Law drafting book fnf myanmar by Saing Gyi

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

rmwdum pmrsuf E S m 20

usrf ; OD ; tyd k i f ; (1) ed ' gef ; tcef ; (1) rl M urf ; a&;jcif ; qk d i f & mawG ; ac:rI

(The Philosophy of Drafting)

aumif;rGefaomOya'qkdif&mta&;tom;\ vu©Pm&yfrsm;

(The Characteristics of Good Legal writing)

1/ 2/ 3/ 4/ 5/

wdusrI&Sdjcif; (Accuracy) ta&;tom;&Sif;vif;jywfom;jcif; (Clarity) uspfvpfatmifa&;om;jcif; (Concision) &dk;&Sif;rI&Sdjcif; (Simplicity) pmoGm;pmvmt&nftaoG;aumif;rGefjcif; (Tone) c Oya'qkdif&mta&;tom;(3)rsdK; (Three Types of Legal Writing) 1/ vdk&ma&mufatmifqGJa&;aoma&;om;enf; (Discursive Writing) 2/ w&m;pGJqkdrIESihfoufqkdifaomta&;tom;rsm; (Litigation Related Writing) 3/ pHerlemjyK? owfrSwfay;xm;aomta&;tom; (Normative Writing) * rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;\tqHk;tpGefaomtusdK;quf

28 29 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 33

(The Ultimate Consequence of Drafted Document)

udk,fydkiftkyfcsKyfjcif;ESifh pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;wkdUtm;taxmuftuljzpfap&ef rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

(Drafting as a facilitator of Self Government and Economic Enterprise)

rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;tm;jzifh BudKwifumuG,frIjyKaoma&SUae\vkyfief;aqmifwm

(Drafting as a form of Preventative Lawyering)

todÓPfzGHUNzdK;wdk;wufapaomavhusifhcef;w&yftjzpf rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

(Drafting as an Intellectural Exercise)

1/ Oya'ynm&yfudkuRrf;usifrI&Sdjcif; (Knowledge of the law) 2/ pHkprf;ppfaq;jcif; (Investigation)

36 37

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 3/ tawG;tjrifudkyHkazmfjcif; (Conceptualization) 4/ tem*wftwGufBudKwifjyifqifawG;awmBuHpnfjcif;

38 39

(Fore thought)

5/ pepfwuszUJG pnf;wifjyjcif; (Organization) q pma&;om;jcif;avhusifhrItjzpf pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

40 41

(Drafting as a Literary Exercise)

1/ pum;vHk;? a0g[m&rsm; (Words) 2/ 0gusrsm; (Sentences) 3/ tjcm;aompum;vHk;zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufrIenf;vrf;rsm;

41 42 42

(Other Word Construction Techniques)

4/ acgif;pOfrsm; (Headings) udk,fusifhodu©mudk avhusifhay;aomtjyKtrlwpf&yftaejzifh Z pmcsKyfa&;qGJjcif; (Drafting as an Ethical Exercise) ps nHhzsif;pGma&;qGJrIaMumifhjzpfay:aomukefusp&dwf

43 43 44

(The Cost of Bad Drafting)

1/ nHhzsif;pGmepfemqHk;&HI;rIrsm; (Social Cost) 2/ trIonf\ukefusp&dwf (Client Cost) 3/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJol\ukefusp&dwf (Drafter Cost) n oknrSpía&;qGJjcif; (Drafting from Scratch)

44 45 45 46

tcef ; (2) pmcsKyf r l M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; (Contract Drafting) u y#dnmOfpmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJol\u@ (The Role of the Contract Drafter) c y#dnmOfpmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;&mwGif tzefwvJvJBuHKawGU&aomtcuftcJrsm; 1 r&nf&G,fxm;aomy#dnmOfpmcsKyfrsm;

48 50 51 52

(Recurring Problem is Contract Drafting)

2/ y#dnmOfpmcsKyfjzpfap&ef&nf&G,faomfvnf; y#dnmOfrajrmufjcif;

(Documents Intended to be Contracts That Fail)

3/ pmcsKyftwGif;uGm[csufrsm;&Sdaejcif; (Contracts Containing Gaps) 4/ t"dyÜm,fESpfcGxGufjcif;? rvdktyfbJ&Sif;vif;pGma&;om;rIr&Sdjcif; (Ambiguous and Unnecessarily Vague Terms)

55 56

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 5/ BuKd wifarQmv f ifx h m;jcif;r&Sad omjzpf&yfrsm; (Unanticipated Events) * trsdK;tpm;rsm; (Type of Contracts) C pmcsKyfwGifyg0ifonfhtydkif;rsm; (The Parts of a Contract) 1/ tusOf;csKyf(odkUr[kwf)acgif;pOf (Caption or Heading) 2/ pum;cs;D pmyd'k f (Introductory Paragraph) 3/ ed'gef;ydkif; (Recitals) 4/ tzdk;pm;em;ay;aMumif;azmfjyjcif;ESifhoabmwlnDjcif;/

3 56 57 58 59 59 60 62

(Statement of Consideration and Agreement)

5/ 6/ 7/ 8/ 9/ 10/ 11/ i p

teuft"dyÜm,frsm; (Definitions) ta&;ygaompmyd'k rf sm; (Substantive Provisions) tdrfxdef;odrf;a&;tydk'frsm; (Housekeeping Provision) vufrSwfa&;xkd;jcif;tuGufrsm; (Signature Blocks) &ufpGJ (Date) EdkBwDjyKvkyfjcif; (Notarization) aemufqufwGJrsm;? tjcm;pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;ESifh aemufqufwZJG ,m;rsm; (Appendices, Exhibits, Schedules) pOf;pm;&eftwGuf erlemrsm;xm;jcif; (Exemplar Considerations) pmcsKyrf sm;jyifqifjcif; (Amending Contracts)

tcef ; (3) Oya'jyKaomrl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; u Oya'udkrnfolrlMurf;a&;qGJoenf; (Who Drafts Legislation?) c Oya'jyKrlMurf;a&;qGJol\0wå&m;

63 65 65 71 72 72 73 74 75 78 78 79

(The Function of the Legislative Drafter)

Oya'jyKjcif;udk yk*¾vduOya'qkdif&m pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;ESifhEdIif;,SOfjcif;

(Legislation Compared to Private Law Documents)

1/ 2/ 3/ 4/ 5/

tBuHK;0ifolyrmPESihf obm0 (Nature and Size of the Audience) wdusrIvdktyfjcif; (The Need for Precision) ay:vpDrl0g'udk xnfhoGif;pOf;pm;jcif; (Policy Considerations) oufqkdif&m tcsuftvufrsm;vkdtyfjcif; (The Need for Factual Data) EkdifiHa&;½Iawmifrh S xnfhoGif;pOf;pm;jcif; (Political Considerations)

81 83 84 84 84

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 6/ wnfqJOya'rsm;ESifhnDap&ef pmcsKyfpmwrf;udk tH0if*Gifusjzpfapjcif;

(Fitting the Document into an Existing Body of Law)

7/ w&m;0ifuefYowfcsufrsm; (Legal Limits) 8/ Oya'jyKjcif;orkdif; (Legislative History) 9/ a&;yHka&;[efESifhtoHk;tEIef; (Form, Style and Usage) C jy|mef;Oya'tydkif;rsm; (The Parts of a statute) 1/ acgif;pOf (Title) 2/ Oya'jy|mef;tydkif; (Enacting Clause) 3/ acgif;pOf;twdkydkif; (Short Title Section) 4/ awGU&Sdcsufrsm; (Findings) 5/ t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufrsm; (Definitions ) 6/ yifrt&if;cHowfrw S cf surf sm; (Substantive Provisions) 7/ oufa&mufap&efenf;vrf;rsm; (Enforcement Mechanisms) 8/ oufomcGifhrsm; (Remedies or Penalties) 9/ jy|mef;Oya'txajrmuf&efvkyfaqmifcsufrsm;qkdif&m owfrSwfcsufrsm;

86 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 90 90 91 91

(Housekeeping Provisions)

jy|mef;Oya'rsm;tm;jyifqifjcif; (Amending Statutes) 1/ rnfonfhtcsdefwGifjyifqifrlMurf;rsm;a&;qGJoenf;/

94 94

(When Are Amendments Drafted?)

2/ jyifqifjcif;wGifyg0ifaomtydkif;rsm;

(The Parts of an Amendent)

3/ jyifqifjcif;rsm;\vkyaf qmifcsuf (What Amendment Do) 4/ w&m;pD&ifa&;qdkif&mt"dyÜ,fzGifhqdkcsuftm; jyifqifcsufrsm;jyKjcif;

95 96

(Amendments Changing a Judicial Interpretation or Construction)

tcef;(4) jyefqdk&efpnf;rsOf;rsm; (The Rules of Interpretation) u Oya'ujy|mef;onfhpnf;rsOf;rsm; (Statutory Rules) c t*Fvdyf&kd;&mOya'pnf;rsOf;rsm; (Common Law Rules) 1/ BuH&G,fcsufudk xdef;csKyfrIrsm; (Intent Controls)

99 100 101 101

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (u)omrmef½dk;½dk;t"dyÜm,f odkYr[kwf axmifhav;axmifhpnf;rsOf;

101

(The Plain Meaning or Four Corners)

102

(The Mischief Rule and Other Evidences )

(*) rlMurf;a&;qGJaeoltay:oufa&mufrIrsm; (Effects on Drafters ) 2/ MuyfrwfpGmt"dyÜm,fjyefqdkjcif;pnf;rsOf;

104 105

(The Rule of Strict Construction)

(u) jypfrIqkdif&mjy|mef;Oya' (Criminal Statutes) (c) t*Fvdyf&dk;&mOya',kwfavsmhapjcif;wGifyg0ifonfhjy|mef;Oya'rsm;

105 105

(Derogation of the Common Law)

(*) w&m;½Hk;\ w&m;pD&ifykdifcGifhudkydwfyifonfhjy|mef;Oya'rsm;

106

(Statutes Depriving a Court of Jurisdiction)

(C)tcsKyftjcmtmPm,kwfavsmhapjcif;wGif yg0ifonfhjy|mef;Oya'rsm;/

106

(Statutes in Derogation of Sovereignty)

3/ vdkufavsmrQwpGm t"dyÜm,faumufonfhpnf;rsOf;

107

(The Rule of Liberal Construction)

4/ "t&mwpfc\ k t"dymÜ ,fazmfxw k jf cif;onf tjcm;wpfct k m;y,fjcif;jzpfonf/" 107 (The Rule of Expressio Unis Est Exclusio Alterius)

5/ trsdK;tpm;wlpnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Ejusdem Generis) 6/ qufpyfaygif;oif;pum;vHk;pnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Noscitue, a Sociis ) 7/ oufqkdif&mwpfckcsif;pdppfjcif;pnf;rsOf;

109 111 111

(The Rule of Reddenda Singula Singulis)

8/ aemufqHk;vkyfaqmifaomjyKjyifajymif;vJjcif;qdkif&mpnf;rsOf;

112

(The Rule of Last Modification)

9/ vufjzihfa&;om;aompum;vHk;rsm;onf yHkESdyfpmvHk;xufomvGefjcif;pnf;rsOf;

112

(The Rule That Handwritten Words Prevail Over Typed or Printed Words)

10/ pmvHk;aygif;jzifha&;om;azmfjyonfhta&twGufonf tma&As eHygwfjzifh azmfjyjcif;xuf omvGefjcif;pnf;rsOf;

113

(The Rule That Written Amounts Prevail Over Arabic Number Amount)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 11/ oD;jcm;a&;om;azmfjyyHkonf a,bk,sa&;om;azmfjyyHk odkYr[kwf owfrSwfcsufrsm;xufomjcif;pnf;rsOf;

113

(The Rule That Specific Language Prevail Over General Language or Provisions)

12/ iSm;&rf;NyD;a&;om;azmfjyyHkpnf;rsOf;

114

(The Rule of Borrowed Language)

13/ udk,fpm;vS,ftzGJUjyefqdkcsuftm; tomay;jcif;qkdif&mpnf;rsOf;

114

(The Rule Favoring Agency Interpretation)

14/ pmcsKyfpmwrf;wpfcktm; wpfckwnf;taeESifh zwf&efpnf;rsOf;

115

(The Rule That a Document Must Be Read as a Whole)

15/ a,bl,sOD;wnfcsufwl? tawG;tac:wlonfhOya'rsm; t"dyÜm,fjyefqkd&ef pnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Construing Statutes in Pari Materia) 16/ oG,f0dkufaomenf;jzif &kyfodrf;jcif;rsm;tm; oabmrwlonfhpnf;rsOf;

115 76

(The Rule Disfavoring Repeals By Implication)

17/ rlvjy|mef;Oya'xufaemufqHk;Oya'uomvGefjcif;pnf;rsOf;

117

(The Rule of Lex Posterior Derogat Prior)

18/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolESihfqefUusifNyD; t"dyÜm,fjyefqkdjcif;

117

(The Rule of Construction a Document Against the Drafter)

19/ cdkifvHk;w&m;0ifrIudk OD;pm;ay;azmfqdkcsufudk vufcH&efpnf;rsOf;

118

(The Rule of Adopting a Construction That Favour Validity)

20/ trsm;jynfolqkdif&mrl0g'ESifhudkufnDonfhuefx&dkufpmcsKyfrsm; t"dyÜm,fazmfaqmifa&;udk OD;pm;ay;onfhpnf;rsOf;

118

(The Rule Favouring The Construction of Contracts in a Myanmar Consistent With Public Policy)

tcef ; (5) rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; qk d i f & musif h 0 wf r sm; (Drafting Ethics) u trIonftm; urf;vSrf;jcif; (Solicitation) 1/ aMumfjim&mwGifa½US ae\ txl;uRrf;usifrI (odkY) t"dutm&Hkpl;pdkuf aqmif&Gufaom trIrsm;tm; xnfhoGif;aMumfjimjcif; (Advertising Specialization or Concentration)

120 120 120

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 2/ pmwdkufrSwqifh tajrmuftjrm;ydkjcif; (Mass Mailing) 3/ ,ciftrIonfrsm;? rdom;pkESihfoli,fcsif;rsm;tm; urf;vSrf;jcif;

7 121 121

(Solicitation of Former Clients, Family and Friends)

c *

vkyf&nfudkif&nfESifh aocsmjynfhpHkrI (Competence and Diligence) 121 udk,fpm;jyKaqmif&Gufe,fy,fuefYowfjcif; (Scope of Representation) 122 1/ OD;wnfcsufrsm;ESifh4 if;wdkUtm; &&SdEkdif&efenf;vrf;rsm; (Object and Means) 122 2/ jypfrIESifhqkdifaom vdrfnmrIESifhqkdifaom tjcm;wm;jrpfxm;aoma&mif;0,frIrsm;124 (Criminal, Fraudulent and Otherwise Prohibited Transactions)

C i p

qufoG,fa&; (Communication) 0efaqmifrI tcaMu;aiG (Fee) vQdKU0Sufxm;jcif; (Confidentiality) 1/ usihf0wfqkdif&mvdktyfcsufrsm; (Ethical Requirement) 2/ a&SUae? trIonfqkdif&mtcGifhxl; (Attorney Client Privilege) tusdK;pD;yGm;wdkY y#dyuÂ©jzpfjcif; (Conflict of Interest) q 1/ vuf&SdtrIonftm; qefYusifudk,fpm;jyKjcif;

126 126 127 127 128 130 130

(Representation Against a Current Client)

2/ udk,fpm;jyKjcif;ESifhtrIonfa[mif;udk&ifqkdifjcif;

133

(Representation Against a former Client)

3/ ,dk;pGyfonfh t&nftcsif;rjynfhpHkjcif; (Imputed Disqualification) 4/ tpdk;&a&SUaea[mif; rlMurf;a&;olrsm;

134 135

(Former Government Lawyers Drafters)

Z ps n

wwd,tzGJUrsm;ESifh vkyfudkifqufqHjcif;rsm; (Dealing With Third Parties) 136 w&m;pGJqkdjcif;qkdif&musihf0wfrsm; (Litigation Ethics) 137 w&m;r0ifaomOya'qdkif&maqmif&Gufjcif;rsm;udkulnDjcif; 138 (Aiding the Unauthorized Practice of Law)

tcrJhrlMurf;a&;qGJay;jcif;0efaqmifrIrsm; (Providing Free Drafting Services)

139

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tcef;(6) a,bl,sazmfjyjcif; (An Overview) u trIonf\ &nfrSef;csufrsm;udk od&Sd&efvkyfaqmifjcif;

140 140

(Determine the Client's Objectives)

c *

yg0ifywfoufolrsm;tm;&SmazGowfrSwfjcif; (Identify the Audience) pmcsKyf\ Oya'qkdif&mESifhtcsuftvufydkif;qdkif&ma&SUaemufpum;qufudk us,fjyefYpGm&SmazGjcif;

141 142

(Explore The Broader Legal and Factual Context of the Document)

C i p q

Oya'tm;okawoejyKjcif; (Research the Law) t"duudk&SmazGazmfaqmifjcif; (Determine Substance) tcsuftvufrsm;&,ljcif; (Get the facts) rSefuefNyD;w&m;0ifí tcsufusaomcH,lcsufrsm;udkazmfjyjcif;

144 145 146 146

(Identify the Proper Legal and Factual Concepts)

Z ps 1/ 2/ 3/ 4/

txm;todyk rkd akd umif;rGeaf tmifaqmif&u G jf cif; (Develop an Organization) pmcsKyfpmwrf;a&;jcif; (Write the Document) wpfckxufydkaomt"dyÜm,faqmifjcif;rsm; (Ambiguities) a&;yHka&;[efESifhtoHk;tEIH;pnf;rsOf;rsm; (Rules of Style and Usage) t"dyÜm,fazmfaqmifjcif;rsm; (Definitions) w&m;Oya'ESifhtnDxGufay:&efazmfjycsufrsm;

147 148 148 149 149 150

(Terms Creating Legal Consequences)

5/ tpDtpOfESifhyHkoP²mef (Format) n pmcsKyfta&;ygyHkESifh bmompum;rSef rrSefjyefvnfpDppfjcif;

150 151

(Review the Document for Substance and Style)

pmcsKyfpwiftaumifxnfaz: aqmif&GufjyD;csdefwGifavhvmapmifhMunfhjcif; (Post Execution Monitoring)

151

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tydkif;(2) BudKwifjyifqifjyKvkyfjcif;ESifh BudKwifpDrHjcif; tcef;(7) tpcsDjcif; (Getting Started) u tvkyftyfoltrIonf\&nf&G,fcsufudk od&Sdatmifaqmif&GufqHk;jzwfjcif;

152 152

(Determine Client Objectives)

1/ tajccHar;cGef;rsm; (The Basic Questions) 153 2/ taMumif;tcsuftvufrsm;udktoHk;jyKjcif; (How the Information is Used) 153 3/ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk&IUaxmifhtrsdK;rsdK;rS½IjrifoHk;oyfjcif; 155 (Objective from a variety of Perspectives)

(u) tjcm;pmcsKyfrsm; 155 (c) toHk;jyK&efarQmfrSef;aome,fy,f 156 (*) wpfOD;xufydkaom? trIxufwkdUESifhpmcsKyf\&nf&G,fcsuf 157 4/ trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udktuJjzwfjcif; (Evaluating Client Objectives) 158 c pmcsKyfukdtoHk;jyKrnfholy&dwfowfudkod&Sdjcif; (Know the Audience) 159 1/ y&dwfowfrSm rnfoljzpfonf (Identity of the Audience) 159 2/ pmcsKyftm;toHk;jyKrnfhy&dwfowf\0daoovu©Pmrsm; 161 (Characteristics of the Audience)

3/ rwlnDaomy&dwfowfwdkU\vdktyfcsufrsm;udkjznfhqnf;ay;jcif;

162

(Accommodating the Various Audiences)

pmcsKyfESifh qufpyfonfhtaMumif;t&mrsm;udk twnfjyKjcif;

162

(Determine the Context of the Document)

1/ Oya'ESifhqufpyfonfhtaMumif;t&m (Legal Context) 2/ trSefwu,ftcsuftvufrsm;ay:tajccHaomtaMumif;t&mrsm;

162 165

(Factual Context)

tcef;(8) Oya'twGif;rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (Drafting Within the Law) u yHkpH (Form) c teuft"dymÜ ,f (Meaning) * tESpfom& (Substance) 1/ wm;jrpfjcif; (Prohibition) 2/ vdktyfcsuf (Requirement)

167 167 169 170 170 171

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 3/ cGifhjyKcsufESifhcGifhjyKrdefU (Permission and Authorization) 4/ cGifhjyKcsuf okdYr[kwf w&m;0ifvkyfydkifcGifhudkjiif;qkdjcif;

172 172

(Denial of Permission to Authorization)

5/ tjcm;tusdK;qufrsm; (Other Consequences) 6/ oG,f0dkufñTef;qdkaompum;&yfrsm; (Implied Terms) C w&m;0ifaqmif&Guf&ef trnfpm&if;rsm;jyKvkyfjcif;

172 173 174

(Creating Legal Checklists)

Oya'jyKa&;pum;&yfudkxnfhoGif;pOf;pm;í rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

174

(Drafting with Statutory Language in Mind)

tcef;(9) ta&;ygqHk;tESpfom&udka&G;cs,fjcif; (Determining Substance) u jy|mef;csuftrsdK;rsdK; (Types of provisions) 1/ Oya't&jy|mef;xm;jcif;aMumifh yg0if&aomjy|mef;csufrsm;

177 177 177

(Required by Law)

2/ ta&mif;t0,f\tESpfom&(Going to the essence of the Transaction)178 3/ tvGefta&;BuD;aom (Extremely important) 178 4/ ESpfouf&ma&G;cs,fjcif; (Optional) 179 c t"duusaomtcsufrsm;udk wkdufqkdifppfaq;Ekdif&ef jyKpkxm;aompm&if; 179 (Substantive Term Checklists)

1/ ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;twGufjyifqifxm;jcif; (Commercially Prepared) 180 2/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolrSjyifqifjcif; (Drafter Prepared) 180 enf;Oya'wGifyg0if&rnfhtajccHtcsufrsm; (The Elements of a Legal Rule)189 * 1/ vlyk*¾dKvf (The Person) 189 2/ vkyfaqmifcsuf (The Conduct) 190 3/ aqmif&GufrI\OD;wnfcsuf (The Object of the Action) 190 4/ tajctaersm; (The circumstances) 190 5/ tusdK;qufrsm; (Consequences) 191 C ta&;ygaomuGm[rIrsm; (Substantive gaps) 192

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef;(10) pdwful;udkrSefuefpGmyHkazmfjcif; (Choosing the Right concept) u teuft"dyÃ&#x153;m,f (Definition) c rlMurf;a&;qGJ&mwGif pdwful;yHkazmfjcif;\ta&;ygrI

11 195 195 195

(The Importance of Concepts in Drafting)

pdwful;yHk&dyftrsdK;tpm;rsm; (Types of Concepts) 1/ Oya'qkdif&mt,ltqrsm; (Legal Concepts) 2/ taMumif;tcsufyg0ifaomt,ltqrsm; (Factual Concepts) u taxGaxGNcHKiHkrIESifhtxl;jyKrI (General Vs. Specific) (u) taxGaxGxdcdkufrI (General Vs. Specific) (c) &Sif;vif;rIr&Sdjcif;ESifhwdusjcif; (Vague Vs. Precise) (*) tusOf;csKyfESifhcdkifrmrIjyoEkdifjcif; (Abstract Vs. Concrete) C tawG;tjrifudkazmfjy&ef oifhawmfaompum;&yfudktoHk;jyKjcif;

196 196 198 198 201 201 207 208

(Choosing the Right Word to Reflect the Concept)

tcef;(11) tpDtpOfwusjzpfap&ef pDpOfaqmif&Gufjcif; (Organization) u cGJjcrf;pdyfjzmjcif; (Division) c trsdK;tpm;tkyfpkcGJjcm;jcif; (Classification) * tpDtpOfwusae&mcsjcif; (Sequence) 1/ jzpfpOftwdkif;pDjcif; (Chronological) 2/ ta&;ygrI (Importance) 3/ jzpfyGm;rIBudrfEHI;rsm;jcif; (Frequency of Occurence) 4/ odaomtcsufrsm;onf rodaomtcsufrsm;a&SUwGif&Sd&jcif;

210 210 213 214 214 215 215 216

(Familiar before unfamiliar)

5/ vdkufem&rnfhpnf;rsOf;rsm;aemufwGifrS >cif;csufrsm;udkxm;&Sdjcif;

216

(Rules before exception)

6/ "rnfonf "udka&SU "rnfonf"udkaemufwGifxm;jcif; (What before how) 7/ t"dutcsufonf vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;a&SUwGif&Sdjcif; (Substance Before Procedure)

216 217

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tydkif;(3) rlMurf;a&;qGJenf;pepfrsm; (Drafting Techniques) tcef;(12) t"dyÜm,f'dG[rsm;tm;a&Smif&Sm;jcif; (Avoiding Ambiguties) 218 u 218 t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsuf (Definition) c t"dymÜ ,f'[ dG rsm;\aemufqufw&JG v'frsm;(The Consequence of Ambiguity)218 * 220 t"dymÜ ,f'[ dG jzpfjcif;trsKd ;tpm;rsm; (Types of Ambiguity) 220 1/ pum;qufqidk &f mt"dymÜ ,f'[ dG jzpfjcif; (Contextual Ambiguity) 222 2/ a0g[&qkid &f mt"dymÜ ,f'[ dG jzpfjcif; (Semantic Ambiguity) 223 (u) oHwlaMumif;uGJ pum;vHk; (Homonyms) 224 (c) ESihf (And) 227 (*) odkYr[kwf (Or) 228 (C) ESifh^odkYr[kwf (And/Or) 230 (i) oD;jcm;wdusonfh aeYpGJrsm; (Specific Dates) 232 (p) tcsdeftwdkif;twmrsm; (Time Spans) 234 (q) &ufaygif;? &ufowåywfaygif;? vaygif;ESifhESpfaygif; (Days, Weeks, Months and Years)

(Z) Bimonthly, Biannually, Biennially, Bemimonthly and Bemiannually

(ps) tcsdefem&Drsm; (Hours) (n) qufEG,fjcif;qkdif&mpum;vHk;rsm; (Relational Words) (#) touft&G,frsm; (Ages) (X) tu,fí (Provided That) (!) oabmayguf&efcufcJonfhOya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm; (Legalese) (¡) vkyfaqmif&ef? vkyfaqmifEkdifonf? vkyfaqmifrnf

235 236 237 237 237 239 239

(Shall, May and Will)

(P) twGi;f ESit hf Mum; (Among and Between) 3/ bmompum;qkid &f mt"dymÜ ,frsKd ;pHak y:xGurf I (Syntactic Ambiguity) (u) emrfpm;udk;um;csuf (Pronoun Reference) (c) emrf^Bud,mwdkUudkjyKjyifcsufrsm; (Modifiers) (*) Bud,mESifhemr0daooeESpfrsdK;aqmifjcif; (Participles)

241 242 243 243 246

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

(C) 0dbufrsm;qufwdkufazmfjyjcif; (Chain Prepositions) (i) raumif;aomjynfh0jcif;rsm; (Negative Pregnants) (p) "tu,fí.. jzpfygu"0gusrsm; (If ----- Then) (q) "tb,faMumifh" tyd'k if ,frsm; (" Because" Clauses) (Z) "jyKygrS"tyd'k if ,frsm; (" Unless" Clauses) (ps) "omvQi"f ("Only") (n) Bud,myk'fpkjzwfawmufjcif; (Truncated passive) (#) "onf"h ESihf ",if;" (" which" and "that") (X) trsm;udef;jyemrfrsm; (Plural Nouns) (!) yk'fjzwfoauFwESifh Semi-Colons (Commas and Semi-colons)

247 247 248 249 249 250 251 251 253 254

tcef;(13) a&;qGJjcif;yHkpHESifhtoHk;tEIH; (Drafting style and usage) u wpforwfwnf;jzpfjcif; (Consistency) 1/ wpforwfwnf;jzpfaomynm&yfa0g[m& (Consistent terminology) 2/ wpforwfwnf;jzpfaomo'´gzGJUpnf;yHk (Consistent grammatical Structure) 3/ wpforwfwnf;jzpfaompmcsKyfpmwrf;zGJUpnf;yHkESifh vkyfenf;udkifenf;

258 258 258 259 260

(Consistent Document structure Approach)

uspfvpfjynfhpHkjcif; (Concision) 1/ vdkonfxufydkíyg&SdonfhtaMumif;t&m (Unecessary Content) 2/ jyefvSefñTef;rsm;ESifh tcef;^pmydk'fñTef;rsm;

261 261 262

(Cross-references and section paragraph references)

3/ tyfaMumif;xyfaomtaMumif;t&m (Repetitious substance) 262 4/ ydkvsHaomESpfckwGJrsm;? oHk;ckwGJrsm;ESifh tjcm;uGif;qufrsm;? oHwlaMumif;uGJrsm; 263 (Redundant Couplets, Triplets and other chain synonyms)

5/ tjcm;rvdktyfaomazmfjycsufrsm; (Other reduntant expressions) 6/ oabmayguf&efcufcJonfhOya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm; (Legalese) 7/ aygif;pyf0dbwfrsm;ESifh 0dbwfqkdif&mpum;pkrsm;

270 273 276

(Compound Prepositions and prepositional phrases)

8/ "The fact that" jzpf&yfreS rf sm;

279

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 9/ tvuFm? ul;ajymif;pum;vHk;rsm;ESifh yk'fpkrsm;

280

(Rhetorical and Transitional Words and Phrases)

10/ 11/ 12/ 13/ 14/ 15/ 16/ * 1/ 2/ 3/ 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 8/ 9/

281 281 rvdt k yfaom "Who's", "Which" ESihf "that's" toH;k rsm; 282 rvdt k yfaomude;f *Pef;rsm;yg0ifjcif; (Redundant Numeration) 283 rvdktyfaompum;vHk;rsm; (Expletives) 284 emrftjzpfjyKvkyfjcif; (Nominalizations) 285 cH&jcif;jyBud,myHkpH (Passive Voice) 286 "To be" Bu, d myHpk H (" To be" Verb Forms) 287 em;vnfvG,fjcif;ESifh ½dk;&Sif;jcif; (Clarity and Simplicity) 287 pmaMumif;wdkrsm; (Short Sentences) 287 &dk;&Sif;aompmaMumif;wnfaqmufyHk (Simple Sentence Structure) 289 ypöKyÜefumvjyyk'f (Present Tense) 289 &dk;&dk;? omrefpum;vHk;rsm; (Simple, Ordinary Words) 293 tEkynmajrmufa0g[m&rsm; (Terms of Art) enf;ynmESiu hf ek o f , G af &;qkid &f ma0g[m&rsm; (Technical and Trade Terms) 294 295 jynfypum;vHk;rsm;ESifhpum;pkrsm; (Foreign Words and Phrases) 296 "-ee" okUd r[kwf "-or"ESiq hf ;kH aompum;vH;k rsm; 296 aygif;pyfxm;aomemr0daooersm;ESifhemrfpum;pkrsm; "Of the..." yk'p f rk sm;

(Compound Adjectives and Noun Thrases)

10/ or&dk;usr[kwfaompmvHk;tBuD;jzifha&;jcif;

297

(Unconventional Capitalization)

11/ tjyKoabmESifhtysufoabm(tjiif;)pum;toHk;tEIef;

297

(Positive Vs Negative Expressions)

12/ >cif;csuf (Expections) 13/ yk*¾vemrfpm;rsm; (Personal Pronouns) C a&;qGJa&;ESifhoufqkdifaomo'´gtajccHpnf;rsOf;rsm;

298 299 299

(Some Basic Rules of Grammar Relevant to Drafting)

1/ ykdifqkdifrIjyyHkpHzGJUpnf;jcif; (Forming the Possessive) 2/ (;) Semicolon ESifh (:) Colon toHk;jyKyHk

299 300

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 3/ 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ i

rsOf;apmif; Slashes (/) Subject ESifh Verb udkufnDvdkufzufrI vufonf;uGif; Parentheses ( ) Quotation Marks " "

0gustqkH;ü jcm;&rnfhtuGmta0; (Spacing) rSm;,Gif;pGmtoHk;jyKaomESifhwvGJtoHk;aompum;vHk;rsm;ESifhazmfjycsufrsm;

15 301 301 302 302 304 304

(Misused and Abused Words and Expressions)

usm;ra&;&mudktxl;jyKíoHk;aompum;&yf

306

(Gender-Specific Language)

tcef;(14) t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkowfrSwfcsufrsm; (Definitions) u toHk;tEIef;\taxGaxGpnf;rsOf; (General Principles of Usage) 1/ t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsuf&SdNyD;jzpfaomtoHk;tEIef;rsm;

310 310 313

(Terms with Established meanings)

2/ tEkynmydkif;qkdif&mtoHk;tEIef;ESifh ynmydkif;qdkif&mtoHk;tEIef;rsm;

313

(Terms of Arts and Technical Terms)

3/ 4/ 5/ 6/ c *

wpfcgoH;k tvG,q f ;kH t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm; (Humpty-Dumpty Definitions) jzefUa0onfht"dyÜm,fowfrSwfcsufrsm; (Circular Definitions) wpfBudrfoHk;t"dyÜm,fowfrSwfjcif;rsm; (One-Shot Definitions) t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkjcif;qkdif&muGef,uf0uFbm (Definitional Mazes) ta&;BuD;aomudpö&yfrsm; (Substantive Matters) &nfrSef;csufjzifh t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufwGif xnfhoGif;azmfjyjcif;

314 316 316 318 318 320

(Definitions Incorporated by Reference)

t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsuftrsdK;tpm;rsm;ESifhtoHk;tEIef;

322

(Types of Definitions and Terminology)

1/ t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkxm;aomtoHk;tEIef; (Defined Terms) 2/ tjynfht0t"dyÜm,fzGihfqdkjcif; (Full Definitions) 3/ wpfpdwfwpfa'o t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkjcif; (Partial Definition) (u) t"dyÜm,fowfrSwfcsufudk csJUxGifjcif; (Enlarging Definition) (c) t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufudk owfrSwfjcif; (Limiting Definition)

322 323 325 326 326

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

4/ tjynfht0t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufESifhwpfpdwfwpfa'o t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufwkdYudk aygif;pyfjcif; (Combining Full and Partial Definition) 5/ Oyrmrsm; (Examples) i enf;vrf;rsm; (Methodology) 1/ ydkrkdtuRrf;0ifaomtoHk;tEIef;rsm;oHk;jcif; (Use More Familiar Terms) 2/ ydkrkdwdusaomtoHk;tEIef;rsm;udktoHk;jyKjcif; (Use More Precise Terms) 3/ yg0ifonfhtpdwftydkif;rsm;udkazmfxkwfjcif; (Identity Components) 4/ oD;jcm;&nfñTef;csufudkazmfxkwfjcif; (Identity Specific Referents) 5/ ydkrdkíus,fjyefUaomudpötwGufqufqHa&;xm;&SdrIudkcsKyfjyjcif;

327 328 329 329 329 329 329 330

(Indicate Relationship to a Larger Unit)

p q Z

ae&m (Location) t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufudka&;qGJ&efumv (When to Draft Definitions) t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkcsufudkprf;oyfjcif; (Testing Definitions)

tcef;(15)

Oya'aMumif;t& tusdK;qufrsm;jzpfapaom pum;&yfrsm;

330 330 332 333

(Terms Creating Legal Consequences)

u c

xdkpum;&yfrsm;\ta&;ygyHk (The Importance of Those Terms) Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;udkazmfxkwfjcif;ESifhzefwD;jcif;

333 334

(Identifying and Creating The Appropriate Legal Consequences)

* C 1/

2/ 3/ 4/ 5/

wajy;nDowfrSwfxm;rIr&Sdjcif; (The Lack of Uniformity) 334 336 tqdjk yKoabmwlncD surf sm; (The Suggested Conventions) 336 wm0efrsm; (Duties) 337 (u) Oya't&&Sdaomwm0efrsm; (Statutory Duties) 338 (c) woD;yk*¾vzefwD;aomwm0efrsm; (Privately Created Duties) 339 wm0efrsm;udk ysufjy,fapjcif; (Negation of Duties) 340 tcGifhta&;rsm; (Rights) 341 tcGifhta&;rsm;udky,fzsufapjcif; (Negation of Rights) 341 tcGifhta&;odkUr[kwf w&m;pGJqkdcGifhudkjyefvnftyfESHjcif;? uif;vGwfcGifhESifh vTwfay;jcif;(Surrendering Rights of Causes of Action-Waiver and Releases)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 6/ 7/ 8/ 9/

txl;tcGifhta&;rsm; (Privileges) txl;tcGifhta&;rsm;udkysufjy,fapjcif; (Negation of Privileges) uif;vGwcf iG hf (Immunity) pnf;urf;csufrsm; (Conditions) (u) teuft"dyÜm,fESifhtrsdK;tpm;rsm; (Definitions and Types) (c) a0g[m&rsm; (Terminology)

342 344 344 344 344 349

wifjyjcif;^udk,fpm;jyKjcif;? ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsuf? vTwfay;jcif;? tmrcHcsufESifhepfemqHk;&HI;rItwGuf avsmfaMu;ay;jcif;

351

(Representations, Warranties, Releases, Guaranties, and Indemnities)

1/ taxGaxGpnf;rsOf;rsm;ESifhenf;epfrsm; omrefwifjyjcif;^ udk,fpm;jyKjcif;ESifh ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsufay;jcif;

352

(General Rules and Techniques: Typical Representations and Warranties)

2/ 3/ 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 8/

UCC udt k oH;k jyKjci;f (The UCC Approach)

wifjyjcif;^ukd,fpm;jyKjcif; (Representation) ypönf;rSefuefaMumif;tmrcHcsuf (Warranties) tmrcHcsufrsm;ESifh avsmfaMu;rsm; (Guaranties and Indemnities) avsmfaMu;rsm; (Indemnities) pGefYvTwfjcif;rsm; (Releases) ed*Hk; - owdjyK&rnfhvkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;

353 353 356 356 356 357 357

(Conclusion- Cautionary Procedures)

p q

cRif;csufrsm; (Exceptions) ysufuGufrIESifhoufomrIrsm;qdkif&m ...... udpö&yfrsm;

360 361

(Events of Default and Remedies)

þuGefAif;&Sif;rsm;udk vdkufem&ef rvdkonfhtcsdef (When not to follow these Conventions)

364

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tcef;(16)

yHkESdyfpmom;toGiftjyifESifh tpDpOfcsxm;yHk

366

(Document Typography and Layout)

tjyifyef;toGio f P²mef (Physical Appearance) 1/ tjzLa&mifae&mvGwf (White Space) 2/ yHEk ydS pf mvH;k t&G,Ef iS t hf rsKd ;tpm; (Type Size and Font) 3/ pmvHk;BuD; (Capital)ESifh rsOf;om;jcif;enf;

366 367 367 368

(All Capitals and Underlining)

4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ c

pmaMumif;\tvsm;twkdif;twm (Line Length) pmom;udkb,fnmESpfzufnDatmifñ§día&;om;jcif; (Justification) pmaMumif;tuGmta0; (Line Spacing) ae&mvGwf (Blank Spaces)

pmom; (Text) 1/ rmwdum (Table of Contents) 2/ eHygwftrSwfpOfwyfxm;aompmrsufESmrsm; (Numbered Pages) 3/ eHygwftrSwfpOf(odkU)pmvHk;rsm;jzifhrSwom;aompmydk'facgif;pOfrsm;

368 369 370 370 371 371 371 371

(Numbered or Lettered Paragraph Headings)

4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 8/

pm&if;Z,m;rsm; (Lists) tcsufrsm;udkwpfckcsif;pm&if;jyKpkjcif; (Enumerations) pmudt k wGi;f bufoUkd a&G;jcif;jzifo h o d matmifjyKvyk jf cif; (Tabbing) Z,m;uGuyf pkH EH iS *hf &yfypkH rH sm; (Charts and Graphs) wGufcsufjcif;rsm; (Computations)

tcef;(17)

rlMurf;a&;xm;onfh pm&Gufpmwrf;^pmcsKyfpmwrf;udk jyefvnfqef;ppf oHk;oyfjcif;ESifh jyifqifjcif;

373 374 377 377 378

379

(Reviewing and Revising Drafted Documents)

u c

yHkpHum;csyfa&;qGJjcif; (Prepare a Flowchart) pm&Gufpmwrf;^pmcsKyfpmwrf;udkjyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; (Document Review)

380 386

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 1/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolu qef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; (Review by the Drafter) (u) taMumif;t&mrsm;ukd jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; tcsuf 10 csufygpm&if;

19 386 386

(Review for Content a Ten Point Checklists)

(c)

a&;[efESifhtoHk;tEIef;udkjyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif;

391

(Review for Style and Usage)

(*) tusOf;csKyfjyifqifxm;&Sdjcif; (Prepare a Summary) 2/ tjcm;olrsm;ujyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfyg (Review by Other People) (u) oif\vkyfazmfukdifzufrsm;ESifhBuD;Muyfolrsm;

394 395 396

(Your Colleges and Supervisors)

trIonfu jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; (Review by the Client) wpfzuftusdK;aqmifu jyefvnfoHk;oyfjcif;

398 399

(Review by Opposing Counsel)

pmcsKyfpmwrf;rlMurf;udkpdppfwifjyjcif; (Proofread the Document) aemufqufwGJ zÂ½kdif;'&pfaemfrif; vGyfvyfrIazmifa';&Sif; (jrefrmEkdifiH)

* * * * *

402 403 406

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Kuney \ ''The Elements of Contract Drafting with Questions and Clauses for consideration (2nd Edition, West 2006)rS

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Thomas R. Haggard Columbia, South Carolina George W. Kuney Knoxville, Tennessee. June - 2007

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aygufEikd &f rnf/ pmzwfNy;D csed w f iG f Za0Z0gESihf use&f pfvQiaf omfvnf;aumif;? xyfcgxyfcg jyefí zwfae&vQiaf omf vnf;aumif; xdrk Ml urf;a&;qGo J rl mS &Si;f vif;atmif a&;om;? qufo, G Ef idk jf cif; r&Sdí jzpfygonf/ jyKvkyfjcif;udkjyaom Bud,myk'f ( active voice )udk oHk;í a&;om;jcif;onf pmudk ydkrdk &Sif;vif;aponf/ 0gusudk emrfrsm;(odkYr[kwf) emrfESifhoufqdkifaom pmvHk;rsm; oHk;jcif;xuf Bu, d mrsm;udk toH;k jyKjcif;? uwåm; (Subject)ESihf Bu, d m(Verb)wdu Yk kd eD;pyfpmG xm;apjcif;? Bu, d mESihf wdkuf½dkufjyKaomuH (Direct objects)wdkYudk eD;pyfpGmxm;jcif;jzifh taxmuftuljzpfapygonf/ uspf v pf a tmif a &;om;jcif ; (Concision) uspv f pfatmifa&;om;jcif; qdo k nfrmS vdt k yfcsuo f nfwu hdk kd tenf;Edik q f ;kH aom pum;vH;k rsm;jzifh a&;om;jcif;jzpfonf/ uspv f pfatmifa&;om;jcif;udk twdck sKyaf &;om;jcif;ESihf rvGrJ mS ;ap&ef *½kjyK&ayrnf/ pmcsKyfwpfapmifrSm ta&twGufrsm;jym;NyD; t"dyÜg,feufeJaom ta&;ygonfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm; yg&Sv d Qif xdpk mcsKyu f kd tusO;f jcKH ;í&aomfvnf; wdak tmifa&;qGí J &ekid rf nfr[kwyf g/ xdkYtwl ta&;ygaomtcsuftvufrsm;ESifh vdktyfaom &Sif;vif;csufrsm;udk z,fxkwfxm;vQif xdkpmcsKyfrSm twdkcsKyfomjzpfNyD; uspfvpfrnfr[kwfyg/ aumif;rGeaf om rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;\ tajccHrmS rSeu f efpmG uspv f pfatmifa&;om; ekid jf cif; jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyu f zkd wf½KS rnfo h rl sm;rSm a&SUae? w&m;olBu;D ? trIonfrsm;ESihf tjcm;Oya'ESihf oufqikd o f rl sm;jzpf&m tcsed rf sm;pGm ray;Edik Mf uojzifh &Snv f sm;aom pmta&;tom;rsm;udk zwf&ef tcuftcJ&ydS grnf/ roufqikd af om taMumif;t&mrsm;udv k nf; od&efrvdt k yfay/ rnfonfph m ta&;tom;rsdK;rqdk &nf&G,faom pmzwfy&dowfudk OD;wnfí a&;om;&efvdktyfonf/ 0gus wpfaMumif;udk rl&if;t"dygÜ ,f rysu, f iG ;f apyJ pum;vH;k avQmí h a&;yg/ xdt Yk wl 0guswpfaMumif; wGif t"dygÜ ,fukd jynfph akH tmifaz:jyEdik Nf y;D vQif xyfítwnfjyKaom 0gusyrkd sm;udk y,fzsuyf pfyg/ bufrvdu k af om tjrifEiS phf mudk wnf;jzwfa&;om;yg/ pmcsKyu f akd &;qGjJ cif; ueOD; tqifh wGif t"duxm; *½kjyK&efrmS pmcsKyw f iG yf g&Srd nfh taMumif;t&mESizhf UJG pnf;yH?k vufcEH ikd af vmufaom rlMurf;tqifo h Ykd a&mufonft h cg Muyfrwfaom pmwnf;wpfO;D uJo h Ykd rsuv f ;kH &Si&f iS Ef iS hf pdppf&rnf/ pum;vH;k rsm;jym;aom txl;0daooaqmifonfh pum;vH;k rsm;? a&maESm0dbwfrsm;? tydpk um;vH;k rsm;? emrfpm;rsm;? oG,0f u kd yf pkH BH u, d moH;k aom 0gusrsm;udk z,fxw k jf cif;jzifh pmcsKyu f kd odoo d mom uspfvpfapekdifrnf jzpfygonf/ xGufay:vmrnfh&v'frSm vdk&if;wdusonfh uspfvpfaom pm wpfcjk zpfygrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

½d k ; &S i f ; rI & S d j cif ; (Simplicity) uspfvpfatmifa&;om;jcif; qdkonfrSm ta&;BuD;qHk;aom pum;vHk;rsm;udk tenf;qHk; pum;vH;k rsm;oH;k í az:jyjcif;jzpfonf/ ½d;k &Si;f rIrmS rl xdpk um;vH;k tenf;pkukd t"dygÜ ,f&iS ;f vif;atmif a&;zGUJ rIjzpfonf/ pmcsKyyf g taMumif;t&m tcsut f vufrsm;jym;Ny;D r&Srd jzpfo;kH pG&J rnfh pum;vH;k ta&twGuf rsm;jym;onfESifhtrQ ½dk;&Sif;NyD; t"dyÜg,f&SdrIrSm ta&;BuD;ayrnf/ a&;qGJNyD;aom pmcsKyfrlMurf;wpfapmifonf ½dk;&Sif;aom ñTefMum;csufwpfpHkudk udk,fpm;jyKEdkifonf/ Oyrmuefvrf;udo k mG ;? b,fbufcsKd ;? 3-5 rdik q f ufarmif;oGm;vQif xdt k rd o f nf nmbufwiG f wnf&o dS nf/ 4/

pmoG m ;pmvmt&nf t aoG ; ? aumif ; rG e f j cif ; (Tone) Oya'qdkif&mta&;tom;wGif a&SmifusOf&ef ESpfzufpGef;rsm;rSm t&yfoHk;pum;vHk;rsm; (odrYk [kw)f Bu;D us,cf sUJ xGi^f crf;em;vGe;f aom pum;vH;k rsm;udk oH;k jcif;wdjYk zpfonf/ &nf&, G o f nfrmS xdktpGef;ESpfzuf\Mum;tv,fudk OD;wnfonf/ Oya'qdkif&m ta&;tom;rsm;onftvGef av;eufonf/ omref pum;ajyuJo h Ykd ra&;&yg/ vlt Y odik ;f t0dik ;f rS vufrcHaom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;? vdicf jJG cm;qufqrH EI iS hf qdik af ompum;vH;k rsm;? a&S;qefaom pum;vH;k rsm;udo k ;kH í a&;qGjJ cif;rSvnf; a&SmifusOf&rnf/ aumif;rGefaom Oya'qdkif&mta&;tom;onf uRrf;usifrIudkaz:jyaom t&nftaoG;&Sdonf/

( c ) Oya'qdkif&mta&;tom;(3)rsdK; (Three Types of Legal Writing) aumif;rGeaf om Oya'qdik &f m ta&;tom;wdik ;f wGif txufyg t*Fg&yf(5)rsKd ; &Sad omfvnf; Oya'qdkif&m ta&;tom;yHkoP²mefrsm; uGJjym;jcm;em;rI&Sdonf/ vd k & mud k a &muf a tmif qG J a &;aoma&;om;enf ; - Discursive Writing Oya'ESifhywfoufaom ta&;tom;wdkYwGif tus,fw0ifha&;om;csuf (Discourse) qdo k nfrmS taMumif;t&mwpfcEk iS hf ywfoufí ydik Ef ikd pf mG ajymqdjk cif; (odrYk [kw)f a&;om;jcif;udk qdv k o kd nf/ Oya'ynm&Sif wpfO;D rS vd&k mudq k aJG qmifa&;om;onf[k qd&k mwGif &nf&, G cf su(f 2)rsKd ; &So d nf/ wpfcrk mS today;jcif;ESihf tjcm;wpfcrk mS ,HMk unfvufcv H matmif pnf;½H;k a&;om;jcif;wdYk jzpfonf/ rsm;aomtm;jzifh pmcsKyf^Oya'qdkif&m ta&;tom;wdkYwGif (2)rsdK;pvHk; yg0ifwwfyg onf/ trIonfEiS hf qufo, G af ompmrsm;? Oya'qdik &f mrSww f rf;rsm; w&m;a&;qdik &f m xifjrifcsuf wdrYk mS t"dutm;jzifh today;taMumif;Mum;jcif;rsKd ;jzpfonf/ Oya'\ "r®"|d mefusí wdusaom tjrif½aI xmifu h kd vuf&jdS zpfay:aeaom tcsut f vufrsm;tm; xif[yfí rSerf eS u f efuef wifjy jcif;rsdK;jzpfonf/ þta&;tom;rsdK;wGif qGJaqmifonfhtpdwftydkif;rsm;&Sdaomfvnf; t"du

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tm;jzifh rSefuefaomowif; tcsuftvufESifh pOf;pm;qifjcifawG;ac:jcif;rsm; yg0ifygonf/ tjcm;wpfzufrmS rl Oya'jyKtzGUJ odw Yk ifjyonfh trIqikd &f mtcsut f vuf? vsmxm;csu?f tqdjk yKcsuf udk axmufcaH y;aom tcsurf sm;? rSww f rf;rsm;?aMuat;pmrsm;ESihf aphpyfajyNird ;f pmrsm;rSm wpfpkH wpfa,mufudk vufcHatmif pnf;½Hk;jcif;jzpfonf/ rnfo&Ykd adS pumrl pmjzifah &;xm;aom Legal discourse qdo k nfrmS aMumif;usKd ;jycsuw f rYkd S wpfqifo h ;kH oyfcsuw f pfcu k kd &,lq;kH jzwfEikd af om avQmufvcJ suyf ifjzpfonf/ þpmta&;tom; rSm ,kww då efpmG oH;k oyfppk nf;xm;onft h jyif vG,u f pl mG oH;k oyfppk nf;xm;onft h jyif vG,u f pl mG zwf½Iem;vnfEdkifNyD; pum;toHk;tEIef;rsm;rSmvnf; txdkuftavsmuf uRrf;usifvdr®mrI&Sdjcif;? pum;vHk;a&G;cs,frI? 0guswnfaqmufrI? pum;vHk;rsm;rSm e0ifyD,H&Sdjcif;? jywfom;MunfvifrI toHaetoHxm;? tcsuftvufwifjyrIwdkYrSm acsmarGYjcif;&Sd&ef tvGefta&;BuD;ayonf/ w&m;pG J q d k r I E S i f h o uf q d k i f a omta&;tom;rsm; ( Litigation - Related writing ) wdik w f ef;pmrsm;? ajzMum;csurf sm;? wifoiG ;f csu?f ppfcsu?f awG&Y cdS su?f awGU&Sx d w k af z:csuf uJhodkYaom pmrsm;onf w&m;pGJqdkrIwpfck\ vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;ESifh ta&;ygqHk; rlvtajccH tus qH;k aom vdt k yfcsuw f Ukd udk jznfph u G af y;Edik af om t&mrsm;jzpfonf/ jyXmef;Oya'rsm;ESihf w&m;½H;k pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;wdUk onf wpfcgwpf&t H m;jzifh tqdt k acsrsm;udk yHpk rH sm;? trderYf sm;ESihf pum;vH;k rsm;udk owfrSwfay;ygonf/ þpm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;rSm w&m;waygif odkYr[kwf trIwpf&yf\ jzpfpOftqifhrsm;pGmudk pwifvdkufonfh cvkwf,EÅ&m;ESifh wlygonf/ odaYk omf vkyaf qmifcsurf eS yf gu þpm&Gupf mwrf;wdrYk mS w&m;pGq J &kd mwGif a&;om;olbufrS tusdK;&Sdaprnfh vrf;aMumif;ay:odkYa&mufapEdkifonf/ A[dktpdk;&ESifh jynfe,ftrsm;pkrSm taMumif;Mum;pmxJwGif avQmufvJcsufrsm;udk twdkcsHK;xnfhoGif;jcif;udkom vufcHaomfvnf; a&SUaeaumif;wpfOD;onf pmwGJrSwfwrf;wdkif;udk tcGifhta&;tjzpf toHk;jyKNyD; w&m;½Hk; udt k oday;wifjyygvdrrhf nf/ pmwGw J ikd ;f uvnf; trI\ tqd?k t,ltqudk taxmuftyHjh yKEikd rf nfh tcGifhtvrf;udkay;jcif;jzifh aumif;rGefaomqHk;jzwfcsufudka&mufatmif wGef;ydkYay;Edkifygrnf/

pH e rl e mjyK? owf r S w f a y;aomta&;tom; (Normative writing) ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyf? iSm;&rf;pmcsKyf? aowrf;pm? ,HkMunftyfESHrIpmcsKyfrsm;? pGefYvTwf jcif;qdkif&m tydk'frsm;? pnf;urf;Oya'rsm;? jyXmef;Oya'rsm;? wcsufvTwftrdefYrsm;? pnf;rsOf; ponfwt Ykd m;vk;H onf w&m;0if qufo, G rf w I u Ykd kd twnfjyK? t"dygÜ ,fziG phf nf;rsO;f wusjzpfatmif

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

jyKvkyfygonf/ þpmtrsdK;tpm;rsm;rSm tem*wfudk qifjcifawG;qxm;onfhtjyif pHerlemudk owfrSwfay;onfh obm0&Sdonf/ aemiftem*wfwGif pmcsKyf0ifwdkY\ tjyKtrlrsm;udk xdef;csKyf ñTefMum;rnfh pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;wdkYudk jyXmef;ay;onf/ yk*Kd¾ vw f pfO;D csi;f csKyq f akd ompmcsKyEf iS hf trsm;jynfoEl iS o hf ufqikd af om Oya'rsm;rSm uGmjcm; csuf&SdMuonf/ uGJvGJcsufrsm;rSm tay:,HrQomjzpfonf/ aqmif&GufyHktqifhESifh uRrf;usifrI vdktyfcsufwdkYrSm twlwlyifjzpfonf/ tdrfiSm;pmcsKyf a&;qGJaeonfjzpfap? qlnHjcif;udk wm;jrpf aom pnf;urf;Oya' a&;qGJaeonfjzpfap tajccHtm;jzifh twlwlyifjzpfonf/ tiSm;pmcsKyf csdK;azgufíaomfvnf;aumif;? toHqlnHjcif;wm;jrpfaom pnf;urf; azgufzsuí f aomfvnf;aumif; jzpfvmaomtudsK;qufwrYkd mS tajccHtm;jzifh twlwjl zpfonf/ (þpmtkyfonf Normative writing )udk OD;pm;ay;a&;om;xm;onf/ ( * ) rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; \ tqH k ; tpG e f q H k ; aom tusKd ; quf (The Ultimate Consequence of Drafted Documents)

wdik ;f jynfukd tkycf sKyo f ^l tpd;k &\ tjrifrh m;qH;k aom&nfreS ;f csurf mS vlwpfO;D csi;f \ &ydik cf iG hf tcGit hf a&;rsm;udk xde;f odr;f umuG,af y;Ny;D trsm;tusK;d udk jzpfxeG ;f wd;k wufaprnfh vlrq I ufqH a&;abmifudk wnfaqmuf&efjzpfonf/ rlMurf;(tjzpf)a&;qGJxm;aom pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;rSm tvGefta&;BuD;aom u@rS yg0ifonf/ ,if;wdo Yk nf raqmif&u G &f ao;aom aqmif&u G af y;&ef 0wå&m;&Sad om olwt Ykd wGuf w&m;Oya't& vkyfaqmif&rnfh wm0ef0wå&m;rsm; ukpm;rIrsm;udk zefwD;ay;Muygonf/ Oya' ,EÅ&m;onf vltrsm;pkonf rdrw d Uk d aqmif&u G &f ef&ad S om Oya'qdik &f m uwdu0wfrsm;udk trsm;tm;jzifh jznfhqnf;Muvdrfhrnf[laom t,ltqay:wGif wnfrSDvnfywfygonf/ c½dik w f pfcw k iG f opf&u G af jcmufrsm;udk rD;½IUd jcif;rS wm;jrpfaom trsm;jynfoEl iS hf oufqikd f aom trdefY(odkUr[kwf) wcsufvTwftrdefYjy|mef;ygvQif aqmif;OD;umv\ vkyfaqmifaeus "avhwckudk &yfwefYvdkuf&onfhtwGuf uREfkyfwdkYrSm rausreyf nnf;nLMurnf jzpfaomfvnf; trsm;enf;wl ajrzdkYusif;rsm;odkY opf&Gufajcmufrsm;udk ydkYaqmifMurnfjzpfonf/ Sam (qrf)onf owfrw S af ps;jzifh John (*Re)f tm; vdar®mo f ;D a&mif;&ef oabmwlncD suf &Sx d m;ygvQif Private Law yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f mOya't& Sam onf xdu k wdu0wftm; wnfaprnf jzpfonf/ aemifro S m Betty (bwfw)D tm; ydí k jrifah omaps;jzifh a&mif;Edik cf rhJ nfukd odvmvifu h pm; Sam onf uwdu0wfudkwnfvdrfhrnf/ tu,fí rwnfcJhvQif Oya'rS avsmfaMu;^ukpm;cGifh (odkUr[kwf) tjypf'Pf jy|mef;owfrSwfay;&rnfjzpfonf/ ukpm;cGifhr&Sdaom tcGifhta&;[lí r&Syd g/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

qd;k &Gm;aom tusK;d qufrsm; r&nf&, G b f J jzpfay:vmwwfonfukd Oya'ynm&yfqikd &f m rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l ikd ;f \ todtm½kw H iG ftpOf&Sdae&rnfjzpfonf/ þuJhodkY em;vnfxm;rIonf Oya'^pmcsKyf a&;qGo J w l iG f 0D&, d ? *½kpu kd jf cif;? owdcsyjf cif;? tao;pdwu f sjcif;? rSeu f efwu d spmG vkyfaqmifjcif; ponfh av;av;eufeuf wm0ef,l aqmif&Gufwwfjcif;wdkYudk rlMurf;a&;ol\ pdwfESvHk;xJodkU oGwfoGif;ay;vdrfhrnf/ txufazmfjyyg opf&u G rf ;D ½dUI jcif;ESihf ywfoufaom Oya'uJo h Ykd tmPmwnfaom trdeYf wGif yg0ifaom pmom;rsm;onf abmifukd ausmv f eG af eonft h wGuf c½dik Of ya't&m&S\ d tmPm twGi;f rusa&mufaom udp&ö yfuykd g tBuK;H 0ifap&ef a&;om;xm;Ny;D vdu k ef m&efysuu f u G o f u l kd tiftm;oHk;í aqmif&Gufap&efyif Ncdrf;ajcmufonfhoabm&Sdygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyf wpfck\ ta&;tom;raumif;cJhvQif ta&;ygaom pnf;urf;csufyg0if&ef ysufuGufjcif;jzifh ,if;\ tusKd;quftjzpf ta&mif;t0,f rjzpfajrmufbJ pmcsKyfysufjy,f&efom jzpfygonf/ xdo k rYkd [kwb f J ta&mif;t0,ftm; rjzpfrae aqmif&u G &f ef ryg;eyfaom a&mif;0,frI jyKvo kd t l m; jynfe,f wm0ef&o dS rl sm;rS tiftm;oH;k í t"r® a&mif;0,fap&eftwGuf pmcsKyo f nf tajctjrpf ESifh taMumif;&if; rjzpfoifhyg/ (C) ud k , f y d k i f t k y f c sKyf j cif ; ES i f h pD ; yG m ;a&;vk y f i ef ; wd k Y t m; taxmuf t ul j zpf a p&ef rlMurf; a&;qGJjcif; (Drafting as a facilitator of self government and Economic Enterprise)

