Archaeology Study Bible

Study bible ArchAeology and

Cultural background

Resources and Features of this Study Bible

Here are some explanations about the resources and features of the Archaeology and Cultural Background STUDY BIBLE that will assist you in navigating and discovering its pages.

1. Indexes

There are three indexes at the very beginning that present a summary of all resources, in addition to the Bible text.

A. General Index – It features the list of articles that appear before Genesis, between the Old and the New Testaments, and before Matthew. Also, it includes the list of the books of the Bible and the corresponding pages on which they begin.

B. Topical Index – It presents the different topics under which the articles are categorized according to the list below:

LANDS AND PLACES

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

NATURAL HISTORY

PEOPLES AND NATIONS

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

RULERS AND EMPIRES

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

In addition, the Topical Index displays the corresponding pages of special inserts, maps, and infographics.

C. Alphabetical Index – Lists in alphabetical order all the articles, videos, and resources included in the Bible, regardless of the topic they belong to.

2. Introductions to the Books of the Bible

All the books of the Bible have a special introduction that includes information about the author, audience, purposes and themes, the book outline, and a special section on archaeology.

A sand clock in the introduction of each book of the Bible indicates the archaeological period the book belongs to (or was written). In some cases a book can overlap on two different periods. We will be using the mainly accepted abbreviations for the archaeological periods.

Archaeological Periods Years Prehistory

3. Special Inserts

They are printed in full color on thick paper and inserted throughout the Bible between signatures. These special inserts offer practical and fascinating insight on Bible objects, places, and cultural-related facts, along with photos and captions.

4. Maps and Infographics

Some of the highlights of this Bible are the maps and infographics that were carefully drawn. They also contain the corresponding explanation (legends) of the essential elements featured.

5.

Articles and Videos with QR Codes

All the videos and several articles can be accessed through special QR codes. You can use the camera or the QR code reader of your phone or tablet, and these resources will pop up on your screen.

This technological resource will allow you to access the latest versions of the articles and videos, as they can be updated as discoveries and more information about the topics become available.

6.

Photos

An outstanding selection of photos of artifacts and places with corresponding captions explaining their meaning make the Bible come to life.

7.

Timeline

On the top of all the left pages is a timeline with a sand clock logo that helps situate the events according to specific archaeological periods.

8. Special Chronology

At the very end of the Bible, you will find a four-page spread with an amazing chronological display disclosing the archaeological periods, Bible history, the books of the Bible, and much more.

The Arch of Titus, Monument to the Destruction of Jerusalem . . .

MANNERS AND

CUSTOMS

Adoption in Roman World . . . . .1682

Adoption in the

MAPS

ANCIENT TEXTS AND ARTIFACTS

Ancient Creation Stories

The Sumerian Eridu Genesis tablet, pictured here, tells how Enlil, chief of the gods, and An,

humanity with a flood. But Enki, the god of subterranean waters, sends a vision to Ziusudra,

him that he must build a boat to survive the disaster. After a deluge lasting seven days, Ziusudra

vessel to let in the light of Utu the sun god. Ziusudra then sacrifices oxen, sheep, and barley cakes eventually rewarded with eternal life for saving

Although the biblical account of Creation in Genesis 1 and 2 belongs to the oldest part of the Bible, it is by no means the earliest literature of the ancient Near East on the subject. Archeologists have found numerous other creation stories coming from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.

ed to create substitute workers. Enlil instructs Belet-ili, the goddess of birth, to build the first human being to “carry the yoke, the task of Enlil. Let humans take over the drag of the gods” (l. 195-197). With the help of Enki, the god of wisdom, Belet-ili slaughters a lower god and mixes his blood with clay to create humans. However, later the noise from all the people disturbs the gods, and Enlil orders a global flood to destroy them, but Atrahasis and his family survive with the help of the god Ea.

fin Text Spell 76) or by masturbation (Pyramid Texts 527), the creator forms the lesser gods and goddesses, each personifying an aspect of nature (e.g., wind, atmosphere, earth, heaven).

