Archaeology Study Bible

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Study bible ArchAeology and

Cultural background

Resources and Features of this Study Bible

Here are some explanations about the resources and features of the Archaeology and Cultural Background STUDY BIBLE that will assist you in navigating and discovering its pages.

1. Indexes

There are three indexes at the very beginning that present a summary of all resources, in addition to the Bible text.

A. General Index – It features the list of articles that appear before Genesis, between the Old and the New Testaments, and before Matthew. Also, it includes the list of the books of the Bible and the corresponding pages on which they begin.

B. Topical Index – It presents the different topics under which the articles are categorized according to the list below:

LANDS AND PLACES

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

NATURAL HISTORY

PEOPLES AND NATIONS

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

RULERS AND EMPIRES

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

In addition, the Topical Index displays the corresponding pages of special inserts, maps, and infographics.

C. Alphabetical Index – Lists in alphabetical order all the articles, videos, and resources included in the Bible, regardless of the topic they belong to.

2. Introductions to the Books of the Bible

All the books of the Bible have a special introduction that includes information about the author, audience, purposes and themes, the book outline, and a special section on archaeology.

A sand clock in the introduction of each book of the Bible indicates the archaeological period the book belongs to (or was written). In some cases a book can overlap on two different periods. We will be using the mainly accepted abbreviations for the archaeological periods.

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ANCIENT INDIVIDUALS ANCIENT TEXTS AND ARTIFACTS BELIEFS AND TEACHINGS BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES DAILY LIFE GODS AND GODDESS HISTORICAL EVENTS
Genesis Connected History Genesis 1-11: Prehistory Genesis 12-36: EB IV Genesis 37-50: MB IIA-B Genesis, the first book of the Bible, forms a unit with the following four books under the collective title of the “Law of Moses,” or sometimes simply the “law” (Josh. 23:6; 1Kings 2:3; Luke 24:44). Later, in the Christian tradition, the Pentateuch became the common name for the five books. The English names of the Old Testament books of the Bible follow the lead of the LXX (“the Septuagint,” the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), which chose titles based on the theme or suggested author of each biblical book. Contrary to that pattern, the Hebrew Bible (MT, the abbreviation for the “Masoretic Text”) adopted names for the Pentateuchal books from the first words of each book. Only in Genesis do the MT and the LXX titles coincide (e.g., LXX: “Genesis” or “Origins”; MT: bere’shit “In the beginning”). To be sure, Genesis is definitely a book of beginnings. Like the other books of the Pentateuch, Genesis does not identify its author. On the other hand, evidence appearing elsewhere in the Pentateuch suggests likely Mosaic authorship, since credits no person other than Moses with composing any part of it, while God repeatedly tells Moses to write down parts of (Exod. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27). Besides, Moses appears as the most significant person in the Pentateuchal stories (Deut. 34:5; Josh. 1:1, etc.). Also, Jesus specifically connects Moses with Genesis (Mark 10:3-9; John 7:22) and, more generally, to the “Law” (i.e., the Pentateuch, Luke 16:29, 31; 24:27; John 1:17, 45). Beyond this biblical evidence, the interlocking themes of the Pentateuchal books suggest single author. For example, Genesis tells the reader who the Israelites are, where they originated, and how they came to live in Egypt. Exodus continues the Israelite tribal story by explaining the circumstances of their leaving Egypt, how they gained their covenanted status with YHWH, and the beginning of their cult practices. Leviticus reaffirms and details the Israelite cultic practices. Numbers describes significant events during the Israelite wilderness wanderings and the Moab encampment near Jericho, and also prescribes laws related to, and in preparation for, the Promised Land. Deuteronomy retraces early Israelite events starting at Kadesh-Barnea, repeats the covenant, provides guidelines and warnings before the people enter Canaan, and then installs Joshua as the new Israelite leader after Moses’ death. The linkages between these five books suggest continuity in authorship. Moses, the main character from Exodus to Deuteronomy, the best candidate. AUDIENCE We can deduce that the book of Genesis was written for Israelites who found themselves living in Egypt from two specific observations: The name of God Like the rest of the Hebrew Bible, Genesis is concerned with God’s divine actions and those in covenant with Him. Genesis 1:1 says that God (Heb. existed before the beginning and made all things. Genesis 2:4–3:23 expands the Creator God’s name to “the Lord God” (Heb. YHWH Elohim). These two names combine the generic name for “God” Elohim with the personal name of the Israelite God (Heb. YHWH). Then the book follows God’s chosen people through a series of covenants and redemptions directed by YHWH (pronounced Yahweh In this way, Moses indicated that the Israelite God (YHWH of all things. The combined names appear throughout Genesis chapters 2 and 3. In Genesis 4, YHWH (the tetragrammaton, term meaning “[consisting of] four letters”) becomes the formal name for “God” (i.e., the Israelite deity; cf. Genesis 4:4, 6, 9, 13, 15). Thereafter, Genesis uses YHWH and Elohim the primary names for God, interchangeably. The custom in English Bibles to translate the Hebrew name YHWH as “LORD,” (using the English capital letters, which correspond to the Hebrew consonants of the divine name). Originally, Hebrew writing consisted only of consonants. Because Hebrew was written to be read aloud and later Jewish tradition did not permit the saying of God’s name, the consonants of YHWH became combined with the vowels of ’adonay (“Lord,” which led to the English hybrid name Jehovah). This Hebrew combination reminded the reader to say ’adonay “Lord” instead of “YHWH.” We know that this tradition began sometime before the translation of the Old Testament into Greek (LXX) because commonly, the LXX translates YHWH with the Greek word kyrios (“Lord,” e.g., Genesis 7:1). To distinguish the name YHWH from ’Adonay “Lord,” English translators capitalize all letters of LORD. In Genesis, as in all the Old Testament, YHWH is the hero of all stories. In other words, the Old Testament shows every human hero as having flaws, but YHWH is above any such imperfections. 2. The emphasis on geography To Moses, the single most important event after the world-wide Flood the call of Abram. As God spoke to Noah, so He also did to Abram. He established multiple reaffirming covenants with them, and both received promises that their faithfulness to God’s covenant would produce blessings 8; 22:15-18). Moses carefully records the repeated covenants and interactions between God and Abraham’s descendants (Isaac and Jacob/Israel, Gen. 24:26, 27, 50; 26:2-5, 2325; 27:28, 29; 28:12-22; 32:9-12, 24-30; 35:9-13), and when circumstances force the covenanted people to move to Egypt, he records the words of Joseph as saying that their settlement there is nothing but another act of God (Gen. 45:7, 8; 50:1520), while reminding the readers of the promises that the Israelites would eventually possess the land of Canaan. In no better way could Moses have prepared the Israelite slaves for their exodus from Egypt and their return to Canaan than by the writing of the book of Genesis! PURPOSE AND THEMES The main theme of the book of Genesis is God’s omnipresence and faithfulness to those in covenant with Him. No matter the circumstances, no matter how sinful, faithless, or thoughtless His people are, God always present, and He will ultimately accomplish His purposes. Not only was God present from the beginning, but His people can also be sure that He continues to watch over them and save them. We see this theme best demonstrated by the salvation that God repeatedly brought to those in covenant with Him, despite their mistakes or lack of judgment (Gen. 12:10-20; 20:1-18; 26:6-11; 27:31; 37). Such episodes answer the question: How could God not save the Israelites from Egyptian bondage since they had been brought to Egypt as part of His plan? Intertwined with this theme of the divine presence is the truth that He also has a people. Just like His “regard” for Abel and his offering, so He has “regard” to those faithful to Him (Gen. 4:4; 6:8; 12:1-3, etc.). Although there are many attempts to date Creation by Genesis and 11, the real purpose of the genealogies is to demonstrate that God never forgets those in covenant with Him. For the Israelites in Egyptian bondage, God’s recall of the long-forgotten ancestors, and the salvation brought to the patriarchs, despite their own failings, offered hope that He had not forgotten those in Egyptian captivity. Using “beginnings” as the theme of Genesis allows us to devise the following outline. I.The Beginnings of Human History (1:1–11:9) A.The Beginnings of Earth and Life (1–2) B.The Beginnings of Sin and Death (3) C.The Beginnings of Those Loyal and Disloyal to God (4–5) D.The Beginnings of Reformatted World—the Flood (6–9) E.The Beginnings of Diverse Nations (10:1–11:9) II.The Beginnings of Israelite History (11:10–50:26) A.The Beginnings of the Abrahamic Family (11:10-32) B.The Beginnings of Abraham’s Sojourn in Canaan (12:1–25:11) C.The Beginnings of Isaac’s and Jacob’s Sojourn in Canaan (25:19-38) D.The Beginnings of the Israelite Sojourn in Egypt (39–50) Creation and the Flood are the two universal events described in the first chapters of Genesis. The complete Mesopotamian creation account the Genesis and describe God as the single entity at the “beginning,” the has as its purpose the elevation of Marduk to first place among pantheon of gods. Unlike the biblical account, which suggests a personal Creator kneeling in the dust, bowing low to breathe life into His creation (Gen. 1:26, 27; 2:7), the Enūma Elish lists the creation of humans from the blood of vanquished foe just as a passing detail among many others. As for the world-wide flood, the Epic of Gilgamesh shares many details with the biblical account. On the other hand, the contrasts between the biblical account of the Flood and Enūma Elish are striking. For example, the biblical record explains that the Flood was the result of human sinfulness, while according to the Enūma Elish its flood came about because the chief god became angry that humans were too noisy. Gilgamesh discovered the story of the flood while trying to learn the secret of eternal life. For his part in this flood epic, Utnaphishtim (the Mesopotamian Noah) gained Genesis depicts how the Israelites came to live in Egypt. Many generations of scholars have noted the many linguistic connections between the Hebrew of Genesis and Egyptian. That suggests similar corollaries between the Bible and Egyptian history. During the New Kingdom, the period when the Israelite Egyptian stories would have been written down, Egyptian scribes omitted the names of those conquered by Pharaoh, either because of disdain for the Egyptian ruler’s enemies or because of their belief in magic (writing their names would sustain their existence). The Joseph stories regularly mention God as the hero and His followers (Isaac, Joseph and his brothers) by name, but not Pharaoh, the main Egyptian god in the story. Beyond this historiographical omission, consider that the Delta, the region where the Joseph, Jacob, and Israelite stories occurred, had no large rock sources to provide material to record inscriptions, unlike the Egyptian south. All monumental stones, then, had to be shipped north for use. Besides the absence of such building materials, almost all the plant-based papyrus texts have long ago disintegrated. Thus less than percent of the potential historical records have survived. –Foster, “Gilgamesh,” 458-460. –Foster, “The Epic of Creation ( 390-401. –Freedman, O’Connor, and Ringgren, Theological Dictionary the Old Testament 500-521. –Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament –Hoffmeier, Israel Egypt –Ringgren, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament

Archaeological Periods Years Prehistory

3. Special Inserts

They are printed in full color on thick paper and inserted throughout the Bible between signatures. These special inserts offer practical and fascinating insight on Bible objects, places, and cultural-related facts, along with photos and captions.

4. Maps and Infographics

Some of the highlights of this Bible are the maps and infographics that were carefully drawn. They also contain the corresponding explanation (legends) of the essential elements featured.

5.

Articles and Videos with QR Codes

All the videos and several articles can be accessed through special QR codes. You can use the camera or the QR code reader of your phone or tablet, and these resources will pop up on your screen.

This technological resource will allow you to access the latest versions of the articles and videos, as they can be updated as discoveries and more information about the topics become available.

6.

Photos

An outstanding selection of photos of artifacts and places with corresponding captions explaining their meaning make the Bible come to life.

7.

Timeline

On the top of all the left pages is a timeline with a sand clock logo that helps situate the events according to specific archaeological periods.

8. Special Chronology

At the very end of the Bible, you will find a four-page spread with an amazing chronological display disclosing the archaeological periods, Bible history, the books of the Bible, and much more.

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Bronze Age I (EB I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3300–3050 BC
Bronze Age II-III (EB II-III) . . . . . . . 3050–2300 BC
Bronze Age IV/MB I (EB IV) . . . . . . 2300–2000 BC
Bronze Age II (MB IIA) . . . . . . . . 2000–1750 BC
Bronze Age IIB-C (MB IIB-C) . . . 1750–1550 BC Late Bronze Age IA (LB IA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1550–1450 BC Late Bronze Age IB (LB IB) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450–1350 BC Late Bronze Age IIA-B (LB IIA-B) . . . . . . 1350–1200 BC Iron Age I (Ir I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200–1000 BC Iron Age IIA (Ir IIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000–925 BC Iron Age IIB (Ir IIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .925–626 BC Iron Age IIC (Ir IIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626–539 BC Persian Period (Per) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539–331 BC Early Hellenistic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331–198 BC Late Hellenistic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198–63 BC Early Roman Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 BC–AD 100
Early
Early
Early
Middle
Middle
(IR IIC) Jerusalem in the Lifetime of Solomon omon spent seven years constructing temple for the God of Israel and 13 years for him and his family (1 Kings 6:38; 7:1). Because both projects lay outside the connew set of walls. Until Solomon’s time, Israel had housed the ancient Hebrew tabernacle at several temple on Mount Moriah would, at last, be the ark of the covenant’s permanent resting place. Solomon’s palace complex included his own palace, smaller one for his Egyptian wife (1 Kings 7:8), the “House mory or treasure house perhaps named because of its extensive use of cedarwood Judgment” or throne room (vv.2-7). City of David Kidron Valley Lebanon The Temple of Jerusalem Solomon’s Royal Complex And let them be ready for the third day. For on Sinai in the sight of all the people. You shall set bounds for the people all around, saying, ‘Take heed to yourselves you do go up to the mountain or touch its base. Whoever touches the mountain shall surely be put to death. 13 Not hand shall touch him, but he shall surebeast, he shall not live.’ When the trumpet sounds long, they shall come near the mountain.” people and sanctified the people, and they washed 15 And he said to the people, “Be ready for the third day; do not come near Then it came to pass on the third day, in the morning, that there were thunderings and lightnings, and a thick cloud on the mountain; and the treasure to Me above all people; for all the earth And you shall be to Me kingdom of priests and a holy nation.’ These the words which you shall speak to the children of Israel.” So Moses came and called for the elders of the people, and laid before them all these words which the LORD commanded him. “All that the LORD has spoken we will do.” So Moses brought back the words of the people to the LORD. And the LORD said to Moses, “Behold, come to you in the thick cloud, that the people may hear when speak with you, and believe you forever.” So Moses told the words of the people to the LORD. ple and consecrate them today and tomorrow, and let them wash their clothes. “You shall not take the name of the LORD your guiltless who takes His name in vain. “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your 10 but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor vant, nor your cattle, nor your stranger six days the LORD made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day. Therefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath day and “Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long upon the land which the LORD your God is giving you. “You shall not commit adultery. “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor. “You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, nor his male servant, nor his female servant, nor his ox, nor his donkey, nor anything that is your neighbor’s.” The People Afraid of God’s Presence the lightning flashes, the sound of the trumpet, and it, they trembled and stood afar off. and we will hear; but let not God speak with us, lest we die.” sound of the trumpet was very loud, so that all the people who in the camp trembled. And Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet with God, and they stood at the foot of the 18 Now Mount Sinai was completely in smoke, smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and quaked greatly. And when the blast of the trumpet sounded long and became louder and louder, Moses spoke, and God answered him by voice. 20 Then the LORD came down upon Mount Sinai, ses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up. warn the people, lest they break through to gaze at the LORD, and many of them perish. Also let the priests who come near the LORD consecrate themselves, lest the LORD break out But Moses said to the LORD, “The people cannot come up to Mount Sinai; for You warned us, saying, ‘Set bounds around the mountain and conThen the LORD said to him, “Away! Get down and then come up, you and Aaron with you. But do not up to the LORD, lest He break out against them.” So Moses went down to the people and spoke to them. The Ten Commandments 20And God spoke all these words, saying: “I the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. “You shall have no other gods before Me. “You shall not make for yourself a carved image—any likeness of anything that is in heavor that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them nor serve them. For the LORD your God, jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations of those who hate Me, but showing mercy to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments. Shofar or “trumpet”) in connection with the giving of the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:16, 19; 20:18). Exodus 19:13 confirms that was ram’s horn. Although ancient Israelites employed the horns of other animals for other occasions, the shofar was used at the fall of Jericho (Josh. 6), in Gideon’s victory over the Midianites (Judg. 6:34; 7:8, 22), and in the Jubilee year on the Day of Atonement as proclamation of freedom and restoration (Lev. 25:9-10; cf. Isa. 61:1 which applies this messianically). The Israelites employed the horn for several ritual purposNum. 29:1—both passages employ the word for “wind” instead of the specific “shofar,” but the Talmud regards that Moon (Ps. 81:3) and was used in praise during worship (Ps. 98:6; 150:3). The shofar also had a military purpose. The sound carried long distances, and armies could signal their forces with it, such as ordering an attack (Judg. 3:27; Neh. 4:18), suscalling troops (2Sam. 2:28; 18:16; Job 39:24-25), and 13:3). Ehud blew the shofar to get Israel to follow him into battle against the Moabites (Judg. 3:27-30) The shofar also had role in public ceremonies. David had it blown when he brought the ark of God to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6:15). Furthermore, its blast proclaimed Solomon as king (1Kings 1:34, 39). could also announce warning, as Ezekiel 33:3 and the Minor Prophets. Although the shofar had only two tones, the sound could, notes. The Mishnah recognizes three basic calls of the shofar. The shofar the only ancient Hebrew musical instrument reshofar trumpet fashioned from ram’s horn used during such religious ceremonies as the Day of Atonement Watch www.qr.safeliz.com/ex4en MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Sabbath in the Old Testament www.qr.safeliz.com/ba/eng/ex4.html RELIGIOUS PRACTICES Photo: GettyImages
XIII General Index Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .V A tribute to Siegfried H. Horn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII Resources and Features of this Study Bible . . . . . . . . . . XI Topic Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV Alphabetical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXII INTRODUCTION TO ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BIBLICAL WORLD What Is Archaeology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 The Importance of Community Archaeology . . . . . . . . .6 Archaeology and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 The Origin of the Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Cuneiform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Biblical Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Religion and the Culture of Ancient Empires . . . . . . . . .18 Biblical Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 General Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Recent Discoveries in Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Top Archaeological Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Major Archaeological Finds Associated with Each Book of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 OLD TESTAMENT Ancient Creation Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Manuscripts of the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 The Septuagint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 The Mari Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Egypt and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 The Rosetta Stone, the Key to Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . .42 The Meaning of Biblical Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Theophoric Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Games, Toys, and Fun in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Manners and Customs of Old Testament Times . . . . . .48 Pentateuch Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . Gen. . . . 