EdkifiHa&;vlUtodkif;t0ef; txl;tm;jzifh 'Drdkua&pD todkif;t0ef;wpfckwGif EdkifiHom; wdik ;f onf Oya'rsm;udk vG,u f pl mG em;vnfMuNy;D wpfO;D csi;f \ vlrt I qift h wef;? &mxl; |meEÅ&udk rcGJjcm;bJ t"duESifh usifhxHk;Oya'udk wajy;nD rQwpGm usifhoHk;vdrfhrnf[k arQmfvifh&ygonf/ tpd;k &taejzifh txufyguJo h Ukd aom Oya'rsm;udk a&;qGEJ ikd &f ef avhusirhf EI iS hf uRr;f usirf I jynfph kH aom yk*¾Kdvfrsm;tm; vdktyfayvdrfhonf/ nHhzsif;pGm a&;qGJxm;aom Oya'wpf&yfudk twnfjyK jy|mef;&mrS jzpfay:vmaom aemufqufwJG ½Iyaf xG;rI jyóemrsm;udk awG;awmMunfrh nfqykd gu jy|mef;onfh Oya'tm;vH;k onf txufygenf;wlpGm csKdU,Gif;rIrsm; yg&SdrnfqdkvQif jzpfEdkifonfh tusKd;qufwdkUonf wkefvIyf aMumufvefYzG,f jzpfayvdrfhrnf/ xdek nf;wlpmG tqifjh rifí h ^zGUH NzKd ;wd;k wufNy;D ½Iyaf xG;eufeaJ om pD;yGm;a&;wpf&yfonfvnf; tem*wfwGif ukefypönf;ESifh 0efaqmifrIwdkYvJvS,fjcif;udk taxmuftuljyKaom pmcsKyfpmwrf; rsm;ESifh pmcsKyfyg uwdu0wfrsm;udk wnfap&ef pnf;aESmiftm;&Sdaom Oya'pepfr&SdvQif rjzpf Ekdifacs/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

taqmuftOD;uefx&dkufonf tdrfydkif&Sifu 4if;tm; tem*wfwGif aiGay;acsvdrfh rnf[al om uwdwpfcw k nf;jzifh tdru f akd qmufay;rnfr[kwo f uJo h Ykd tdryf ikd &f iS w f pfO;D onfvnf; taqmuftOD;udk aqmufvyk v f rd rhf nf [laom arQmv f ifch suEf iS hf tdr\ f wefz;kd udk ay;acsvrd rhf nf r[kwyf g/ þodq Yk v kd Qif ukeo f , G rf ?I pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;rsm; wnf&EdS ikd v f rd rhf nfr[kw/f rlMurf;a&;qGo J l Oya'ynm&Sirf mS zGUH NzKd ;&Sio f efatmifjrifaom pD;yGm;a&;\ r&Srd jzpfvt kd yfaom tajctaersm;udk zefwD;jzpfay:apaom pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;udk a&;qGJzefwD;oljzpfygonf/ uREkfyfwdkY\ pD;yGm;a&;pepfonf t&if;tESD;jrKyfESHolwkdY\ aiGaMu;&if;ESD;jrKyfESHrI? tvkyf orm;wk\ Yd vkyt f m;ESihf xdak iGaMu;&if;ES;D jrKyEf rHS EI iS hf tvkyo f rm;wkd \ h vkyt f m;aygif;pyfrKS ukd tqif ajyacsmarGUatmif BuD;Muyfol refae*smrsm;tay: trSDjyKaeonf [kqkdygonf/ pmcsKyfrlMurf; a&;qGJol\ yHhydk;ulnDrIr&SdvQif txufygudpötm;vHk;rSm jzpfEdkifzG,f&mr&Sday/ ta&mif;t0,f? tvTt J ajymif;ponfh pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;rsm;ESihf qufE, G o f nfh udp&ö yfrsm;udk aqmif&u G af y;aom a&SUaetwGuf vkyfief;uRrf;usifrIESifh tm;xkwfrI0D&d,wdkYonf tvGefBuD;rm;ayonf/ Oya' rlMurf;a&;qGJa&; ynm&SifwpfOD;xufyif ydkaumif;ydkayvdrfhrnf/ (i) rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; tm;jzif h Bud K wif u muG , f r I j yKaoma&S U ae\ vk y f i ef ; aqmif w m (Drafting as a form of Preventative Lawyering)

a&SUaersm;onf tajccHtm;jzifh "jyóem" odrYk [kwf "jyóemajz&Si;f jcif;" vkyif ef;wGif usiv f nfMuolrsm; jzpfMuonf/ tdr0f ,fvo kd w l pfO;D rSm 0,frnft h rd \ f tajctaeESihf ywfoufí rESpf oufonft h csurf sm;&Syd gonf/a&mif;vdo k t l rd &f iS rf mS 0,fvo kd \ l jiif;qdrk (I tcsed q f rJG )I aMumifh ta&mif; t0,f rNyD;ajrmufEdkifyJ jzpfaeonf/ ESpfOD;ESpfzufrS a&SUaersm;onf þjyóemrsm;udk ajz&Si;f &ef BuKd ;yrf;Murnfjzpfonf/ OD;pGm ESpOf ;D ESpzf ufauseyfr&I adS tmif ñdES idI ;f aphpyfay;jcif;jzifh BuKd ;yrf;Murnf/ ratmifjrifcv hJ Qif w&m;½H;k wGif w&m;wabmifjzifh ajz&Si;f &ayvdrrhf nf/ þodyYk if "jyóemajz&Sif;jcif;" vkyfief;pOfwGif a&SUaewdkY\ yg0ifrIudk vspfvsL&Ií r&yg/ jzpfymG ;Ny;D aom udp&ö yfwaYkd y:rS jyóemudk ajz&Si;f ay;&aom w&m;½H;k trIvu kd af &SUaersm; uJhodkY *kPfj'yf? xifay:ausmfMum;rIr&SdvSaomfvnf; tvTJtajymif;? ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfrsm; a&;qGJ&aom Oya'ynm&Sif a&SUaewpfOD;\ vkyfief;rSmydkícufcJayonf/ a&SUudk arQmfawG;í jzpfvmEdkifaomjyóem? tcuftcJrsm;udk BudKwif wm;jrpfumuG,fol\ vkyfief;jzpfonf/ vuf&Sdjzpfay:aeaom y#dyu©jyóemudk ajyvnfatmif at;Nidrf;pGmajz&Sif;Edkifjcif;rSm tzd;k xdu k w f efaom BuKd ;yrf;csujf zpfaomfvnf; a&SUaewpfO;D tzdYk ydí k aumif;rGeaf om yef;wdik rf mS jyóemudk rlvtpwnf;uyif rjzpfap&ef wm;jrpfjcif;yifjzpfonf/ atmifjrifpmG aqmif&u G Ef ikd f ygvQif rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;rSm xd&k nf&, G cf suf yef;wdik u f kd a&muf&adS tmif pGr;f aqmifay;Edik af yrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aqmif&Gufcsuf nHhzsif;vQif tcuftcJjyóemrsm;udk ydkí jzpfaprnf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh ukefxkwf vkyfolwpfOD;rSm taqmuftOD;aqmufvkyf&ef uefx½dkuftm; iSm;&rf;vdkonf/ þvkyfief;rSm vGefpGmrSBuD;rm;NyD; tpdwftydkif;rsm;pGm yg0ifí aiGaMu;tajrmuftjrm;ESifh umvMum&SnfpGm aqmif&Guf&rnfhvkyfief;jzpfonf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJolrSm aqmufvkyfpOfumvtwGif;ü jzpfvm Edkifacs&Sdaom tcuftcJrsm;? oabmxm;rwdkufqdkifrIrsm; ponfwdkYudk BuKdwifarQmfrSef;í tarQmftjrifBuD;pGmjzifh a&;qGJcJhvQif vkyfief;rSm NyD;ajrmufonftxd tcuftcJr&SdbJ a&SUodkU aqmif&GufoGm;Edkifrnfjzpfonf/ þodkYr[kwfbJ pmcsKyfrSm rjynfhpHkjcif;? 'Gd[jzpfaprIwdkY&Sdjcif;? rvdktyfaom a0g[m&rsm; yg&Sjd cif;? bufvu kd o f nfh oabm&Sjd cif;rsm; yg&Scd v hJ Qif pmcsKy0f ifrsm;rSm w&m;wabmif &ifqikd &f rnf jzpfNyD; aqmufvkyf&ef&Sdaom taqmuftOD;rSm rNyD;EdkifbJ w0ufwysufjzifh &THEGHuGif;v,fwGif wnf&Sdaernfjzpfonf/ ( p ) tod Ó Pf z G H U NzKd ; wd k ; wuf a paom tavh t usif h w &yf t jzpf rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; (Drafting as an Intellectual Exercise)

pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; vkyf&yfonf a&SUaewpfODF;\ ÓPf&nfjrifhrm;jcif;ESifh zGHUNzKd;rI tvdt k yfq;kH aom t&nftcsi;f wpf&yfjzpfonf/ Oya'ynm&yfukd uRr;f usipf mG od&edS m;vnfjcif;? ½kyf0wÉKr[kwfaomt&m? rjrifEdkifaom t,ltq oabmw&m;wdkYudk em;vnfajz&Sif;EdkifpGrf; &Sdjcif;? pl;prf;avhvmvdkaom ÓOf&Sdjcif;? tem*wftwGuf BuKdwifwGufq pDpOfwwfjcif;wGif xl;jcm;pGm tqifhjrifhrm;jcif;tjyif pDrHcefYcGJwwfaom t&nftcsif;rsm;udk vdktyfygonf/ 1/

Oya'ynm&yfudk uRrf;usifrI&Sdjcif; (Knowledge of the law) y#dÓOfpmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf ta&;ygaom jyXmef;Oya'ESihf usix hf ;kH Oya' ESp&f yfpvH;k udk xJxJ0if0if od&SdjyD;? A[kokwtodynmwdkYESifh jynfhpHk&ef vdkayrnf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolrS Oya'udk toHk;jyKyHkonf trIoGm; tusOf;csKyfa&;ol? rSwfwrf;a&;ol (odkYr[kwf) trIvdkufa&SUaersm;ESifh uGjJ ym;jcm;em;ygonf/ trIomG ;tusO;f csKyf a&;olrmS jzpfymG ;cJjh y;D onfh tjzpftysuw f u Ydk kd Oya'oH;k í apm'uwufjcif;?aMumif;usdK;jyjcif;rsm; jyKvkyf&ygonf/ rSwfwrf;a&;olrSm Oya'udktoHk;jyKí aemifjzpfvmEdik af jc&Sad om Oya'tusK;d qufrsm;udk rSe;f q&ayonf/ a&SUae\ Oya'udk toH;k jyK yHkrSm jzpfay:cJhaomtrI\ vu©PmtoGifudk Oya'abmiftwGif;rS owfrSwf qHk;jzwfay;í w&m;½H;k odUk wifjy&onf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J l a&SUaeonf Oya'udk rSeu f efpmG toH;k jyKvsuf trIonf\ vdv k m;aom &nf&, G cf suf a&muf&adS tmif aqmif&u G &f onf/ trIonfwpfO;D \ 0efxrf; ta&mif;ud, k pf m;vS,f

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

wpfOD;rSm ,if;\ pmcsKyfNyD;qHk; csdefwGif xdktrIonf\ NyKdifbufwpfOD;xHodkY oGm;a&muf tvkyf rvkyu f ikd Ef ikd af p&ef wm;jrpfvo kd nf/ þodUk aom udp&ö yfrsK;d rSm jzpfajrmuf&efrvG,u f al y ',SONf yKid f jcif;rjyKa&; Non-compete' tydk'fESifh qufEG,frI&Sdaom Oya'onf vGefpGmrS eufeJvGef;onfh twGuf pmcsKyaf &;olonf ½Iyaf xG;aom tao;pdwrf rI sm;udk ajz&Si;f Ny;D rSom tusK;d oufa&mufrI &SNd y;D w&m;0ifjzpfaom oabmwlncD suw f pfapmifxu G af y:vmEdik rf nf/ odUk r[kwf um,uH&iS f wpfOD;taejzifh ,if;vGefpGm emrusef;jzpfcJhvsif aqmif&Gufay;apvdkaom qE´ñTefMum;csuf (Living will)wpfcu k kd rlMurf;a&;qGo J t l m; a&;qGaJ ponft h cg xdq k E´ñeT Mf um;csuo f nf Oya'yg jy|mef;csufrsm;twdkif; aqmif&Gufjcif;jzpfaomfvnf; um,uH&SiftrIonf\ qE´udk jznfhpGrf; Edik jf cif; r&So d nfvnf; BuKH awG w h wfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh a&SUaeonf vdt k yfygu oufwrf;&Sad om udk,fpm;vS,fvTJpmudk xyfrHjznfhpGuf&ef vdkaumif;vdkygrnf/ tcsKyftm;jzifhqdk&aomf rlMurf;a&;qGJol wpfOD;onf rdrdtrIonf\ vdktyfcsufudk jznfhpGrf;Edkif&eftwGuf Oya'yg pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;rsm;udk tusKd;&SdpGm toHk;jyKwwf&ayrnf/ tcef;(8)wGif pmcsKyrf Ml urf; a&;qGrJ jI zpfpOf tqifq h ifh udk ydrk jkd ynfph pkH mG aqG;aEG;ygrnf/ toH;k jyK&rnfh ajccHrlrSm Oya'udk ydkifEdkifpGmjzifh wnfqJOya' ygpnf;rsOf;rsm;? pD&ifxHk;rsm; ESifhudkufnD í aomf vnf;aumif; odkYr[kwf a&SmifuGif;vsufaomfvnf;aumif; a&;qGJEkdif&ayrnf/ 2/

pH k p rf ; ppf a q;jcif ; (Investigation) trIonfwpfO;D onf pmcsKypf mwrf;a&;qG&J efvt kd yfrnfh Ny;D jynfph akH om tcsut f vufrsm; yg0ifaom pm&if;udk a&SUaexH ,laqmifvm&ef tvm;tvmtvGeef nf;ygrnf/ þodjYk zpf&onfh taMumif;&if; wpdwfwa'orSm trIonftrsm;pkonf taumif;qHk;pGrf;aqmifEdkif&ef pmcsKyf wpfapmif\ vdktyfcsufrsm;udk rodí jzpfygonf/ rlMurf;a&;rnfh yk*¾KdvfrSm vdktyfcsufrsm;udk aphpyfaocsmpGm &SmazGazmfxkwf&rnfjzpfonf/ yHkrSeftm;jzifh pHkprf;ppfaq;rIrSm trIonftm; ppfaq;ar;jref;jcif;rS pwifonf/ pmcsKyf rlMurf;a&;olonf rnfoaYkd om ar;cGe;f rsm;udk ar;jref;oifo h nfukd od&edS m;vnf&rnf/ ta&;Bu;D aom tcsurf sm;udk owdjyKrad p&ef pm&if;jyKpak &;om;xm;jcif;onf aumif;rGeaf om taxmuf tuljzpfapygrnf/ xdt Yk jyif pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf rdr\ d trIonf\ trSew f u,fvv kd m;csuEf iS hf vdkcsifonfwdkYudk wdwdusus od&SdapEdkifrnfh ar;cGef;rsKd;udkvnf; ar;wwf&efvdkygrnf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh "þtdrfudk 0,f,l&ef 0wå&m;tay:wGif pnf;urf; owfrSwfcsufrsm; owfrw S v f ykd govm;" [laom ar;cGe;f onf rvdv k m;tyfonfh qefu Y sib f uf wkeUf jyefrt I ajzrsK;d udk jzpfapEdik yf gonf/ þodrYk [kwb f J trIonfonf "a&mif;olxrH S jcuif;&Si;f aMumif;axmufccH suu f kd 0,f,rl jI zpfajrmufa&; wm0efwpf&yftaejzifh xnfo h iG ;f ay;&ef vdv k m;ygovm;"[laom ar;cGe;f

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

udkar;vQif ydkí aumif;rGefaom wkefYjyefrIudk &&SdapEdkifygrnf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJol aqmif&Guf&rnfh tcsuftvufrsm;udk pl;prf;avhvm? &SmazGpkaqmif;rI wdkYonf trIonfxHrS &&Sdonfh tcsuftvufrsm;ESifh rvHkavmufay/ trIonftaejzifh rdrd0,f,laom tdrf? NcH? ajrrSm ygwf0ef;usif npfnrf;rIjyóem&Sdjcif;r&Sdjcif;? &SdcJhonfhwkdif pdk;&drfylyef&aumif;udk odcsifrSodygvdrfhrnf/ þodkYaom tajctaersKd;udk rlMurf;a&;qGJolrSm taMumif;t&mw&yftaejzifh BuKdwifxnfhoGif; qifjcif&rnf/ oufqdkifaom owif; tcsuf tvufrsm;udk jyifyrS &SmazGpkaqmif;í oifhavsmfatmif a&;qGJ&rnf/ jyXmef;Oya' udk rlMurf;a&;qGJolrS vkyfaqmif&rnfh pl;prf;avhvm&SmazGrIwdkYrSm ydkíyif us,jf yefaY yonf/ ½Iyaf xG;eufeaJ om vlt Y usiphf ½du k f obm0udk pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;wdjYk zifh xde;f csKyf &efrmS cufcaJ yonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh pD;yGm;a&; vkyif ef;Bu;D wpfct k wGuf vHNk cKH a&;? t"Ge&Yf n S w f nfwhH a&;ESihf tEÅ&m,fuif;&Si;f a&;wdu Yk t kd wGuf vGepf mG ta&;ygonfh aumfyakd &;&Si;f rsm;rS a&mif;csonfh &S,f,mESifh cH0eftrsdK;rsdK;\ trSefwu,f jzpfwnfrItajctae t&yf&yf? jzpfay:aeaom jyóemrsm;ESifh xdktrSm;t,Gif;rsm;udk jyKjyif&ef xkwfjyefxm;onfh Oya'wdkYudk aumif;pGm oabmaygufem;rvnfbJ aqmif&Guf&ef cufcJayrnf/ jynfaxmifpt k qifh Oya'wdu Yk kd a&;qGaJ om Oya'jyKorl sm;onf taMumif;tcsuw f u Ykd kd jynfph pkH mG aqG;aEG;aom vTwaf wmfwiG f Mum;emcGi&hf MdS uonf/ jynfe,fOya'jyKtzGUJ onfvnf; xdo k Ykd yif uHaumif;jcif;ESihf jynfph MkH uygonf/ odaYk omf NrKUd e,ftqifh pnf;rsO;f Oya' owfrw S cf surf sm;udk a&;qG&J olwrYkd mS rl tusK;d xda&mufr&I adS om Oya'rsm;udk a&;qG&J eftwGuf vdt k yfcsurf sm;udk rdrw d Ykd bmom tcsut f vufrsm; &SmazGpak qmif;Mu&ygonf/ þudp&ö yfrsm;udk tyd'k (f 9)wGif ydrk jkd ynfph pkH mG aqG;aEG;ygrnf/ 3/

tawG ; tjrif u d k yH k a zmf j cif ; (Conceptualization) pmcsKyfa&;qGJol wpfOD;tzdkU tjcm;vdktyfaom t&nftcsif;wpf&yfrSm t,ltq oabmw&m;rsm;udk pum;vH;k jzifh azmfjyEdik pf rG ;f &Sjd cif;yifjzpfygonf/ &Si;f vif;atmifazmfjy&vQif þ tawG;tjrifa0g[m&rSm rdrdajymqdkvdkonfh taMumif;t&mudk wdwdusus rSefrSefuefuef em;vnfoabmaygufNy;D trSeu f efq;kH ESihf tqDavsmq f ;kH pum;vH;k udk oH;k í azmfjyEdik jf cif;jzpfonf/ Oya'tawG;tjrifrsm;udyk akH zmfjcif;onf em;vnfoabmayguf& tvG,q f ;k H jzpfonf/ Oya' oabmxm;? ,lqcsurf sm;rSm trsm;tm;jzifh yHak oowfrw S cf surf sm;&SNd y;D om;jzpfonf/ ayghavsmrh ?I wm0efysuu f u G rf ?I ud, k pf m;vS,v f yk if ef;ESiw hf uG rsm;pGmaom tjcm;Oya'qdik &f m,lqcsurf sm;\ teuft"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkcsufrSm toifhtwifhtm;jzifh owfrSwfNyD;jzpfMuonf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJol\ tvkyw f m0efrmS trIonf\ vdt k ifqE´ukd jznfq h nf;ay;Edik rf nfh tqDavsmq f ;kH aom oabmw&m; ESifh a0g[m&udk a&G;cs,f&efyifjzpfonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

wcgw&H jy|mef;Oya' a&;qGJolwpfOD;rSm vdktyfcsufaMumifh a0g[m&topfw&yfudk zefwD;wDxGif&ef vdktyfygonf/ rMumcPqdkouJhodkU enf;ynmtopfwdkY ay:aygufvmjcif; aMumifhjzpfonf/ vGefcJhaom ESpfw&mausmfrS rD;&xm; ay:xGef;vmjcif;aMumifh w&m;r epfemrI? ysupf ;D rIrsm;twGuf avsmaf Mu;ay;avsm&f rnfh wm0efazsmufzsurf q I ikd &f m oabmw&m;,lqcsuf rsm; ay:aygufvmonf/ ,aeYacwf tkdifwDowif; tcsuftvufqdkif&menf;ynmaMumifh jzpfay:vmaom tajctaeajymif;vJrIrsm;rS aygufzGm;vmaom topftopf qdk;0g;aom tjyKtrlopfrsm;? Oyrmtm;jzifh uGefysLwmrSwqifh cdk;,lrIrsm;uJhodkYaom udpö&yfrsm;wGif owd BuD;pGmjzifh awG;awmqifjcif&ef vdktyfvmygonf/ xdkYtjyif vdifrIqdkif&m aESmifh,Sufjcif; tjyKtrluo hJ aYkd om ,cifu xde;f csKyx f m;jcif; r&Scd o hJ nfh toGio f P²meftm;jzifh yHak zmfí r&aom vlt Y odik ;f t0dik ;f rS vufrcHonfh tjyKtrlrsK;d rSm ponfwu Ykd kd wm;jrpfEidk &f ef OD;pGm toGio f P²mef yHkazmfEdkifaom oabmw&m;wpf&yftjzpfodkY ajymif;,lEdkif&ayrnf/ tcsuftvufqkdif&m tawG;tjrifrsm;udkyHkazmfjcif;rSm ydkrdkem;vnf&efcufcJygonf/ tcsKyt f m;jzifh aemiftem*gwfukd &nfarQmaf wG;awm Buq H Ny;D vQif tcsut f vufwu Ykd kd a,bl,s ^tao;pdwf? raocsm ra&&m^wdusrI ? pdwfjzifhom odrSwf&aom? wduscdkifrmaom ponfwdkY tMum;yHak z:&jcif;jzpfonf/ þqefUusib f ufwUkd Mum;rS toifah vsmq f ;kH a0g[m& a&G;cs,jf cif;rSm pmcsKyfa&;qGJolwpfOD;tzdkU ÓPfynmydkif;qdkif&m pGrf;&nfjrifhrm;&ef vdktyfouJhodkY tvGefrSyif cufcJonfh t&mjzpfonf/ tawG;tjrifudk rSefuefpGm yHkazmfjcif;ESifh ywfoufítcef;(10)wGif ydkrdkjynfhpHkpGm aqG;aEG;ygrnf/ 4/

tem*wf t wG u f BuKd w if j yif q if awG ; awmBuH q jcif ; (Forethought) pmcsKypf mwrf;trsm;pkrmS aemiftem*wfwiG f jzpfvmEdik rf nfh tjzpftysuw f EYkd iS hf ywfouf ygonf/ oufqikd o f nfh pmcsKyaf &;qGpJ Oftcsed u f mvwGif jzpfay:aeaom tajctaewdEYk iS hf pmcsKyf trSefwu,f touf0ifonfh tajctae tcsdeftcgwdkYrSm ododomom uGJjym;jcm;em;rIrsm; &Sd aumif;&Sdayvdrfhrnf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJolrSm jzpfay:vmEdkifonfh tajymif;tvJrsm;ESifh udkufnDrI &Sad tmif BuKw d ifreS ;f qí tqifajyrI&adS tmif vdt k yfovdk aqmif&u G Ef ikd &f rnf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J nfh hJ si'f [lí jzpfonf/ pmcsKyu f kd uRr;f usif tcgwGif t"duusaom ar;cGe;f wpf&yfrmS 'þodrYk [kwcf v pGm a&;qGw J wfow l pfO;D onf ppfw&k if uRr;f usipf mG upm;wwfow l pfO;D uJo h Ukd upm;uGu(f 3)uGuf BuKdwifí jrifEdkifpGrf;&Sdonf/ aemifwGif jzpfvmEdkifonfwdkYudk BuKdwifBuHq awG;awm&mwGif ydkif;jcm;a0zefwwfaom todÓPfESifh,SOfí aqmif&Guf&rnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aerif;onf ta&SUt&yfrS ay:xGuv f mjcif;tay: tajccHí txl;jy|mef;csuf w&yfukd a&;qGJrnf qdkygu t"dyÜg,frJh&m a&mufayrnf/ vdktyfonfxuf ydkí a&;om;jcif;rSmvnf; ½dk;&Sif;rI\ oabmw&m;udk ysufpD;aponf/ tcsKyq f &kd aomf pmcsKyaf &;qGo J w l pfO;D rSm aemiftcg jzpfvmEdik o f nfwUkd udk BuKw d if awG;q Edik pf rG ;f &dS & rnft h jyif jzpfvmEdik af cswUkd ESiv hf nf; ywfoufí aumif;pGmoH;k oyfí qH;k jzwfEikd &f ygrnf/ 5/

pepf w us zG J U pnf ; wif j yjcif ; (Organization) pmcsKyfyg tcsuftvufwdkY wdusrSefuefrI&Sdjcif;wdkUonf pepfwus zGJUpnf;wifjyjcif; tay:wGiv f nf; rlwnfonf/ pmcsKyw f apmifwiG f tpdwt f ydik ;f wdik ;f onf oD;jcm;taMumif;t&m wpfck(odkY)ta&mif;t0,f\ wpdwfwa'oESifh oD;oefYywfouf&rnf/ tydk'f? tydk'fcGJ(odkY)pmydk'fwdkif;onf oD;jcm;vkyfaqmifcsuf wpfckpD&Sd&rnf/ tydk'fcGJwdkif; wGifvnf; 0guswaMumif;pDonfvnf; vkyfief;wckudk aqmif&Guf&rnf/ pmt"dyÜg,fjynfhpHkí em;vnfvG,faom pmom; jzpfap&eftwGuf vdktyfovdk pmom;udk cGJpdwfí tyk'fcGJ? tydk'f? 0gusrsm;tjzpf a&;om;&ef 0efrav;oifhay/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J \ l vkyif ef;rSm t½Iyt f axG;rsm;udk &Si;f vif;pepfusr&I adS p&ef aqmif&u G &f jcif; jzpfonf/ þodUk aqmif&u G Ef ikd &f efrmS twdik ;f twmwcktxd oD;jcm;jzpfaom tawG;tac: ÓPf&Sd&ef vdktyfonf/ a&;om;wifjyrI pepfwus r&Sdaom pmcsKyfpmwrf;onf tpDtpOfr&Sd pepfusrIr&Sdaomol\pdwfrS xGufay:vmaom &v'fjzpfonf/ uRr;f usiaf om pmcsKyaf &;qGo J w l OD;onf ajrmufrsm;pGmaom owif;tcsut f vufrsm;udk pmcsKyt f wGi;f odYk aygif;pnf;xnfhoGif;Edkif&ef aMumif;usKd;qufpyfrI &SdpGmjzifh pepfwus a&SUpOf aemufquf ydkif;jcm;xm;aom tydk'frsm;tjzpf cGJjcm;owfrSwf a&;om;Edkif&ygrnf/ aumif;rGeaf om tpDpOfjzifh pepfwus a&;om;rIonf pmcsKyw f apmif xda&mufpmG tusK;d oufa&muf rI&Sdap&eftwGuf r&Sdrjzpf ta&;ygygonf/ qdkvdkonfrSm &nf&G,faom y&dwfowf vG,u f pl mG zwf½KS em;vnf Edik af p&ygrnf/ tdrif mS ;olwpfO;D onf tdr&f iS w f pfO;D \ tdrt f axGaxG jyKjyifxdef;odrf;rIqdkif&m 0wå&m;rsm;udk odvdkygu tdrfiSm;pmcsKyf\ wae&mwGif oD;oefYtydk'f wckwiG f &SmazGawGU&SEd ikd &f rnfjzpfonf/ tyd'k cf (JG 6)ckwiG f wae&mpD jzefu Y suv f surf &S&d ay/ wenf; qdk&aomf pepfwus a&;qGJxm;jcif;r&Sdaom jypfrIqdkif&m Oya'w&yfü tydk'f(1)ckwGif wm;jrpf xm;csuf&SdNyD; ,if;tydk'ftwGuf ta&;ygaom >cif;csufwckudk (16)ydk'ftuGmwGif xnfhoGif; xm;rnfqdkygu pdwf½IyfaxG;zG,f pDpOfrI jzpfaeygvdrfhrnf/ pmcsKy\ f pepfwus a&;qGjJ cif;ESihf ywfoufí pmyd'k (f 11)wGif ydrk jkd ynfph pkH mG aqG;aEG;ygrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

(q) pma&;om;jcif ; avh u sif h r I w &yf t jzpf pmcsKyf a &;qG J j cif ; (Drafting as a Literary Exercise)

pmcsKyaf &;om;jcif;twGuf xl;jcm;aom pOf;pm;rIprG ;f &nf &S&d rnft h jyif a&;om;&müvnf; txl;uRrf;usifrI&Sd&ef vdktyfygonf/ pmcsKyfa&;om;rIudk AdokumuJhodkY yHkazmfaomtwwfESifh aqmufvkyfa&;uJhodkY wnfaqmufrI twwfynmwdkYESifh yrmjyKEdkifNyD; pma&;om;jcif;toGifjzifh yHak zmfjcif;jzpfygonf/ t"dutcsurf sm;jzpfaom pum;vH;k ? 0gus? pmyd'k f tqH;k owf jzwfawmufrI rsm;rSmtkwfcJESifh t*FawESifh yrmEIdif;,SOfEdkifonf/ a0g[m&? 0gusESifh pmydk'fwdkYudk owdBuD;pGm a&G;cs,fjcif;jzifh pmcsKyfonf r&Sif;rvif;jzpfjcif; r&SdEdkifay/ 1/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

t"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkcGifhudk,lí oufqdkif&m pmcsKyfESifhom ywfoufaom oD;oefUa0g[m&opfrsm; zefw;D Muojzifh em;vnf&cufaom pum;0Sujf zifh a&;om;jcif;ESihf wlwwfMuonf/ þodUk a0g[m& t"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkcsufudk rSefuefpGm toHk;jyKjcif;? rSm;,Gif;pGm toHk;jyKjcif;wdkYudk tcef;(14)wGif ydkí jynfhpHkpGm aqG;aEG;ygrnf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJolwOD;onf aumif;rGefaom ta&;tom;jzpfap&ef OD;wnfcsufudk taxmuftuljyKay;aom pum;vH;k rsm;udv k nf; a&G;cs,o f ifo h nf/ txl;ojzifh wdusr?I &Si;f vif; rI? ½d;k &Si;f rI vd&k if;udk aumif;pGm azmfjyEdik af om t&nftaoG;wdUk jzpfonf/ Oya'ESio hf ufqikd af om tusKd;qufrsm;udk jzpfay:apaom pum;vHk;rsm;rSm txl;tm;jzifh ta&;BuD;ayonf/ tb,fh aMumifq h akd omf þpum;vH;k a0g[m&wdo Yk nf vkyaf qmif&rnfh vkyif ef;aqmifwmrsm;\ tESpcf sKyf udk vTrf;rdk;Edkifjcif;aMumifh jzpfonf/ a&;qGJolonf (May)jzpfEdkifacs&SdaMumif; / vkyfaqmifEdkifaMumif;[laom pum;&yfudk oH;k pGv J Qif vkyaf qmif&ef wm0efrmS rdr\ d oabmqE´twdik ;f jzpfonf[k ,lqEdik &f m trSew f u,f &nf&, G o f nfrmS 'vH;k 0OóHk aqmif&u G &f ef' wm0ef&o dS nfukd '&rnf' (Shall, Will)[laom pum;&yf jzifh oHk;pGJ&rnf/ þodkYr[kwfvQif pmcsKyfrSm rSm;,Gif;Edkifayvdrfhrnf/ tcef;(15)wGif ydkí jynfhpHkpGm aqG;aEG;ygrnf/ 2/

0gusrsm; (Sentences) trIqdkif&mtcsuftvuf? pm&Gufpmwrf; (odkY) trSmpmwpfckwGif qufpyfrIr&Sdaom txl;jyKpum;vH;k rsm; ae&mrSm;,Gi;f azmfjyjcif;jzifh pma&;oltm; ta&;tom; nHzh si;f oltjzpfom owfrSwfay;ayvdrfhrnf/ odkYaomf rlMurf;wpfapmifwGift"dyÜg,fa00g;rI? r&Sif;vif;vQif ukefus p&dwBf u;D rm;aom w&m;wabmifjzifh ajz&Si;f &aom tjzpfrsK;d ESihf BuK&H wwfygonf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J l onf o'´gudk 0guswnfaqmufzUJG pnf;jcif;ESihf 0gusjzwfawmuf jcif;wdUk udk ydik Ef ikd pf mG uRr;f usirf I &Sd&rnf/ þtcsuftvufrsm;onf pum;vHk; wpfvHk;csif;udk aygif;pnf;ay;í 0gusjzpfapaom oHrdIrsm; jzpfygonf/

tjcm;aom pum;vH k ; zG J U pnf ; wnf a qmuf r I enf ; vrf ; rsm; (Other Word Construction Techniques)

Oya'pmcsKyfrsm;udk a&;qGJolonf 0gusrsm;? pmydk'frsm;omru taxmuftuljyK pm&if;Z,m;rsm;? tab rsm;udyk g oH;k í ydrk &kd iS ;f vif;rIEiS hf pmzwfv, G u f rl I &Sad p&ef aqmif&u G Ef ikd o f nf/ tcef;(16)wGif aqG;aEG;ygrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

acgif ; pOf r sm; (Headings) rlMurf;a&;qGaJ om pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;rSm yHrk eS t f m;jzifh ta&;Bu;D qH;k taMumif;t&mrsm;udk Outline toGifjzifh pDpOfa&;qGJMuonf/ t"dutydk'fBuD;rsm;? tydk'fcGJwdkif;onf acgif;pOfrsm; yg&SMd uonf/ acgif;pOfonf pmcsKyt f pdwt f ydik ;f wdUk \ tESpcf sKyu f kd a,bl,stm;jzifh azmfjyonf/ pmzwfol od&Sdvdkaom taMumif;t&mwdkYudk vG,fulpGm od&SdEdkifatmif aqmif&Gufay;onf/ qDavsmaf om acgif;pOfa&G;cs,jf cif;udk trsm;tm;jzifh ayghayghwefwef ,lqwwfMuonf acgif;pOfwckwiG f tcsut f vuf yg0ifro I nf ydv k eG ;f ívnf;r&? enf;vGe;f ívnf;r&yg/ acgif;pOf a&;om;&mwGif ayghqrIaMumifh pmyd'k yf g taMumif;t&mxuf ydrk u kd s,jf yefUaevQif taMumif;t&m udk 'Gd[rI jzpfapygrnf/ pmcsKyftaMumif;t&mESifh rywfoufaom tcsuftvufyg&Sdjcif;onf vnf; w&m;Oya't& tusK;d oufa&mufrrI &Sd jzpfapEdik yf gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh ukeyf pön;f qdik &f m tmrcHudkjiif;y,fcGifhpmydk'f Warranty disclaimer udk pmcsKyfwGif ae&mrSm;,Gif;pGm xm;odkjcif; udpö&yf/ xdkUtjyif wcgw&HwGif tBuKH;0ifavh&Sdaom acgif;pOfonf Oya'\ wpfpdwfwpfydkif; tjzpf tBuKH;0ifjcif; r&Sd}[laom pnf;rsOf;&Sdaomfvnf; tcsKdU w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf pum;&yfrsm; raocsm r&Sif;vif;onfhtcgwGif acgif;pOfudk xnfhoGif;pOf;pm;NyD; qHk;jzwfcJhMuaMumif; awGU&Sd& ygonf/

( Z ) udk,fusifhodu©mudk avhusifhay;aom tjyKtrlw&yftaejzifh pmcsKyfa&;qGJjcif; ( Drafting as an Ethical Exercise) pmcsKyaf &;qGo J w l o Ykd nf a&;qGo J nft h cgwGif ud, k u f sio hf u d m© ESiyhf wfoufaom a&G;cs,rf I cufco J nfh tjzpfrsK;d ESihf BuKw H wfMu&onf/ twdik yf ifcH tBujH yKjcif;(solicitation) jzpfap? cGijhf yK xm;aom abmiftwGif;rS udk,fpm;jyKrI scope of permitted tusKd;wl 0da&m"djzpfrI? EIwfvHkrI? pm&Gufpmwrf; azsmufzsufrI odkYr[kwf vkyfief;qdkif&m tjcm;aom tusifhodu©mrsm; ponfh tm;vHk;wdkYonf pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJonfh tcgwGif txl;xl;aom usifhoHk;yHkrsm; &SdMuonf/ odkYaomf pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;rsm;\ vdkvm;csufrSm tpOfojzifh &Sif;vif;onfr[kwfay/ Oya'qdkif&m udk,fusifhodu©m tjrif½IaxmifhrSaeí ½IvQif a&SUaewOD;onf trIonfwOD;\ udk,fpm; &ifqdkif&yfwnfay;ol jzpfonf/ a&SUaeonf jyóemudk wm;jrpf&Sif;vif;ay;olwOD; jzpfonf? (odUk )oabmwlncD suaf &mufatmif pGr;f aqmifay;ol jzpfonf[al om tcsurf mS a&SUae todkif;t0dkif;wGif tjiif;yGm;vsuf&dSaom taMumif;t&mwpfckjzpfonf/ trIonfrS a&;qGo J t l ay: awmif;qdck surf mS w&m;r0ifjcif;? vdrv f nfvn S jhf zm;vdak om qE´&Sdjcif; r[kwfaomfvnf; a&;qGJol\ udk,fusifhw&m;? usifh0wf? odu©mESifh vufcHEdkifaom tjyKtrlwUkd udk xdcu kd af pmfum;&m a&mufEikd af yonf/ a&SUaewdik ;f onf 4if;tm; iSm;&rf;awmif;qdk

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

olwikd ;f udk vufc&H rnf r[kwaf y/ xdt Yk jyif trsm;,HMk unf vufcx H m;ovdk a&SUaewdik ;f onfvnf; tjrwfBuD;pm; yGJvefYpOf zsmcif;aom tcGifhta&;,lolrsm; r[kwfay/ a&SUaetrsm;pkrSm rdrd\ trIonfEiS hf ud, k pf m;jyK&rnfh trI\ oabmobm0udk Munf½h í I a&G;cs,jf cif; jyKwwfMuygonf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJonfh a&SUaeonf trIvdkuf a&SUaeESifh EIdif;,SOfvQif tcGifhta&;ydkomonfh tcsufrsm; &Sdayonf/ trIvdkufa&SUae\ vkyfaqmifcsufrSm jzpfyGm;NyD;aom udpö&yfrsm;ESifh awGUBuK&H ifqikd &f onfjzpf&m þa&SUae a&G;cs,&f efrmS trIonfukd ud, k pf m;jyKvjkd cif;&S?d r&Sd a&G;cs,f &ygrnf/ trIudk umuG,f&ef(odkY) qefYusif&efom jzpfonf/ EIdif;,SOf&rnf qdkvQif pmcsKyfa&;qGJ &aom a&SUaerSmrl trIjzpfpOf rjzpfymG ;rDuwnf;u yg0ifywfouf ae&onf/ xdaYk Mumifh a&SUae onf trIonftm; vkyaf qmifoifrh oifw h Ukd udk BuKw d ifowdjyK apEdik o f nf/ um,uH&iS f trIonf ud, k w f ikd u f ud, k u f sio hf u d m© tenf;i,frsS r&So d jl zpfonfw h ikd af tmif þtjyKtrlaMumifh aemifwiG f ,if;tay:vlraI &;t& xdcu kd rf rI sm;&Srd nfqykd gu qifjcifomG ;Edik yf gonf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGaJ om a&SUae wpfOD;\ vkyfief;aqmifwmrsm;wGif tBuHay;yk*¾KdvfwOD;taejzifhvnf; avQmhwGufí r&yg/ þtcsufudk tcef;(5)wGif ydkí jynfhpHkpGm aqG;aEG;xm;onf/ (ps)

nH h z sif ; pG m a&;qG J r I a Mumif h jzpf a y:aom uk e f u sp&d w f (The Cost of Bad Drafting)

nHhzsif;aom pmcsKyfwapmifonf vlYtodkif;t0ef;udkvnf;aumif;? trIonftm; vnf; aumif;? a&;qGJol tygt0iftm;vHk;udk vGefpGmrS xdcdkufepfemapaom ukefusp&dwf qHk;½IH;rIudk jzpfay:aponf/ 1/

vl r I a &; epf e mqH k ; ½I H ; rI r sm; (Social Cost) nHhzsif;pGm a&;qGJxm;aom pmcsKyfwapmifonf w&m;wabmifudk zdwfac:aejcif;ESifh wlayonf/ w&m;wabmifwckonf oufqdkifrI&Sdaom yk*¾Kdvfrsm;u tvHk;pHkaom ukefusp&dwf axmufyHhay;Muaom trIudpö&yfrsKd;r[kwf ukefusp&dwfwdkYudk tm;vHk;ay;qyf&jcif; jzpfonf/ w&m;olBu;D ? w&m;½H;k pma&;? 0efxrf;w&m;½H;k taqmufttHk ponfjzifh tm;vH;k wdrYk mS tcGex f rf; wdkY\ p&dwfESifh vnfywfae&aom tpdk;&\ tajccHvkyfief;rsm; jzpfonf/ xdkYtjyif pmcsKyf csKdU,Gif;csufaMumifh jzpfay:aom trIwabmifwdkY trIwGJpm&if;rsm;(dockets)wdkYudkom wdk;yGm; aponf/ vltcsif;csif; tjyeftvSefqufqH&mrS rvTJra&Smifomaom &vm'fjzpfonfh w&m; wabmif[al om tm;enf;csuu f kd tm;ay;tm;ajrm§ ufjyKaom raumif;onfh tavhtusiw hf ck jzpfonf/ nHhzsif;aoma&;om;rIonf w&m;wabmiftwGufvnf;aumif;? vlrItodkif;t0ef;rS vnf;aumif; ukefusp&dwftajrmuftjrm;udk qHk;½IH;rIjzpfaponf/ trIudpörsm;\ &mcdkifEIef;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tawmfrsm;rsm;rSm aocsmpGm a&;qGJcJhjcif;jzifh a&Smif&Sm;EdkifcJhonfh trIrsm;jzpfonf/ jy|mef;Oya'qdik &f m trI(Statutory Litigation)wdaYk Mumifh vlt Y odik ;f t0ef;rS usc&H onfh ukeu f sp&dww f o Ykd nf pmcsKyaf &;qG&J mwGif nhzH si;f rIrS t&if;cHayonf/ txl;tm;jzifh jypfrq I ikd &f m Oya'a&;qG&J mwGif nHzh si;f vQif &efEiS ahf b;tEÅ&m,fwu Ykd kd xda&mufpmG wm;qD;Edik jf cif;r&So d nft h jyif vGwv f yfaom vlaY bmifpepfwiG f wm;qD;&efrvdt k yfaom tjyKtrlwu Ykd kd r&nf&, G b f J &mZ0wfrI oifhaponfh tusKd;qufudk jzpfapEdkifygonf/ 2/

trI o nf \ uk e f u sp&d w f (Client Costs) vltrsm;pkonf a&SUaersm;tm; iSm;&rf;jcif;rSm rdrdwdkY\ tcuftcJ jyóemrsm;udk wm;jrpfjcif; (od)Yk ajz&Si;f ay;jcif;wdUk udk aqmif&u G af y;apvdjk cif;aMumifh jzpfonf/ jyóem zefw;D ay;ap&ef r[kwyf g/ pmcsKyw f apmifonf trIonf\ &nfreS ;f csuo f aYkd &mufatmif rpGr;f aqmifEikd f ygvQif tvGerf S tzd;k pm;em; Bu;D rm;aom rSm;,Gi;f csuw f &yf jzpfayvdrrhf nf/ t&nftaoG;nHzh si;f aom pmcsKyw f apmifonf pmcsKy0f ifEpS Of ;D tMum; tqdyt f awmufuo hJ jYkd zpfaom em;vnfrv I rJT mS ; rIrsm; pdwfrMunfjzLjcif; jiLpljcif;wdkYudk rvGJraoG jzpfay:apwwfonf/ xdkESpfOD;ESpfzufwdkY qufqaH &;jyefvnfaumif;rGev f mEdik af &;udk wm;jrpf[efw Y m;Edik o f jzifh ta&;ygaom azmufonf? trIonf tdrfiSm;? ukefypönf;ay;oGif;ol? wqifh uefx½dkuf,lolwdkUudk qHk;½IH;apEdkifonf/ ydkí qdk;&Gm;onfrSm w&m;wabmifjzpfyGm;vQif oufqdkifoltm;vHk;wdkYtzdkY ukefusp&dwf BuD;rm;rnf jzpfonf/ w&m;pGq J Nkd yq D ykd gvQif wzufrmS ½I;H &pNrjJ zpfojzifh wenf;tm;jzifq h akd omf pmcsKy0f ifrsm; tzdkY rnfoluEdkifapumrl oabmw&m;t& ESpfzufpvHk;wGif qHk;½IH;rI&SdMupNrJjzpfygonf/ epfem aMu; ay;avsmf&vQif yk*¾KdvfwOD;csif; (odkY) pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief; wpfckay:wGif qdk;&Gm;jyif;xefaom aiGaMu;tcuftcJ usyfwnf;rIudk jzpfapEdkifygonf/ w&m;EdkifrSmvnf; EdkifyifEdkifaomfjim; ukefusp&dwfwdkYudk qHk;½IH;&rnfjzpfonf/ wcgw&H p&dwpf utjyif a&SUaeiSm;&rf;cwdo Yk nf jyefvnf&&Sad om wefz;kd yrmPESihf wlnjD cif; (od)Yk ydí k yif ausmfvGefjcif;rsKd;vnf; jzpfwwfonf/ w&m;Edkifaomfvnf; t½IH;&Sdonfyif jzpfygonf/

pmcsKyf a &;qG J o l \ uk e f u sp&d w f (Drafter Costs) toHk;jyKí tqifrajyaom (odkY) w&m;wabmifudk jzpfyGm;apaom pmcsKyfudk a&;qGJol a&SUaetzdkY 4if;\ ruRrf;usifrI? ayghavsmhrIwdkYtwGuf aemufqHk;wGif ay;qyf&rnf jzpfonf/ toufomqH;k tajctaewGif trIonfukd vufvw T q f ;kH ½I;H Edik af yvdrrhf nf/ xdx Yk ufausmv f eG í f trIonf\ trI&ifqikd &f mwGif tcuftcJrsm;rSm a&SUae\ tm;enf;csuaf Mumif[ h k od&o dS mG ;onfh tcg tcsKdUolwdkYu trItyfjcif;udk ½kyfodrf;onfhtjyif a&SUae trIvdkufcudkyif ay;&ef jiif;qdk

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ayvdrfhrnf/ "rauseyfvQif usKyfudkw&m;pGJ" [laom oabmrsKd;ESifhyif &efvdkpGm qufqHwwf Muonf/ rawG;0Hph &m aemufxyftaMumif;wckrmS a&SUaeusi0hf wf odum© ESirhf nD[í l w&m;pGq J kd cH&zG,f&SdNyD; trIonfrS EdkifEdkifygonf/ w&m;½IH;ol trIonfu4if;ESifh tvGef&if;ESD;olrsm;? pD;yGm;zufrsm;? omreftodrdwfaqGrsm;udk raumif;owif;vTifhrnfrSm aocsmygonf/ trIESifh qufqHa&;twGufomru a&SUaejzpfvdkaom &nf&G,fcsuf&Sdolrsm;onf 4if;wdkY a&;om;aom pmcsKyfrsm;udk owdBuD;pGmjzifh a&;&rnfjzpfNyD; rdrd\ a&;om;csufwdkYtay:wGif vnf; *kPf,lESpfoufaom pdwfxm;&Sd&rnf/ rdrda&;om;orQaom pmcsKyfwdkYonf rdrdtm; aMumfjimay;ouJo h Ykd jzpfonf/ þpmta&;tom;ay: rlwnfí vkyaf zmfuikd zf ufrsm;? trIonfrsm;? NyKdifbufrsm;ESifh tjcm;aomolrsm;rS rdrd\ vkyf&nfudkif&nftpGrf;udk wefzdk;jzwf oHk;oyfay; ayvd r f h r nf / pmvH k ; aygif ; rS m ;jcif ; ? od o mxif & S m ;aom trS m ;rsm; pmcsKyf t oG i f t jyif oyf,yfrIr&Sdjcif; (odkY)aocsmpGm pDpOfxm;rIr&Sd wdusjcif;udk razmfaqmifEdkifaom pmcsKyfrsm;rSm vkyfief;uRrf;usifrIESifh ywfoufí rdrd\ *kPfowif;udk qdk;usKd;oufa&mufaprnf jzpfygonf/ rdrd\ trnfjzifh a&;om;xm;aom pmcsKyfpmwrf; [lorQonf trSm;uif;pifatmif zwf½KS jyifqifjcif;? pmvH;k aygif;owfypk H pfaq;jcif;? odoo d momrSeu f efr&I jd cS if;? tpDtpOfuserI&jd cS if;wdUk ESih f jynfph &kH rnf/ þvkyaf qmifcsurf sm;rSm a&SUae? aiGpm&if;udkif? pmwnf;ESifh pmtkyfxkwfa0olrsm;rS vGJí vltrsm;pk jyKusifhavhr&Sdaom tao;pdwf usrIrsKd;udk vdktyfygonf/ xGufay:vmonfh rSm;,Gi;f csuw f ikd ;f onf rdr\ d vkyif ef;uRr;f usirf I owdjzifh y&d,m,fo;kH wwfjcif; vuf&jdS zpfay: aeaom taMumif;t&may:wGif tm½Hpk ;l pdu k rf &I jdS cif;ESihf ywfoufí trsm;rSa0zef oH;k oyfMurnf jzpfojzifh rdr\ d vkyif ef;ydik ;f qdik &f m *kPo f u d m© udk xdcu kd af pEdik o f nf/ jzpfay:vmaom tusK;d quf rSm xyfí yGm;rsm;aom oabm&Sw d wfonf/ tcsKUd ae&mrsm;wGif vsijf refpmG jzpfwwfavh&o dS nf/ rSm;,Gif;rIrsm;aMumifh pmzwfolrSm rlMurf;a&;oltay: (u)uRrf;usifrIr&Sdaom (c)ayghqaom (*)*½krpdkufowdr&Sdaom oltjzpf oHk;oyfayvdrfhrnf/ txufyguJhodkY oHk;oyfrIrsm;rSm oif\ Oya'qdkif&m oufarG;0rf;ausmif;rI\ wdk;wufjcif;udk [efYwm;ayvdrfhrnf/ (n)

oknrSpí a&;qGJjcif; (Drafting from Scratch) tenf;tusO;f aom pmcsKyrf sm;omvQif tprSaeí a&;qG&J efvrkd nf jzpfygonf/ trsm; tm;jzifh pmcsKyrf Ml urf;a&;qGMJ uolrsm;onf e*d&k NdS y;D pmcsKyt f a[mif;rsm;? trIwrJG sm;? tjcm;aom w&m;pD&ifydkifcGifhrS pD&ifcsufrsm;udk vuf&SdjyKvkyfrnfh tvTJtajymif;udpö&yf (odkY) udpö&yfESifh udkufnD&efom oufqdkifaom tcsuftvufrsm;udk jyifqifa&;qGJMujcif; jzpfygonf/ þodkY aqmif&Guf&mwGif ,cifpmcsKyfrsm;onf ,aeYacwfopf a&;om;yHk a&;om;[ef toHk;jyKyHk a0g[m&wdkYrSm uGJvGJcsufrsm;aMumifh vuf&Sdtajctae? vuf&Sd jy|mef;csufrsm;ESifh

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

rqDavsmf jzpfwwfygonf/ ud;k um;aom pmcsKyw f iG f ta&;Bu;D aom jy|mef;csurf sm;rSm xdpk mcsKyEf iS hf om oD;oefYoufqdkifjcif; jzpfaumif;jzpfayvdrfhrnf/ vuf&SdpmcsKyfa&;qGJaeolrSm pmcsKyf\ rlvjy|mef;csufESifh &nf&G,fcsufwdkYudk odcsifrSom odayvdrfhrnf/ odkYaomf ta&;BuD;pGm vdktyf onf[k ,lqí vuf&SdpmcsKyfwGif xnfha&;qGJxm;aomfvnf; tb,fhaMumifh þodkY vkyfaqmif onfudk trIonftm; &Sif;jyEdkifpGrf;r&Sday/ xdkYaemuf pmcsKyfa&;qGJolonf vuf&SdudpöESifh oufqikd af om jy|mef;csurf sm;udyk g xnfo h iG ;f jcif;jzifh þpmcsKyo f nf aumufoif;aumuf yHpk rH sm; pkpnf;xm;aom ynm&yf tpkta0;wpfck jzpfvmjyefygonf/ ta&mif;t0,f pmcsKyfyHkpHrsm; pkpnf;xm;aom pmtkyrf sm;onfvnf; wlnaD om jyóemrsm; &Sw d wfMuonf/ ,cifo;kH Ny;D jzpfaom pmcsKyrf sm;udk ud;k um;jyK toH;k jyKrnfqykd gu jyif;jyif;xefxef tao;pdwf pdppfa0zefNy;D ,if;pmcsKyf \ zGJUpnf;yHk jy|mef;csufrsm;ESifh vuf&Sdtajctaersm; udkufnDrI oifhavsmfrI &dS? r&Sdudk oHk;oyf &rnf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf pmcsKyyf gjy|mef;csurf sm;udk jyefvnfppD pf&rnf/ ydí k aumif;rGeaf om enf;vrf;rSm ,cifpmcsKyfrsm;udk avhvmoHk;oyfNyD; taMumif;csif;&mrsm;udk aumif;pGmem;vnf oabmaygufatmif aqmif&GufNyD; pmcsKyftopfudk oknrSpí pwifa&;qGJedkifjcif;jzpfonf/ odaYk omf tcsed Ef iS hf ukeu f sp&dww f \ Ykd uefo Y wfcsuaf Mumifh þenf;twdik ;f aqmif&u G &f ef jzpfEikd af cs enf;ayonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef ; (2) y#d n mOf p mcsKyf r l M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; (Contract Drafting)

tajctae ; oabmwlnDcsuf&&Sd&ef owfrSwfcsdef oabmwlnDcsufonf BuD;onfjzpfap? i,fonfjzpfap owfrw S yf pkH t H wdik ;f vkyu f ikd af vh&?dS r&Sd (The Context: The Deal Time Line: Whether Big or Little, Deals follow a Pattern)

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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y#dnmOfpmcsKyf rlMurf;a&;qGJol\ u@ (The Role of Contract Drafter) ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyu f kd aqmif&u G af om a&SUaewpfO;D \ awG;awmqifjcifro I nf Oya' yxrESpfwGif or½dk;us oifMum;cJhonfh trIvdkufa&SUae\ awG;awmrIjzifh uGmjcm;ygvdrfhrnf/ trIvu kd jf cif; yHpk w H iG f trIrsm;(od)Yk Oya'udk avhvmNy;D toH;k jyKonfh enf;Oya'rsm;udk zwfrw S í f xkwf,l&ygrnf/ oufqdkifonfh tcsuftvufrsm;udk avhvmNyD; jyóemjzpfaeonfh jiif;csuf &SmazGNyD; Oya'jy|mef;csufESifhtnD pOf;pm;awG;awmum tajzwpfckudk aumufcsufcs&ef vdyk gonf/ ( IRAC= jiif;csu?f enf;Oya'? awG;awmjcif;ESihf aumufcsucf sjcif;) tqifw h ikd ;f wGif "ay;xm;aom" tcsur f sm;udk toH;k jyK&ygrnf/ xdo k q Ykd &kd mwGif jzpfysuNf y;D aom tjzpftysurf sm;? jy|mef;Ny;D aom Oya'rsm;ESihf w&m;½H;k rsm;(Oya'udak jymif;vJ&eftwGuf jiif;qdak eonfh tcsed w f iG f vnf; tvm;wljzpfygonf/) þodkYqdkojzifh xdktcsufrsm;udk jiif;y,fjcif;? txl;jyKjcif; (odkY) avQmufvSJonfh tcsdefwGif ,if;\t&dyfudk cdkjcif;rjyK&[k rqdkvdkyg/ odkYaomf tajccHtm;jzifh MunfhrnfqdkvQif xdktcsufrsm;onf owfrSwfNyD;tcsufrsm; jzpfygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fEiS hf ywfoufí Oya'tBuaH y;&mwGif ESpzf ufpmcsKy0f ifrsm; jyKvyk v f o kd nfh ta&mif;t0,fukd em;vnfjcif;? xdaYk emuf xdek m;vnfru I kd pD;yGm;a&;qdik &f m pnf;urf;csurf sm;ESihf tnD y#dnmOf? ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;ESihf pD;yGm;a&; Oya'qkid &f mrlrsm;ESit hf nD pmcsKy0f ifwt Ykd Mum; qufqHa&;udk pDrHEdkifaom ta&mif;t0,fyHkoP²meftjzpfodkY ajymif;vJ&jcif; jzpfygonf/ 4if; tjyif aqG;aEG;rI wpfavQmufwGifvnf; oifhawmfpGm rSwfwrf;wifjcif;ESifh vdktyfaom pm&Guf pmwrf;rsm;udk jyifqifaqmif&Gufjcif;wdkYudkvnf; aqmif&GufoGm;&ef vdkygonf/ tb,fhaMumifh qdak omf aqG;aEG;rIrsm; ysucf NhJ y;D w&m;qdik Mf urnfqykd gu trIvu kd af &SUae toD;oD;onf ,if;\ trIonftwGuf tompD;&Edik rf nfh taetxm;jzifh trIukd wifjyavQmufvEJS ikd &f eftwGuf toH;k jyK&ef jzpfygonf/ þudpö&yfrsKd;wGif "ay;xm;onf" qdkaom tcsuf r&Sdyg/ &SdvQifvnf; tvGef enf;yg;ygvdrrhf nf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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y#dnmOfpmcsKyf rlMurf;a&;&mwGif tzefwvJvJ BuKHawGU&aom tcuftcJrsm; (Recurring Problems in Contract Drafting)

ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfrsm;onf aemifjzpfEdkifzG,fw&m;rrIrsm;udk wm;qD;&ef jzpfovdk jzpfvmvQifvnf; BuKdwifpDrH&eftwGuf tcGifhvrf;vnf; jzpfygonf/ tjcm; t&if;tjrpfESifh tawGUtBuKrH sm;rS &&Sad om t,ltqrsm;udk pmcsKyx f o J Ykd rnfoYkd xnfo h iG ;f Edik rf nfukd pOf;pm;&ef vdkygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fqdkif&m a&SUaersm;onf rlMurf;a&;om;&mwGif Oya'jyKtzGJUrS jy|mef;aom Oya'(odkY)pD&ifxHk;rsm;udk tajccHaom Oya'wpfpHkwpfck\ tmPm e,fedrdwf twGif;odkU usa&mufap&efvnf;aumif;(odkU)a&Smif&Sm;Edkif&efvnf;aumif; a&;om;Mu&ygonf/ pmcsKyfxJwGif epfemrItwGuf ukpm;rIrsm;udk xnfhoGif;csKyfqdkxm;jcif; r&Sdaom tajctaewGif t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya't& rnfonfh ukpm;rIrsm;udk &&Sdedkifrnfenf;/ t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya't&

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

&&SEd ikd af om tajzwpfcu k kd pmcsKyf t& rnfoUkd jyKjyifeikd rf nfenf;/ aemifwiG f w&m;rrI jzpfymG ;cJrh nf qdyk gvQif pmcsKy\ f tydik ;f toD;oD;onf oufaocH&eftwGuf rnfot Ykd a&;ygrnfenf;/ xdt k ydik ;f rsm;udk oufaocHtjzpf vufcHEdkifjcif;&Sdap&ef rnfokdYjyKjyifoifhoenf;/ pmcsKyf0if ESpfzufpvHk; twGuf tusKd;&Sdrnfh oufaocHcsufjzpfap&ef rnfodkYa&;om;rnfenf;/ y#dnmOfpmcsKyf rlMurf; a&;qGjJ cif;onf ta&;Bu;D aom Oya'qdik &f m t&nftaoG;rsm;udk toH;k jyK&efEiS hf ydrk kd cdik rf map&ef twGuf avhusi&hf ef tcGit hf a&;aumif;wpf&yf jzpfygonf/ pD&ifx;kH rsm;rS jzpfay:vmaom Oya' (w&m;olBuD;jyKaom Oya')udk avhvmjcif;jzifh awGU&Sd&rnfrSm w&m;rrIrsm; jzpfyGm;&onfh taMumif;&if;rsm;rSm atmufyg qufvufazmfjyrnfh taMumif;&if;rsm;jzpfNy;D ,if;wdUk onfvnf; rlMurf;a&;qGo J l tm;enf;jcif;aMumifh jzpfymG ;&jcif; jzpfygonf/ tu,fí pmcsKyrf Ml urf; a&;qGo J l rsm;onf atmufazmfjyyg taMumif;&if;rsm;udk wpfpu kd rf wfrwf a&Smif&mS ;jcif;jzifh pmcsKyrf sm;aMumifh w&m;rrIjzpfjcif;rsm; odompGm avsmhenf;oGm;Edkifygrnf/ þpmtkyfwGif a&;om;csuftrsm;pk onfvnf; þjyóemrsm;udk a&Smif&Sm;jcif;ESifh ywfoufygonf/ 1/

r&nf & G , f x m;aom y#d n mOf p mcsKyf r sm; (Unintended Contracts) wpfcgwpf&HwGif pmcsKyfjzpfwnfvm&jcif;rSm urf;vSrf;csuf oufouf(odkY) pmcsKyfjzpf aomfvnf; ueOD;ay;ol\ &nf&G,fcsufrSm tBuKdn§dEIdif;&ef(odkY)pHkprf;&efom &nf&G,fjcif; jzpfyg onf/ wpfzufrv S nf;rsm;aomtm;jzifh wkeUf jyef&mwGif wkeUf jyefay;ydUk onfuwpfc?k &nf&, G o f nf uwpfjcm; jzpfavh&Sdygonf/ xdo k aYkd qmif&u G Mf uNy;D aemuf wpfzuftwGuf tompD;&aecsed w f iG f tompD;&onfzh ufu xdktjyeftvSefay;ydkYxm;aom pmay;pm,lrIrsm;onf urf;vSrf;csuf^vufcHjcif; (odkY) jyefvnf urf;vSrf;csuf^vufcHjcif;ajrmufí y#dnmOfjzpfonf[k awmif;qdkrIrsm; &Sdvmygonf/ xdkodkY jzpfvQifvnf; taMumif;csif;&m &nf&G,fcsufudk ½kyfvHk;jrif&onfu vTrf;rdk;avh&Sdygonf/ trItyfoEl iS t hf wl wGí J aqmif&u G af eaom rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf a&mif;0,fr\ I ueOD; tqifhwGifyif trItyfol\ &nf&G,fcsufudk oufqdkif&mpm&Gufpmwrf;ay:wGif xnfhoGif; a&;om;apoifhNyD; BuKdwifpHkprf;rI jyefvSefpHkprf;rI (odkY) urf;vSrf;csufrsm;udk zdwfac:rI ponfjzifh azmfjyNyD; a&;oltaejzifh þaqG;aEG;rIudk tcsdefra&G; &yfqdkif;cGifh&SdNyD; w&m;½Hk;wGif oufaocH tjzpfrwif&ef ESpfzufoabmwlnDaMumif;udk xnfhoGif;azmfjy oifhygonf/ wpfenf;qdkaomf oufqikd &f m pm&Gupf mwrf;xJwiG f a&;om;xm;csurf sm;onf y#dnmOfwpfc\ k tNy;D owfpnf;urf; csufrsm; jzpf&ef &nf&G,fcsuf&Sdonf[k rqdkvdkyg/ &Hzef&Hcg ESpfzufpmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf t"du pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk oabmwlnDrI &&SdNyD; onfw h ikd f xdo k abm wlnx D m;csurf sm;udk pmom;jzifh a&;om;Ny;D ESpzf ufvufrw S x f ;kd um pmcsKyf

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

vJv, S rf I rNy;D pD;rcsi;f tjyeftvSef pnf;aESmifr&I &dS ef &nf&, G jf cif; r&Syd g/ xdu k eOD; pm&Gupf mwrf; onf rsm;aomtm;jzifh &nf&G,fcsufudkazmfjyaompm(Letter of Intent )[kac:avh&Sdygonf/ xdpk m&Gupf mwrf;onf &nf&, G cf suu f akd zmfjyaom pmjzpfaMumif; twdtvif; azmfjyyg&S&d efvNkd y;D pmcsKyfjzpfap&ef &nf&G,fcsufr&SdaMumif; pmcsKyfvnf;r[kwfaMumif;? EIwfoabmwlcsuf\ rSww f rf;rSw&f mvnf; r[kwaf Mumif;? owfrw S x f m;aom yHpk EH iS t hf nD aqmif&u G Nf y;D pD;rI r&Srd csi;f ESpfzufonf tjyeftvSef pnf;aESmif&efvnf; &nf&G,fcsuf r&SdygaMumif;?NcKHiHkyg&Sdaom qdkif&m qdkifcGifhr&SdaMumif; jiif;qdkcsufudkvnf; xnfhoGif;oifhygonf/ LOI rsm;onf xdkodkY tumt&H pmom;rsm; xnfo h iG ;f xm;apumrl &Hzef&cH gwGif owdrrlot l wGuf ajrjrKyAf ;kH rsm; &Sad omuGi;f ESihf wlwwfygonf/ a&SUaetrsm;pkonf jzpfEikd yf gu LOI rsm;udk a&Smif&mS ;&ef BuK;d pm;avh&MdS uygonf/ ydrk kd pd;k &drzf , G af umif;aom LOI rSm pnf;aESmifaom uwdu0wfrsm;udk xnfo h iG ;f a&;om; xm;aom LOI rsK;d jzpfygonf/ Oyrm - rlvtajctaetwdik ;f wnf&&dS ef uwdjyKjcif; aqG;aEG; n§dEIdif;rIrsm;udk vQKdU0Sufxm;NyD; aqG;aEG;rIrsm; NyD;qHk;rI r&Sdrcsif; wwd,olESifh aqG;aEG;rIrjyK&ef oabmwljcif; ponfwUkd jzpfygonf/ þwGif rlMurf;a&;om;ol taejzifh rnfonft h yd'k rf sm;onf pnf;aESmiftm;&SNd y;D rnfonft h yd'k rf sm;onf pnf;ESmiftm; r&So d nfukd txl;*½kjyK&ef jzpfygonf/ aumif;rGefaom enf;vrf;rSm pnf;aESmiftm; &Sdapvdkonfh tcsufrsm;ESifh r&SdapvdkonfwdkUudk oD;jcm;pDESpfapmif cGJjcm;xm;oifhygonf/ 2/

y#d n mOf pmcsKyf j zpf a p&ef &nf & G , f a omf v nf ; y#d n mOf rajrmuf j cif ; (Documents Intended to be Contracts that Fail)

ESpzf ufpmcsKy0f ifrsm;u rnfoyYkd if &nf&, G cf su&f o dS nfjzpfap uwdu0wfwikd ;f tm; Oya'u tiftm;oH;k vsuf taumiftxnfazmfay;rnfr[kwyf g/ wpfcgwpf&w H iG f ESpzf uftMum; pm&Guf pmwrf;wpfcu k kd pnf;aESmiftm; &Sad p&ef&nf&, G v f suf vufrw S af &;xd;k Muygonf/ xdo k aYkd &;xm;Ny;D aemufwpfzufrS pdwfajymif;oGm;NyD; usefwpfzuftaejzifhvnf; xdkuwdu0wfonf Oya'u tiftm;oH;k vsut f aumiftxnfazmfEikd jf cif;r&Sad om uwdu0wf jzpfaeonfukd awGU&Syd gvdrrhf nf/ t"du jyóem&yfrsm;rSm xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;xm;aom (od)Yk oufaojyEdik af om aiGay;acsrw I pf&yf ryg0ifjcif;ESifh pm&Gufpmwrf;\ jynfhpHkrIr&Sdjcif;wdkYaMumifh jzpfygonf/ Oya't& ta&;,laqmif&u G &f ef tvm;tvm enf;yg;ygojzifh pmcsKyo f nf tjyeftvSef tusKd;aus;Zl;wpfckudkay;&ef (odkY) wpfzufzufrS epfemcJhrIudk n§dEIdif;aqG;aEG;cJhMuaMumif; jyo Edik &f ygrnf/tzd;k pm;em;qd&k mü yHo k P²mefrsK;d pHk tBuK;H 0ifygonf/ aiGom;? aiGay;acs&ef uwdpmcsKy?f bPfrS ukerf ydrYk D 0,fou l aiGaMu;wifyNYkd y;D jzpfaMumif; taMumif;Mum;pm (L/C) ypön;f ydik q f ikd rf u I kd vTJajymif;jcif;? 0efaqmifrIay;jcif;? tcGifhta&;rsm;udk tavQmhay;jcif; (odkY) vTJajymif;ay;jcif;?

