telephonic communication. The trolley car, the electric automobile and the submarine all came to be with the advent of the electric storage battery and the electric motor which, unlike the steam boiler and internal-combustion engines, required no oxygen to operate. Lieutenant Isaac Peral of the Spanish Navy was first in the 1880’s to install electric lighting and propulsion on board a submarine by using batteries. Methods for controlled vertical movement and horizontal trimming remained unresolved until the innovations of John Holland and Simon Lake. The young American, Simon Lake, inspired by Jules Verne’s “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”, began 1897 experimenting in a nearby river at the age of ten. By 1897, Lake’s Argonaut was installed with a four-cylinder gasoline engine, a dynomo, an air compressor, a searchlight, a crew of five, geared wheels for rolling on the bottom and a propeller for surface and submerged propulsion. He cruised 2000 miles down Chesapeake Bay and into the ocean. His fore and aft hydroplane innovation allowed even keel diving. Lake also innovated the rotating periscope, a salvage tube, a mine laying submarine and an undersea cargo boat. Furthermore, he demonstrated how helmeted divers could operate from submarines. (B) John Holland, an independent contractor commissioned by the U.S. Navy, took twenty five years to perfect the modern submarine. In his Plunger I, surface propelled by steam power, his crew nearly roasted. In his 30 foot Fenian Ram, propelled by a 17 horsepower gasoline engine, his crew was nearly asphyxiated. Finally, in 1898, he launched the father of the modern submarine, the Holland No. 9, from a private shipyard in Elizabeth, NJ. The English, French and Russian Navies, having added submarines to their fleets, incited the U.S. Navy to order six of the new Holland 9 subs to be built in two different locations; the Grampus and the Pike in California; and the Moccasin, the Porpoise, the Adder and the Shark in Elizabeth. By 1900, they formed the U.S. Navy’s class “A” submarines. Each carried an officer and a crew of eight. The “Hollands” were 63 feet long with a 12 foot beam and were armed with Whitehead torpedoes ejected from a single bow tube. On the surface, they achieved a speed of 6 knots propelled by a 50-horsepower gasoline engine. Submerged, 5 knots were achieved with an electric motor powered by a 120 cell battery. Between 1900 and the end of WWI, the U.S. Navy developed submarines from the “A” class to the “S” class. They became her most effective secret weapon.

