338.01 Type Journal by Sabrina Bezar by Sabrina Bezar

ITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S ALL ABOUT THE THINGS. little

Art 388.01 Winter 2017 Journal

Shortcuts

from Buttericks Practica

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introduction This quarter I feel like I learned a lot of things about typography, and about myself. I’ve gained a new understanding for editorial work and about the smaller nuances of typography. I can safely say I hate it a little less, but I wish I was better at it. Looks like I’ll have to practice more.

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al Typography & Lecture Notes

NAME

SHORTCUT

HTML

Open single quote

Option + ]

&lsquo;

Closer single quote

option + shift + ]

&rsquo;

Open double quote

option + shift + [

&ldquo;

Closer double quote

option + shift + [

&rdquo;

Open straight quote Close straight quote

‘ ’

Open straight double

“

Close straight double

”

Paragraph

option + 7

&para;

Section mark

option + 6

&sect;

Option + g

&copy;

Ellipsis

option + ;

&hellip;

Trademark

option + 2

&trade;

Registered Trademark

option + r

&reg;

Nonbreaking space

Option + shift + spacebar

&nbsp;

Hard line break

Shift + return

<br/>

Hard Page Break

cmd+enter

n/a Shortcuts

in-class lectures 4

Typographic Refinement the details

POINT SIZE

SCREEN VS. PRINT

• Point size was developed for handset metal type. • Standard point size measurement was invented by Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune in 1737. • In 1870, the contemporary American system was adopted. • It introduced two units: points and picas. • Traditional sizes ranged in increments from 5 to 72 points. • How do you choose point size?

• Point size should be bigger for screen than print. • Body text for print should be 9-12 pts, while body text for screen should be 14pt or more

Factors:

• typeface proportions and weight • length of text. • format for viewing (print, web, or both?) • audience • content

Good typefaces have:

• good regular weight • good proportions • at least one bold, with noticeable contrast to compliment the weight. • an italic version. • legible numerals. • narrow enough to fit large amounts into a space. Kern type manually for display sizes.

12 points = 1 pica 6 picas = 1 inch 1p6 = 1 pica + 6 points

Typographic Refinement

COSTUMIZE LETTING

ADJUST HYPHENATION

120-145% point size

Words with at least: 6 letters

Attention to line length

After first: 3 letters

Too wide, and the reader will have a hard time focusing.

Before last: 3 letters

Too short, and you break the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rhythm.

Use smart quotation marks.

Optimal line length 45-90 characters per line, or 8-13 words per line

Letterspacing matters Tight type is hard to read. So is wide type. Small caps and All caps can take more letterspacing than normal. Adjust tracking carefully Avoid fake small caps, only use true small caps Know your dashes

Hyphen: when a word is to long for a column.

En dash indicates duration

Em dash express a break in the flow of a sentence. Costumize hyphenation Avoid small word fragments and too many consecutive hyphens.

In-Class Lectures

Hyphen limit: 2 Fix rags when practical by using discretionary hyphens, line breaks, or tracking. Avoid widows and orphans Always check spelling with command + i

Typesetting InDesign tools and Techniques

AUTOMATE YOUR TEXT FORMATTING. Paragraph style attributes:

Paragraph shading:

• • • • •

Text highlighting.

Leading Tabs Indents Space before and after Hyphenation and justification settings • Rules above and below

General settings:

• Show overview of style settings and if the style is based on an existing style • Basic character formatting: • Font, font style, size, leading, kerning, tracking and case • Advance character formats • Only use the baseline shift

Indents and spacing:

Defines alignment, indents, and space before or after paragraph returns.

Tabs: Shows all tabs and leaders

Paragraph rules: shows rules (lines) that can appear above or below a paragraph

Keep Options: If you want to keep all or a certain number of lines together in one paragraph, helps avoid orphans.

Hyphenation: Turns hyphenation on or off and customizes hyphenation settings.

Justification: Customizes how type is justified.

Span Columns: if you want to switch from a single column to multiple columns in the same text box.

Drop Caps and Nested Styles: Large initial caps and styles within other styles

GREP Style: Globally search and Regular Expression and Print. Allows usage of code to find and edit or style text through find/change.

Typesetting

Bullets and Numbering:

Advanced character Formats:

Set up lists with auto bullet points or numbers.