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tzdk;pm;em;rSm enf;yg;vGef;ygu w&m;½Hk;onf xdktzdk;pm;em;udk trnfcH tzdk;pm;em;om jzpfonf[k rSwf,lEdkifygonf/ wenf;qdkaomf tzdk;pm;em; ay;jcif;r&Sd[k qHk;jzwfEdkifygonf/ Oya'jzifh twnfjyKEdkifaom ta&;,lEdkifaom pmcsKyfjzpfap&efrSm oufqdkif&m w&m;½Hk;\ pD&ifydkifcGifhtmPm e,fedrdwftwGif; owfrSwfxm;aom t"du pnf;urf;csufrsm;ESifh jynfhpHk&ef vdktyfygonf/ ,ckacwfwGif acwfrDaom w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf vGwfvyfpGm awG;ac:jcif;aMumifh vkt d yfaom pnf;urf;csut f csKUd rjynfph ½kH rkH Qjzifh pmcsKyw f pfcu k kd pmcsKyt f jzpf todtrSwrf jyKjcif;rsm; enf;yg;ygonf/ odkYaomf pmcsKyfwpfcktm; bufpHkrS MunfhNyD; pmcsKyfjzpfaMumif; "u,fwif" í oufaojy&vQif pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;ol\ *kPfowif;udk xdcdkufapygvdrfhrnf/ 3/

pmcsKyftwGif; uGm[csufrsm; &Sdaejcif; (Contracts Containing Gaps) pmcsKyw f pf&yfonf ta&mif;t0,fjzpfajrmufa&;twGuf vdt k yfaom t"du pnf;urf; csurf sm; yg0ifjcif;aMumifh pmcsKyw f pfck jzpfa&;twGuf owfrw S cf surf sm;ESihf jynfph akH umif; jynfph kH Edik af omfvnf; ta&;ygaomtcsurf sm; <uif;use&f pfojzifh vdt k yfcsu&f adS om pmcsKyjf zpfEikd yf gonf/ &Hzef&Hcg xdkusef&pfcJhonfh tcsufrsm;rSm &nf&G,fcsufr&SdbJ usef&pfcJhjcif; jzpfEdkifovdk ESpfzufpmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf ½dk;ajzmifhpGmjzifh twlaqmif&Gufjcif;jzifh ay:aygufvmonfh tcuftcJrsm;udk ay:aygufvmcsdefwGif ajz&Sif;EdkifMuygvdrfhrnf/ odkYaomf wpfcgwpf&HwGif pmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf pmcsKyf csKyfqdkcsdefwGif qHk;jzwf&ef&Sdaom udpö&yfwpfcsKdUudk aemifwGifrS qHk;jzwfMu&ef &nf&G,fcsufjzifh "aemifwGif qHk;jzwf&ef oabmwlnDMuonf" qdkaom tydk'fudk xnfhoGif;csKyfqdkavh &Sdygonf/ xdkxnfhoGif;aom tydk'fonf vGJrSm;pGmjzpfaeonf[k ,lqjcif; r&Sdap&eftwGuf rlMurf;a&;olonf ½dk;ajzmifhpGm n§dEIdif;aqG;aEG;aMumif; xif&Sm;aponfh vdktyfcsufrsm;udk xnfhoGif;jcif;? pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk xnfhoGif;&eftwGuf "r®"d|mefusaom tajccHwpfcu k kd a&G;cs,jf yojcif; (od)Yk Mum;0ifjzefajzjcif; (od)Yk pnf;aESmiftm;&Sad om tEknmw cHkorm"djzifh pD&ifqHk;jzwf&eftwGufvnf; xnfhoGif;a&;om;oifhygonf/ tu,fí pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum;wGif aemifq;kH jzwfí oabmwlnrD nf[al om tcsurf sm; udk oabmwlEdkifcJhjcif;r&Sdygu xdk<uif;usefaeaom pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk w&m;½Hk;rS jznfhpGuf oGm;rnf jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyfESifh oufqdkifaomfvnf; pmcsKyfxJwGif yg0ifjcif;r&Sdonfh oufao taxmuftxm;rsm;t& pmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkonfhtcsdefESifh wpfcsdefwnf;wGif pnf;urf;csufwpfckESifh ywfoufí pmcsKyfxJwGif xnfhoGif;a&;edkif avmufaom em;vnfrI r&So d jzifh xnfo h iG ;f cJjh cif;r&Sad Mumif; awGU&S&d ygonf/ odjYk zpf&m a&;om;y#dnmOfEiS hf wpfcsed w f nf; jzpfaom xdx Yk uf a&S;usaom EIwo f ufaocHcsuq f akd om jyóemudk jzpfymG ;apygonf/ UCC Oya'wGif ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;pmcsKyrf sm;\ vpf[maygufrsm;udk jznfph u G af y;onfh pnf;urf;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

csufrsm; &Sdygrnf/ xdkrSvGefí tjcm;pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk pmcsKyfyg wm0efrsm;tm; tqifhqifh xrf;aqmifaMumif; oufaorsm;? pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; ,cifuaqmif&u G cf ahJ om ta&mif;t0,f rsm;wGif aqmif&u G cf yhJ t kH qifq h ifEh iS hf ukeo f , G af &;qdik &f m pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm;vnf; xkw, f El ikd f ygonf/ 4if;tjyif t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya't& pmcsKyfonf taMumif;t&mwpfckESifh ywfoufí azmfjyyg&Sjd cif; r&Sv d Qif w&m;½H;k rS rnforYkd w S , f &l rnfqakd om pnf;rsO;fpnf;urf;rsm;vnf; &Syd gonf/ odjYk zpf&m <uif;useaf eaom pnf;urf;csuf wpf&yftm; jznfph rG ;f &ef enf;vrf;rsm; &Syd gonf/ odkYaomf xdkjznfhpGufonfh pnf;urf;csufonf ESpfOD;pvHk;uyif rlvu xnfhoGif;&ef oabm rwlco hJ nfh pnf;urf;csuv f nf; jzpfEikd yf gonf/ rsm;aomtm;jzifh xdjk znfph u G cf suu f kd tvGeaf iGuek f aMu;usrsm;pGmjzifh w&m;½Hk;wGif w&m;qdkifNyD; aemufrS jznfhpGufwwfMuonfudk awGU&Sd&ygonf/ odkYjzpf&m rlMurf;a&;olu a&Smif&Sm;Edkif&ef BuKd;yrf;oifhayonf/ 4/

t"d y Ü g ,f E S p f c G x G u f j cif ; ? rvd k t yf b J &S i f ; vif ; pG m a&;om;rI r &S d j cif ; ( Ambiguous and Unnecessarily Vague Terms )

rlMurf;abmifa&;om;jcif;\ &nf&G,fcsufrSm oufqdkif&m pm&Gufpmwrf;yg tydk'frsm;\ t"dyÜg,fESifh Oya't& xl;jcm;csufwdkUudk &Sif;vif;apjcif;jzifh pmcsKyf0ifwdkU\ &nfrSef;csufESifh OD;wnfcsufwdkUudk rSefuefpGm xif[yfap&efjzpfonf/ ESpfzufpmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf pmcsKyfwGif xnfo h iG ;f rnfh tESpo f m&udk trSew f pfu,f oabmwlnND y;D jzpfaomfvnf; pmcsKyw f iG f t"dygÜ ,fEpS cf G xGujf cif;ESihf rvdt k yfbJ &Si;f vif;pGm a&;om;rIr&Sjd cif;wdaYk Mumifh xdo k abmwlnrD o I nf pmcsKyw f iG f xif[yfaejcif;r&Sdygu wpfcsdefwGif xdkrlMurf;a&;jcif;\ tm;enf;csufrsm;aMumifh tjctae wpfpHkwpf&m ajymif;vJcsdefwGif pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;onf epfemoGm;csdefwGif xGufaygufudk &&SdapEdkif ygonf/ xdkYaMumifh t"dyÜg,fESpfcGxGufjcif;ESifh rvdktyfbJ &Sif;vif;pGm a&;om;rIr&Sdjcif;onf pmcsKyfrsm;ESifh ywfoufí w&m;rrIrsm; jzpfyGm;&onfh t"dutaMumif;&if;rsm; jzpfygonf/ 5/

BuKd w if a rQmf v if ; xm;jcif ; r&S d a om jzpf & yf r sm; (Unanticipated Events) pmcsKyw f ikd ;f onf aemiftem*wfwiG f jzpfrnft h jzpftysurf sm;ESihf oufqikd Nf y;D xdt k em*wf qdkaom tcsdefwGif wpf&ufrS ESpfaygif;rsm;pGmtxd tBuKH;0ifygonf/ xdktaMumif;aMumifh rlMurf;a&;olonf jyóemESpf&yfeJY BuKHawGUapygonf/ yxr jyóemrSm pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkcsdefwGif pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf rSeu f efonf[k ,lqxm;aom tcsurf sm; &Srd nfjzpfNy;D pmcsKycf sKyNf y;D aemufwiG rf S rSefuefonf[k ,lqxm;aom tcsufrsm;onf rSefuefrIr&SdaMumif; od&Sdvm& ygonf/ OyrmpmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf ajrqDvmT \ atmufwiG f ajrom;vTm&Srd nf[k ,lqcJah omfvnf; vufawGUwGif ausmufom;vTm &Sad eonfukd awGU&Scd &hJ ygonf/ 'kw, d jyóemrSm pmcsKyu f kd csKyq f pkd Ofu pmcsKyf

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

0ifrsm;onf jzpf&yfwpfck jzpfvrd rhf nf[k ,lqxm;cJMh u&m vufawGUwGif 4if;wd\ Yk ,lqcsuo f nf rSm;,Gif;cJhygonf/ Oyrm- pmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf tpdk;&taejzifh avmifpmqD wifoGif;jcif;udk ydwfqdkYvdrfhrnf[k rxifrSwfcJhaomfvnf; vufawGUwGif ydwfqdkYcJhygonf/ y#dnmOfOya'qdik &f m Mo0g'rsm;wGif tjyeftvSef rSm;,Gi;f jcif;? jzpfEikd af csr&Sjd cif;? pD;yGm; a&;t& vufawGU jzpfEikd zf , G rf &Sjd cif;? y#dnmOfrsm; ysujf ym;jcif;? BuKw d ifrrSe;f qEdik af om udp&ö yf rsm;aMumifh jzpfEdkifaom tEÅ&m,frsm;udk cGJa0owfrSwfjcif;wdkY&Sdaomfvnf; xdkodkY aqmif&Gufjcif; onf pmcsKy0f ifrsm; ud, k w f ikd u f jzpfEikd zf , G t f EÅ&m,frsm;udk owdcsyv f suf cGaJ 0owfrw S jf cif;udk tpm;xdk;Edkif&ef cufcJygvdrfhrnf/ rnfolurQ aemifwGif jzpfyGm;edkifrnfh udpö&yftm;vHk;udk arQmfawG;EdkifpGrf; r&Sdyg/ odkYaomf tHhMozG,faumif;onfrSm pmcsKyfaMumifh trI&ifqdkifaeMuonfh udpö&yfrsm;pGmwdkYonf jzpfyGm;Edkif onf[k arQmfrSef;í&aom udpörsm;jzpfaomfvnf; rSef;qcJhjcif;r&Sdonfudk awGU&Sd&ygonf/ owd 0D&d,&Sdaom pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJolonf rlMurf;a&;&mwGif ta&;ygaom "tu,fíomjzpfcJh vQif" qdkaom ar;cGef;udk tpOfpOf;pm;&ef vdktyfygonf/ */

pmcsKyftrsKd;tpm;rsm; (Types of Contracts) pmcsKyrf Ml urf;a&;qGo J \ l tjrifrS Munfrh nfqykd gu tajccHtm;jzifh pmcsKy(f 3)rsK;d &Syd gonf/ yxr trsK;d tpm;rSm urf;vSr;f jcif;? vufcjH cif;ESihf aqmif&u G jf cif;wdUk onf wpfNyKid ef ufwiG f jzpfonf[k qdEk ikd yf gonf/ Oyrm- qrf qdo k \ l opfo;D vSn;f rS opfo;D 0,f,jl cif;/ þudp&ö yfrsK;d wGif rlMurf;a&;&efvdkaom pm&Gufpmwrf;rsdK;udk toHk;jyK&efrvdkojzifh toHk;jyKjcif; r&Sdyg/ odkUaomf udk,fpm;jyKjcif;? tmrcHjcif;? oabmwlncD suf (odUk )pnf;urf;csurf sm;onf ueOD;zvS,jf cif; tqifx h uf ausmv f eG rf nfqykd gu rlMurf;a&;om;&ef vdak ompm&Guf pmwrf;rsm; vdt k yfrnfjzpfNy;D "vufrw S x f ;kd Ny;D onfEiS hf tqH;k owfaom" a&mif;0,frIrsKd;jzpfygrnf/ 'k w d , trsKd;tpm;rSm pmcsKyfudk csKyfqdkaomfvnf; vufawGUtaumiftxnfazmfrIudk tcsed Mf uefUMumNy;D rS aqmif&u G o f nfh pmcsKyrf sK;d jzpfygonf/ þta&mif;t0,frsK;d udk "MuefMY umNy;D rS tqHk;owfjcif;"a&mif;0,frIrsKd; jzpfygonf/ aqmif&Gufcsufonf oD;jcm;oabmqefygonf/ ta&mif;Ny;D pD;onfEiS hf pmcsKy0f ifwUkd onf wpfO;D ESihf wpfO;D ywfoufjcif;r&Sad wmhyg/ yHrk eS af wGU&aom a&mif;0,frIrsKd;wGif pmcsKyfonf rsm;aomtm;jzifh EIwfjzifh jyKvkyfjcif;jzpfNyD; uRrf;usifol rlMurf;a&;olvnf; yg0ifywfouf&ef taMumif;r&Sdyg/ 'pfcf trnf&Sdaom ausmif;om;onf *sed ;f trnf&adS om ausmif;olukd ,if;\ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ &; pmtkyt f m; pmoifEpS f ukeNf y;D vQif a&mif;&ef oabmwlygonf/ odaYk omf þta&mif;t0,fonf vdrv f nfvn S jhf zm;jcif;qdik &f m Oya' wGif jy|mef;xm;aom tem*wfwiG f taumiftxnfazmfrnfh ukrP Ü cD JG a&mif;0,fa&;uJo h Ukd aom

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

½Iyaf xG;Ny;D aps;EH;I jrifrh m;onfh wm0efrsm;&Sad ompmcsKyf vufqEJG w I q f uf EIwu f wdjzifh twnfjyK Edkifjcif;r&Sdaom pmcsKyfrsdK;ESifh rsm;pGm uGJjym;ygonf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf xdkodkYaom pmcsKyfrsKd;udk wnfaqmufa&;qGJ&mwGif ta&;ygaomu@u yg0if&ayrnf/ wwd, pmcsKyf trsK;d tpm;rSm pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; qufo, G rf I rjywfvyfaom pmcsKyrf sK;d jzpfygonf/ xdq k ufvufqufo, G rf &I adS om umvonf owfrw S x f m;aom umvwpfct k wGi;f jzpfEdkifovdk pOfqufrjywfvnf; jzpfEdkifygonf/ Oyrm-tvkyfcefYxm;a&; pmcsKyfrsm;? pkaygif; aps;n§dEIdif;pmcsKyfrsm;? pD;yGm;a&; yl;aygif;aqmif&Gufa&;pmcsKyfrsm;? a*sAGD (Joint Venture)rsm;? tBuD;pm;aqmufvkyfa&;pmcsKyfrsm; ponfwdkYjzpfygonf/ þpmcsKyfrsKd;wdkUwGif rarQmfvifhaom udp&ö yfrsm; ay:aygufwwfonft h wGuf rlMurf;a&;olonf þpmcsKyrf sK;d a&;om;rIwiG f xufjruf&ef vdktyfayrnf/ pmcsKyfxJwGif rnfonfhudpö&yfrsm; jzpfay:vmEdkifrnfudk a&G;cs,fí xnfhoGif; a&;om;rnfukd pOf;pm;qH;k jzwf&mwGif pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; qufqaH &;udk oH;k oyf&ef vdt k yfygrnf/ ,if;wdkYtMum; ,cifu ta&mif;t0,f aqmif&GufcJhonfrsm;? pD;yGm;a&;avmuwGif ,if;wdkY\ emrnfESifh rarQmfvifhaom jyóemrsm; ay:aygufygu ,if;wdkYudk,fwdkif ajz&Sif;EdkifpGrf; &Sd^r&Sd (odUk ) ajz&Si;f Edik &f ef aphpyfjzefajza&; (odUk ) tEknmw cHo k rm"djzifh qH;k jzwfjcif;paom ajz&Si;f a&; enf;vrf;rsm;udk pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ þ&nf&G,fcsufrSm ½dk;&Sif;ygonf/ tvkyfjzpfap&ef rnfonfh enf;vrf;udkrqdk &SmazG&ef jzpfygonf/ C/

pmcsKyfwGif yg0ifonfhtydkif;rsm; (The Parts of a Contract) pmcsKyt f rsK;d tpm; (od)Yk taMumif;csi;f &m rnfoyYkd ifjzpfap omreftm;jzifh pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f atmufygtydkif;rsm; yg0ifygrnfacgif ; pOf y d k i f ; 1/ pum;csD ; pmyd k ' f 2/ / pum;cs;D tydik ;f wGif pmcsKyf csKyq f o kd rl sm;ESihf pmcsKyf csKyq f akd om &ufpJG yg0ifygrnf/ ed ' gef ; yd k i f ; (od k U )usKd ; aMumif ; azmf j ycsuf / pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkonfh aemufcH 3/ taMumif; t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf r sm; 4/ t"duta&;ygaom aqmif&Gufa&;tydk'frsm; / ,if;wGif tzdk;pm;em;? 5/ pnf;urf;csufrsm;? pmcsKyftqHk;owfjcif;ESifh ygwfoufí azmfjyxm;ygrnf/ udk,fpm;jyKrIrsm; / .....rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsurf sm;? oabmwlncD suf 6/ rsm;?epfemqH;k ½I;H rI&ydS guay;&ef &Srd nfah vsmaf Mu; ? tmrcHjcif;rsm;? awmif;qdyk ikd cf iG rhf sm; udk pGefYvTwfjcif;rsm;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 7/ 8/ 9/ 10/

ysuf u G u f r I r sm; jzpf y gu uk p m;&ef e nf ; vrf ; rsm;/ or½d k ; uspmcsKyf r sm;wG i f tpOf t NrJ y g0if a om pmom;rsm;/ vuf r S w f x d k ; a&;twG u f tuG u f r sm;/ pmcsKyfESifhtwl yl;wGJvdkaom pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;ESifh aemufqufwGJrsm;/

ta&mif;t0,fqdkif&m pm&Gufpmwrf; wpfckygtydk'frsm;udk wef;pD&mwGif vdkufem&rnfh pnf;urf;csufrsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfygonftxl;jyKaom tydk'frsm; a&SUwGif taxGaxGtydk'frsm; xnfhoGif;&ygrnf/ ta&;BuD;aom A[dkusaom tydk'frsm;udk tjcm;tydk'frsm;a&SUwGif xm;&ygrnf/ vdkufem&rnfh pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk >cif;csufrsm; a&SUwGif xm;&ygrnf/ rwlnDaom t,ltqrsm;twGuf oD;jcm;tydk'f(odkU)tydk'fcGJrsm; &Sd&ygrnf/ enf;ynmydkif;qdkif&m pmcsKyfwGif or½dk;usyg0ifaom pum;vHk;zGJ hpnf;rIyHkpH " pH "pmom;rsm;? pmcsKyftouf0ifjcif; paom tajccHpnf;rsOf;rsm;ESifh taxGaxGtydk'frsm;udk aemufqHk;wGifxm;NyD; vufrSwf\ txufwGif &Sd&ygrnf/ tusOf;csKyf (odkU) acgif;pOf (Caption or Heading) omreftm;jzifh yxrpmrsuEf mS wGif acgif;pOfukd pmvH;k Bu;D (Capital)rsm;jzifh a&;om;yg/ tv,fA[dkusygap? 4if;aemuf bdk;vf(Bold) wifxm;yg/ acgif;pOfwGif pmcsKyftrsKd;tpm; ay:vGif&ygrnf/ Oyrm "iSm;&rf;jcif; pmcsKyf" "vufxyfjcif;rjyKrD csKyfqdkaom pmcsKyf" (odkU) "ypönf;0,f,la&;pmcsKyf" Oyrm- td r f i S m ;&rf ; a&; pmcsKyf ? ta&mif ; t0,f p mcsKyf ESifh tvk y f o rm;cef Y x m;a&;pmcsKyf wdkY jzpfygonf/ 1/

pum;csD;pmydk'f (Introductory Paragraph) pmcsKy\ f yxrqH;k pmyd'k jf zpfaom pum;cs;D wGif pmcsKy0f ifrsm;\ Oya'ESit hf nD owfrw S f xm;aom emrnftjynft h pHk (ukrP Ü jD zpfygu emrnft&Snaf umufukd qdv k o kd nf/)ESihf aqmif&u G f rnfh a&mif;0,frItrsKd;tpm;? pmcsKy\ f aemufyikd ;f wGif pmcsKyu f v kd nf;aumif;? pmcsKy0f ifrsm;udk vnf;aumif;? rnfoYk&d nfñeT ;f a&;om;rnfuv kd nf; azmfjyyg&Sd&efvdkygonf/ 4if;aemuf pmcsKyf\ &nfñTef;&ufpGJvnf; yg0ifygrnf/ pmcsKyf0ifrsm;\ trnfESifh tjcm; owif;tcsuftvufudk rSeu f efpmG ? jynfph pkH mG azmfjy&ygrnf/ tb,fah Mumifq h akd omf emrnft&Snaf umufukd ,cktyd'k w f iG f azmfjyNy;D aemuf vufrw S x f ;kd rnfh tuGuw f iG o f m xyfryH g&Srd nf jzpfygonf/ þtcsurf sm;rSví JG pum;cs;D wGif xyfí rxnfo h ifyh g/ a&;vdo k nfrsm;udk ed'gef;(odUk )pmcsKy\ f pmud, k yf ikd ;f wGif xnfyh g/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

pum;csD;tydkif;udk eHygwfpOf wyfavhr&Sdyg/ yHkoP²mefrSm atmufygtwdkif; jzpfygrnf/ þ [ pmcsKyf? iSm;&rf;a&;pmcsKyf ponf ] ("[ owfrSwfxm;aom toHk;tEIH; ")udk xxxx &ufwGif (aumfydka&;&Sif;wm0ef uefYowfxm;aom ukrÜPD? vlyk*¾dKvf ponf) ( "[owfrSwf xm;aomtoH;k tEI;H ]" )ESihf (aumfyakd &;&Si;f wm0ef owfrw S x f m;aom ukrP Ü D taxGaxGtpkpyf vkyfief; vlyk*¾Kdvf ponf) ( "[owfrSwfxm;aom toHk;tEIH;]" ) (tjcm; pmcsKyf0ifrsm; &Sdygu jznfhpGuf&ef)wdkYtMum; csKyfqdkjcif;jzpfygonf/ Oyrmrsm;wGif uGif;cwfxm;aom- [ ] - pmom;onf a&G;cs,f&ef pmom;jzpfNyD; vdktyfouJhodkY a&G;cs,ftpm;xdk;NyD;ygu [ ] uGif;rsm;udk jzKwf&rnf jzpfygonf/ Oyrm þ 21-9-2010 &ufpGJyg ypönf;0,f,la&;pmcsKyf ("APA")onf arzD;vfESifh taygif; tazmfrsm; wm0efuefYowfxma;om ukrÜPD? 'Jvm0J jynfe,frS wm0efuefYowfxm;aom ukrP Ü D(0,fo)l ESihf b&Geq f if aqmufvyk af &;pD;yGm;a&;tzGUJ tpnf;? u,fvzD ;kd eD;,m; jynfe,frS aumfyakd &;&Si;f (a&mif;ol)wdYt k Mum; csKyq f akd om pmcsKyjf zpfygonf/ owfrw S x f m;aom toH;k tEI;H udk owdjyKyg/ xdo k wfrw S x f m;aom toH;k tEIe;f twdik ;f pmcsKyw f pfavQmufwiG f wpfpdkufrwfrwf xnfhoGif;toHk;jyKoGm;ygrnf/ xdkodkY jyefvnf&nfñTef; &mwGif vG,u f rl &I adS p&ef owfrw S x f m;aom toH;k tEIe;f udk a&G;cs,&f mü "0,fo"l "a&mif;ol" "tdr& f iS f" "tdrif mS ;" ponfuo hJ aYkd om vG,u f al om toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk a&G;cs,t f oH;k jyKoifyh g onf/ xdkodkY toHk;jyKjcif;jzifh yxrtydkif;wGif yg0ifaom trnftjynfhtpHkudk udk,fpm;jyKaom pum;vHk;onf pmcsKyf\ tydk'fwdkif;wGif tqifajypGm yg0ifoGm;ygvdrfhrnf/ aemifcsKyfqdkrnfh tvm;wl pmcsKyrf sm;wGiv f nf; tydik ;f (1)wGif yg0ifaom trnftjynft h pHu k kd tpm;xd;k Ny;D erlem tjzpf toHk;jyKEdkifygonf/ 3/

ed ' gef ; yd k i f ; (Recitals) ed'gef;(odkU) usKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufwdkYonf pmcsKyfcsKyfqdk&onfh taMumif;&if;ESifh tajc taeudk azmfjyNyD;aemufydkif;wGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk ydkrdkvG,fulapygonf/ 4if;tjyif tjcm; qufpyfaeaom ta&mif;t0,f pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk &nfñTef;vdkyguvnf; þpmydk'fwGif xnfhoGif;&nfñTef;Edkifygonf/ odkYr[kwfygu tjcm; tydk'frsm;wGif xnfh&ef tvm;tvmr&Sdyg/ ed'gef;^usK;d aMumif;azmfjycsuw f w Ykd iG f "aomfvnf;"(Whereas)udk toH;k jyK&ef rvdt k yf ovdk acgif;pOfvnf; wyf&efrvdkyg/ odkYaomf &Hzef&Hcg xdkodkY oHk;EIef;xm;aom pmcsKyfrsm;udk awGUEdik yf gonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ed'gef;ydik ;f onf qufo, G rf \ I tajccHukd jyoaom tyd'k jf zpfygonf/ tcsKUd w&m;½H;k rsm;u ed'gef;^ usKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufudk pmcsKyf\ wpfpdwfwpfydkif; jzpfonf[kyif ,lqjcif; r&SdMuyg/ odaYk omf xdo k Ykd ,lqjcif;onf rSeu f efrrI &Syd g/ tjcm;tyd'k rf sm;enf;wl ed'gef;onfvnf; pmcsKy\ f wpfpdwfwpfydkif; jzpfygonf/ ,if;onf uwdjyKjcif;tydkif; r[kwfbJ tcsuftvufrsm;udk twd tvif;ajymMum;aom? ,HkMunfrIudk ajymMum;aom pmydk'fjzpfygonf/ tjcm;ta&;BuD;aom vkyfaqmifcsufrsm;udkvnf; taxmuftul jyKapojzifh ed'gef;ûsKd;aMumif; azmfjycsufwdkif;udk &Sif;vif;aom ta&;tom;rsm;jzifh a&;om;NyD; pmvHk;BuD;(Capital)jzifh a&;oifhygonf/ eHygwf wyfjcif; (odY)k tpOftwdik ;f jzpfaprnfh pepfukd toH;k jyKoifyh gonf/ (þtcef;wGif a&;om;xm; ouJo h Y)kd usK;d aMumif;azmfjycsuw f iG f tcsut f vufrsm; xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;jcif;jzifh aemufyikd ;f wGif zwf½KS ot l aejzifv h nf; pmcsKy\ f obm0? &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf tajccHrsm;udk ydik Ef ikd pf mG od&adS pEdik yf grnf/ ed'gef;ûsKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufwdkYonf pmcsKyf\ &nf&G,fcsufudk azmfjyEdkifygonf/ aemufydkif;wGif pmcsKyf0if wpfOD;u y#dnmOfysufjym;jcif; oabmw&m;udk tajccHí pmcsKyfudk a&Smif&Sm;vdkonfh udpö&yfrsKd; rjzpfEdkif&efvnf; ed'gef;ydkif; a&;om;csufonf ta&;BuD;ygonf/ 4if;tjyif þpmyd'k w f iG f ESpzf ufwn l pD mG em;vnfaomtcsuu f v kd nf; xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;Edik yf gonf/ xdkodkYa&;om;jcif;jzifh aemifwGifjzpfEdkifonfh ESpfzufrSm;,Gif;rI oabmw&m;t& jzpf&yfrsm;udk a&Smif&Sm;edifrnfjzpfygonf/ pmcsKyfazmufzsufrI &Sdyguvnf; xdkcsKd;azmufrIonf ta&;ygaom azmufzsurf I [kw^f r[kwf qH;k jzwf&efvnf; taxmuftuljzpfapygrnf/ Oyrm- tdrw f pftrd u f kd wnfaqmuf&mwGif trSwfwHqdyf wpfrsKd;udk txl;jyK wyfqifvdkjcif;onf tdrfydkif&SiftwGuf tvGef ta&;Bu;D onfqykd gu usK;d aMumif;azmfjycsuw f iG f xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;oifyh gonf/ xdt Yk jyif trSww f q H yd u f kd wyfqifv&kd aom taMumif;&if;udk azmfjyjcif;jzifh w&m;½H;k taejzifh tav;xm; NyD; ta&;,laqmif&Gufvdrfhrnf jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyf\ pmudk,fwGif "tcsdefonf tvGefta&;ygonf" qdkaom pmydk'f yg0ifygu usKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufwGifvnf; tcsdefonf rnfonfhtaMumif;aMumifh ta&;BuD;onfudk xnfhoGif;a&;om;oifhygonf/ odkYaomf ed'gef;ûsKd;aMumif; azmfjycsufwGifvnf;aumif;? pmcsKyf pmud, k w f iG f vnf;aumif;? tcsed Ef iS yhf wfoufí xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;xm;apumrl aemufusjcif;udk ta&;ygaom azmufzsurf [ I k w&m;½H;k u ½Ijrif&ef tmrcHEikd jf cif; r&Syd g/ odaYk omfvnf; xdo k aYkd &;om; jcif;jzifh taxmuftuljzpfapygrnf/ ed'gef;ûsKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufonf tm;aumif;aom aq;0g;ESifhwlygonf/ tcsKdUaom w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf ed'gef;ûsKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufwGif a&;om;xm;csufrsm;tm; vHkavmufaom oufaotjzpf owfrSwfMuygonf/ usKd;aMumif;azmfjycsufrsm;onf &Hzef&Hcg aemufaMumif;cH taMumif;&if;rsm;vnf; xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;avh&&dS m epfemaMu; wGucf su&f efvnf; taxmuftul jzpfapygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

Oyrm- pmcsKy\ f ed'gef;ûsK;d aMumif;azmfjycsuw f iG f tcsed u f mvwpfct k wGuf xdv k yk if ef;rS &&Sdaom tjrwfaiGrsm;udk xnfhoGif;xm;vQif xdkvkyfief;taejzifh tjrwfaiGrsm; r&&Sdojzifh epfemaMumif;udk oufaojyvdo k nft h cg oufaojy&ef ydrk v kd , G u f al pygrnf/ xnfo h iG ;f oifah om OyrmtcsKUd rSm (1)pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; qufqrH EI iS hf &nf&, G cf surf sm;? (2)ta&mif;t0,f\ oabm obm0? (3)ta&mif;t0,fESifh qufpyfaeaom tjcm;pm&Gufpmwrf;ESifh tjcm;qufpyfaom t&mrsm;? tcsuftvufrsm;udk xnfhoGif;a&;om;&mwGifvnf; wduspGma&;om;&efvdkNyD; rvdk tyfaom tcsurf sm;udk xnfo h iG ;f jcif;rS a&Smif&mS ;oifyh gonf/ tb,fah Mumifh qdak omf trItcif; &ifqikd &f csed w f iG f ,if;rvdt k yfbx J nfo h iG ;f rdaom tcsurf sm;udk wpfzufrS tud;k tum;jyK Edik yf g onf/ a0cGJír&aom tajctaejzpfvQif txl;jyKjcif;xuf NcKHí a&;om;oifhygonf/ t&m&m xnfhoGif;vdkjcif;pdwfudk a&Smif&Sm;&ef vdkygvdrfhrnf/ oifw h ifrh QwpGm a&;om;xm;aom ed'gef;ûsK;d aMumif;azmfjycsu\ f aus;Zl;aMumifh pmcsKyf tm; usifhxHk;ydkif;rSjzpfap? taMumif;t&if;ydkif;rSjzpfap omwlnDrQrIr&Sd qdk;&Gm;aom pmcsKyf[k rnfolrQajymEdkifrnf r[kwfyg/ pmcsKyfyg tydk'fwpfckonf pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;twGuf rQwjcif;r&Sd jyif;xefveG ;f onf[k w&m;olBu;D u ,lqNy;D omwlnrD QrrI &S[ d k wpfcsed w f iG f tjiif;yGm;&ef jzpfvm ygu ed'gef;ûsK;d aMumif;azmfjycsuw f iG f xdt k yd'k u f kd azmfjyí xnfo h iG ;f &onfh taMumif;udv k nf; &Sif;vif;azmfjyxm;vQif epfemonfqdkaom pmcsKyf0iftaejzifh þtydk'fESifh ,if;\ tusKd;quf rsm;udk jynfh0pGm em;vnfcJhaMumif; jyoEdkifygvdrfhrnf/ ed'gef;ûsK;d aMumif;azmfjycsurf sm;onf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;enf;wlyif wm0efEiS hf uwdrsm; ryg0ifoifyh g/ tu,fí pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D onf tcsut f vufwpfct k m; cdik rf maMumif; tmrcHajymqdk jcif;jzpfvQif xdo k Ykad jymqdjk cif;onfvnf; pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;taejzifh tmrcHay;jcif;oabm ouf a&mufaevQif ,if;tyd'k u f kd ta&;Bu;D aomtcsurf sm; yg0ifonfh pmcsKy\ f pmud, k yf ikd ;f wGif tjcm; tmrcHcsuf (warranties)ESifhtwl xnfhoGif;vsuf rSefuefpGm acgif;pOfwyfoifhygonf/ 4/

tzd k ; pm;em;ay;aMumif ; azmf j yjcif ; ES i f h oabmwl n D j cif ; ( Statement of Consideration and Agreements)

pmcsKyftrsm;pkwGif tpydkif;üyif tbdk;pm;em;ay;jcif;ESifh ywfoufaom azmfjycsufudk xnfo h iG ;f avh&ydS gonf/ xdo k aYkd zmfjyjcif;wGif atmufygOyrmrsm; tBuK;H 0ifygonf/ (a&S;u toH;k jyK aom Oya'pum;&yfrsm;? Oya'a&;&m t*FvdyfpmESifh omref½dk;&Sif;aom t*Fvdyfpmtm;vHk; yg0ifygonf/ þrSpí yk&0Pfukd pOf;pm;qifjcifNy;D atmufwiG o f abmwlxm;onfh ESpzf uf&x dS m;aom oabmwl pmcsKyfrsm;ESifh oabmwlnDcsufrsm;udk taMumif;jyKí tzdk;pm;em; wpfa':vmudk

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

a&mif;olu 0,fou l akd y;tyfNy;D vufc&H &SNd y;D aMumif;udk atmufwiG f todtrSwjf yKxm;onfEiS hf tnD a&mif;olESifh 0,folwdkYtMum; atmufygtwdkif; oabmwlnDMuygonf/ (odkYr[kwf) þpmcsKyfwGifazmfjyxm;aom ESpfzufuwdu0wfrsm;udk pOf;pm;qifjcifNyD; [atmufygtwdkif; oabmwlnDMuygonf/] (odkYr[kwf) (tvm;wlpGm) ESpfzufonf oabmwlMuonfrSmtxuf OyrmoHk;ckteuf 'kwd, Oyrmonf ydkrdkoifhawmfygrnf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf aqG;aEG;n§dEIdif;aMumif; ay:vGifapNyD; pmzwfolrsm;tm;vnf; ed'gef;ydkif;rS pmudk,fydkif;txd qGJ,loGm;ygonf/ ¤if;tjyif vdktyfonfxufydkaom pum;&yfrsm;udk z,f&Sm;xm;ygonf/ vdt k yfonfxuf ydrk akd &;om;jcif;onf pmcsKyt f m; Oya't& ta&;,laqmif&u G Ef ikd &f ef tiftm; ydkí&Sdaponf[k tjrif&Sdapaomfvnf; vufawGUwGif þodkYr[kwfyg/ &Hzef&HcgwGifrl jzpfEdkifacs &Sdygonf/ Oyrm- a&G;cs,fydkifcGifh&Sdaom pmcsKyfrsm; (Restatement (Second) of Contracts \ tydk'f 88 t&) xdkOya'wGif wajy;nDrjzpfaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/ vdktyfonfxuf ydkrdk &Snv f sm;atmif a&;om;xm;jcif;onf vGrJ mS ;aom owåu d jkd zpfapygonf/ Oyrm- ocsKiØ ;f uke;f ab;rS jzwfavQmufpOf avcRefí rdrdudk,frdrd tm;&Sdatmif ESpfodrfhtm;ay;jcif;ESifh wlygvdrfhrnf/ wdw k w k pf mG a&;om;azmfjycsuo f nf ydrk akd umif;rGeNf y;D ed'gef;aemufwiG f xnfo h iG ;f Ny;D ed'gef;ydik ;f wGif ta&mif;t0,ftaMumif;udk usKd;aMumif;azmfjyNyD; tjyeftvSef n§dEIdif;tay;t,ljyKrIESifh oabmwlnDcsuf&&Sd&ef tay;t,l zvS,frIrsm;ESifh tjcm;tydk'frsm;udk xnfhoGif;jcif;jzifh t"dyÜg,fudk zGifhqdk&mwGifvnf;aumif; pOf;pm;qifjcifcJhaMumif;udk ay:vGifap&efvnf;aumif; taxmuftul jzpfapygrnf/ teuf t "d y Ü g ,f r sm; (Definitions) teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf rkd rI sm;onf tiftm;&Sí d toH;k 0ifaom ud&, d mwefqmyvmrsm;ESihf wlNyD; pmcsKyf\ ta&;ygaom pmydk'frsm;udk ydkrdk&Snfvsm;apNyD; ydkrdkodjrifvG,fatmif zefwD;ay; ygonf/ ½Iyaf xG;aomtoH;k EIe;f wpfcu k kd &Si;f vif;apEdik Nf y;D pmud, k yf ikd ;f wGif rvdt k yfaom t"dygÜ ,fwl pum;vH;k rsm; azmif;yGjcif;udv k nf; avsmyh g;apygonf/ wpfcsed w f nf;wGif ydrk zkd wfí vG,u f al pNy;D yg0ifaom pmydk'frsm;udk &Sif;vif;pGm xkwfazmfEdkifygonf/ vlwYkw d iG f emrnftwdak umufrsm; &SdouJhoYdkyif &Snv f sm;í tao;pdwaf om pum;&yfrsm;udk twdak umuf owfrSwfxm;aom toHk;tEIef;rsm;jzifh tpm;xdk; toHk;jyKEdkifojzifh ydkrdkvG,fulapygonf/ 5/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

Oyrm "awmif;qdkjcif; " qdkaom pum;&yf\ teuft"dyÜg,fudk zGifhqdkrnfqdkygu "aiGay;acsjcif;udk vufcH &&Sd&ef tcGifhta&;jzpfNyD; xdktcGifhta&;onf w&m;½Hk;rS csrSwfaom pD&ifcsuf csrSwfvQifjzpfap vkyfief;tm; zsufodrf;NyD; tNyD;owf pm&if;&Sif;jcif;jzifh jzpfap owfrw S x f m;aom yPmrjzpfap wpfpw kH pfcjk zpfNy;D rSom &&Sjd cif;jzpfap tcsed af phonft h csed w f iG f &&Sdonfjzpfap tjiif;yGm;aeonfjzpfap w&m;0ifaom omwlnDrQaom (odkY) aygifESHjcif;rS tmrcHjzpfap (odkY) aqmif&Guf&ef wm0efudk ysufuGufjcif;aMumifh w&m;rQwaom ukpm;rIudk &&Sd&ef tcGifhta&;udkjzpfap? xdktcGifhta&;onf w&m;½Hk;rS pD&ifcsuf csrSwfvQifjzpfap? owfrw S x f m;aom yPmr jzpfap? wpfpw kH pfcjk zpfNy;D rSom &&Sjd cif;jzpfap? tcsed af phonft h csed w f iG f &&Sdonfjzpfap? tjiif;yGm;aeonfjzpfap? (odkY) aygifESHjcif;rS tmrcHjzpfap" tBuKH;0ifygonf/ þ "awmif;qdjk cif;" qdak om pum;&yf\ teuft"dygÜ ,fukd pmcsKyx f w J iG f oD;jcm;azmfjyyg&Sjd cif;jzifh 'awmif ; qd k j cif ; ' qd k a om pum;&yf u d k pmcsKyf \ ta&;ygaom pmyd k ' f r sm;wG i f vdkovdk xnfhoGif;toHk;jyKEdkifNyD; ,if;\ tus,fw0ifh t"dyÜg,fonf pmcsKyfxJwGif yg0ifrnfjzpfNyD; vdt k yfonfxuf ydkí pum;vHk;azmif;yG&efvnf; vdktyfrnf r[kwfyg/ þOyrmudkMunfhvQif tjcm;axmuf&ef tcsufvnf; &Sdygao;onf/ þt"dyÜg,f zGiq hf ckd suu f kd vlrt JG jzpfaMujimjcif; ud"k Oya' 11 U.S.C pmyd'k f 101(5)rS xkw, f cl jhJ cif; jzpfygonf/ oifxnfo h iG ;f vdak om t,ltqESihf ywfoufaom Oya'&Syd gu xdo k ufqikd &f m Oya'udk pmcsKyf xJoYkd vdo k vdx k nfo h iG ;f Edik &f ef pOf;pm;oifyh gonf/ odUk aomf xdo k Ukd aqmif&u G &f mwGif ,if;Oya'udk tem*wfwGif jyifqifjcif; (odkU) y,fzsufjcif;jyKcJhvQif jzpfEdkifonfh tusKd;qufrsm;udk xnfhoGif; pOf;pm;&rnf jzpfygonf/ pum;&yfudk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk&mwGif Oya'xJwGif jy|mef;xm;onfh twdik ;f om zGiq hf rkd nfavm (odUk ) Oya'wGif teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf o kd nfukd jyifqifí xnfo h iG ;f &ef pOf;pm;rnfavm taMumif;rSm Oya'onf ajymif;vJ&ef tvm;tvm&Sdí jzpfygonf/ (odkU) xdktaMumif;onf rMumcP ajymif;vJzG,f&Sdojzifh toHk;rjyKbJ aeoifhoavm[k pOf;pm;&ef &Syd gonf/ pum;&yfrsm;udk pmcsKyf wpfavQmufwiG f teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf Ekd ikd yf gonf/ txl;ojzifh xdpk um;&yfonf tydik ;f wpfck (odUk ) tcsKUd aom tydik ;f rsm;wGio f m yg0ifrnfqykd gu xdo k Ykd jyKvyk &f ef oifhawmfygrnf/ odkUaomf xdkpum;&yfudk us,fjyefUpGm toHk;jyKrnf (odkU) toHk;jyKrnfh pum;&yf rsm;pGm &So d nfqv kd Qif owfrw S x f m;aom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk tydik ;f wpfct k jzpf oD;jcm;xnfo h iG ;f oifhNyD; ae&mtm;jzifh ed'gef;^usKd;aMumif;azmfjycsuf ESifh pOf;pm;awG;awmcJhaMumif; azmfjycsuf tyd'k t f Ny;D wGif xnfo h iG ;f oifu h m tqH;k ydik ;f wGif xnfo h iG ;f jcif; rjyKoifyh g/ tvG,w f ul &nfñeT ;f Edkif&efvnf; tu©&mpOftwdkif; xnfhoGif;oifhygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ta&;ygaom pmydk'frsm; (Substantive Provisions) þtydik ;f onf pmcsKy\ f pmud, k jf zpfNy;D ESpzf uf\ uwdu0wfrsm; yg0ifaomtydik ;f jzpfyg onf/ pmydk'frsm;udk ae&mcsxm;&mwGif taMumif;t&mudk tajccHí wl&mpk&ef vdktyfygonf/ tcsut f vufay:wGif rlwnfí acgif;pOfEiS hf acgif;pOfcrJG sm; wyf&efvt kd yfNy;D xdo k jYkd yK&mwGiv f nf; pm toGm;tvm wnfaqmufxm;rItay: rlwnfí aocsmaomenf;rsm;jzifh aqmif&u G &f ygrnf/ t"dupmydk'frsm;wGif tajccHtm;jzifh tydk'f (5)rsKd;(5)pm; yg0ifygonf/ ,if;wdkYrSm oabmwlncD suEf iS hf uwdrsm;? pnf;urf;csurf sm;? ud, k pf m;jyKrrI sm;? tmrcHcsurf sm;ESihf uif;vGwcf iG hf (odkU) aqmif&GufrI^wm0ef^ awmif;qdkjcif;wkd hrS uif;vTwfcGifhwdkU jzpfygonf/ txufazmfjyyg pmcsKyfwpfck\ tajccHtkwfjrpfrsm;udk tcef;(15)wGif tao;pdwf&Sif;vif;ygOD;rnf/ ,if;pmydk'f rsm;onf pmcsKyfudk vnfywfapaom ,EÅ&m;jzpfNyD; pmcsKyf\ tESpfom& jzpfygonf/ oabm wlnDcsufrsm;onf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;tMum; tcGifhta&;ESifh wm0efrsm;udk owfrSwfNyD; pnf;urf; csufrsm;onf taMumif;jycsuf (odkU) xdktcGifhta&;ESifh wm0efrsm;udk jyifqifrIjzpfvmaponfh armif;cvkwf jzpfygonf/ udk,fpm;jyKrIESifh tmrcHcsufrsm;onf pOf;pm;awG;awmcJhaMumif; pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D rS azmfjyNy;D usew f pfO;D rS xdak zmfjycsuu f kd ,HMk unfaMumif;udk rdr&d & udik q f yk jf yjcif; jzpfonf/uif;vTwfcGifhESifh aqmif&GufrI^ wm0ef^awmif;qdkjcif;wkd hrS vGwfuif;cGifhrsm;onf xdk&Sdaom tcGifhta&;ESifh wm0efrsm;udk csKyfNidrf;apygonf/ pmjzifha&;om;aom aiGay;&efuwd? tiSm;csxm;a&; pmcsKyfrsm;ESifh ESpfzuftMum; qufvufqufqH oGm;a&;udk MoZmvTr;f aponfh tjcm;aom pmcsKyrf sm;wGif pmcsKyyf g wm0efukd ysufuGufaponfh jzpf&yfrsm;udk owfrSwfjy|mef;ygonf/ xdkYtjyif ysufuGufaMumif; aMujim&ef twGuf vkyaf qmif&rnfh vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf;rsm;ESihf ysuu f u G af Mumif; aMujimNy;D csed w f iG f ysuu f u G rf I r&So d b l ufrS &&SEd ikd af om ukpm;rIrsm;udk owfrw S jf y|mef;ygonf/ þpmyd'k rf sm;onf a&SUaewpfO;D twGuf txl;*½kjyK&rnfh tcsufjzpfygonf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf pmcsKyf csKyfqdkrI\ ueOD;ydkif; udpö&yfrsm;jzpfaom aqG;aEG;n§dEIdif;rI vdktyfaom pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk jyifqifjcif; tqifhqifhESifh pmcsKyfudk taumiftxnfazmfrIwdkYudkom tm½kHxm;MuNyD; wm0ef ysufuGufrItydkif;udk tav;xm;rItydkif; tm;enf;wwfMuygonf/ 6/

td r f x d e f ; od r f ; a&; tyd k ' f r sm; (Housekeeping Provisions) þpmyd'k rf sm;onf pmcsKyw f pfcu k kd pDrt H yk cf sKyaf &;ESihf ywfoufaom tyd'k rf sm;jzpfygonf/ tcsKUd pmyd'k rf sm;udk bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym; tyd'k rf sm; (boilerplate - pum;vH;k zGJ ph nf;rIypkH H"pH ") [k ac:wGiyf gonf/ tyd'k t f m;vH;k udrk l qdv k jkd cif;r[kwyf g/ boilerplate bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym; - qdak om pum;&yfrmS a&aEG;aiGU bGKd iv f mtif*sirf sm;ESihf oabFm\0rf;udk wnfaqmuf&eftwGuf toH;k jyK

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aom oHrPdjym;rsm;rS t&if;wnfygonf/ owif;pmwdu k rf sm; ay:aygufco hJ nfh ueOD;uvnf; yHEk ydS o f rl sm;u yHEk ydS ½f u kd &f mwGif toH;k jyKco hJ nfh jyKjyifír&aom oHyvdyjf ym;rsm; ay:aygufcyhJ gonf/ owif;pmwdu k Bf u;D rsm;u ,if;yHEk ydS yf vdyjf ym;rsm;wGif 4if;wdx Yk nfo h iG ;f vdak om pmom;ESihf aMumfjim rsm;udk xnfhoGif;NyD; owif;pmwkdufi,frsm;okdY ay;ydYak vh&ydS gonf/ xdo k wif;pmwdu k if ,frsm;u xdyk vdyjf ym;udk ay;vmonft h wdik ;f yHEk ydS Nf y;D useaf om uGuv f yfae&mrsm;wGif ,if;wdUk t&yfa'orS owif;rsm;ESifh aMumfjimrsm;udk jznfhpGufxnfhoGif;ygonf/ þtoHk;tEIef;udk 1950ckESpfwGif Oya'u@ü pwiftoH;k jyKvmMuNy;D pmcsKyrf sm;wGif yHrk eS af jymif;vJjcif;r&Sb d J toH;k jyKaom tyd'k f rsm;udk bGKd iv f myvdyjf ym;rsm;[k ac:wGiv f mygonf/ ta&;tom;aumif;aom bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym; (pum;vH;k zGJ ph nf;rSK yHpk H "pH") wpfc\ k xl;jcm;aom vu©PmrSm pmcsKyrf sm;pGmwGif xnfo h iG ;f toH;k jyK Edik jf cif; jzpfygonf/ odaYk omf ,if;\ bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym; (pum;vH;k zGJ ph nf;rI yHpk H"pH") udk toH;k jyKaom vl? a&SUae? a&SUaer[kwaf omolwUkd onf vGrJ mS ;í ,HMk unfaeonfrmS ,if;wdYk toH;k jyKae Mu bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym;onf rnfrQ ESpaf ygif;&SnMf umNy;D pdw0f ifpm;zG,rf &Sad wmhonfjzpfap cdik Nf rNJ y;D rNzKzd suEf ikd af om pmom;rsm;jzpfonf[k xifjrifMuygonf/ þodUk xifjrifjcif;onf t"dygÜ ,fr&Syd g/ bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym;yg pum;&yfrsm;udv k nf; enf;rsK;d pHjk zifh ajymif;vJa&;om;Edik yf gonf/ pmcsKy\ f useftydk'frsm;ESifh vdkufavsmnDaxG rjyKEdkif&ef taMumif;r&Sdyg/ þpmydk'frsm;onf yHkrSefxnfhoGif;&onfh tydk'frsm;jzpfygonf/ odkYaomfoabFmwpfck\ bdKG iv f mudk wnfaqmufaom oHrPdjym;rsm;uJo h Ykd (odUk ) a'owGi;f owif;pmwGif toH;k jyKaom bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym;rsm;uJo h Ukd yif þpmom;rsm;onf ta&;Bu;D ygonf/ bGKd iv f moHyvdyjf ym;aumif; r&Sv d Qif oabFm\bGKd iv f monf aygufuNJG y;D oabFmjrKyEf ikd o f uJo h Ykd a'owGi;f owif;pmonfvnf; a'owGif;owif;rsm;om yg0ifEdkifayrnf/ þpmydk'frsm;udk tdrfxdef;odrf;a&;pmydk'frsm;[k &nfñeT ;f ac:qdak vh&&dS m "taxGaxG" [k acgif;pOfwyfonfEh , S f xdo k Ykd acgif;pOfwyfjcif;aMumifh ,if;\ta&;ygrI wefzdk;udk ,kwfavsmhapygonf/ bGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym;qdkaom pum;&yfudk aumif;pGmem;vnfygu pmcsKy\ f yHrk eS af qmif&u G &f efvakd om tcsurf sm;? tajccHusí ta&;Bu;D aom tcsufrsm;jzpfonf[k oabmaygufygvdrfhrnf/ þbGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym;tydk'frsm;onf jyóemwpfpHkwpf&m (odkU) pmcsKyf0ifrsm;tMum; oabmxm; uGv J cJG sed w f iG f touf0ifvmygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh ,if;wdUk udk a&;om;&mwGif aocsmpGm pOf;pm;í a&;om;jcif;jzifh tvdt k yfq;kH tcsed w f iG f acsmarGUpGm aqmif&u G Ef ikd &f eftwGuf tmrcHcsuf &Sdayrnf/ trIrjzpfrD BuKdwifpDrHjcif;udk aqmif&GufEdkif&eftwGufvnf; tcGifhta&;aumif;wpf&yf jzpfonf[k rlMurf;a&;aom a&SUaewdkif;rSem;vnfxm;&efvdkygonf/a&SUaewpfOD;onf bGdKifvm oHyvdyjf ym; (pum;vH;k zGJ ph nf;rIypkH "H pH") wpfcu k kd BuKw d if jyifqifxm;Ny;D rnfonfph m&Gupf mwrf;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

xJodkUrqdk xnfhoGif;Edkifygaomfvnf; xdkodkYaqmif&Gufjcif;r[kwfbJ wpfOD;csif;\ vdktyfcsufESifh tnD jyifqifa&;qGjJ cif;u trIonftwGuf ydrk kd tusK;d &S^d r&Su d kd tNrpJ Of;pm;&ef vdyk grnf/ OyrmyHrk eS af &;om;avh&MdS uaom wm0efrsm;udk vTt J yfjcif;rjyK&[laom pmyd'k u f kd jyifqifNy;D tcsKUd aom wm0efrsm;udk pnf;urf;csufrsm; owfrSwfí owfrSwfxm;aom vltkyfpkwpfpkodkY vTJtyfwm0ef ay;vdkygu ay;Edkif&ef pmom;udk jyKjyifEdkifygonf/ bGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym; pmydk'frsm;udk or½dk;usomjzpfonf[k pOf;pm;NyD; rsm;pGmawG;awm qifjcifjcif; r&Sb d J xnfo h iG ;f jcif; rjyKoifyh g/ tjcm;ola&;aom pmcsKyrf sm;udk zwf½UI &mwGiv f nf; bGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym; pmom;rsm;udk tay:,H&Syfízwfjcif; rjyKoifhyg/ xdkpmom;rsm;xJwGif 'ku©ay;edkifonfh pmom;rsm;vnf; yg0ifEdkifayonf/ ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfrsm;ESifh ywfoufí vufawGU tawGUtBuKrH &Sad om Oya'ausmif;om;ESihf a&SUaersm;onf þodUk ajymjcif;udk vGeu f RpH mG ajymMum;onf? vdo k nfxufyí kd enf;ynmydik ;f udk ajymaeonf[k rSw, f Ml uyg vdrrhf nf/ odaYk omf ta&mif;t0,frsm;udk aqmif&Gufaom a&SUaersm;url bGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym; tydk'frsm;\ ta&;ygNy;D arTaESmuf'u k a© y;Edik zf , G f tvm;tvm&So d nfukd twnfjyKajymMuygvdrrhf nf/ pwif trIvu kd af om a&SUaei,frsm;onf w&m;½H;k a&SUwGif &nfñeT ;f ajymqdak om taMumif;csi;f &mrsm;ESihf ywfoufí "pH " jzpfaom pnf;urf;owfrw S cf surf sm;tm; em;rvnfbJ w&m;½H;k wGif uwdopöm qdkí EIwfjzifhjzpfap pmjzifhjzpfap xGufqdk&aom oufao\ xGucf suu f kd vufrcHoifh ovdk ta&mif;t0,fupd &ö yfrsm;udk aqmif&u G af om a&SUaersm;onfvnf; tjcm;wpfzufrS a&;om;xm; aom bGdKifvmoHyvdyfjym; pmom;rsm;udk tvG,fwul vufcHjcif; rjyKoifhyg/ trsm;qHk;awGU&aom tdrfxdef;odrf;a&; pmydk'frsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfygonfoD ; jcm;cG J x k w f j cif ; tyd k ' f (Severability Clause) þtyd'k w f iG f azmfjyyg&So d nfrmS w&m;½H;k taejzifh pmcsKy\ f rnfonft h pdwt f ydik ;f udrk qdk ysujf y,fonf[k qH;k jzwfygu pmcsKy\ f uset f yd'k rf sm;udk wpfpw kH pf&m xdcu kd af pjcif; r&Sad p&[lí jzpfygonf/ þtyd'k \ f qefYusifbufrmS xdo k Ykd oD;jcm;cGx J w k jf cif;ESihf pmcsKy\ f usew f pfpw d w f pfyikd ;f tay: Oya't& ta&;,laqmif&u G jf cif;jzpfonf/ þpmyd'k u f kd xnfo h iG ;f jcif;jzifh oD;jcm;cGx J w k rf I udk cGijhf yKonf (odUk ) wm;jrpfonfjzpfap þpmom;onf y#dnmOfqikd &f m Oya'wGif aqmif&u G &f ef ysufuGufjcif;twGuf aqmif&GufcGifh&Sdaom enf;Oya'wpf&yfudk rD;armif;xdk;jyjcif;om jzpfNyD; xdkpmydk'fudk xnfhoGif;a&;om;onfjzpfap? ra&;om;onfjzpfap Oya't& aqmif&GufcGifh &Sdygonf/ odkUaomf xdkodkYjzpf&efrSm w&m;½Hk;onf pmcsKyfyg tydk'fwpfckonf ysufjy,faMumif; (odUk ) ta&;,l aqmif&u G &f ef rjzpfEikd af Mumif; aMunmNy;D uset f yd'k rf sm;udk tmPmouf0ifaeao; aMumif; oabmxm;rnf jzpfygonf/ odk ah omf cRi;f csurf mS xdo k Ukd oabmxm;jcif;aMumifh y#dnmOfyg