In 1911, introduction of the Diesel engine for surface propulsion increased their cruising range. By 1900, an efficient diving dress had been developed but was used unsafely. Penetrations to depths greater than 30 or 40 fathoms increased the mortality rate. Deadly physiological changes occurred in the body exposed to an increase or decrease in pressure over even short periods of time. Before his death in 1886, French physicist, Paul Bert had systematically studied and formulated basic rules of decompression which concern the oxygen and nitrogen dissolved in the diver’s blood. He found these elements under pressure regassify upon quick ascent causing gaseous embolism, a decompression sickness. Nitrogen bubbles can form stoppages in the joints, lungs, spinal cord and brain. In the early 1900’s, Professor John S. Haldane, Sir Robert Davis and Admiral Momsen, continuing the work of Paul Bert, began unraveling the time, depth and pressure relationship; their effect upon animals and then, upon humans. Dr. J.S. Haldane of England developed a method for predicting the saturation of various tissue compartments with gas under pressure relative to time. Accurate deco mpression tables were the result. They indicated various stages (sea or pressure levels) and durations for ascending decompression stops depending on the maximum depth and time of any dive. The decompression schedule allowed for the release of gas from the various tissue compartments and blood stream. Proper use of the decompression tables greatly reduced the occurrence of mortality due to the bends, often called compressed-air illness or caisson disease because of its occurrence among caisson workers who descend through pressure locks of chambers within caissons used in the underwater construction of foundations for structures such as bridges. Nitrogen narcosis, the saturation of nitrogen (an anesthetic) in the bloodstream, was prevented by using helium as an inert breathing medium in mixture with the essential oxygen. Helium could be expelled from the tissue faster and more completely than nitrogen, reducing decompression from deep dives or dives of long duration. Salvage and rescue operations have continued to utilize the advancing underwater technology. For instance, in 1917, a German U-boat sank the S.S. Laurentic with its cargo of gold bullion bound for the United States. Only after great difficulties and many years of work was the cargo completely recovered. Salvage operations have pushed the limits of depth and duration of dives in quests for sunken fortunes lea ing to further technical innovations and knowledge. In 1934, curiosity drove Dr. William Beebe and Otis Barton to a depth of 3,028 feet off Bermuda in a bathysphere suspended by a cable from a surface support ship. Their mission was one of biological inquiry as they sought the living habits of organisms which had been dredged from the depths. S.S. Squalus. The rescue employed an oxygen-helium diving suit and the McCann Rescue Chamber, a diving bell which mated to the submarine escape hatch which became a standard submarine feature. Universal acceptance of the self contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba). was helped by JacquesYves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan who in 1943 advanced the work of Yves Le Prieur whose perfected equipment had been adopted by the French Navy.The Englishman Davis’ submarine escape apparatus, an early form of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) was first employed as a safety device. The U.S. Momsen Rescue Lung soon followed. The Italian and British Navies developed them further for underwater demolition work. The french aqualung is an open circuit breathing apparatus, meaning exhausted air is expelled into the open water. The closed circuit apparatus recycles most of the inert gas by filtering out the carbon-dioxide through a soda-lime canister with which it reacts. Advances in air compression techniques and mixtures, gaskets (o - rings), rubber, plastics and sea knowledge have led to modern techniques. The aqualung’s technical innovation was the design of a foolproof demand valve which equalized air pressure delivered to the diver with the surrounding water pressure. Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan popularized the aqualung which had been adopted by the French Navy following the work Yves Le Prieur performed to perfect it. The development of radar during WWII spurred the German invention of the water stopping snorkel which could ventilate their diesel powered U-boats from 50 feet below the surface, avoiding detection by the allies’ radar. Propulsion innovations and greater depth capabilities enhanced the world navies which to this day remain in a shroud of secrecy. The most recent U.S. products of General Dynamics Inc., Electric Boat Division based in Groton, Connecticut incorporate nuclear propulsion, are in excess of 600- feet in length, and can circumnavigate the globe submerged while producing oxygen from water through electro-dialysis. The historic development of underwater technology’s structural manifestations broadened drastically after WWI as the increased military utility became evident. After WWII, following Beebe’s historic descent of biological inquiry, the commercial uses of submersible vehicles for science and industry flourished in multitudes of forms and material applications. The spe-flourished in multitudes of forms and material applications. The spec ifics of penetrations to greater depths and the solutions to technical-problems thus engendered are directly related to the knowledge humanity has acquired for accomplishing the objective proposed by this initiative, the inhabiting of the shallower regions over the continental shelves. To verbally detail each innovation which resulted from these efforts would surpass the needs of this framework. A pictorial survey is provided, indicating the useful range and variety of structural form submersibles have taken over the years. The interested reader may avail of the references cited in the bibliography for in depth treatments of this topic. Categorical analysis of a few recent underwater habitats form the basis for the development of environmental design criteria established in the following chapter. 1956 Edward A. Link, the inventor of the simulated flight trainers, engaged in underwater archaeology, in 1956, built a vertical transport vehicle which could function as a diving bell and submersible decompression chamber (SDC). The aluminum cylinder is 3 feet in diameter and 11 feet long. It has a double seal entry lock so food or supplies can be delivered to a decompressing diver.

Fultonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s submarine project, 1806

Was supported by the Emperor Napoleon.

Holland 9, 1898

J. Holland, an independent contractor commissioned by the U.S. Navy, took twenty five years to perfect the modern submarine.

High pressure Low pressure

Trieste, 1934

At the beginning of second W.W. 33 men were rescued from the sunken Squalus. The rescue employed an oxygen-helium diving suit and the McCann Rescue Chamber, a diving bell which mated to the submarine escape hatch which became a standard submarine feature.

Le Prieur, 1943

Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan, engineers and inventors, advanced the work of Yves Le Prieur, whose perfected equipment had been adopted by the French Navy.

Johnson-Sea-Link II,1956

Edward A. Link, the inventor of the simulated flight trainers, built a vertical transport vehicle which could function as a diving bell and submersible decompression chamber (SDC).