Only apply baseline shift, never scale or skew your type.

Character Color:

Character color:

The color of the text, percentage of tint, and stroke alignment.

same as paragraph

OpenType Features:

Same as paragraph

Chose titling and/or Swash alternative characters, specify number style. Underline Options are underline options

Underline options: usually just for hyperlink styles

Strikethrough options:

maybe some day

Maybe some day

Export tagging:

Export tagging

same as paragraph

Turns styles into CSS for epubs and websites created in indesign.

TABLES ARE A GOOD TOOL FOR POSITIONING TEXT.

CHARACTER STYLES: Used for styling text within a paragraph for things like bold, italic, run-in subheads, and custom bullets/numbers

Table Styles:

General:

• • • •

Same as Paragraph styles in function

Basic Character formats: Font, font style, size, kerning, tracking, and case Inherited from paragraph style.

Opentype Features:

In-Class Lectures

Used for styling multiple tables.

Defines: Outside border of table Dividing lines of table Space above & below the table Fills of fields in the table

General:

same as paragraph

Table setup: Shows border of table and the spacing around the table in the paragraph

Row strokes: Horizontal diving lines in the table

Column strokes: Vertical dividing lines in the table

Fills Colors of fields within the table

Cell styles: Used for styling individual cells. Includes: • The borders around the cell • How text is position in the cell • The style of the text within the cell • The fill color of the cell • If the cell is x-ed out

Use Styles. You’re a Junior.

General:

same as the others

Text: Alignment of text insets (space around text in the cell)

Graphic: Space around a graphic placed in the table cell.

Strokes and fills: Stroke around the cell and fill color of the cell.

Diagonal Lines: If you want the cell x-ed out.

Object styles: Work the same way 9

Typography on Screen Designed by Matthew Carter for screen:

Georgia Verdana

ATTRIBUTES TO CONSIDER FOR TYPE ON SCREEN: Contrast Higher contrast impacts legibility. Good for small amounts or headlines.

Bodoni vs. Chapparal X-height

A high x-height is ideal for use on interfaces or wayfinding

Mrs. Eaves vs. Officina Serif Beware extremes If x height is too high, thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s less room for other characteristics. n, h, s, and d become difficult to distinguish at tall x-heights.

Special Characters Use typefaces that support different types of numbers, punctuation, and special characters.

Small Caps & Ligatures use the real stuff.

Optical Sizes a typeface with individual designs for different types of content (semibold display vs. semibold)

Finding Alternatives donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t use overused typefaces. (ie Helvetica, Georgia)

HOW TO PAIR TYPEFACES: Look for distinction, avoid paring similar typefaces. (good ex. Museo sans & adobe Garamond) Pair display and text faces (funky and sensible)

Look for harmony

Character Distinction

find typefaces with similar visual relationships

differentiating between characters is essential for legibility.

Use a family that includes both serif and sans serif.

Gill Sans vs. Verdana 10

In-Class Lectures

Build outward lock on one typeface and build upon that, then try something different.

CHOOSING TYPEFACES AND UNDERSTANDING FONTS

PLACES TO BUY FONTS:

Factors to consider:

League of Moveable Type

• • • • •

Font Squirrel

• • • • • •

Content Audience Format/context Technical Factors to consider: does the font have a full character set? Does the font have accents and glyphs? Does the font have multiple weights and styles? does it have small caps? Does the font have lining and old style numerals? What format is the font? Opentype? Is there a Web Font version?

Google fonts Lost Type Co-op

Fontspring House Industries My fonts Fonts.com Use a font manager Create Font sets Have the minimum number of fonts installed. Better font managers than font book: FontExplorer X Pro Suitcase Fusion 6

Keep in mind your license when you acquire a font.