ANCIENT EGYPT

Egypt had many views on cosmology and creation, mainly because its people had many local gods during its long history. But one theme that unites the various Egyptian conceptions of cosmology is the process of separation. A creator god divides elements that originally belonged together: light and darkness, heaven and earth, land and water. The various accounts about the origin of the cosmos reveal some basic concepts: creation emerges from Nun, the primordial waters. At first, the creator god Atum (other texts speak of AmunRa) rises from the waters through an act of self-creation (Pyramid Texts 587). By sneezing or spitting out (Cof-

and forms Marduk, his son, in it (I. 73-84). The death of Apsu fills Tiamat with rage, and none can withstand her (I. 108-III 54), except Marduk, who battles her on the condition that the other gods recognize him as supreme (III. 55-IV 59).

The Sumerian “Eridu Genesis” (ca. eighth century BC; oldest fragment from ca. 1600 BC) also resembles the tripartite structure of creation, antediluvian time, and the flood. Its five tablets each present their own creation myth, of which the following three are signif- icant: In the story “Enki and the World Order,” the god Enki creates plants, animals, and humans in different creative acts and appoints gods over the various created areas. “Enki and Nunhursag” describe Dilmun as a paradise-like land in which no evil exists. The story “Enki and Ninmah” is about the creation of humanity as replacement workers for the gods. Some lines in these texts use sexual imagery to describe Enki’s activity of creation.

during the second millennium cance of the Bible is that they against which the unique traits account stand out. The most the biblical version of creation and noble, and His creation, including thus reflect that nature. The main biblical image of God that come lowing:

for the concept of rest. Also, they contain only sparse references to the creation of humans, who, in a few passing references, arose from the tears of the sun god Re, whereas in the biblical account, the creation of humankind occupies a central position.

MESOPOTAMIA

The oldest creation text so far discovered comes from Abu Salabikh (twenty-sixth century BC) and speaks about the god Enlil “who separated the heaven from earth, and the earth from heaven.” Of the many other ancient texts recovered, the following three are the most important.

The best-known Akkadian creation myth is called Enûma Elish (“When on High”), named from its first two words. A. H. Layard, in 1849, discovered it in the remains of Ashurbanipal’s library at ancient Nineveh, and G. Smith first published it in 1876. It consists of seven clay tablets with a total of about 1,100 lines. Although the tablets date to the seventh century BC, the myth is older, often dated to the twelfth-eleventh century BC. Several copies of Enûma Elish have turned

Different cult centers in Egypt developed various ideas about creation. The so-called “Memphite Theology,” recorded on the Shabaka Stone (inscribed eighth century BC), dates back to ca. 2400 BC. Here the creation myth revolves around the god Ptah. He created the other gods (also the sun god Atum, which opposes the Atum cult in Heliopolis), plants, animals, and humans through the word of his mouth without any struggle. At the end of his acts of creation, Ptah is fully satisfied. The resemblance to the biblical account is apparent. However, it also has striking differences. The Egyptian tradition is mainly interested in the origins of the gods (theogony), which does not play a role in Genesis 1 and 2, in which God is not part of the cosmos but stands above it. Egyptian texts have no equivalent for the biblical division of creation into seven days or

1. God exists before the beginning. ony in the biblical account. It God, not many. In contrast, the ern creation stories explain how came into existence.

2. God is sovereign, independent, ancient Near Eastern creation stories tic: they know several different es, none of whom is fully sovereign dent. Because they are rivals, the result of divine combat.

THE UNIQUENESS OF THE BIBLICAL CREATION ACCOUNT

At the climax of the fierce battle, Marduk kills Tiamat with an arrow, which he shoots into her throat and which tears her abdomen (IV. 88-104). He splits her body in half and forms heaven and earth from it (IV. 128-140), placing sun, moon, and stars in the heaven to determine the times on earth (V. 1-22), also a fifteenth day of the month, the full moon or shapattu day (V. 18). Finally, Marduk solemnly declares: “I shall compact blood, I shall cause bones to be, I shall make stand a human being, ‘Man’ be its name. I shall create humankind, they shall bear the gods’ burden that those may rest” (VI. 5-8). He then creates humans as servants of the gods from the blood of the demon god Kingu, Tiamat’s ally (VI. 31-40). In return, Marduk receives the temple Esagila in Babylon (VI. 45-67), making Babylon the chief city of the realm (VI. 72-73), and 50 honorary titles (VII. 143-144). The Assyrian version of the story replaces Marduk with Assur, who is hailed as the great god.