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

&nf&G,fcsufudk xdcdkufapjcif; (odkU) w&m;rrQwrIudk zefwD;&ma&mufjcif;jzpfygonf/ odkYaomf wm0efysufuGufrIaMumifh tydk'fwpfck ysufjy,fcJhvQif oD;jcm;cGJxkwfjcif; enf;Oya'udk rnfodkU taumiftxnfazmfrnfESifh ywfoufí ar;&ef&Sdygu rlMurf;a&;om;oltaejzifh xnfhoGif; a&;om;oifyh gonf/ Oya'ud k a &G ; cs,f j cif ; ( Choice of Law) pmcsKy0f ifrsm;taejzifh w&m;½H;k rS pD&ifq;kH jzwf&mwGif rnfonfjh ynfe,f (odUk ) wpfEikd if v H ;kH ESifhqdkifaom Oya'teufrnfonfh Oya'udk toHk;jyKí pmcsKyfudk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;? ta&;,l aqmif&Gufjcif;jyKrnfudk azmfjyjcif;jzpfygonf/ Oya'tcsi;f csi;f y#dyu©Oya'wGif þudp&ö yfEiS hf ywfoufíxdo k Ykd a&G;cs,&f efysuu f u G yf gu rnfonfOh ya'jzifh aqmif&u G &f rnfukd azmfjyyg&Syd gonf/ xdkyg0ifaeaomtcsufudk jyifqif&ef qHk;jzwfcsufcsrnfqdkygu trIudk pD&if&ef tBuKH;0ifrnfh pD&ifyikd cf iG hf tmPme,ferd w d rf sm; twGi;f &Sad om Oya'rsm;udk n§^d ,SOf oifyh gonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm; onf omreftm;jzifh Oya'a&G;cs,rf w I iG f trIonfrsm;\ qE´twdik ;f aqmif&u G af vh &Sad omfvnf; Oya'a&G;cs,jf cif;ESihf ywfoufaom jy|mef;csurf sm;wGiv f nf; tueft Y owfrsm;&Syd gonf/ w&m;½H;k taejzifh trIonfwYrkd S a&G;cs,af om Oya'udk toH;k jyK&ef jiif;Edik zf , G &f &dS m rlMurf;a&;olonf w&m;½H;k rS a&G;cs,af omOya'udk toHk;jyK&zG,f&Sdonfudkvnf; pOf;pm;&efvdkygonf/ jyKjyif a jymif ; vJ j cif ; (Modification) pmjzifha&;om;csKyfqdkaom pmcsKyfrsm;udk tpm;xdk;jcif;? jyifqifjcif;? ajymif;vJjcif;wdkYudk aqmif&Gufygu pmjzifha&;om;&rnf jzpfygonf/ UCC Oya'\ tydk'f 2-209(2)wGif EIwfjzifh ajymif;vJjcif;rjyK& pmyd'k \ f xda&mufru I kd todtrSwjf yKxm;aomfvnf; ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyrf sm;wGif vnf;aumif;? a&mif;0,fa&; r[kwaf om pmcsKyrf sm;wGiv f nf;aumif; w&m;½H;k rsm;onf þjy|mef; csufrS uif;vTwfcGifhudk rsm;pGmay;wwfMuonfudk awGU&Sd&ygonf/ xdkodkYjzpfapumrl EIwfjzifh ajymif;vJjcif; rjyK&tydk'frsm;onf wm;qD;umuG,faom tusKd;oufa&mufrI&Sdygonf/ pGefYvTwfjcif; rjyK& (No Waiver) pmcsKyt f csKUd wGif pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D bufrS ysuu f u G rf &I jdS cif;udk usepf mcsKy0f ifwpfO;D rS twif; tMuyfaqmif&u G rf I rjyKapjcif;onf aemufxyfwpfBurd f xyfryH suu f u G v f Qiv f nf; twif;tMuyf aqmif&GufrIjyKEdkifaom tcGifhta&;udk pGefUvTwfvdkufjcif;r[kwf[k pmcsKyfrsm;wGif yg0ifavh &Sdygonf/ þtydk'frsm;onf tcsKdUaom tajctaersm;wGif toHk;0ifaomfvnf; þudpö&yf rsm;wGifvnf; w&m;½Hk;rsm;u pmcsKyf0ifrsm;\ vkyfaqmifcsufrSwqifh pmcsKyfudk ajymif;vJonfh oabm aqmifcJhonf[k rSwf,lNyD; þtydk'fudk a&SmifuGif;cJhonfudkvnf; awGU&Sd&ygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

þodaYk om udp&ö yfwiG f rlMurf;a&;ol\wm0efrmS pmcsKyw f iG f rnfoyYkd gapumrl vdu k ef m&ef twGuf Oya't& ta&;,laqmif&GufrI rjyKjcif;aMumifhay:Edkifaom tusKd;qufrsm;udk trSKonfod&Sdap&ef tBuHay;&ygrnf/ aygif ; pyf j cif ; tyd k ' f (Merger Clause) þpmyd'k w f iG f azmfjyyg&So d nfrmS xdpk mcsKyo f nf pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; xdt k a&mif;t0,fEiS hf ywfoufí tNy;D owfEiS hf jynfph akH om oabmwlncD suf jzpfygonf/ aocsmpGm a&;om;xm;aom aygif;pyfa&;tyd'k w f pfco k nf wpfzufpmcsKy0f ifrS þpmcsKyt f jyif tjcm;pnf;urf;csurf sm; (odUk ) rwlnDaom tjcm;t&if;tjrpfrS tjcm;pnf;urf;csufrsm;vnf; &Sdao;onf? Oyrm- EIwfjzifh oabmwlnDcsufrsm;vnf; &Sdao;onf[k vHk;0 0ifa&mufpyG pf aJG jymqdEk ikd pf Grf; &Sdrnfr[kwfyg/ t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &m Oya'wGi&f adS om EIwo f ufaocHcsuq f ikd &f m enf;Oya'ESihf tvm;oP²mefwl ygonf/ odaYk omf xdek nf;Oya'udk toH;k jyKEikd &f ef w&m;qdik &f ef vdt k yfonf/ aygif;pyfjcif;tyd'k u f rl w&m; qdkifjcif;udk twm;tqD; jzpfapEkdifygonf/ wm0ef v T J t yf a y;jcif ; ES i f h ud k , f p m;jyKapjcif ; (Assignment and delegation) pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf pmcsKyyf gtcGit hf a&; (odUk ) pmcsKyyf g wm0efrsm;udk wwd,olwpfO;D tm; vTJtyfay;jcif;udk wm;jrpf (odkY) cGifhjyKvdkygvdrfhrnf/ þenf;jzifh aqmif&Gufjcif;onf &Sif;vif;rI r&Sdaom t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya'\ wm0efvTJtyfjcif;ESifh udk,fpm;jyKjcif;qdkif&m enf;Oya'jzifh aqmif&u G jf cif;xuf ydrk v kd , G u f yl gvdrrhf nf/ pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f vTt J yfay;rI[q k v kd Qif tcGit hf a&;ESihf wm0ef ESpfrsKd;pvHk;udk vTJtyfay;jcif;jzpfonf[k rsm;aomtm;jzifh ,lqMuaomfvnf; rlMurf; a&;qGJolonf tcGifhta&;rsm;udk vTJtyfjcif;ESifh udk,fpm;jyKwm0ef,lrI vTJtyfjcif;udk oD;jcm;pD ajz&Sif;oifhygonf/ quf c H E d k i f p G r f ; &nf (Survivability) þpmyd'k o f nf pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D (odUk ) wpfO;D xufyo kd w l Ukd onf pmcsKyu f kd qufvufaqmif&u G &f ef t&nftaoG;csKdUwJhoGm;vQif (odkU)aoqHk;cJhvQif pmcsKyftay:&Sdrnfh tusKd;oufa&mufrIrsm;ESifh rnfolu qufvufta&;,l aqmif&Gufrnfqdkaom udpö&yfrsm;ESifh ywfoufygonf/ taMumif ; Mum;pmrsm; (Notices) tu,fípmcsKyfwGif taMumif;Mum;pmrsm; ydkU&rnf[k yg&SdcJhaomf xdktaMumif;Mum;pm rsm;udk rnfonfah e&modYk ay;yd&Yk rnf? rnfonfeh nf;jzifh ay;yd&Yk rnf[k þpmyd'k w f iG f azmfjyyg&So d nf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

twd t usowf r S w f x m;aom avsmf a Mu;rsm; (Liquidated Damages) þpmyd'k o f nf bGKd iv f myvdyjf ym;tyd'k f (pum;vH;k zGJ ph nf;rIypkH "H pH")rsm;teuf ta&;Bu;D qH;k wpfckjzpfygonf/ tcsKdUrlMurf;a&;olrsm;onf y#dnmOfwpfckwGif azmufzsufolbufrS ay;&ef twdtus owfrSwfxm;aom avsmfaMu;ESifhywfoufaom udpö&yfrsm;udk tjcm;ukpm;rIrsm;ESifh twl wGJzufí oD;jcm;tydk'ftjzpf xnfhoGif;avh&Sdygonf/ Oyrm- txl;aqmif&Guf&ef 'Du&D csrw S jf cif;onf oifah wmfaMumif;ESihf xko d Ykd oabmwlnD MuaMumif; twdtvif;a&;om;azmfjyjcif;? odUk aomf twdtusowfrw S x f m;aom avsmaf Mu;tyd'k rf sm;ESihf ywfoufí w&m;½H;k wdik ;f u tNrJ vufcHMurnfr[kwfyg/ rlMurf;a&;olonf oufqdkif&mw&m;½Hk; wnf&Sd&m pD&ifydkifcGifh tmPm twGi;f tmPmoufa&mufaom Oya'udk avhvm&efvNkd y;D xdpk myd'k u f kd ta&;,lEikd pf rG ;f &S^d r&SEd iS hf jypf'Pftjzpf ,lqzG,f &S^d r&Sd od&EdS ikd &f ef vdt k yfygonf/ ¤if;tjyif pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D OD;rS pmcsKyyf g wm0efudk ysufuGufjcif; (odkU) azmufzsufjcif;jyKvQif þukpm;rI wpf&yfom &Sd^r&Sdudk txl;jyK a&;om;&ygrnf/ rvG e f q ef E d k i f a om jzpf & yf r sm; (Force Majeure) þtydk'fonf wm0efudkaqmif&Guf&ef aESmifhaES;MuefYMumjcif; (odkU) xl;jcm;aom tajc taersm;wGif xdw k m0efukd aqmif&u G jf cif;rS vH;k 0uif;vGwcf iG u hf kd cGijhf yKEikd af omtyd'k f jzpfygonf/ obm0ab;tEÅ&m,f? ppfrufjzpfymG ;rI tpd;k &\ vkyaf qmifcsurf sm;? tvkyo f rm; y#dyu©rsm;ESihf o,f,lydkUaqmifEdkifrIr&Sdjcif; ponfwdkYonf þpm&if;wGif yg0ifygrnf/ rvGefqefEdkifaom jzpf&yfrsm;tyd'k u f kd Form book xJwiG f &Smrnfqykd gu yHo k P²meftrsK;d rsK;d &So d nfukd awGU&S&d ygrnf/ odUk jzpf&m Commercial Form book wGif yg0ifaom rvGeq f efEikd af om jzpf&yfrsm;udk erlemr,lrD xdek rlemwGif yg0ifaom jzpf&yfpm&if;udk wpfcck si;f aocsmpGmavhvmNy;D xdjk zpf&yfwpfcck si;f onf pmcsKyyf gwm0efukd aqmif&u G &f ef aESmifah ES;jcif;twGuf cGijhf yKoifah om jzpf&yfrsm; [kw^f r[kwf avhvmNy;D trItyfo\ l &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf &nfreS ;f csurf sm;ESihf udu k n f jD cif; &S^d r&S?d csev f yS x f m;cJo h nf rsm; &Sd^r&Sd pOf;pm;&efvdkygrnf/ 4if;tjyif rlMurf;a&;olonf xdkpm&if;yg jzpf&yfrsm;rSm pmcsKyf\ usefpmydk'frsm;ESifh vdkufavsmnDaxG jzpf^rjzpfudkvnf; aocsmatmif pdppf&ygrnf/ Oyrm- rvGefqefEdkifaom jzpf&yfrsm;tydk'fonf ysufuGufrItwGuf wduspGmowfrSwfxm;aom avsmfaMu;tydk'fESifh vnf;aumif;? owfrw S pf &dwx f uf ydrk u kd ek u f sjcif;tyd'k Ef iS hf vnf;aumif;? vdu k af vsmnDaxG&rnf jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyo f nf wpfzufwiG f wpf&ufaESmifah ES;jcif;jzifh ay;avsm&f rnfh wduspmG owfrw S f xm;aom avsmaf Mu; (odUk ) tcaMu;aiGukd wd;k aumuf&ef a&;om;xm;Ny;D wpfzufwiG f aESmifah ES; MuefYMumrIudk vufcHcGifhvTwfaMumif; a&;om;xm;ygu qDavsmfrnf r[kwfyg/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tjcm;ud p ö & yf r sm; (Other Matters) txl;wvnfjzpfaom pmcsKyrf sm;wGif tdrx f ed ;f odr;f a&; tyd'k rf sm;wGif tjcm;udp&ö yfrsm; tydk'fvnf; yg0ifaumif;yg0ifygvdrfhrnf/ odkYaomf pmcsKyf\ tjcm;tydk'frsm;wGif xnfhoGif;í r&aom tyd'k t f m;vH;k udk þtydik ;f wGi;f odYk oGyo f iG ;f jcif; rjyKoifyh g/ tdrx f ed ;f odr;f a&;tydik ;f wGif ta&;ygaom taxGaxGudpö&yfrsm;udk pkaygif;xnfhoGif;jcif;onf rlMurf;a&;&mwGif qifjcif awG;awmjcif;ESifh pDpOfrItm;enf;aMumif; oufaojzpfygonf/ ta&;ygaomtcsufrsm;udk oD;jcm;tydik ;f wpfcw k iG f pkpnf;íjzpfap? ,if;ESiq hf ufpyfr&I adS om pmud, k yf ikd ;f wGif wl&mpkíjzpfap xnfo h iG ;f oifyh gonf/ 8/

vuf r S w f a &;xd k ; jcif ; tuG u f r sm; (Signature Blocks) þae&monf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;ESifh oufaorsm; vufrSwfa&;xdk;Edkif&ef pDpOfxm;jcif;jzpfyg onf/ trnfESifh &mxl;udk vufrSwfa&;xdk;onfh rsOf;atmufwGif xm;&ygrnf/ vufrSwfrsm; onf oD;jcm;pm&Gufrsm;ay:wGif rjzpfap&yg/ vufrSwfa&;xdk;aom pm&Gufay:wGif pmcsKyf\ pmom;tcsKUd yg0ifoifyh gonf/ 4if;tjyif tvGet f a&;Bu;D aom pmcsKyrf sK;d jzpfygu pmrsuEf mS wdik ;f wGif vufrSwftwdk yg0ifoifhygonf/ vufrw S af &;xd;k onfh tuGu\ f a&SUwGif tcs;D pum;&yfrsm; yg0ifavh&ydS gonf/ trsm;oH;k pmcsKyfyHkpHrsm; jzpfvQif crf;em;BuD;us,faom Oya'toHk;tEIef;rsm;udk oHk;avh&SdMuygonf/ þ oufaorsm;a&SUarSmuf0,f (In Withness)ESifh txufta&SUqHk;wGif azmfjyyg&Sdaom "as of the date that first appears above" uJhodkYaom pmom;rsm;udkzsufNyD; ½dk;&Sifaom acwfopf t*Fvdyfpmjzifhom a&;om;oifhygonf/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf txufwiG af zmfjyyg&Sad om pnf;urf;csurf sm;udk oabmwlMuygonf/ (odkY) pmcsKyfygpnf;urf;csufrsm;udk oabmwlaMumif; jyoEdkif&eftwGuf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf atmufwGif vufrSwfa&;xdk;MuNyD; &ufpGJrSm (pmrsufESmwpfzufwGif azmfjyaom &ufpGJjzpfap? atmufwGifyg&Sdaom &ufpGJtwkdif;jzpfap jzpfygrnf/) (odkY) oabmwlnyD gonf/ pmcsKyfwGif &ufpGJxnfhjcif; a&SUaemufrnD rjzpfap&eftvdkUiSm vufrSwfa&;xdk;onfh tuGufwGif pmcsKyf\ yxrpmrsufESm (odkY) yxrpmydk'fyg &ufpGJudk &nfñTef;avh&SdMuygonf/ xdo k Ukd jyKvyk v f Qif oifah wmfygonf/ odaYk omf &ufpu JG kd xnfo h iG ;f jcif;udk rarhavsm&h ef vdt k yfygonf/ pmcsKyv f ufrw S af &;xd;k &eftwGuf tvky½f yI o f nfh tcsed w f iG pf mcsKy0f ifrsm;onf aemufq;kH pmrsuEf mS

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

udkomvSefNyD; vufrSwfa&;xdk;rdMuNyD; (aqG;aEG;rIumvwGifvnf; pmcsKyfudk tBudrfBudrfzwf½I MuNy;D jzpfonf) yxrpmrsuEf mS wGif vufrw S af &;xd;k aom&ufpu JG kd jznfph u G &f ef arhavsmw h wfMu ygonf/ tjcm;jzpfwwfaom udpö&yfwpfckrSm pmcsKyf\&ufpGJrSm yxrpmrsufESmwGif azmfjyxm; onft h wdik ;f (pmcsKyn f Ed§ idI ;f aepOf umvuyif xdo k aYkd &;om;xm;jcif; jzpfonf)jzpfonf[k a&;om; NyD; vufrSwfa&;xdk;xm;aom tuGufatmufwGif &ufpGJudk uGufvyfxm;um vufrSwf a&;xdk; onfah eYwiG f jznfph u G af vh&MdS uygonf/ xdo k jYkd zpfvQif pmcsKyx f w J iG f rnfonf&h ufpJG twnf jzpfonf udk pmcsKyfwGif a&;om;azmfjyoifhygonf/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;\ trnfrsm; rSeu f efpmG a&;om;&ef owdjyKoifyh gonf/ txl;ojzifh owdjyK &efrSm pmom;tjzwftawmufrsm;? yk'fr? yk'fxD;rsm; (t*FvdyfbmomwGif yk'f&yfoauFwESifh 0gustjyD; oauFw) ukrÜPDtrsKd;tpm;udk azmfjycsufrsm;? wm0efuefYowfxm;aom tqifh twef; "LLC" (odUk ) "Inc" Oyrm Allen Bates & Lebowitz LLP Oya'tBuaH y;ukrP Ü o D nf wm0efuefo Y wfxm;aom tpkpyfvyk if ef;wpfcjk zpfNy;D ,if;onf rlv Allen Bates & Lebowitz ukrP Ü \ D qufco H jl zpfNy;D rlvukrP Ü o D nf omreftpkpyfvyk if ef; wpfcjk zpfEikd yf gonf/ þvkyif ef;onf rlvvkyfief;ESifh Oya't& oD;jcm;pDjzpfovdk wpfckonf taxGaxGtpkpyfvkyfief;? wpfckonf tqifjh rifh uRr;f usiaf om aumfyakd &;&Si;f jzpfygonf/ tcsKUd aom,w&m;pD&ifa&; tmPmydik ef ,ferd w d f rsm;twGi;f qifw, l ;kd rSm;trnfrsm; wyfjcif;udk wm;jrpfjcif;r&Sdyg/ odkYjzpf&m uGJvGJcsufrSm yk'fr? yk'x f ;D aomfvnf;aumif;? pmvH;k aygif;yHk tenf;i,fuv JG jJG cif; "and" (odUk ) "&" oH;k pGrJ I uGv J jJG cif;rQom jzpfEikd yf gonf/ xdo k Ykd ao;i,faom uGv J rJG rI sm;udk owdjyKrw d wfap&ef rdru d , kd u f kd avhusix hf m;oifh ygonf/ pmcsKyf csKyfcsdefwGifrS trItyfolu trSm;udk axmufjyrnfqdkygu &SufzG,fjzpfygrnf/ xdkYxufqdk;&Gm;onfrSm trI&ifqdkifcsdefwGifrS trSm;udk owdjyKrdjcif; jzpfygonf/ 9/

10/

&uf p G J ( Date ) ueOD;pmydk'fwGif &ufpGJazmfjyjcif; r&Sdygu &ufpGJqdkaom oD;jcm;pmykd'fwGifazmfjyay;yg/

EdkBwDjyKvkyfjcif; ( Notarization ) pmcsKyu f kd EdBk wjD yKvyk &f ef vdt k yfrnfqv kd Qif EdBk wjD yKvyk Nf y;D aemuf EdBk wyD AÁvpf\ uwdopöm jyKvTmESifh vufrSwfwHqdyfwHk;udk pmcsKyf\ aemufqHk;wGif xm;&Sd&ygrnf/ ,if;\aemufwGifrS yl;wGJrsm;? aemufqufwGJZ,m;rsm;ESifh tjcm;pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;yg&Sdygrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 11/

aemuf q uf w G J r sm;? tjcm;pm&G u f p mwrf ; rsm;ES i f h aemuf q uf w G J Z ,m;rsm; ( Appendices, Exhibits, Schedules)

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef ; (3) Oya'jyKaom rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; (Legislative Drafting)

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Oya'Murf ; ud k rnf o l r S a &;qG J o enf ; / (Who Draft's Legislation?) Oya'onf t&nftcsif; tenf;trsm;rsKd;pHkESifh uRrf;usifrIrsKd;pHk&Sdaom rlMurf;a&;qGJol rsm;xHrS xGuaf y: vmjcif;jzpfonf/ A[dt k pd;k &ESihf jynfe,fOya'jyKtzGUJ wdUk wGif tcsed jf ynfh a&SUae tzGUJ rsm;&SNd y;D 4if;tzGUJ wko Yd nf a&G;aumufwifajrm§ ufcH ud, k pf m;vS,w f t Ykd wGuf Oya'rlMurf;rsm;udk pdppfa&G;cs,Nf y;D rlMurf;a&;qGo J nfh tvkyw f pfcu k o kd m vkyaf qmifMuonf/ Edik if aH wmfor®wrsm;ESihf bk&ifcw H Ukd wGif 4if;wd\ Yk tkycf sKyaf &;tzGUJ twGuf tjcm; rnfonfw h m0efwpfcrk Qr&S?d rlMurf;a&;qGJ &efom cefYxm;aom trIxrf;rsm;&Sdonf/ EdkifiHtkyfcsKyfa&;tmPmydkiftzGJY\ tkyfcsKyfa&;qdkif&m XmetoD;oD;wGif Oya'Xmersm;&SNd y;D ,if;wdrYk mS oufqikd &f mtzGUJ tpnf;twGuf pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf; rsm;udkom jyKpkygonf/ c½dkifESifh NrKdUrsm;wGif 4if;wdkYcefYtyfaom (odkU) a&G;cs,fwifajr§mufaom a&SUaersm;u ,if;Oya'jyKrlMurf;udk a&;qGJMuonf/ ,if;a&SUaersm;onf tjcm;wm0ef trsm; tjym;udv k nf; vkyaf qmifMu&Ny;D rsm;aomtm;jzifh tcsed yf ikd ;f om tvkyv f yk Mf uygonf/ a&G;aumuf wifajrm§ ufcx H m;&aom Oya'jyKot l csKUd ESihf t&m&St d csKUd wko Yd nf a&SUaersm; r[kwMf uacs/ odyYk g aomfvnf; ta&G;cs,cf x H m;&olrsm;jzpfonft h m;avsmpf mG Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGEJ ikd o f nft h &nftcsi;f &Sdolrsm;[k rdrdudk,frdrd rSm;,Gif;pGm xifaeMuonfudk 0rf;enf;pGm awGUjriff&ygonf/ vGecf ahJ om ESpt f enf;i,ftwGi;f yk*v ¾ u d a&SUaersm;rS ueOD; Oya'rlMurf;rsm;udk a&;qGJ vmrIrsm; wdk;yGm;vmonfudk awGU&Sd&ygonf/ ukefoG,fa&;toif;rsm;ESihf tvkyform; or*¾ rsm;onf tawGUtBuK&H ifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;udk cefx Y m;Ny;D 4if;wdpYk w d Bf uKd uOf ya'rsm;udk rMumcP BuKd wifjyifqifa&;qGaJ pavh&o dS nf/ Oya'a&;qkid &f m BuKd wifjyifqifrrI sm;ESifh aMu;pm;rJq, G jf cif; ponfh 0efaqmifrrI sm;udak y;aom Oya'0efaqmifrv I yk if ef;rsm;wGif trIonf pdww f ikd ;f us jyifqif ay;Edkifonfh t&nftcsif;jynhfa&SUaersm;udk vkdtyfouJhodkY okH;Ekdif&ef tNrJxm;&SdaeMuonfudk awGU&S&d ygonf/ þuhJodkY vlrsKd;rsm;uomvQif Oya'\ueOD;rlMurf;a&;qGJoihfolrsm; jzpfMuonf/ þ tqihfwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;onf rsm;pGmpOf;pm;NyD; tjyeftvSefaocsmpGm awG;qwGufcsufNyD; yifyef;Bu;D pGm vky&f aom tvkyw f pfcjk zpfygonf/ Oya'jyKjcif;tvkyo f nf aooyfpmG aqmif&u G f

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

Edkifaom tvkyfr[kwfay/ xGufay:vmaom Oya'rlMurf;onf rnfodkYaomtcgrQ rlvueOD; d wfay/ tb,fah Mumihq f adk omf Oya'rlMurf;wpfck wifvu kd o f nfh rlMurf;rS raoGzo D nf[í l r&Sw xGufay:vmonfqkdonfESifh rnfolrqkd vGwfvyfpGm ,if;rlMurf;udk a0zefaxmufjyEdkifcGihf &Sad omaMumihf jzpfonf/ xGuaf y:vmaom ,if;Oya'rlMurf;udk xk;H pHEiS t hf nD aumfrwDoaYkd y;ydNYk y;D ,if;aumfrwDwGif jyKjyifjcif;rsm; topfa&;qGJjcif;rsm;udk pwifvkyfaqmifygawmhonf/ ,if;rS xGuaf y:vmaom rlMurf;udk wif;jynhOf ya'jyKtzGUJ u xyfrjH zwfawmufjyKjyifjcif;rsm;udk jyKvyk f jyefygonf/ xkdYaMumifh aemufqkH;xGufay:vmaom rlMurf;onf ueOD;rlMurf;ESifh EdIif;,SOfygu rsm;aomtm;jzifh tm;enf;wwfaMumif; awGU&Sd&avonf/ c/

Oya'jyKrl M urf ; a&;qG J o l \ 0wå & m;rsm; (The Function of the Legislative Drafter)

Oya'jyKjcif;onf pdwu f ;l tBuw H pfcrk S pwifay:xGuv f mNy;D pm&Guw f pf&u G af y:&Sd pmvk;H pmom;rsm;jzifh tqkH;owfonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfa,muf\ rlvwm0efrSm tBuHÓPf ay:aygufvm&ef r[kwyf g/ wm0efay;cH&aom a&SUaersm;\tvkyrf mS 4if;wkt Yd m; ñTeMf um;onhf twdik ;f vkyaf qmifa&;qG&J efyifjzpfonf/ 4if;wdt Yk m;vk;H txufrS rnforl nf0g - Edik if aH wmfor®w? jynfe,frSL;? aiGacs;oufaocHvufrSwfvJvS,fa&;aumfr&Sif? AFL-CFO jzpfap vkdtyfonfh ykHpHtwdkif; rlMurf;jzpfajrmufay:aygufvm&ef txufwGif azmfjycJhaom tqifhtrsdK;rsdK;aom rlMurf;a&;olrsm;u trItyfol\ ay:vpDrsm;zGHUNzdK;zGJUpnf;a&;wGif ta&;ygaomu@rS yg0if olrsm;jzpfMuonf/ tBuHwpfckrS rlMurf;wpfck jzpfay:vmEdkifap&ef ,if;rlMurf; a&;qGJ&oludk,fwkdifonf pdwu f ;l r&So d nhw f idk f 4if;a&;qGaJ eonfh rlMurf;wGif yg0ifaeaom tpdwt f ydik ;f rsm;tm;vk;H yg0ifNy;D Oya'a&;xH;k ESihf nDap&ef ,if;rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolu vkyaf qmifay;½Ho k mruyg? tBuOH mPfwpfcrk S Oya'wpfct k jzpfoYkd ajymif;vJtaumiftxnfazmfEikd &f ef &Snv f sm;&Iyaf xG;aom oaE¨wnf&ef tcsed v f t kd yfygonf/ tBuÓ H Pf odrYk [kwf ay:vpDwpfco k nf ueOD;tqifw h iG f raocsm a00g; aewwfygonf/ 4if;tm; &Sif;vif;jywfom;vmEdkifap&ef atmufcHrl0g' trsm;tjym; a&G;cs,f Edik &f ef vdt k yfonf/ tpueOD;u tawG;tac:aumif;wpfck jzpfjim;aomfvnf; taumiftxnf azmfaqmifjcif;ESifh tao;pdwt f csut f vufrsm;ESiyhf wfoufí rSm;,Gi;f a&G;cs,rf aI Mumifh rnfrQyif aumif;ap&ef&nf&, G Nf y;D xkwjf yefonfh Oya'rlMurf;wpfcjk zpfapumrI zdEydS cf sKycf s,o f nfh ud&, d m wpfcktjzpfodkY ajymif;vJoGm;apEkdifygonf/ þodkYjzifh rlMurf;onf aemufqkH;ta&;BuD;qkH;tqifhodkY a&muf&SdcsdefwGif a&;qGJol\ vkyfaqmifykHrSm txl;ta&;BuD;NyD; qdk;usdK;xuf aumif;usdK;jzpfapaom tokH;tEIef;rsm;udk

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

a&G;cs,Ef ikd &f ef jzpfonf/ trIonfu aemufq;Hk ü ol\pdwBf uKd u&f mudo k m a&G;cs,o f mG ;vdrrhf nfukd rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfa,muftaejzifh txl;BudKwif oabmaygufxm;&ef vdkonf/ xdkYaMumihf Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGaJ eolwpfa,mufonf ¤if;ud, k w f idk f ajz&Si;f aeonfh jyóemonf rnfuo hJ Ykd ay:aygufvmyk?H rnfuo hJ Ydk oufa&mufr&I EdS ikd yf w Hk u Ydk kd ca&aphwiG ;f us tao;pdwo f Ed ikd &f ef vkt d yf NyD;aemuf ,if;jyóemwkdYudk ajz&Sif;Ekdifrnfhenf;vrf;rsKd;pkHESifh csOf;uyfenf;wkdYudk od&Sdoabm ayguf&ef vdt k yfygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfa,muftaeESihf ,if;trIonf? odrYk [kwf Oya'opf wifoiG ;f olwEYdk iS fh nSEd iId ;f aqG;aEG;&mwGif atmufygtcsut f vufrsm;udk wdusaocsmpGm xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&ef vdktyfonf/ 0 þa&;qGrJ nfh Oya'onf wu,fvt kd yfygovm;/ okrYd [kwf vlraI &;ESihf aps;uGuf tiftm;pkrsm;u ydkrdkvsifjrefpGm uRrf;usifpGm ajz&Sif;Edkifrnfvm;/ 0 þOya'onf jyóemudk rajz&Sif;Edkifí jyóemonf arSmif&dyfcdk ykef;vQdK;oGm; rnfvm;/ 0 þOya'aMumihf wqifhcH oufa&mufrIrsm; xGufay:vmrnfvm;/ Oyrmtm;jzifh tjyKtrl wm;jrpfcsufaMumifh jynfolvlxk rnfokdYvkyfaqmifMurnfenf;/ tajc tae ydkrdkqkd;&Gm;oGm;rnfavm/ 0 þOya'onf a&&SnfwGif rnfuJhodkY oufa&mufrI&SdEdkifrnfenf;/ 0 þOya'aMumifh rnfow l Ydk rnfuo hJ Ykd tusK;d cHpm;&Ny;D odUk r[kwf rnfow l Ykd rnfuo hJ Ykd epfemqkH;&IH; rnfenf;/ 0 þOya'udk jy|mef;xm;onft h wdik ;f vdu k ef map&ef rnfuo hJ Ykd aqmif&u G rf nfenf;/ 0 þOya'udk vkdufem&ef azmfaqmifrnfqdkvQif tcsdef? aiGtm;? vltm;toD;oD; rnfrQ vdktyfrnfenf;? ,if;vdktyfcsufrsm;udk &&SdEdkifrnfavm/ 0 þOya'\ tajccHusaom tawG;tac:onf rnfonfjzpfoenf;/ taxGaxG bufpHk toHk;csrIudk cHEdkifpGrf;&nf&Sdygrnfavm/ AFL-CIO - tar&dueftvkyform;or*¾tzGJUcsKyfESifh pufrIvufrItzGJUtpnf;rsm; uGef*&uf/ tu,fí Oya'jyKol trIonf onf þtxufyg ausmv f mT ;&ef cufcrJ rI sm;udk xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;Ny;D aemuf qufvufazmfaqmifrnf[k oH"|d mefcsvu kd v f Qif Oya'jyKrMl urf;a&;qGrJ nfo h u l qufvufNyD; yDjyifpGm azmfaqmif&efomjzpfonf/ þodkY a&;qGJ&mwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJolrsm; vdkufem&rnfh usifh0wfudk csKd;azmufonfh tcsufwpfcsufjzpfaom Oya'\ rlv&nf&G,fcsuf ysufjym;atmif rodromaom a&;qGJa&;enf;ynmrsm;udk toHk;jyKvkyfaqmifaeMuonfudk 0rf;enf;pGm rMumcP awGUjrifae&onf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; */

Oya'jyKjcif ; ud k yk * ¾ v d u Oya'qk d i f & m pmcsKyf p mwrf ; rsm;ES i h f Ed I i f ; ,S O f j cif ; (Legislation Compared to Private-Law Documents)

rlMurf;a&;qGJaom pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;tm;vkH;\ t"duvkyfaqmifcsuf wlnDMuygonf/ xdpk m&Gupf mwrf;^pmcsKypf mwrf;\ pD&ifyikd cf iG t hf wGi;f wGif usa&mufaeolwt Ykd Mum; qufq&H mwGif ,if;wkdY\ vkyfydkifcGifh? tcGihfxl;rsm;? uif;vGwfcGifhrsm;ESihf Oya'ESihfnDaom qufpyfaeykHrsm;udk xkwfazmfjyoygonf/ þonfrSm jypfrIqdkif&musifhxHk; Oya'a&;qGJ&mü tokH;jyKaom enf;vrf;pkHESihf aqmufvkyfa&;vkyfief;oabmwlpmcsKyfjzpfap twlwlyifjzpfygonf/ 4if;tjyif rlMurf;a&;qGJ&mwGif toHk;jyKaom pHkprf;ppfaq;jcif; enf;vrf;rsm;? pOf;pm;awG;ac:rItpOf wdo Yk nfvnf; tajccHtm;jzifh wlnMD uovdk zGUJ pnf;rIypkH EH iS hf wdus&efvjkd cif;wdo Yk nfrmS vnf; pmcsKyf rlMurf; a&;qGJouJhodkYyif jzpfygonf/ xdkYaMumifh tdk;tdrfcsxm;a&;tmPmydkiftzGJUrS xkwfjyefaom pnf;rsOf;onf tiSm;ajr uefo Y wfcsuyf gaom pkaygif;tdr&f mwdu k cf ef; (Condo) wdu k cf ef;tiSm;pmcsKyrf sm;pGm uGmjcm;jcif; r&Sad Mumif; awGU&S&d onf/ txufazmfjyyg ESpcf pk vk;H rSm Oya'rsm;om jzpfonf/ tiSm;pmcsKyrf mS rl ESpfOD;ESpfzuf oabmwlxm;onfh tcsuftvufrsm;yg yk*¾vdu Oya'jzpfonf/ pnf;rsOf;rsm;rl tkypf ;kd olEiS fh tkypf ;dk cHjynfow l MYkd um;ü&Sad om tkypf ;kd cHwYkd oabmwlonf&?dS rwlonf&dS trsm;qdik &f m Oya'jzpfonf/ þyko H P²mefrsK;d &Sd yk*v ¾ u d pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;onf Oya'jyKtmPmydik t f zGUJ u jy|mef;xm; onfh Oya'ESifh tvm;oP²mefwlaeygonf/ Oyrmjy&aomf tvkyf&Sif\ tvkyform;twGuf pnf;rsO;f ESihf pkaygif;tdr&f mwdu k cf ef; (Condo)&Sirf sm;toif;\ pnf;rsO;f wdjYk zpfygonf/ xdUk aMumifh vltawmfrsm;rsm;u txufygyHpk rH sK;d yk*v ¾ u d Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk jy|mef;aom Oya'[k rSwf,lMuonf/ odkYaomf þtcef;wGif Oya'jyKjcif;ESihf Oya'jyKaom pum;&yfESpfckwkdYonf trsm;qdkifOya' pmcsKyfpmwrf;udk &nfnTef;jcif; jzpfygonf/ Oya'jyKjcif;ESihf yk*¾vdu Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;wkdYonf tajccHtm;jzifh wlMuaomfvnf; ta&;ygaom rlurJG sm;&Syd gonf/ rlMurf;a&;qG&J mü þuGmjcm;csuu f oufa&mufrI jzpfay:aponf/ 1/

tBuHK;0ifolyrmP ESihf obm0 (Nature and Size of the Audience) yk*v ¾ u d Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;ESihf tBuKH ;0ifow l rYkd mS yrmPenf;ygonf/ rsm;aomtm;jzifh xdpk mcsKypf mwrf;wdo Yk nf vlEpS af ,mufwt Ydk Mum; qufpyfjzpfysurf u I o dk mazmfjyNy;D useyf wfoufol wdo Yk nf 'kw, d tqifyh wfoufro I m jzpfygonf/ t"dygÜ ,frmS rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf wloEl pS af ,muf wko Yd nf rnforl nf0gjzpfonf/ olwEYdk pS Of ;D \ &nfreS ;f csuEf iS 4fh if;wdEYk pS Of ;D rnforYkd nfyHk qufpyfonf [laom tajctaewdu Yk kd t"duxm;a&;om;azmfjyNy;D useyf wfouforl sm;ESihf ,if;wd\ Yk &nfreS ;f

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

csuf odkYr[kwf tajctaewdkYudk pOf;pm;jcif;r&Sdyg/ jy|mef;Oya'onf vltrsm;pkudk tBuHK;0if ygonf/ wdik ;f jynfwpfjynfv;kH ? jynfe,fc½dik f odrYk [kwf NrKd UwpfNrKd UrS jynfot l m;vH;k yg0ifEidk yf gonf/ uefo Y wfxm;aom vlwef;pm;wpf&yf? Oyrm/ / owfrw S x f m;aom {&d,mwpfct k wGi;f aoewfukd rSwyf w kH ifyikd q f ikd o f rl sm;\ ta&twGuo f nfyifvQif omrmefy*k v ¾ u d Oya'qdik &f mpm&Gupf mwrf; wpfckESifh wdkuf½dkuftBuHK0ifolrsm;\ ta&twGufxufrsm; ygvdrfhrnf/ xkdYaMumihf jy|mef;Oya'udk rlMurf;a&;qGJaeolonf yg0ifol jynfoltrsm;pktwGuf tqifajyrI&Sd&ef atmufyg(3)ckwkdYrS (1)ckckudk vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ yxrvkyfaqmifEdkifonfrSm - yk*v ¾ u d Oya'\xH;k pHxuf ydí k tMurf;zsi;f yrmP ydrk x dk nfo h iG ;f &efjzpfygonf/ þodjYk yKjcif;rSm jy|mef;Oya'onf qd;k usK;d udak vsmNh y;D aumif;usK;d udk ydrk o kd ufa&mufapEdik &f ef jzpfygonf/ uGmjcm; csufrSm tao;pdwftcsuftvufrQom jzpfygrnf/ odkYaomf þenf;vrf;udk toHk;jyKjcif;jzifh t"duOD;wnfaom y&dowfonf wlnaD om vu©Pmrsm;&Sad omfvnf; ta&;ygaom uGmjcm;csuf wd&Yk adS Mumif;udk owdjyKjcif;r&Sad Mumif; awGU&S&d ygonf/ yHpk cH u G w f pfct k wGi;f odYk tm;vH;k oGi;f &rnf qdkaom jy|mef;Oya'rsdK;udk vufawGUtaumiftxnfazmf&mwGif ta&;,lrItydkif;? &&Sdvdkaom tusdK;quf atmifjrifa&;tydkif;ESifh rQwrIydkif;wdkYwGif tcuftcJrsm; BuHKawGY&Edkifygonf/ 'kw, d vkyEf ikd o f nhef nf;rSm txufazmfjyyg rwlnaD omtcsurf sm;udk ajz&Si;f &ef cRi;f csuf rsm;? odrYk [kwf pnf;urf;rsm;jzifh zGUJ xm;aom rlMurf;udk a&;qG&J efyifjzpfonf/ odaYk omf þodjYk yK&mü tpüyif tao;pdwf&Sif;&ef tcuftcJESihf BuHKEdkifonf/ tawGUtBuKH&SdNyD; jyóemudk aocsmpGm em;vnfjcif;ESihf jzpfEdkifaom ajz&Sif;enf;rsm;udk od&Sdygu jyKjyif&efvdkaeaMumif; xif&Sm;ygrnf/ odkYaomf Oya'udk jyifqifjcif;onf vufawGYrusvSay/ wwd,vkyfEdkifonfhenf;rSm rlMurf;udk xdkufoifhpGm a,bk,sa&;om;&efjzpfygonf/ odaYk omf vdt k yfonfh tao;pdwf pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm;udk jznfph u G Ef ikd &f ef oufqikd &f m tkycf sKyaf &; qkdif&m at*sifpD (tpkd;&Xmeudk qdkvdkygonf/) tm;vkyfudkifcGifhay;tyf&ef vdktyfygvdrfhrnf/ xdo k Ykd aqmif&u G jf cif;onf Oya'udk jyKjyifjcif;xuf ydrk v kd , G u f yl gvdrrhf nf/ þenf;vrf;udk oH;k aom rlMurf;a&;olonf oufqdkif&mat*sifpD (tpdk;&Xme)udk jyóemrsm;tm; ajz&Sif;Edkif&eftwGuf vHkavmufaomvkyfydkifcGifhay;&ef vdkygrnf/ ¤if;jyif xdkat*sifpD(tpdk;&Xme) taejzifh Oya'rS cGijhf yKaom rlabmifxufausmv f eG jf cif;r&Sad p&efvnf; vHak vmufpmG vrf;ñTe&f efvnf; vdyk gvdrrhf nf/ jy|mef; Oya'wpfckwGif tBuHK;0ifolta&twGufonf yk*¾vduqdkif&m pmcsKyfpmwrf;wGif tBuKH ;0ifox l uf rsm;jym;ygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fjyKvyk af om tzGw YJ o Ykd nf w&m;pGq J t kd rIziG jhf cif; tm;jzifh yk*v ¾ u d Oya'qdik &f m pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;tm; oufa&mufr&I adS pygonf/ w&m;½H;k odrYk [kwf cHo k rm"dvBl u;D u vdu k ef m&ef qH;k jzwfcsuu f kd csrw S yf grnf/ t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'wGif ray:aygufz;l aom w&m;repfemrIukd ukpm;&eftwGuf Oya'jy|mef;&mwGif vnf;aumif;? pmcsKyaf zmufzsurf I

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

twGuf tydak qmif;epfemaMu;ay;aom udp&ö yfrsm;twGuf jy|mef;onfOh ya'wGiv f nf;aumif; tvm;wlyifjzpfygonf/ rnfodkYyifjzpfap jy|mef;Oya'udk pwifoufa&mufEdkifolrsm;onf wwd,olrsm;jzpfNyD; &Jt&m&Sd? tpdk;&trIxrf; odkYr[kwf tkyfcsKyfa&;tzJGUtpnf;wpfckckwdkYrS jzpfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh ,if;wd\ Yk tcef;u@udk xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;oifyh gonf/ tu,fí &Jt&m&Su d &Iyaf xG;aom jyXmef;Oya'udk aumif;pGm oabmraygufcv hJ Qif ,if;jyXmef;Oya'tm; jyif;xefpmG oufa&mufokH;pGJEdkifygrnf/ odkYr[kwf jyXmef;Oya' udkvkH;0rokH;jcif;wkdY jzpfay:vmEdkifonf/ 4if;tjyiftmPmydkiftzGJUtpnf; tawmfrsm;rsm;onf jyXmef;Oya' oufa&mufap&eftwGuf trIzGihfNyD; w&m;pGJjcif; jyKvkyf&kHomru w&m;a&;rS jyefvnfoHk;oyf&ef tcGifhta&;r&SdbJ 4if;wdu Yk yif pD&ifq;Hk jzwfcsucf saeonfukd awGaY eMu&onf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolwpfa,muf taeESifh w&m;Oya't& qk;H &I;H rIrsm; þodrYk ay:ayguf vmap&efEiS fh rQwrI&adS p&ef BuaH qmif&rnf jzpfonf/ xdo k aYkd qmif&u G &f mwGif enf;ynmydik ;f qefaom tmPmcGaJ 0a&;onf ta&;Bu;D ygonf/ þae&mü tmPmydkiftzGJUtpnf;zufrS w&m;pD&ifqkH;jzwfcsufESifh w&m;½kH;awmfrScsaom qk;H jzwfcsuw f Ykd uGmjcm;aMumif; odjrif&rnf/ xkaYd Mumihf rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eol oabmayguf&rnfrmS Oya'ESihf tBuKH;0ifoltm;vkH;wdkY\ xl;jcm;aom 0daoovu©PmwdkYtm; pdwfxJwGifxm;NyD; a&;qGJ&efjzpfygonf/ 2/

wdusrIvdktyfjcif; (The Need for Precision) roJuJG ra&&monfeh nf;udk oH;k jcif;jzihf yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m Oya'pm&Gupf mwrf;rlBurf;udk a&;qGEJ idk o f nf/ ae&mwkid ;f wGif tao;pdwaf &;qGjJ cif;twGuf ukeu f sp&dwo f nf &&Srd nft h usKd ;xuf p&dwfydkojzifh tm;enf;csuf wpfcktjzpfodkY ajymif;vJa&mufoGm;apEdkifonf/ a&mif;olESifh 0,fow l t Ydk Mum; tjyeftvSef ,HMk unfr&I MdS uNy;D oabmxm;uGv J JG rwlnrD w I u Ykd kd ta&mif;t0,f udpt ö 00 Ny;D pD;onft h cgwGif n§Ed iId ;f tajz&Sm&ef oabmwl xm;jcif;tm;jzifh ESpOf ;D ESpzf ufajyvnfNy;D pdwcf sr;f omrI&,lEidk o f nf/ Oya'jyKrMl urf;a&;qGaJ eol wpfa,mufru l m; þenf;wl oufom vG,u f pl mG rvkyaf qmifoihaf y/ w&m;rrIjzpfap? jypfrjI zpfap tmPmydik t f zGUJ u jy|mef;xm;aom Oya' qkdonfrSm ,if;tmPmydkiftzGJUu xkwfjyefxm;aom trdefYjzpfonf/ ,if;trdefYwGif rnforYdk nfyv kH yk af qmifEidk Nf y;D rnforYkd nfykH rvkyaf qmif&ef wm;jrpfcsurf sm;yg0ifNy;D rvdu k ef mygu wm;jrpfyw d yf ifapEkid af om trdejYf zpfonf/ Ekid if o H m;wpfa,muftwGuf tajccHrQwrIu&kd &Sad p&ef tvdiYk mS Oya't&vdu k ef m&rnfwu Ykd kd odjrifae&efvykd gonf/ a&&mrIr&So d nfh jypfrq I ikd &f mjy|mef; Oya'onf ysujf y,fygvdrrhf nf/ w&m;½H;k rsm;u ra&&maom w&m;rrIqidk &f m jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk onf;cHciG v hf w T af omfvnf; xdrk a&&mrIrsm;onf Oya'rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif nHzh si;f jcif;ESihf tkycf sKyrf I ydik ;f qkid &f m nHzh si;f jcif;wku Yd kd xif[yfazmfjyygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

rl0g'udk xnhfoGif;pOf;pm;jcif; (Policy Considerations) yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rlMurf;a&;qGo J l wpfa,muftaeESihf vlraI &;ESihf rl0g' a&;&m tusKd ;qufwu Ykd kd 4if;\ trIonfEiS hf aqG;aEG;&ef wm0eftueft Y owf&ydS gonf/ ol\ t"duvkyaf qmif&efrmS trIonfpw d Bf uKd uaf &;qG&J ef jzpfonf/ odaYk omfvnf; Oya'jyKrMl urf; a&;qGo J w l pfa,mufonf rl0g'a&;&mwkw Yd iG f ydrk u kd s,jf yefpY mG ywfoufaeonf/ wenf;tm;jzihf qkad omf jynfov l x l o k nf xkad &;qGaJ eol\ t"du trIonfjzpfonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eol wpfa,muftaeESihf ol\trIonfonf rnforl nf0gjzpfap? aumfrwDtzGUJ jzpfap? Oya'jyKol wpfO;D jzpfap odrYk [kwf tkycf sKyaf &;tzGUJ tpnf;wpfcjk zpfap teD;uyfq;kH trIonftm; rSeu f efaom ay:vpD0g'udk a&G;cs,Ef idk &f ef taxmuftuljyKeidk af yonf/

oufqkdif&m tcsuftvufrsm; vdktyfjcif; (The Need for Factual Data) omrefy*k v ¾ u d ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyrf Ml urf; a&;qGo J w l pfa,mufxuf Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJ aeolonf tcsut f vufrsm; jynhpf pkH mG &&S&d ef ydrk v kd t kd yfygonf/ tb,haf Mumifq h adk omf ¤if;\ rlMurf;wGif tBuKH ;0ifywfoufol ydrk jkd cif;? wduspmG tm½Hpk u kd &f efvjkd cif;ESihf ay:vpD0g'xnho f iG ;f pOf;pm;&jcif;wdaYk Mumifh jzpfygonf/ þoufqidk &f m tcsut f vufrsm;udk vTwaf wmfwiG f Mum;em jcif;jzifh &&SEd idk Nf y;D ,if;&&Scd surf sm;udk avhvmNy;D aocsmpGm oabmaygufNy;D rSom rlMurf;wGif xnho f iG ;f a&;om;&ef jzpfonf/ tqifeh rd ahf om Oya'jyKa&;tqifrh sm;wGif ,if;tcsut f vuf rsm;udk rlMurf;a&;om;jyKpo k u l , kd w f ikd u f pHpk rf;&SmazGpak qmif;&avh&o dS nf/

Ek d i f i H a &;&S K axmif h r S xnh f o G i f ; pOf ; pm;jcif ; (Political Considerations) Oya'jyKudk,fpm;vS,fwpfOD; odkYr[kwf aumfrwD odkYr[kwf txuftzGJUtpnf;u wm0efay;jcif;cH&aom Oya'jyKrMl urf; a&;qGaJ eol wpfa,muftaeESihf Ekid if aH &;twku d t f cHukd vspv f QLjyKxm;í r&Ekid af y/ ,if;twdu k t f cHw\ Ydk tiftm; rnfot Ykd csurf sm;udk uefu Y u G Ef idk Nf y;D rnfoYdk tay;t,lrsm;jyKNy;D n§Ed iId ;f í &ekid o f nfwu Ydk kd rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l aocsmpGm tajctaeudk oH;k oyf&rnf/ odaYk omf t"duqH;k jzwfcsuu f rkd l a&;qGcJ idk ;f ol trIonfu ay;rnfjzpfonf/ odaYk omf vnf; a&;qGo J u l twdu k t f cHwYdk oabmwlvufcEH ikd rf nfh tpm;xd;k pmom;rsm; tBuOH mPfrsm;udk trIonf OD;wnfcsuEf iS t hf nD ay;Ekid yf gonf/ rlMurf;rsm;udk rsm;pGmxdcu kd af jymif;vJomG ;Edik af om ajymif;vJjyifqifcsuw f u Ykd kd a&;qGo J u l trIonftm; BuKd wiftoday;xm;&ef vdo k nf/ ½Iyaf xG;aomOya'wGif tyd'k rf sm;onf wpfck tay:wpfck tjyeftvSef trSo D [JjyKaewwfMuonf/ vTwaf wmfrS twnfjyKvu dk af om Oya' wpf&yfwnfwchH ikd Nf r&J ef ,if;Oya'\ tyd'k (f 2) onf r&Srd jzpfvt kd yfcsujf zpfaumif;jzpfEikd yf gonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tu,fí ,if;tyd'k (f 2)tm; Oya'jyKvw T af wmfwiG f jyifqifcsuf t& csev f yS Nf y;D y,fco hJ nf&adS omf jy|mef;Ny;D Oya'wpfcv k ;kH tm; vdu k af vsmnDaxGrrI &Sad om Oya'jzpfomG ; apEdik yf gonf/ xkaYd Mumifh ,if;Oya'tm; vTwaf wmfwiG f twnfrjyKcif tyd'k (f 2)udk twdu k t f cHrsm; oabmaygufem;vnfNy;D ruefYuGufap&ef tay;t,lBudKNyD; vkyfaqmifxm;&ef vdktyfygrnf/ rlBurf;a&;qGJaeol vkyaf qmifEidk o f nfh tjcm; wenf;rSm vTwaf wmfoYkd tpm;xd;k wifoiG ;f Ekid rf nfh aemufxyfrBl urf;onf tqifoifjh yifqifxm;Ny;D ,if;twdu k t f cHwYdk oabmwlEidk &f rnft h jyif rdrt d rIonf\ vdt k yfcsuf rsm; yg0ifae&rnf/ odaYk omfvnf; vdck sio f nfxuf tenf;i,f tm;enf;aeEkid o f nf/ wpfcgwpf&H Ekid if aH &;qkid &f m zdtm;ay;rIwaYkd Mumifh rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolrS xde;f odr;f vdak om 4if;\ ynm&yfyikd ;f qdik &f m ud, k &f nfu, kd af oG; usqif;oGm;Ekid o f nf/ Ekid if aH &;twdu k t f cH tkypf Ek pS pf k onf xGuaf y:vmaom Oya'wpfcu k kd rltm;jzifh oabmwlNy;D tyk'd w f pfcEk iS yhf wfoufí vH;k 0 qefYusifonfh t,ltqrsm;&SdNyD; xdyfwdkufawGUonfhtcgrsdK;wGif a&;qGJolonf txufu nTeMf um;onft h wdik ;f twku d t f cHEpS t f yk pf pk vH;k vufcEH idk rf nfh t"dygÜ ,ftrsKd ;rsKd ;aumufEidk af om? rjywfom;r&Si;f vif;aom toH;k tEIe;f udk wrifyif oH;k pG&J íjzpfygonf/ þodYk roJuJG r&Si;f rI wdaYk Mumifh xGuaf y:vmwwfaom jyóemwdu Yk kd w&m;½H;k rsm;u&Si;f &ef xm;cJjh cif;jzpfygonf/ þenf;jzifh rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;onf Oya'rlMurf;jyKpak &;qGjJ cif;\ tedrq hf ;kH ESihf todrif ,fq;kH toGiu f kd azmfjyavonf/ 6/

wnf q J O ya'rsm;ES i f h n D a p&ef pmcsKyf p mwrf ; ud k tH 0 if * G i f u sjzpf a pjcif ; (Fitting the Document into an Existing Body of Law)

yk*¾vduqdkif&m Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;wGif yg0ifywfoufaeaom trIonfrsm;onf tjcm;wpfenf; wpfzv kH nf; ywfoufaeolrsm; (yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m Oya'aMumifyh if jzpfay:vmaom ywfoufrrI sKd ;)jzpfEikd &f m? xdyk wfoufru I kd xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;Ny;D pOfqufrjywfap&ef rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l owdjyK&ayrnf/ xkeYd nf;wlpmG yif ta&mif;t0,fwpfct k m; jzpfajrmufap&eftwGuf wm0efEiS hf tcGit hf a&;rsm;onf jy|mef;Oya'pnf;rsO;f rsm;wGif yg0ifNy;D jzpfaMumif; awGU&wwfonf/ Oyrmajrydik Ef iS hf tiSm;wdt Yk wGuf jy|mef;Oya'/ xkaYd Mumifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf txufygwdu Yk kd xnho f iG ;f pOf;pm;Ny;D avQmn f pD mG a&;qG&J efjzpfonf/ Oya'jyKrMl urf;a&;qGaJ eol wpfa,muftaeESihf vuf&rdS &l if;Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;ESihf udu k n f 0D ifqefrY nfh Oya'topfrsm;a&;qGjJ cif;onf vGepf mG rSc, J Of;aom tvkyw f pfcjk zpfonf/ tb,haf Mumifq h adk omf xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&ef tcsurf sm; vGepf mG yg0ifaeaomaMumifyh if jzpfonf/ tb,faMumifq h akd omf a&;aeaom Oya'ESio hf ufqidk o f nfh tcsuw f pfcrk usef tm;vH;k yg0if ap&rnft h csuaf Mumifh jzpfayonf/ ,if;xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&rnfh tcsurf sm;rSm wnfqOJ ya'rsm;?