Project 1710 “Mackerel” NATO Code “Beluga”, 1960 - 1975

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: 10:

Sonar Bow Section 1st Section Research Batterie Room Bow Trim Tank Main Ballast Tank Bow Hatch 2nd Section Recreation Room Surface Telephone Buoy Recreation Rooms

11: 12: 13: 14: 15: 16: 17: 18: 19: 20:

Batteries Room Compressed Air Reservoir Bridge Bridge Hatch Periscope Radar Radio Antenna 3rd Section Control Center Control and Research Systems Polymer Reservoir

Designers and engineers continued to improve their tactical-technical elements. One of the priorities was to increase submerged speed by increasing the power-plant output and also by improving the submarinesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; hydrodynamic qualities.

21: 22: 23: 24: 25: 26: 27: 28: 29: 30:

Pumping System for Polymer 4thSection E-Motor(Main Drive) Electrical System Gear 5th Section Stern Trim Tank Drive Shaft Rudder Shafts Stabilizers

Hull Design: 2-Hull-Design Length: 65m Beam: 8,70m Draft: 5,60m - 6m Displacement emerged: 1.400t - 1.485t Displacement submerged: 2.480t Propulsion Diesel: 500kw Propulsion Electric Main Drive: 4.040kw Propulsion Electric Spare Drive: 37kw Speed emerged: 10 Speed submerged: 24kn - 26,6kn Range emerged: 1.100sm at 10kn Range submerged: 15sm at 24,5kn, 185sm at 4kn Autonomous: 3 Days Dive Depth: 240m Crew: 30

The B1 type

Submarine of the world

In service in 2015

Number of nuclear weapons by country

11000, Russia

8500, Usa

300, France

240, China 222, Uk 105, Pakinstan 90, India 80, Israel 10, North Korea

Hypothetical damage of ONE nuclear bomb on London, with repercussions on all world.

Transforming underwater

Oxygen production.

50 % of oxygen is produced by plant

50 % of oxygen is produced by phytoplankton

Reduction and decrees of photosynthesis

Adaptation of coccoliths

Fry, big fish and predators extinction

Ph 3x more acid

40 % â&#x20AC;&#x153;Less phytoplankton since 1950â&#x20AC;?

Spiegel

Reduction and decrees of photosynthesis

Abnormal development of wildlife feeding on plankton.

100.000.000 Sharks killed/year

Farming fish.

In 2005, aquaculture represented

40 %

of the 157.5 million tons of seafood.

Brand: EXPO, 2015

Growing underwater

This project was developed for the Italian pavilion of 2015 is composed by a flexible dome, fixed on an internal metallic scaffold that works for anchoring the whole structure to the sea bottom, for giving stability, and for allowing the entrance of argonauts inside. Biospheres are made by a transparent polymeric film to let the sunlight. The interior of every biosphere becomes significantly warmer than the external sea, thus creating stable and regulated climatic conditions in which plants can easily growth. Hydroponics is used as well to make the most use of the interior space, as well known, hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert medium, such as perlite. Plants nutrients are based on K+ ions and on NO3-. Luminance is a measure of how much luminous flux is spread over a given area and it is expressed in lux (luminous flux per unit area). Direct sunlight shows values of luminance between 32000 and 100000 lux; for full daylight (not direct sun) values decreases to 10000-25000 lux. The light transfer in the seawater mass determines a reduction of luminance (about 8000 lux) in respect to those typical of daylight and direct sunlight. Thermal excursion occurring in seawater between day and night is almost constant with a variation of approx. 3-4 Â°C. This evidence is the key factor for making possible the water condensation inside the biosphere. Also the air temperature inside the biosphere may be considered as a stable system when the equilibrium conditions are reached in terms of temperature, RH% and luminance. This intrinsic stationarity is the key element allowing the plant growth, together with the mechanism of water evaporation-condensation due to the temperature disequilibrium with the huge mass of seawater. Crops inside biospheres show also another kind of â&#x20AC;&#x153;stabilityâ&#x20AC;?, interpreted as protection from an eventual attack of parasites and climatic changes.

In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale mono-culture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damages and negative human health effects. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide. Water management is needed in most regions of the world where rainfall is insufficient or variable. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. Essentially agriculture draws water from aquifers and underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing population with reduced water resources. Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems, including significant degradation of land and water resources and depletion of aquifers.

The first dynamo was built in 1832

Energy from water

There’s a lot of P ower under the waves: M × G × Hnet × η = P P = power, measured in Watts [W] M = mass flow rate in litres/second [l/s] G = the gravitational constant, which is approximately 9.81 [m/s2] Hnet = the net head [%] η = component efficiencies

3/4 of the planet x G lobal resource x H ope x η igh tech = P eace

Actually to build a factory that produces a maximum power output around 500 KW will cost around ÂŁ1.86M.