The ancient creation stories reveal which ideas of creation were widespread in the ancient Near East

B12EN BArqueologica indb 31 B12EN_BArqueologica.indb 31

Enûma Elish is the most extensive creation myth from the ancient Near East. Similarities to the biblical account comprise the basic order of the creative acts

3. God is not a sexual being. There were and goddesses in the pantheistic Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt, associated creation with sexual activity.

4. God is an artist-designer, not a ble portrays Him as a level-headed through the power of His word, creates nious masterpiece in space and time.

Biblical Languages

moon, and stars–humans), the separation of heaven and earth, the separation of water in heaven and on earth, the formation of humans (reported on the sixth tablet) and the rest for the gods. This should not lead to the conclusion that the biblical account is literarily dependent on the Babylonian myth because the differences are even more striking: the polytheistic nature of Enûma Elish, the violence, and conflict in the act of creation, and the creation of humans to be slave workers.

The Atrahasis epic is another early creation tradition of Mesopotamia (ca. eighteenth-seventeenth

The Bible consists of ancient documents written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Learning about the languages of the people involved in the production of the Bible brings the text alive in multiple ways. All languages provide windows into the conceptual world of their speakers.

stance, Hebrew is

description of creation, of the

nal language word that may have a variety of connota- tions. This means that readers familiar with the biblical languages have access to significantly more depth meaning when exploring the Scriptures.

Wall relief of the Egyptian creator god Ptah standing before Pharaoh Seti in the Temple of Osiris at Abydos, Egypt

Genesis

2Thus the heavens and the earth, and all the host of them, were finished.

2 And on the seventh day God ended His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done.

3 Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made.

Genesis, the first book of the Bible, forms a unit with the following four books under the collective title of the “Law of Moses,” or sometimes simply the “law” (Josh. 23:6; 1 Kings 2:3; Luke 24:44). Later, in the Christian tradition, the Pentateuch became the common name for the five books.

4 This is the historya of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens,

5 before any plant of the field was in the earth and before any herb of the field had grown. For the LORD God had not caused it to rain on the earth, and there was no man to till the ground;

The English names of the Old Testament books of the Bible follow the lead of the LXX (“the Septuagint,” the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), which chose titles based on the theme or suggested author of each biblical book. Contrary to that pattern, the Hebrew Bible (MT, the abbreviation for the “Masoretic Text”) adopted names for the Pentateuchal books from the first words of each book. Only in Genesis do the MT and the LXX titles coincide (e.g., LXX: “Genesis” or “Origins”; MT: bere’shit, meaning “In the beginning”). To be sure, Genesis is definitely a book of beginnings.

6 but a mist went up from the earth and watered the whole face of the ground.

7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.

Life in God’s

8 The LORD God planted a garden and there He put the man whom 9 And out of the ground the tree grow that is pleasant to the food. The tree of life was also in den, and the tree of the knowledge 10 Now a river went out of Eden den, and from there it parted and erheads.

11 The name of the first is Pishon; which skirts the whole land of Havilah, is gold.

12 And the gold of that land is good. the onyx stone are there.

13 The name of the second river one which goes around the whole

14 The name of the third river is the one which goes toward the east fourth river is the Euphrates.

Archaeological Periods

Genesis 1-11:

AUTHOR

Like the other books of the Pentateuch, Genesis does not identify its author. On the other hand, evidence appearing elsewhere in the Pentateuch suggests likely Mosaic authorship, since it credits no person other than Moses with composing any part of it, while God repeatedly tells Moses to write down parts of it (Exod. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27). Besides, Moses appears as the most significant person in the Pentateuchal stories (Deut. 34:5; Josh. 1:1, etc.).