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

xdOk ya'rsm;udk taumiftxnfazmf&ef jy|mef;xm;aom pDrcH efcY aJG &;qdik &f m pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm;? xdu k pd Eö iS q hf ufpyfaom udp&ö yfrsm;ESiyhf wfoufí w&m;½H;k rsm;\pD&ifcsurf sm;? a&SUaecsKy\ f t,l tqrsm;? tjcm;w&m;pD&if;a&;e,ferd w d rf sm;\ wnfqOJ ya'rsm;? t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'\ enf;Oya' rsm;? oifMum;zl;aom pmcsKyrf sm;ESihf Oya'oH;k oyfcsurf sm;jzpfygonf/ w&m;0if u ef Y o wf c suf r sm; (Legal Limits) tm;vHk;ukd0ifqefYatmif jyKvkyfNyD;a&;onfhenf;ESifh odomaom uGJjym;aomenf;rSm xGuaf y:vmrnfh rlMurf;opfonf tjrihq f ;kH Oya'abmiftwGi;f wGif &Sad e&ef a&;qGEJ idk jf cif;jzpfonf/ yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfa,mufonf tESpo f m&ESihf ywfouf vQif Oya't& uefo Y wfcsKycf s,rf I trsKd ;rsKd ;ESihf jynfph &kH ef vdt k yfygonf/ tvkycf ef&Y mwGif touf tm;jzifh cGjJ cm;rI&jdS cif;qdik &f m tcGit hf a&;rsm;rS uif;vGwcf iG &hf &Sv d v kd Qif xda&mufr&I adS p&ef tcsut f csKd U ESihf jynfph &kH ef vdt k yfygonf/ pm;oH;k ol\ acs;aiGoabmwlpmcsKyw f pf&yfwiG f pnf;urf;tcsKd U yg0ifaejcif;aMumifh xdpk mcsKyv f ;kH 0 ysujf y,fomG ;Edik yf gonf/ Oya'rlMurf;qGo J w l pfa,muftwGurf l twm;tqD;rsm; þrQavmuf rrsm;acs/ t"du twm;tqD;rsm;rSm 4if;tm;ay;tyfonfh vkyyf ikd cf iG t hf mPmESihf txuftqifq h ifah om Oya'a&; tmPmwko Yd m jzpfonf/ A[dt k pd;k &ESihf jynfe,fw\ Ydk tajccHzUJG pnf;yHrk sm;onf w&m;0if tjrihq f ;kH Oya'a&;tmPm jzpfMuonf/ ,if;wku Yd tpd;k &wnfaqmufyu kH kd azmfaqmif&Ny;D t"duvkyaf qmif &onfrmS Oya'jyKjcif; tmPmudk uefo Y wf&jcif;jzpfonf/ ta&;tBu;D qH;k uefo Y wfcsurf sm;ESihf twl tjcm;uefo Y wfcsurf sm;rSm Edik if o H m;tcGit hf a&; Oya'jzpfygonf/ ajzmifrh wfNy;D wdusaocsm aom Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJ olwpfa,muftaeeJY vlwpfO;D wpfa,muf\ vGwv f yfpmG ajymqkyd ikd cf iG hf tm; odomxif&mS ;pGm ydwyf ifonfh Oya'udk a&;qGrJ nfr[kwaf y/ tjcm;zGUJ pnf;yHt k ajccH Oya'wGif yg0ifaom jy|mef;csurf sm;onf ydrk í kd enf;ynmydik ;f qefygonf/ tcsKd U jynfe,fzUJG pnf;yHw k o Ydk nf Oya'wpfckxJwGif t"dutaMumif;t&mwpfckxuf rydk&avatmif uefYowfxm;Muonf/ t"dutaMumif;t&mwpfcq k o kd nfrmS twdtusowfrw S &f ef cufcyJ grnf/ Oyrm- jrLeDpy,fceG f aumufcjH cif;ESihf a&TUvsm;tdr&f mrsm;\ wnfae&m owfrw S jf cif;qdik &f m Oya'uJo h Ykd tmPm wnfaomtrdefYudk wpfaygif;wnf; razmfjyoihfyg/ zGJUpnf;yHkOya' jy|mef;csufrsm;wGif rlv t&if;cHusaom uefYowfcsufrsm;onf ta&;tBuD;qHk; uefYowfcsufrsm;jzpfonf/ tcsdKU Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGcJ ikd ;f ol trIonfrsm;odYk aemiftcgwGif jzpfay:vmrnfh jyóemrsm;udk w&m;½H;k rsm;u ajz&Si;f Edik v f rd rhf nf[k rSm;,Gi;f pGm,lqNy;D 4if;wd\ Yk rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l kd zGUJ pnf;yHu k efo Y wfcsuf rsm;tm; vspv f sLjyKNy;D rlMurf;a&;qGcJ idk ;f wwfMuonf/ 7/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tmPmydik t f qifq h if&h adS v&m A[dt k pd;k &Oya'onf xdyq f ;kH wGi&f NdS y;D 4if;atmufwiG f wajy;nDrrI &Sad om jynfe,fOya'udk vTr;f rd;k ygrnf/ wpfzef ¤if;\atmufwiG f wajy;nDr&So d nfh a'oqkid &f mOya'udk jynfe,fOya'u vTr;f rd;k ygrnf/ xkaYd Mumifh atmufyikd ;f tqifrh sm;twGuf Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf txufwiG &f adS om Oya'rsm;tm; owdrNl y;D a&;qG&J efjzpfygonf/ A[dt k qifw h iG f Oya'tawmfrsm;rsm;onf jy|mef;Oya'rsm;r[kwb f J tkycf sKyaf &;qdik &f m enf;Oya' ESihf pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm; jzpfygonf/ jynfe,fOya'rSmvnf; us,u f s,jf yefjY yefY &Syd gonf/ odaYk omf tkycf sKyaf &;qkid &f mat*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme)rsm;wGif Oya'rsm;csrw S &f ef yHak otmPm r&Sad y/4if;wd\ Yk vkyyf ikd cf iG t hf mPmonf Oya'jyKtzGUJ rS ay;tyfjcif;jzpfonf/ xkaYd Mumifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf 4if;wd\ Yk vkyyf ikd cf iG ahf bmifukd tNro J wdr&l efvNkd y;D abmiftjyifoYkd a&mufygu enf;Oya'rsm;onf ysujf y,fygrnf/ tkyfcsKyfa&;tzGJUtpnf;rS cefYtyfxm;aom rlMurf;a&;qGJolodkY pnf;rsOf;uefYowfcsuf xkwjf yef&mwGif 4if;ud, k pf m;vS,f tzGUJ tpnf;tm; ñTeMf um;aom tkycf sKyaf &;tzJUG vkyx f ;kH Oya' rsm;udk vdu k ef m&ef vdt k yfonf/ ,if;at*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme)udk wnfaxmifcahJ om jy|mef;Oya'u aemufxyfvu kd ef m&ef vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf;rsm;udk xyfrjH znfph u G v f u kd ef mapEdik yf gonf/ tkycf sKyaf &; at*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme)wdo Yk nf a,bk,stm;jzifh pDrcH efcY aJG &; tmPmydik t f zGUJ \ wpfpw d w f pfa'o[k owfrw S af vh&adS omaMumifh pDrcH efcY aJG &; trderYf sm;udv k nf; vdu k ef m&onf/ tm;vH;k NcKH vu kd v f Qif tkycf sKyaf &;tzGUJ tpnf;rS cefx Y m;aom rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l Ykd ta&;Bu;D uefo Y wfcsurf sm;tjyif vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf; uefo Y wfcsurf sm;vnf;&Sad eaMumif; owdjyK&ef vdt k yfavonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm;ESihf ¤if;wd\ Yk tkycf sKyaf &;qkid &f m½H;k rsm;rSvnf; Oya'uJo h aYkd om pnf;urf; csurf sm;udk &&SEd ikd af vonf/ þae&mwGif tmPmrQa0jcif;[laom tawG;tac:rS t"du uefY owfcsurf sm; aygufzmG ;vmygonf/ þae&mü ar;&efar;cGe;f rSm w&m;½H;k taeESihf Oya'wpfcck k xkwjf yef&eftwGuf tajccHOya'rS ay;tyfaom tmPm&So d avm? odrYk [kwf jy|mef;Oya'rS ay;tyfaom tmPmrsm; &S?d r&Sd od&efvo kd nf/ odw Yk nf;r[kwf xdt k mPmudk Oya'tzGUJ uom &S?d r&Sd od&efvykd gonf/ w&m;a&;qdik &f m enf;Oya'udk a&;qGo J o l nf þuJo h aYkd om uefo Y wfcsurf sm; \ abmiftwGi;f rSa&;&ef jzpfygonf/ 8/

Oya'jyKjcif ; ord k i f ; (Legislative History) y#dnmOfpmcsKyf csKd ;azmufonft h wGuf tzGUJ rsm; w&m;½H;k wGif trIqikd Nf y;D w&m;pGMJ u&mwGif ¤if;tzGJUwdkY\ &nf&G,fcsufudk od&Sd&ef n§dEIdif;rIordkif;udk pOf;pm;wwfMuygonf/ xdkenf;wl Oya'jyKjcif;wGiv f nf; ,if;enf;vrf;udk oH;k avh&MdS uygonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;olonf rsm;aom tm;jzifh 4if;\ aumfrwDtzGUJ odYk tpD&ifcpH m odrYk [kwf Oya'Murf;udk wifoiG ;f &mwGif zwfMum;aom

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

&Si;f vif;csuu f kd a&;om;avh&ydS gonf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf Oya'jyKo\ l ½H;k rS 0efxrf;wpfO;D jzpfcyhJ gvQif ol\ tvky&f iS u f Oya'Murf;udk wifvu kd o f nft h cgwGif ay;Ekid rf nfh rSwcf surf sm;udyk g xnho f iG ;f a&;om;avh&ydS gonf/ wifvu kd o f nfh Oya'pmom;rsm;wGif ray:vGio f nfw h ikd af tmif tpD&ifcpH m rsm;? rSwfcsufrsm;? rdefYcGef;rsm;u xdkOya'udk ydkrdkodomxif&Sm;pGm ay:vGifapygonf/ þokdY vkyBf uzH efw;D Ny;D xGuaf y:vmaom Oya'\OD;wnfcsuo f nf tvGo J ;kH Edik &f ef tvm;tvm&So d jzifh w&m;½H;k awmfawmfrsm;rsm;u rESpo f ufMuay/ odaYk omfjim;vnf; þenf;vrf;onf Oya'rlMurf; a&;qG&J mwGif ta&;Bu;D aom upm;uGuw f pfct k aejzifh &Sad eqJjzpfonf/ 9/

a&;yHka&;[efESifh toHk;tEIef; (Form, Style and Usage) yk*v ¾ u d pmcsKypf mwrf; rlMurf;jyKow l pfO;D onf owfrw S cf suaf bmifwpfcw k iG ;f rS rdrBd uKd uf ESpo f uf&m oP²mef? [efEiS hf toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udo k ;kH Ny;D aemuf rdrt d rIonf\ pdwBf uKd ujf zpfap&ef vGwv f yfpmG a&;om;cGi&hf ydS gonf/ aumif;rGeaf ocsmpGm csrw S x f m;aom rlMurf;jyKp&k ef abmif pnf;urf;rsm;udk vdu k ef m&ef ysuu f u G cf yhJ gvQif xGuaf y:vmaom rlMurf;udk a,bl,stm;jzifh ysufjy,fapaomfvnf; t"dyÜg,fjyefqkd&efESifh taumiftxnfazmf&ef tcuftcJrsm;ESifh awGUBuKH Eidk yf gonf/ Oya'rlMurf;jyKow l pfO;D ürlum; ,if;uJo h Ykd vGwv f yfpmG rlMurf;a&;qGcJ pH m; Edik cf iG rhf sm; r&Sad cs/ Oya'jyKorl sm;? Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif; 0efaqmiftzGUJ rsm;? tpd;k &tkycf sKyaf &; qkid &f m Xmersm;tjyif w&m;½H;k toD;oD;wdu Yk yif oP²mef? [efEiS hf toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk wduspmG ñTeMf um;csurf sm;yg&Sad om vufqt JG wkid ;f waoGrwdr;f vdu k ef mNy;D Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGMJ u&ygonf/ ,if;pnf;urf;csurf sm;? vufprJG sm;wGif yg0ifonfh toH;k tEIe;f pmom;rsm; uGjJ ym;Ekid af cs&NdS y;D tcsKd U pnf;urf;vufqGJwdkYu ydkrdkaumif;rGefaewwfygonf/ rnfokdYyifjzpfap Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJ&ef cefx Y m;ol wpfO;D taeESihf vufprJG sm;udk rrSjD irf;ygu tvkyrf &S yfpjJ cif;cH&ayrnf trIonf wpfO;D twGuf rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eaom yk*v ¾ u d a&SUae wpfa,muyifvQif txufyg pnf;urf;rsm;udk vdu k ef m&ef jzpfonf/ tb,haf Mumifq h adk omf xGuaf y:vmaom pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;tm; aemufq;kH wGif ,if;pnf;urf;rsm; ESiu hf u kd n f o D mG ;&ef rnfoYkd enf;ESirhf qkd jyKjyifvyk af qmifomG ;rnfjh zpfaomaMumifh jzpfonf/ xdo k Ykd toH;k jyKwiG v f nf; vufpu JG kd t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd mwGif rSm;,Gi;f í t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef tvm;tvmvnf;&Syd gonf/

jy|mef;Oya'\ tydkif;rsm; (The Parts of a Statute) jy|mef;Oya'rsm;wGif atmufazmfjyygtwkid ;f oD;jcm;vGwv f yfaom tydik ;f rsm;or½d;k us yg0ifavh&ydS gonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

acgif ; pOf (Title) jy|mef;Oya'ESihf zGUJ pnf;yHt k ajccHOya'wkw Yd iG f Oya'xkwjf yef&onfh &nf&, G cf suu f kd ay:vGiaf paom acgif;pOfjyifqifonfh odrYk [kwf zsuo f rd ;f onfh Oya'tm; azmfjy&ef vdt k yfonf/ xdt Yk jyif tjcm;w&m;0if vdt k yfcsurf sm;ESihf udu k n f &D efvnf; vdt k yfygonf/ -

A BILL TO AMEND CHAPTER 3, TITLE 16, CODE OF LAWS OF SOUTH

CAROLINA, 1976, BY ADDING SECTION 17 SO AS TO PROHIBIT HARASSMENT AND STALKING, TO PROVIDE DEFINITIONS, TO PROVIDE PENALTLES, AND TO AUTHORIZE. TEMPORARY RESTRAINING ORDERS; AND TO REPEAL SECTION 16-3-1070, RELATING TO THE CRIME OF STALKING.

awmifum&dv k ikd ;f em;jynfe,f ud"k Oya'? 1976\ tcef; 3? acgif;pOf 16 udk jyifqifrnfh Oya'rlMurf;/ rlvOya'wGif tyd'k f 17 udk jznfph u G jf cif;ESihf pdwf taESmuf t,Suaf y;rIEiS hf vdu k v f í H aESmuf,u S rf u I kd wm;jrpfjcif;Ny;D teuft"dygÜ ,f ESihf csrw S Ef idk af om jypf'Pfrsm;ESihf ,m,Dwm;jrpfjcif; trdeu Yf kd oufa&mufapcGi/hf þOya'jyifqifcsujf zifh tyk'f 16-3-1070 yg vdu k v f aH ESmuf,u S jf cif;qdik &f m jypfru I kd y,fzsujf cif;/ acgif;pOfrsm;onf &Snv f sm;avh&NdS y;D pum;vH;k wdik ;f udk acgif;pnf;pmvH;k tBu;D rsm;jzifh ½du k Ef ydS af zmfjyavh&o dS jzifh zwf&ef cufcw J wfonf/ ayghayghwefwef,q l í r&Ekid af y/ acgif;pOfrygaom Oya'onf w&m;r0if jzpfEidk yf gonf/ 2/ Oya'jy|mef;jcif;tykd'f (Enacting Clause) zGUJ pnf;yHOk ya'odrYk [kwf jy|mef;Oya'wdu Yk kd jy|mef;&mwGif toH;k jyK&rnft h oH;k tEIe;f twdtusudk owfrSwfxm;ygonf/ jynfaxmifpktpdk;&onf Oya'wifoGif;jcif;ESifh ywfoufí atmufazmfjyyg toH;k tEIe;f udk xnfo h iG ;f oH;k pG&J ef owfrw S x f m;ygonf/ tar&duefjynfaxmifp\ k txufvw T af wmfwiG jf zpfap? atmufvw T af wmfwiG f jzpfap? vTwaf wmfEpS &f yfaygif; a&SUarSmufwiG jf zpfap? Oya'jy|mef;&mwGif toH;k jyKaom pum;vk;H toH;k tEIe;f rsm;onf jynfe,fwpfcEk iS hf wpfck uGmjcm;aomfvnf;? txufazmfjyyg ta&;Bu;D aomtoH;k tEIe;f rsm; ryg0ifygu tmedoifr&Sd ysujf y,fygvdrrhf nf/ 3/ acgif;pOftwdkaumufwyfonfh yk'fr (Short Title Section) w&m;0ifemrnft&Snfjzifh r[kwfbJ vG,fulpGm&nfnTef;ac:qdk&eftwGuf jzpfygonf/ Oyrm- þ tcef;udk "oifw h ifrh Qwaom tvkyo f rm;a&;&m pHcsed pf n H eT ;f rsm; Oya' 1938" [k ac:qdyk grnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 4/

awG U &S d c suf r sm; (Findings) us,jf yefjY ynfph akH om Oya'rsm; w&m;0ifxw k jf yef&mwGif Oya'jyKtzGUJ \ awGU&Scd suf rsm;udk twdck sKH ;azmfjyonfh tydik ;f rsm; rMumcPyg0ifwwfygonf/ ,if;wkw Yd iG f wdusonfh tcsurf sm;? jyKjyif&rnfjh yóemudk azmfxw k jf cif;? rnfonft h aMumif;t&mrsm;udk ajz&Si;f jcif; jzpfaMumif; tajccHonfh ta&;Bu;D aom ay:vpDOya'udk rnfot Ykd "dygÜ ,faumuf,l &rnfEiS hf tjcm;a,bl,susaom udprö sm;vnf; yg0ifaeygonf/ tcsKd UawGU&Scd surf sm;onf tvGet f a&;Bu;D ygonf/ tu,fí jynfe,fwpfcEk iS hf wpfct k Mum; ukeo f , G af &;ay: taESmift h ,Sujf zpfapEkid af om ta&mif;t0,ftrsKd ;tpm; wpfckudk vTwfawmfu awGU&Sdxm;NyDqdkygu w&m;½Hk;rsm;u trIrsm;wGif aemufxyf taxmuftxm;rvdb k J vufco H mG ;rnf jzpfonf/ vTwfawmfawGU&Sdcsufrsm;onf BuH&G,fcsufrsm;udk &SmazGonfhtcg w&m;½Hk;\ tjrifukd oufa&mufapygonf/ tu,fí tydik ;f wpfcw k iG yf gonfh pum;vH;k t"dygÜ ,fEpS rf sKd ; jzpfaeygu rnfonft h "dygÜ ,fu vTr;f rd;k rnfukd jy|mef;Oya'\ ay:vpDru l tqH;k tjzwf ay;oGm;rnfjzpfonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J l wpfa,mufonf 4if;nHzh si;f pGm a&;qGx J m;aom Oya'rlMurf;udk jyefvnftzwfq,fjyKjyif&eftwGuf vTwaf wmf\ awGU&Scd sut f cef;udk tm;rxm;oihaf y/ 5/ t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q k d c suf r sm; (Definitions) yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;rSmuJo h yYkd if jy|mef;Oya'rsm;wGif yg0ifaom t"dyÜg,fzGifh qdkcsufrsm;udk tydkif;wpfckwnf;wGif pkpnf;íxnfhxm;avh&Sdygonf/ odkYaomfvnf; tcef;rsm;pGmyg0ifaom jy|mef;Oya'wpfckwGif a0g[m&wpfcktm; xdktcef;wpfckwnf;wGifom toHk;jyKxm;ygu ,if;tcef;onf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqkd&ef taumif;qH;k jzpfayonf/ 6/ yif r t&if ; cH o wf r S w f c suf r sm; (Substantive Provisions) jy|mef;Oya'wpfcw k iG f t"duta&;Bu;D qH;k rSm tjyKtrlEiS hf oufqidk af eygonf/ wm;jrpf xm;aom tjyKtrl? vdt k yfaom tjyKtrl? cGijhf yKxm;aom odUk r[kwf rjyKaom tjyKtrlEiS hf cHpm;cGiw hf rsKd ;tay: uefo Y wfcsuf ponfwjYkd zpfonf/ 7/ oufa&mufap&ef enf;vrf;rsm; (Enforcement Mechanisms) jypfrq I idk &f m jy|mef;Oya'wGif a&SUaecsKyf odrYk [kwf c½dik af &SUaewku Yd Oya'udk oufa&mufapEkid o f nf/ odaYk omfvnf; jy|mef;Oya'oufoufwiG rf l rnfou l oufa&muf apEkid Nf y;D rnfoYdk rnfonfah e&mESihf rnfonft h csed u f efo Y wfcsurf sm;twGi;f aqmif&u G f &rnf[k azmfjyyg&Syd gonf/ tu,fí ueOD; Oya'oufa&mufapolrmS tpd;k &0efxrf;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

odrYk [kwf tpd;k &at*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme)jzpfcv hJ Qif ,if;jy|mef;Oya'wGif yk*v ¾ u d rsm;u w&m;pGq J ckd iG hf &S?d r&SEd iS fh rnfou Yl , kd pf m; aqmif&u G Ef ikd o f nf ponfh ñTeMf um;csuyf g&S&d rnf/ jy|mef;Oya'wpfckwGif uefYowftcsdefumvyg&SdNyD; ,if;umv pnf;urf;owfonf w&m;a&;tmPmoufa&mufr&I ?dS r&SEd iS hf uif;vGwcf iG ?hf tNy;D owfyw d yf ifciG ?hf ½kyo f rd ;f cGi&hf ?dS r&St d csurf sm; yg&S&d rnf/ w&m;qH;k jzwfciG o hf nf A[dw k &m;½H;k odrYk [kwf jynfe,fw&m;½H;k rS csrw S rf nf odrYk [kwf w&m;½H;k ESpcf pk vH;k rS csrw S Ef ikd o f nf ponfwt Ydk m;vH;k azmfjyxm;&rnf/ tu,fí tkycf sKyaf &;ud, k pf m;vS,t f zGUJ wpfco k nf xdjk y|mef;Oya' taumiftxnfazmfrI ESihf oufa&mufrw I iG f yg0ifrnfqykd gu ,if;tzGUJ wnfaxmifjcif;? tmPm? wm0efEiS hf vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf;rsm;udk ,if;jy|mef;Oya'wGif azmfjyxm;&ef vdo k nf/ xdjYk yif w&m;rrIrsm;ESihf oufqidk o f nfh owfrw S cf surf sm;tm; wdu k ½f u kd f odrYk [kwf oG,0f u kd pf mG ñTejf yxm;Ny;D w&m;vdrk sm;onf tkycf sKyaf &;enf;vrf;jzifh OD;pGmajz&Si;f &ef vk?d rvdk azmfjyxm;&rnf/ xdx k ufyí kd ta&;Bu;D aomvkt d yfcsurf mS jy|mef;Oya'oufa&mufEidk af p&eftwGuf jiif;cHrk I jzefajz&ef tpm;xd;k ,EÅ&m;&S?d r&Sd ESihf &Srd nfqykd gu xdjk y|mef;Oya'oufa&mufap&ef ,if;,EÅ&m;udk toH;k rjyKrae& [kw?f r[kwf ay:vGi&f rnf/ 8/ ukpm;cGifhrsm; odkYr[kwf tjypf'Pfrsm; (Remedies or Penalties) jypfrI odrYk [kwf w&m;rrIrsm;wGif oufa&mufapEkid o f nfh tjypf'Pfrsm;? tpd;k & trderYf sm;ESihf tjcm;oufomcGirhf sm;udk oD;jcm;tcef;cGJ odrYk [kwf oD;jcm;tyd'k cf w JG w Ydk iG f azmfjyxm;avh&o dS nf/ a&SUaeiSm;c &&SEd idk yf rkH sm;udv k nf; xnho f iG ;f azmfjyxm;oihyf gonf/ 9/ jy|mef;Oya' txajrmuf&ef xdef;odrf;aom vkyfaqmifcsufrsm;qkdif&m owfrSwfcsufrsm; (Housekeeping Provisions) ,if;wdrYk mS atmufwiG f azmfjyxm;onft h wkid ;f or½d;k us yg0ifygonf oufa&mufonfhaeYpGJ (Effective Date) ,if;odYk rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif vG,rf a,mifEiS hf cufcaJ omtvkyf jzpfonf/ jy|mef; Oya'onf vufrw S af &;xd;k onfh tcsed rf pS Ny;D tmPmouf0ifonf[al om owfrw S f csufonf rvHkavmufacs/ tb,hfaMumifhqkdaomf tmPmoufa&mufrI&Sdjcif;aMumifh jzpfvmaom tusKd ;qufrsm;udk azmfjyxm;jcif;r&So d nft h wGuaf Mumifh jzpfonf Oyrm- usix hf ;kH Oya'ajymif;vJraI Mumifh atmufygudp&ö yfrsm; jzpfrnf[k ,lq&ygonf (1) Oya'tajymif;tvJaMumifh vufrw S x f ;dk onfh &uf\ aemufyikd ;f wGif trIrsm;ESihf om oufqidk o f nf[í l vnf;aumif; (2) vufrSwfxdk;onfh &ufa&mufonfhwdkif qHk;jzwfcsufrcs&ao;aom trIrsm; yg0ifonf[lívnf;aumif;

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (3)

t,lcHwifxm;onfh trIrsm;ESifh t,lcHwifEkdifonfh useftrIrsm; tm;vHk; tusKH ;0ifonf[í l vnf;aumif; xked nf;wlpmG yif trSew f u,f ta&;Bu;D aom Oya'wpfct k m; tajymif;tvJwpfcck k jyKvu dk yf gu atmufygtwkid ;f oufa&mufr&I rdS nf[k ,lqEdik yf gonf (1) vufrw S x f ;kd Ny;D rS ay:xGuv f maomtrIrsm; (2) rnfonft h csed w f iG rf qdk jzpfymG ;cJah om trIrsm;? cRi;f csurf mS umvpnf;urf;owf ausmv f eG af om trI? w&m;waygifjzpfymG ;Ny;D aom trI? tNy;D tjywfp&D ifq;kH jzwfNy;D jzpfí xyfrpH q JG ckd iG rhf &Sad omtrI? Oya'rl0g't& trIwpfc\ k qH;k jzwfcsuo f nf tqdyk gtrI\w&m;cHtay: wlnaD om taMumif;jcif;&mESihf pyfvsO;f í aemufxyf w&m;xyfrpH q JG jkd cif; rjyK&ef ydwyf ifxm;jcif;/ (3) vufrw S rf xk;d rD jzpfcNhJ y;D vufrw S x f ;kd csed w f iG f w&m;pG&J ef apmihaf eaom trIrsm; w&m;½H;k rsm;onf þenf;rsm;jzifv h nf;aumif;? tjcm;enf;vrf;rsm;jzifv h nf; rSm;,Gi;f pGm t"dyÜg,faumuf,lcJhMuygonf/ xdkYaMumifh rnfonfhtcsdefwGif tmPmoufa&mufaprnf? aemufaMumif;jyef tmPmoufa&mufjcif;wdEYk iS hf ywfoufNy;D rnfojYkd zpfonfukd wduspmG azmfjy&ef vdyk gonf/ >cif ; csuf t yd k ' f (Savings Clause) jy|mef;Oya'xkwjf yefonfh &ufprJG wkid rf D vkyaf qmifcsurf sm;udv k nf;aumif;? tcGit hf a&;ESihf wm0ef&rdS rI sm;udk vnf;aumif;? w&m;pGq J rkd rI sm;udk vnf;aumif;? w&m;pGq J &kd eftaMumif; ay:ayguf Ny;D aom udp&ö yfrsm;ESihf jypfru I sL;vGerf w I o Ykd nf jy|mef;Oya'wpfct k m; tpm;xd;k vJv, S cf ahJ omfvnf; qufvufta&;,lEikd rf nf jzpfygonf/ ½k y f o d r f ; jcif ; rsm; (Repeals) jy|mef;Oya'topfxu G &f v dS mvQif rlvOya'a[mif;udk ½kyo f rd ;f &efjzpfonf/ >cif;csurf mS txufazmfjyyg >cif;csut f yd'k t f wkid ;f jzpfonf/ jy|mef;Oya'a[mif;rsm;wGif "þOya'ESihf qefu Y sif Ny;D oabmxm;uGv J aJG eonfh Oya'tm;vH;k udk ,cktcsed rf pS í ½kyo f rd ;f vdu k Nf yjD zpfonf" [k a,bk,s ½kyo f rd ;f onfph mom;yg&Sw d wfonf/ þodYk Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;onf Ny;D pvG,af yghayghwefwef a&;qGjJ cif;jzpfNy;D a&;qGo J o l nf rnfonfw h nfqOJ ya'rsm;onf xdyw f u kd o f abmxm; uGaJ eonfukd yif rod&Sdjcif;udk azmfjyaeNyD; txl;tEÅ&m,fBuD;ygonf/ vdktyfvmcsdefwGif w&m;½Hk;rsm;u yifyef;BuD;pGmjzihf rnfonfhOya'rsm;onf tm;NydKifaeMuonfudk &SmazGMu&rnfjzpfonf/ w&m;½H;k onf Oya'wckpu D kd zGUJ pnf;rIwpfrsKd ;pD ajymif;vJay;Ny;D qufpyfEikd &f ef jyKvyk Ef ikd &f rnfvm;/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

þodv Yk yk af qmifciG &hf EdS idk yf govm;/ odrYk [kwf xdyw f u kd u f v JG rJG &I o dS nf[k aMujimNy;D rlvOya'udk ½kyo f rd ;f Ny;D jzpfonf[k ,lq&rnfavm pojzifh trsKd ;rsKd ;jyóemrsm; ay:vmEkid yf gonf/ xkaYd Mumifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf aemiftcgwGif jzpfv&kd mjzpfap&ef ,if;jyóemudk vpfvsLrjyKoihaf y/ þtajctaersKd ;wGif Oya'a&;qGcJ idk ;f ol trIonfu qH;k jzwf&efvo kd nfrmS ,ckwifoiG ;f rnfh Oya'udk jyifqifrnfavm? odw Yk nf;r[kwf Oya'ESp&f yfpvH;k odrYk [kwf wpf&yfujkd yifqifrnfavm? odrYk [kwf ,cifOya'udo k m wpfcv k ;kH odrYk [kwf wpfpw d w f pfyikd ;f tm;vnf;aumif; ½kyo f rd ;f rnf avm[k pOf;pm;qH;k jzwf&rnf jzpfygonf/ tqHk;owfonfh&ufpGJ (Termination Date) &Hzef&cH gwGif jy|mef;Oya'wpfco k nf tqH;k owfuek q f ;kH rnfh &ufukd azmfjyygavh&o dS nf/ rnfonfh tydik ;f rsm; rnfonf&h ufww Ydk iG f ukeq f ;Hk rnf pojzihf wduspmG azmfjyaom tyd'k rf sm;udk awGU&S&d onf/ jzwf a wmuf r I r sm; (Severability) yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;wGif jzwfawmufrI uefo Y wfcsurf sm; yg&Sad omfvnf; Oya'jyKjcif;wGirf l a,bl,stm;jzifh rvdt k yfay/ tb,haf Mumifq h akd omf w&m;½H;k rsm;ü w&m; r0ifaom uefo Y wfcsurf sm;tm; jzwfawmufNy;D uset f ydik ;f rsm;udk oufa&mufapEkid o f nfh tmPm &Sad ejcif;aMumifh jzpfonf/ tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh w&m;½H;k rsm;ü jzwfawmufrI uefo Y wfcsuu f kd vpfvsLjyKEidk af om tmPmudk toH;k jyKNy;D jy|mef;Oya'wpfcv k ;kH tm; w&m;r0ifaMumif; aMujimEkid f ygonf/ tb,haf Mumifq h adk omf Oya'wGiyf g&Sad eonfh t"duowfrw S cf sut f m; jzwfawmuf vdu k jf cif;jzihf jy|mef;Oya'rSm wzufowfqefomG ;Ny;D oufa&mufeidk rf I tcuftcJEiS hf &ifqidk &f rnf qdak om tajctaeudk jzpfay:apvQif xdo k Ykd aqmif&u G Ef ikd yf gonf/ b@maiGvsmxm;jcif; (Appropriations) þowfrw S cf suo f nf jy|mef;Oya'oufa&mufEidk &f ef vdt k yfaom aiGyrmP? t&if;tjrpf ESihf Oya'udk taumiftxnfazmf&eftwGuf aiGvufc&H &Sd olwt Ykd m;vH;k udk azmfjyygonf/ þwGif Ekid if aH &;vSnu fh u G w f pfct k aejzifh awGU&avh&o dS nfrmS odomjrifom&SNd y;D vlBuKd urf sm;onfh Oya'tm; jy|mef;oufa&mufapaomfvnf; ukeu f sp&dwu f rkd l axmufyjhH cif; r&Sjd cif;jzpfonf/ tm;vHk;yg&SdNyD; owfrSwfcsdeftwGif; NyD;pD;oGm;aom jyifqifrlMurf;opftm;wGif rlv pmvH;k rsm;ESihf toH;k tEIe;f rsm; yg&Sad e&ef jyifqifou l txl;owdjyK&ef a&;qG&J efvykd gonf/ wdu k yf rJG sm; jyif;xefaecsed w f iG f rlMurf;jyifqifjcif;rsm; vkyaf vh&w dS wfNy;D wpfcsed w f nf;rSmyif ,if;Oya'tm;jzifh

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aumfrwDtzGUJ odrYk [kwf Oya'jyKvw T af wmfu oH;k oyfvsu&f MdS uygonf/ xGuaf y:vmaom "t0g a&mifpm&Gux f yf"trnfwiG af om Oya'jyifqifcsurf sm;udk erlemr,loifah omfvnf; ,if;onf Oya'rlMurf;jyifqifa&;qGo J \ l tjypfr[kwyf gacs/

OD ; pG m jyKjcif ; (Preemptions) rnfoUkd aomtajctaewGif jynfe,fjy|mef;Oya'xuf jynfaxmifpt k pd;k &\Oya'onf OD;pGm oufa&mufygrnf/jynfe,ftpdk;& Oya'onf a'oEÅ&tqifh pnf;rsOf;rsm;xuf OD;pGmoufa&mufrnfukd a,bk,stm;jzifh owfrw S x f m;aom jy|mef;csurf sm; &Syd gonf/ wduspmG azmfjyxm;aom jy|mef;csu&f jdS cif;jzifh xdu k pd Eö iS yhf wfoufí w&m;qdik &f jcif;udk a&Smif&mS ;Edik yf gvdrrhf nf/ i/ 1/

jy|mef;Oya'rsm;tm;jyifqifjcif; (Amending Statutes) rnf o nf h t csd e f w G i f jyif q if c suf r l M urf ; rsm;ud k a&;qG J o enf ; / (When are Amendments Drafted?)

rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfa,muftm; vuf&jdS y|mef;Oya'tm; jyifqif&ef rlMurf; a&;qGcJ idk ;f onfh tcgü rlvjy|mef;Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGpJ Ofuo hJ yYkd if pHpk rf;jyifqiftm;xkw&f rIrsm;tm; raqmif&u G f Edik &f ef taMumif;r&Syd g/ jy|mef;Oya'tm; jyifqifjcif;aMumifh rxifrw S f ½Iyaf xG;ayGvaD om wkejYf yef csurf sm; xGuaf y:vmEkid jf cif; &S?d r&Sd a&;qGo J u l BuKd owdjyKxm;&ef vdyk gonf/ ,if;Oya'twGi;f üyif rudkufnDrIrsm;jzpfay:vmaprnfavm/ ,if;jyifqifcsufouf a&mufEdkifap&eftwGuf useu f efo Y wfcsurf sm;udyk g jyifqif&ef vkrd nfavm/ oufa&mufatmifjyK&mwGif rajz&Si;f Edik o f nfh jyóemrsm; ay:vmrnfavm pojzifh jy|mef;Oya'tm; jyifqifvQif ay:vmEkid o f nfh tcuftcJ jyóemrsKd ;pHw k Ykd &Sad eaMumif;udk a&;qGcJ idk ;f ol trIonftm; owday;xm;&ef vdt k yfygonf/ txl;aumfrwDtzGUJ rS wifvu kd af om Oya'Murf; odrYk [kwf vTw G af wmfwiG f aqG;aEG;qJ tqkjd yKOya'Murf;wdu Yk v kd nf; jyifqif&ef aMu;pm;rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l kd wm0efay;Edik yf gonf/ trIonf \ vdt k yfcsuf "tyd'k f 405 udv k b H , D mc½dik t f wGi;f wnf&adS om vkyif ef;onf atmufazmfjyyg ypön;f rsm; xkwv f yk &f mwGif ...... pojzifh" 2/

jyifqifjcif;wGif yg0ifaomtydkif;rsm; (The Parts of an Amendment) jyifqifjcif;rsm;wGif tydik ;f (2)ydik ;f yg0ifygonf/ yxrtydik ;f wGif ",mOfEiS w hf al om bmom pum;"[k trnfwiG af om tydik ;f yg0ifonf/ ,if;onf vTwaf wmfoYkd wifoiG ;f aomOya'Murf;rSm vuf&jdS y|mef;Oya'udk jyifqifjcif;jzpfaMumif;udk ñTejf yygonf -

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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100 u/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

Oya'u jy|mef;xm;onfh pnf;rsOf;rsm; (Statutory Rules) ud"k Oya'ac: usix hf ;kH Oya'trsm;pkonf tm;vH;k aom usix hf ;kH Oya'rsm;udk NcKH irkH ad om teuft"dygÜ ,f jyefqrkd I odrYk [kwf wnfaqmufykH tyd'k rf sm;yg0ifMuygonf/ Oyrm - tar&duef jynfaxmifpk ud"k Oya'acgif;pOf(1) tcef;(1) wpdww f ydik ;f wGif atmufygtwkid ;f azmfjyavh yg&Syd g onf tjcm;pmom;rsm;jzifh ñTejf yjcif;r&Syd gu vTwaf wmfrS jy|mef;aom rnfonfOh ya'\ teuf t"dygÜ ,fukd zGiq hf &kd mwGif ♦ ta&twGufwpfckudk ñTef;aompum;vHk;rsm;onf vltrsm;tkyfpk odkYr[kwf t&m0w¬Krsm;vnf; tBuKH ;0ifygonf/ ♦ ta&twGuftrsm;udk ñTef;aompum;vHk;rsm;wGif wpfckcsif;? wpfOD;csif;udk tBuKH ;0ifygonf/ ♦ tzdu k kd ñTe;f aom pum;vH;k rsm;wGif trvnf; tBuKH ;0ifygonf/ jynfe,fOya'u jy|mef;xm;onfh teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefq&kd ef pnf;rsO;f rsm;onf jynfaxmifpk rS jy|mef;aom Oya'rsm; zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmufrI Oya'udk yHw k u l ;l xm;jcif;jzpfonf/ rsm;aomtm;jzifh ,if;pnf;rsO;f rsm;onf w&m;0ifazmfqckd surf sm;\ oP²mefukd aqmifygonf/ Oyrm"wpfO;D " qdak ompum;vH;k wGif aumfyakd &;&Si;f rsm;? ukrP Ü rD sm;? tzGUJ tpnf;rsm;? toif;rsm;? zufpyfrsm;ESihf ukrP Ü \ D &S,, f mrsm;yg0ifonf/ yk*¾vdutzGJUtpnf;wpfckwGif "tenf;qHk;&Sd&rnfh" ta&twGufqkdonfrSm Oya'rS owfrw S x f m;onfh ta&twGu\ f trsm;pkukd qkv d o dk nf/ ta&twGuf wpfcq k akd om pmom;rsKd ;udk toH;k jyKygu ta&twGuf trsm;pmom;udv k nf; tBuKH ;0ifap&ygrnf/ þuJhodkYaom jy|mef;Oya'atmufwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJaeolonf ,if;pnf;rsOf;rsm;ESifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf cdk surf sm;udk tpOfxnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&ef vdyk gonf/ wpfcgwpf&H ,if;jy|mef;Oya'uyif rnfoYkd oabmaygufEidk &f ef vdo k nfukd twdtvif;ñTeMf um;ygvdrrhf nf/ Oyrm - t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'udk qkw, f w k af paom jy|mef;Oya'tm; MuyfrwfpmG teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf &kd rnfqakd om pnf;rsO;f onf þOya'ESihf roufqidk af y/ Oya'jyKtzGUJ rS jy|mef;cJah om 1991ckEpS f Edik if o H m;tcGit hf a&;qdik &f m Oya'wGif t"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf jd ck if;ESihf ywfoufí w&m;½H;k rsm; vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf;qdik &f m pnf;rsO;f onf qd;k &Gm;aom Oyrm wpfcjk zpfygonf/ ,if;wGif twGJ -137? vTwaf wmfrw S w f rf; tufpf 15276 (aeYpOfxw k f atmufwb kd m 25? 1991)wGif azmfjyxm;aom jyefqkdcsufrSwfwrf;rSvGJí tjcm;rnfonfh xkwfjyefcsufudkrQ Ward Cove ukrP Ü t D rI\ Oya'jyK&mZ0if[k rowfrw S &f / odrYk [kwf txl;u@pD;yGm;a&;wpfc\ k vkt d yfcsu^f

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wd;k yGm;a&;^tpm;xd;k pD;yGm;a&;ponfwEYdk iS hf oufqidk af eonfh Oya' &mZ0if[v k nf;aumif; Oya' tm; oabmaygufap&ef toH;k jyKrcDS jkd cif;rjyK&/ vTwaf wmf\ OD;wnfcsujf zpfEidk af om þokYd jyóemudk vH;k 0ajz&Si;f Edik pf rG ;f r&So d nfh rSww f rf; udk tud;k tum;,l&ef ñTeMf um;xm;aMumif; awGU&S&d jcif;rSm tHMh op&mr[kwaf y/ c/

t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya'pnf;rsOf;rsm; (Common Law Rules) rMumcP toH;k jyKjcif;cH&aom teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefqjkd cif;qdik &f m pnf;rsO;f rsm;rSm w&m;½H;k rsm;rSyif xGuaf y:vmaom pnf;rsO;f rsm;jzpfygonf/ 1/ BuH&G,fcsufudk xdef;csKyfrIrsm; (Intent Controls) teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefqjkd cif;rsm;jyK&mwGif þu@onf ta&;tBu;D qH;k jzpfonf/ jy|mef;Oya' wpfct k m; xGuaf y:vm&ef Oya'jyKtzGUJ \ Mu&H , G cf sujf zpfap? aowrf;pmjyKpo k w l pfO;D \ Mu&H , G f csujf zpfap? pmcsKyjf yKvyk af eaom vlwpfp\ k Mu&H , G cf sujf zpfap? 4if;Mu&H , G cf su\ f txde;f tcsKyf onf ta&;BuD;qHk;jzpfonf/ trSefwu,f MuH&G,fcsufqkdonfrSm ed*Hk;csKyfwpfckomjzpfNyD; tcsuw f pfcrk [kwaf cs/ xdaYk Mumifh w&m;½H;k u þMu&H , G cf suu f kd &SmazGo&d &dS ef tcufBuKH avh&o dS nf/ xdaYk Mumifh w&m;½H;k rsm;u atmufazmfjyyg tajccHtm;jzifh uGjJ ym;aeaom enf;ESpcf u k kd oH;k Ny;D tajz&Smavh&MdS uygonf/ u) ½d k ; &S i f ; aomt"d y Ü g ,f od k Y r [k w f axmih f a v;axmih f p nf ; rsOf ; (The Plain Meaning or Four corners)

þpnf;rsO;f t& w&m;½H;k wpfco k nf pmcsKypf mwrf;wpfct k m; t"dygÜ ,fjyefq&dk mü pmcsKyf\ axmihfav;axmihftwGif;a&;om;xm;aom t½dk;&Sif;qHk;pmom;rsm;jzihfom t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ykd gonf/ omrefpum;vH;k rsm;twGuf tbd"mefwiG yf g&Sad om t½d;k &Si;f qH;k t"dygÜ ,fjyef qkcd suu f kd ,l&Ny;D uRr;f usirf q I idk &f m pum;vH;k rsm;twGuf txl;jyefqx dk m;aom t"dygÜ ,fukd ,l&ygonf/ 0gusrsm;tm; oabmaygufap&ef owfyo kH wfñeT ;f pnf;rsO;f rsm; t& oabm aygufaponf/ þenf;jzifh jy|mef;Oya'wpfcw k iG f yg0ifonhf pum;vH;k rsm; tm; t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &dk mü w&m;½H;k onf Oya'jzpfay:vmyHk ordik ;f tm;vnf;aumif;? jy|mef; Oya'\ &nf&, G cf su?f a&SmifusOv f akd om vky&f yf? &&Sv d akd om aumif;rGeo f nfh OD;wnfcsuf ESihf Oya'\ tjcm;aomoufqidk o f nfh oufaotaxmuftxm;rsm;tm;vH;k udk vpfvsL&SK wwfMuonf/ xked nf;wlpmG yif pmcsKyf odrYk [kwf tjcm;yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m pm&Gupf mwrf; rsm;tm; oabmaygufap&ef aqmif&u G af eaom w&m;½H;k onfvnf; aqG;aEG;n§Ed iId ;f &mZ0if? ESpzf ufpvH;k rS xkwjf yefcsurf sm;? pmcsKyt f & vkyaf qmifrI tqifq h ifh ukeo f , G af &; odrYk [kwf tjcm;oufaorsm; toH;k jyKykH odrYk [kwf tjcm;OD;wnfcsuf taxmuftxm;rsm; ponfwYkd

102

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tm;vH;k udk vspv f sL½I&rnfjzpfonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm;onf þaxmihaf v;axmifh pnf;rsO;f odrYk [kwf ½d;k &Si;f aom t"dygÜ ,fpnf;rsO;f udk rMumcPtodtrSwjf yK aqmif&u G Mf uaomf vnf; wif;MuyfpmG oufa&muf&ef jyKvyk rf I enf;yg;ygonf/ xkjYd yif txufyg pnf;rsO;f ü t"dygÜ ,ftrsKd ;rsKd ;aumufEidk jf cif;ESihf vH;k 0oabmrus t"dygÜ ,fuif;rJah om tajzrsm; xGuaf y:rI[í l cRi;f csuEf pS cf k yg&Sad eygonf/ yxrtcsuf rSmrl pnf;rsO;f \ tjyeftvSef oufa&mufrw I pfco k mjzpfojzifh cRi;f csut f "dygÜ ,f odyf raqmifaomfvnf; ½dk;&Sif;aom t"dyÜg,fr&SdonfhtwGuf t"dyÜg,ftrsdK;rsdK;xGufygu w&m;½H;k rsm;onf tjcm;jyifyrS enf;vrf;rsm;oH;k Ny;D wduspmG t"dygÜ ,f&mS ,ljcif;jzifh jy|mef; Oya' odrYk [kwf pmcsKy\ f &nf&, G cf suu f kd &SmazG&ygonf/ xked nf;wlpmG yif tyd'k w f pfco k nf ½d;k &Si;f aomt"dygÜ ,f&adS omfvnf; obm0rus onfh tajzudk xGuaf y:vmaponf[k w&m;½H;k rsm;u ,lqygu ,if;jyefqcdk suu f kd vpfvsL ½INy;D tjcm;jzpfEidk af cs&o dS nfh teuft"dygÜ ,f jyefqcdk suu f o dk m w&m;½H;k u oH;k rnfjzpfonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh NrKd UwpfNrKd UwGif oufqidk &f mu jy|mef;xm;onfh trdet Yf & t&ufqidk t f m;vH;k onf noef;acgif,H (12)em&DwiG f ydw&f rnfjzpfonf/ ydik &f iS w f pfa,mufonf ol\ t&ufqidk t f m; n(12)em&DwiG f ydwv f u dk Nf y;D aemuf (5)rdepftMumwGif jyefziG v hf u kd o f nf/ t&ufqidk o f nf n (12)em&Dtcsed w f iG f ydwx f m;ojzihf rl&if;trdepYf mom;ESihf vH;k 0udu k n f aD e ojzifh ydik &f iS o f nf trdet Yf m; remcHjcif; r[kwaf y/ þonfrmS vH;k 0obm0rusaom tajzwpfck jzpfygonf/ þpnf;rsO;f \ tm;enf;csurf mS vlwpfO;D wpfa,muftwGuf obm0rus t"dygÜ ,f r&Sd jzpfaeaomt&monf usew f pfO;D wpfa,muftwGuf oihw f ihrf Qwaom qH;k jzwfcsuf wpfck jzpfEidk yf gonf/ tjcm;trIwpfru I kd OyrmjyK&ygu atmufw&m;½H;k u jy|mef;Oya' wpf&yf\ wnfaqmufyw kH pfct k m; "pOf;pm;íyifr&Edik "f [k qH;k jzwfcyhJ gonf/ t,lcw H &m;½H;k url oabmrwlonft h wGuf ,if;wnfaqmufyt kH wkid ;f qufvuf vkyaf qmifomG ;cJh ygonf/ t,lcw H &m;½H;k u xdu k pd Eö iS yhf wfoufNy;D "uREykf w f Ykd qH;k jzwfcsucf sNy;D pOf;pm;íyif r&Edik &f ef taMumif;r&" [lí qH;k jzwfcyhJ gonf/ Simmon Vs Robinson, 399 S.E.2d 605, 611n. 5 (S.C Ct. App. 1990) pD & if x H k ; / c) ol w pf y g;tusd K ;zsuf q D ; rI q k d i f & m pnf ; rsOf ; ES i f h tjcm;&nf & G , f c suf j y taxmuftxm;rsm; (The Mischief Rule and Other Evidences) w&m;olBu;D Oliver Wendell Holmes u rSwcf sucf sb;l onfrmS "pum;vH;k qko d nfrmS MunfvifaeNy;D rajymif;vJbaJ ewwfonfh ovif;ausmufwpfck r[kwyf g/ ,if;rSm toHk;jyKonfh tcsdeftcgESifh tajctaersm;udkvdkufNyD; ta&mifESifhyg0ifrI

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103

tajymif;tvJ tvGerf sm;aom &Sio f efaeonft h awG;\ tay:,Hta&jym;jzpfonf" [kqykd gonf/ Holmes ESihf ,if;\ Oya'yg&*ltzGUJ onf ½d;k &Si;f aomt"dygÜ ,fpnf;rsO;f tm; txifrBu;D Muyg/ ¤if;wdt Yk m;vH;k ,HMk unfMuonfrmS &nf&, G cf suo f nf t"dutxde;f tcsKyf jzpfNy;D ,if;&nf&, G cf sut f m; taotcsmjzpfapEkid af om oufqidk &f m tcsut f m;vH;k udk xnho f iG ;f pOf;pm;&ef vdt k yfonf/ pmcsKyrf sm; wzef jyefvnfaMujimcsut f & Seconds u qufvufajymMum;&mü "pum;vH;k rsm;ESihf tjcm;vkyaf qmifcsuf tajctaetm;vH;k tm; oH;k oyfNy;D rS teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefq&dk ef ..." jy|mef;Oya'udk oabmaygufap&ef teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefqcdk surf sm;tm;vH;k \ tajc taeonf tEÅ&m,f okrYd [kwf qk;d usKd ;oufa&mufrt I m; ,if;Oya'u jyefvnf aumif;rGef vmap&ef odrYk [kwf aumif;usKd ;&Sad p&ef rnfojYkd yKvyk x f m;yHt k ay:wGif wnf&adS eonf [k ,if;wdu Yk ,lqygonf/ olwpfyg;tusKd ;zsuq f ;D rIqidk &f m pnf;rsO;f \ tpGe;f a&mufyu kH JG wpfco k nf Oya'\&nf&, G cf suu f kd ausmv f eG o f mG ;Ny;D Oya'\ tESpo f m&udk pl;prf;ygonf/ þpl;prf;csuu f kd wpfcgwpf&w H iG f "tzGUJ 0if oH;k a,mufyg txG#t f jrwf bk&m;ausmif; 0g'"[lí ac:wGiyf gonf/ þodYk trnfwiG &f jcif; taMumif;&if;rSm e,l;a,mufNrKd U&Sd bk&m;&Scd ;kd ausmif;wGif w&m;a[m&eftwGuf t*FvefrS bke;f awmfBu;D wpfyg;tm; c&D;p&dwf tuket f uscNH y;D tar&duefjynfaxmifpo k Ykd yifv h mojzifh ay:aygufvmaom trIay:wGif tajccHNy;D xGuaf y:vmjcif;jzpfygonf/ xdt k csed üf tar&duefjynfaxmifpo k Ykd vl0ifryI w d yf if xm;ojzifh qkdif&mOya'csdK;azmufrIjzifh ,if;bk&m;ausmif;udk w&m;pGJjcif;jzpfygonf/ odaYk omfvnf; w&m;½H;k u trIukd y,fcyhJ gonf/ w&m;½H;k \ qH;k jzwfcsurf mS "t&mwpfco k nf jy|mef;Oya'wGif wduspmG azmfjyxm;aom pum;vH;k rsm;\abmiftwGi;f yg0ifaomfjim; vnf; ,if;Oya'abmiftwGi;f roufa&mufEidk af y/ tb,haf Mumifq h akd omf w&m;Oya'\ tESpo f m&ESihf tBuKH ;r0ifíjzpfonf"[k jzpfygonf/ Holy Trinity Church Vs United States, 143 U.S 457 (1892). pD & if x H k ; / pmcsKyrf sm;ESihf tjcm;yk*v ¾ u d Oya'qdik &f m pm&Gupf mwrf;wdu Yk kd teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf &kd mwGif w&m;½H;k rsm;onf ½d;k &Si;f aomt"dygÜ ,f odrYk [kwf axmihaf v;axmifph nf;rsm;udk rMumcP ausmv f eG Nf y;D &nf&, G cf suu f kd &SmwwfMuygonf/ þtcgrsKd ;ü w&m;½H;k rsm;u pmcsKyn f Ed§ iId ;f rI &mZ0if? wpfcsed w f nf;wGif ay:aygufcahJ om oabmwlpmcsKyrf sm;ESihf tjcm; jyóemrsm;udk Munf½h w I wfMuygonf/ UCC t& ta&mif;t0,fwpfc\ k &nf&, G cf suu f kd od&Sd&ef ta&mif;t0,f vkyfudkifrIrsm;? ,cifaqmif&Gufcsufrsm;ESifh aqmif&Gufcsuf tqifq h ifw h o Ykd nfvnf; pmcsKy\ f wpfpw d f wpfyikd ;f jzpfayonf/ ,if;wdrYk w S pfqifh &nf&, G f csuu f kd od&EdS ikd yf gonf/

104 *)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; rlMurf;a&;qGJaeoltay: oufa&mufrIrsm; (Effects on Drafters) Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eol wpfa,mufonf ½d;k &Si;f aom t"dygÜ ,fpnf;rsO;f (,if;\ cRi;f csuf rsm;rSty)ESifh olwpfyg;tay: qdk;usdK;oufa&mufrIqkdif&m pnf;rsOf;wkdYtm; pGJNrJpGm rSwo f m;&efvkd ygonf/ w&m;½H;k taejzifh trIwpfct k m; qH;k jzwf&mwGif rnfonfeh nf;udk oH;k rnfukd cefrY eS ;f &ef rvG,u f al Mumif; oabmaygufxm;&ef vdyk gonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J \ l &nf&, G cf suo f nf jzpfay:vmrnfh qH;k jzwfcsut f m; xde;f odr;f Ekid &f efyif jzpfonf/ þokYd xde;f odr;f vdu k jf cif;jzifh xGuaf y:vmyHk rsKd ;pH&k EdS idk yf gonf/ OD;pGmtaeESihf rlMurf;a&;olonf ½d;k &Si;f aomteuft"dygÜ ,f pnf;rsO;f oH;k onfh twGuaf Mumifh 4if;onf trSew f u,f ½d;k &Si;f aomt"dygÜ ,faqmifaom pum;&yfrsm;udk oH;k &efjzpfonf/ þodYk aqmif&u G jf cif;aMumifh aumif;aomtusKd ;qufukd &&Syd gonf/ w&m;½H;k csKyu f jy|mef;Oya'wpfct k ay: teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf v kd u kd jf cif; ESihf ywfoufí w&m;olBu;D Sandra Day O’Connor tm; txufvw T af wmftrwf Warren Rudman u "uREykf w f Ykd trSew f u,f a&;om;vdu k o f nft h wkid ;f yif jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk w&m;olBu;D wdrYk S teuft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf v kd u kd yf gu vTwaf wmfu wpfcgwpf&H pdwn f pf&ygw,f" [lí Ni;D wGm;bl;ygonf/ 'kw, d taejzifh tu,fí pm&Gupf mwrf;teuf t"dygÜ ,fjyefqrdk t I m; ½d;k &Si;f aom enf;vrf;jzifh w&m;½H;k rsm;u aqmif&u G af p&ef &nf&, G yf gu rlMurf;a&;olonf xdo k Ykd twdtvif;azmfjyoifh ygonf/ xdo k Ykd aqmif&u G Ef idk &f ef &Si;f vif;aom azmfjycsuw f pfcu k kd xnfv h suf pum;vH;k rsm; t"dygÜ ,fonf omref½;kd &Si;f aom t"dygÜ ,fyifjzpfaMumif;ESihf &nf&, G cf suu f kd tjcm;enf;jzifh &SmazG&ef tvm;tvmudk twdtusyif z,fxw k o f ifh ygonf/ wwd,taejzifh jy|mef;Oya'wGiyf gonfh ta&;ygpum;vH;k rsm; vTr;f rd;k rIjzpfapEkid f onfh tajctaetzHzk u kH kd rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l BuKd wifcefrY eS ;f &ef jzpfygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJ olu obm0rus t"dygÜ ,fr&Sjd zpfEidk o f nf[k xifrw S o f jzifh jzpfEidk af cs&adS om teuf t"dygÜ ,fjyefqckd sut f m; jzpfEikd af csr&S[ d k r,lqoifyh g/ tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J l onf udp&ö yfwpfcu k kd *½kjyKajz&Si;f aeaomfvnf; xGuaf y:vmaom &v'fukd oabmrwlol &Syd gu rlMurf;a&;olonf trIonf\ rl&if;&nf&, G cf suf wdus&iS ;f vif;jywfom;pGmjzifh yg0if&ef ydrk *kd ½kjyK aqmif&u G &f ygrnf/ pwkw¬taejzifh rlMurf;a&;olu pmcsKyfpmwrf; teuft"dyÜg,fjyefqkd&mwGif w&m;½Hk;taeESifh vGwfvyfus,fjyefYpGm vkyfaqmifapvdkvQif xdkodkYaqmif&GufEdkif&ef t&if;tjrpfrsm;udk xdpk m&Gupf mwrf;twGi;f odYk xnfo h iG ;f oifyh gonf/ ,if;udk jy|mef;Oya' \ ed'gef;ydik ;f odrYk [kwf pmcsKy\ f pum;cs;D wGif xnfo h iG ;f Edik yf gonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 2/

105

MuyfrwfpGm t"dyÜg,fjyefqkdjcif;pnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Strict Construction) w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf atmufazmfjyygtwkdif; jy|mef;Oya'tcsdKUudk wif;usyf usO;f ajrmif;pGm t"dygÜ ,fjyefqadk vh&MdS uygonf/ jypf r I q k d i f & mjy|mef ; Oya'rsm; (Criminal Statutes) rIcif;qkdif&m jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk wif;MuyfpGm teuft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk&jcif;rSm tpdk;&rS xkwjf yefonhf trderYf sm;udk jynforl sm;tm; BuKd wiftoday;&ef vdak omaMumifjh zpfonf/ Oyrmwpfcjk y&aomf vlwpfO;D tm; av,mOfEiS hf ywfoufNy;D w&m;pGjJ cif;cH&ygonf/ ,if;odYk w&m;pG&J mwGif toH;k jyKaom jy|mef;Oya'wGif azmfjycsurf mS "armfawmf,mOf"qdo k nfrmS "armfawmfum;wpfp;D ? ukew f ifum;? vltrsm;o,faqmifEidk o f nfu h m;? armfawmfqikd u f ,f odrYk [kwf tjcm;aom oHvrf;ay:wGif oGm;vmekid &f ef r[kwb f J ud, k yf ikd , f EÅ&m;jzifh armif;ESif oGm;vmediaf om ,mOfjzpf&rnf"[k azmfqx dk m;ygonf/ Oya'oufa&mufrrI mS armfawmf ,mOfwpfp;D ESio hf m oufqidk af eojzifh atmufygtwkid ;f w&m;olBu;D Holmes u oH;k oyfchJ ygonf/ av,mOfqadk om pum;vH;k rSm jy|mef;Oya'wGif yg&So d nfh "okrYd [kwf tjcm;aom" [lí t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suw f iG f tBuKH ;0ifEikd af omfvnf; "omref vlwpfa,muftaeESihf oHvrf;ay:wGif r[kwb f J ud, k yf ikd , f EÅ&m;jzifh armif;ESio f mG ;vmekid af om,mOf" qko d nfrmS av,mOf[k t"dygÜ ,faumuf,Ml uvdrrhf nfr[kw[ f k oH;k oyfcyhJ gonf/ xkaYd Mumifh jypfrI qkid &f m jy|mef;Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J w l pfO;D onf &Si;f vif;? wdus? jywfom;pGm a&;om;&ef vdyk gonf/ t*F v d y f ½ k d ; &mOya'ud k qk w f , k w f a paom jy|mef ; Oya'rsm; (Statutes in Derogation of the Common Law)

t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'tm; ,kwaf vsmah ponfh jy|mef;Oya'rsm;\ wnfaqmufyu kH kd xde;f csKyf wif;Muyfaponfh pnf;rsO;f rsm;ay:vmjcif; taMumif;&if;wpfcrk mS Oya'tm;vTwaf wmfrS rjy|mef;rDu Oya'trsm;pkukd w&m;olBu;D rS jyKvyk cf jhJ cif;jzpfygonf/ xdt k csed t f cgonf w&m;½H;k rsm;u vTwaf wmf\ Oya'xkwjf yefciG t hf mPmrsm;udk rauseyfremvdjk zpfaeonhf tcsed t f cgjzpfygonf/ ,cktcg t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'onf ,ckuo hJ Ykd xifay:jcif;r&Sad wmhay/ xdUk aMumifv h nf; ,cktcgwGif vTwaf wmfrS Oya'rsm;a&;qGjJ cif;? jy|mef;jcif;udv k nf; w&m; olBu;D rsm;u rauseyf? rvdv k m;rIrsm; r&Sad wmhyg/ ,if;pnf;rsO;f ta&;Bu;D pGm qufvuftouf0if wnf&adS e&eftwGuf taMumif; jycsuo f nf ½d;k &mOya'\ obm0ESihf qufpyfaeygonf/ ½d;k &mOya'pnf;rsO;f rsm;onf tcsuftvufydkif;wGif a,bl , susNyD ; wnf a qmuf r I r &S d ? quf E G , f r I j rif h r m;NyD ;

106

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tem;uGyfr&Sdaom yifhulrQifrsm;ESifh wlaeygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J l onf owdrrlbJ ½d;k &mOya'wpfct k m; jyKjyifvu kd yf gvQif use&f adS eonfh ½d;k &mOya'rsm; tay:odYk rarQmv f ihaf om oufa&mufrrI sm; usa&mufjzpfay:vmekid af Mumif; oabmayguf xm;&ef vdyk gonf/ xdaYk Mumifh xdjk yKjyifonft h csuu f kd wwfEikd o f rQ usO;f ajrmif;pGm t"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf &kd rnf/ w&m;½H k ; \ w&m;pD & if y d k i f c G i f h u d k yd w f y if o nf h jy|mef ; Oya'rsm; (Statutes Depriving a Court of Jurisdiction)

þae&mü w&m;a&;qkid &f m ta&;ygrIrsm;u qufvufNy;D cdik rf mpGm ae&m,lygonf/ w&m;½Hk;rsm;rSm tpdk;&\nDrQaom tmPmwpfckjzpfNyD; w&m;a&;wGif Oya'jyKtzGJUrS 0ifa&muf usL;ausmv f rT ;f rd;k rIukd ESpo f ufrnfr[kwaf y/ tar&duefEidk if \ H zGUpJ nf;yHt k ajccH Oya'ESihf jynfe,ftajccHOya'wkw Yd iG f w&m;½H;k rsm;\ w&m;pD&ifyikd cf iG u hf kd t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf dk jy|mef;xm;ygonf/ xdzk UJG pnf;yHyk g jy|mef;csurf sm;\t"dygÜ ,fukd zGiq hf &kd efrmS w&m;½H;k rsm;rS qH;k jzwf&efjzpfaMumif;udk w&m;olBu;D csKyf John Marshall u xkwaf zmfajymMum;bl;ygonf/ w&m;pD&ifa&;qkid &f m jy|mef;Oya'rlMurf;udk a&;qGaJ eolonf tajccHOya'\ owfrw S f csurf sm;tjyif w&m;½H;k rsm;rS 4if;wd\ Yk w&m;pD&ifyikd cf iG rhf sm;udk obm0uspmG umuG,Mf u rnfukd BuKd wifcefrY eS ;f xm;&ef vdt k yfygonf/ jynfaxmifpzk UJG pnf;yHk tajccHOya'u jzpfap? jynfe,fzUJG pnf;yHk tajccHOya'ujzpfap Oya'jyKvw T af wmftm; w&m;pD&ifyikd cf iG t hf mPmudk cGaJ 0ay;Ekid cf iG jhf yKxm;aomfjim;vnf; uefo Y wfjy|mef;Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf txl; owdxm;Ny;D wdusaocsmpGm rlMurf;a&;qG&J efjzpfonf/ tcsKyf t jcmtmPmud k qk w f , k w f a ponf h jy|mef ; Oya'rsm; (Statutes in Derogation of Sovereignty)

yx0De,fajrowfrw S cf suw f pfct k wGi;f trderYf sm; xkwjf yefNy;D xdt k rderYf sm;udk xda&mufpmG oufa&mufapEkdifonfh tmPmonf tcsKyftjcmtmPm[k ac:qdkekdifNyD;? ,if; þ tcsKyt f csmtmPmonf tjzpfreS t f csurf sm;ay:wGif wnfaqmufxm;av&m ,if;r&Su d Oya'rsm;onfvnf; r&SEd idk af y/ tar&duefjynfaxmifpw k iG f xdt k csKyt f jcmtmPmudk jynfaxmifpt k pk;d &ESihf jynfe,ftpd;k &wkYd tMum;wGif cGaJ 0xm;Ny;D ,if;wdt Yk wGi;f ü tmPmudk oH;k ydik ;f wpfzefcJG xm;jyefygonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm;onf tcsKyt f jcmtmPm tawmfrsm;rsm; &Sad om tydik ;f wpfck jzpfNy;D tjcm;ESpyf ikd ;f rS wpfyikd ;f u tmPmtcsKd Utm; vGaJ y;&ef jyifqif vmonf[k xifvsuf rouFmjzpfvmwwfonf/ tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh tcsKyt f jcmtmPm udk pGev Yf w G jf cif;onf tvGeq f ef;us,af om jzpf&yfwpfct k jzpf ,lqMuonf/ xkaYd Mumifh txufyg taMumif;wpfcck k okrYd [kwf ESpcf pk vH;k aMumifh w&m;½H;k rsm;u tcsKyt f jcmtmPm

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107

udk qkw, f w k af paom jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk azmfaqmif&mü jywfom;? wdus? usO;f ajrmif;pGm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ykd gonf/ jynfaxmifpEk iS hf jynfe,fqidk &f m w&m;repfemrI Oya'rsm;onf þpnf;rsO;f \ vIy&f mS ; vkyaf qmifyu kH kd ay:vGiaf paom Oyrmwpfcjk zpfonf/ tcsKyt f jcmtmPm\ odom xif&mS ;Ny;D oufaojy&ef rvdo k nft h csurf mS "bk&ifonf trSm; (Oya'qkid &f m)jyKjcif; r&Sed idk yf g" xkaYd Mumifh ,if;tm; Oya't& w&m;pGq J jdk cif; rjyKvyk Ef idk yf g/ xdaYk Mumifh tpd;k & trIxrf;rsm;tay:wGif w&m;rrIrsm;pGJqkdcGifhjyKaom jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk wif;usyf usO;f ajrmif;pGm t"dygÜ ,fjyefqadk vh&ydS gonf/ þodaYk om jy|mef;Oya'rsm;udk rlMurf;a&;qGo J l onf txl;owdxm;Ny;D wdusjywfom;pGm azmfaqmifomG ;&ef jzpfygonf/ 3/

orrQwpG m teuf t "d y Ü g ,f a umuf a om pnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Liberal Construction)

w&m;½Hk;rsm;u rMumcPaMujimonfrSm rdrd&nfñTef;onfht&mESifh &nf&G,fcsufwkdY oufa&mufrI &Sdap&eftwGuf wnfqJOya'wpf&yfudk jyifqifonfhOya'onf orrQwpGm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd efvakd om Oya'wpf&yf jzpfygonf/ wnfqOJ ya'udk jyifqifonfOh ya'rsKd ;onf vuf&dS &Sad eaom odrYk [kwf topfzefw;D vdu k af om jy|mef;Oya'yg trSm;udk ukpm;ay;aom jy|mef;Oya'jzpfonf/ odjYk zpf&m Edik if o H m; tcGit hf a&;qdik &f m Oya'rsm;onf ukpm;rIay;aom Oya'rsdK;wGif tBuHK;0ifygonf/ odkYjzpf&m teuft"dyÜg,fudk usOf;ajrmif;pGm uefYowfNyD; teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef owfrw S x f m;aom Oya'trsKd ;tpm;xJwiG f xnfo h iG ;f xm;jcif; r&Syd gu? w&m;½H;k rsm;onf xdOk ya'rsKd ;udk orrQwpGm teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ykd gvdrrhf nf/ Oya'jyKol rdr\ d trIonf\ vdt k yfcsurf mS þtwkid ;f xyfwjl zpfrnfqydk gu aumif;rGeyf gonf/ þodYk &nf&, G jf cif; r[kwyf gu? rlMurf;a&;olonf tvGew f u d spmG jzifh a&;om;&efvNdk y;D owfrw S af bmiftwGi;f odUk 0ifap&ef owdjyKa&;om;&ygrnf/ 4/ t&mwpfck\ t"dyÜg,fazmfxkwfa&;om;jcif;onf tjcm;wpfcktm; z,fxkwfjcif; pnf;rsOf sOf;/ (The Rule of Expressio Unius Est Exclusio Alterius) þpnf;rsO;f aMumifh pmcsKyw f pfcük yg0ifonf0h w¬KtcsKd Utm; pm&if;oGi;f azmfjyxm;vQif ,if;pm&if;onf oD;oefpY m&if;jzpfomG ;onfqadk om rSm;,Gi;f onfh tawG;tac:udk jzpfapwwf ygonf/ Oyrm-c½dik w f pfct k wGi;f &Sd O,smOfrsm; toH;k csykH pnf;rsO;f owfrw S Ef idk &f ef ,if;c½dik \ f wpfcsuv f w T f Oya'u oufqidk &f m O,smOfñeT Mf um;a&;rSL;csKyu f kd taxGaxGtrdeaYf y;cGirhf sm; jyKvu kd o f nf/ wpfcsed w f nf;rSmyif ,if;wpfcsuv f w T f Oya'u csrw S o f nfh owfrw S cf surf mS -