Speed Increaser Low speed flexible coupling

Generator

Mounting ring

Nacelle/Pylon flange

Water flow

Set up a new support network ? Let me finish the oli first

Now only 27 $ for barrel MADE IN MIDDLE EAST

With 1, i can sell you 20, with renewable energy only 14.

Different type of hydro turbine.

Tidal Wave

Scale: 1 person

A new type of wind offshore turbine.

The Windfloat turbine is one of the frontrunners in a global race to develop flotillas of wind turbines that can conquer the deep oceans and reap the strongest winds on the planet. Existing offshore wind turbines, standing on concrete and steel foundations driven into the ocean floor, flounder on heavy costs in depths greater than about 40 metres. The turbines’ blades reach 120m above the sea, stabilised by a three-pillared platform, 35m on each side. The rig’s legs, extending 20m under the sea, contain ballast water which shifts around to control swaying. The first fullscale floating turbine – Hywind - went to sea off Stavanger, Norway in 200m-deep water and sent electricity to the grid from 2010. Its design is radically different: a single, very long ballast column sinking 100m below the sea surface. The potential is - in theory – great, says Gellatly, noting that two-thirds of the very windy North Sea is between 50m and 220m: “Energy produced from floating turbines in the North Sea alone could meet the EU’s electricity consumption four times over.”

There are easy way for purify the water.

Drinking water from sea.

The turbine could also be used to produce drinkable water from seawater by reverse osmosis, a method of purifying water by pumping it through a filtered membrane.

First oil drilling in 1859

Back in the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, oil was paying off at 100-to-1. It took one barrel of oil to extract, process, refine, ship and deliver 100 barrels of oil.

Hourly schedules timetables for oil rig jobs itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s around 100 hours/week. Workers work for 14 days straight with 1-3 weeks off. Because of the long hours aboard an oil rig, companies must give their employees enough time to rest up.

The price for build an oil rigs and deep-water rigs now cost between $ 600 million and $ 650 million. A barrel from deep-water will cost around 50 $, it is cheaper to engage a war.

Drill

Living and operation quarter Separation of crude oil

Gas

Oil

Energy for the rig

Gas and oil outcome

Hight pressure water pumped into reservoir

Crude oil extract from reservoir

Salaries on offshore oil rigs jobs depend on company and location, but the minimum day-wage is $300.

Map of distribution of oil in the world.

20 Top countries hold :

1224.5 billion of barrels

Living underwater

Before the first underwater habitat projects was performed, experiments on animals and humans were achieved to show the feasibility of staying underwater with saturation diving. As a result of these laboratory experiments and open-sea saturation diving programs it was revealed that humans could live under the water. As noted by Miller and Koblick referring to Behnke, “the idea of remaining under pressure long enough to allow the blood and tissues to become fully saturated with breathing gases” was firstly used in order to improve the effectiveness and safety of tunnel and caisson operations. The utilization of saturation diving made it possible for air-breathing humans to live and work in the sea with only a single decompression at the end. In the field of marine studies the focus was on the psychological effects of living for a long duration in a closed environment during a stressful voyage by means of saturation diving. In 1957, U.S. Navy Physician, Captain George F. Bond conceived and carried out a series of simulated dives at the Naval Medical Research Laboratory, first on small animals, then volunteer navy divers, to pressure equivalents of 200 feet depth of water. Pressure, temperature and humidity were controlled carefully. Helium was found to have no ill effects after long durations of use as a breathing medium. In September, 1962, Belgian diver, Robert Stenuit descended to 200 feet for 24 hours off Villefranche on the French Riviera in the Link SDC. He worked in the water and rested in the vessel. His decompression occurred onboard Link’s support ship, Sea Diver, in relative, though cramped, comfort. That same month, Jacques-Yves Cousteau placed 2 men to live and work at 35 feet depth of water for one week, near Marseilles as part one of his Conshelf experiments. Conshelf was aimed at establishing undersea stations on the Continerital Shelf. During the Summer of 1963, Conshelf II was a multi structural settlement at Sha’ab Rumi Reef in the Red Sea. “Starfish House”, an assembly of cylindrical chambers in 33 feet of water was the hub of the settlement. In it, 5 men ate, slept and worked in the undersea laboratory for a month. There was also an undersea hanger for the diving saucer which explored and sampled to depths of 1000 feet with a crew of two. At a depth of 85 feet, down the coral -slope, the deep cabin housed two men for seven days in an oxygen-heliumnitrogen environment. The two made short free dive excursions to 360 feet. The divers of Conshelf II were mostly inexperienced divers from a wide age group and included one woman. Vocation, rather than physical condition was the prime determinant of the crew. Conshelf II showed biological investigations and submarine operations can be carried out from submerged stations. Captain R.D. Workman, beginning in late 1963, at the Navy’s Experimental Diving Unit in Washington, showed through simulation tests that divers suffered no harmful effects when exposed to 400 feet depth pressure for 24 hours and proved a linear decompression schedule.