The word “Eden” comes from the West Semitic root ‘dn, which means “abundance,” “delight,” and “luxury,” an etymology attested in Ugaritic texts (2nd millennium BC) and an Aramaic inscription (9th century BC). Aware of this, the translators of the book of Genesis into Greek (the Septuagint) rendered the expression “garden of Eden” as a “garden of luxuries” (LXX Gen. 3:23-24). It makes sense in light of what was in that garden. The biblical text describes an abundance of trees and a river flowing through it (Gen. 2:8-10). Scholars throughout the centuries have attempted to locate the Garden of Eden based on the geographical information found in Genesis 2:10-14. The text mentions four rivers, two of them the well-known Tigris and the Euphrates (v. 14). Both rivers have their sources in northern Turkey and continue south through the land of Mesopotamia. According to the Genesis account, the Pishon river flowed around the land of Havilah, a place of gold and gemstones (vv. 11-12), possibly the region of modern Hawlan, near the city of Medina, in Saudi Arabia. Interestingly, satellite images have identified a dry riverbed extending through that territory toward the Persian Gulf and exiting near the mouth of the Tigris. Quite possibly,

Garden of Eden—Genesis

Also, Jesus specifically connects Moses with Genesis (Mark 10:3-9; John 7:22) and, more generally, to the “Law” (i.e., the Pentateuch, Luke 16:29, 31; 24:27; John 1:17, 45).

Beyond this biblical evidence, the interlocking themes of the Pentateuchal books suggest a single author. For example, Genesis tells the reader who the Israelites are, where they originated, and how they came to live in Egypt. Exodus continues the Israelite tribal story by explaining the circumstances of their leaving Egypt, how they gained their covenanted status with YHWH, and the beginning of their cult practices. Leviticus reaffirms and details the Israelite cultic practices. Numbers describes significant events during the Israelite wilderness wanderings and the Moab encampment near Jericho, and also prescribes laws related to, and in preparation for, the Promised Land. Deuteronomy retraces early Israelite events starting at Kadesh-Barnea, repeats the covenant, provides guidelines and warnings before the people enter Canaan, and then installs Joshua as the new Israelite leader after Moses’ death. The linkages between these five books suggest continuity in authorship. Moses, the main character from Exodus to Deuteronomy, is the best candidate.

18 the Arvadite, the Zemarite, and the Hamathite. Afterward the families of the Canaanites were dispersed.

19 And the border of the Canaanites was from Sidon as you go toward Gerar, as far as Gaza; then as you go toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha.

20 These were the sons of Ham, according to their families, according to their languages, in their lands and in their nations.

LANDS AND PLACES

the biblical writer thought of the river Pishon Genesis 2. The Hijaz mountains in that region of the richest gold mines in the area. As for the connects it with the land of Cush (v. 13), possibly to the territory of the Kassites (Kushshu) in western But far more critical than Eden’s possible location in the first three chapters of Genesis. Scripture Garden of Eden as the first home of human beings place where God would meet with them (Gen. 3:8) a place in which Satan through the serpent was permitted work in tempting Adam and Eve (see Ezek. 28:13, as “the king of Tyre,” cf. Rev. 12:9). After sin entered, protected the garden (Gen. 3:24), indicating the divine tion to preserve it, and the book of Revelation mentions connection with the New Jerusalem (Rev. 22:2; cf. promised “Paradise” to the thief on the cross (Luke utilizing the Greek word commonly used in the Septuagint of Genesis and elsewhere about Eden (Isa. 51:3; Joel new earth would indeed be a place of untainted and abundance. Even more important, it is where God would ever dwell with His creation.

2EN BArqueologica ind B12EN_BArqueologica.indb 56

21 And children were born also to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder.

22 The sons of Shem were Lud, and Aram.

23 The sons of Aram were

4 For You are not a God who takes in wickedness, Nor shall evil dwell with You.

24 Arphaxad begot Salah,

25 To Eber were born two sons: the name of one was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided; and his brother’s name

26 Joktan begot Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah,

27 Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah,

5 The boastful shall not stand in Your You hate all workers of iniquity.

6 You shall destroy those who speak Thefalsehood; LORD abhors the bloodthirsty deceitful man.

29 Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab. All these sons of Joktan.

28 Obal,c Abimael, Sheba,

30 And their dwelling place was from Mesha as you go toward Sephar, the mountain of the east.

31 These were the sons of Shem, according to their families, according to their languages, in their lands, according to their nations.

