History of Freedom Movement by Sadaket Malik

Upgradation in Social Sciences

UNIT 3 HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT Structure 3.1

Introduction

3.2

Objectives

3.3

The Great Revolt: 1857

3.4

Growth of Indian Nationalism

3.5

Early Phase of the Freedom Movement

3.6

3.5.1

Moderates and Extremists

3.5.2

Swadeshi Movement

3.5.3

Revolutionary Activities

Emergence of Gandhi 3.6.1

Non-Cooperation and Khilafat

3.6.2

Civil Disobedience

3.7

Non-Gandhian Movements

3.8

Towards Freedom 3.8.1

Cripps Mission

3.8.2 3.8.3

Quit India Movement Indian National Army

3.8.4

Final Phase

3.9

Legacy of Freedom Movement

3.10

Let Us Sum Up

3.11

Unit-end Exercises

3.1

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the historic struggle of our people to liberate India from the domination of the British rulers. The establishment of British rule in India in the second half of the 18th century was followed by relentless struggles by our countrymen against the foreign rulers. However, these struggle remained sporadic and they cannot be termed as an organised struggle at the national level. The popular revolts took a serious turn in 1857 when large sections of Indians, in various parts of the country, made a combined effort to overthrow the British. This popular revolt is interpreted as the first was of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Independence. In spite of the failure of this effort there was a growing realisation of the exploitative character of British rule. Though the British claimed to be benevolent rulers there was widespread disillusionment as regards their policies. Soon various political associations were formed, and Indian nationalism started taking an organised form. The Indian National Congress, played a major role in mobilising people against the colonial rule. Though it is not possible to discuss all the details of the freedom movement in one unit here on attempt is to give an overview of the freedom struggle mentioning specifically its highlights.

3.2

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to : 34

identify the factors which contributed to the emergence of Indian Nationalism;

explain the political objectives and methods of our early freedom fighters;

describe the role of Gandhi and other important leaders in freedom movement, and

discuss the crucial phases of freedom movement which contributed in forcing the British to quit India.

3.3

History of Freedom Movement

THE GREAT REVOLT: 1857

The Battle of Plassey, fought between Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal and the English East India Company in June 1757, marked the beginning of British rule in India. From 1757 to 1857, over a period of hundred years the East India Company was engaged in expansion and consolidation of British authority over Indian territory. When Lord Dalhousie left India in 1856, British rule in India seemed to have been firmly established. But the struggle that broke out in 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British authority. The struggle was an outcome of discontent that was brewing among different sections of Indian people for various reasons. The new land revenue system antagonised many feudal chiefs as well as common peasants. Common people became the victims of arrogance and overbearing manner of the officials of the East India Company. Time-honoured customs and practices of the people were ignored. The new system of justice was looked upon as an imposition and a symbol of terror. Indian soldiers were unhappy because of discriminatory attitude of their European master, etc. Anger against the alien rule very often took the form of sproadic uprisings in different parts of India. Though these uprisings were isolated incidents they clearly expressed the anti-British sentiments of the local people. In this sequence of uprisings the major assault faced by the British in 1857 was when the sepoys at Meerut Cantonment revolted against the British military officials. Greased catridges, suspected by some to be smeared with the fat of cows and pigs, might have acted as an immediate provocation; but the rumblings of discontent in the army were noticed even before the Meerut uprising. In fact in March 1857 a regiment of sepoys was disbanded at Barrackpore, near Calcutta, when Mangal Pandey, a young sepoy, fired a bullet at his British officer. The sepoys who rebelled in Meerut marched to Delhi and captured it. Soon they declared the aged Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah as the emperor of India. The uprising spread to Lucknow, Kanpur, Rohilkhand, Central India and Bundelkhand. The initiative for the Revolt of 1857 came from the sepoys, but very soon took the character of a popular rebellion. At several places it was the civil population which raised the banner of revolt because of their grievances against the foreign rule, while at other places it was led by the ex-rulers. Many heroic battles were fought during the course of the struggle. But it also saw many rulers supporting the British. Ultimately, the British suppressed the uprising. In spite of its failure the events of 1857 kind the spirit of freedom amongst the Indian. The heroic sacrifices made by Rani Laxmi Bai, Tantia Tope, Nana Saheb, Kunwar Singh and many other became the major source of inspiration for our freedom fighters.