Link’s “Man in Sea” project, attempting to demonstrate man’s work effectiveness at 400 feet for several days, established a life-support team under Christian J. Lambertsen of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine to do preliminary research and supervise the medical aspects of the dive. James G. Dickson and Joseph B. MacInnis evaluated the accuracy and reliability of gas analyzers that would monitor the divers’ environment. It was discovered mice could be decompressed after surviving pressures of 4000 feet depth. A larger “dwelling” was required for the 400 foot dive; one which would provide shelter, have easy access underwater, operate simply and resist seawater corrosion. Link’s solution was an underwater tent of rubber, four feet in diameter and eight feet long mounted on a rigid steel frame. Dubbed SPID, “submerged, portable, inflatable dwelling”, and easily handled, internal gas pressure was kept equal to the ambient water pressure by inflating it from compressed gas tanks’. There were no hatches. The SDC served as vertical transport to an eight by five foot decompression chamber with four foot air lock on board the support ship, Sea Diver, to which it could be mated for pressurized personnel transfer. The two man 49 hour dive in’June, 1964, required 92 hours of decompression. The same amount of decompression would be required for much longer saturation dives. Humidity control was a big problem in the dive. The water temperature wab 72*F, inside the SPID, it was 40 higher. The divers would have preferred 82-86* in the high helium environment because of its thermal conductivity. Captain Bond’s Navy group conducted Sealab I off Bermuda in July, 1964. Four men lived 10 days in a large cylindrical chamber at 192 feet. Man’s ability to work underwater was tested. In the Summer of 1965, Sealab II, a 45 day mission, saturated three 10 man teams for 15 days each. The astronaut, Scott Carpenter, stayed down 30 consecutive days. The cabin was 57 by 12 feet submerged in 205 feet of water near Scripps. The mission objectives included salvage, biological and oceanographic research, as well as the conducting of physiological and psychological tests. Electrically heated suits allowed work in 55*F water. In the Fall of 1965, six of Cousteau’s men lived in 1965 a spherical dwelling 330 feet below the surface for nearly 22 days, linked to the surface by only an electrical communication cable. The mission, off Cap Ferrat in the Mediterranean, concentrated on difficult under water work, including a simulated 5 ton oilhead emplacement at 370 feet. Ocean systems divers simulated a 650 foot saturation in a test chamber for 48 hours. The helium gas mixture used had no adverse effects. An oxygen-neon mixture enhanced voice quality in 30 minute testing without detrimental effect. The experiment showed work performance at 650 feet as effective as on the surface with medical reactions in the normal range. Sealab III was built in 1968. It was to house larger navy crews at greater depths but the mission was scrubbed following the death of a diver due to Co 2 poisoning. A simulated dive to 2,250 feet was survived by volunteers at Duke University Medical Center in 1981. A small amount of nitrogen in the helium-oxygen mixture minimized tremors, nausea and fatigue while the subjects underwent physiological and psychological testing.

Scientists-in-the-Sea programs of Tektite 2, 1968

Through the testing was gathered about underwater social behavior, psychology, physiology, bacteriology, biology, geology, ecology, logistics, meteorology, oceanography, and ocean systems.

Sealab I, 1964

Four men lived 10 days in a large cylindrical chamber at 192 feet. Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to work underwater was tested.

Sealab II, 1965

The mission objectives included salvage, biological and oceanographic research, as well as the conducting of physiological and psychological tests.