32 These were the families of the sons of Noah, according to their generations, in their nations; and from these the nations were divided on the earth after the flood.

6 There are many who say, “Who will show us any good?” LORD, lift up the light of Your countenance upon us.

7 You have put gladness in my heart, More than in the season

7 But as for me, I will come into Your in the multitude of Your mercy; In fear of You I will worship toward holy temple.

8 Lead me, O LORD, in Your righteousness because of my enemies; Make Your way straight before my face.

9 For there is no faithfulness in their mouth; Their inward part is destruction; Their throat is an open tomb; They flatter with their tongue.

10 Pronounce them guilty, O God! Let them fall by their own counsels; Cast them out in the multitude of their Fortransgressions, they have rebelled against You.

11 But let all those rejoice who put their trust in You; Let

Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East, 383. , 281-283.

2:4 aHebrew toledoth, literally generations 2:14 bOr Tigris

A stylized golden lyre on display at the entrance to the City of David in Jerusalem

Photo: GettyImages

Khirbet Qumran

The Intertestamental Period

Khirbet Qumran, a site located in the Judean Des- ert on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, is referred to as a khirbeh (an Arabic term meaning “ruins”) because one can still see the remains of struc- tures above the ground. Khirbet Qumran has gained great interest because of its proximity to the caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Consequently, many have associated it with the community that wrote the documents. Some have identified Khirbet Qumran as the City of Salt (‘ir hamalēh) (Josh. 15:62), while others have regarded it as ancient Secacah (Joshua 15:61). Both cities are located in the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah. Roland de Vaux and Gerald Lankester Harding first excavated the site in 1949. During several seasons of ex- cavations, de Vaux believed that he identified five occu- pational phases. The first was a late Iron Age settlement that he considered as “Israelite.” The architectural and ceramic remains from the Iron Age date from the eighth century until the sixth century BC. The unearthed Iron Age architecture consisted of a rectangular building with a water cistern. The ceramic re- mains included pottery from the eighth to the sixth centuries BC and a jar-handle bearing a seal impres- sion with the Hebrew phrase lemelek (“belonging to the king”). Such jar-handles are important because they are found at other

Judean sites that also date presence of a lemelek to date the site itself. De the pottery and architecture well-known Israelite sites Qumran may have been and towers built in the Judean ziah, as mentioned in 2 Chronicles destroyed in the sixth century pied until the Second Temple De Vaux labeled the next as Phase I (Hasmonean) and ods: Phase Ia and Ib. Phase Ia the second century BC, possibly Jewish ruler John Hyrcanus I. BC and ended in 30 BC after earthquake struck the site. The for occupational Phase Ia consists collected rainwater from two ogists also excavated two ceramic corner. Scholars debate the identity pants, but some believe they mark Jewish sect, possibly the Essenes. ical evidence for this period has led site was occupied during de Vaux’s a small settlement. The occupational Ia was indistinguishable from Phase of Phase Ia and the beginning of Ib However, occupational evidence Qumran began to take on its final

about half of them lived in Alexandria (constituting a third of the overall population of the city).

Ptolemaic Egypt provided the setting for a Jewish Golden Age, as its Greek concept of citizenship (Hellene) extended to any person from the territories conquered by Alexander, who could speak Greek and who willingly served the royal dynasty. Thus the Jewish population was able to be entirely Greek while at the same time practice their Jewish faith. Unfortunately, such privileged status vanished when Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire as the Romans regarded “citizenship” much more narrowly. As a result, the Jews received the legal status of “Egyptian” and were

ranked on the same level as the indigenous people. It caused the decline of Egypt’s vibrant Jewish diaspora. It ultimately sparked the Jewish rebellion of AD 115–117, leading to the Emperor Hadrian’s final destruction of the Egyptian Jewish community.