51 Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ex. . . 131 Leviticus . . . . . . . . . . . .Lev. . . 201 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . Num. . . 245 Deuteronomy . . . . . Deut. . . 297 Historical Books Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . .Josh. . . 349 Judges . . . . . . . . . . . . Judg. . . 395 Ruth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ruth . . 433 1 Samuel . . . . . . . . . 1 Sam. . . 445 2 Samuel . . . . . . . . . 2 Sam. . . 499 1 Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Kin. . . 539 2 Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Kin. . . 593 1 Chronicles . . . . . . . 1 Chr. . . 659 2 Chronicles . . . . . . . 2 Chr. . . 695 Ezra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ezra . . 749 Nehemiah . . . . . . . . . . Neh. . . 769 Esther . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Esth. . . 795 Poetry and Wisdom Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job . . 807 Psalms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ps. . . 843 Proverbs . . . . . . . . . . .Prov. . . 933 Ecclesiastes . . . . . . . . . Eccl. . . 971 Song of Solomon . . Song . . 983 Major Prophets Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Is. . . 993 Jeremiah . . . . . . . . . . . . Jer. .1079 Lamentations . . . . . . .Lam. .1161 Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ezek. .1173 Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dan. .1235 Minor Prophets Hosea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hos. .1267 Joel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Joel .1283 Amos . . . . . . . . . . . . .Amos .1291 Obadiah . . . . . . . . . . .Obad. .1305 Jonah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jon. .1309 Micah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mic. .1317 Nahum . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nah. .1327 Habakkuk . . . . . . . . . . Hab. .1335 Zephaniah. . . . . . . . . Zeph. .1341 Haggai . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hag. .1347 Zechariah . . . . . . . . . Zech. .1351 Malachi . . . . . . . . . . . . Mal. .1367 THE INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD The Intertestamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1375 Khirbet Qumran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378 Social Classes in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1380 Hasmoneans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383 Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386 Seleucids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
XIV NEW TESTAMENT Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393Life in the New Testament World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 The Gospels Matthew . . . . . . . . . . Matt. .1401 Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mark .1463 Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Luke .1505 John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .John .1559 The Book of Acts The Acts
1605 Letters Romans . . . . . . . . . . . Rom. .1671 1 Corinthians . . . . . . 1 Cor. .1693 2 Corinthians . . . . . . 2 Cor. .1715 Galatians . . . . . . . . . . . .Gal. .1731 Ephesians . . . . . . . . . . Eph. .1741 Philippians . . . . . . . . . Phil. .1753 Colossians . . . . . . . . . . .Col. .1761 1 Thessalonians . . 1 Thess. .1771 2 Thessalonians . . 2 Thess. .1779 1 Timothy . . . . . . . . .1 Tim. .1785 2 Timothy . . . . . . . . .2 Tim. .1793 Titus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Titus .1801 Philemon . . . . . . . . Philem. .1807 Hebrews . . . . . . . . . . . Heb. .1813 James . . . . . . . . . . . . James .1829 1 Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Pet. .1839 2 Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Pet. .1847 1 John . . . . . . . . . . . 1 John .1855 2 John . . . . . . . . . . . 2 John .1863 3 John . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Jonn .1867 Jude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jude .1871 Revelation . . . . . . . . . . .Rev. .1877
of the ApostlesActs
TOPIC INDEX XV ANCIENT INDIVIDUALS Ahikam, Son of Shaphan, Royal Secretary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 Annas and Caiaphas . . . . . . . . . .1616 Baruch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1122 Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1176 Ezra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Gamaliel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1617 Gideon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Herod the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1407 Hilkiah, High Priest . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 Huldah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 Ishmael, King's Officer . . . . . . . .1138 Jaazaniah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 James, Brother of Jesus . . . . . . .1638 Jeremiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1083 John the Baptist and Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1412 Lydia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1642 Mordecai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 Nebuzaradan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Nehemiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Seraiah the Quartermaster . . . .1157 Shaphan, the Scribe . . . . . . . . . . . 645 The Nebuzaradan Inscription . . . 649 Zechariah the Prophet . . . . . . . .1354 ANCIENT TEXTS AND ARTIFACTS Al-Yahudu Tablets . . . . . . . . . . . .1119 Amarna Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 An Early Egyptian Parallel to the Priestly Blessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Ancient Creation Stories . . . . . . . . 29 Ancient Flood Stories . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Ancient Near Eastern Iconography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Ancient Near Eastern Love Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom . . 938 Annals of Sennacherib . . . . . . . . . 636 Ashurbanipal's Library . . . . . . . .1329 Balaam and the Deir ‘Alla Inscription . . . . . . . . . . 276 Behistun Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Biblical Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Biblical Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III . .619 Bulla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1124 Cuneiform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Eshbaal Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Ishbaal Son of Beda . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Israel Stele / Merneptah Stele. . . 399 Ketef Hinnom Amulets . . . . . . . . . 254 Kuntillet Ajrud Jars. . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 Lachish Ostraca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Lamelek Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1166 Letter Writing in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1676 Letters and Epistles in Roman Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1692 Major Archaeological Finds Associated with Each Book of the Bible . . . . 26 Manuscripts of the Old Testament 33 Nabonidus Chronicle . . . . . . . . .1252 Nag Hammadi Library . . . . . . . .1796 Nebu-sar-sekim or Nebuzaradan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1135 New Testament Manuscripts . .1769 Papyrus 52, an Ancient Fragment of the New Testament . . . . . . .1602 Pilate Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . .1459 Pontius Pilate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1598 Recent Discoveries in Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Samaria Ostraca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Scrolls and Codices . . . . . . . . . . .1798 Seal of Shema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Silver Scroll Amulets and Josiah’s Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 Targums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 Taylor Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1042 Teachings of Amenemope. . . . . . 958 Tel Dan Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 Tel Zayit Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 The Mari Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 The “Jesus” Ossuary . . . . . . . . . . .1554 The Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief: Early Evidence for Israel. . . . . . . 354 The Caiaphas Ossuary . . . . . . . . .1457 The City of Arad and the Arad Ostraca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 The Cyrus Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 The Erastus Inscription . . . . . . . .1692 The Gezer Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 The Gospel of Judas . . . . . . . . . .1610 The Impression of a Seal Belonging to the Prophet Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006 The Ipuwer Papyrus . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 The Isaiah Scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 The Khirbet ‘Ataruz Inscriptions . 579 The Moabite Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 The Nabonidus Texts . . . . . . . . . .1248 The Origin of the Alphabet . . . . . . 12 The Ossuary of James . . . . . . . . .1832 The Rosetta Stone, the Key to Ancient Egypt . . . . . . 42 The Royal Seal of Hezekiah . . . . . 733 The Seals of Jeremiah's Captors .1134 The Septuagint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 The Siloam Inscription . . . . . . . . . 640 Top Archaeological Discoveries . . 26 When Was the Book of Daniel Written? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1240 Writing and Scribes . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 ARCHAEOLOGY What Is Archaeology? . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Importance of Community Archaeology . . . . . 6 BELIEFS AND TEACHINGS Angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Clean and Unclean Food . . . . . . . 217 Cosmology and Cosmogony in the Ancient Near East . . . . . . 907 Covenants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Demons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Early Christian Heresies . . . . . . .1852 Elijah and the Widow of Zarephtah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Genealogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 Gnosticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1792 Greek Philosophical Schools . . .1644 Homosexuality in History . . . . . . 229 Jewish Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . .1641 John, the Unique Gospel . . . . . .1562 Leviathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Logos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1562 Mystery Religions . . . . . . . . . . . . .1766 Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1538 Prophecies of Daniel . . . . . . . . . .1242 Topic Index

The Arch of Titus, Monument to the Destruction of Jerusalem . . .