3.4

GROWTH OF INDIAN NATIONALISM

By bringing our vast country under the umbrella of one centralised administration and introducing modern education and communication systems the British rule had made an indirect contribution in facilitating the growth of Indian nationalism. This was also the time when India witnessed the growth of new ideas and the development of modern literature in various regional languages. The new universities at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras and the various government colleges in different parts of the country helped to create a new middle class who started thinking in terms of India and Indian culture. Indian intelligentsia through nationalist newspapers and literature in the form of novels, essays and poetry aroused a strong sense of patriotism across the country. Anti-British sentiment was strengthened by the British policy of discrimination on racial basis, repression and economic 35

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exploitation. Certain administrative measures taken by the Government further contributed in this direction. These included: l

the Arms Act of 1878,

the Vernacular Press Act of 1878,

reduction of the maximum age limit for appearing in the Indian Civil Services Examination from 21 to 19 years.

the Illbert Bill Controversy.

Thus, by the second half of the 19th century a New line atmosphere developed to ventilate anti-British feelings, through consolidation of nationalism and the struggle for independence. In the next section we will see how the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided a platform to carry forward the freedom movement.

Check Your Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the umt. 1.

Explain the factors that led to the growth of Indian nationalism. ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

Name three important British measures in the 1870s which agitated the Indians. ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

3.5

EARLY PHASE OF THE FREEDOM MOVEMENT

The popular uprisings challenging the colonial rule were suppressed by the British. However, the educated middle class Indians soon realised the necessity of an organised movement at the national level. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Ranade and Surendranath Banerjee etc. took up the task of developing political consciousness among Indians and exposing the exploitative character of British rule. As a result political associations were formed in different parts of the country like. The Poona Sarwajanik Sabha, Madras Native Association, Bombay Presidency Association, etc. The initiative at the national level came through the formation of the Indian Association by Surendranath Banerjee. All these efforts finally led to the formation of the Indian National Congress. W.C. Banerjee presided over the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in 1885. The objectives of the early nationalists were: l

to promote the feeling of national unity, and

to develop political awareness among Indians and to mobilise public opinion in order to pressurise the Government to accept their demands.

However, very soon opinions within the Indian National Congress got divided as regards the methods to be adopted. There emerged two groups, ‘moderates’ and ‘extremists’. 36

3.5.1 Moderates and Extremists

History of Freedom Movement

The early leadership of the Congress wanted reforms while remaining under the colonial rule. They were critical of transforming India into a colony, excessive land revenue the export of raw material and the import of manufactured goods and foreign capital. They protested against the drain of wealth from India. They also demanded democratic civil rights, free press, non-racialist administration and greater participation of Indians in the administration and the legislative machinery. They believed in constitutional methods like public meetings, petitions and press coverage for achieving their demands. They came to be known as the ‘moderates’ within the Congress. A group of Congress leaders, however, did not agree with the methods adopted by the moderates. Having no faith in the bonafides of the government this group was against pursuing the policy of appeals and gradual reforms. This group advocated that Indians must take recourse to mass politics and mass agitation to achieve the goal of independence from Britain. Due to their differences with the moderates this group was called ‘extremists’. Leaders of this group were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghose, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. The moderates had as their leaders Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, etc. Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, whether extremists or moderates, public opinion was very much in favour of raising the banner of revolt against the colonial rule.

3.5.2 Swadeshi Movement Sensing the growing consolidation of anti-British opinion Lord Curzon, the Viceroy, ordered the partition of Bengal in 1905. The Government claimed that the decision was taken for administrative convenience. However, the people of Bengal saw in it a hidden plan to divide the Bengali people along religious lines in order to check the nationalist movement. The partition of Bengal gave rise to wide spread discontent, and led to angry agitation in the form of Swadeshi and Boycott movement. The purpose of this movement was to put economic pressure on the rulers and to promote indigenous industries. The movement succeeded in getting a good response from the different sections of the society and soon it spread to other parts of the country. The government launched a ruthless policy of repression to crush this agitation but it had to annul the partition in 1911. On the other hand, the Muslim League, founded under British patronage at Dacca in 1906 had supported the partition of Bengal and opposed the boycott of British goods.