The two greatest legacies of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Hellenistic Jewish community of Alexandria are the Septuagint and the works of Philo. They provided tools for spreading Christianity to the Greek-speaking world, and more broadly, contributed to the foundations of Western civilization.

ballistae stones testify to the subsequent siege. Extensive remains from Jerusalem at the time of Jesus Christ were uncovered on the Western Hill of today’s Jewish Quarter and “Mount Zion.” They unexpectedly revealed elite neighborhoods with a luxurious material culture. Excavations on Mount Zion also exposed the possible house of Caiaphas the High Priest, evidence of an Es- sene Quarter and gate, and the Cenacle, the probable location of the Upper Room. Surveys and large-scale excavations along the southern

Since 1863, hundreds of both small and large-scale excavations in and around Jerusalem have enhanced our knowledge of Old and New Testament Jerusalem. Some of the most notable and recent them include the following: Kathleen Kenyon’s in the City of David and other sites around the (1961-1967), Nahman Avigad’s (1969–1982) exciting discoveries in the Jewish Quarter; Benjamin and Mazar’s (1968–2010) long-term project and base

1388

The Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, adopting Egyptian religious customs, erected the still well-preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu on the west bank of the Nile River. Ancient Egyptians often depicted the god Horus as a hawk.

Photo: GettyImages

1396

and western Herod’s Temple

Sunset over the modern city of Jerusalem and the ancient site of the Temple Mount

Photo: GettyImages

The Gospel of Matthew introduces the New Testament and forms a bridge between the Old Testament and New Testament. It records the story of Jesus of Nazareth—the long-awaited Messiah foretold to Israel through the centuries.

AUTHOR

The author of the Gospel does not identify himself in the text. The title “According to Matthew” first appears in a manuscript from Egypt dated to the early third century AD. However, church fathers from the beginning of the second century (Papias, AD 135, and Irenaeus, AD 175) attributed authorship to Matthew-Levi, one of the twelve apostles. The lack of other traditions associating the Gospel with someone else speaks strongly in favor of Matthew, the tax collector, as its author (Matt. 9:9; 10:3. The Gospels of Mark and Luke call him “Levi”: Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27).

22 and immediately they left the boat and their father, and followed Him.

Jesus Heals a Great Multitude

23 And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all kinds of sickness and all kinds of disease among the people.

3 “Blessed are the For theirs is the

4 Blessed are those For they shall be

DATE

LANDS AND PLACES

Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity—Matthew 2:1

Bethlehem means “House of Bread.” Bethlehem the birthplace of two great kings: David and Jesus Christ. The only remaining Byzantine church from the fourth century honors Christ’s birthplace. The town entered history through the Tell El-Amarna Tablets. Letter 290 states that Bit-Lahmi fell into the hands of the Apiru. Scripture associates the village with the beautiful story of Ruth and Boaz, then of David, secretly anointed as king of Israel by Samuel. However, Bethlehem has gained its greatest claim to importance because of the birth of Jesus on the outskirts of the city.

The Gospel of Matthew does not provide any clear indication of when it was written. Irenaeus (second century AD) mentions that the Gospel was written while Paul and Peter were still alive (Against Heresies 3.1.1). Since Matthew shares so much in common with Mark, many believe that Matthew relied upon Mark when writing his gospel, though some believe Matthew was written first. Assuming Mark was written first, sometime in the late 50s or early 60s, Matthew would have to have been written after the completion of Mark’s Gospel, perhaps in the 60s or 70s. The prediction of the fall of Jerusalem in Matthew 24 has led some scholars to date Matthew after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. If we believe that Jesus could foretell the future, such reasoning is not convincing.

24 Then His fame went throughout all Syria; and they brought to Him all sick people who were afflicted with various diseases and torments, and those who were demon-possessed, epileptics, and paralytics; and He healed them.

25 Great multitudes followed Him—from Galilee, and from Decapolis, Jerusalem, Judea, and beyond the Jordan.

The Beatitudes

And seeing the multitudes, He went up on a mountain, and when He was seated His disciples came to Him. Then He opened His mouth and taught them, saying:

5 Blessed are the meek, For they shall inherit

6 Blessed are those who Forrighteousness, they shall be

7 Blessed are the merciful, For they shall obtain

8 Blessed are the pure For they shall see God.

9 Blessed are the peacemakers, For they shall be called

10 Blessed are those who righteousness’ sake, For theirs is the kingdom

AUDIENCE

Archaeological evidence shows that the village began at least in the Iron Age. The central point of interest to Christians today is the Church of the Nativity, built over a series of caves, some inhabited from the first century AD. The church is part of a complex formed by the Armenian Monastery to the south and the Church of Saint Catherine to the north. Constantine the Great and his mother, Helena, commissioned the Church of the Nativity between 331 and 339 as one of the first churches built in the Holy Land. It was a square basilica for worshippers to meet connected by an enclosed courtyard to an octagonal structure at its eastern end. Called a martyrium, the latter sat over the grotto where tradition claimed that Jesus had been born. During the time of the emperor Hadrian, the Romans dedicated a nearby grove to Adonis to desecrate the site in the minds of Christians, which indicates that the area’s connection with Jesus was well known. Origen mentioned a manger associated with Jesus in reporting his visit to the place ca. 215. In the latter part of the fourth century, Father Jerome lived in an adjoining cave where he translated the Latin Vulgate version of the Bible.

11 “Blessed are you when they secute you, and say all kinds falsely for My sake.

Date of writing before AD 70

rulers took it from the Greek Orthodox

ACTS 10

The Gospel of Matthew seems to have in mind a predominantly Jewish audience. We can see this, for example, in its emphasis on the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies by several quotations and allusions to Old Testament texts. The Gospel also makes numerous parallels between Jesus and both Moses and David, key figures for Jewish readers. Finally, Matthew does not seem concerned about explaining Jewish customs, such as the use of phylacteries and fringes in Matthew 23:5, suggesting that his audience was already familiar with such practices. Though most scholars agree that the book of Matthew originated in Israel, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact audience and place of composition. Some suggest Antioch; others favor Galilee. B12EN

and gave it to the Catholics. After the return of the Arabs in 1287, the church returned to the Greek Orthodox, who continue to own it.

The Grotto of the Nativity lays under the present church altar. Its access is through two entrances, one toward the south, decorated by the Crusaders in Gothic style, and another toward the north. A silver star indicates the traditional place of Jesus’ birth. The Greek Orthodox, Catholics, and Armenian Christians place candles on a niche above the star. A few meters to the southwest, another room of the grotto has a swing, where tradition says that Jesus was placed in a manger.

The church suffered serious damage during an apparent Samaritan revolt in AD 529. Justinian I then rebuilt and remodeled it, enlarging it by nine meters and replacing the octagonal structure with one of a cruciform shape. He had the church decorated with mosaics and paintings. It was the only church that would escape Persian destruction in AD 614–618, thanks to a mosaic that represented the visitation of the Magi to the Child Jesus. It is the oldest Byzantine church in Israel that is still functioning. It played an important role during the Crusades. After its restoration, it hosted the crowning of two Crusader kings. During this period, the European

A door provides access to the western part of the Grotto, established as a monastery by Jerome, with chapels, a workroom, and a tomb chamber. A stairway carved into the rock on the west side led to it during Jerome’s time. Today people enter it through the Catholic church, near the old Orthodox one. Each year Christmas services for the Catholics take place on December 25, the Greek Orthodox on January 7, and the Armenians on January 19.

The second sacred place in Bethlehem for Christians is Shepherd’s Field, located two kilometers south of the Church, in the Valley of Boaz. There are two sites. The one favored by the Greek Orthodox occupies the ruins of an old Byzantine church, over which a modern one has been built. The Catholic site has an enclosed grotto. A modern chapel commemo-

6/12/22 14:02 an was full of good works and charitable deeds which she did.

www.qr.safeliz.com/ba/eng/mt6.html

1628

Although the so-called White Synagogue in Capernaum was built centuries after the time of

rests on the foundation of the one that He would have taught in

Photo: GettyImages

rates the visit of the Magi to the shepherds.

An inlaid silver star marks the traditional site of Jesus’s birth in a cave, or grotto, below the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. One of the first churches built in the Holy Land, the Roman emperor Constantine and his mother, Helena, commissioned it between AD 331 and 339.

Photo: GettyImages

The site of one of the few natural harbors along the eastern Mediterranean coast, Joppa was one of the first cities to have

Christian congregation. The book of Acts mentions the apostle Peter visiting it at least twice, once raising Tabitha (Dorcas)

from the dead and later staying at the home of Simon the tanner (Acts 10).

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