TOPIC INDEX XVI Revelation and the Supernatural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1881
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1660
Hades, Gehenna, and Hell: Concepts of the Afterlife in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1901
Biblical Origin of Death . . . . . 58
Divine Warrior Motif . . . . . . . 161
Jewish Opponents of Paul . . 1727 The Reforms of Ezra-Nehemiah . 792 The Sabbath in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . .1472 The Symbolism of the Tree of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 The Wisdom of Egypt and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Trumpets and Their Symbolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1892 Understanding the Book of Revelation . . . . . . . . . .1881 BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES Ancient City Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Ancient Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Ancient Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1026 Ancient Water Sources . . . . . . . . . 504 Antonia Fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1658 City of David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Court of the Gentiles . . . . . . . . . .1746 Gates, the Center of Ancient Civic Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Herod's Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1496 Herod's Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1408 Herod's Tomb at Herodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1408 Hezekiah’s Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 Houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1096 Huldah Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1444 Ishtar Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1247 Ivory Carvings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1298 Magdala Synagogue . . . . . . . . . .1416 Peter’s House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1422 Pool of Bethesda . . . . . . . . . . . . .1574 Pool of Siloam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1583 Prisons in the New Testament World . . . . . . .1748 Prisons in the Old Testament World . . . . . . . . . 115 Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Solomon’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Solomonic Gates and the Fortifications of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Tent Dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Sadducees
Sheol,
The
The
The
The Cave of Machpelah . . .
. . . 88 The Importance of Jerusalem in the Eyes of God . . . . . . . . . . .1904 The Ophel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 The Samaritan Temple . . . . . . . .1572 The Wilderness Tabernacle . . . . . 176 Thrones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Walls and Fortifications . . . . . . . . 715 Watchtower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Wells, Cisterns, and Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1133
LIFE Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Calendars and Seasons in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Chariots and Horses . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Childhood in Old Testament Times . . . . . . . . . 450 Childhood in the New Testament Period . . . . . . .1440 Cities and Villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Clothing and Jewelry in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Clothing in the New Testament Era . . . . . . . . . .1484 Dining and Meals in the New Testament World . . . . . . .1536 Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Early Christian Charity and Welfare Programs . . . . . . . . . . .1615 Education in the Biblical World . 937 Family Life during the New Testament Times . . . . . . .1750 Family Life during the Old Testament Times . . . . . . . . . 126 Famine in the Ancient Near East .118 Fashion in the New Testament World . . . . . . .1789 Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1466 Food Sources and Preparation in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . 96 Furniture in Ancient Israel . . . . . . 603 Games, Toys, and Fun in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . 46 Honey Production in the Second Temple Period from Dates . . . . 400 Humor in Ancient Times. . . . . . . . 975 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Jewish and Biblical Calendars. . . 192 Judicial Systems in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Leprosy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Life in the New Testament World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1397 Manners and Customs of Old Testament Times . . . . . . . . . . 48 Marriage in the Biblical World .1565 Mealtime in the Biblical World .1470 Medicine in Ancient Times . . . .1481 Money in the Ancient World . . .1442 Musical Instruments of the Bible 932 Perfume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Pottery and Pottery Making . . .1055 Scribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1130 Sheep and Shepherds . . . . . . . . . . 468 Ships and Seafaring during the Old Testament . . . . . 568 Slavery in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Slavery in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1810 Slavery in the Old Testament . . . 173 Slings and Slingstones . . . . . . . . . 476 Terrace Farming in Mountain Regions . . . . . . . . . .1002 The Galilee Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1477 The Poor and Needy in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . .1834 The Poor and Needy in the Old Testament World . . . . . . . .1301 The Significance of Meals during Earliest Christianity . . .1708 Thirty Pieces of Silver: Tyrian Tetradrachm . . . . . . . . . .1455 Threshing Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Trade and Merchants in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Travel in the New Testament World . . . . . . .1667 Travel in the Old Testament World . . . . . . . .1315 Treasures in Clay Vessels . . . . . .1722 Weights and Measurements . . . . 232 Widows and Orphans . . . . . . . . . . 336 Wine and Alcohol in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002 Wine in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 GODS AND GODDESS Aphrodite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1719 Apollo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1650 Artemis of the Ephesians . . . . . .1653 Asherah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Baal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Canaanite Worship. . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
.1448
. . .
DAILY
TOPIC INDEX XVII Chemosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1146 Cult of Dionysus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1648 Dagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 Greek and Roman Deities . . . . .1647 Names of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Queen of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . .1093 Tammuz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1183 HISTORICAL EVENTS Ancient Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Archaeology and the Bible . . . . . . . 8 Battle of Qarqar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Biblical Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Crucifixion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1501 Early Christian Life . . . . . . . . . . . .1615 Earthquake of Amos . . . . . . . . . .1293 Fall of Jerusalem (AD 70) . . . . . .1548 Israel’s Exile and Captivity . . . . . . 747 Jesus Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1543 Persecution of Early Christians .1623 Siege Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 The Babylonian Capture of Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 The Battle of Kadesh . . . . . . . . . . . 159 The Biblical Theme of the Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 The Burnt House . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1497 The Census that Brought Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem . . . .1513 The Israelite Conquest of Canaan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 The Missionary Journeys of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1635 The Intertestamental Period . . .1375 The Syro-Ephraimite War . . . . . . . 629 When Did the Exodus Take Place? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Zealots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1618 LANDS AND PLACES Acco (Akko or Acre) . . . . . . . . . . .1656 Adullam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1651 Anatolia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Ancient Harbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1313 Antioch of Pisidia . . . . . . . . . . . . .1729 Antioch of Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1631 Aphek (Tel Soreq) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Aphek on the Sharon Plain . . . . . 373 Aram-Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Ararat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Archaeology of the Seven Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . .1884 Areopagus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1645 Arnon River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Aroer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Aroer in the Negev. . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Ashkelon of Philistia . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Ataroth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Ataroth (Khirbet ‘Ataruz) . . . . . . . 290 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1644 Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013 Bashan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Beersheba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Beit Shemesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Beth Haccherem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776 Beth-Arbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1278 Beth-shean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Bethany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1564 Bethany Near Jerusalem . . . . . .1590 Bethel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Bethlehem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1406 Bethsaida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1486 Bethsaida Julias and the Feeding of the 5,000 . . . . . . . .1526 Bezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Bozrah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1149 Byblos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1205 Caesarea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1629 Caesarea Philippi . . . . . . . . . . . . .1435 Cana of Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1565 Capernaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1416 Chorazin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1427 Cities of Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Colossae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1764 Corinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1697 Crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1804 Cush [Place] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1020 Dabbesheth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1320 Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019 Dead Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Decapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1478 Edom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1307 Ein Harod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Ekron of Philistia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Elephantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790 En Gedi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1745 Ezion-Geber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Galatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1735 Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1410 Garden of Eden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Gedor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Gerar (Tell Haror) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Gethsemane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1596 Gezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Gibeon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Gilead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1095 Golan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Great Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1232 Haran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Harassim (Nahal Barkai) . . . . . . . . 474 Hazor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Hebron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Helbah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Heshbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991 Hormah (Zephath) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Horvat Giv’it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Idumea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1475 Jarmuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 Jericho in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1529 Jericho in the Old Testament . . . 359 Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1393 Joppa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1627 Jordan River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Kadesh Barnea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Kedemoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Kedesh (Tell Qades) . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Khirbet Qeiyafa (Biblical Sha'arayim) . . . . . . . . . . 478 Khirbet Qeiyafa and the Battle of David and Goliath . . . . . . . . . 477 Khirbet Qumran . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1378 Khirbet Yattir (Jattir) . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Kidron Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Kirjath Jearim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Kishion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Lachish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 Laodicea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1888 Lod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1640 Madaba Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Madmannah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1012 Magdala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1434 Mahanaim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Makkedah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Mamre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Maon (of Judah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Mareshah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1321 Megiddo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1897 Memphis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1022 Mephaath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Michmash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Misrephoth-maim (Tel Rosh Ha-Niqra) . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Moab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1017 Moresheth-Gath . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1320 Mount Carmel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Mount Gerizim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Mount Hermon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 Mount Nebo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