108

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

O,smOftwGi;f zsiw f aJ qmufxm;&efae&mESihf udu k (f 100)twGi;f &Sd avQmufvrf;rsm;ay:ü armfawmfqidk u f ,frsm; qdik u f ,ftao;pm;rsm;? bufx&Djzifh oGm;aomvSn;f i,frsm;ESihf tjcm; pufwyf,mOfrsm; pD;eif;cGit hf m; O,smOfrLS ;u wm;jrpfyw d yf ifEidk o f nf/ þodq Yk &dk mü vlomG ;vrf;rsm; ay:wGif pufrwyfqifxm;aom vSn;f i,frsm;udyk g rpD;&ef ydwyf ifciG t hf mPm O,smOfrLS ;ü &Syd g ovm;/ tajzrSm ydwyf ifciG rhf &S[ d k ,lqEkid zf , G &f ydS gonf/ O,smOfrLS ;u rnfoaYkd om vlomG ;vrf;rsm; ay:wGif rnfoYkd t&mrsm;oGm;vmjcif;udk ydwyf ifEidk o f nfukd wpfcsuv f w T Of ya'wGif xnho f iG ;f a&;om;jcif;onf rlMurf;a&;olrsm;u abmifausmo f mG ;jcif; jzpfygonf/ þodx Yk nfo h iG ;f azmfjyvdu k jf cif;jzifh oD;oefpY m&if;udk zefw;D &ma&mufygonf/ O,smOfrLS ;onf ,if;udk jyifqifEkdif&ef tmPm&Sdaomfjim;vnf; xdkodkYoD;oefYpm&if; xkwfjyefonfh oabm oufa&mufomG ;jcif;aMumifh jiif;cHzk , G &f m jzpfvmygonf/ taMumif;tcsuw f pfcck t k m; pm&if;wGif xnho f iG ;f azmfjyxm;jcif;r&So d jzifh vufawGU toH;k cs&ef cufcv J m&m Oya'azmfaqmif&mü a&SUaemuf pum;tquftpyf r&Sjd cif;wdaYk Mumifh tar&duef w&m;½H;k csKyu f txufyg pnf;rsO;f tm; tueft Y owfEiS hf oH;k &ef ñTeMf um;xm;ygonf/ jzpfoiho f nfrmS pm&if;wGif rygbJ csev f yS cf &H onfh t&mrsm;\ obm0u þodYk csev f yS jf cif;odYk OD;wnf&ef vkyaf qmifcjhJ cif;jzpfaMumif; jyoazmfxw k &f ef jzpfonf/ w&m;½H;k wpfcu k azmfaqmif xm;onfrmS "a,bl,sOya'onf ESprf sKd ;xufyNkd y;D tpOfvu kd &f adS eaom t&mwdo Yk nf olUobm0 tavsmuf wGb J ufomG ;MuaMumif;? ,if;t&mwkrYd mS tajctaet& twdck sKH ;xm;Ny;D wpfajy;nD jzpfaeav&m csev f yS cf o hJ nfh t&mwdrYk mS rlvuyif csev f yS x f m;&ef &nf&, G cf su&f cdS NhJ y;D awG;ac: qifjcifru I kd taxmuftuljyKaeygonf" Chevron U.S.A Inc. v Echazabal, 536 U.S 73, 81, 2050 (2002) (Citing E. Crawford, Construction of Statutes 337 (1940)

þtrIü roefprG ;f Oya'u tvky&f iS rf sm;tm; t&nftcsi;f pHcsed rf sm; jynfph akH eap&ef txl;vkyyf ikd cf iG hf ay;cJyh gonf/ þt&mü "t&nftcsi;f pHcsed rf sm;" qdo k nfrmS "tvkycf iG üf vlwpfO;D wpfa,mufonf usev f yk af zmfuikd zf ufrsm;\ use;f rma&;ESihf vHNk cKH a&;wdt Yk ay: wdu k ½f u kd Nf crd ;f ajcmufrI r&Sad p&"[laom vdt k yfcsuyf g0ifEikd yf gonf/ txufazmfjyyg pnf;rsOf;udk toHk;csNyD; tcsdKUw&m;½Hk;rsm;onf roefpGrf;olwpfOD;\ vkyaf qmifro I nf ,if;wpfO;D wnf;tay: tEÅ&m,fusa&mufapEdik v f Qif ,if;vltm; tvkyf 0ifa&muf vkyu f ikd jf cif;rS wm;jrpfcsuu f kd qefu Y sio f nf[, k q l Muygonf/ Ekid if aH wmfw&m;½H;k csKyu f rl oabmrwlcyhJ g/ tjcm;vlrsm;tay: tEÅ&m,fusa&mufEidk rf q I o dk nfrmS t&nftcsi;f pHcsed u f kd jyaom Oyrmwpfco k mjzpfaMumif; OD;pGm axmufjyygonf/ xkjYd yif w&m;½H;k csKyaf wGU&Scd surf mS tjcm;olrsm; tay: tEÅ&m,fusa&mufeidk af pjcif;ESihf rdrt d ay: tEÅ&m,fjyef usa&mufEidk jf cif;wdrYk mS omref

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

109

tm;jzifh twGv J u kd yf gonft h &mrsm; r[kwaf cs/ xdaYk Mumifh wpfcu k akd &;&ef csev f yS x f m;cJyh gu ¤if;tm; jynfrh &DS ef t&nftcsi;f pHcsed rf S csev f yS o f nfh oabmjzpfonf[k r,lqEkid yf g/ roefrpGr;f olrsm;onf vkyif ef;cGiw f iG f rdrt d ay:rdrt d EÅ&m,f usa&mufapEkid o f rl sm; jzpfí csev f yS Mf uonf/ "tvkyEf iS hf qufE, G af eNy;D pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;udk vdt k yfcsuEf iS hf udu k n f o D nf" odjYk zpf&m ,if;tcsuu f kd jynfrh &DS rnfh t&nftcsi;f pHcsed w f pfck jzpfaMumif; tus,w f 0ihf prf;oyfcsujf zpfNy;D w&m;½H;k csKyf u ,cktcsed t f xd usio fh ;kH qJjzpfonf/ odaYk omfjim;vnf; pnf;rsO;f udk rdrad cgif;xJwiG x f m;Ny;D rlMurf;a&;qG&J efjzpfonf/ pm&if; wpfcu k kd oD;oef&Y nfñeT ;f xm;vQif a&;qGo J u l xdpk m&if;onf oD;jcm;pm&if;jzpfNy;D ta&;Bu;D aMumif; xkwjf yef&rnf/ ,if;pm&if;rSm oD;oefrY [kwyf guvnf; qDavsmo f nfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm;jzifh jyefq&dk ef jzpfonf/ þodYk jyefqEdk idk &f ef rlMurf;a&;qGo J l trsm;pkonf r&Si;f aomfvnf; tvH;k pHyk gonfh enf;tjyif "ESi"hf ? "tjcm;" qko d nfh pum;&yfrsm;udk rMumcP oH;k Muonf/ þodYk rlMurf;a&;enf;rSmrl tvGet f EÅ&m,fBu;D rm;aMumif;udk aemufazmfjyrnfh pnf;rsO;f wGif awGU&S&d rnfjzpfo f nf/ 5/

trsdK;tpm;wl pnf;rsOf; (The Rule Ejusdem Generis) 0guswpfcw k iG f wdusaom t&mtcsKd Uyg0ifNy;D 0gusaemufq;kH ü tvH;k pHNk cKH irkH ad omf &Si;f vif;rI r&So d nfrsm; [laom "tjcm;tvm;wlrsm;" a,bl,sqefpmG tqH;k owfxm;ygu ,if;a,bl,s pmyd'k t f a&SUydik ;f ü yg&Scd ahJ om pum;vH;k rsm;u ,if;tyd'k u f kd uefo Y wfvu kd af Mumif;udk trsKd ;wlpnf;rsO;f wGif azmfjyxm;ygonf/ ,if;pnf;rsO;f udk toH;k jyK&mwGif a&S;OD;pGmpm&if;ygt&mrsm;txJrS wlnaD om vu©Pmwpf&yfukd a&G;cs,Nf y;D vQif "tjcm;" qko d nfh a,bl,swu Ykd kd ,if;wlaom vu©Pmwl yg0ifjcif; &S^d r&Sd tay:rlwnfí uefo Y wf&rnf/ odaYk omf xdo k u Ykd efo Y wfvu dk jf cif;onf tEÅ&m,f &Sad Mumif; atmufygOyrmt& od&EdS ikd yf gonf jynfaxmifpjk zefajza&;cH½k ;kH tufOya' þudpw ö iG f atmufazmfjyyg yk*Kd¾ vrf sm; yg0ifonfh pmcsKyrf sm;ESihf vH;k 0roufqidk af p& oabFmom;rsm;? rD;&xm;tvkyform;rsm; odkYr[kwf EkdifiHjcm;ukefoG,fa&; odkYr[kwf wkid ;f tcsi;f csi;f tMum;ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;wdw Yk iG f vkyu f ikd v f su&f adS om tvkyo f rm;rsm; tajccHzUJG pnf;yHOk ya't&qkv d Qif Ekid if jH cm;ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&; odrYk [kwf wpfwikd ;f ESihf wpfwikd ;f ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;onf tvGerf yS if us,jf yefaY omoabmudak qmifNy;D rdr\ d EGm;rsm;pm;&eftwGuf ajymif;pdu k yf sKd ;onfh v,form;yif tusKH ;0ifaeygonf/ txufyg Oya'udk oabmayguf&ef tvkiYd mS w&m;½H;k rsm;u ,if;tyd'k u f kd jyefq&dk mü tvkyo f rm; qkdonfrSm atmufygtvkyform;rsm;ESifh ta&;BuD; xif&Sm;aomvu©Pmrsm; wlnD aeolrsm;udo k m qdv k akd Mumif;/ oabFmom;rsm;? rD;&xm;tvkyo f rm;rsm;uJo h Ykd jynfe,f

110

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; csi;f qkid &f m ydaYk qmifa&; vkyif ef;wGif xrf;aqmifaeonfh tvkyo f rm;rsm;udk qkv d jkd cif; jzpfonf/ odjYk zpf&m v,form;wpfO;D \ qefpyg;udk ud, k yf ikd pf m;oH;k &ef &dwo f rd ;f &mwGif tvkyo f rm;wpfO;D ESihf csKyq f akd om pmcsKyo f nf txufyg csev f yS jf cif;wGif ryg0ifyg/ trsm;pkvufcEH ikd rf nfh ta&;Bu;D vu©Pmudk &SmazGowfrw S &f ef cufcyJ gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh armfawmfum;rsm;? ukew f ifum;rsm;ESihf c&D;o,fwifum;tm;vk;H wdw Yk iG f atmufazmfjyyg wlnaD eaom oGijf yifvu©Pmrsm; ygMuonf/ (1) 4if;wdt Yk m;vk;H udk a,bk,stm;jzifh avmifpmqD ok;H pufrsm;jzifh armif;ESijf cif;? (2) 4if;wdt Yk m;vk;H onf c&D;a0; vrf;rBu;D rsm;ESihf NrKd UwGi;f trsm;oGm; vrf;rsm;wGif oGm;vmMujcif;? (3) 4if;wdt Yk m;vk;H uke;f ay:om oGm;MuNy;D ? (4) 4if;wdt Yk m;vk;H onf a&mfbmac: Muufaygif;ap;jzifh jyKvyk f xm;aom bD;rsm; yg0ifMujcif;? xdaYk Mumifh ",if;uJo h Ykd ,mOfrsm;" qdak ompum;vH;k wGif rnfonfrsm; yg0ifEikd rf nfenf;/ þtcgü tok;H jyKaeaom trsm;vufco H nfh ta&;Bu;D vu©PmrSm rnfonfjzpfonftay: rlwnfaeygonf/ tu,fí ta&;Bu;D vu©Pm onf tcsu(f 1) jzpfygu jrif;&xm;onf ryg0ifyg? odaYk omf ,if;onf tjcm;tkypf rk sm; wGif yg0ifygvdrfhrnf/ ta&;BuD;vu©Pmonf tcsuf(2) jzpfygu &mbmbD;yg a*gufo;D ½du k &f mwGif oH;k aom vSn;f i,fEiS hf urf;ajcoJaomifwiG f oH;k aom vSn;f i,frsm; ryg0ifyg ? odaYk omf ,if;onf tjcm;tkypf rk sm;wGif yg0ifygvdrrhf nf / ta&;Bu;D vu©Pmonf (3) jzpfygu oabmFi,frsm;ESihf av,mOfysrH sm; ryg0ifyg ? ,if;wdo Yk nf (2) atmufwiG f tBuKH ;0ifygvdrrhf nf/ oabmFi,frsm;onf (4)wGif tMuKH ;r0if aomfvnf; av,mOf onf tBuKH ;0ifygvdrrhf nf/ ta&;Bu;D vu©Pmonf tu,fí(4) jzpfaeygvQif 'kw, d urÇmppfBu;D twGi;f u tok;H jyKcahJ om oHcsyu f mum;Bu;D rsm; ryg0ifEidk yf g? odaYk omfvnf; (1)? (2) odrYk [kwf (3)wdw Yk iG f xdo k cH syu f mum;Bu;D rsm; yg0ifaeygrnf/ w&m;½kH;wdkYonf tvm;wl,mOfrsm;pmydk'fwGif rnfodkYaom ,mOfrsm;yg0ifNyD; rnfoaYkd om ,mOfrsm;ryg0ifonfukd odom&eftwGuf trsm;pkvufcEH ikd rf nfh vu©Pm rnfojYkd zpfonfukd azmfxw k Ef ikd &f efvo kd nf/ þvkyEf ikd af jcpGr;f tm;udk rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf w&m;½H;k tm; vG,v f , G rf ay;vku d o f ifyh g/ trsm;pkvufceH ikd rf nfh vu©Pmtm;&SmazGNy;D rnfoaYkd omt&mjzpfaMumif; twdtvif;azmfq&dk rnfrmS w&m;½k;H u vkyaf qmif&ef r[kw?f rlMurf;a&;qGo J \ l wm0efomjzpfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh trsKd ;tpm;wl pnfrsO;f udk ok;Hk jcif;onf rlMurf;a&;qGrJ I nHjh cif;udk jyqdyk gonf/ tcsKd UrlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;onf tajctaeudk ydrk q kd ;kd &Gm;apEdik o f nfh "odrYk [kwf tjcm;,mOfrsm; (rnfonfh,mOfjzpfap)? a&SUwGifazmfjyNyD;jzpfonfh a,bl,srsm;tm; uefo Y wfcsuf odrYk [kwf owfrw S cf suf r&Sb d "J pmyd'k rf sm;udk xyfrx H nfo h iG ;f a&;Muygonf/

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111

þodYk vkyaf qmifjcif;rsm;onf owfrw S cf suw f iG f ygonft h csuEf iS hf rygonft h csurf sm;udk w&m;½k;H rsm;u BuKd uo f vdak &G;Edik &f ef tcGit hf a&;ay;vdu k jf cif; jzpfomG ;apygonf/ 6/

qufpyfaygif;oif;pum;vkH; pnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Noscitur a Sociis) ,if;\t"dygÜ ,frmS pum;vk;H wpfcEk iS hf qufpyfaeaom pum;vH;k rsm;udMk unfjh y;D ,if;\ t"dygÜ ,fukd odEikd yf gonf/ wpfenf;tm;jzifq h akd omf w&m;½k;H rsm;onf pum;vk;H rsm; t"dygÜ ,fjyefqkd &mü ,if;pum;vk;H \ a&SUaemufpum; tquftpyftm; &nfñeT ;f jcif;rsm; jyKvyk Mf uonf/ pmvk;H aygif;wlaomfjim;vnf; t"dygÜ ,fujJG ym;onfh pum;&yfrsm; oH;k EIe;f jcif;aMumifh jzpfaomjyóemrsm;udk ajz&Si;f &mwGif þenf;udk tok;H csygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh w&m;½k;H pnf;rsO;f wpfco k nf odyq HÜ ikd &f m xGuq f ckd sut f m; vky&f nfuikd &f nf&dS (Competent)oufaowpfO;D tm; xGuq f ckd iG jhf yKxm;onf/ þae&mü (Competent)udk t"dygÜ ,fazmfaqmif&mwGif t&nftcsi;f jynf0h onfh uRr;f usio f [ l k t"dymÜ ,fazmfaqmif&ef pdwrf ESo YH l wpfa,mufr[kw[ f al om t"dygÜ ,f rxGuEf ikd yf g/ þpnf;rsO;f tm; t&nf;tcsi;f rjynfo h nfh pma&;om;rIuv kd nf; uefo Y wf&mwGif tok;H jyK Edik o f nf/ vkyif ef;cGif tEÅ&m,fuif;&ef jy|mef;csuw f pfcük atmufygtwdik ;f azmfjyygonf/ vkyif ef;cGif wpfcv k ;Hk \ Murf;jyifrsm;tm; ajcracsmEf ikd &f ef txl;aq;rsm; okwx f m;&ef? vnfywfpuf,EÅ&m;rsm; ywfvnfwiG f tEÅ&m,fowfrw S o f nfh aq;0g;jzifh pnf;rsO;f rsm; a&;qGx J m;&ef? xGe;f xm;aom rD;vk;H rsm;tm;vk;H onf tvif;tm; (500)0yf odrYk [kwf txuf&&dS rnf/ tu,fí vkyif ef;cGif {&d,mtwGi;f wGi&f adS eonfh refae*sm&k;H cef;odYk aumfaZmfrsm; cif;xm; Ny;D uGeyf sLwmywfvnfü rsO;f 0grsm; a&;qGrJ xm;onft h jyif rD;tm;enf;aom tvSr;D vk;H rsm;om xGe;f n§x d m;ygu jyXmef;Oya'tm; csKd ;azmufaeygovm;/ r[kwyf g/ Oya'wGif yg&Sad eonfh tcsuf ESihf a&SUaemufpum; qufpyfyw Hk u Ykd vdt k yfcsurf sm;onf xkwv f yk rf I {&d,mrsm;udo k m &nfñeT ;f Ny;D ½kH;cef;rsm;ryg0ifaMumif; pmom;wGif ay:vGifaeaomaMumifhjzpfonf/ odkUaomfBudK;pm;í rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolonf nHzh si;f pGm a&;om;Ny;D Oya'tay:rScD &kd efroifyh g/ tu,fí pum;vk;H wpfv;Hk odrYk [kwf pmyd'k o f Ykd a&SUaemufqufpyfyrHk v S NJG y;D tm;vk;H cefY &Iwaf xG;aeygu &Si;f vif;a&;om;ay;&ef jzpfonf/ xkdYaMumifh þOya'wGifyg&Sdonfh "vkyfief;cGif {&d,m" udk &Sif;vif;pGm azmfjy&ef vdak eygonf/

ouf q d k i f & m wpf c k c sif ; pD p pf j cif ; pnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Reddendo Singula Singulis)

t"dygÜ ,frmS w&m;½H;k onf tpkwpfpw k iG f yg0ifae&m t&mwpfcu k kd tjcm;tpktwGi;f &Sd ,if;ESihf qufpyfr&I adS omt&mESihf wdu k q f ikd o f mG ;ygvdrrhf nf/

112

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

Zlvikd v f (1)&ufaeY ZGev f (1)&ufaeYEiS hf Mo*kwf (1)&ufaeYww Ykd iG f a&mif;csoo l nf pwifNy;D xkwv f yk ?f wyfqifNy;D ukew f ifyjYkd cif;rsm; jyKvyk rf nfjzpfonf/ ,if;udk t"dygÜ ,faumufrnfqykd gu xd&k nfneT ;f xm;aom &uf(3)&ufwiG f a&mif;olonf Zlvikd v f (1)&ufaeYwiG f xkwv f yk rf pI wifNy;D ZGev f (1)&ufaeYwiG f wwfqifNy;D Mo*kwv f (1)&ufaeY wGif oabmFwifrnf[k jyefqEkd ikd yf gonf/ txufygtcsurf sm; &Si;f &Si;f vif;vif;&Sad p&ef pm&if; odrYk [kwf Z,m;uGuw f jYkd zifh az:jyoifo h nf/ xdo k q Ykd v kd Qif teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif; pnf;rsO;f udk ud;k um;toH;k jyK&ef vdrk nfr[kwyf g/ 8/ aemuf q k H ; vk y f a qmif a omjyKjyif a jymif ; vJ j cif ; qd k i f & mpnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Last Modification)

þpnf;rsO;f t& jyKjyifonfph mom;onf 4if;ESiu hf yfvsuf wnf&adS eaom pum;vk;H odrYk [kwf pmyd'k u f o kd m jyKjyifEikd cf iG &hf NdS y;D 4if;ESit hf vSr;f a0;uGmaeonfh pum;vk;H rsm;ESihf pmyd'k rf sm;udk jyifqifEikd cf iG hf r&Sdacs/ xdkYaMumifh "þu@onf armfawmf,mOfrsm;? ukefwif,mOfrsm;? teDa&mif Van ukew f if,mOfi,frsm;ESio hf m oufqikd o f nf" qd&k mü Van ukew f if,mOfi,frsm; twGuo f m ta&mif owfrw S cf suf oufa&mufaponfh oabm&So d nf/ þpnf;rsO;f onf ajymif;vJvyk af qmif&mü t"dygÜ ,frsK;d pkH xGujf cif;aMumifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J \ l tjypf[ül pGq J jkd cif;rS umuG,af y;Edik yf gonf/ þodYk t"dygÜ ,faumuf&ef a&;qGo J u l &nf&, G o f nfw h ikd f tcef;(16)wGif azmfjyxm;onft h wdik ;f wduspmG trSwpf Of wyfjcif;? odrYk [kwf Tabbing jyKoihyf gonf/ 9/

vufjzifha&;om;pum;vkH;rsm;onf ykHESdyfpum;vkH;rsm;xuf omvGefjcif;pnf;rsOf; (The Rule That Handwritten Words Prevail Over Typed or Printed Words)

pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG yf g&Sad om tyd'k t f m;vk;H onf wajy;nD&&dS ef vdt k yfaomfjim;onf; rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf rlMurf;xGuaf y:twnfjyKrnfh aemufq;Hk tcsed w f iG f vufEydS pf ufjzifh &du k Ef ydS af vh&o dS nfh pum;vk;H jyifqifcsurf sm;tm;vufa&;jzifh a&;om;xnfo h iG ;f jcif;rsm;udk txl;owdjyK&ef vdt k yfonf/ tu,fí t"dygÜ ,fr&Si;f jcif; odrYk [kwf a&SUaemufrudu k í f jypf&jdS cif;rsm;jzpfay:vmygu pnf;rsO;f t& vufEydS pf ufjzifh ½du k Ef ydS af om odrYk [kwf ykEH ydS x f m;aom pum;vH;k rsm;xuf vufjzifh a&;om;csurf sm;udk tomay;ygvdro hf nf/ þae&mü oDt&kd o D abmw&m;t& vufa&;jzifjh yifqifjznfph u G x f m; olonf vufEySd pf uf odrYk [kwf ykEH ydS x f m;aom tydik ;f tm; aocsmpGm rzwfro d jzifh vufjzifjh znfph u G rf o I nf ,if;od&Yk nf&, G cf suu f kd ay:vGiaf ponf[k qdyk gonf/ rnfoaYkd Mumifyh ifjzpfap rlMurf;a&;qGo J l wpfa,mufonf vufEydS pf uf? ykEH ydS pf uf odrYk [kwf uGeyf sLwm pmpDenf;wpfcck jk zifh xGuaf y:vmaom pmcsKyt f m; vufa&;jzifh ed*;Hk csKyaf &;om;&mwGif jzpfay:vmEdik af om wpforwfwnf; rusa&mufrI rsm; rygvmap&ef txl;wnf;jzwf&efjzpfonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

113

10/ pmvH k ; aygif ; jzif h a &;om;azmf j yonf h ta&twG u f o nf tma&;As eH y gwf j zif h azmfjyjcif;xuf omvGefjcif;pnf;rsOf; (The Rule that Written Amounts Prevail Over Arabic Number Amounts)

pmcsKyw f pfcük a&;om;xm;aom aps;EIe;f rSm "ESpaf xmif? ig;&mESihf ig;q,fah jcmuf a':vm ESihf &Spq f ,fu h ;kd qifh (20,557.89)"jzpfaeygu ta&twGut f m;jzifh avsmah eonfh pmvH;k jzifh azmfjycsuo f nf wnf&EdS ikd rf nfjzpfonf/ odaYk omfvnf; þodo Yk wfrw S jf cif;onf vGepf mG rrQw odrYk [kwf oufqikd o f w l \ Ykd &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf vH;k 0udu k n f jD cif;r&Sd jzpfaecJah omf? ,ckacwfw&m;½H;k rsm;u ,if;pnf;rsO;f tm; vpfvQLjyKEikd yf grnf/ aps;EIe;f uGmjcm;csut f m; uefo Y wfNy;D "ig;q,fah jcmuf" ESih"f ….57" aps;EIe;f ydik ;f udo k m tom;ay;vQif pnf;rsO;f tm; MuyfrwfpmG vdu k ef mEdik yf gonf/ þonfrmS yif qdv k &kd if;udk ajymif;jyefveS Nf y;D ysu&f ,fjyKouJo h Ykd jzpfaeygonf/ tb,fah Mumifq h akd omf avhvmcsurf sm;t& awG&Y &dS onfrmS a&;om;azmfjycsuEf iS hf tma&AseyH gwf ESpcf pk vH;k jzifh azmfjyxm; onfh ta&twGuEf iS hf awGBY uKH onft h cgwdik ;f ü vltawmfrsm;rsm;onf azmfjyxm;onfh tma&As eHygwfudkom zwf½IMuíjzpfygonf/ xdkYaMumifh jzpfEdkifacs&SdonfrS eHygwf*Pef;rsm;onf ESpOf ;D ESpzf ufpvH;k \ oabmaygufru I kd azmfjyaeoa&mif&adS eygonf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf þodaYk omjyóemrsm;udk a&Smif&mS ;Edik &f ef a':vmwdt Yk m; azmfjy&mwGif tma&As*Pef;udk oH;k pGo J nft h jyif oknESihf yk'jf zwfrsm;udk aocspmG xnfo h iG ;f a&;cs&efjzpfonf/ a':vmr[kwaf om eHygwfrsm;udk azmfjy&mwGif rlvpm;vH;k jzifah omfvnf;aumif;? tma&AseyH gwf *Pef;jzifah omfvnf;aumif; azmfjy&efjzpfNy;D ESprf sKd ;pvH;k ESihf azmfjycsi;f rjyKvyk &f ef owdjyK&rnf/ 11/

oD;jcm;a&;om;azmfjyyHkonf a,bl,sa&;om;azmfjyyHk odkYr[kwf owfrSwfcsuf rsm;xuf o mjcif ; pnf ; rsOf ; / (The Rule That Specific Language Prevails Over General Language or Provisions)

þpnf;rsO;f \ t"dygÜ ,frmS tu,fíjy|mef;Oya'wpfck odrYk [kwf yk*v ¾ u d pmcsKypf mwrf;? odrYk [kwf ,if;pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;wGif yg0ifonfh jy|mef;csuw f pfco k nf udp&ö yfwpfct k m; ajz&Si;f &mwGif a,bl,senf;vrf;rsm;jzifh ajz&Si;f aecsed w f iG f tjcm;pmcsKypf mwrf; odrYk [kwf jy|mef;csuu f ,if;udp&ö yftm; wduspmG ajz&Si;f aecJah omf? ydrk w kd u d sNy;D oD;jcm;a&;om;aom pmcsKypf mwrf;? odrYk [kwf rSwcf suu f ydrk kd oufa&mufygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh rlMurf;a&;aeolowdjyK&efrmS ywfoufaeonfh vly*k Kd¾ vEf pS Of ;D Mum;wGi&f o dS nfh wlnaD om udp&ö yfEpS cf u k kd ajz&Si;f aeygu jy|mef;Oya'ESpcf k odrYk [kwf yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m pmcsKypf mwrf;ESpcf t k Mum; qufpyfru I kd xif&mS ;pGm a&;om;&efjzpfNy;D w&m;½H;k rS þpnf;rsO;f ESit hf nD qH;k jzwfjcif;udk rapmifo h ifyh g/

114

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

12/

iSm;&rf;NyD; a&;om;azmfjyyHkpnf;rsOf; (The Borrowed Language Rule) jynfe,fwpfcrk S rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;onf tjcm;jynfe,frsm;rS oD;jcm;a&;om;azmfjyyH?k oD;oefo Y wfrw S cf surf sm;ESihf wpfcgwpf&H jy|mef;Oya'wpfcv k ;kH udyk if rMumcPiSm;&rf;Muygonf/ iSm;&rf;a&;om;azmfjyonfh pnf;rsO;f \ jyefqckd sut f & jynfe,fwpfc\ k w&m;½H;k onf rdrx d rH S iSm;,lomG ;aom Oya'tm; usejf ynfe,fw&m;½H;k rsm;u rnfonft h "dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;yHu k kd ta&;Bu;D udpw ö pf&yftjzpf owfrw S yf gonf/ þodYk owfrw S &f jcif;rSm ,if;tcgü ay:aygufvQu&f adS om ul;,ljyefqckd surf sm;omrubJ aemufyikd ;f wGiv f nf; csrw S af om qH;k jzwfcsurf sm;vnf; yg0ifygonf/ a&;qGaJ eolu ¤if;\trIonftm; þtaMumif;udk BuKd wiftoday;xm;&efjzpfonf/ trIonf onf jy|mef;Oya'tm; tjcm;jynfe,fw&m;½H;k u jyefq&kd iS ;f vif;csuu f kd ud;k um;aom jyóemrsm; tm; r&ifqikd &f avatmif a&;qGo J rl mS wm0ef&ydS gonf/ a&;qGo J t l aeESihf vkyEf ikd o f nfwpfcrk mS Oya'\ed'gef;wGif rnfonfjh ynfe,f tiSm;,lxm;onfh rl&if;Oya'jzpfaMumif; azmfjy&ef jzpfaomf vnf; rl&if;jynfe,fw&m;½Hk;rsm;rS rnfodkYrQ pD&ifcsufrsm;onf ,ckudpöwGif xdef;csKyfjcif;ESifh qH;k jzwfcsurf sm;onf pyfqikd jf cif;r&S[ d k azmfjyxm;&efjzpfonf/

13/ at*sifpD (tpdk;&Xme^udk,fpm;vS,f)\ jyefqdkcsuftm; tom;ay;jcif;qdkif&m pnf;rsOf; (The Rule Favoring Agency Interpretations) jy|mef;Oya'wpfcu k kd pDraH qmif&u G ?f odrYk [kwf oufa&mufEikd af prnfh tmPmay;cH&onfh at*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme)rS xdOk ya'tm; teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefqx kd m;csuu f kd w&m;½H;k rsm;u a,bl,s uspmG t½dt k aojyK ta&;ay;wwfMuygonf/ Oyrmjy&aomf tvkyt f udik &f &S&d ef tcGit hf vrf; nDrQa&; aumfr&Sirf S xkwjf yefxm;aom "t"dygÜ ,fjyefq&kd ef vrf;ñTerf sm;"udk vGwv f yfpmG Oya' oufa&mufr&I adS om w&m;0ifowfrw S cf surf sm;jzpfonf[k wpfcgwpf&H oabmxm;vkyaf qmifMu onfukd awGU&ygonf/ xdjk yefqjkd cif; pnf;rsO;f rsm;tm; xdv k rf;nTerf sm;udk rESpo f uforl sm;u ajymMum;onfrmS w&m;½H;k rsm;u oabmrwlonfh enf;vrf;ok;H Ny;D ajz&Si;f onft h cg rsm;wGif xd"k vrf;nTerf sm;" udk rnforl Q*&krpdu k f trIrxm;aom yko H P²mefziG Nhf y;D aqmif&f u G af vh&ydS u Hk dk jrifawGU &rnf/ rnfoyYkd ifjzpfap jy|mef;Oya'wpfct k m; pDrcH efcY JG odrYk [kwf oufa&mufap&ef tmPm ESi;f jcif;cH&onfh tzGUJ &Sv d Qif ,if;tzGUJ \ a,bl,stjrif½aI xmifu h kd rdrq d aJG eaom rlMurf; odrYk [kwf vuf&dS Oya'tay: jyifqifcsurf sm; jyKvyk o f nft h cgrsm;wGif owdrNl y;D aqmif&u G &f efjzpfonf/ ,cifu tmPmtyfEiS ;f cH&aom tzGUJ wpfco k nf vkyef nf;vky[ f efwpfct k m; oufa&mufaf p&mü ayghavsmah pcJNh y;D Oya'jyKtzGu YJ ,if;tm; wjcm;jyóemwcktay: w&m;pD&ifyikd cf iG jhf yKapvdNk y;D vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;udkvnf; enf;vrf;rSeftwdkif;vnf; aqmif&Gufapvdkygu rlMurf;a&;qGJol

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

115

taeESihf ,if;tcsuu f kd owdjyK&ygrnf/ vkyx f ;kH vkyef nf; vdt k yfcsurf sm;udk tjyKoabm aqmif aom? enf;vrf;rSeu f efpmG aqmif&u G v f akd om? rjzpfraeaqmif&u G &f efvakd om? w&m;pD&ifa&; uJo h aYkd om toH;k tEIe;f rsm;jzifh azmfjy&efvt kd yfygonf/ 14/

pmcsKyf p mwrf ; wpf c k t m; wpf c k w nf ; taeES i f h aygif ; pnf ; zwf & ef p nf ; rsOf ; (TheRule that a Document Must be Read as a Whole)

þpnf;rsO;f t& 0guswpfck tyd'k w f pfy'kd w f w Ykd iG f yg0ifaeaom pmvk;H wd\ Yk t"dymÜ ,fukd r[kwb f J w&m;½k;H w½k;H tm; pmcsKypf mwrf;wpfct k m;vk;H csKNH y;D t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ykd gvdrrhf nf/ xdt k csuu f kd rlMurf;a&;qGaJ e olwpfa,mufonf owdjyK&rnfjzpfNy;D ola&;qGNJ y;D pD;oGm;aom rlMurf;\ azmfjycsuf rsm; wpfcEk iS w hf pfck vdu k af vsmnDaxG udu k n f rD &I rdS &Sd jyefvnfo;Hk oyfonfh tcsed üf þpnf;rsO;f twdik ;f jzpfap&ef vkyaf qmif&f ygrnf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J u l pmcsKyw f pfae&mwGif roJruGJ azmfjycJo h nft h &m tm; aemufwpfae&mü trSwrf xif xyfro H ;Hk cJjh yef&m rwlnaD omt"dygÜ ,fjzifh oH;k rdvQi?f xdEk pS rf sKd ;udk EIid ;f ,SOo f uJo h Ykd jzpfaeygvdrrhf nf/ xdt k cg roJuaJG om ta&;tom;onf oleY nf;ol[ Y efEiS hf t"dygÜ ,fxu G o f mG ;aomfvnf; rlMurf;a&;vdo k rl S &nf&, G af om t"dygÜ ,fjzpfcsirf S jzpfygvdrrhf nf/ 15/ a,bl , sOD ; wnf c suf E S i f h tawG ; tac:wl o nf h Oya'rsm; t"d y Ü g ,f j yef q d k & ef pnf;rsOf; (The Rule of Construing Statutes in Pari Materia) ESpcf x k ufyakd om jyXmef;Oya'rsm;onf wlnaD om taMumif;t&m? &nf&, G cf suaf ,bl,s rsm; wlnaD eaomtcgwGif þpnf;rsO;f udk toH;k jyKygonf/ Oya'rsm; þodYk {uefwal eonf rwlaeonfrmS ta&;Bu;D aom ar;cGe;f jzpfygonf/ aq;½Hrk sm; tcGeaf qmifjcif;ESihf oufqikd o f nfh Oya'onf aq;½Hrk sm; vdik pf ifcsxm;ay;jcif;qdik &f m Oya'ESihf Pari Materia rjzpfyg/ odaYk omf wlncD surf mS ESpcf v k ;kH onf aq;½HEk iS hf qdik af eygonf/ tu,fí þpnf;rsO;f ESihf oufqikd o f nfqykd gu xGuaf y:vmEdik o f nfh tusKd ;qufrsm;&Sd aeygonf/ y|rtaeESihf Oya'ESpcf pk vH;k tm; qDavsmo f mG ;ap&ef w&m;½H;k rsm;u t"dygÜ ,fjyefqkd &efjzpfonf/ þjcm;em;csufonf pmcsKyfwpfcktm; wpfckwnf;taeESifh zwf&efpnf;rsOf;udk tus,zf iG x hf m;csuyf ifjzpf aeonf/ Oya'wpfcw k iG f vkyaf qmifcsuw f pfct k m;jyKvyk cf iG Ehf iS hf rjyK vkycf iG ahf y;xm;onf[k ESprf sKd ;pvH;k jyefqx kd m;aomfvnf; tjcm;Oya'wpfcük ,if;vkyaf qmifciG hf ay;xm;cJo h nf&adS omf w&m;½H;k taeESihf ,if;vkyaf qmifcsut f m;cGihf "rjyK" [k t"dygÜ ,fjyefqrkd nfom jzpfonf/ Oya'ESpcf t k m; wajy;nD aqmif&u G Ef ikd &f ef rjyKvyk Ef ikd cf o hJ nf&adS omf w&m;½H;k rsm;taeESihf a,bl,sOya'rsm;xuf wdusjywfom;onfh Oya'rsm;udo k m t"dygÜ ,fjyefq&kd ef pnf;rsO;f udk toH;k csvyk af qmifomG ;rnfomjzpfonf/

116

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

xdt Yk jyif Oya'ESpcf o k nf þpnf;rsO;f ueOD;u azmfjycJo h vdk xifa,mifxifrmS ;wlae oa,mif&dS aecJyh gvQif w&m;½H;k rsm;u txufygtwdik ;f t"dygÜ ,fazmfaqmifq;kH jzwfomG ;rnf jzpfonf/ Oyrm - 1964 ckEpS ?f Edik if o H m;tcGit hf a&;Oya't& vlrsKd ;cGjJ cm;a&;trIwpfcw k iG f oabm obm0ESihf "xdt k aMumif;aMumifh jzpfonf"[k oufaojy&efwm0efukd w&m;½H;k uay;tyf&mwGif aqmif&u G cf o hJ nft h wdik ;f tvkycf efx Y m;&mwGif touft&cGjJ cm;qufqjH cif; Oya't& touf t&G,af Mumifh cGjJ cm;qufqcH &H jcif;? trIwpfcw k iG f "xdt k aMumif;aMumifjh zpfonf" [laomtcsuu f kd ajz&Si;f &mü Oya'&nf&, G cf suw f o l jzifh txufygOya'twdik ;f t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd yhJ gonf/ xdek nf; wlpmG yif Oya'wpfco k nf t&mwpfct k m; t"dygÜ ,fazmfaqmifxm;aomfvnf; ¤if;ESihf &nf&, G cf suf wlaom tjcm;Oya'wGif t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;r&Syd gu yxrjzpfpOf Oya'rS jy|mef;csuu f kd 'kw, d jy|mef;Oya'xJoYkd xnfo h iG ;f ygvdrrhf nf/ xdkYaMumifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfa,muftaeESifh tpueOD;ydkif; Oya'qdkif&m okawoe jyKaecsed w f iG f xdpk nf;rsO;f tm; txl;owdjyK&efvakd yonf/ tu,fí wnfqOJ ya' wpfcw k iG f yg0ifaeonfh ta&;Bu;D tcsurf sm;ESihf a&;qJaG eoltoH;k jyKrnfh ,lqcsurf sm;wlaeygu? odrYk [kwf rlMurf;a&;qGo J l &nf&, G x f m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f ESihf vuf&OdS ya'wGif yg0ifaeonfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm; wdu k q f ikd af eygu vuf&dS wnfqOJ ya'tm; txufpnf;rsO;f ESit hf BuKH ;0ifonfh Oya'wpfcjk zpfEikd o f nf[k owfrw S Nf y;D qDavsmpf mG qufvufvyk af qmifomG ;&efjzpfonf/ Oyrm- Edik if o H m;rsm; tcGit hf a&;Oya' 1964 ESihf roefrpGr;f aom tar&duefEikd if o H m;rsm; tufOya'ESp&f yfpvH;k onf tvkyt f udik Ef iS yhf wfoufí cGjJ cm;qufqjH cif; taMumif;yg0ifum ,if;jy|mef; Oya'ESp&f yfonf taMumif;t&mESihf &nf&, G cf suw f al om Oya' Pari Materia pnf;rsOf;udk a&SmifuGif;NyD; a&;EdkifcJhMuygonf/ EkdifiHom;tcGifhta&;Oya'\acgif;pOf VII bmoma&;qdik &f m uk;d uG,rf t I ydik ;f ESihf roefprG ;f Oya'\ roefprG ;f olrsm;twGuf vkyif ef;cGif tajctaersm;tydik ;f wdw Yk iG f xdu k o f ifph mG aqmif&u G af &;wdYk yg0ifygonf/ xdo k aYkd qmif&u G &f ef tvky&f iS t f wGuf ]]rvGeu f RaH om}} cufcrJ rI &Su d aqmif&u G af y;&ef[al om pum;&yfyg0ifaeygonf/ xdk "rvGeu f RaH omcufcrJ I" [laom pum;&yfukd w&m;vTwaf wmfcsKyu f acgif;pOf VII twGuf t"dyÜg,fzGifhcJh&mwGif "tajccHukefusp&dwfrQjzifh" [lí teuft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcJh&m odkYaomf roefpGrf;olrsm; Oya'wGifrl Oya'jyKvTwfawmfu ydkrdkus,fjyefYaom t"dyÜg,fudkaqmif&ef &nf&, G o f jzifh xdOk ya'wGirf l "rvGeu f RaH om cufcrJ "I qdo k nfrmS tvGet f rif;cufcjJ cif; odrYk [kwf p&dwu f ek u f sveG ;f jcif;[k t"dygÜ ,fukd twdtvif;xnfo h iG ;f azmfjycJyh gonf/ xdaYk emuf xdOk ya'\ Oya'jyKa&;ordik ;f udk azmfjy&mwGif roefprG ;f olOya'\ t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd acgif;pOf VII (bmoma&;ud;k uG,rf )I rS vdu k v f t H "dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;r&S&d ef xnfo h iG ;f azmfjyxm;ygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 16/

117

oG , f 0 d k u f a omenf ; jzif h ½k y f o d r f ; jcif ; rsm;tm; oabmrwl o nf h pnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule Disfavouring Repeals by Implication)

jy|mef;Oya'wpfc\ k owfrw S cf suo f nf aemufyikd ;f xGuaf y:vmaom Oya'\owfrw S f csuEf iS hf odoo d mom uGv J aJG ecJo h nf&adS omf yxrowfrw S cf suu f kd toH;k rjyKvo kd nfh a&SUaeonf oG,0f u kd af omenf;tm;jzifh ½kyo f rd ;f Ny;D jzpfonf[k jiif;qdak yvdrrhf nf/ þonfrmS tcsut f vuf rjynfhpHkbJ azmfjyxm;aom Oya'\&nf&G,fcsuf jzpfEdkifygonf/ tjcm;wpfzufrSmvnf; þpnf;rsO;f tm; tBuKH ;0ifonf[k taMumif;jyqdak yvdrrhf nf/ w&m;½k;H u vufccH yhJ gvQif twwfEikd f qk;H jzpfEikd o f í BuKd ;pm;Ny;D owfrw S cf suEf pS cf pk vk;H tm; tH0if*iG u f sjzpfomG ;&ef aqmif&u G o f mG ;ay vdrrhf nf/ xdt k cgwGif jyefqrkd EI pS cf pk vk;H udk cufcpJ mG jyefq&kd rnfjzpfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh oifcef;pmrSm rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf tjcm;&SNd y;D aom jy|mef;Oya'ESiv hf u kd af vsm nDaxGr&Sdaom rlMurf;rsdK;udk ra&;&efjzpfonf/ rdrdOD;wnfcsufonf OD;pGmxGufay:vmaom Oya'tm; ½kyo f rd ;f &efjzpfygu twdtvif;xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;&ef vdyk grnf/ 17/

rl v jy|mef ; Oya'xuf aemuf q k H ; Oya'u omvG e f j cif ; pnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Lex Posterior Derogat Priori )

t"dygÜ ,frmS aemufrx S u G &f v dS maom Oya'u ,cifOya'\ oufa&mufru I kd ysujf y,fomG ; aponf/ þpnf;rsO;f t& tu,fí 1960 ckEpS w f iG f xkwjf yefonfh Oya'qdik &f myg wm;jrpfcsut f m; 1990 ckEpS f xkwjf yefOya'u cGijhf yKco hJ nf&adS omf 1990 Oya'om vTr;f rd;k rnfjzpfonf/ þtcgwGif 1990 Oya'onf pnf;rsO;f (16)ESihf rudu k n f aD wmhay/ þpnf;rsO;f \ wpfzufpeG ;f txd awG;rnf qdv k Qif pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcw k iG f pmom;wpfc\ k a&SUaemufay:aygufvmaom ae&may:rlwnfNy;D xdpk mom;onf ta&;ygrnf/ aemufq;kH wGif a&;om;xm;csuo f nf a&SUydik ;f wGif a&;om;xm;csuEf iS hf t"dygÜ ,fuv JG rJG &I ydS gu aemufyikd ;f wGiaf &;om;csuu f vTr;f rd;k rnf[k teuft"dygÜ ,fxu G yf gvdrrhf nf/ odjYk zpfvQif pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcu k kd wpfcw k nf;taejzifh aygif;pnf;zwf&rnfqakd om pnf;rsO;f ESihf qefu Y siaf eygvdrrhf nf/ 18/

rl M urf ; a&;qG J o l E S i f h qef Y u sif N yD ; t"d y Ü g ,f j yef q d k j cif ; pnf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Constructing a Document Against the Drafter)

pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif trsKd ;trnfxnfo h iG ;f &ef pmvk;H wdjYk zifh azmfjy&ef a&G;cs,&f mü rlMurf; a&;qGo J nfh tzGw YJ iG f yg0iforl sm;u tm;omygonf/ tjcm;tzGu YJ ok;H EIe;f onfh pum;vk;H rsm;ESihf jyefqykd w Hk u Ykd kd rESpo f ufonfw h ikd f ESpzf ufaqG;aEG;Ny;D pmom;rsm;udk jyefvnfa&G;cs,&f efrmS qefu Y siv f eG ;f aom udprö w S pfyg;? BuKd ;yrf;tm;xkw&f ef rxdu k w f ef[, k q l wwfygonf/ odaYk omf wpfzuftzGo YJ nf

118

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

t"dygÜ ,fr&Si;f aom odrYk [kwf ray:vGiaf ompmom;rsm; yg0ifvmygu þpnf;rsO;f udk ud;k um; toH;k jyKEikd yf gonf/ xdo k Ykd atmifjrifpmG aqmif&u G Ef ikd yf gu rlMurf;a&;onfb h ufrS &&Sad om tm;om csuo f nf tm;enf;csut f jzpfoYkd ajymif;vJomG ;ygvdrrhf nf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf rnfonfb h ufrS jzpfonf[k tjiif;yGm;rIrjzpfvykd gu tyk'd w f pfy'kd x f nfí h ESpb f ufrS twla&;qGcJ jhJ cif;jzpfaMumif; xnfo h iG ;f a&;om;jcif;jzifh þpnf;rsO;f udk a&Smif&mS ;Edik yf g vdrrhf nf/ 19/

cd k i f v H k w &m;0if r I u d k OD ; pm;ay;azmf q d k c suf u d k vuf c H & ef p nf ; rsOf ; (The Rule of Adopting a Construction that Favors Validity)

tu,fípmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f wpfrsKd ;wpfrnfjyefqckd suw f pfcak Mumifh ,if;pmcsKyo f nf w&m; r0ifjzpfoGm;apcJhvQif odkYr[kwf Oya'wpfcktm; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufaMumifh ,if;Oya'onf tzGt YJ pnf;yHEk iS hf rnDjzpfomG ;apcJv h Qif w&m;½H;k taeESihf ,if;zGiq hf ckd suu f kd oH;k csirf o S ;kH ayvdrrhf nf/ Oyrmwpfct k aeESihf pmcsKyw f pfct k m; jyefqx kd m;rIaMumifh xdu k efx½ku d Ef iS o hf ufqikd af om Oya'udk qefu Y siaf Mumif;jy&ef BuKd ;pm;aecsed w f iG f w&m;NyKd it f zGu YJ rl þodOYk ya'jyefqrkd rI mS rSm;,Gi;f aejcif;om jzpfNy;D pmcsKy\ f &nf&, G cf surf mS tjcm;t"dygÜ ,fjzpfonf[q k ykd gu w&m;½H;k u pmcsKyt f m; twnfjyK oGm;Edik yf gonf/ xdek nf;wlpmG yif jy|mef;Oya'wpfco k nf tajccHOya'ESihf nD? rnD tjiif;yGm;onfh tcgü ,if;Oya'wGiyf g0ifonfh tcsurf sm;twGi;f rS tvGet f m;enf;aom ta&;tom; wnf aqmufrt I ay:wGif wnfaeNy;D w&m;½H;k wpfct k aeESihf ,if;ta&;tom;wnfaqmufru I kd y,fNy;D zGpYJ nf;yHOk ya'ESiu hf u kd n f o D nfh azmfqckd suu f kd jy|mef;ayvdrrhf nf/ xdaYk Mumifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJ aeolonf t"dygÜ ,fEpS cf rG jzpfbJ ta&;Bu;D aomtydik ;f w&m;0if jzpfapEdik o f nfh enf;rsm;jzifh vkyaf qmif&efjzpfygonf/ 20/ trsm;jynfolqdkif&m rl0g'ESifhudkufnDonfhpmcsKyfrsm; t"dyÜg,fazmfaqmifa&;udk OD;pm;ay;onfhpnf;rsOf;(The Rule Favouring the Construction of Contracts in a Manner Consistent With Public Policy)

pmcsKyw f pfco k nf owfrw S cf sut f m;jzifh tawmftwef&iS ;f vif;rI&NdS y;D t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya' odrYk [kwf jy|mef;Oya'\ vdt k yfcsuEf iS hf udu k n f yD gu jynfoUl rl0g'udk tajccHí w&m;½H;k onf ,if;owfrw S cf suu f kd oufa&mufap&ef jiif;qdNk y;D ? a,bl,suspmG tao;pdwt f csurf sm; csex f m;Ny;D jyefqykd grnf/ odrYk [kwf uefo Y wfusO;f ajrmif;pGm jyefvnft"dygÜ ,f owfrw S o f mG ;Edik yf gonf/ þodjYk zifh uefx½du k Of ya'\ aemufq;kH jzpf&yfonf uefx½du k pf mcsKyjf yefqjkd cif;ESihf oufa&mufapEdik rf \ I tbd"r®monf vlwpfO;D csi;f qdik &f m wm0efEiS hf tkycf sKyrf t I ay: tav;teufxm;jcif;rS uefx½du k f

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef; (5) rl M urf ; a&;qG J q d k i f & musif h 0 wf r sm; (Drafting Ethics)

a&SUaersm;\ vkyaf qmifcsurf sm;tm; xde;f xm;aom usi0hf wfqikd &f mpnf;rsO;f rsm;onf rlMurf;a&;qGJolrsm; tay:wGifvnf; wlnDonfhoufa&mufrIrsm;&Sdygonf/ atmufazmfjyyg aqG;aEG;csuo f nf tar&duefqikd &f m a&SUaetoif;rS xkwjf yefxm;onfh aMu;pm;usi0hf wfqikd &f m pHjypnf;rsO;f rsm;tay:wGif a,bl,suspmG t&if;cHxm;Ny;D w&m;pD&ifyikd cf iG hf e,fajrtawmfrsm;rsm; wGif usio hf ;kH aom rsKd ;uGpJ nf;rsO;f wpfcjk zpfygonf/ odaYk omfvnf; teuft"dygÜ ,fjyef&mwGif uGjJ ym;rI ESihf a'otvdu k f rlujJG cif;rsm; tenf;i,f&ydS gonf/ þtcef;onf xdjk yóemrsm;udk txl;jyK a&;om;azmfjyygrnf/ wdusaocsmaom tajzrsm;&&S&d efrmS raocsmra&&myg/ usi0hf wfqikd &f m owfrw S cf suf tawmfrsm;rsm;onf trIvu kd af &SUaewpfO;D BuKH awGU&rnfh jyóemrsm;ESiq hf ikd Nf y;D Oya'avmuwGif rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolrsm; &ifqikd &f aom jyóemrsm;tm; vspv f QL½Ixm;ygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGaJ eolwpfa,muftaeESihf trIvu kd af &SUaersm;uJo h Ykd usi0hf wfqikd &f m,lqcsuEf iS hf w&m;½H;k qH;k jzwfcsurf sm;rS vrf;ñTet f axmuftulrsm; r&&SEd ikd o f jzifh rdru d , kd w f iG ;f &Sd aumif;rGeaf om usi0hf wf ,lqcsut f wdik ;f a&;qGo J mG ;&efomjzpfygonf/ u/

trI o nf t m; urf ; vS r f ; jcif ; (Solicitation) rlMurf;a&;olrsm; owdjyK&efrmS trIonftm; urf;vSr;f jcif;rsm;ESihf ywfoufí a,bl,s usi0hf wfqikd &f m uefo Y wfcsurf sm;&Syd gonf/ 1/ aMumfjim &m wGif a&S U ae\ txl;uRrf;usifrI odkYr[kwf t"d utm½Hkpl;pdkuf im&m &mwG aqmif & G u f a om trI r sm;tm; xnf h o G i f ; aMumf j im jcif ; / imjcif ( Advertising Specialization or Concentration)

a&SUaewpfa,muftaejzifh r[kwrf rSe?f wpfv, JG q l Edik af prnfh aMumfjimrsm;udk aMumfjimcGihf r&Sad omfvnf; 4if;taejzifah zmfjyEdik o f nfrmS 4if;\ txl;jyKuRr;f usirf ?I txl;jyKaqmif&u G af om trItrsKd ;tpm; odrYk [kwf t"dutm½Hx k m;aom Oya'trsKd ;tpm;udk azmfjyEdik yf gonf/ rlMurf;a&;ol onf ajra&mif;0,fa&; odrYk [kwf tdrNf caH jra&mif;0,frrI sm;udk t"duxm;aqmif&u G o f jl zpfygu xdo k aYkd zmfjy Edik yf gonf/ odaYk omfvnf; a&SUaewpfa,muftaeESihf olonftodtrSwjf yKjcif;cH&onfh txl;uRr;f usio f [ l í l uefo Y wfxm;aom tajctaetwGi;f üom aMumfjimEdik yf gonf/ þodYk aMumfjimEdik &f efrmS tpd;k &Xme odrYk [kwf tzGt YJ pnf;wpfcck rk S ,if;xl;cRerf t I m; cs;D jri§ x hf m;rSom jzpfygonf/

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pmwd k u f r S w pf q if h p mtajrmuf t rsm;yd k Y j cif ; (Mass Mailing) aMumfjimjcif;tm; a,bl,stm;jzifh cGijhf yKxm;Ny;D urf;vSr;f jcif;udrk l cGirhf jyKacs/ odaYk omfvnf; ,if;wdEYk pS rf sKd ;rSm rsm;pGmuGjJ ym;jcm;em;jcif;r&Syd g/ Oyrm ,cktcgwGif tcsKd Uaom w&m;pD&ifydkifcGifh&Sd e,fajrtwGif;ü vlpdrf;rsm;xH pmtajrmuftrsm; ay;ydkYEdkifcGifh&Sdoa,mif jzpfaeygonf/ rlMurf;a&;om;olwrYkd S txl;wvnfpw d 0f ifpm;aom udp&ö yfrmS tdrNf caH jra&SUaersm; taejzifh pmwdu k rf w S qifh tdrNf caH jr ud, k pf m;vS,rf sm;ESihf tdryf ikd &f iS w f x Ykd H aMumfjimrsm; urf;vSr;f jcif; udpöjzpfygonf/ w&m;½Hk;rsm;ESifh usifh0wfqdkif&m oabmxm;rsm;onf þudpöESifhywfoufNyD; oabmxm;rsm; uGv J MJG uonfukd awGU&S&d ygonf/

,cif t rI o nf r sm;? rd o m;pk E S i f h ol i ,f r sm;tm; urf ; vS r f ; jcif ; (Solicitation of Former Clients, Family, and Friends)

a&SUaewpfa,mufonf a,bl,stm;jzifh ,ciftrIonf\rdom;pkEiS hf aqGrsKd ;om;csi;f rsm; ESihf &if;ES;D onfh oli,fcsi;f rsm;xH Oya'qdik &f m 0efaqmifrrI sm;ay;Edik af Mumif; qufo, G cf iG &hf ydS gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh aowrf;pmrlMurf; odkYr[kwf tjcm;pmcsKyfa&;qGJolonf aemufydkif;ü Oya' tajymif;tvJaMumifh vnf;aumif;? trIonf\ tajctaeajymif;vJrIaMumifhvnf;aumif; trIonfxH qufo, G Ef ikd yf gonf/ þodq Yk ufo, G &f mü taMumif;t&monf ,ciftvkyu f pd Eö iS hf qufE, G yf grnf/ a&SUaewpfO;D onf ,if;\ rdom;pk0ifwpfa,mufxo H Ykd aowrf;pmvdt k yfcsuf taMumif;ajymMum;Ny;D tvkyv f ufcNH y;D aowrf;pm rlMurf;a&;Edik yf gonf/ od&Yk mwGif atmufwiG f azmfjyonft h wdik ;f tusKd ;pD;yGm;wdu k q f ikd rf aI Mumifh jzpfay:aom jyóemrsm;rSty jzpfygonf/ c/

vkyf&nfudkif&nfESifh aocsmjynfhpHkrI (Competence and Diligence) a&SUaewpfa,mufwiG &f o dS ifah om tjrifq h ;kH usi0hf wfwm0eftcsKd UrSm vky&f nfuikd &f nf&NdS y;D BuKd ;pm;jcif;yif jzpfygonf/ ,if;t&nftcsi;f ESpcf rk mS vGepf mG rSe;D pyfygonf/ a&SUaewpfa,mufonf odoifo h x d u kd o f nfrsm;udk rodonft h jyif ydrk ekd m;vnfoabmayguf&ef rBuKd ;pm;bJysi;f &daeojzifh trSm;rsm;jzpfymG ;wwfygonf/ trIonfvt kd yfcsurf sm;udk a&;qGNJ y;D rlMurf;onfvckd siaf om &vm'fukd rjzpfapygu a&SUae\ vky&f nfuikd &f nfEiS hf aocsmjynfph rkH w I t Ykd ay: trIonfuoHo,jzpfvmEdik f ygonf/ a&SUaewGif ,if;vdt k yfcsuEf pS cf rk S wpfcck v k akd eygvQif a&SUaeonf usi0hf wfazmufzsu½f kH omru wm0efruif;aom Bu;D rm;onfah zmufvaJG zmufjyefrBI u;D jzpfvmEdik yf gonf/ atmufazmfjyyg Oyrmrsm;udk trIwrJG sm;ESihf usi0hf wfqikd &f m ,lqcsurf sm;rS ,lxm;jcif;jzpfNy;D rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif vky&f nfuikd &f nfr&Sjd cif;ESihf aocsmjynfph rkH v I t kd yfcsurf sm;udk azmfjyxm;ygonf -

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; v

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ud k , f p m;jyKaqmif & G u f e ,f y ,f u ef Y o wf j cif ; (Scope of Representation) a&SUaewpfa,mufonf trIonfu ,if;tm; rnfou Ykd , kd pf m;jyKapvdo k nfukd qH;k jzwfonfh twdik ;f om ud, k pf m;jyK&ef uefo Y wfxm;ygonf - (þwGif rIcif;ESihf vdrv f nfrsm; ryg0ifacs/) odaYk omf txufygtrIonf\ OD;wnfcsuo f aYkd &muf&&dS ef enf;vrf;udo k m n§Ed idI ;f wdik yf if&ayrnf/

OD ; wnf c suf r sm;ES i f h 4if ; wd k Y t m; &&S d E d k i f & ef e nf ; vrf ; rsm; (Objectives and Means)

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taersKd ;wGif cufcrJ &I EdS ikd yf gonf/ a&SUaewpfa,mufonf oufqikd &f mtzGUJ acgif;aqmiftm; ausmNf y;D txuftzGUJ tpnf;odYk wifjy&onfh jzpf&yfrsm;vnf; &Scd yhJ gonf/ tu,fí trIonfEiS rhf Ml urf;a&;qGaJ eolw\ Ykd qufqaH &;tay: rlwnfvsuf a&;qGJ aeaom OD;wnfcsu\ f vlraI &;? vlusi0hf wf? pD;yGm;a&;ESiEhf ikd if aH &;wdt Yk ay: oufa&mufrrI sm;udk ¤if;\ trIonfEiS hf aqG;aEG;&efvykd gu aqG;aEG;wdik yf ifay;vdrrhf nf/ wpfcgwpf&H trIonfonf ud, k yf ikd af tmifjrifr&I adS pEdik &f ef vlraI &;qdik &f m wm0efrsm;ESihf tvdu k o f pd mG qufqjH cif;wdYk vdt k yf aMumif;udk arhavsmah ewwf&m trIonf oabmaygufap&efrmS rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl S owday;&ef wm0ef&o dS nf/ trIonf\ tvGet f rif;vdt k yfcsuo f nf tu,fí a&;qGo J \ l vlraI &;cH,cl surf sm; tay: jyif;xefpmG oufa&mufxcd u kd rf nfqykd gu a&;qJaG ejcif;udk jiif;qd&k yfqikd ;f Ny;D aemufqw k jf cif; onf toifah vsmq f ;kH yifjzpfrnf/ odaYk omfvnf; rnfonft h aMumif;aMumifyh ifjzpfap trIonf\ OD;wnfcsufudk vsKdU0SufpGmjzifh zsufvdkzsufqD;vkyfaqmifjcif; odkYr[kwf rdrd\OD;wnfcsuftm; trIonf\ OD;wnfcsufae&mwGif tpm;xdk;jcif;rsm; rnfodkYaomtcgrS rvkyfoifhay/ þodkY vkyaf qmif&ef wpfcgwpfav rlMurf;a&;qJo G w l w Ykd iG f xdo k pYdk w d t f m;xufoefrI ay:aygufvmwwf ygonf/ tb,fah Mumifq h akd omf rlMurf;a&;qGo J l a&SUaersm;onf a,bl,stm;jzifh tcsed Mf umjrifph mG ,if;a&SUaetvkyu f kd aMu;pm;vkyaf qmifvmcJo h rl sm;jzpfav&m olwüYkd tawGUtBuKH wiG o f mru vkyo f ufonfvnf; trIonfrsm; xufomaeygonf/ txl;ojzifh ay:vpDa&;&mwGif trIonf rnforl nf0g (aumfrwDtzGUJ ? oDjcm;Oya'jyKo?l odrYk [kwf tkycf sKyaf &;t&m&S)d jzpfap ydrk v kd yk u f ikd cf hJ olrsm;jzpfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifyh if olwOYkd ya'a&;&m rl0g'ydik ;f odrYk [kwf at*sipf D (tpd;k &Xme) zGUJ pnf;a&;wdw Yk iG f yg0ifaepNrjJ zpfygonf/ rnfoyYkd ifjzpfap aemufq;kH wGirf l trIonf\ pdww f ikd ;f us twdik ;f jzpfap&ef aqmif&u G &f ygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qG&J efyg&Scd surf sm;udk a&;qGo J w l pfO;D taeESihf oabmrwlonfw h ikd f olonfvyk &f nfuikd &f nfEiS hf uRr;f usio f w l pfO;D tjzpf qufvufaqmif&u G f Edik Nf y;D t"dygÜ ,frf &So d nfh Oya'[k,q l um trIonf\ &nfreS ;f csurf sm;udk zsuv f zkd suq f ;D rvky&f ef vdyk gonf/ tu,fí a&;qGo J \ l vlraI &;qdik &f m? Edik if aH &;qdik &f mESihf pD;yGm;a&;qdik &f m t,ltq rsm;onf trIonf\ ,lqcsurf sm;ESihf vH;k 0rwdu k q f ikd cf ahJ omf qufvufra&;qGaJ wmhbJ tjcm; wpfae&mwGif tvkyt f udik f &Smoifyh gonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;jcif; r[kwb f J tjcm;Oya'qdik &f mudp&ö yfrsm;wGif rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf rdrd trIonf\ vd&k mOD;wnfcsuu f kd &&SEd ikd &f eftwGuf txda&mufq;kH enf;udk odo k yd pf mG a&G;cs,&f ef wm0ef&ydS gonf/ xdaYk Mumifyh if trIonftrsm;pkonf olwv Ykd &kd mtwdik ;f ay:vmEdik af p&ef a&;qGo J \ l oabmtwdik ;f vTwx f m;avh&ydS gonf/ tu,fí trIonfwpfO;D \ ta&mif;t0,fwpfcw k iG f aqmif&u G v f akd om enf;vrf;rSm taumif;qH;k OD;wnfcsurf &&SEd ikd [ f k ,lqygu trIonfEiS o hf m aocsmpGm aqG;aEG;&efjzpfygonf/