Typography on Screen

readings

Butterick’s

Practical Typography TYPOGRAPHY IN 10 MINUTES 5 typography rules • Typographic quality of a document is determined by the appearance of the body text because it makes up the majority of the content of the document. Start every project by perfecting the body text with these four typographic choices: • Point size. In print, comfortable range is 10-12 point. On web, it is 15-25 pixels. Not every font appears equally large at the same point size, so be prepared to adjust as needed. • Line spacing is the vertical distance between lines. It should be 120-145% the point size. In word processors, use the “exact” line-spacing option to achieve this. The default single-line option is always too tight; the 1 ½ line option is too loose. In CSS, use line-height. • Line length. Length should be an average of 45-90 characters per line or 2-3 lowercase alphabets. In a printed document, this usually means Page Margins are

larger than just one inch. On a web page, it means not allowing the text to flow to the edges of the browser window. • Font choice. The best and easiest improvement you can make to your typography is to ignore free system fonts and buy professional fonts (see Font Recommendations). A professional font gives you a professional designer’s skills without hiring one. You can still make good typography with system fonts, but choose wisely.

NEVER CHOOSE Times New Roman or Arial.

Practical Typography

SUMMARY OF KEY RULES • The most important choices you make in a document are Point Size, Line Spacing, Line Length, and font, because these determine how the Body Text looks. • Point Size should be 10-12 points in printed documents, 15-25 pixels on the Web. • Line Spacing should be 120-145% of the point size. • The average Line Length should be 45-90 characters, including spaces. • Use a professional font, like those found in Font Recommendations. • Avoid Goofy Fonts, Monospaced Fonts, and System Fonts, especially Times New Roman and Arial. • Use curly quotation marks, not straight ones (see Straight and Curly Quotes) • Put only One Space Between Sentences. • Don’t use multiple Word Spaces or other White-Space Characters in a row. • Never use Underlining, unless it’s a hyperlink. • Use Centered Text sparingly. • Use Bold or Italic as little as possible. • All Caps are fine for less than one line of text.

Readings

• If you don’t have real Small Caps, don’t use them. Ever. • Use 5-12% extra Letterspacing with all caps and small caps. • Kerning should always be turned on. • Use First-Line Indents 1-4X the point size, or use 4-10 points of space between paragraphs. Use one or the other, never both. • If you use Justified Text, turn on Hyphenation. • Don’t confuse Hyphens and Dashes. Don’t use multiple hyphens as a dash like a heathen. • Use Ampersands sparingly unless it is part of a proper name. (ex. Proctor & Sons) • In a document longer than 3 pages, one exclamation point is plenty (see Question Marks and Exclamation Points) • Use proper Trademark and Copyright Symbols, not alphabetic approximations. • Put on a Nonbreaking Space after Paragraph and Section Marks. • Make Ellipses using the proper character, not periods and spaces. • Make sure Apostrophes point downward. • Make sure Foot and Inch Marks are straight, not curly.

WHAT IS GOOD TYPOGRAPHY? Good typography reinforces the meaning of the text. • Good typography is measured by how well it reinforces the meaning of a text. Typographic choices that work for one text won’t necessarily work for another. • For a given text, there can be many good typographic solutions. There is never just one right answer. • Good typography is derived from understanding the goals of the text, not just your taste and/or your visual training. Question marks are underused, exclamation points are overused.

Uses for Semicolon • Used as a conjunction to combine to sentences. Don’t use to connect a subordinate clause to a sentence. • Separates list elements with internal commas.

Uses for the colon

• Connects the introduction of an idea and its completion. • Semicolons are often accidentally used when a colon is needed, and vise versa. Paragraph mark (¶) is used when citing documents with numbered paragraphs.

The section mark (§) is used when citing documents with numbered sections. A paragraph or section mark should be followed by a Nonbreaking Space. If a paragraph or section reference comes at the start of a sentence, don’t use the mark, only the word. In reference to multiple paragraphs or sections, double the mark. Parentheses are for separating citations or other asides from the body texts. Brackets show changes within quotes material. Baces, or curly brackets, are usually only used in math writing. Does not adopt the formatting of the surrounding material. If an italic character runs into a roman parenthesis, it’s ok to italicize that parentheses. A signature line is a horizontal line aligned with adjacent text. Shift + hyphen lengthens the hyphen line.

Practical Typography

Reasons for underscores instead of underlines:

Nonbreaking spaces

• If you need to get rid of a document’s underlining, you could destroy your signature line in the process on accident. • Searching and replacing items may mess up your line. • Underscores characters don’t change with formatting, but underlined words may.

A nonbreaking space is the same width as a word space, but prevents the text from flowing to a new line or page.

Accented Characters Don’t ignore them.