3.5.3 Revolutionary Activities The youth, being frustrated by the outcome of the political activism of the leaders of the nationalist movement and the repressive measures of the Government, took recourse to revolutionary activities against the government and its officials. These revolutionaries looted government money to collect money and arms for an armed struggle against the British. They organised secret groups for collecting arms and training the youth. The revolutionary movement had its beginning in Bengal and Maharashtra. Anushilan and Jugantar were two important revolutionary groups in Bengal. Certain secret groups like ‘Abhinav Bharat’ came up in Maharashtra. V.D. Savarkar played a prominent role in organising this group. The revolutionaries did not have a mass base and in the face of repressive measures by the Government they could not sustain the movement for long. However, their heroic self-sacrifice remained a source of inspiration for the future generation. Even outside India, Indian revolutionaries formed the Gadar Party in U.S.A. under the leadership of Hardayal to carry forward the freedom movement. Similarly, Madam Bhikaji Cama, Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh and many others were active abroad.

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Check Your Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit. 3.

How will you explain the differences of opinion between the ‘moderates’ and the ‘extremists’? ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

Why the Swadeshi Movement launched in Bengal? ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

3.6

EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 the British asked for Indian cooperation in their fight for democracy and the right of nations to self-determination. Indians responded positively to the British call and also suffered casualties in the War. But the reforms announced at the end of the war in 1919 fell short of the nationalist expectations. Disappointment and disillusionment with the government intensified the nationalist’s campaign against the British. Meanwhile, Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak started a popular constitutional agitation under the banner of the two Indian Home Rule Leagues. This was the time when Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi emerged to provide new leadership to the freedom movement. Gandhi had evolved a new form of struggle, non-cooperation and Satyagraha to pressurise the Government. His policy of non-cooperation and Satyagraha was already put into practice in South Africa while he was fighting for the right of immigrant Indians.

3.6.1 Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Gandhi started his political movement in India taking up the cause of peasants in Champaran (Bihar), and Kheda (Gujarat) and the working class in Ahmedabad (Gujarat). There was growing discontent among people because of rising prices and extortions in the name of war. The passing of the Rowlatt Act in 1919, authorising the government to imprison people without trial, provided Gandhi an ideal opportunity to give a call for mass action. Gandhi started Satyagraha and the entire country witnessed strikes, hartals, processions and demonstrations against the government. At Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 General Dyer of the British army ordered the troops to fire upon a peaceful gathering which was trapped in enclosed garden. The British brutality shook the nation.

This was the time when the British Government’s treatment of the Sultan of Turkey (who was considered as a religious head by Muslims) caused deep resentment among Indian Muslims. This led to a popular agitation known as the Khilafat Movement. In 1920 the Indian National Congress under Gandhi launched a non-cooperation, non-violent movement to redress the wrongs done in Punjab and in Turkey and to attain Swaraj. A call was given to boycott government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts and legislatures, foreign cloth and to surrender official titles and honours. Decisions were taken to set up national schools and colleges. There was massive spontaneous support to this movement from

various sections of the society-particularly peasants, students and workers. However, Gandhi, despite stiff opposition from many of his colleagues, withdrew the movement when a violent mob killed 22 policemen at Chauri Chaura in U.P. Gandhi felt that people were not yet trained in the spirit of non-violence. Inspite of this withdrawal the Noncooperation movement created tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem among Indian people.

History of Freedom Movement

3.6.2 Civil Disobedience Following their differences over withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement and the future plants for the freedom movement, leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru left the Congress and formed the Swaraj Party. When the Congress boycotted the provincial elections, the Swarajists took part in the elections. They wanted to oppose the British Government from within the provincial legislatures. On their part the British Government, in order to pacify the agitating Indians, declared the formation of Simon Commission in 1927 to suggest constitutional reforms. There was no Indian representative in the Commission, so the Congress gave a call for boycotting the Commission. All over the country people raised the slogan “Simon go back”. This generated new political enthusiasm. In 1929 the Congress in its annual session at Lahore adopted ‘Purna Swaraj’ (complete independence) as its goal and launched a nation- wide movement for economic reconstitution and political independence. It was resolved that from 1930 onwards, each year 26 January would be celebrated as Independence Day on which the tricoloured flag would be hoisted. On 12 March, 1930 the Congress launched the Civil Disobedience Movement which started with Gandhi’s historic march to Dandi to break the Salt Law. The movement spread to different parts of India, lakhs of people offered Satyagraha and participated in demonstrations and boycott of foreign goods and liquor. Gandhi was arrested and the Congress was declared illegal. Later on, Gandhi came to an understanding with Viceroy Irwin in 1931. He agreed to attend the Round Table conference in London for considering a new constitution for India. Failing to get anything concrete from the Round Table Conference, the Civil Disobedience movement which was temporarily suspended, was resumed in the beginning of 1932. However, because of government repression and growing feeling of ineffectiveness of the movement, the Civil Disobedience movement was officially withdrawn in mid 1934.