CONSHELF III,1965

Six of Cousteauâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s men lived in a spherical dwelling 330 feet below the surface for nearly 22 days, linked to the surface by only an electrical communication cable.

Different form experimented in marine dwelling.

From reality to imagination

Underwater city by architect Warren Chalk (1964).

ROUGERIE, Unknown

Early in humanity’s existence, he and she learned where and how to dwell in relation to the water. The gathering of human beings is expressed in the binding of things, whether the leaves of a book or the stalks of reeds which are tied into rafts. What began as the mastery of the physical concept of buoyancy, the floating of dwellings in water, has evolved to the concepts of compression, as in Beebe’s steel bathysphere, or tension as in Link’s rubber submerged portable inflatable dwelling. The knowledge which goes into these artifacts includes the methods of planning, design, fabrication and deployment of these structures. Aside from the primary necessity of understanding the medium of breath underwater, structural consideration of the interface of water and usable space are of fundamental importance.

During the early 1960’s, the Metabolist Group’s projections of technological utopias, evolutions of social planning intent or parodies of the space age social condition left us with fleeting images of mega-structural anachronisms. Among them is the highway ribboned extension of Tokyo onto its bay designed by Kenso Tange in 1959. That same year, before he died, Frank Lloyd Wright issued his proposal for a residence in New York Harbor. Walter Jonas also produced a proposal for Intrapolis, a clustering of floating dish shaped shell structures for dwelling, commerce and industry. R. Buckminster Fuller’s floating Triton City employed the tetrahedron’s stability and prefabrication in its formation. An advocate of inventiveness and ecology, Fuller continues to seek ways for humanity to conserve and share the resources of our spaceship Earth. William Katavolos’ Marine Urbine structure, proposed in 1960, utilizes chemical processes in its formation, integrating clusters of surface and submerged dwellings. The membrane structures of Frei Otto, based on observation of soap film bubbles and water drops, have a wealth of pragmatic uses. Wolfgang Hibertz envisions growing structures through the process of mineral accretions in the ocean. He has successfully employed this concept in the manufacture of breakwaters and artificial reefs and advocates the process’ use for storage vessels and dwellings. Aqua-polis, 1975, by Kiyonori Kikutake displays in its design a knowledge of Louis Khan in plan and the technology of the oil industry’s semi submersible drilling platforms in elevation. The space frame concept is again employed for structural stability. The work of Dr. John Craven, Hugh Burgess and Kiyonori Kikutake produced a model for a floating village for an exhibition in Hawaii in 1976. Prefabrication technology was proposed for construction of the complex which included a hotel, plaza, underwater exhibition rooms and an underwater laboratory. The form of the project employed two twenty-five story structural and vertical circulation cores with another nine or ten story submerged. The towers were linked by and supported the horizontal dwelling space high above the water. Tensile cables stabilized the proposed structure. Of large scale proposals, Sea City by the Pilkington Glass group is highly developed. A high perimetal wall opens to a harbor. A surrounding floating breakwater shelters the structure. Within the walls are floating dwellings bearing triangular interlinked geometries. As with Noriaki Kurokawa’s elegant Cite Lacustre design for a floating city, the gentle curvature of Sea City’s primary structure reveals an aesthetic concern for its appearance. By far the most diligent proponent of underwater habitats has been Cousteau who has successfully manned the Conshelf dwellings. Yet, the American Hydrolab is the only underwater habitat in constant use over the past decade.

Paolo Soleri, 1964

Novanoah II

Sarly Adre Bin Sarkumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Water-Scraper

Livable-machines

Julia Martin

LiquidLabs

The architect with the most far reaching vision of sea cities is Paolo Soleri. His Arkologies, classified into types of terrain locating the mega-structural communities, begin with the Novanoah projects, immense sea born dwellings. He employs the 3 dimensional mobility of the underwater medium in reaction to his view of contemporary culture dwelling on a two dimensional pancake-like existence. Research is only one link in the chain of the establishment of a fully rounded cultural organism. His vision is biologically founded and his pedagogy is comprehensive. Few seriously invest interest in the undersea realm. The oil industry also concentrates its manpower on the surface, subjected to storming seas and gale-force winds without the necessary concern for the lives of the workers as depicted by the recurrent catastrophes. The safety precautions which are available, deployable emergency escape submersibles, for example, are never employed. Loss of lives and equipment are common. These losses are included in the prices consumers must pay in order to insure profit to the oil industry. The huge Ecofisk complex in the North Sea has been plagued with the problem of scouring of the sand underpinning its foundations. The same lack of foresight in design plagues city dwellers subjected to gale force winds by high rise designers who ignore environmental impact assessments. The design of submarine dwellings offers examples of solutions to problems outside the field of such dwellings. Similarly, NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in space simulations has furthered our understanding of the oceans and the technology now available for inhabiting it. The Tektite and Sealab projects are examples of this bond. Humanity has a long history of relating to the ocean and has depended upon its wealth for its sustenance. Only in this century has the ocean been threatened with such a degree of despoliation. In seeking a solution to this threat, which is a threat of mankind upon mankind, dwelling in the sea offers the possibility of monitoring, first hand, the changes as well as the option of seeking a solution.