Foreign words arise in 2 situations: • Proper names, like people and places. In names, accented characters must always appear correctly. • Loanwords used in American English. (café)

Six important white-space characters:

• word space • nonbreaking space • tab • hard line break • carriage return • hard page break Adobe Indesign supports Thin space, third space, quarter space, sixth space, flush space, hair space, figure space, and punctuation space.

To prevent awkward breaks

This can be useful for paragraph and section marks.

Tabs and Tab Stops For horizontal space in the middle of a line A tab stop marks a location, then typing a tab moves the cursor to that location. Lately, only used for inserting horizontal space in the middle of a line. If you need space at the beginning of a paragraph, adjust the First-Line Indent. For tabular layout, use a Table, NOT tabs. Adjust your own tab stops accordingly with the ruler.

How to work with tab stops To insert a new tab stop, click in the ruler where you want the tab stop. To move a tab stop, click and drag it in the ruler. To change a tab stop from one kind to another, double-click it in the ruler. In Pages, you can also right-click it. To remove a tab stop, drag it off the ruler.

Readings

The usual tab stop is the left tab stop, Optional Hyphens but there is also center and right tab The soft hyphen stops, and decimal stops that align Invisible hyphen where a would columns of numbers along their should be hyphenated if the word decimal points. lands at the end of a line. Tabs are used in bulleted and numbered lists to separate the bullet Math Symbols or number from the text. Use real symbols, not alphabetic characters You can fill the space in front of a

tab(with periods, underscores) by Use plus (+) equals (=) and the en using a tab leader. Don’t approximate. dash as the minus (–)

Hard Line Breaks Soft return Moves the next word to the beginning of a new line without starting a new paragraph.

If you need multiplication and more, insert real math symbols by hand. Do not substitute. Multiplication symbol is also part of dimensional notations.

A hard line break can help control text flow when a carriage return won’t work.

Ligatures

Useful for separating the line of an address.

Often involve lowercase f, but other ligatures exist as well.

Carriage Returns A new paragraph Use only one carriage return at a time.

Combine troublesome letters into one piece of type.

Make sure to turn on ligatures as needed. Some fonts don’t need ligatures. Largely stylistic choice.

If you want vertical space after a paragraph, use Space Between Paragraphs.

Hard Page Breaks Puts the next word at the top of a new page. Page breaks can be built into paragraph styles

Practical Typography

TEXT FORMATTING There’s more to typography than just fonts. There’s more to text formatting than just what font to use. It includes Point Size, Bold or Italic styles, Small Caps, Letterspacing, and Kerning.

Underlining Just don’t.

Goofy fonts Be distinctive, not goofy. Novelty, script, handwriting, and circus fonts have no place in any professional document.

Not for body text. Usually for short headings.

Headings Multiple levels of headings present two problems: structural and typographic. Often use too many levels of headings with weird combinations of bold, italic, underlining, point size, all caps, and first-line indents. Limit yourself to 3 levels of headings. Two is better. Headers without substance are a waste of space.

Work within these parameters:

• All caps are fine for headings shorter than one line. Otherwise Monospaced fonts avoid. And avoid title case. Don’t. Headings aren’t titles. • Don’t underline. System fonts • Don’t center Choose Wisely. (subject to exceptions) Pre-installed fonts on your computer. • The best way to emphasize a Some are better than others. heading is by putting space above and below, because it’s both subtle 3 problems and effective. • Many system fonts are not very • Use bold, not italic. good. Mostly on windows. • Make point size bigger, • They are optimized for screen but just a little. legibility, not print. • Only use two levels of indenting, • All system fonts are overexposed even if you use more than two (overused, recognizable) levels of headings. All caps • Suppress hyphenation Fine sparingly. in headings. 18

Readings

Letterspacing

Small Caps

The adjustment of the horizontal white space between the letters in a block of text.

Short capital letters designed to blend with lowercase text.

Unlike kerning, letterspacing affects every pair. Use judgement, don’t be gross.

Alternate figures Intended for different typographic contexts. • It’s never wrong to use default figures. • Not every font has alternate figures. • If they are included, they’ll be as OpenType Features.

Lining figures

Refers to the fact that the top and bottom of the figures align.

Tabular figures Fixed width

Proportional figures Set to varying widths that suit the shape of the character.