Check Your Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit. 5.

What led Gandhi to start the Non-cooperation movement? Answer in about 60 words. ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

Why did the Congress boycott the Simon Commission? ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... 39

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3.7

NON-GANDHIAN MOVEMENTS

We have already mentioned that many youth, motivated by patriotism, were not content with the Congress led nationalist movement. These young people believed in violent action against the Government machinery as the means to achieve freedom for India. The formation of the Hindustan Republican Association in 1924 was a major inititative taken by the revolutionaries to organise their movement. Later on, under the influence of socialist ideas, the name was changed to Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Chandra Sekhar Azad was the leader of this organisation. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Raj Guru, and Batukeshwar Dutt were some of its leading revolutionary activists in the 1920s. In 1930 there occurred the heroic Chittagong Armoury Raid in Bengal under the leadership of Surya Sen. Although the revolutionary activities were ruthlessly suppressed, the heroic sacrifices of the revolutionaries for the cause of mother-land will always be remembered with great respect. Peasant uprisings and working class struggles though linked with their economic and social grievances, also made great contributions towards freedom. The Congress leadership gradually included their demands in the programme of national emancipation. There also emerged various associations like the All India Kisan Sabha and the workers unions. Parties like Hindu Maha Sabha and Congress Socialist Party, though having a small following, contributed in their own way for the struggle. Similarly, being influenced by freedom struggle in British Indian States. Travancore, etc. launched movements asking for civil liberties and establishment of democratic representative government.

Check Your Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit. 7.

Write in about five lines the importance of the Civil Disobedience movement. ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

How was the Revolutionary movement different from the Gandhian movement? ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

3.8

TOWARDS FREEDOM

Coming under the pressure of the sustained struggle of the Indian people the British Government promulgated the Government of India Act, 1935. According to the new constitution, elections were held in various provinces in 1937 and the Indian National Congress formed ministries in seven provinces. In spite of limited powers given to them, the Congress ministries took some beneficial measures for the; people, like:

lifting the ban on the press;

release political prisoners;

curbing of police powers; and

encouraging welfare activities.

However, the beginning of Second World War in 1939 and the Government’s decision to drag India into the war without giving any consideration to Indian opinion led to the resignation of Congress Ministries in the provinces. Gandhi decided to start limited Satyagraha on individual basis by selected individuals in every locality. This was planned to give expression to Indian’s strong political feelings.

History of Freedom Movement

3.8.1 Cripps Mission In the midst of war the British Government was very much desirous of getting India’s support for its was efforts. With this in mind in March 1942 a delegation was sent to India under Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate with the Indian leaders. But the proposals of the Cripps Mission were not acceptable to Indians. The Congress pointed out that it was impossible for the Congress to consider any scheme or proposal which retained any type of British control in India. After the failure of the Cripps Mission, India’s struggle for independence took a new turn.

3.8.2 Quit India Movement The failure of the Cripps Mission impelled the Congress launch the ‘Quit India’ movement in August 1942. Gandhi asked the people to ‘Do or Die’. ‘We shall either free India’, he said, ‘or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery’. Along with Gandhi important Congress leaders were immediately arrested. But this could not stop people from raising the banner of revolt against the British. In some regions people set up their own governments defying British authority. There were massive protests and demonstrations. An underground radio station was also set up by Usha Mehta. The Government suppressed the movement ruthlessly and more than 10,000 people died in police firings. Women participated in a big way in this movement. However, the Muslim League and Communist Party had kept away from the movement.

3.8.3 Indian National Army When this was happening within India, Subhas Chandra Bose who had escaped from India in March 1941 led the Indian National Army, with the help of thousands of Indian army soldiers and officers who had surrendered to the Japanese towards India’s borders to free India from the British. But Japan’s defeat in the Second World War was a major setback for the I.N.A. and many of the I.N.A. officers and soldiers were captured and brought to Delhi by the British. They were tried in the Red Fort. But these trials, once again enthused the people to demand freedom. Subhas Chandra Bose it appears was killed in an aeroplane accident.