MANNERS AND

CUSTOMS

Adoption in Roman World . . . . .1682

Adoption in the

TOPIC INDEX XVIII Mozah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Naarah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Nazareth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1483 Negev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Nile River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Nineveh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1330 Paran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Patmos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1883 Pella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1449 Pentapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Perea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1439 Pergamum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1885 Persepolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 Petra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1038 Philippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1641 Rabbah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Ramoth Gilead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Red Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Rehob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Rehoboth and Rehoboth ha-Nahar . . . . . . . . . . 108 Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1661 Sea of Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1476 Sela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Sepphoris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1485 Shaalbim (Shaalabbin) . . . . . . . . . 550 Shechem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Shiloh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Sinai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Sochoh of Judah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Sodom and Gomorrah . . . . . . . . . . 78 Susa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758 Taanach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Tarshish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1206 Tarsus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1626 Tell Qasile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 The Brook Zered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 The City of Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 The City of Haran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 The City of Samaria . . . . . . . . . . .1007 The Judean Wilderness . . . . . . . .1415 The Land of Hepher . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 The Mount of Olives . . . . . . . . . .1581 The Villages of Jair . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Thebes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1210 Thessalonica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1775 Tiberias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1577 Tyre and Sidon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1361 Ugarit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Ur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Valley of Jezreel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Yavneh-Yam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Ziklag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Old Testament . . 76 Burial Practices in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . .1553 Combat by Champion. . . . . . . . . . 475 Curses and Oaths in the Old Testament World . . . . . . . . . 338 Debates in the New Testament World . . . . . . .1614 Divorce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Eunuch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1066 Firstborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Honor and Shame in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1429 Importance of Genealogies. . . . . 662 Kinsman-redeemer . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Law in Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Levirate Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Meals and Their Significance in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . 95 Mourning Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . .1105 Ossuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1423 Patriarchal Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1678 Paul and His Roman Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1643 Seals and Signet Rings . . . . . . . . . 588 Shofar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Social Classes in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1380 Sports and Athletic Events in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1704 The Casting of Lots . . . . . . . . . . . . 954 The Gospel: God's "Good News" . . . . . . . . .1466 The Meaning of Biblical Names . . 43 The Temple Shekel . . . . . . . . . . . .1437 Theophoric Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Treaties and Covenants in the Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Weddings and Marriage in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Weddings in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1568 Women in Old Testament Times . . . . . . . . . 969 NATURAL HISTORY Astronomy in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 Birds of the Land of the Bible . .1048 Camels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Cedar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 Date Palms, Palm Branches, and Their Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Domestic Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Equids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Flowers of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . .1420 Gemstones and Valuable Metals of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1902 Healing Plants of the Bible . . . .1044 Lions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Locusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1286 Plants in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Rainfall and Dew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 The Geography of Israel . . . . . . . . . 77 The Parable of the King of the Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Thicket of the Jordan . . . . . . . . .1150 Tigris and Euphrates Rivers . . . . . 392 Trees of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 PEOPLES AND NATIONS Africa in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . .1624 Amalekites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Ammonites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Amorites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Arameans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Canaan and Canaanites . . . . . . . . . 68 Chaldeans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1337 Egypt during the Biblical Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Greece and the Biblical World .1260 Hittites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Hurrians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Jebusites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Kenites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Midian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Phoenicia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Samaritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1570 Sojourner/Resident Alien. . . . . .1371 Syria/Aram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 The Jewish Diaspora . . . . . . . . . .1579 The Medes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1260 The Northern Kingdom of Israel. .571 The Philistines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 What Happened to the Ten Northern Tribes of Israel? . . . . . 633 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES Ancient Altars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Ancient Architectural Models . . . 642 Baptism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1414 Circumcision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Day of Atonement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Divination in Ancient Babylon .1243
TOPIC INDEX XIX Emperor Worship (Roman Imperial Cult) . . . . . . .1885 Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1517 Fasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Fertility Cults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1142 Food Sacrificed to Idols . . . . . . .1703 High Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 House Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1691 Human Sacrifice in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1094 Idols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1046 Incense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Jewish Proselytes . . . . . . . . . . . . .1620 Judaism in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1489 Levitical Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Love Feast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1709 Magic in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1623 Medium of En Dor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Mikveh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1585 Mortuary Practices in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Oaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1418 Passover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Pentecost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1612 Pharisees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1471 Prayer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1837 Prophets and Prophecy . . . . . . . . 263 Psalms—Its Uses and Types . . . . 848 Religion and the Culture of Ancient Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Sabbath in the Old Testament . . 171 Sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Seeking Divine Messages and Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1518 The Beersheba Altar . . . . . . . . . . . 546 The First Day of the Week . . . . .1461 The Golden Calf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 The Issue of Holy War in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 The Last Supper and Its Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1549 The Sabbath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Sabbath in the Archaeological Record . . . . . . .1069 The Sanhedrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1619 The Teraphim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 The Yearly Jewish Festivals . . . . . 237 Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 RULERS AND EMPIRES Ahab, King of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Ahaz, King of Judah . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 Artaxerxes I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762 Assyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1344 Baalis, King of Ammon . . . . . . . .1137 Belshazzar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1251 Ben-Hadad I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Ben-Hadad III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Ben-Hadad IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Caesar Augustus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1514 Cyrus the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1054 Darius I, King of Persia . . . . . . . . . 758 Darius the Mede . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1254 Egypt and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Emperor Hadrian . . . . . . . . . . . . .1609 Emperor Titus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1495 Esarhaddon of Assyria . . . . . . . . . 639 Esther. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Evil-Merodach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1159 Gallio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1649 Gedaliah, Governor of Judah . .1137 Hasmoneans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1383 Hazael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Herod Agrippa I . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1633 Herod Agrippa II . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1665 Herod Antipas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1552 Herod's Successors . . . . . . . . . . .1409 Hophra, King of Egypt . . . . . . . .1143 Hoshea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Jehoash, King of Israel . . . . . . . . . 622 Jehoiachin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 Jehoshaphat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Jehu, King of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Jeroboam II, King of Israel . . . . . . 626 Jezebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Josiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 Kingship in the Ancient Near East and Israel . . 461 Manasseh, King of Judah . . . . . . . 643 Menahem, King of Israel . . . . . . . 627 Merodach-Baladan, King of Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . .1045 Mesha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Nebuchadnezzar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Necho II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Nergal-sher-ezer, King of Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . .1136 Omri, King of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Pekah, King of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . 627 Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Pharaoh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1386 Rezin, King of Aram . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1589 Roman Governors in the Levant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1663 Sanballat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Sargon II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1011 Saul, Israel’s First King . . . . . . . . . . 463 Seleucids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1389 Sennacherib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 Sergius Paulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1634 Shalmaneser V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Shishak, King of Egypt . . . . . . . . . 712 Taharqa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 The Chronology of the Kings of Judah and Israel . . . . . 543 The Davidic Monarchy . . . . . . . . . 694 The Emperor Claudius . . . . . . . .1632 The End of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . . . . . . . .1334 The Fall of Babylon . . . . . . . . . . .1253 The Fall of Nineveh . . . . . . . . . . .1331 The Kingdom of Urartu . . . . . . .1043 The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 The Roman Army in Judea. . . . .1458 The Roman Procurator . . . . . . . .1662 Tiberius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1516 Tiglath-Pileser III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 Uzziah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 Vespasian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1546 Who Was the Pharaoh of the Exodus? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Xerxes (Ahasuerus) . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Altars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [354-355] Ancient Scripts . . . . . . . . . . [162-163] Ancient Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . [162-163] Animals of the Bible . . . [1314-1315] Baptistries . . . . . . . . . . . . [1442-1443] Birds of the Bible . . . . . . [1314-1315] Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1762-1763] Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1890-1891] Deities of the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . [354-355] Foods of the Bible . . . . . . . [930-931] Forests and Trees . . . . . . [1122-1123]
The
SPECIAL INSERTS

MAPS

TOPIC INDEX XX Funerary Practices . . . . . [1442-1443] Houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [546-547] Important Archaeological Sites Along the Dead Sea . . [1506-1507] Landscape of Israel . . . . [1890-1891] Musical Instruments . . . . . [930-931] Perfumes, Spices, and Other Plant Uses . . . . . [1762-1763] Plants and Flowers of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . [1122-1123] Professions of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . [1634-1635] Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . [738-739] Weapons, Armor, and Soldiers . . . . . . . . . [1634-1635] Weights and Measures of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . [546-547] Ziggurats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [546-547]
& INFOGRAPHICS Canaan in Old Testament Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Cities for the Levites and Refugee Cities . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Chronology of the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1905 Herod’s Temple in the Lifetime of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . .1566 Hezekiah’s Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 International Routes in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . 568 Jerusalem in the Lifetime of Hezekiah . . . . . . . . . 740 Jerusalem in the Lifetime of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . .1452 Jerusalem in the Lifetime of Nehemiah . . . . . . . . 778 Jerusalem in the Lifetime of Solomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Jerusalem in the Lifetime of David .510 Solomon’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 The Ancient Near East in the Time of the Patriarchs . . . 72 The City of Jericho . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 The City of Nineveh . . . . . . . . . . .1314 The Judges of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 The Maccabean Kingdom . . . . .1265 The Neo-Babylonian Empire . . .1333 The Origin of the Nations. . . . . . . . 68 The Route of the Exodus . . . . . . . 172 The Seven Churches of Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1884 The Temple Mount in the Lifetime of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . .1510 Zerubbabel’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . 755 VIDEOS Amalekites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Ammonites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Anatolia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Ancient Altars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Ancient City Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Ancient Flood Stories . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Ancient Near Eastern Iconography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Ancient Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Ancient Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Aphrodite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1719 Archaeology of the Seven Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . .1884 Artemis of the Ephesians . . . . . .1653 Asherah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Assyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1800 Astronomy in the Biblical World . .838 Baal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013 Balaam and the Deir ‘Alla Inscription . . . . . . 276 Baptism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1414 Bethlehem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1406 Biblical Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Caesarea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1629 Caesarea Philippi . . . . . . . . . . . . .1435 Canaan and Canaanites . . . . . . . . . 68 Canaanite Worship. . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Capernaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1416 Cities and Villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 City of David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Clothing and Jewelry in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Clothing in the New Testament Era . . . . . . . . . .1484 Colossae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1764 Cult of Dionysius . . . . . . . . . . . . .1648 Cuneiform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Dead Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Decapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1478 Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Divorce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Early Christian Life . . . . . . . . . . . .1615 Edom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1307 Egypt and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Emperor Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . .1885 Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1745 Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1517 Fertility Cults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1142 Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1466 Food Sacrificed to Idols . . . . . . .1703 Gates, the Center of Ancient Civic Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Genealogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 Gethsemane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1596 Greek and Roman Deities . . . . .1647 Herod the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1407 Herod's Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1496 Hezekiah’s Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 High Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Hittites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 House Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1691 Houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1096 Huldah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Idols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1046 Ishtar Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1247 Jericho in New Testament Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1529 Jericho in the Old Testament . . . 359 Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1393 Jewish Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . .1641 Jezebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Joppa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1627 Jordan River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Khirbet Qumran . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1378 Kidron Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Kingship in the Ancient Near East and Israel . . 461 Laodicea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1888 Law in Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Lions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Magdala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1434 Magdala Synagogue . . . . . . . . . .1416 Mahanaim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Manuscripts of the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
TOPIC INDEX XXI Medicine in Ancient Times . . . .1481 Megiddo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1897 Mesha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Midian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Mikveh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1585 Moab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1017 Mount Carmel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Mount Nebo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Musical Instruments of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 Nazareth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1483 Negev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Ossuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1423 Pella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1449 Pergamum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1885 Persecution of Early Christians .1623 Peter’s House (Archaeological Site) . . . . . . . .1422 Petra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1038 Pilate Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . .1459 Pontius Pilate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1598 Pool of Bethesda . . . . . . . . . . . . .1574 Pool of Siloam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1583 Pottery and Pottery Making . . .1055 Prisons in the New Testament World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1748
and Prophecy . . . . . . . . 263 Religion and the Culture of Ancient Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Revelation and the Supernatural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1881 Ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Sea of Galilee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1476 Sela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Shofar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Social Classes in the Biblical World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1380 Sodom and Gomorrah . . . . . . . . . . 78 Solomon’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Solomonic Gates and the Fortifications of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Sports and Athletic Events in New Testament Times . . . . . . .1704 Synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1518 Tel Dan Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 The Battle of Kadesh . . . . . . . . . . . 159 The Biblical Origin of Death . . . . . 58 The Biblical Theme of the Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 The Caiaphas Ossuary . . . . . . . . .1457 The City of Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 The City of Samaria . . . . . . . . . . .1007 The Divine Warrior Motif . . . . . . . 161 The Galilee Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1477 The Geography of Israel . . . . . . . . . 77 The Gezer Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 The Golden Calf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 The Isaiah Scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 The Israelite Conquest of Canaan . . . . . . . . . . 352 The Issue of Holy War in the Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 The Jewish Opponents of Paul .1727 The Judean Wilderness . . . . . . . .1415 The Missionary Journeys of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1635 The Moabite Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 The Mount of Olives . . . . . . . . . .1581 The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 The Ophel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 The Significance of Meals during Earliest Christianity . . .1708 The Siloam Inscription . . . . . . . . . 640 Thrones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Travel in the Old Testament World . . . . . . . .1315 Treaties and Covenants in the Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Trees of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Trumpets and Their Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . .1892 Valley of Jezreel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Wells, Cisterns, and Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1133 When Was the Book of Daniel Written? . . . . . .1240 Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Prophets