Ordinals Numbers that express position in a series. (ie 1st 2nd 3rd)

Web & Email Addresses Don’t hyphenate For web addresses, use hard line breaks to avoid hyphenation.

Great alternative to bold, italic, or all caps.

Two rules: • Don’t click the small cap formatting box. These are fake small caps. • Use small caps sparingly, add letterspacing, and turn on kerning. Only use small caps if they are included in the font family.

Hierarchical headings Inferior method with roman numerals (I, II, III) then switch the capital letters (A, B, C) then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) then lowercase (a, b, c) then romanettes (I, ii, iii)

It’s bad because: • Roman numerals and romanettes are bad and difficult to read. • Letters are not much better because letter-to-number correlation gets water once you go past F, G, H. Just use numbers instead. • Mixing roman numerals and letters results in ambiguous references. • By using one index each header, it’s easy to lose track of the hierarchy. Practical Typography

Instead of: I. Heading

A. Secondary

1. Tertiary

Use: 1. Heading

1.1 Secondary

1.1.1 Tertiary.

Mixing Fonts Less is more

Principles: • Mixing fonts is never a requirement, it’s an option. • Rule of diminishing return applies. • You can mix two visibly different fonts. • Font mixing is successful when each font has a consistent role in the document. • It rarely works to have multiple fonts in a single paragraph. • Mix fonts by the same font designer (atlas and lyon, alright sans and harriet, concourse and equity)

OpenType Features

• Designers of professional fonts have downloadable specimen

Readings

sheets to show you what opentype features are supported by their fonts. • Best feature support is in Adobe suite. • All major desktop browsers support opentype features. • Microsoft word support a limited set of opentype features (ligatures, alternate figures, stylistic sets)

Centered text Overused Safe but boring

Asymmetry is nothing to fear. Whole paragraphs should never be centered, as it makes them difficult to read because of double-ragged edges. Makes things difficult to align with other page elements.

Justified Text Use only with hyphenation on. Gives a cleaner, more formal look. A matter of personal preference.

First-line indents A common way to signal the start of a new paragraph. Alternative would be space between paragraphs. Should be no smaller than the point size of the text, and the indent should be 1-4x the point size.

A paragraph set in 12 pt should have an indent of 12-48 points.

words between lines to create more consistency.

Use your judgment. Wider text should have bigger indents.

In justified text, hyphenation is mandatory.

Do NOT use word space or tabs to indent the first line.

Block quotations

Hanging indents are also an ption, often used to create a text block with a list bullet that dangles off the left.

Reduce the point size and line spacing slightly.

Indent the text block between half an inch and a full inch on the left side, Text should only be indented inward. and optionally the same on the right. Or on the web, about 2–5 ems. Drop Caps are another option for the first paragraph. In certain decoAs with first-line indents, make rative texts, it’s ok. But otherwise, it the side indents large enough to be looks pretentious and dorky. noticed, but not so large that the line length is too short.

Space Between Paragraphs

Alternative to a first line indent. Equal to 50-100% of the body text size will usually suffice.

Page Margins

Don’t put quotation marks at the ends—they’re redundant.

Bulleted and Numbered Lists Don’t do them manually.

On a standard piece of paper with 12 Tables point font, 1.5-2 inches will suffice. Are useful for Web pages need big margins as well.

Body Text Consider font, point size, line spacing, and line length. Using a serif font is recommended for body text. On the web, body text can be sans serif or serif.

Hyphenation The automated process of breaking

• Spreadsheet-style grids of numbers and other data. • Layouts where texts needs to be side-by-side or at a specific location on the page. Always fix cell borders and cell margins as needed. Cell margins create space between borders and text of the cell. Increasing margins increases legibility. Practical Typography

Rules and Borders

Columns

Best used sparingly.

Easy way to get a shorter and more legible line length without large margins.

Thin borders are good for professional goods but too thin for a common printer or computer screen. Thick borders are distracting. Don’t use patterned borders.

Space Above & Below Draws the listeners attention, always a good thing. Creates Contrast.

Widow and Orphan Control Turn it on to prevent widows and orphans. Can also use soft returns Keep lines together Ensures all lines in a paragraph appear on the same page no matter what.

Remember to note our line spacing and make sure all space between paragraphs work out.