3.8.4 Final Phase With the end of the World War, India’s freedom movement entered a new phase. In February 1946, the Naval ratings at Bombay revolted. There was a massive demonstration in Bombay in sympathy with the ratings. Sensing the mood of popular discontent the British Government sent a Cabinet Mission to India in 1946 to negotiate with Indian political parties. The Cabinet Mission recommended that an Interim Government should be formed with the representatives of different political parties. It proposed the formation of a Constitutent Assembly to begin with. But this suggestion was not acceptable to the Muslim League. The Muslim league pressed its demand for a separate State of Pakistan. However, there were leaders like Abdul Gaffar Khan in North West Frontier Province who opposed the Muslim League. In 1947, the British Government assured early independence for India and sent Lord Mountbatten as the new Viceroy. By this time the Muslim League, under Jinnah went for direct action to create Pakistan. The British supported this idea. On August 15, 1947, India achieved its long cherished freedom but had to pay a price for it. Not one but two independent States - India and Pakistan - were born in the subcontinent. J.L. Nehru’s address to the people of free India on this occasion still rings in our ears: 41

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‘Long ago we made a trytst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of midnight hour when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this sloemn moment we take a pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity...’. However, the task was not yet over. The British left the princely states to make their own decisions. It was Sardar Patel who integrated these States into the Indian Union.

Check tour Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of the unit. 9.

Name two factors responsible for the launching of “Quit India Movement”. ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

10. Who formed the INA? ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................

3.9

LEGACY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT

We achieved our long cherished freedom at the cost of heroic sacrifices made by thousands of young men and women. India was perceived as our mother and for her emancipation young people fearlessly gave their lives. In the days of the freedom struggle sacrifice for the mother country was considered as the greatest religion. The common belief was “Who lives if India dies”. The new political consciousness had assumed a new form of secular religion. Essentially our freedom struggle was an endeavour to restore our lost identity and to prepare the ground for a new India to our ideals and aspirations. During the course of our freedom struggle and our interaction with western ideas and institutions our leaders realized that we as a nation could not survive unless we commits ourselves to new secular values, broader social outlook and a liberal democratic set up, Gandhiji’s non-cooperation and civil disobedience movements aimed at achieving political freedom. Similarly his views on socio-economic and political reconstruction of India acted as guiding principles to re-build the future India. We may particularly recall Gandhiji’s concern for the uplift of Harijans and village centred development. In a country like ours which is known for its diversities the freedom movement might have evoked different responses from different sections of our society. Yet, we have to stand as a nation in order to preserve the legacy of our freedom which we achieved at the cost of thousands of young lives.

3.10

LET US SUM UP

History of Freedom Movement

In this unit, we have made you familiar with the important historical events that led to our freedom from the British Raj. You have studied how economic exploitation of our country by British created strong resentment among people at various levels. The exploitative character of the British rule and growing political consciousness of Indians as a result of modem education gave birth to our nationalist movement. You have seen how from prayer and petition the national movement gradually took a revolution violent turn and culminated into a mass movement. Emergence of Gandhi in Indian politics widened the social base of freedom movement. Movements involving peasants, workers and others compelled the British to quit India and India achieved her independecne on August 15, 1947.

3.11

UNIT-END EXERCISES

Discuss in brief the historical events of freedom movement that led to freedom from British Raj.

Highlight the role of Gandhian and Non-Gandhian movement in Freedom struggle of India.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.

Economic exploitation, racial discrimination, lack of democratic representation in administration, were some of the major grievances. Modern education helped in promoting national consciousness.

Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act, Reduction of Age for appearing in the exam I.C.S.

Moderates believed in limited reform, they were in favour of prayer and petition to impress upon the British authority, whereas extremists demanded political freedom and they had no faith in agitational politics.

Partition of Bengal by the British led to this movement.

British apathy towards Indian grievances, Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh incident, Khilafat wrongs.

The Simon Commission did not have any Indian representative.

After Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience was a major movement by Gandhi. There was a massive popular response. Though it was withdrawn in 1934, it forced the Government to pass the Act of 1935.

Revolutionaries believed in violent action, terrorizing the Government they wanted to achieve political freedom, whereas Gandhi believed in non-violent means to pressurize the Government.

Failure of Cripps Mission, impact of the Second World War, etc.

10. Subhas Chandra Bose with the help of revolutionaries abroad formed the I.N.A. Its sacrifices and heroic deeds influenced hundreds of Indians.