ANCIENT TEXTS AND ARTIFACTS

Ancient Creation Stories

The Sumerian Eridu Genesis tablet, pictured here, tells how Enlil, chief of the gods, and An,

humanity with a flood. But Enki, the god of subterranean waters, sends a vision to Ziusudra,

him that he must build a boat to survive the disaster. After a deluge lasting seven days, Ziusudra

vessel to let in the light of Utu the sun god. Ziusudra then sacrifices oxen, sheep, and barley cakes eventually rewarded with eternal life for saving

Although the biblical account of Creation in Genesis 1 and 2 belongs to the oldest part of the Bible, it is by no means the earliest literature of the ancient Near East on the subject. Archeologists have found numerous other creation stories coming from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.

ed to create substitute workers. Enlil instructs Belet-ili, the goddess of birth, to build the first human being to “carry the yoke, the task of Enlil. Let humans take over the drag of the gods” (l. 195-197). With the help of Enki, the god of wisdom, Belet-ili slaughters a lower god and mixes his blood with clay to create humans. However, later the noise from all the people disturbs the gods, and Enlil orders a global flood to destroy them, but Atrahasis and his family survive with the help of the god Ea.

fin Text Spell 76) or by masturbation (Pyramid Texts 527), the creator forms the lesser gods and goddesses, each personifying an aspect of nature (e.g., wind, atmosphere, earth, heaven).

ANCIENT EGYPT

Egypt had many views on cosmology and creation, mainly because its people had many local gods during its long history. But one theme that unites the various Egyptian conceptions of cosmology is the process of separation. A creator god divides elements that originally belonged together: light and darkness, heaven and earth, land and water. The various accounts about the origin of the cosmos reveal some basic concepts: creation emerges from Nun, the primordial waters. At first, the creator god Atum (other texts speak of AmunRa) rises from the waters through an act of self-creation (Pyramid Texts 587). By sneezing or spitting out (Cof-

and forms Marduk, his son, in it (I. 73-84). The death of Apsu fills Tiamat with rage, and none can withstand her (I. 108-III 54), except Marduk, who battles her on the condition that the other gods recognize him as supreme (III. 55-IV 59).

The Sumerian “Eridu Genesis” (ca. eighth century BC; oldest fragment from ca. 1600 BC) also resembles the tripartite structure of creation, antediluvian time, and the flood. Its five tablets each present their own creation myth, of which the following three are signif- icant: In the story “Enki and the World Order,” the god Enki creates plants, animals, and humans in different creative acts and appoints gods over the various created areas. “Enki and Nunhursag” describe Dilmun as a paradise-like land in which no evil exists. The story “Enki and Ninmah” is about the creation of humanity as replacement workers for the gods. Some lines in these texts use sexual imagery to describe Enki’s activity of creation.

during the second millennium cance of the Bible is that they against which the unique traits account stand out. The most the biblical version of creation and noble, and His creation, including thus reflect that nature. The main biblical image of God that come lowing:

for the concept of rest. Also, they contain only sparse references to the creation of humans, who, in a few passing references, arose from the tears of the sun god Re, whereas in the biblical account, the creation of humankind occupies a central position.

MESOPOTAMIA

The oldest creation text so far discovered comes from Abu Salabikh (twenty-sixth century BC) and speaks about the god Enlil “who separated the heaven from earth, and the earth from heaven.” Of the many other ancient texts recovered, the following three are the most important.

The best-known Akkadian creation myth is called Enûma Elish (“When on High”), named from its first two words. A. H. Layard, in 1849, discovered it in the remains of Ashurbanipal’s library at ancient Nineveh, and G. Smith first published it in 1876. It consists of seven clay tablets with a total of about 1,100 lines. Although the tablets date to the seventh century BC, the myth is older, often dated to the twelfth-eleventh century BC. Several copies of Enûma Elish have turned

Different cult centers in Egypt developed various ideas about creation. The so-called “Memphite Theology,” recorded on the Shabaka Stone (inscribed eighth century BC), dates back to ca. 2400 BC. Here the creation myth revolves around the god Ptah. He created the other gods (also the sun god Atum, which opposes the Atum cult in Heliopolis), plants, animals, and humans through the word of his mouth without any struggle. At the end of his acts of creation, Ptah is fully satisfied. The resemblance to the biblical account is apparent. However, it also has striking differences. The Egyptian tradition is mainly interested in the origins of the gods (theogony), which does not play a role in Genesis 1 and 2, in which God is not part of the cosmos but stands above it. Egyptian texts have no equivalent for the biblical division of creation into seven days or

1. God exists before the beginning. ony in the biblical account. It God, not many. In contrast, the ern creation stories explain how came into existence.

2. God is sovereign, independent, ancient Near Eastern creation stories tic: they know several different es, none of whom is fully sovereign dent. Because they are rivals, the result of divine combat.

THE UNIQUENESS OF THE BIBLICAL CREATION ACCOUNT

At the climax of the fierce battle, Marduk kills Tiamat with an arrow, which he shoots into her throat and which tears her abdomen (IV. 88-104). He splits her body in half and forms heaven and earth from it (IV. 128-140), placing sun, moon, and stars in the heaven to determine the times on earth (V. 1-22), also a fifteenth day of the month, the full moon or shapattu day (V. 18). Finally, Marduk solemnly declares: “I shall compact blood, I shall cause bones to be, I shall make stand a human being, ‘Man’ be its name. I shall create humankind, they shall bear the gods’ burden that those may rest” (VI. 5-8). He then creates humans as servants of the gods from the blood of the demon god Kingu, Tiamat’s ally (VI. 31-40). In return, Marduk receives the temple Esagila in Babylon (VI. 45-67), making Babylon the chief city of the realm (VI. 72-73), and 50 honorary titles (VII. 143-144). The Assyrian version of the story replaces Marduk with Assur, who is hailed as the great god.

The ancient creation stories reveal which ideas of creation were widespread in the ancient Near East

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Enûma Elish is the most extensive creation myth from the ancient Near East. Similarities to the biblical account comprise the basic order of the creative acts

3. God is not a sexual being. There were and goddesses in the pantheistic Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt, associated creation with sexual activity.

4. God is an artist-designer, not a ble portrays Him as a level-headed through the power of His word, creates nious masterpiece in space and time.

Biblical Languages

moon, and stars–humans), the separation of heaven and earth, the separation of water in heaven and on earth, the formation of humans (reported on the sixth tablet) and the rest for the gods. This should not lead to the conclusion that the biblical account is literarily dependent on the Babylonian myth because the differences are even more striking: the polytheistic nature of Enûma Elish, the violence, and conflict in the act of creation, and the creation of humans to be slave workers.

The Atrahasis epic is another early creation tradition of Mesopotamia (ca. eighteenth-seventeenth

The Bible consists of ancient documents written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Learning about the languages of the people involved in the production of the Bible brings the text alive in multiple ways. All languages provide windows into the conceptual world of their speakers.

stance, Hebrew is

description of creation, of the

nal language word that may have a variety of connota- tions. This means that readers familiar with the biblical languages have access to significantly more depth meaning when exploring the Scriptures.

29
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(water–heaven–land–sun,
It contains
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Wall relief of the Egyptian creator god Ptah standing before Pharaoh Seti in the Temple of Osiris at Abydos, Egypt
For in-
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HEBREW ANCIENT
16
TEXTS AND ARTIFACTS

Genesis

2Thus the heavens and the earth, and all the host of them, were finished.

2 And on the seventh day God ended His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done.

3 Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made.

Genesis, the first book of the Bible, forms a unit with the following four books under the collective title of the “Law of Moses,” or sometimes simply the “law” (Josh. 23:6; 1 Kings 2:3; Luke 24:44). Later, in the Christian tradition, the Pentateuch became the common name for the five books.

4 This is the historya of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens,

5 before any plant of the field was in the earth and before any herb of the field had grown. For the LORD God had not caused it to rain on the earth, and there was no man to till the ground;

The English names of the Old Testament books of the Bible follow the lead of the LXX (“the Septuagint,” the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), which chose titles based on the theme or suggested author of each biblical book. Contrary to that pattern, the Hebrew Bible (MT, the abbreviation for the “Masoretic Text”) adopted names for the Pentateuchal books from the first words of each book. Only in Genesis do the MT and the LXX titles coincide (e.g., LXX: “Genesis” or “Origins”; MT: bere’shit, meaning “In the beginning”). To be sure, Genesis is definitely a book of beginnings.

6 but a mist went up from the earth and watered the whole face of the ground.

7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.

Life in God’s

8 The LORD God planted a garden and there He put the man whom 9 And out of the ground the tree grow that is pleasant to the food. The tree of life was also in den, and the tree of the knowledge 10 Now a river went out of Eden den, and from there it parted and erheads.

11 The name of the first is Pishon; which skirts the whole land of Havilah, is gold.

12 And the gold of that land is good. the onyx stone are there.

13 The name of the second river one which goes around the whole

14 The name of the third river is the one which goes toward the east fourth river is the Euphrates.

Archaeological Periods

Genesis 1-11:

AUTHOR

Like the other books of the Pentateuch, Genesis does not identify its author. On the other hand, evidence appearing elsewhere in the Pentateuch suggests likely Mosaic authorship, since it credits no person other than Moses with composing any part of it, while God repeatedly tells Moses to write down parts of it (Exod. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27). Besides, Moses appears as the most significant person in the Pentateuchal stories (Deut. 34:5; Josh. 1:1, etc.).