Boris Lefevre & Charly Duchosal

Incontinence Plastique

Sitbon Architectes

Bloom

Sitbon Architectes

Bloom

Waves and chemistry, basic facts

Degradation of light underwater.

One of the other issue of living underwater Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the loss of the solar rays. It is well known, the lack of light causes different diseases and an increased risk of depression, well shown in the Nordic countries where sunlight may be missing for months.

10m

20m

30m

To solve this problem is a must to use full flow lamps. It would be recommended for common use, because we spend most of our time in indoor places, as is well demonstrated in the Nordic countries these lamps are use also to avoid depression.

Electromagnetic emission spectrum of various types of lamps.

Red, 750 nm

Violet, 400nm

Mercury

Lithium

Cadmium

Potassium

Strontium

Barium

Calcium

Sodium

Helium

Hydrogen

Different type of orbital rotation

Structure of water

e e

H 105Â°

Masaru Emoto, 2004

“It was 1994 when the idea to freeze water and observe it with microscope came upon me. With this method, I was convinced that I should be able to see something like snow crystals. After two months of trial and error, this idea bore fruit. The beautifully shining hexagonal crystals were created from the invisible world. My staff at the laboratory and I were absorbed in it and began to do many researches.

Crystals of HO2.

At first, we strenuously observed crystals of tap water, river water, and lake water. From the tap water we could not get any beautiful crystals. We could not get any beautiful ones from rivers and lakes near big cities, either. However, from the water from rivers and lakes where water is kept pristine from development, we could observe beautiful crystals with each one having its own uniqueness. In all of these experiments, distilled water for hospital usage produced by the same company was used. Since it is distilled twice, it can be said that it is pure water. Probably we understand 3%. in other words, I think 97% is unknown. The reason why the number is 3% is that the research of geneticists revealed the level of our DNA activation is 3%. I believe the original idea of creation by the creator of this universe was “the pursuit of beauty.” Everything is combination of energetic vibration. As vibration resonates, it makes some tangible objects. Combination of non-resonating vibration can result in destructive energy, and nothing can be created out of it. When some vibration and the other resonate each other, it always creates beautiful design. Thus, most of the Earth is covered with beautiful nature. That is why scientists, philosophers, and religionists pursue for unknown facts. Is it presumptuous to suggest them taking paths with “the pursuit of beauty” in mind as a means to confirm their right paths? There are approximately 7 billion people exist on this Earth now. I think there is one common standard we share although our skin colors, languages, religious beliefs may be different. I think that is the standard of “beauty”. However, the deep pursuit of beauty is slightly different depending on experience, age, and personality.”

Compassion

Thank you

Heavy metal music I will kill you

Wisdom

You fool

14Hz Square wave in water.

14Hz Triangle wave in water.

16Hz Sine wave in water.

55Hz Square wave in water.

38Hz Square wave in alcohol.

40Hz Sine wave in alcohol & water mix.

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;We are merely the universe trying to understand itselfâ&#x20AC;? Carl Sagan

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Ideal structures

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;In art and design, form denotes the formal structure of a work, the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image.â&#x20AC;? Frank Ching