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usif h 0 wf q d k i f & mvd k t yf c suf r sm; (Ethical Requirements) trIonf\vQKd U0Sucf surf sm;ESihf a&SUaetay:tm;ud;k ,HMk unfpw d cf srrI sm;tm; tumtuG,f ay;&ef wm0efrsm;udk usi0hf wfqikd &f m pnf;rsO;f t& wm0ef&ydS gonf/ xdaYk Mumifh tcsKd Ut&mrsm; vkyaf qmif&mü a&SUaeonftcuftcJawGUwwfygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh a&SUaewpfa,mufonf

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ud k , f p m;jyKjcif ; jzif h trI o nf a [mif ; ud k &if q d k i f j cif ; (Representation Against a Former Client)

pnf;rsO;f rsm;u a,bl,suefo Y wfxm;onfrmS a&SUaewpfa,mufonf trIonftopf tm; ud, k pf m;jyKNy;D ,ciftrIonfa[mif;tm; trIwpfcw k nf; odrYk [kwf ,if;trIEiS hf xif&mS ;pGm ywfoufaeonfh trIwiG v f u kd f aqmif&u G rf rI sm; rjyKvyk Ef ikd af y/ þae&mü trIonfa[mif;\ vdt k yfcsut f ay:odYk qd;k &Gm;onfo h ufa&mufr&I v dS mrnfjzpfNy;D þodv Yk yk af qmifEikd &f ef trIonf a[mif;rS oabmwlciG jhf yKcsuf vdt k yfygonf/ þodYk a&SUaetm; usi0hf wfwm0eftm; taumif

134

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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ywf o uf ouf q d k i f í t&nf t csif ; rjynf h p H k [ k owf r S w f j cif ; (Imputed Disqualitifation)

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odrYk [kwf ukrP Ü w D iG f use&f pfcahJ om a&SUaeu rlvtrIonf\ tcsut f vufrsm;udk od&adS eygu? useaf &SUaersm;onf ,cif trIonftwGuf ta&;ygaomudprö sm;udk qd;k usKd ;jzpfap&ef OD;wnfEikd f aom trIonftopfukd vufcu H , kd pf m;jyKjcif; rjyKvyk &f yg/ a&SUaetufabmh (Abbott)onf trIonftwGuf pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;udk a&;om;ay;cJNh y;D xdt k a&mif;t0,fqikd &f m tcsut f vufrsm; onf a&SUaeabum (Baker) \zdik w f rJG sm;wGif use&f pfaeao;vQif xdu k rk P Ü rD S a&SUaecsm;vfpf (Charles)onf xdp k m&Gupf mwrf;\ teuft"dygÜ ,fEiS hf xda&mufrw I EYkd iS hf ywfoufí ,SONf yKd if wdu k cf u kd v f akd om trIonftopfukd ud, k pf m;jyKciG hf r&Syd g/ tvkyrf S EIwx f u G v f maom a&SUae wpfO;D wGif trSew f u,ftrIonf\ vQKd U0Sucf suyf g&Sv d mrSomvQif ¤if;ESit hf wl ywfouf oufqikd í f t&nftcsi;f rjynfph [ kH k owfrw S jf cif;onf xdo k \ l aemufrS vdu k v f mayrnf/ tu,fí a&SUae tufabmhonf aowrf;pmwpfcu k kd a&;Ny;D csed w f iG f vkyaf zmfuikd zf ufa&SUae 'gbDonf wlnaD om xdkukrÜPDwGif vkyfudkifaeoa&GU ,if;aowrf;pmtm; qefYusifpdefac:onfh tjcm;trIonf wpfa,muftm; ud, k pf m;rjyKEikd yf g/ tu,fí a&SUae'gbDonf tjcm;ukrP Ü w D pfco k Ykd ajymif;oGm; csed üf olw Y iG f ,if;txufygaowrf;pmESihf qufE, G af eaom ta&;Bu;D vQKd U0Sucf surf sm; ygoGm;cJv h Qif ukrP Ü o D pfoYkd a&mufonfw h ikd f trIonfopftm; ud, k pf m;rjyKEikd yf g/ odUk aomf a&SUae'gbD uk, d pf m;jyK Edik o f nfw h ikd f ukrP Ü t D opfwiG f vuf&v dS yk u f ikd af eaom a&SUae tJo,fvo f nf a&SUae'gbDEiS fh vkyif ef;t& ywfoufro I nf auseyf½o kH nftxd oD;jcm;jzpfaeygu a&SUae tJb,fvu f ud, k pf m;jyK aqmif&u G Ef ikd yf grnf/ odaYk omfvnf; ,if;odYk ud, k pf m;jyKciG &hf &Sjd cif;ESihf ywfoufí tawmftwef oabmrwlonfrsm;vnf; &Syd grnf/ 4/

tpd k ; &a&S U aea[mif ; - rl M urf ; a&;ol r sm; ( Former Government Lawyer-Drafters)

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136 Z/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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w&m;pG J j cif ; qd k i f & musif h 0 wf r sm; (Litigation Ethics) rlMurf;a&;qGx J m;aompmcsKyrf sm;onf wpfcgwpf&w H iG f w&m;pGq J jkd cif; jyóemrsm;wGif yg0ifwwfygonf/ Oyrm- pmcsKyfcsdK;azmufrI/ trIonfrsm;onf pmcsKyfESifhqufpyfaeaom taMumif;t&mrsm;tjyif ueOD;a&;qGcJ ahJ om pmcsKyrf Ml urf;rsm;ESihf qufpyfpm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;udk zdik w f rJG sm;wGif rMumcPxdr;f ode;f xm;wwfMuygonf/ wpfcgwpf&H ,if;wdYk xde;f odr;f xm;aom pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;ESihf pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;onf w&m;pGq J rkd t I wGuf ta&;Bu;D aeNy;D ? wpfcgwpf&H ,if;tm; jyefvnfíqd;k usKd ;ay;Edik af om taMumif;t&mrsm; yg0ifaeygwwfygonf/ vuf&jdS zpfay:aeaom trIwiG f oufaotaxmuftxm;jyEdik o f nfh wefz;kd &Sd pmcsKyf pmwrf;rsm;udk 0Sux f m; odrYk [kwf zsuq f ;D jcif;onf a&SUaewpfa,muftwGuf usi0hf wfazmufzsuf &mMuonf[k trsm;u ,lqMuygonf/ trIESifhoufqdkifaom pm&Gufpmwrf;tm;vHk;udk &SmazGay;&ef yefMum;onfh qifah c:pmtm; trIonfukd wpfzuftzGrYJ mS ydo Yk nft h cgwGif t½d;k &Si;f qH;k trIrsm; ay:aygufwwfygonf/ pmcsKyft& trIonfu tajctaewpfckudk odygvsufESifh xkwaf zmfjy&efwm0efukd em;vnfNy;D rajymbJxed cf secf ahJ Mumif;udk ñTejf yonfph m&Gupf mwrf;rsm;uJo h Ykd rdrt d ay: trIjyefywfapEdik af om pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;udk xdt k csed w f iG f zsuq f ;D &ef trIonftm; a&SUaeu tBurH ay;oifyh g/ odaYk omf trIEiS o hf ufqikd &f m ta&;Bu;D onfh pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;tm;vH;k udk trIonfu rjzpfraewifjy&ef a&SUaeudk wdu k w f eG ;f Ed;I aqmf&ef wm0ef&rdS &Sq d akd omudprö mS &Si;f vif;jcif;r&Syd g/ xdek nf;wlpmG yif w&m;pJq G rkd rI wdik rf D trIonf\pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;udk zsuq f ;D ypfjcif;tay: usi0hf wfxed ;f odr;f a&;tzGu YJ rnforYkd nfyq kH ;kH jzwf&rnfrmS vnf; roJuyJG g/ Oyrm- ukrP Ü ED pS cf k yl;aygif;&ef oufqikd &f m pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk a&SUaeurlMurf; a&;qGNJ y;D oGm;Nyq D ykd gpdYk a&SUaeu þodaYk ygif;pyfjcif;onf w&m;0ifaMumif; rSw, f al omfvnf; ,HMk unftyfErHS I qefu Y sijf cif;qdik &f m Oya'rsm;udck sKd ;azmufcg vuf0g;Bu;D tkyo f rd ;f ,l&ef tBu&H adS eEdik af Mumif;udk nTejf yonfph m&Gupf mwrf; rsm;udk zsufqD;jypf&eftBuHtm; trIonfudka&SUaeu ay;Edkifjcif;&Sdygovm;/ þjyóemudk

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tajz&Sm&ef rvG,u f yl g/ pdwt f cs&qH;k enf;rSm OD;wnfcsut f qift h wef;rsm;ygaom pm&Gupf mwrf; xde;f odr;f jcif; - zsuq f ;D jcif;ay:vpD0g'udu k sio hf ;kH &ef trIonfukd a&SUaeunTeMf um; tBuaH y;&ef jzpfygonf/ n/

w&m;r0if a om Oya'qd k i f & m aqmif & G u f j cif ; rsm;ud k ul n D y H h y d k ; jcif ; (Aiding the Unauthorized Practice of Law)

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

139

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tcrJ h r l M urf ; a&;qG J a y;jcif ; 0ef a qmif r I r sm; ( Providing Free Drafting Services)

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140

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef; (6) a,bl,sazmfjyjcif; (An Overview)

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trI o nf \ &nf r S e f ; csuf r sm;ud k od & S d & ef vk y f a qmif j cif ; (Determine the Client's Objectives)

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141

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yg0ifywfoufolrsm;tm; &SmazGowfrSwfjcif; (Identify the Audience) pmcsKyw f pfc\ k t"du ta&;tBu;D qH;k yg0ifywfouforl mS trIonfomjzpfNy;D rlMurf; a&;qGaJ eolwpfO;D onf OD;pGmrdr\ d trIonftay:wm0ef&ydS gonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGaJ &;qdik &f m usi0fh wf pnf;rsO;f rsm;onf þtcsut f ay:wGif tajccHwnfaqmufxm;jcif;jzpfygonf/ oufqidk &f m uRr;f usirf t I ydik ;f rsm; tao;pdwyf g&Srd nhf pmcsKyw f pfcjk zpfygu rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolwpfa,mufonf xdo k x Ykd ad &mufpmG aqmif&u G Ef ikd &f ef vHak vmufaom A[kow k ESihf uRr;f usirf I vdt k yfygonf/ tu,fí jyKvyk af eonfh ta&mif;t0,fwpfcw k iG f oufqidk &f m tawGUtBuKH enf;aeol trIonfrsKd ; jzpfvQif &Si;f vif;jyEkid &f efvnf; rlMurf;a&;olwiG f t&nftcsi;f &S&d efvnf; vdt k yfygonf/

142

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pmcsKyf \ Oya'yd k i f ; qk d i f & mES i f h tcsuf t vuf y d k i f ; qk d i f & m a&S U aemuf p um; tquf t pyf u d k us,f j yef Y p G m &S m azG j cif ; ( Explore the Broader Legal and Factual Context of the Documents)

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

143

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144

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Oya'tm;okawoejyKjcif; (Research the Law) aemufq;kH ü rlMurf;a&;aeol\ tm½Hpk u dk jf cif;onf azmfjycJNh y;D jzpfonfh a,bl,s Oya' qkdif&mrsm;rS vuf&Sda&;aeonfh rlMurf;tay: wdkuf½dkufoufa&mufrnfh Oya'rsm;tay:odkY pl;pdu k u f sa&mufvm&ef jzpfonf/ yk*v ¾ u d qdik &f m pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;jzpfonfh tvkycf efx Y m;a&;pmcsKy?f ukrP Ü \ D y#dnmOf? aowrf;pmponfwt Ykd ay:wGif ta&;Bu;D aom Oya'rsm;u odomxif&mS ;pGm oufa&mufygonf/ owfrw S cf suw f pfct k m; rjzpfraexnfo h iG ;f &ef vdt k yfjcif; odrYk [kwf ydwyf if odrYk [kwf cGijhf yKjcif;rsm;udk Oya'u jy|mef;oGm;ygonf/ odw Yk nf;r[kwf owfrw S cf suw f pfct k m; azmfjy&efvt kd yfonfo h P²meftm; Oya'u ñTejf yoGm;Ekid yf gonf/ Oya'uyif oH;k EIe;f xm;aom pum;vH;k rsm;\ t"dygÜ ,fukd azmfaqmifomG ;Ny;D ta&;yg owfrw S cf surf sm;\ Oya'tusKd ;qufrsm; udv k nf; owfrw S x f m;ygonf/ xkaYd Mumihf rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf ,if;wdt Yk m;vH;k udk odxm;Ny;D a&;qG&J ef jzpfygonf/ a&;zGUJ yHk rnfoyYdk if enf;ynmoH;k Ny;D om;em;aeapumrl yg&Sad omta&;Bu;D vdt k yfcsurf sm; rjynfph kH rrSeu f efvQif tcsn;f ES;D yifjzpfayrnf/ Oya'a&;qGJjcif;qkdif&m Oya'onf uefYowfcsufrsm; ydkrdkrsm;jym;NyD; zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'ESit hf nD yHo k P²mefa&m t"dutcsurf sm;ESiyhf wfoufíyg uefo Y wfcsurf sm;yg0ifavh&ydS gonf/ Oyrmwpfct k aeESijhf y&aomf jynfe,frsm;\ tajccHOya'rsm;wGif Oya'rsm;jy|mef;&mü acgif;pOf wGiyf g0ifazmfjy&rnft h csurf sm;udk owfrw S x f m;Ny;D acgif;pOfurJG sm;\ pmom;rsm;udv k nf; owfrw S f xm;ygonf/ Oya'wpfcw k iG f taMumif;t&mrsKd ;pkH ryg0ifbJ taMumif;t&mwpfct k wGuo f m jzpf&rnf[k jy|mef;xm;ygonf/ þtcsut f m;vH;k udk Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolwrYkd S odxm;&ef vdt k yfygonf/ tcsKd Uaomjynfe,ftqifOh ya'rsm;onf a'oEÅ&tqifw h iG f xkwcf iG rhf &Sad om pnf;rsO;f rsm;udk wm;jrpfavh&ydS gonf/ jynfe,fEiS hf a'oEÅ&Oya'a&;qGo J w l o Ykd nf jynfaxmifpk Oya'onf OD;pm;ay;jzpfonfqakd om Oya'&Sad Mumif;udk od&&dS efvt kd yfygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

145

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tESpfom&udk &SmazGazmfaqmifjcif; (Determine Substance) tdraf &mif;pmcsKyw f pfck odrYk [kwf q,fausmo f ufvil ,frsm;tm; nrxGu&f qko d nfh wpfcsuf vTwt f rdeu Yf kd a&;qG&J mwGif rlMurf;a&;olonf rnfonft h csurf sm;udk xnfrh nfenf;/ ,if;vdt k yfcsuf rsm;udk od&EdS idk &f ef a&;qGo J \ l todÓPfEiS hf tawGUtBuKH wt Ydk jyif trIonf\ awmifw h vdt k yfcsuf wdu Yk ykd g od&efvydk gonf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGaJ e olwpfa,mufonf xGuaf y:vmonfh pmcsKyw f &m;0if jzpf&eftwGuf xnfo h iG ;f &rnfph myd'k rf sm;ESihf trIonf\tusKd ;udk tumtuG,af y;&ef xnfo h iG ;f &rnfph myd'k rf sm;&Sad Mumif;udk od&ydS gonf/ tjyeftvSeo f abmtm;jzifh tcsKd Upmyd'k w f o Ykd nf odom xif&mS ;pGm Oya'ESihf qefu Y siaf ernfjzpfonf/ xkrd S rausmv f eG v f Qif trIonf\ vdt k yfcsuo f nf t"dutESpo f m&jzpfygonf/ odaYk omfvnf; trIonfonf jzpfEidk af csrsm;udk rod&v dS Qif ¤if;tm; today;oifjy&efrmS a&SUae\wm0efom jzpfaejyefygonf/ þae&mü ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;qkid &f m tjyif rlMurf;a&;olu jyifqifxm;onfh vkyaf qmif&efrsm;udk rarh&ef tpOfvu kd af &;om;xm;onfh pm&if;jyKpx k m;jcif;onf tvGerf yS if ta&;Bu;D vSygonf/ xked nf;wlpmG yif Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGaJ eolonf ol\ rlMurf;wGif yg0ifonfh pmyd'k t f csKUd rSm tajccHOya'ESiv hf nf;aumif; okrYd [kwf txufrcS srw S x f m;onfh tjcm;Oya'ESiv hf nf;aumif; rudu k n f aD Mumif; awGU&ayvdrrhf nf/ a&;qGo J \ l tawGUtBuKH t& rnfoaYdk om pmyd'k rf sm;onf tmPmoufa&muf&ef rvG,jf zpfaejcif; odrYk [kwf taMumif;wpfcck ak Mumifh rnfoo Ydk ufa&muf Ekdifrnfr[kwfaMumif;udk cGJjcm;od&SdEdkifayrnf/ tcsKyfwGifrlum; t"duyg0ifapvdkonfudk qH;k jzwf&efrmS trIonfomvQif jzpfygonf/

146

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tcsuf t vuf r sm;&,l j cif ; (Get the Facts) pmcsKyw f iG f xnho f iG ;f yg&Srd nfrsm;udk trIonfEiS hf rlMurf;a&;olwYdk a,bl,soabmwlNy;D onfhtcgwGif rlMurf;a&;olonf wduspGm cGJjcm;NyD; qufvufaqmif&GufoGm;&efjzpfygonf/ ta&mif;pmcsKyw f iG f a&mif;ukeyf pön;f rsm;\ trsKd ;trnfEiS hf aps;EIe;f rsm;udk cGjJ cm;&ef vG,u f al yonf/ od&Yk mwGif tvkycf efpY mcsKyw f iG f yg&S&d onfh puf½rkH efae*sm\ oD;jcm;wm0efrsm;udk azmfjy&mürl txufyg ta&mif;pmcsKyu f o hJ Ykd rvG,u f v l yS g/ xkdenf;wlpGmyif jy|mef;Oya'wGifygonfh 'ku©ay;Edkifrnfh tao;pdwftcsuftvuf tm;vH;k udk wduspmG rlMurf;a&;olu ajz&Si;f &ef vdyk gonf/ þjy|mef; Oya'onf rnfot Yl m; &nfñeT ;f ygoenf;/ rnfou l tmPmoufa&mufatmif aqmif&u G rf nfenf;/ rnfoaYkd om tjypf 'Pfrsm; csrw S rf nfenf;/ cRi;f csuaf vQmufvmT wifrnfqydk gu rnfonfah e&mwGif wifEidk rf nfenf; ponfh ar;Ekid pf &mar;cGe;f rsm; ay:xGuv f mEkid yf gonf/ vGepf mG rS ta&;Bu;D vSonfh þar;cGe;f rsm;\ tajzrsm;udk a&;qGJckdif;onfh trIonfOya'jyKrsm;xHrS vG,fulpGm r&Ekdifyg/ 4if;wdkYtaeESifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;u qH;k jzwfay;vdrrhf nf[al om ,lqcsujf zifh auseyfaeavh&MdS uygonf/

rSefuefaom Oya'ydkif;qdkif&mESifhtcsuftvufydkif;qdkif&m tawG;tjrifrsm;udk &SmazGowfrSwfjcif; (Identify the Proper Legal and Factual Concepts)

rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;jzpfpOfonf ,cktqifw h iG f a,bl,srS wdusjcif;okYd ul;ajymif;a&muf&dS vmNyjD zpfygonf/ jzpfpOfwpfcv k ;kH tm; tydik ;f ydik ;f oH;k oyfNy;D cGjJ crf;ygu Oya'ydik ;f ESihf tcsut f vufyikd ;f [lí ESpyf ikd ;f ay:xGuv f mygrnf/ tawG;tjrifrsm;udk pdwu f ;l jzifh yHak zmf&mwGirf ?l xdjk zpfpOfonf ajymif;jyefjzpfygvdrrhf nf/ ,if;aygif;pyfjcif; tpOfyg0ifygonf/ t"dutydik ;f rsm;udk tjcm;enf;jzifh pdwu f ;l xJwiG f wnfaqmufygrnf/ tawG;tjrifrsm;udk t"dutoH;k jyKjcif;jzifh atmifjrifaom aygif;pyftpOfukd Ny;D ajrmufapEdik yf gonf/ yxrtaeESihf trIonf\ &nfreS ;f csuu f kd od&EdS idk &f eftwGuf tNyKd it f qkid jf zpfay:aeonfh Oya'a&;&m tawG;tjrift,ltqwdt Yk eufrS a&G;xkw&f efjzpfygonf/ trIonftwGuf ydrk kd aumif;vmap&eftwGuf tNyKd ipf mcsKycf sKyrf nft h zGUJ tm; vGwv f yfonfh uefx½du k rf sm; odrYk [kwf

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0efxrf;[k owfrw S o f ifo h avm/ Oya'rS wm;jrpfrnfh vkyaf qmifcsut f m; jypfrI odrYk [kwf w&m;rrI wpfc[ k k cH,rl nfvm;/ txufyg tawG;tjriftoD;oD;onf rwlnaD om Oya'tusKd ;qufrsm; &Syd gonf/ 'kw, d taeESihf rlMurf;a&;olonf tcsut f vufrsm;udk awG;awmyHak zmf&mwGif trIonf\ OD;wnfcsuEf iS hf udu k n f v D Quf yHak zmf&ygrnf/ þokYd vkyaf qmif&mwGif a&;qGo J l a&G;cs,Ef idk o f nfh oH;k rsKd ;rSm • a,bl,s Vs. wdusjcif; pm&Gupf mwrf;udk trnfwyf&mü NcKH iv kH suf "tdraf rG;w&dpmä ef" okrYd [kwf wduspmG "acG;" [k vdyp f mwwf&rnfavm/ • a00g;rI Vs. wdusrI udpö&yfwpfckudk "tcsdeftawmftweftwGif;" odkYr[kwf wduspGm "10&uf twGi;f " [k owfrw S &f rnfvm;/ • ½kyf0w¬Kr&Srd I Vs. ckid rf mpGm&Srd I pm&Gufpmwrf;onf &v'fudk azmfjy&mü ½kyf0w¬Konfh &v'f "aMumufvefYjcif; okdYr[kwf emusifrIudk jzpfapaom" odkYr[kwf cdkifrmrI&Sdaom "cJ wkwfjzifh tjcm;ol\acgif;udk ½dkufrnf[k Ncdrf;ajcmuf" [k azmfjy&rnfvm;/ þokaYd om tawG;tjrifyakH zmfjcif;qkid &f m tjcm;enf;vrf;rsm;udk tcef;(10)wGif azmfjyoGm; ygrnf/ Z/

txm;todkydkrdkaumif;rGefatmif aqmif&Gufjcif; (Develop an Organization) aumif;rGejf ynhpf pkH mG a&;om;xm;aompmcsKyrf sm;onf owfrw S pf yH pkH rH sm;twdik ;f a&;om; xm;Mujcif; jzpfygonf/ jy|mef;Oya'rsm;onfvnf; tvm;wlyifjzpfygonf/ tjcm;Oya'qdik &f m pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;jzpfaom aowrf;pmrsm;? oif;zJGUpnf;rsOf;rsm;? tpktpyfpmcsKyfrsm; a&;qGJ &mwGiv f nf; "pH"yHpk rH sm; &Syd gonf/ þodUk us,0f ef;aomowfrw S af bmiftwGi;f wGif rlMurf;a&;qGo J l onf xdu k o f ifah omvGwv f yfrjI zifh pmcsKyf odrYk [kwf jy|mef;Oya'rlMurf;udk a&;qGEJ ikd yf gonf/ rSeu f efaomzGUJ pnf;rIukd a&G;cs,&f mwGif taMumif;t&mrsm;udk tkypf ck JG i,ftqift h xd owfrw S &f ef vdyk gonf/ aMumif;usKd ;pDavsmaf om cGjJ crf;&ef pnf;rsO;f oH;k ck&ydS gonf/ 4if;wdrYk mS (1) tkypf ck iJG ,fwpfcw k iG yf g0ifaom taMumif;t&mrsm;onf tjyeftvSef z,fxw k f Edik af om taMumif;t&mrsm; jzpf&rnf/ (2) tkypf ck iJG ,frsm;tm;vH;k udk aygif;pnf;vdu k v f Qif jznfah omtkypf w k pfck jyefvnf jzpfomG ;Edik &f rnf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

(3) cGjJ crf;onft h cg wpfpu kd rf wfrwfrw l pfrsKd ;jzifh cGjJ crf;&rnf/ Oya'ynmoif,al eaom ausmif;om;wdu Yk kd (y)ESp?f ('k)ESpEf iS hf (w)ESppf ojzifh toD;oD; cGv J u kd jf cif;onf obm0uspmG cGjJ crf;vdu k jf cif; jzpfygonf/ odaYk omfvnf; (y)ESpf ausmif;om;rsm;? trsKd ;orD;rsm;ESihf 5ay 7vufrausmt f &yfjrifh ausmif;om;rsm;pojzifh cGjJ cif;onf txufyg pnf;rsO;f (3)ckpvH;k udk csKd ;azmufaeayrnf/ trsKd ;tpm;owfrw S jf cif; vkyaf qmif&mü pnf;urf;csuw f pfcpk t D m; oufqidk &f mtkypf ck w JG Ydk wGif toD;oD;xm;&Sjd cif; jzpfygonf/ þodaYk qmif&u G &f mwGif wpfcgwpfav a&G;cs,&f mü tcuftcJ ESihf BuHK&wwfygonf/ tmrcHpay:aiG jyefay;jcif;qdkif&m owfrSwfcsufonf iSm;&rf;XmeodkY vnf;aumif;? tiSm;oufwrf; ukeq f ;kH zsuo f rd ;f a&;Xmeokv Yd nf;aumif; a&mufomG ;Ekid yf gonf/ þokaYd omtcgü vkyaf qmif&ef taumif;qH;k enf;vrf;rSm wlno D nfh pnf;urf;csurf sm;udw k &l mpkNy;D pmcsKyzf wfou l &Srd nf[k txifrw S q f ;kH aomae&mwdw Yk iG f xm;&S&d efjzpfygonf/ tpOfvu kd x f m;jcif;onf tkypf ck iJG ,frsm;tm; a&SUaemufpOfjcif; oufqidk af eygonf/ þodYk vkyaf qmif&mwGif tcsed Ef iS v hf u kd Nf y;D OD;pGmjzpfaomjzpfpOfrsm;tm; OD;pGmazmfjyNy;D tcsed Ef iS v hf u kd cf g tpOfvu kd f azmfjyoGm;&ef jzpfygonf/ tjcm;enf;rSm ta&;tBu;D qH;k tkypf ck iJG ,ftm; t&ifq;kH azmfjyNy;D ta&;Bu;D csut f vdu k f tpOfvu kd af zmfjyoGm;&ef jzpfygonf/ þzGUJ pnf;jcif;qdik &f m abmif pnf;urf;rsm;udk tcef;(11)wGif azmfjyoGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ ps/

pmcsKyfpmwrf;a&;om;jcif; (Write the Document) þtydik ;f onf rlMurf;a&;qG&J mü tvG,q f ;kH tydik ;f yifjzpfEidk yf gonf/ bmompum;½Iaxmifrh S Munfrh nf qkyd gvQif rlMurf;a&;qGo J l owdjyK&rnfrsm;rSm1/ wpf c k x uf y d k a om t"d y Ü g ,f a qmif j cif ; rsm; (Ambiguities) rlMurf;a&;jcif;wGif t"dygÜ ,fwpfrsKd ;xuf ydak qmifEikd af ompum;vH;k oH;k jcif;jzifh 'G[ d ruif;jcif;onf tBu;D rm;qH;k trSm;jzpfygonf/ pmyk'w f pfco k nf t"dygÜ ,fEpS cf G xGuEf ikd Nf y;D ,if;t"dygÜ ,frsm;onfvnf; qefu Y siaf eygu 'G[ d ruif;rIukd jzpfapygonf/ roJurJG a&&mjcif;aMumifh trsm;qH;k jzpfEidk o f nfrmS raocsm½Ho k m&Sad omfvnf; t"dygÜ ,f rsKd ;pHak ygufaejcif;rSmrl cGiv hf w T Ef idk pf &mtaMumif; vH;k 0r&Syd g/ xkaYd Mumifh pmcsKyf csKyq f &kd m wGif tjcm;wpfzuftm; xifa,mifxifrmS ;jzpfap&ef &nf&, G Nf y;D þodYk 'd[ G ruif;aom toH;k tEIe;f udk wrifo;kH pGjJ cif;onf a&;qGo J \ l rormrIjzpfNy;D vH;k 0usi0hf wfazmufzsujf cif; r[kwo f nfwikd f þodaYk omvky&f yfonf rdrt d rIonftm; aumif;usKd ;ray;onft h jyif qk;d usK;d yif oufa&mufapEkid yf gonf/ tb,haf Mumifh qkad omf w&m;½H;k rsm;u þodaYk om 'd[ G ruif;aom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;oH;k pGjJ cif;aMumifjh zpfaom trIrsm;udk qH;k jzwf&mü 'd[ G ruif;jzpfay:aponfh tzGUJ udo k m tjypfay;avh&adS omaMumifh jzpfygonf/

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'G[ d ruif;t"dygÜ ,fziG jhf cif; oH;k rsKd ;&Syd gonf/ yXrwpfrsKd ;onf a&SUaemufpum; tquftpyf rnDonfh trsKd ;tpm;jzpfNy;D pmyk'd w f pfco k nf a&SUwGiw f pfrsKd ;qkNd y;D aemuf tjcm;pmyd'k w f pfck a&SUtyk'd Ef iS hf ajymif;jyefqo dk nft h cgwGif jzpfygonf/ 'kw, d wpfrsKd ; a0g[m&qdik &f m 'G[ d ruif;jzpfjcif;rSm pum;vH;k rsm;\ t"dygÜ ,fEiS hf 0gusrsm;\ t"dygÜ ,f wdEYk iS hf oufqidk af eygonf/ þae&mü t"dygÜ ,frsKd ;pHzk iG Ehf idk o f nfh pum;vH;k rsm; oH;k xm;jcif; aMumifh t"dygÜ ,frsKd ;pHo k ufa&mufygonf/ wwd,trsKd ;tpm;rSm 0guszUJG pnf;yHk qdik &f m 'G[ d ruif;jzpfjcif;jzpfNy;D oH;k xm;onfh pum;vH;k rsm; tpOfvu kd rf usjzpfaeNy;D 0gus tjzwftawmuf yk'rf csjcif;? yk'jf zwfcsjcif;rsm;ESihf oufqidk af eygonf/ þt"dygÜ ,frsKd ;pHk oufa&mufjcif;rsm;udk tcef; (12)wGif azmfjyoGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ 2/ a&;yHka&;[efESifh toHk;tEIef;pnf;rsOf;rsm; (Rules of Style and Usage) þrlMurf;a&;olrsm;twGuf pnf;rsOf;rsm;rSm t"dyÜg,frsKd;pHkxGufjcif;udk a&SmifEidk &f ef wpfcw k nf;twGuf r[kwyf g? xGuaf y:vmrnfh pmom;rsm;onf wajy;nD jcif;? &Si;f &Si;f vif;vif;ESihf wdw k w kd w k w f w k f &So d nft h jyif ½d;k &Si;f jcif;? aMu;pm;tqifh uRr;f usio f \ l a&;[efaqmif&ef jzpfygonf/ rnfonfOh ya'qkid &f m a&;om;csurf sm; tm;vH;k onf þOD;wnfcsu&f adS omfvnf; rlMurf;aumif;a&;ol wpfa,muftwGuf r&Srd jzpf vdt k yfcsurf sm;yifjzpfygonf/ þpnf;rsO;f rsm;tm; tcef;(13)wGif azmfjy oGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif tcsKd Uae&mrsm;ü vd&k mOD;wnfcsuo f Ydk a&muf&&dS ef wdusaom toH;k tEIe;f udk oH;k oGm;&ygrnf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh aowrf;pmESihf tdr?f Nc?H ajrvTJajymif;a&;pmcsKyfwdkYtm; rlMurf;a&;qGJ&m xdkodkYwduspGm oHk;EIef;ygonf/ xdk pmcsKyrf sm;rSví JG tjcm;rnfonfph mcsKyrf sKd ;rqdw k iG f tNrx J nfo h iG ;f oH;k pG&J rnf pmom; r&Syd g/ cRi;f csurf mS teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;ESihf xl;jcm;aom Oya'a&;&m tusKd ; qufrsm;&Sad om udp&ö yfrsm;jzpfygonf/ 3/ teuf t "d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k j cif ; (Definitions) teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;rsm;onf rlMurf;a&;oltwGuf tvGew f &mrS ta&; ygaom ud&, d mwefqmyvmrsm;jzpfygonf/ ,if;wdu Yk kd ydik q f ikd Ef ikd yf gu bmompum; onf rlMurf;a&;oltwGuf twm;tqD;r[kwb f J txG#t f xdyo f Ykd ydaYk qmifEikd yf gvdrhf rnf/ t"dygÜ ,fazmfaqmifjcif;rsm;u a&;om;csurf sm;udk pum;vH;k enf;Ny;D &Si;f vif;pGm azmfqkdEdkif&ef tultnDay;oGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ odkYygaomfvnf; rlMurf;a&;olu

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; txl;owdjyKNyD; t"dyÜg,fazmfaqmifoGm;&efjzpfygonf/ bmompum;qkdif&mwGif "qkv d o kd nfrmS "? "yg0ifonf" "ryg0ifyg" ponfwo Ykd nf wpfcEk iS w hf pfck t"dygÜ ,f uGjJ ym;rIrsm;ygonf/ xkaYd Mumifph um;vH;k tm; ta&G;rSm;oGm;onfEiS hf pmcsKyw f pfcv k ;kH t"dygÜ ,fajymif;vGo J mG ;Ekid yf gonf/ teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;rsm;udk tcef;(14)wGif qufvufazmfjyoGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ 4/ w&m;Oya't& tusd K ;quf r sm;ud k z ef w D ; aom pnf ; urf ; csuf r sm; (Terms Creating Legal Consequences)

rlMurf;a&;qGx J m;onfh pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;onf vkyyf ikd cf iG rhf sm;? wm0ef0wå&m; rsm;? txl;cHpm;cGifhrsm;? uif;vGwfcGifhrsm;? tajctaet& uefYowfcsufrsm;? vkyfydkifEkdifcGifhtmPmESifh tjcm;Oya'qkdif&m tusdK;qufrsm;udk qufpyfyHkrsm;udk ay:xGufvmapygonf/ þodkY w&m;Oya'ESifh qufpyfrIwpfckpDay:xGufvm&ef rwlonfh pum;vH;k rsm;udk oH;k &ygonf/ þae&mü "Shall" , "shall no" , "wil", "may" , ‘"must" udx k nfo h iG ;f toH;k jyKjcif;jzifh "0&rf; " ? "vkyyf ikd cf iG ^hf &ydik cf iG "hf ponft h usKd ;qufrsm; jzpfapygonf/ arQmrf eS ;f onfh &vm'f&&S&d ef oihaf vsmaf om pum;vH;k a&G;cs,o f nfrmS rcufcaJ omfvnf; rnfoaYkd om w&m;Oya'tusKd ;quf ay:xGuaf pvdo k nfukd qH;k jzwf&jcif;rSm ydí k cufcv J yS gonf/ taMumif;wpfct k m; "vkyfydkifcGifh ^&ydkifcGifh" odkYr[kwf "txl;tcGifhta&;" udk zefwD;jcif;onf ydkíoifhawmfrnfavm/ odkYwnf;r[kwf t&mwpfcktm; pnf;urf;csufwpfck[k owfrw S rf nfavm odrYk [kwf vkyaf qmif&efwm0ef[k azmfjyrnfavm/ ,if;wpfck pDonf rwlnaD om w&m;Oya'tusKd ;qufrsm;rSm ,if;azmfjycsurf sm;ESihf ywfoufí tcef;(15)wGif azmfjyoGm;rnfjzpfygonf/ 5/ yH k o P² m ef (Format) rlMurf;wpfc\ k ½kyyf ikd ;f qkid &f m pDpOfxm;yHEk iS hf yHo k P²mefonf vltrsm; xifrw S f onfxufrsm;pGm ydrk t kd a&;Bu;D ygonf/ Oyrmwpfct k aeESihf Munfrh nfqykd g u 1800 vGecf Ek pS rf sm;cefu Y tar&duef jynfaxmifpq k ikd &f m jy|mef;Oya'aygif;csKyu f jkd zpfap? odUk r[kwf Oya'a&;&mukrP Ü w D pfcrk S 1920cefw Y iG f trIonftwGuf a&;qGaJ y;cJah om pmcsKyw f t Ykd m; Munfrh nfqydk gu acgif;pnf;tzGUJ i,frsm;vnf; ryg&S?d acgif;pOf rsm;tm; pmvH;k tBu;D rsm;jzifh azmfjyxm;jcif;vnf;r&S?d usyw f nf;pGm zGUJ qkx d m;onfh tyd'k rf sm;udk wpfcEk iS hf wpfck a0;uGmpGm a&;om;xm;onfh rD;cd;k a&mifpm&Gurf sm; txyfv f u kd u f o kd m

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awGUjrif&rnf jzpfonf/ tvGepf w d &f n S pf mG xm;Ny;D cJ,Of;pGm zwf&rnfjzpfygonf/ þodkYvHk;0rjzpfoifhyg/ rlMurf;a&;qGJxm;onfh pmcsKyfpmwrf;wpfckonf zwf½I&ef vG,ful&rnf/ tudk;tum;&nfñTef;tjzpf toHk;jyK&ef vG,fulNyD; vG,fulpGm oabmaygufEidk &f ygrnf/ þodYk jzpfapEkid &f ef pmvH;k rsm;udk vHak vmufpmG jcm;ay;jcif;? pm&if;rsm;tm; trSwpf Ofwyfay;jcif;? wpfcpk t D pOfvu kd af zmfjyaom pm&if;? tpufrsO;f rsm;jyí &Si;f vif;csux f nfjh cif;? tvG,w f uljrifEikd Nf y;D oH;k &efv, G o f nfh Tab rsm; xm;jcif;? pmaMumif;tpwGif uGuv f yfjcm;ay;jcif;? acgif;pOfrsm;? acgif;pOfcrJG sm;udk trSwpf Ofrsm;wwfay;Ny;D &Si;f vif;csuf xnfah y;jcif;wdu Yk kd vkyaf qmifay;oGm;&ef jzpfyg onf/ txufygwkt Yd m;vH;k ESihf use&f ydS o kH P²mefazmfaqmifjcif; enf;vrf;rsm;udk tcef; (16)wGif azmfjyoGm;rnfjzpfonf/ n/

pmcsKyf t a&;ygtcsuf r sm;ES i f h a&;om;[ef w d k Y u d k jyef v nf p D p pf j cif ; (Reviewing the Documents for Substance and Style)

txufwiG f azmfjycJah om rlMurf;a&;vrf;pOftwkid ;f vdu k ef ma&;om;jcif;jzifh xGuaf y: vmaompmcsKyo f nf jzpfoiho f nf\ 90%cefo Y m &Sad umif;&Sad yvdrrhf nf/ þtcgü tm;vH;k jynhpf NkH y;D aemufqHk;tqifhokdY a&mufaeonf[k ,lqzG,f&Sdaeygonf/ odkYaomfvnf; xdktay:&Htjrif oufoufrmS xifa,mifxifrmS ; jzpfapwwfygonf/ xGuaf y:vmonfph mcsKyt f m; txufraS tmuf? 0Jr, S m tjyeftvSepf pD pfjcif;ESihf jyifqifjcif;rsm; qufwu kd v f yk af qmifomG ;jcif; cH&ayrnf/ rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf 4if;\ trIonfvt kd yfcsut f m;vH;k udk pmcsKyw f iG f yg0ifaejcif; &S?d r&SEd iS hf Oya'\ vdt k yfcsurf sm; Ny;D jynfph jkH cif; &Srd &Sd aocsmap&ef pdppf&ygrnf/ pmcsKyo f nf trIonfvt dk yfcsuu f kd jznhpf rG ;f Ekid pf rG ;f &Srd &Su d v kd nf; prf;oyf&efvykd grnf/ pmcsKy\ f zGUJ pnf;yHEk iS hf [efyeftoH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk &SmazGjyifqifomG ;&ef jzpfonf/ ½du k Ef ySd &f mwGijf zpfymG ;aom trSm;rsm;udk z,fxw k Nf y;D aemufwpfBurd f xyfrw H u kd q f ikd pf pD pfNy;D vQif aemufq;kH taeESihf trSm;&S?d r&Sd xyfrzH wf½o I mG ;&efjzpfygonf/ pmcsKyf wzefppD pfjcif;vky&f yfukd tcef; (17)wGif azmfjyoGm;ygrnf/ #/

pmcsKyf p wif t aumif t xnf a zmf a qmif & G u f N yD ; csd e f w G i f avh v mapmif h M unf j cif ; (Post Execution Monitoring )

xGuaf y:vmonfh rlMurf;onf pGr;f aqmifoufa&mufEidk o f nfh umvywfv;kH rlMurf;a&;qGJ olu xdu k o f ifph mG wm0ef&rdS nfjzpfonf/ tu,fí Oya'tajymif;tvJEiS hf trIonf\ tajctae tajymif;tvJ&cdS yhJ gu pmcsKyu f v kd nf; tajymif;tvJjyK&ef vdt k yfvmwwfygonf/ xkaYd Mumifh pmcsKyfoufwrf;wpfavQmuf rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf ,if;pmcsKyftm; avhvmapmifhMunfhjcif;

152

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tyd k i f ; (2) BuKd w if j yif q if j yKvk y f j cif ; ES i f h BuKd w if p D r H j cif ; (Preperation and Planning)

tcef ; (7) tpcsD j cif ; (Getting Started) rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;vkyfief;pOf\ OD;qHk;aqmif&Guf&rnfh tqifh(3)qifhwGif yg0ifonfh tcsuw f Ukd rSm tvkyt f yfol trIonf\ &nf&, G cf suu f o kd jd cif;/ xdpk mudk toH;k jyKrnfh y&dwo f wfukd od&jdS cif;ESihf xdpk mcsKypf mwrf; vnfywftoH;k jyKrnfh w&m;Oya'ESihf oufqikd &f mtajctae (od)Yk trSwfwpfu,fjzpfwnfaeaom tajctae tcsuftvufwdkYudk em;vnfoabmayguf&ef vdo k nf/ þtcsu(f 3)ckonf pmcsKypf mwrf;a&;qGjJ cif;\ tajccHjzpfojzifh wpfcEk iS w hf pfck eD;uyfpmG aphpyfrI&SdMuonf/ u/

tvk y f t yf o l trI o nf \ &nf & G , f c suf u d k o d & S d a tmif aqmif & G u f q H k ; jzwf j cif ; / (Determine Client Objectives)

pmcsKyfrIMurf; a&;qGJjcif;udpörSm xGufay:vmaom pmcsKyfpmwrf;avmuf ta&;rBuD; aomfvnf; rvkyfrjzpf vkyfaqmif&aom aqmif&Gufcsufwpfck jzpfonf/ aumif;rGefaom y#dnmOfpmcsKyfwdkYonf w&m;Oya'ESifh oufqdkifaom todynmESifh wwfuRrf;rIwdkYrS xGufay:vmaom wpfckwnf;aom &vm'fr[kwfay/ "wuúodkvfausmif;ayguf0? Oya'½Hk;cef;wHcg;0 t0ifwGif ydkif;jcm;a0zefwwfaom todOmPfukd rxm;&pfygeJ"Y qdak om pum;twdik ;f aumif;rGeaf om y#dnmOfwo Ykd nf pD;yGm;a&;ESihf vufawGUb0 tawGUtBuKH A[kow k wdYrk S xGuaf y:vmaom &vm'fvnf;jzpfonf/ þpD;yGm;a&; todEiS hf vufawGUem;vnf wwfuRr;f rIwYdo k nf txl;tm;jzifh tm;enf;aom EIwo f ufaocHcsuf qdik &f m pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm; (parol evidence rule ) usio hf ;kH xm;aom e,fy,frsm;wGif y#dnmOf rsm;udk t"dygÜ ,fazmfq&kd eftwGuf toH;k jyK&rnfjzpfí aumif;rGeaf om pmcsKyw f pfapmif jzpfajrmuf &eftwGuf vdktyfonf/ xkdYaMumifh Oya'tusKd;aqmifwpfOD;onf trItyfolwkdY\ vkyfief; obm0? 4if;\ &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf vkyif ef;tm; vnfywfapaom vkyt f m;rsm; aumif;pGmem;vnf&ef vdak yonf/ þodUk jzifh y#dnmOfa&;qGo J t l m; vufawGUusí wdusaocsmaom owif;pkaqmif;jcif; ESifh trsKd;tpm; cGJjcm;rSwfwrf;wifEdkifapjcif;jzifh pmcsKyf0ifwdkYtMum; jzpfyGm;Edkifaom rSefuefpGm cGJa0owfrSwfEdkifrnf/ aqmif&GufrIwdkY tm;enf;rIrsm;aMumifh jzpfay:vmaom trSm;rsm;udk jyKjyifay;jcif; (odkY) vJvS,fjcif;wdkYudk jyKvkyfay;Edkifonf/ w&m;a&;pepfudk zefwD;ay;Edkifjcif;?

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

153

w&m;wabmifwGif tm;vHk;rSm qufvufaqmif&Guf&ef rjzpfawmhonfh tajctaerSmyifvQif pmcsKyfonf t"dyÜg,f aumuf,l&Sif;vif;csufudk cHEdkif&nf&Sd&rnf/ twnfjyKEdkifpGrf; &Sd&rnf/ 1/

tajccHar;cGef;rsm; (The Basic Questions) pmcsKyaf &;qGrJ nfo h t l aeESihf trIonfwikd ;f tm; ar;oifah om ar;cGe;f rsm;udk enf; trsK;d rsK;d jzifh ar;jref;od&EdS ikd o f nf/ xdek nf;vrf;tm;vH;k onf trIonfvv kd m;onfh &nfreS ;f csu?f vIUH aqmf ay;onfh &nf&G,fcsufESifh taMumif;&if;cHwdkYESifh qufEG,faeayonf/ tb,fhaMumifh oif\ om;jzpfoludk "taxGaxGudk,fpm;vS,f" vTJtyfvdkyg * oenf;/ oifonf tb,fhaMumifh NrKUd e,f e,ferd w d t f wGi;f vlwpfO;D vQif acG;oH;k aumif xufyí kd arG;jrLjcif; w&m;r0ifaMumif;udk owfrSwfvdkygoenf;/ þwpfO;D wnf; ud, k pf m;vS,f jyKvyk jf cif; oabmwlncD surf mS rnfonfh&nf&G,f * csufudk OD;wnfygoenf;/ aexdkifolrsm;udk trIdufyHk;odrf;csdefvGefNyD; (6)em&DtwGif;ü rdrw d \ Ykd trIu d yf ;kH rsm;udk vrf;ray:rS z,f&mS ;apvdjk cif;rSm rnfonfh&nf&G,fcsuf aMumifh enf;/ ajr;jzpfot l wGuf ",HMk unftyfErHS I tpDtpOf" jyKvyk af y;jcif;tm;jzifh rnfonfh * aumif;usKd;ukd jzpfatmif BuKd;yrf;aejcif;jzpfoenf;/ rnfonfh qdk;usKd;rsm;rS tum tuG,fay;vdkoenf;/ um;a&aq;jcif;vkyfief;rsm; we*FaEGaeYwGif zGifhvSpfvkyfudkifjcif;udk Oya'ESifh * qefu Y siaf Mumif; jyXmef;&ef BuK;d yrf;vdjk cif;rSm rnfonfaumif haumif;usKd; &&Sad &;udk &nf&, G í f vkyfaqmifcJhjcif;jzpfoenf;/ rnfonfh qdk;usKd;rsm;udk wm;jrpf&ef &nf&G,foenf;/ oifonf ,ckta&mif;t0,fupd Eö iS hf tvm;wlaom rnfonfh ta&mif;t0,f * taw awGG UtBuKHrsm;&Scd yhJ goenf;/ tqifajyacsmarGUjcif; &Scd o hJ avm/ rnfonf(h tcsu)f wdu Yk atmifjrifapcJhoenf;/ rnfonfht&mrsm;rSm rSm;,Gif;oGm;cJhygoenf;/ þuJhodkYaom cufco J nfh tawGUtBuK&H cdS yhJ govm;/ þvIy&f mS ;rIwiG f rnfonfh vdv k m;tyfaomtcsuf rsm;udk Oya'jy|mef;jcif;udk tm;ay;oifjh cif; (od)Yk a&Smif&mS ;jcif; jyKoifyh goenf;/ jyefvnf jyifqif&ef (od)Yk wm;jrpf&efvo kd nfh rvdv k m;tyfaom taMumif;t&mrsm;rSm rnfonfwYdk jzpfoenf;/

taMumif;tcsuftvufrsm;udk toHk;jyKjcif; (How the information is used) ar;cGe;f rsm;rS xGu&f v dS monfh tcsut f vufwo Ykd nf pm&Gupf mwrf;\ toGio f P²mefEiS hf taMumif;t&mrsm;tay: vTrf;rdk;rI&Sdayvdrfhrnf/

154

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufudk odjcif;tm;jzifh rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf xdkpm&Gufpmwrf;\ \&nf&G,fcsufa&mufatmif wdkuf½dkuftusqHk;ESifh tusdK;&SdqHk;jzpfonfhenf;udk toHk;jyKEdkifjcif;/ &nf&, G cf suEf iS rhf oufqikd af om pnf;urf;csurf sm;jzifh jynfEh u S af zmif;yGjcif;rS a&Smif&mS ;Edik af yrnf/ Oyrmwpfct k aeESihf c½dik af umifp0D ifwpfO;D rS tcsed yf ikd ;f c½dik af &SUaewpfO;D tm; " ta0;ajy; vrf;rtrSwf (647)ay:wGif az:cRwu f yG½J w kH pf½kH zGiv hf pS v f u kd í f xdjk yóemESiyhf wfoufNy;D trdeYf pm wpfapmifukd a&;qGaJ y;yg" [k cdik ;f ygonf/ þae&mwGif pOf;pm;&rnfh tcsurf mS " jyóem" [laomtcsurf mS tb,fenf;/ tvdv k m;qH;k aom &nfreS ;f csurf mS tb,fenf;/ tjcm;jzpfEikd af cs &So d nfwEYdk iS hf xdjk zpfEikd af cswu Ykd a&;qGaJ y;&efawmif;qdck sut f ay: pmcsKyaf &;qGo J \ l wkeUf jyefru I kd rnfodkUoufa&mufrI&Sdonfudkyg pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ l

tusif h y suf tjyKtrl w d k Y r S umuG , f [ ef Y w m;jcif ; (Suppression of immoral conduct)

tusifhysufrIwdkYrS umuG,f[efYwm;jcif;onf jzpfvdkaom &nf&G,fcsufjzpfygu rlMurf; a&;qGJol\ vkyfief;pOfrSm wm;jrpfonfhtjyKtrludk pnf;rsOf;Oya'ESifhtnD t"dyÜg,f&Sif;vif; zGifhqdkí wm;jrpf&efjzpfonf/ l

teD;0ef;usif&Sd vlaetdrf&mrsm;\ wefbdk;tay: tusKd;oufa&mufrI&Sdapjcif;/ (Impact on neighbouring residential property values)

tcuftcJjyóemonf vkyfief;\ wnfae&maMumifhjzpfNyD; vkyfief;\ tppftrSef obm0aMumifrh [kwv f Qif rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl mS a&;om;onft h cgwGif ae&ma'oESihf oufqikd af om ZHkowfrSwfjcif; ½IaxmifhrS csOf;uyfa&;qGJ&rnfjzpfonf/ t&uf E S i f h q uf E G , f r I (Connection with alcohol) c½dik af umifp0D ifonf vdi(f qdik &f m)udprö sm;ESihf t&ufonf raumif;aom aygif;pyfjcif; jzpfonf[k ,lqvsif rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf t&ufvdkifpif xkwfay;jcif;ESifh oufqdkifaom ½IaxmifhrSaeí jyóemudk ajz&Sif;&ayrnf/

qlnHoH? rD;tvif;a&mif? armfawmf,mOfrsm;ESifh ,mOf&yfem;rIqdkif&m udpö&yf (Noise, lights, traffic, and parking concerns)

jyóemtaMumif;&if;rSm qlno H ?H rD;tvif;a&mif? armfawmf,mOfrsm;ESihf ,mOf&yfem;rIqikd &f m udp&ö yfrsm;jzpfvQif rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf zGUJ pnf;yHt k ajccHOya'ESihf oufqikd af om jyóemrsm;udk

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

155

vHk;0a&SmifMuOfNyD; ptvkyftudkif ae&mXmersm;udk tMuHK;0ifap&ef pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;rsm;udk csJUxGifvsuf tBuHK;0ifapjyD; aqmif&GufrI? tjyKtrlydkif;udk pOf;pm;jcif;udk avsmh&ayrnf/ l

,S O f N yKd i f r I (od k Y ) pD ; yG m ;a&;t& zd t m;ay;rI (Competitive or economic pressure)

c½dik af umifp0D iftaejzifh tjiif;yGm;rSK enf;yg;onfh oabmobm0&Sad om omref t&uf qdik rf sm;rS þuJo h Ykd ,SONf yKid rf rI sm;udk z,f&mS ;ay;&ef zdtm;ay;rIatmufwiG f &Sad umif;&Sad yvdrrhf nf/ xkdokdYqkdvsif pD;yGm;a&;½IaxmifhrS &Sif;vif;oifhayonf/ wpfcgwpf&H trItyfol vdv k m;aom pmc&Gupf mwrf;wdrYk mS 4if;wkYd trSew f pfu,f vdt k yf aom pm&Gufpmwrf;rsKd; r[kwfay/ trItyfolwpfOD;onf a&SUaetm; "Living Will" uJhodkY vlrrm wpfOD;udk,fwdkif yHrk eS t f ouf&iS f vIy&f mS ;Edik jf cif; r&Sad wmhonft h cg aq;0g;ukorIqikd &f m aemufq;kH aqmif&u G af y;apvdak om rdr\ d qE´ukd q&m0efrsm;tm; BuKw d ifñeT Mf um;csuu f o hJ aYkd om y#dnmOfrsK;d udk a&;qGaJ pvdo k nf/ odaYk omf trIonf trSew f pfu,fvt kd yfonfrmS Mum&Sncf aH om ud, k pf m;vS,v f pJT m "Durable Power of Attorney" rdr\ d ud, k pf m; use;f rma&; aq;ukoa&;ESihf aiGa&;aMu;a&; udprö sm;udk pDraH qmif&u G af y;Edik o f nfh uk, d pf m;vS,v f pJT momjzpfonf/ rlMurf;a&; qGJolwpfOD;taejzifh tajccH pHkprf;ppfaq;rIrsm;r&SdbJ txufyg vdktyfcsufrsm;udk rodEdkifay/ xdkenf;wlpGm Oya'jyKolwpfOD; a&;qGJvdkaom &nf&G,fcsufonf tjcm;Oya'wpfckwGif yg&SdNyD; jzpfEdkifonfhtjyif jyóemrSm vufawGUusifhoHk;&mwGif jynfhpHkvHkavmufrI r&Sdjcif;jzpfNyD; tajccH tm;jzifh wm;jrpfEikd rf I tm;enf;jcif;aMumifh r[kwaf y/ þodUk qdv k Qif pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf oifah wmf aom ajz&Sif;enf; Oyrmtm;jzifh aiGaMu;axmufyHhrIudk wdk;jr§ifhjcif;jzifh ajz&Sif;Edkifonf/ 3/

&nf & G , f c suf r sm;ud k ½I a xmif h t rsKd ; rsKd ; rS ½I j rif o H k ; oyf j cif ; (Objectives From a Variety of Perspectives)

pmcsKyfa&;qGJolonf trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk od&SdEdkifap&ef ar;cGef;rsm;udk wdkuf½dkufar;jref;onfh enf;tjyif tjcm;½SKaxmifhtrsKd;rsKd;rSvnf; aqmif&GufEdkifonf/ u)

tjcm;pmcsKyf0ifrsm; (Other Parties to the Transaction) pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f yg0ifaom pmcsKy0f ifrsm; xH;k pHt& pmcsKyaf &;qGo J rl mS pmcsKy0f if wpfO;D wnf;\ ud, k pf m;a&;qGaJ y;jcif;jzpfNy;D xdt k rIonf\ &nf&, G cf suu f kd t"duxm;&onf jzpfaomf vnf; tjcm;pmcsKy0f ifw\ Ydk &nf&, G cf surf sm;udv k nf; xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ tb,fah Mumifh qdak omf ,if;\ t"du&nf&, G cf surf mS pmcsKyf (odUk ) Oya'udk wpfzufow l Ukd rS vnf;yg0if oabmwl

156

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

vufc&H &S&d efjzpfonf/ þodUk tm;jzifh trIonfrS tqH;k pGe&f &S?d a&muf&v dS akd om &nf&, G cf suw f Ukd rSm rsm;pGm uefo Y wfrI &SEd idk af yonf/ wpfenf;tm;jzifq h akd omf trIonfEiS hf oufqikd af om &nf&, G cf suf wdYrk mS jzpfEikd af cs&adS om taMumif;rsm;jzpfonf/ þtcsuu f kd trIonfrS oabmayguf&ef a&SUae (odkY) pmcsKyfa&;qGJolrS pGrf;aqmifEdkif&rnf/ þtaMumif;t&mESiyhf wfoufí trIonftm; tBujH yKaqG;aEG;&m trIonfrS pmcsKyu f kd trSefwu,f csKyfqdkvdkaom &nf&G,fcsuf r&SdaMumif;vnf; od&SdvmEdkifonf/ tqdkjyKxm;aom pmcsKyw f iG f tjcm;zk;H uG,x f m;aom &nf&, G cf suf &Sad umif;&SEd ikd v f rd rhf nf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh vlwpfO;D rSm 0wå&m;t& tjcm;wpfO;D ESihf a&mif;0,fru I kd aqG;aEG;n§Ed idI ;f &ef &Sad omfvnf; xdo k El iS hf rcsKyq f v kd kd ojzifh wpfzufvl vH;k 0vufrcHEikd af om pnf;urf;csurf sm;udk tqdjk yKjcif; (odUk ) Oya'jyKow l pfO;D onf twnfjyKap&ef r&nf&, G af om Oya'wpfcu k kd tqdjk yKjcif;onf Edik if aH &;vSnu hf u G f taeESihf om jzpfonf/ þokdY pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;rSm upm;ouJhodkYjzpfNyD; trSefwpfu,f pmcsKyfpmwrf; a&;om;onf[k rqdkEdkifay/ c)

toH k ; jyK&ef arQmf r S e f ; BuH p nf a om e,f y ,f t yd k i f ; tjcm; (Scope of Anticipated Use)

trIonfrS pmcsKyftm; rnfodkYtoHk;jyKrnf[laom tcsufonfvnf; tvGefta&;yg ayonf/ tu,fí pmcsKyfonf trnfazmfjyxm;aom pmcsKyf0ifESpfOD;wnf;om toHk;jyKrnf qdyk gu &nf&, G cf surf mS vnf; xdEk pS Of ;D tMum; a&mif;0,frw I pf&yfukd jzpfajrmufap&efom jzpfvsif tav;xm;*½kjyK&rnfh tcsufwdkUonfvnf; avsmfnDpGm uefYowfxm;ayrnf/ þodkUr[kwfbJ trIonfrSm pmcsKyfudk a&mif;0,frIrsm;pGmwGif rwlnDaom pmcsKyf0ifrsm;ESifh toHk;jyKNyD; xdkokdY csKyfqkdvsifvnf; toD;oD;rwlnDaom tajctaersm;&Sd&ef &nf&G,fvsif tav;xm;&rnfh tcsuo f nf jzpfEikd af cs tm;vH;k udk tBuK;H 0if umrdap&ef ydrk u kd s,jf yefU&ayrnf/ vlaewdu k cf ef;rsm; pGmudk iSm;&rf;onfh yHak otdrif mS ;pmcsKyu f kd a&;qGo J w l pfO;D onf tdrcf ef;iSm;&rf;jcif;ESihf ywfoufí jzpfay:vmEdik o f rQaom taMumif;t&mtm;vH;k udk rwlnaD om tdrif mS ; (toufarG;rI? touf? tdraf xmifa&;tajctae? uav; &S^d r&S?d tdraf rG;wd&pd mä ef &S^d r&S)d udk vdu k í f jzpfay:vmaom udpt ö &yf&yfukd ajz&Si;f Edik &f rnf/ a':arm'fEiS hf ol\ wljzpfol u,fvAf ifwt Ykd Mum; csKyq f akd om tcef;iSm;pmcsKyf &nf&, G cf su\ f abmiftueft Y owfEiS hf tav;teuf tm½Hpk ;k pdu k o f nfh tcsuf wdkYrSm ydkusOf;ajrmif;ayrnf/ xdek nf;wlpmG oD;oefUjzpfaom uefUowfxm;aom vlwpfpk (odUk ) ta&mif;t0,fupd &ö yf rsdK;udk tusKd;oufa&mufrI&Sdap&ef &nf&G,faom Oya'wdkYudk a&;qGJjcif;ESifh ydkíus,fjyefYaom tusKd;oufa&mufrI &SdapEkdifrnfh Oya'udk a&;qGJjcif;wkdYwGif qifjcifpOf;pm;&rnfh tcsufrsm;rSm uGmjcm;ayrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; *)