Line numbers Use line spacing with the line numbers and the body text. Simply make a text box next to your paragraph and adjust so that the numbers align. Easy.

Paragraph and Character Styles Use them if you don’t already.

Maxims of page layout

• Decide first how the body text will look. • Divide page into foreground and Use this option with Headings to background. prevent them from starting at the • Make adjustments with small bottom of a page. visible increments. • Try different typographic choices. Page Break Before Ensures that a paragraph starts at the • Be consistent. top of a new page. • Relate each element to each other. • Keep it simple. Intended to be incorporated into • Imitate what you like. paragraph and character styles. • White space is good.

Readings

FAMILY PLANNING, OR HOW TYPE FAMILIES WORK by Peter Biľak Optical size is just one parameter, which determines the appearance of a typeface. Another such is the weight of the type. A typeface with a large family of styles is best. Each style of a type family must be recognizably different in order to remain functional, yet adhere to the same common principles of the family.

TYPOGRAPHICA MEA CULPA, UNETHICAL DOWNLOADING by Steven Heller Unfortunately, many designers ignore type licenses, transferring and sharing fonts between fellow designers illegally. Illicit type sharing betrays an honor system that can only work if everyone follows it. All font software is protected by copyright and some are protecte by patents. Buy fonts and read the fine print, make sure you know how you may use it and how it may be distributed.

MY TYPE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY by Martin Majoor When pairing fonts, a serif and sans serif is usually a good match. Make sure that the fonts have a similar x-height and width.

USING LAYOUT GRIDS EFFECTIVELY Always use a layout grid for your design project. No exceptions, otherwise the look is harder to repeat and your projects will lack visual harmony. Adjust the gutter to compensate for binding in a print publication. Use the rule of thirds when choosing photographs and making compositions, and take into account the Fibonacci Spiral.

A VIEW OF LATIN TYPOGRAPHY IN RELATIONSHIP TO THE WORLD by Peter Biľak Latin based type is considered the “standard” for typography despite many languages not being latin-based. There is still a whole world of type design for non-latin languages that help strengthen typography as a whole and even help Latin-based type. Other Articles

LAVA – VOICE OF A MAGAZINE

BEAUTY AND UGLINESS IN TYPE DESIGN

by Peter Biľak Lava was designed as a typeface meant to work both on print and on web. It was designed to perform well in both low and high-resolution settings. Inspired by Times and Georgia to read well on the screen. Creating a font for a project can be worth it if the font will be used in a versatile manner.

by Peter Biľak There’s a fine line between a beautiful typeface and an ugly one. Contrast between thick or thin can make or break a typeface. Karloff is a blend of beauty and ugly. Beauty + ugliness = neutral.

THE FIRST THING I EVER DESIGNED: ELANA SCHLENKER AND GRATUITOUS TYPE MAGAZINE by Madeleine Morley Start from what you like and what you’re interested in, and sketch a lot. Keep your goals simple. Start a project for yourself in something you’re passionate about. Make it great and it could take you places. Don’t be afraid to reach out and ask your heroes questions. Steal their design secrets.

Readings

ERIC GILL GOT IT WRONG; A RE-EVALUATION OF GILL SANS by Ben Archer England loves Gill Sans. But it’s totally overrated. It’s not bad, but it could be better. The styles are inconsistent and lose things like terminal strokes and details with increased width. Lowercase g changes completely in ultra bold. Approach Gill Sans with caution; it is a hard typeface to use without putting in a lot of effort. Johnston is better.

7 STRIKING DESIGN PAIRINGS WE DIDN’T EXPECT TO SEE IN GRAPHIC: 500 DESIGNS THAT MATTER by Perrin Drumm The way you place an image on the page can make or break a design. Let artworks speak for themselves, give them ample breathing room and plenty of space to be the proper size. Don’t hug your text to the piece.

AN IDEA OF A TYPEFACE by Kai Bernau Use old typefaces to design new ones. Take inspiration. Note what you like and don’t like. Typefaces are a tool for designing and reading. The fewer distracting details, the better.

A TYPEFACE DESIGNED TO REVIVE THE ENDANGERED CHEROKEE LANGUAGE

Do what you’re most passionate about.

by Angela Riechers Taking into account how your typeface will be used is integral. Make sure that you research properly and create something that the intended audience will enjoy as well as a secondary audience.