The word “Eden” comes from the West Semitic root ‘dn, which means “abundance,” “delight,” and “luxury,” an etymology attested in Ugaritic texts (2nd millennium BC) and an Aramaic inscription (9th century BC). Aware of this, the translators of the book of Genesis into Greek (the Septuagint) rendered the expression “garden of Eden” as a “garden of luxuries” (LXX Gen. 3:23-24). It makes sense in light of what was in that garden. The biblical text describes an abundance of trees and a river flowing through it (Gen. 2:8-10). Scholars throughout the centuries have attempted to locate the Garden of Eden based on the geographical information found in Genesis 2:10-14. The text mentions four rivers, two of them the well-known Tigris and the Euphrates (v. 14). Both rivers have their sources in northern Turkey and continue south through the land of Mesopotamia. According to the Genesis account, the Pishon river flowed around the land of Havilah, a place of gold and gemstones (vv. 11-12), possibly the region of modern Hawlan, near the city of Medina, in Saudi Arabia. Interestingly, satellite images have identified a dry riverbed extending through that territory toward the Persian Gulf and exiting near the mouth of the Tigris. Quite possibly,

Garden of Eden—Genesis

Also, Jesus specifically connects Moses with Genesis (Mark 10:3-9; John 7:22) and, more generally, to the “Law” (i.e., the Pentateuch, Luke 16:29, 31; 24:27; John 1:17, 45).

Beyond this biblical evidence, the interlocking themes of the Pentateuchal books suggest a single author. For example, Genesis tells the reader who the Israelites are, where they originated, and how they came to live in Egypt. Exodus continues the Israelite tribal story by explaining the circumstances of their leaving Egypt, how they gained their covenanted status with YHWH, and the beginning of their cult practices. Leviticus reaffirms and details the Israelite cultic practices. Numbers describes significant events during the Israelite wilderness wanderings and the Moab encampment near Jericho, and also prescribes laws related to, and in preparation for, the Promised Land. Deuteronomy retraces early Israelite events starting at Kadesh-Barnea, repeats the covenant, provides guidelines and warnings before the people enter Canaan, and then installs Joshua as the new Israelite leader after Moses’ death. The linkages between these five books suggest continuity in authorship. Moses, the main character from Exodus to Deuteronomy, is the best candidate.

18 the Arvadite, the Zemarite, and the Hamathite. Afterward the families of the Canaanites were dispersed.

19 And the border of the Canaanites was from Sidon as you go toward Gerar, as far as Gaza; then as you go toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha.

20 These were the sons of Ham, according to their families, according to their languages, in their lands and in their nations.

LANDS AND PLACES

the biblical writer thought of the river Pishon Genesis 2. The Hijaz mountains in that region of the richest gold mines in the area. As for the connects it with the land of Cush (v. 13), possibly to the territory of the Kassites (Kushshu) in western But far more critical than Eden’s possible location in the first three chapters of Genesis. Scripture Garden of Eden as the first home of human beings place where God would meet with them (Gen. 3:8) a place in which Satan through the serpent was permitted work in tempting Adam and Eve (see Ezek. 28:13, as “the king of Tyre,” cf. Rev. 12:9). After sin entered, protected the garden (Gen. 3:24), indicating the divine tion to preserve it, and the book of Revelation mentions connection with the New Jerusalem (Rev. 22:2; cf. promised “Paradise” to the thief on the cross (Luke utilizing the Greek word commonly used in the Septuagint of Genesis and elsewhere about Eden (Isa. 51:3; Joel new earth would indeed be a place of untainted and abundance. Even more important, it is where God would ever dwell with His creation.

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21 And children were born also to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder.

22 The sons of Shem were Lud, and Aram.

23 The sons of Aram were

4 For You are not a God who takes in wickedness, Nor shall evil dwell with You.

24 Arphaxad begot Salah,

25 To Eber were born two sons: the name of one was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided; and his brother’s name

26 Joktan begot Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah,

27 Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah,

5 The boastful shall not stand in Your You hate all workers of iniquity.

6 You shall destroy those who speak Thefalsehood; LORD abhors the bloodthirsty deceitful man.

29 Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab. All these sons of Joktan.

28 Obal,c Abimael, Sheba,

30 And their dwelling place was from Mesha as you go toward Sephar, the mountain of the east.

31 These were the sons of Shem, according to their families, according to their languages, in their lands, according to their nations.

32 These were the families of the sons of Noah, according to their generations, in their nations; and from these the nations were divided on the earth after the flood.

6 There are many who say, “Who will show us any good?” LORD, lift up the light of Your countenance upon us.

7 You have put gladness in my heart, More than in the season

7 But as for me, I will come into Your in the multitude of Your mercy; In fear of You I will worship toward holy temple.

8 Lead me, O LORD, in Your righteousness because of my enemies; Make Your way straight before my face.

9 For there is no faithfulness in their mouth; Their inward part is destruction; Their throat is an open tomb; They flatter with their tongue.

10 Pronounce them guilty, O God! Let them fall by their own counsels; Cast them out in the multitude of their Fortransgressions, they have rebelled against You.

11 But let all those rejoice who put their trust in You; Let

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2:4 aHebrew toledoth, literally generations 2:14 bOr Tigris
10:23 aCalled Meshech in Septuagint and 1 Chronicles 1:17 10:24 bFollowing Masoretic Text, Vulgate, and Targum; Septuagint reads Arphaxad begot Cainan, and Cainan begot Salah (compare Luke 3:35, 36). 10:28 cSpelled Ebal in 1 Chronicles 1:22 Canaan and Canaanites —Genesis 10:31 www.qr.safeliz.com/ba/eng/gn1.html PEOPLES AND NATIONS THE ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS 0200400 N Scale of Miles TARSHISH TIRAS JAVAN AEGEAN SEA BLACK SEA LUD Asia Minor Pontus Mts. Ararat Mts. MAGOG Anatolian Plateau MESHECH Taurus Mts. GOMERRIPHATH TUBAL TOGARMAH JAPHETH RHODANIM ELISHAH KITTIM ASHKENAZ MADAI Elburz Mts. CASPIAN SEA Lake Urmia Lake Van Great Salt Desert ZagrosMts Plateau of Iran • Nineveh • Calah • Arpachshad EBER PELEG ARAM UZ HUL HAMATHITES HETH TigrisRiverEuphratesRiver ASSHUR • Akkad • Erech Babylon • SHINAR MASH JOKTAN HAVILAH ELAM An-Nafud Desert SHEM Syro-Arabian Desert PERSIAN GULF JOBAB RAAMAH UZAL SHEBA OBAL SHELEPHHAZARMAVETH SABTAH OPHIR HAVILAH SEBA ARABIAN SEA RED SEA CUSH PATHRUSIM MIZRAIM NAPHTUHIM Sinai DEDAN CANAAN CAPHTORIM LEHABIM PUT MEDITERRANEAN SEA Qatara Depression Libyan Plateau CASLUHIM LUDIM Sahara Desert HAM C A N A AN ARVADITES ZEMARITES ARKITES SINITES SIDONIANS AMORITES PERIZZITES HITTITES HIVITES JEBUSITES GIRGASHITES • • City City (uncertain location) Descendants of Japheth Descendents of Ham Descendents of Shem Illustration: Editoiral Safeliz, S.L. GENESIS 10 68 Copyright © Editorial Safeliz, S.L. PSALMS 5 850
A stylized golden lyre on display at the entrance to the City of David in Jerusalem Photo: GettyImages

Khirbet Qumran

The Intertestamental Period

Khirbet Qumran, a site located in the Judean Des- ert on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, is referred to as a khirbeh (an Arabic term meaning “ruins”) because one can still see the remains of struc- tures above the ground. Khirbet Qumran has gained great interest because of its proximity to the caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Consequently, many have associated it with the community that wrote the documents. Some have identified Khirbet Qumran as the City of Salt (‘ir hamalēh) (Josh. 15:62), while others have regarded it as ancient Secacah (Joshua 15:61). Both cities are located in the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah. Roland de Vaux and Gerald Lankester Harding first excavated the site in 1949. During several seasons of ex- cavations, de Vaux believed that he identified five occu- pational phases. The first was a late Iron Age settlement that he considered as “Israelite.” The architectural and ceramic remains from the Iron Age date from the eighth century until the sixth century BC. The unearthed Iron Age architecture consisted of a rectangular building with a water cistern. The ceramic re- mains included pottery from the eighth to the sixth centuries BC and a jar-handle bearing a seal impres- sion with the Hebrew phrase lemelek (“belonging to the king”). Such jar-handles are important because they are found at other

Judean sites that also date presence of a lemelek to date the site itself. De the pottery and architecture well-known Israelite sites Qumran may have been and towers built in the Judean ziah, as mentioned in 2 Chronicles destroyed in the sixth century pied until the Second Temple De Vaux labeled the next as Phase I (Hasmonean) and ods: Phase Ia and Ib. Phase Ia the second century BC, possibly Jewish ruler John Hyrcanus I. BC and ended in 30 BC after earthquake struck the site. The for occupational Phase Ia consists collected rainwater from two ogists also excavated two ceramic corner. Scholars debate the identity pants, but some believe they mark Jewish sect, possibly the Essenes. ical evidence for this period has led site was occupied during de Vaux’s a small settlement. The occupational Ia was indistinguishable from Phase of Phase Ia and the beginning of Ib However, occupational evidence Qumran began to take on its final

about half of them lived in Alexandria (constituting a third of the overall population of the city).