Underwater structures are formed by hydrostatic pressure which is the primary struggle. This concept has been studied for years by engineers; and curvilinear forms such as sphere, cylinder and cone were affirmed as possible basic forms that resist under water. On the other hand, for underwater habitats there were examples with non-curvilinear forms from which limited views can be provided to exterior. As a result, different space qualities were achieved with different forms. If the designer is familiar with the behavior of the basic shell structures had been used in underwater design with imagination and knowledge. New spaces according to the functional requirements can be achieved with the manipulation of the basic forms, such as sphere, cylinder, cone and dome. Intersection or combination of these basic forms can be introduced as some alternatives among various ones. The structural capacity and behavior of these new geometrical configurations should be analyzed with considering other properties in further studies. Architects, but even more its lenders, should be aware of the limitations and potential of the environment. The most appropriate techniques should be utilized. For instance, the structure can be constructed in sections that can be easily transported later assembled on the site and finally submerged. Unrealistic design and requests will cause loss of time and cost. From this perspective, the base is form and material, since the perception of interior space is related to form and geometry and it affects the other design parameters. Structures are facing wind force, effects of gravity, earthquake and dead and live loads on land. The pressure in the underwater structure should be equivalent to the pressure on land, one atmosphere. Therefore, structure should withstand the hydrostatic pressure greater than inner pressure. That limits the form and geometry of submerged structures. The studies on submarines, transparent tunnels and the contemporary examples led to make an appraisal about the relationship between form and geometry; and the provided view to exterior.

Namely, the selection of the form and geometry has an effect on the connection of occupants with the environment, meaning the form not only in a structural way, but also in an energetic sense, for instance on the electromagnetic field I refer to Faradayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cage.

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Triangulation.

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Composition.

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Breakdown.

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Sphere simplification.

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Geometry in geometry.

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Pressure:

0 m = 1 ATM

-10 m = 2 ATM

1/2

1/3

-30 m = 4 ATM

-40 m = 5 ATM

1/4

Stress: Stress

Brittle materials

Tough materials

Deformation

Steel

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Ductile materials

Thickness wall* =

pressure x diameter â&#x2C6;&#x2014; Stress

* Simplified formula having previously considered material, temperature, joint efficiency, variables and error coefficient.

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Conclusion:

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If we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t change our style life in time,

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We should be able to adapt to irreversible changes.

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A new dream is possible.

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References:

Billings H., Man Under Water, Viking Press, 1954 Ambrose J. E., Building structures primer, New York, Wiley, 1967 Hussein F., Living Underwater, 1970 Miller, J. W. and VanDerWalker, J. G., Tektite 2: Scientists in the Sea, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1971 Soleri P., Arcology: The City in the Image of Man, The MIT Press, 1973 Burcher R. and L. J. Rydill, Concepts in Submarine Design, London, Cambridge University Press, 1995 George F. B. Foreword, Living and Working in the Sea, Plymouth, Five Corners Publications, Ltd., 1995 Liang, C. and T. Teng and W. Lai, A study of diving depth on deep-diving submersible vehicle, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 75, no.6, Elsevier Science Ltd., 1998 Hernandez F.A., Underwater Farming Colonies, Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Thesis, Uni of Southern California, 2002 Unwin S., Analysing Architecture, 2nd ed, New York, Routledge, 2003 Kaji-Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Grady, S. and Raisbeck P. , Prototype cities in the sea, The Journal of Architecture 10, no. 4 2005 Emoto M., The Healing Power of Water, Hay House, Incorporated, 2007 Ross C. T. F., Design of Submarine, University of Portsmouth, 2007 Web sites: www.corila.it/?q=node/153 http://www.cymatics.org/ http://weburbanist.com/2013/09/23/submarine-structures-7-wonders-of-underwater-architecture/2/ http://www.nemosgarden.com/science-behind-nemos-project/the-key-factors/ https://www.renewablesfirst.co.uk/hydropower/hydropower-learning-centre/how-much-do-hydropower-systemscost-to-build/ http://www.pri.org/stories/2012-11-02/energy-costs-oil-production http://uk.businessinsider.com/crude-oil-cost-of-production-2014-5?r=US&IR=T http://www.joboilrig.com/oil-rig-jobs-life-conditions/ http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-03-18/maersk-drilling-to-spend-much-as-6-billion-on-oil-rigs https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_farming http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/121804/wall-thickness-for-a-very-large-low-pressure-vessel http://www.xmasgrupsom.com/Libri/Somoderni/CapitoloIII/SomoderniRescafiB.htm http://homepage.ntlworld.com/carl.ross/exploiting_the_deep_oceans.htm http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jun/23/drifting-off-the-coast-of-portugal-the-frontrunner-in-the-globalrace-for-floating-windfarms

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Picture of the model.

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