Ptolemaic Egypt provided the setting for a Jewish Golden Age, as its Greek concept of citizenship (Hellene) extended to any person from the territories conquered by Alexander, who could speak Greek and who willingly served the royal dynasty. Thus the Jewish population was able to be entirely Greek while at the same time practice their Jewish faith. Unfortunately, such privileged status vanished when Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire as the Romans regarded “citizenship” much more narrowly. As a result, the Jews received the legal status of “Egyptian” and were

ranked on the same level as the indigenous people. It caused the decline of Egypt’s vibrant Jewish diaspora. It ultimately sparked the Jewish rebellion of AD 115–117, leading to the Emperor Hadrian’s final destruction of the Egyptian Jewish community.

The two greatest legacies of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Hellenistic Jewish community of Alexandria are the Septuagint and the works of Philo. They provided tools for spreading Christianity to the Greek-speaking world, and more broadly, contributed to the foundations of Western civilization.

ballistae stones testify to the subsequent siege. Extensive remains from Jerusalem at the time of Jesus Christ were uncovered on the Western Hill of today’s Jewish Quarter and “Mount Zion.” They unexpectedly revealed elite neighborhoods with a luxurious material culture. Excavations on Mount Zion also exposed the possible house of Caiaphas the High Priest, evidence of an Es- sene Quarter and gate, and the Cenacle, the probable location of the Upper Room. Surveys and large-scale excavations along the southern

Since 1863, hundreds of both small and large-scale excavations in and around Jerusalem have enhanced our knowledge of Old and New Testament Jerusalem. Some of the most notable and recent them include the following: Kathleen Kenyon’s in the City of David and other sites around the (1961-1967), Nahman Avigad’s (1969–1982) exciting discoveries in the Jewish Quarter; Benjamin and Mazar’s (1968–2010) long-term project and base

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JERUSALEM
Photo: GettyImages 1396 and western Herod’s Temple Sunset over the modern city of Jerusalem and the ancient site of the Temple Mount Photo: GettyImages

The Gospel of Matthew introduces the New Testament and forms a bridge between the Old Testament and New Testament. It records the story of Jesus of Nazareth—the long-awaited Messiah foretold to Israel through the centuries.

AUTHOR

The author of the Gospel does not identify himself in the text. The title “According to Matthew” first appears in a manuscript from Egypt dated to the early third century AD. However, church fathers from the beginning of the second century (Papias, AD 135, and Irenaeus, AD 175) attributed authorship to Matthew-Levi, one of the twelve apostles. The lack of other traditions associating the Gospel with someone else speaks strongly in favor of Matthew, the tax collector, as its author (Matt. 9:9; 10:3. The Gospels of Mark and Luke call him “Levi”: Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27).

22 and immediately they left the boat and their father, and followed Him.

Jesus Heals a Great Multitude

23 And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all kinds of sickness and all kinds of disease among the people.

3 “Blessed are the For theirs is the

4 Blessed are those For they shall be

DATE

LANDS AND PLACES

Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity—Matthew 2:1

Bethlehem means “House of Bread.” Bethlehem the birthplace of two great kings: David and Jesus Christ. The only remaining Byzantine church from the fourth century honors Christ’s birthplace. The town entered history through the Tell El-Amarna Tablets. Letter 290 states that Bit-Lahmi fell into the hands of the Apiru. Scripture associates the village with the beautiful story of Ruth and Boaz, then of David, secretly anointed as king of Israel by Samuel. However, Bethlehem has gained its greatest claim to importance because of the birth of Jesus on the outskirts of the city.

The Gospel of Matthew does not provide any clear indication of when it was written. Irenaeus (second century AD) mentions that the Gospel was written while Paul and Peter were still alive (Against Heresies 3.1.1). Since Matthew shares so much in common with Mark, many believe that Matthew relied upon Mark when writing his gospel, though some believe Matthew was written first. Assuming Mark was written first, sometime in the late 50s or early 60s, Matthew would have to have been written after the completion of Mark’s Gospel, perhaps in the 60s or 70s. The prediction of the fall of Jerusalem in Matthew 24 has led some scholars to date Matthew after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. If we believe that Jesus could foretell the future, such reasoning is not convincing.

24 Then His fame went throughout all Syria; and they brought to Him all sick people who were afflicted with various diseases and torments, and those who were demon-possessed, epileptics, and paralytics; and He healed them.

25 Great multitudes followed Him—from Galilee, and from Decapolis, Jerusalem, Judea, and beyond the Jordan.

The Beatitudes

And seeing the multitudes, He went up on a mountain, and when He was seated His disciples came to Him. Then He opened His mouth and taught them, saying:

5 Blessed are the meek, For they shall inherit

6 Blessed are those who Forrighteousness, they shall be

7 Blessed are the merciful, For they shall obtain

8 Blessed are the pure For they shall see God.

9 Blessed are the peacemakers, For they shall be called

10 Blessed are those who righteousness’ sake, For theirs is the kingdom

AUDIENCE

Archaeological evidence shows that the village began at least in the Iron Age. The central point of interest to Christians today is the Church of the Nativity, built over a series of caves, some inhabited from the first century AD. The church is part of a complex formed by the Armenian Monastery to the south and the Church of Saint Catherine to the north. Constantine the Great and his mother, Helena, commissioned the Church of the Nativity between 331 and 339 as one of the first churches built in the Holy Land. It was a square basilica for worshippers to meet connected by an enclosed courtyard to an octagonal structure at its eastern end. Called a martyrium, the latter sat over the grotto where tradition claimed that Jesus had been born. During the time of the emperor Hadrian, the Romans dedicated a nearby grove to Adonis to desecrate the site in the minds of Christians, which indicates that the area’s connection with Jesus was well known. Origen mentioned a manger associated with Jesus in reporting his visit to the place ca. 215. In the latter part of the fourth century, Father Jerome lived in an adjoining cave where he translated the Latin Vulgate version of the Bible.

11 “Blessed are you when they secute you, and say all kinds falsely for My sake.

Date of writing before AD 70

rulers took it from the Greek Orthodox

ACTS 10

The Gospel of Matthew seems to have in mind a predominantly Jewish audience. We can see this, for example, in its emphasis on the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies by several quotations and allusions to Old Testament texts. The Gospel also makes numerous parallels between Jesus and both Moses and David, key figures for Jewish readers. Finally, Matthew does not seem concerned about explaining Jewish customs, such as the use of phylacteries and fringes in Matthew 23:5, suggesting that his audience was already familiar with such practices. Though most scholars agree that the book of Matthew originated in Israel, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact audience and place of composition. Some suggest Antioch; others favor Galilee. B12EN

and gave it to the Catholics. After the return of the Arabs in 1287, the church returned to the Greek Orthodox, who continue to own it.

The Grotto of the Nativity lays under the present church altar. Its access is through two entrances, one toward the south, decorated by the Crusaders in Gothic style, and another toward the north. A silver star indicates the traditional place of Jesus’ birth. The Greek Orthodox, Catholics, and Armenian Christians place candles on a niche above the star. A few meters to the southwest, another room of the grotto has a swing, where tradition says that Jesus was placed in a manger.

The church suffered serious damage during an apparent Samaritan revolt in AD 529. Justinian I then rebuilt and remodeled it, enlarging it by nine meters and replacing the octagonal structure with one of a cruciform shape. He had the church decorated with mosaics and paintings. It was the only church that would escape Persian destruction in AD 614–618, thanks to a mosaic that represented the visitation of the Magi to the Child Jesus. It is the oldest Byzantine church in Israel that is still functioning. It played an important role during the Crusades. After its restoration, it hosted the crowning of two Crusader kings. During this period, the European

A door provides access to the western part of the Grotto, established as a monastery by Jerome, with chapels, a workroom, and a tomb chamber. A stairway carved into the rock on the west side led to it during Jerome’s time. Today people enter it through the Catholic church, near the old Orthodox one. Each year Christmas services for the Catholics take place on December 25, the Greek Orthodox on January 7, and the Armenians on January 19.

The second sacred place in Bethlehem for Christians is Shepherd’s Field, located two kilometers south of the Church, in the Valley of Boaz. There are two sites. The one favored by the Greek Orthodox occupies the ruins of an old Byzantine church, over which a modern one has been built. The Catholic site has an enclosed grotto. A modern chapel commemo-

6/12/22 14:02 an was full of good works and charitable deeds which she did.

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Capernaum—Matthew 4:13
AND PLACES Magdala Synagogue—Matthew
www.qr.safeliz.com/ba/eng/mt5.html LANDS
BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Although the so-called White Synagogue in Capernaum was built centuries after the time of rests on the foundation of the one that He would have taught in
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Photo: GettyImages rates the visit of the Magi to the shepherds. An inlaid silver star marks the traditional site of Jesus’s birth in a cave, or grotto, below the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. One of the first churches built in the Holy Land, the Roman emperor Constantine and his mother, Helena, commissioned it between AD 331 and 339.
Watch Video Here www.qr.safeliz.com/mt1en t
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Photo: GettyImages The site of one of the few natural harbors along the eastern Mediterranean coast, Joppa was one of the first cities to have Christian congregation. The book of Acts mentions the apostle Peter visiting it at least twice, once raising Tabitha (Dorcas) from the dead and later staying at the home of Simon the tanner (Acts 10). Photo: GettyImages

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