157

wpf O D ; xuf y d k a omtrI o nf w d k Y \ &nf & G , f c suf r sm; (Multiple-Client Objectives)

trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufudk od&Sdatmif aqmif&GufqHk;jzwf&mwGif trIonfrSm wpfOD; (odkU) tzGJUtpnf; wpfckxufydkvsif vGefpGmrS cufcJ½IyfaxG;ayonf/ tzGJU0if(3)OD; yg0ifaom tpkpyfonf olwdkY\ vkyfief;aqmifwmrsm;udk (Sub Contract)wqifhcH uefx½dkufxHokdY cGJa0ay;&ef qHk;jzwfMuonf/ tpkpyf0if (u)onf xkwfvkyfrIqikd &f m ukeu f sp&dwrf sm;udk avQmch s vdo k nf/ tpkpyf0if (c)onf qyfuefx½du k rf sm;rSm vkyif ef;udk ydrk akd umif;rGeaf tmif vkyEf ikd rf nf[k ,lqonf/ tpkpyf0if (*)onf tcGefoufomcGifhrsm;ESifh ywfoufí ydkrdkpdwf0ifpm;onf/ qDavsmaf om pmcsKyw f pfapmifa&;qG&J ef rBuK;d yrf;rD rlMurf;a&;qGrJ nfo h l taeESihf tpkpyf pmcsKy0f ifrnfh olrsm;tm; 4iff;wdkY\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;rSm rwlnDMuojzifh y#dyu©&SdEdkifaMumif;udk BuKw d ifowday; oifah yonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl mS trIonf (3)OD;pvH;k \ vd&k if;&nf&, G cf surf sm;udk jznfhpGrf;ay;EdkifNyD; pmcsKyf0iftm;vHk;wdkYonfvnf; rdrdwkdYudk,fpD\ vdkvm;csufrsm;ESifh vHk;0 roufqdkifaom pmcsKyfpnf;urf;csufrsm; yg&Sdaeonfudk em;vnfvufcHEdkifvQif aumif;rGef ayonf/ odkYaomf jyóemjzpfay:vmcJhvsif? Oyrmtm;jzifh tpkpyf0if (c)vdkvm;aom ydkí aumif;rGeaf om t&nftaoG;onf tpkpyf0if (u)\ xkwu f ek pf &dwf avQmch sa&;ESihf y#dyu©&EdS ikd f onf/ þodkYaomtcgrsKd;wGif rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf 4if;\ trIonfrsm;tm; tcsif;csif; ajz&Sif; ap&ayvdrfhrnf/ aumfydka&;&Sif;BuD;wpfcktwGuf pmcsKyfa&;qGJ&mwGifvnf; tvm;wl jyóemrsKd; &Sdwwf ygonf/ aiGpm&if;Xme\ &nf&G,fcsufrSmwpfrsKd;? ta&mif;XmerS tjcm;wpfck? okawoeESifh zGUH NzK;d a&;XmerS aemufwpfrsK;d ponfwjYkd zpfonf/ tcsKUd udp&ö yfrsm;wGif cifyeG ;f ESihf ZeD;onfwt Ykd m; Oya't& oD;jcm;jzpfwnfrKS wpf&yf[k r,lqay/ wpfO;D csi;f pDonf rwlnaD om &nf&, G cf surf sm; &Sad yvdrrhf nf/ odaYk omf trIonfwrYkd mS &nf&, G cf surf sm;ESihf ywfoufí tm;vH;k oabmwlncD suf jzifhaomfvnf;aumif;? txufrS MoZmtmPmaMumifhaomfvnf;aumif; wpfpdwfwpf0rf;wnf; r&SdvQif pmcsKyfa&;qGJrnfholrSm a&SUqufí rjzpfedkifay/ aemufq;kH taejzifh tcufcq J ;kH aom "wpfO;D xufyakd om trIonf "wdUk rS jzpfay:vmwwf aom jyóemrSm vlESpfOD;onf wlnDaom &nf&G,fcsuf&Sdaomfvnf; 4if;wdkY udk,fwdkifyif rod&MdS uaom tusK;d wly#dyu© (Conflict of interest)&Sad eEkid yf gonf/ a&mif;olEiS hf 0,fot l Mum; wlnaD om &nf&, G cf surf mS owfrw S x f m;aom aps;EIe;f wpfcjk zifh um;wpfp;D tm; ta&mif;t0,f jzpfajrmufa&;jzpfonf/ w&m;repfemrI usL;vGeo f w l pfO;D ESihf xdcu kd ef pfemolwt Ykd Mum; &nf&, G cf suf rSm ESpfOD;ESpfzuf auseyfpGm ausat;jcif; jzpfayvdrfhrnf/

158

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

odaYk omf xdak ,bl,stm;jzifh wlnaD om &nf&, G cf suw f rYkd S ausmv f eG í f pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D csi;f wdkY\ oD;oefYvdkvm;aom tusKd;wdkYonf ododomom uGJjym;rI&Sdwwfonf/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolrsm;rSmvnf; tvm;wl "wpfOD;xufydkrsm;aom trIonfrsm;rS jyóemrsm;" ESifh &ifqdkifwwfMu&onf/ Oya'rsm; a&;qGJaomXmewGif tvkyfvkyfaom rlMurf;a&;qGo J t l m; Oya'rlMurf;rsm;udk a&;qGaJ y;&ef tyfEo HS l "trIonf" jzpfol wpfo;D yk*v ¾ Oya'jyK olrS a&;qGaJ ponf/ odUk aomf xdrk Ml urf;a&;qGo J rl mS vnf; aumfrwD tzGUJ 0ifwpfO;D jzpfNy;D aumfrwD0if wpfOD;csif;rSmvnf; rwlnDaom &nf&G,fcsufwkdY &SdMuayrnf/ t&ufrl;aeNyD; jzpfolwdkYtm; t&ufxyfrHa&mif;csjcif;ESifh ywfoufí t&ufa&mif;oltay: wm0ef&Sdjcif;udk twnfjyKrnfh Oya'a&;qGJ &ef oabmwlnDMujyD; trsm;taeESifh qE´&Sdaumif; &Sdayvdrfhrnf/ okaYd omf xdOk ya' rlMurf;a&;qGrJ nfh yk*K¾ v d rf mS "t&ufaomufNy;D ,mOfarmif;olrsm;tm; qefUusio f l rdcifrsm;" tzGUJ wGif yg0ifvyI &f mS ;vsuf &So d jl zpfojzifh 4if;\ &nf&, G cf surf mS wpfcw k nf;omjzpfjy;D wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyif t&ufqdkifydkif&Sifrsm; tpnf;t½Hk;0if wpfOD;rSmvnf; tjcm;&nf&G,fcsuf &Sad yvdrrhf nf/ þwGif rlMurf;a&;qGo J t l zdUk pOf;pm;&efrmS rnfo\ l tusK;d twGuf a&;qG&J ygrnf enf;/ Oya' rlMurf;a&;qGJaom vGwfvyfonfh a&SUaewpfOD;onf tusdK;pD;yGm;jcif; rwlnDaom tkypf w k pfct k wGuf Oya'a&;qG&J mwGif tvm;wla&G;cs,&f ef cufco J nfh tajctaersK;d ESihf BuK&H wwfygonf/ 4/

trI o nf \ &nf & G , f c suf r sm;ud k tuJ j zwf j cif ; (Evaluating Client Objectives)

trIonfwdkY\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk tuJjzwf&mwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJol\ tcef;u@rSm uefYowfrI &Sdayonf/ a,bl,s pnf;rsOf;t& trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;rSm trIonf\ udp&ö yfomjzpfNy;D rlMurf;a&;qGo J \ l vkyif ef;rSm xd&k nf&, G cf surf sm;udk taumiftxnfay:atmif aqmif&u G af y;&efjzpfygonf/ þpnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rSm atmufyg tcsu(f 3)csurf t S y jzpfygonfyxrOD;pGm- tu,fí trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufrSm Oya'ESifhrnDaom (odkY) vdrfvnf vSnjhf zm;rI yg&Sad evQif pmcsKyaf &;qGo J rl mS xd&k nf&, G cf suf txajrmufatmif raqmif&u G Ef ikd af y/ odkYaomf xdkpnf;rsOf;onf ajym&efvG,fuloavmuf trSefwpfu,f usifhoHk;&ef cJ,Of;ayonf/ vlowf&efapcdik ;f onfh oabmwlncD suo f nf udp&ö yfwpfcjk zpfNy;D ukrP Ü BD u;D (2)ck yl;aygif; vdu k jf cif; tm;jzifh aps;uGuu f kd rw&m; vuf0g;Bu;D tkyrf I jzpfjcif;udpo ö nf oD;jcm;udpö jzpfonf? udpöESpf&yfrSm rwlnDay/ 'kwd,taejzifh- pmcsKyfa&;qGJolonf &nf&G,fcsufwpfckodkY a&muf&Sd&ef MudK;yrf;jcif; aMumifh rarQmv f ifah om ½Iyaf xG;onfh Oya'a&;&m &vm'frsm;udv k nf; axmufjy&ef 0wå&m;&So d nf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

159

Oyrmtm;jzifh trIonf\ t"du &nf&, G cf surf mS pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;Bu;D \ vnfywfrI vkyif ef;pOf tm;vH;k udk csKyu f ikd v f o kd nf/ xdv k yk if ef;tm;vH;k wdt Yk m; vTaJ jymif;&,ljcif;rSm w&m;r0ifaomvky&f yf r[kwaf omfvnf; NcKiH MkH unfv h Qif þvky&f yfrmS ,HMk unfrI uif;rJah paom tjyKtrltaejzifh aemif wGif jyóem&SdvmEdkifygonf/ wwd,taeESifh- qufpyfrI\oabm obm0tay:rlwnfí pmcsKyf&nf&G,fcsufrsm; txajrmufvQif tjcm;aom? ydí k ta&;ygaom &nf&, G cf surf sm;udk t[eft Y wm;jzpfapEdik yf gu pmcsKyaf &;qGo J t l aejzifh rdrt d rIonftm; owday;&rnfjzpfonf/ emruse;f cGi, hf jl cif;ESihf ywfouf í wif;usyfpGm owfrSwfxm;aom ukrÜPDpnf;urf;wpf&yfonf emrusef;cGifhudk tvGJoHk;jcif;rS wm;jrpfvakd om usO;f ajrmif;onfh &nf&, G cf suf atmifjrifEidk af omfvnf; tvkyo f rm;ESihf tvky&f iS f wdt Yk Mum; qufqaH &;aumif;rGeaf tmif zefw;D vdak om ydrk u kd s,jf yefaY om &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf udu k n f rD I r&Syd g/ oifah wmfr&I v dS Qif pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf trIonftm; þtaMumif;tcsurf sm;ESihf pyfvsO;f í tBujH yKoifo h nf/ xdek nf;wl Edik if aH &; todik ;f t0ef;avmuwGiv f nf; Oya'jyKa&;ESihf pyfvsO;f í qefu Y sib f uf tzGUJ tpnf;wdo Yk nf oD;jcm;udpw ö pf&yfEiS hf ywfoufaom Oya'rsm; wifoiG ;f jcif;udk a&Smif&mS ;Mu&ef ESpzf ufem;vnfrI ,lxm;Muonfh tavhtx &Sw d wfMuonf/ xdo k abmwlncD suf udk csK;d azmufco hJ nf&adS omf xGuaf y:vmrnf&h vm'fonf rvdv k m;tyfaom Oya'rsm;jzifh wkejYf yef rIrsK;d jzpfNy;D ? Oya'jyKow l \ Ydk rl&if;&nf&, G cf suEf iS hf qefu Y siaf pygrnf/ tarQmt f jrif&adS om Oya' rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfOD;rSm þtcsufudk Oya'jyKolwdkYtm; tBuHjyKayvdrfhrnf/ tcsKyt f m;jzifq h akd omf prlMurf;a&;qGo J rl mS aocsmaphpyfaom pDpOfo?l axmufvrS ;f olEiS hf pma&;q&muJhodkY jzpfonfhtjyif trIonfwdkYtzdkY tBuHay;yk*¾Kdvfvnf; jzpfayonf/ c/

pmcsKyf u d k t oH k ; jyKrnf h o l y&d o wf u d k od & S d j cif ; (Know the Audience) trIonfrmS a&;qGx J m;aom pmcsKyu f kd t"duoH;k pGrJ nfo h jl zpfonf/ odaYk omf pmcsKyrf sm;rSm vlaygif;pHkrS zwf½SKoHk;pGJMuNyD; xdkolwdkYrSmvnf; rwlnDaom &nf&G,fcsufrsm;jzifh oHk;pGJMujcif;jzpf onf/ xdkvlrsm;onf pmcsKyftm; oHk;pGJrnfhy&dowfjzpfonf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJolrSm þy&dwfowf wpfO;D csi;f pD\ &nf&, G cf suu f kd od&adS tmif BuK;d yrf;Ny;D 4if;wd\ Yk rwlnaD om toH;k jyKyu kH kd owdjyKí oifhavsmfatmif a&;qGJ&ayrnf/

y&dowfrSm rnfoljzpfonf (Identity of the Audience) Oyrmtm;jzifh- ajrydkif&SifwpfOD;rSm pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;oHk; ajruGufay:wGif ½Hk;taqmuf tOD;wpfckudk aqmufvdkonf[k ,lqMuygpdkY/

160

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ajrydkif&SifrSm a&SUaetm; aqmufvkyfa&; oabmwlpmcsKyfudk a&;qGJapjyD; ? xkdpmcsKyfudk toH;k jyKEikd f rnfo h rl sm;ESihf toH;k jyKeidk zf , G f &So d w l \ Ydk &nf&, G cf suu f kd atmufygtwdik ;f tusO;f csKyf azmfjyedkifygonfyd k i f & S i frSm aqmufvkyfrnfh taqmuftOD;\ ajryHkESifh tao;pdwf tcsuf * tvufwEkdY SifhwuG uefx½du k rf sm;xHrS aps;EIe;f urf;vSr;f rIrsm;&&Sad tmif pmcsKyu f kd OD;qH;k toH;k jyKrnfo h jl zpfonf/ xdUk aemuf xkpd mcsKyjf zifh uefx½du k w f \ Ykd vkyaf qmif csufwdkUudk BuD;MuyfuGyfuJ&efESifh ydkif&SifrS aiGay;acs&ef 0wå&m;wdkYudk twnfjyK &mwGif toHk;jyKygrnf/ aygifESHjcif;ukrÜPD rS aqmufvkyfa&;twGuf acs;aiGxkwf ay;oifh^roifhudk * qHk;jzwf&mwGif toHk;jyKygrnf/ pnfyifom,ma&;Xme ZHkowfrSwfa&;ESifh aqmufvkyfa&;aumfr&Sif vlBuD;rS * (Zoning or Building Commissioner)rS taqmuftOD;rsm;udk aqmufvyk cf iG hf ay;oifh^roifhudk qHk;jzwf&eftwGuf toHk;jyKygrnf/ uefx½dkufqGJvdkolrsm; * sm;onf þpmcsKyu f kd oH;k í rdrw d \ Ykd aps;EIe;f urf;vSr;f jcif; twGuf wGufcsuf&mwGif toHk;jyKygrnf/ tEdkif&&Sdaom uefx½dkufwUkd rSm rdrw * d Ukd vkyaf qmif&rnft h &m? aqmif&u G &f rnfh tcsdefumv? rnfodkY aqmif&Guf&rnfudk wdwdusus od&SdEdkif&ef toHk;jyKygrnf/ jzpf E d k i f a cs&S d a omol E S i f h trS e f w u,f qyf u ef x ½d k u f & &S d a om * uefx½dkufwrYkd mS vnf; aps;EIe;f wGucf suf wifoiG ;f jcif;ESihf 4if;wdYk vkyif ef;wm0ef 0wå&mrsm;qdkif&m vkyfief;abmif uefYowf&mwGiftoHk;jyKygrnf/ tcGifhta&;ESifh &ydkifcGifhwdkUudk Oya't& vTJtyfcH&olESifh wm0efvTJtyfjcif; * cH&olwUk d onfvnf; 4if;wd\ Yk vkyyf ikd cf iG Ehf iS hf wm0ef0wå&m;wd\ Yk abmife,ferd w d u f kd owfrSwf&eftwGuf toHk;jyKrnf/ bPfrsm;rSm vkyif ef;\ Ny;D qH;k onf tpdwt * f ydik ;f twGuf aiGay;acs oif^h roifEh iS hf ay;acs&rnfh tcsdefwdkYudk wGufcsuf&ef toHk;jyKygrnf/ Adokummonf taqmuftOD; Ny;D ajrmufaMumif; vufrw * S x f w k af y; oif^h roifu h kd qH;k jzwfEikd &f eftwGuf toH;k jyKrnf/ * w&m;wabmifjzpfcahJ omf twdkuftcHa&SUae aerS pmcsKyyf sujf y,fjcif; &S^d r&Su d kd oufaoxl&ef toH;k jyKygrnf/ * trIuekd mMum;onfh w&m;olBuD; (od)Yk *sL&DvlBuD;wdUk onf wm0efrsm;ESihf epfem aMu;wdkYudk owfrSwfqHk;jzwfay;&ef toHk;jyKygrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 2/

161

pmcsKyf t m; toH k ; jyKrnf h o l y&d w f o wf \ 0d a oovu© P mrsm; (Characteristics of the Audience)

pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf pmcsKyu f kd oH;k pG&J ef tvm;tvm&Sad omyk*K¾ v d w f Ykd wpfO;D csi;f \ ud, k yf ikd f 0daoovu©PmESihf &nf&, G cf sut f jyif xdo k w l \ Ykd obm0p½du k ?f oabmxm;ESihf cH,cl suw f u Ykd ykd g xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ pmcsKy\ f qdv k &kd if;? toGijf yifvu©Pm? oH;k pGo J nfh a0g[m&ESihf pmcsKy\ f cifusi;f a&;om; wifjyxm;yHw k rYkd mS t"duoH;k pGrJ nfo h t l ay:vdu k í f odoo d mom uGjJ ym;jcm;em;rI &Sdrnf/ oHk;pGJrnfholonf tawGUtBuKHenf;ojzifh pmcsKyfygtcsufrsm;udk aqG;aEG;n§dEIdif;Edkifaom tcGit hf vrf;r&So d El iS hf aumfyakd &;&Si;f Bu;D (2)ckrS a&SUaersm; (od)Yk t&m&SBd u;D rsm;jzpfygu uGjJ ym;yg vdrrhf nf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J l xyfrx H nfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;&rnft h csurf mS pmcsKyu f t kd oH;k jyKrnfo h rl sm;onf trIonf\ tusK;d udk vdv k m;ol (odUk ) rvdv k m;ol [kw^f r[kw?f Oyrmtm;jzif-h aowrf;pmt& tusKd;cHpm;cGifh&Sdolonf "vdkvm;ol" jzpfNyD; tarGjzwfpGefYvTwfcH&aom om;rSm "rvdkvm;ol" jzpfayvdrfhrnf/ xdkYaMumifh tarGjzwfpGefYvTwfjcif;pmcsKyfwGif yg0ifaom pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk a&;qGJonfhtcg owdBuD;pGmjzifh aqmif&Guf&rnf/ pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJolonf "r½dk;om;aom oabmjzifh oabmwlpmcsKyfudk zwf½Irnfhol" udkvnf; owdxm;&ayrnf/ "½dk;ajzmifhaom oabm" jzifh qufqv H su&f adS om pmcsKy0f ifEpS Of ;D \ qufqaH &;udk xde;f csKy&f ef jynfph v kH akH vmuf aomfvnf;? pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;rSm aiGa&;aMu;a&; (pD;yGm;a&;)rufvHk;aMumifh pmcsKyfrS xGufEdkif&ef BuKd;pm;jcif;&Sdonf[k ,lq&ygvQif pmcsKyfrlMurf;&;qGJolrSm xdkpmcsKyfudk tao;pdwfjyefvnf pdppfjcif;jyK&rnf/ pnf;urf;csuf rxif&mS ;rIrsm;? 'G[ d jzpfaprnft h csurf sm;? ta&;Bu;D aom tcsuf rsm;udk oG,0f u kd í f t"dygÜ ,faumuf,El idk rf rI sm;ESihf Oya'udrk csK;d azmufbJ tjcm;aom a&SmifuiG ;f Ekdifonfhenf;vrf;rsm; &Sd^r&Sdudk ppfaq;&rnf/ pmcsKyaf &;qGo J l xyfro H &d x dS m;&efrmS Oya'ESiyhf wfoufonfh pmcsKypf mwrf; oH;k pGMJ uaom ta&;BuD;yk*¾dKvf tcsKdUESifh w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf tcsKdUaom y#dnmOfrsm;ESifh pmcsKyf0ifwdkYtay: rvdk vm;aom &efvo kd nfh oabm&Sw d wf Muonf/ wzufouf tav;ay;xm;aom "yHak opmcsKy"f (Contracts of adhesion)rsKd;udk vdkufemaqmif&Guf aprIr&Sdjcif;? pmcsKyfa&;qGJoltusKd;udk qefUusií f t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf kd em;vnfjcif;? tmrcHurk P Ü ?D bPf? aumfyakd &;&Si;f Bu;D rsm;? ukeo f nfEiS hf tvky&f iS w f rYdk mS rMumcP pmcsKyu f v kd rJG mS ;pGm zGiq hf rkd w I \ Ykd ypfrw S rf sm; jzpfwwfMuonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm; onfvnf; tcsKUd aom Oya'rsm;udk jyif;jyif;xefxef pdppfwwfMuonf/ Oyrmtm;jzif-h w&m;½H;k \ w&m;a&;pD&ifydkifcGifhtmPmudk wm;qD;onfhoabm oufa&mufapaom Oya'rsm;/

162 3/

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pmcsKyf E S i f h q uf p yf o nf h taMumif ; t&mrsm;ud k twnf j yKjcif ; (Determine the Context of the Document)

pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;onf Oya'ESio hf m oufqikd af om oD;oefaY v[me,f r[kwaf y/ rlMurf; a&;qGrJ nfo h o l nf pmcsKyEf iS hf oufqikd af om Oya'rsm;udo k m avhvmjcif;? pmcsKyt f wGi;f yg0ifap rnfh tcsurf sm;udo k m trIonfxrH S &,ljcif;rsK;d udk vkyaf qmifír&yg/ a&;qGo J t l aeESihf pmcsKyf toHk;jyKrnfh ydkíus,f0ef;aom Oya'qdkif&m0ef;usif? trSefwpfu,f jzpfwnfaeaom½kyfydkif; ywf0ef;usifwdkYudk jynfhpHkpGm em;vnfoabmayguf&ayrnf/ 1/

Oya'ES i f h quf p yf o nf h t aMumif ; t&m (Legal Context) tajccH y#dnmOfOya'udk z,f&mS ;vsuf tjcm;ydí k us,jf yefaY om Oya'ESihf qufpyfonfh taMumif;csi;f &mwdEYk iS hf ywfoufí pmcsKyrf sm;rSm wpfapmifEiS w hf pfapmif odompGm uGmjcm;ayvdrrhf nf/ MuyfrwfpmG xde;f csKyx f m;aom aiGacs;oufaocHvufrw S Ef iS hf pawmh&, S , f m tmrcHvyk if ef;twGuf

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

163

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164

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

xdek nf;wl "wpfO;D wnf;ESihf qufo, G q f ufqaH &; (Exclusive Dealing)pmcsKy"f rlMurf;a&;qGJ &ef jyifqifaeolonf ? rdrd\trIonfrSm tjcm;olwpfOD;ESifh "wpfOD;wnf;qufqHa&;pmcsKyf " BuKd w if a &;qG J x m;jcif ; &S d ^ r&S d u d k od a tmif a qmif & G u f & ayrnf / trI o nf t rsm;pk r S m rdrdwdkYcsKyfqdkxm;aom pmcsKyfwGif jrSKyfxm;onfh tcsufrsm;udk rodMuay/ tar&duefjynfaxmifp\ k Oya'jyKjyifjcif;qdik &f m tcuftcJwpfcrk mS tjcm;aom Oa&my Oya'pepfwGif oHk;pGJaomusifhxHk;yHkpH (Code Form)udk rusifhoHk;jcif;jzpfonf/ z,f'&,f (jynfaxmifpk)ESihf jynfe,fwY\ kd udk usifhxHk;Oya'rsm;rSm oD;jcm;jzpfaomOya'rsm;udk Oya'jyK aumifpDwdkYESifh Oya'rsm;udk pDpOfxm;olwdkUrSm oabmaygufem;vnfapEdkifonfh toGifodkY pDpOfppk nf;xm;rIom jzpfygonf/ tar&duef w&m;Oya'pepfwiG f rwlnaD om jyXmef; Oya'rsm; udk rwlnDaomtcsdefwGif rwlnDaom Oya'jyKolrsm;rS wlnDaom us,fjyef honfh acgif;pOfudk toHk;jyKvsuf&Sdonfudk awGU&onf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh- tvkyf&Sif-tvkyform; qufqHa&; udpö&yf rsm;udk ajz&Si;f ay;onfh rwlnaD om jynfaxmifpt k qifh Oya'aygif; (50)ausm&f adS Mumif; awGU&Sd Edik o f nf/ þOya'tawmfrsm;rsm;udv k nf; jyXmef;cJph Ofu vuf&zdS ,f'&,f(jynfaxmifpt k qif)h tvkyform; cefUtyfa&;qdkif&m Oya'wdkYudk tvsOf;vpfvsL½Ií aqmif&GufaecJh aMumif;awG h &Sd&ygonf/ &vm'frSm tvGefBuD;rm;? ½IyfaxG;? cufcJNyD;trIrsm;jzifh jynfhESufaeaom Oya' tkypf jk zpfygonf/ þtjzpfrsK;d udk a&Smif&mS ;edik &f ef Oya'a&;qGo J o l nf oufqikd &f mOya'ESihf qkid o f nfwu Ydk kd aumif;uifrS pD;jrif&ouJhodkY oabmxm;í xdkjyXmef;Oya'rsm;ESifh oufqdkif&mtrIrsm;udk em;vnfNy;D ? wdu k ½f u kd af omfvnf;aumif;? oG,0f u kd í f aomfvnf; &ifqidk af jz&Si;f &ayrnf/ odUk rSom jyXmef; Oya'topfa&;qGEJ ikd &f eftwGuf Oya'qdik &f m ausmaxmufaemufcH jzpfvmEdik af yrnf/ yxr Oya'taMumif;t&mudk jynfhjynfhpHkpHk odem;vnfjcif;tm;jzifh rl&if;uGJOya'jyKjcif; (Duplicate Legislation)udk a&Smif&mS ;edik af yrnf/ 1964 wlnaD omvpmay;a&; tufOya'ESihf EdkifiHom;tcGifhta&; tufOya'wdkYonf rl&if;uGJOya'\ erlemwpfckjzpfonf/ tb,fhaMumifh qdak omf Oya'ESp&f yfv;kH rSm vdiu f jJG ym;rIay:rlwnfí vpmuGjJ ym; jcm;em;apjcif;udk wm;jrpfjcif;yif jzpfonf/ 'kw, d Oya'taejzifh em&Dwpfv;kH rS yife,HacG;oGm;pdyb f ;D rsm; tH0if*iG u f s vnfywfonfh yrm Oya'opfwo Ykd nf &S&d if;pGOJ ya'rsm;ESihf vdu k af vsmnDaxG&&dS rnf/ þodUk jzpf Edik &f efrmS pmcsKyf a&;qGo J o l nf acG;oGm;pdyb f ;D wd\ Yk yHyk ef;oP²mefEiS hf tvkyv f yk u f ikd yf u kH kd aumif;pGmoabmaygufrS jzpfEikd rf nf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 2/

165

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

csurf mS vdt k yfaom t&nftcsi;f tawGUtBuKH enf;yg;aeao;íjzpfonf[k qdkEdkifonf/ 'kwd, tcsurf mS pmcsKyaf &;qGo J o l nf tjcm;tawGUtBuKH 0g&ifah &SUaewpfO;D ESihf wGzJ ufa&;qGNJ y;D oif,rl I wpf&yftaeESifh oabmxm;Ekdifygonf/ wwd,tcsufrSm oufqdkif&mtaMumif;t&m tcsuf tvufwo Ykd nf vQKUd 0Surf rI &Sv d eG ;f vQif trIonftm; 4if;wd\ Yk puf½kH (od)Yk vkyif ef;cGiu f kd vSnv hf nf jyoapí vkyfief;taMumif;udk &Sif;vif;jyoapjcif;jzifh vkyfief;taMumif; a,bl,stm;jzifh odapjcif;? tcsKdUtrIonfrsm;rSm rdrdwdkY\ taMumif;rsm;udk wpfzufvlrS pdwf0ifpm;jcif;wdkYudk ESpfoufoabmuswwfMuonf/ odkYaomf xkdukefaom tcsdefrsm;twGuf a&SUaebufrS vGef uRHpGm tcaMu;aiG rawmif;qkdoifhay/ Oya'a&;qGJolrsm;onf yk*¾vduOya'qdkif&m pmcsKyf pmwrf;rsm; a&;qGJolxuf trSefwpfu,f tcsuftvufrsm;ay: tajccHaom taMumif;t&m rsm;ESihf ydí k ESpNf y;D avhvm&ef vdyk grnf/ þtcsurf mS jynfaxmifpt k qifh vTwaf wmfEiS hf jynfe,f Oya'jyKtzGJUwdkYrS Oya'wdkYtm; twnfjyK&ef tcsdef,lavhvm? Mum;em&onfh taMumif;rsm; jzpfygonf/ NrKdUe,fESifh c½dkiftqifh Oya'jyKjcif;wdkYrSm rMumcPqdkouJhodkU rlMurf;a&;qGJola&m? wm0ef&Sdt&m&Sdrsm;yg taMumif;t&mudk em;vnfrIenf;yg;jcif;ESifh BuKH&wwfonf/ þodkYjzpf& jcif;rSmvnf; aiGaMu;t&if;tjrpfenf;yg;jcif;? Edik if aH &;zdtm;&Sjd cif;aMumifh vsijf refpmG Ny;D pD;apjcif; (odkY) owif;tcsuftvufrsm; ta&;ygrIudk vpfvsL½SKjcif;rsm;aMumifhvnf; jzpfygonf/ tod pdwf"gwf&Sdaom rlMurf;a&;qGJolrSm vufawGUusEdkiforQ vkyfaqmifí Oya'uJhodk htmPmwnf aom trderYf sm;udrk a&;qGrJ D oufqidk &f mtcsut f vufrsm;udk &SmazGaqmif&u G jf cif; jyKayvdrrhf nf/

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tcef ; (8) Oya'twGif; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (Drafting within the Law) Oya'onf rlMurf;pm&Gufpmwrf;\ yHkpHESifh tESpfom&ESpfckvHk;tay:wGifrsm;pGm tusdK; oufa&mufrI&Sdaponf/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'rsm;? pmcsKyfrsm;? pDrHcefYcGJa&;trdefYrsm;? Oya'jyK tmPmydik t f zGUJ u jy|mef;xm;onfOh ya'rsm;? w&m;½H;k enf;Oya'rsm;? Oya'uJo h Ykd tmPmwnf aomtrderYf sm;? pDrcH efcY aJG &; pnf;rsO;f rsm;? jzwfx;kH enf;Oya'rsm;ESihf csrw S cf ahJ om pD&ifcsurf sm;udk tajccHaomOya'onf 0uFygjzpfapNy;D ,if;rSwpfqifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf qE´&adS om trIonf \ &nf&G,fcsufa&mufatmif oGm;&rnf/ tcsdKUvrf;aMumif;rsm;onf ydwfaeonf/ tcsdKU vrf; aMumif;rsm;onf wdak wmif;onf/ tcsKd Uvrf;aMumif;rsm;wGif 0ifaygufyw d af eNy;D ,if;udk rSeu f ef aom aomhESifhom zGifhEdkifonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf prf;MunfhjyKjyifenf;jzifh 0uFygrSwpfqifh &&S&d efrwwfEikd yf g/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf 0uFygudk tay:pD;rSMunfjh rifNy;D vrf;aMumif;udk BuKd wif qGJí vdktyfaom aomhcsufrsm;udk &,l&rnf/ wpfenf;tm;jzifh rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf Oya'udk od&rnf/ u/

yH k p H (Form) 1977 ckEpS ?f New York taxGaxGnv D mcHwiG f pm;oH;k olpmcsKyrf sm;udk csrw S cf jhJ y;D aemuf "&Si;f vif;Ny;D tquftpyf&& dS EdS iS hf aeYpOfo;kH ? trsm;oH;k t*Fvyd pf mvH;k rsm;udk toH;k jyKí a&;&rnf" ESifh pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk "yk'frtrsdK;rsdK;t& oifhavsmfpGm tydkif;cGJNyD; acgif;pOfwyf&rnf" [k owfrSwfjy|mef;xm;aom Oya'udk xkwfjyefcJhonf/ 4if;onf "½dk;pif;aomt*Fvdyfpm" (Plain English)jzifh Oya'jyKjcif; pwifjcif; trSwftom; jzpfygonf/ tjcm;jynfe,frsm;uvnf; tvm;wl vdu k ef mcJMh uygonf/ ,ckacwfwiG f Oya'jyKtmPmydik t f zGUJ u jy|mef;xm;onfh Oya' rsm;ESifh pnf;rsOf;rsm;onf enf;vrf;trsdK;rsdK;&Sd&m xdkodkYaqmif&Guf&ef ydkrdkyifvdktyfvmygonf/ pm;oH;k olpmcsKyrf sm;onf omrefvyl *k Kd¾ vrf sm; tvG,w f ulem;vnfEikd &f rnf/ þe,fy,f&dS Oya' vdt k yfcsurf sm;onf ½Iyaf xG;vsu&f NdS y;D xyfaeonfjzpf&m wpfcgwpf&w H iG f uGv J rJG KS rsm;&Syd gonf/ od&Yk mwGif 4if;wdo Yk nf zwf½í I &Edik rf o S m auseyfz, G f tñTe;f ude;f (Readability Index) &Sad yrnf/ zwf&KS íem;vnfEikd rf I tñTe;f rsm;teuf wpfct k aMumif;udk tcef; 17 wGif aqG;aEG;? &Si;f vif;xm; ygonf/ odkYaomf ½dk;pif;aom t*Fvdyfpm vdktyfcsufrsm;onf pm;oHk;olpmcsKyfrsm;twGufom r[kwyf g/ or®wumwmonf jynfaxmifpt k qifh pnf;rsO;f rsm;udk em;vnfEikd o f nfyh pkH jH zifh a&;om; &rnfqo kd nfh tuif;ryg;aom pDrcH efcaJG &;trdew Yf pfcu k kd ceJo Y nfo h abmjzifh wpfcsed u f xkwjf yefchJ

168

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

zl;ygonf/ umuG,af &;pnf;rsO;f rsm;Xmeonfvnf; tpd;k &uefx½du k w f mrsm;twGuf a&;om;onfh ypön;f ud&, d mrsm; vufprJG sm;onf zwfíem;vnfEikd rf I yHak oenf;udk jznfq h nf;&rnf[k awmif;qdk cJzh ;l ygonf/ tjcm;Oya'rsm;onf rlMurf;pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;\ yHpk u H kd ydrk w kd u d saom enf;vrf;rsm;ESihf tusdK;oufa&mufaponf/ Oyrm - UCC S.2 - 316 onf a&mif;pGHEdkifrItmrcHvufrSwf\ roufqikd f aMumif; &Si;f vif;csuo f nf odomjrifom&rnf[k awmif;qdx k m;onf/ odaYk omf ,if;u qdv k o kd nfrmS rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf csrw S cf ahJ om pD&ifcsurf sm;udk tajccHaom Oya'\ tBuÓ H Pf udk &,l&rnf/ tcsKd U jynfe,fOya'jyK tmPmydik t f zGUJ u jy|mef;xm;onfh Oya'rsm;onf &Sio f ef vsuf&Sdaom qE´rsm;twGuf wdusaom pum;toHk;tEIef;ESifh pm;vHk;rsufESmudk azmfjyonf/ tenf;qHk;aoGzDrIonf pm&Gufpmwrf;udk ysufjy,fonf[k aMunmcH&onftxd jzpfEdkifonf/ jynfaxmifpk ukefoG,frIaumfr&Sif\ "Holder in Due Course Rule" wGif pm;oHk;ol ta<u; 0,fcGifhpmcsKyfrsm;tm;vHk;ü wdusaom owday;csuf azmfjy&rnf[k jy|mef;xm;onf/ ,if;onf Oya'jyKtmPmydkiftzGJUu jy|mef;xm;onfh Oya'rsm;udk vdkufemrIonf odraf rGUEdik o f nf/ Oyrm - pmcsKyo f nf þtcef;t& cHo k rm"d pD&ifq;kH jzwfjcif;ESihf oufqikd o f nf qdkonfh taMumif;Mum;pmudk pm;vHk;tBuD;ESifh a&;om;NyD; rsOf;om;&rnf odkYr[kwf pmcsKyf\ yxrqHk;pmrsufESmwGif &mbmwHqdyfwHk;udk xif&Sm;pGm ESdyf&rnf[k Uniform Arbitration Act u owfrSwfxm;onf/ ,if;onf ½dk;&Sif;ygonf/ odkYaomf jynfaxmifpk t,lHcHw&m;½Hk;wpfcku qHk;jzwfcJhonfrSm xdkvdktyfcsufjynfhpHk&ef ekdYwpftaMumif;Mum;pmudk pmvHk;tBuD; trJpmvHk;ESifh a&;om;Ny;D pmcsKyyf g tjcm;pmom;rsm;wGio f ;kH aom pmvH;k t&G,t f pm;xufBu;D onfh t&G,t f m;ESihf a&;om;&rnfjzpfNyD; rsOf;rom;&yg/ w&m;½Hk;u qHk;jzwfcJhonfrSm vdktyfcsuf\ &nf&G,fcsuf taMumif;Mum;pmudk xif&Sm;ap&efjzpfNyD; ,if;taMumif;Mum;pmonf xdk&nf&G,fcsufudk jynfh0 aponf/ w&m;½Hk;onf Oya'jyKtmPmydkiftzGJUu jy|mef;onfh Oya'udk wdkuf½dkuf bmomjyef qdkxm;onfh bright-line enf;pepfudk oHk;vsuf? atmufygtaMumif;Mum;pmudk a&;om;vsif owfrSwfcsufESifh rudkufnD[k qkdcJhygonf/ This Contract Is Subject To Arbitration Pursuant to & 15-48-10 of the South Carolina Code of Laws (1976).

txufyg taMumif;Mum;pmwGif atmufrS rsOf;rom;xm;bJ pmvHk;tBuD;ESifh a&;om; xm;jcif;r&Sad omaMumifh rrSeu f efyg/ od&Yk mwGif w&m;½H;k u tBujH yKonfrmS atmufwiG f azmfjycsuf onf Oya'jyKtmPmydkif tzGJUu jy|mef;onfh Oya'\ wdkuf½dkufvdktyfcsufudk jznfhqnf; Edik af omfvnf; trSew f u,f &nf&, G cf suu f kd ra&mufbJ pmvH;k \t&G,t f pm;aMumifh rxda&muf yg/

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THIS CONTRACT IS SUBJECT TO ARBITRATION PURSUANT TO & 1548-10 OF THE SOUTH CAROLINA CODE OF LAWS (1976) .

w&m;½Hk;onf yxrtaMumif;Mum;pmudk wdkuf½dkufbmomjyefqdkcsuf jzpfonfhtwGuf cGifhrjyKaomfvnf;? 'kwd,taMumif;Mum;pmudk cGifhjyKcJhygonf/ w&m;½Hk;\ enf;vrf;onf usKd ;aMumif; qDavsmaf omfvnf; wdusjywfom;aom jy|mef;Oya' toH;k tEIe;f udk qefu Y siaf eonf jzpf&m? Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf jyXmef;Oya'udk rSDcdkjcif;rjyKekdifvsif rnfonfht&mudk trSDjyK &rnfqdkonfudk þudpöt& xif&Sm;pGm rod&Sdekdifyg/ c/

teuf t "d y Ü m ,f (Meaning) yHkpHESifh tESpfom&tMum; uGm[csufudk usOf;apjcif;ESifh xdkESpfrsdK;teuf tenf;i,fpD yg0ifapjcif;jzifh vdt k yfaom oD;jcm;Oya'tusKd ;quf&&Sad p&ef rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l t Ydk m; oH;k pGaJ p&ef Oya'u awmif;qdkaeayonf/ ,if;wdkYteuf tcsdKUrSm tEkynmajrmuf Oya'a0g[m&rsm; jzpfonf/ pum;vHk;wpfvHk;onf tEkynmajrmuf Oya'a0g[m&tjzpf enf;vrf;oHk;oG,fjzifh t&nftcsif;rDEdkifonf/ yxrtcsufrSm - tcsdKUoD;oefY pum;vHk;rsm;udk oD;jcm;tusdK;&v'ftwGuf oHk;&NyD; rnfonfh teufwpl um;vH;k rQ oH;k r&yg/ Oyrm - UCC S. 3 - 104 t& n§Ed idI ;f ap&ef aiGpuúLudk "order" odkYr[kwf "bearer" odkY ay;acs&rnf/ "Merchantability" onfvnf; UCC S. 2 316 t& roufqkdifaMumif; jiif;qdk&mwGif xdkoD;oefYpum;vHk;udk oHk;pGJ&rnfjzpfaomaMumifh tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&jzpfonf/ 'kw, d tcsurf mS - tcsKd Upum;vH;k rsm;onf oabmw&m;t& tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m& rsm; jzpfonf/ ,if;wdo Yk nf ½Iyaf xG;aom Oya't,ltqtwGuf tjynft h pHak zmfjy&ef pum;vH;k rsm;pGm vdktyfonfh twdkcsKyfpmvHk;jzpfonf/ Oyrm-tdrfjcHajrudk tarGay;&mwGif cGJjcrf;aom enf; "per stripes " (aoqHk;olrsdK;½dk;pOfquf\ a0pkESifhtnD tcsdK;cHpm;cGifh &Sdolrsm;tMum; tcsdK;uscGJa0 ay;jcif;enf;)/ xdkYenf;wlpGm "Rule of 78" qdkonfh pum;&yfonf bPfacs;aiG oufwrf;twGif; tcsdeftrsdK;rsdK;ü &&Sdonfh aiGaMu;yrmPudk wGufcsufonfh yHkaoenf;udk &nfñTef;onf/ xdkenf;Oya'\ jy|mef;Oya'rlrSm ½IyfaxG;aom pum;vHk; 185 vHk; yg0ifonf/ odkYaomf xdkvkyfief; vkyfudkifolrsm;onf ,if;onf rnfonfudkqdkvdkonfudk twdtusodNyD; ,if;udkpm;oHk;ol pm&Gufpmwrf; rsm;wGifvnf; oHk;pGJEdkifonf/ wwd,tcsurf mS - tcsKd Ua0g[m&rsm;onf obmw&m;t& tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m& rsm; jzpfonf/ ,if;wdkY\ Oya'teuft"dyÜm,fonf orm;½dk;usteuft"dyÜm,fESifh tajccH tm;jzifh uGJvGJonf/ Oyrm - "criminal conversation" onf vlqdk;*dkPf;0ifESpfOD;tMum;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

w,fvDzkef; qufoG,fjcif;ESifh vHk;0roufqdkifyg/ xdkenf;wlpGm "insane" \ Oya'teuf t"dyÜm,fonf 4if;\t&yfoHk; teuft"dyÜm,fxufrsm;pGm usOf;ajrmif;ayonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&yHkpH oHk;rsdK;vHk;udk odjrifNyD; ,if;wdkYudk oifhavsmfpGm oHk;pGJ&rnf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&r[kwaf omfvnf; tjcm;pum;vH;k rsm;\ Oya' teuft"dymÜ ,fuv kd nf; odjrif&rnf/ Oyrm - oD;jcm;pD&ifyikd cf iG t hf wGi;f &Sd rlMurf;a&;qGo J l onf w&m;½H;k u t"dymÜ ,faumuf,v l u kd o f nfh "street" qdo k nfwiG f vrf;Mum; "alleys"ryg0if aomfvnf; "Public way" wGif ESpcf pk vH;k yg0ifaMumif; od&&dS rnf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf trIonf\ &nf&G,fcsufESifh udkufnDaom pum;vHk;udk a&G;cs,f&ayrnf/ &Hzef&HcgwGif jy|mef;Oya'onf tcsdKUaom pm&Gufpmwrf; trsdK;tpm;wkdYwGif oHk;aom pum;vHk;rsm;\ teuft"dyÜm,fudk jy|mef;onf/ Oyrm -e,l;a,muf jy|mef;Oya'onf aocsmonfeh nf;vrf;ESihf pum;vH;k a&G;cs,o f ;kH pGx J m;aom tdrNf caH jrtaygifpmcsKyf wpfcsed w f nf;? wpf&pfwnf; usefaiGoGif;jcif;qdkif&m tydk'f\ teuft"dyÜm,fudk owfrSwfay;onf/ pum;vH;k wpfv;kH \ Oya'teuft"dymÜ ,fukd qH;k jzwf&mwGif rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf pHOya' tbd"mefomru pum;vH;k rsm;ESihf pum;pkrsm; ("Words and Phrases") pmtkyt f wGrJ sm;rSvnf; &SmazGoifhonf/ þwefzdk;rjzwfEdkifaom pmtkyfrsm;wGif rlMurf;a&;qGJoltm; toHk;jyKEdkifatmif qGJaqmifxm;aom jzpfEdkiforQaom t"dyÜm,ftm;vHk;udk aumuf,lxm;onfh jynfhpHkaom trI rsm;udk pkpnf;xm;onf/ "Words and Phrases" onf rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;twGuf tzd;k txdu k w f ef qHk;ypönf; jzpfonf/ */

tESpfom& (Substance) Oya'onf rlMurf;pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;\ tESpfom&udkvnf; tusdK;oufa&mufaponf/

wm;jrpf j cif ; (Prohibition) Oya'rsm;onf pmcsKyfjy|mef;csuftcsdKUudk rMumcP wm;jrpfonf/ tcsdKUwm;jrpfcsuf rsm;onf wdusjywfom;onf/ Oyrm - UCC onf csdKKU,Gif;aeaom pm;oHk;olrsm;aMumifh jzpfyGm;aom yk*¾dKvfa&;xdcdkufrIrsm;twGuf aemufqufwGJxdcdkufrIrsm;udk uefYowfonfh pmcsKyf jy|mef;csufudk wm;jrpfonf/ tjcm;wm;jrpfcsufrsm;udkvnf; azmfjyonf/ Oyrm - Oya'jyK tmPmydkiftzGJUu jy|mef;xm;onfh Oya'onf us,fjyefYaom jynfolYtusdK;ESifh oufqkdifygu odrYk [kwf &nf&, G cf suo f nf pmcsKyjf zifh vGwv f yfpmG aqmif&u G jf cif;udk uefo Y wf&efjzpfygu vly*k Kd¾ vf wpfO;D onf jy|mef;Oya't& &ydik cf iG rhf sm;ESihf uif;vGwNf y;D pmcsKycf sKyq f í kd r&yg/Oyrm- tvkyo f rm;

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wpfOD;onf jynfaxmifpk rQwaom tvkyform;pHcsdefpHñTef;rsm; tufOya'wGift& owfrSwf xm;aom tedrq hf ;kH vkycf vpmESihf tjrifq h ;kH tvkycf sed u f muG,jf cif;rS vGwu f if;Ny;D pmcsKycf sKyq f í kd r&yg/ wm;jrpfjcif;\ tusKd ;oufa&mufrrI mS a&SUaemufrnDaom jy|mef;csuu f kd ysujf y,fapjcif; xuf rydkyg/ xdkYaMumifh Oya'onf ,if;wdkYudk rjy|mef;apEdkifjcif;tm;jzifh pmcsKyfwGif wdusaom oD;oefjY y|mef;csurf sm; ryg0ifygu tvky&f iS t f aeESihf Age Discrimination in Employment Act udk csdK;azmuf vmEdkifaom tvkyfcefYxm;rIrS &yfpJjcif;udk pmcsKyfrsm;wGif xnfhoGif;jcif;tm; wm;jrpfxm;ygonf/ jynfoyl ikd rf 0l g'xuf vGeu f aJ om odrYk [kwf qefu Y siaf om pmcsKyrf sm;udv k nf; wm;jrpfygonf/ wpfenf;qdkaomf w&m;½Hk;rsm;onf 4if;wdkYudk twnfjyKrnfr[kwfyg/ odkYaomf tcsdKUudpörsm;wGif wm;jrpfcsufrsm;udk csdK;azmufjcif;onf w&m;r odkYr[kwf jypfrIqdkif&m wm0ef&SdrI jzpfvmEdkifonf/ Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Act onf tcsdKUtydk'frsm;udk xnfhoGif;jcif;tm; wm;jrpfNyD; iSm;&rf;rIpmcsKyfrsm;wGif ,if;tydk'frsm; tm;odvsuf ESihf xnfo h iG ;f xm;onfh ydik &f iS u f kd iSm;&rf;c (3)vpm jypf'Pfcsrw S o f nf/ vkyt f m;c Oya'rsm;wGif csdK;azmufrIrsm;twGuf epfemaMu; oHk;qavsmf&ef owfrSwfonf/ yk*v ¾ u d Oya' pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;onf tjcm;yk*v ¾ u d Oya'pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk wm;jrpf onhf enf;vrf;ESifhvnf; aqmif&GufEdkifonf/ Oyrm - pmcsKyfwpfckonf ,if;pmcsKyft& wm0ef vTt J yfjcif; odrYk [kwf &ydik cf iG v hf aJT jymif;jcif;udk xda&mufpmG wm;jrpfEikd o f nf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf pmcsKyfpmwrf;udk rlMurf;a&;qGJ&ef tm;rxkwfrDuyif ,if;udk od&Sdxm;&rnf/ 2/

vd k t yf c suf (Requirement) tcsKd UOya'rsm;onf tcsKd Uudp&ö yfrsm;udk aqmif&u G x f m;&ef odrYk [kwf ,if;wdu Yk kd enf;vrf; wpfckckjzifh aqmif&Guf&ef twdtus awmif;qdkxm;onf/ vdrfvnfrI Oya'rsm;wGif pmcsKyf trsdK;rsdK;udk vufrSwfa&;xdk;csufjzifh oufaowifjy&ef vdktyfygonf/ ,if;aowrf;pmwddkYudk owfrSwfxm;onfh vlyk*¾dKvfta& twGufrsm;rS todoufaotjzpf vufrSwfxdk;&rnf[k jynfe,fOya'rsm;u jy|mef;onf/ UCC S. 6 - 107 wGif tpkvdkuftyHkvdkuf vTJajymif;jcif; taMumif;Mum;pmrsm;wGif oD;jcm;pnf;urf;csufrsm; yg0ifonf/ ,if;vdktyfcsufrsm; rjynfhpHkjcif;onf pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;udk ta&;,laqmif&GufekdifpGrf; r&Sdjcif;xuf rydkyg/ odkYaomf rlMurf;a&;qGJolu Oya'qdkif&m vdktyfcsuftcsdKUudk vdkufem&ef ysufuGufjcif;onf trIonftwGuf w&m;r odkYr[kwf jypfrIqkdif&m wm0ef&SdrIjzpfapEdkifonf/ Oyrm - tdraf &mif;csrpI mcsKyw f iG f tvm;tvm&Sad om csKd U,Gi;f csuf owday;csuyf g0if&ef ysuu f u G f jcif;onf tcsdKUjynfe,fOya'rsm;t& a&mif;csoludk wm0ef&SdapEdkifonf/

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cGihfjyKcsufESifh cGifhjyKrdefY (Permission and Authorization) tcsdKUOya'rsm;onf jyKvkyf&rnfht&mrsm;udk cGifhjyK½HkrQ odkYr[kwf vkyfydkifcGifhay;½HkrQ odkYr[kwf aqmif&Guf&efenf;udk owfrSwf½HkrQom jzpfonf/ trsdK;om; tvkyform; qufqHa&; tufOya'onf tvkyo f rm;or*¾EiS hf tvky&f iS w f Ykd n§Ed idI ;f aqG;aEG;jcif; oabmwlpmcsKyrf sm;wGif tvkyform;rsm;tm; tvkyfcefYxm;rIqdkif&m owfrSwfcsufwpf&yftaejzifh toif;tzGJU0ifrsm; jzpf&ef vdktyfaMumif; jy|mef;csufyg0ifonf/ xdkokdYr[kwfvsif ,if;vdktyfcsufonf w&m;r0if jzpfygvdrfhrnf/ odkY&mwGif jy|mef;Oya'\ tjcm;jy|mef;csuf wpf&yfurl jynfe,frsm;wGif ,if; tydk'fESifh ywfoufvsuf tjcm;enf;vkyfydkifcGifh r&SdaMumif; xnfhoGif;jcif;udk w&m;r0ifaMumif; aMunm&ef cGifhjyKygonf/ xdktmPmudk omreftm;jzifh jynfe,frsm;u r&SdMuyg/ a,bk,stm;jzifh cGijhf yKcsuo f nf pnf;urf;csuf wpfct k ay: wnfrDS aeygonf/ vuf&dS wnfqJjy|mef; Oya'rsm;onf touf&Sif&eftwGuf taxmuftyHhay;aom pepfrsm; &yfpJrIudk pDpOfay;&ef? aowrf;pmwGif xnfo h iG ;f Ekid af omfvnf; ? ,if;udk wif;usyaf om pnf;urf;csurf sm;jzifh xdef;csKyfxm;jyD; xdktcsufrsm; jynfhpHkauseyfrI&SdrSomvQif vlyk*¾dKvfwpfOD;twGuf aqmif&GufcGifh &Syd gonf/

cG i f h j yKcsuf od k Y r [k w f w&m;0if v k y f y d k i f c G i f h u d k jiif ; qd k j cif ; (Denial of Permission or Authorization)

tcsdKUOya'rsm;onf tcsdKUaom yk*¾dKvf odkYr[kwf tzGJUtpnf;rsm;\ tmPm odkYr[kwf vkyfydkifcGifhudk uefYowfxm;onf/ Oyrm - tusdK;tjrwftwGufr[kwfaom pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief; wpfco k nf tcsKd Uaom vkyif ef;rsm;udk aqmif&u G yf ikd cf iG hf r&Syd g/ tusKd ;tjrwftwGurf [kwaf om pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef; y#dnmOfwpfcu k kd a&;qGo J o l nf þuJo h aYkd om uefo Y wfcsurf sm; udk od&adS e&ef vdktyfygonf/ tvm;wlpGm Oya'onf toufrjynfholrsm;\ pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkcGifh odkYr[kwf csKyf qkd&ef tmPmudk uefYowfxm;ygonf/ 5/

tjcm;tusd K ;quf r sm; (Other Consequences) Oya'onf a&;qGJol owdxm;&rnfh Oya't& jzpfEkdifaom tjcm;tusdK;qufrsm;udk od&&dS ef vdyk gonf/ Oyrm - jynfe,f toD;oD;wGif aexdik af om yk*Kd¾ vw f pfO;D csi;f tMum; csKyq f o kd nfh pmcsKyf\ t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkrIESifh tmPmoufa&mufrIudk rnfonfhjynfe,f\ Oya'u xdef;csKyf © iG f owfrw S x f m;onf/ Oya'rsm; y#dyuq © idk &f m owfrw S cf surf sm;t& aMumif; Oya'rsm; y#dyuw rnfonfh jynfe,fjy|mef;Oya'u xde;f csKyEf ikd v f rd rhf nf jzpfaMumif;ESihf xdOk ya'wGif rnfojYdk yXmef; xm;aMumif; tjcm;jynfe,f\ Oya'ESifhuGJvGJygu rnfonfhOya'u taxmuftyHhay;rnfjzpf

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oG , f 0 d k u f ñ T e f ; qd k a om pum;&yf r sm; (Implied Terms) pmcsKypf mwrf;wpfcw k iG f oD;jcm;qdv k &kd if;udk zGi[ hf rxm;ygu Oya'wGif oG,0f u kd ñ f eT ;f qdk aom a0g[m&udk a&;qGJolu od&Sd&efvdktyfonf/ tcsdKUpmcsKyfyHkpHrsm;twGuf jzKwfcsefcJhaom a0g[m&rsm;udk taxmuftyHhay;&ef "tjcm;enf; oabmwlxm;jcif;r&Sdygu" "unless otherwise agreed" qdkonfhpum;&yf onf jy|mef;Oya'rsm;wGif rMumcPyg0ifonf/ Oyrm - UCC \ tydk'f 2 wGif pmcsKyfonf zGifh[rxm;ygu ukefpnfa&mif;csa&;twGuf pmcsKyfwGif xnfhoGif;&ef tydkaqmif;aumufcsufcsrnfh ra&rwGufEdkifaom uGm[csufjznfhpmrsm;ESifh a0g[m&rsm; yg0ifonf/ jy|mef;Oya'wGif ryg&Sdonfhwkdif pmcsKyf0ifrsm;u pmcsKyf csKyfqdk&ef &nf&G,faMumif; w&m;½Hk;u qHk;jzwfygu w&m;½Hk;onf ta&mif;t0,fvkyfief;us½IH;jcif;rS tvG,fwul xdef;odrf;&ef pum;&yfwpfckudk oG,f0dkufñTef;qdkEdkifonf/ Oyrm - pmcsKyfonf vkyif ef;csed f owfrw S cf sut f wGuf tcsed u f zkd iG [ hf rxm;ygu vkyif ef;csed f owfrw S cf suo f nf pmcsKyyf g t"d u pum;&yf w pf c k tjzpf owf r S w f x m;&m oabmwl n D c suf r &S d o nf x uf oifah vsmo f nft h csed t f wGi;f jzpf&rnf[k w&m;½H;k u teuf t"dyÜm,f zGiq hf dk ?ajz&Si;f ygvdrrhf nf/ tvm;wl t*Fvyd ½f ;kd &mOya'ESihf UCC t& "avhx;kH pHEiS hf yHrk eS f toH;k tEIe;f rsm;onf pmcsKyrf sm;wGif oG,0f u kd ñ f eT ;f qdak om pum;&yfrsm;jzpf onf/ w&m;½H;k onfvnf; tcsKd UpmcsKyf trsKd ;tpm;rsm;wGif oG,f0dkufñTef;qkdaom oabm½dk;jzifh w&m;rQwpGm ajz&Sif;ygvdrfhrnf/ a&;qGJolonf pmcsKyfpmwrf;wpfckwGif uGm[csufrsm;udkjznfh&ef oG,f0dkufñTef;qdkonfh pum;&yfrsm;udk wriftm;udk;tm;xm; rjyKoifhyg/ a&;qGJolu ,if;pum;&yfrsm;udk oG,f0dkuf ñTef;qdkvdrfhrnf[k odEdkifaomfvnf;yJ pmcsKyf0ifrsm;u odvdrfhrnfr[kwfay/ trIonfu ,if; taMumif;t&monf bmudq k v kd o kd nfreS ;f rodaMumif; a&;qGo J u l kd pdwq f ;dk pGmjzifh ajymqdak omtcg aemufyikd ;f wGif qd;k &Gm;aom tHMh orIwpf&yfukd ay:aygufapEdik o f nf/ oG,0f u kd ñ f eT ;f qdak om pum; &yfonf trIonf\qE´EiS hf udu k n f o D nfw h idk f trIonftm; &Si;f vif;pGm &Si;f jyonfh tavhtusihf aumif;udk jyKusifhoifhygonf/

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Oya'yd k i f ; qd k i f & m aqmif & G u f & ef tcsuf r sm;ud k azmf j yyg&S d o nf h pm&if ; tm; jyKpk j cif ; (Creating Legal Checklist) rlMurf;a&;ol wpfO;D onf Oya'u wm;jrpf? cGijhf yK?jiif;qdak om t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf ckd iG hf odrYk [kwf oG,f0dkufñTef;qdkrItm;vHk;udk tNrJrSwfrdEkdifrnf r[kwfyg/ xkdYaMumifh a&;qGJol\ todynmudk pepfwus&Sdaeap&ef tvkdYiSm? Oya'ydkif;qkdif&m aqmif&Guf&ef tcsufrsm;udk azmfjyyg&Sdonfh pm&if;tm; jyKpkxm;jcif;jzifh? rlMurf;a&;qGJ&mwGif r&Sdrjzpf vdktyfaom ud&d,mwefqmyvm jzpfygvdrrhf nf/ trIonfxHrS OD;pGmyxr owif;&,ljyD; tcsuftvufrsm;udk pm&if;jyKpkjcif;onf Oya'ESifhywfoufí a&;qGJol\ todynmA[kokwrS &&Sdaompm&if;ESifh jcm;em;ygonf/ a,bl,stm;jzifh tcsuftvufpm&if;ESifh Oya'a&;&m pm&if;onf a&;qGJol\ tusdK;tjrwf twGuf pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfct k jzpf aygif;pyfygvdrrhf nf/ od&Yk mwGif Oya'½Iaxmifrh S aqmif&u G &f ef udpöESifhywfoufonfhpm&if;wGif txufwGifaqG;aEG;cJhonfh Substantive Law yg trsdK;tpm; tm;vHk;udk xnfhoGif;&rnf/ a&;qGJolonf a&;qGJjcif;vkyfief;pOf\ okawoejyKrItqifhwGif ,if;aqmif&u G &f efvakd om udp&ö yfwu Ydk kd jyKvyk &f rnf/ jzpfay:aeonfh tajccHtaMumif;&if;ESihf ywfoufí xyfzefwvJvJ ,if;pmcsKypf mwrf;rsKd ;udk toH;k jyK&vdrrhf nf[k a&;qGo J u l arQmrf eS ;f ygu aqmif&u G &f rnfu h pd u ö kd ta&;ygaomzdik w f iG f xde;f odr;f &rnfjzpfNy;D jyXmef;Oya'ESiphf &D ifx;kH Oya' \ tajymif;tvJrsm;tjzpf vuf&Sdxdef;odrf;xm;&rnf/

Oya'jyKa&;pum;&yf u k d xnf h o G i f ; pOf ; pm;í rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; ("Drafting with Statutory Language in Mind)

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twnfjyKxm;aom pmcsKyf0ifrsm;\ rSwfwrf;rsm;wGif yg0ifonfh pnf;urf;csufrsm; odkYr[kwf wpfenf;tm;jzifh 4if;wGifyg0ifonfhtwdkif; ,if;pnf;urf;csufrsm;ESifh ywfoufí ,if;wdkY\pmcsKyfwGif aemufqHk;azmfjycsuftjzpf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;u &nf&G,fonfh ta&;tom;yg pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk tjcm;aom BudKwifoabmwlpmcsKyfwpfckck\ taxmuftxm;t& odkYr[kwf wpfNydKifwnf; EIwfjzifhcsKyfqdkaom oabmwlpmcsKyfwpfck\ taxmuftxm;t& rqefYusifEdkifyg/ odkYaomf &Sif;jyEdkifonf odkYr[kwf jznfhpGufEdkifonf/ (u) (yk'fr 1-205) a&mif;0,fjcif;vkyfief;t& odkYr[kwf ukefoG,fa&;toHk;tEIef;t& odkYr[kwf (yk'fr 2-208) vkyfief;aqmif&GufrI jzpfpOft&ESifh (c) pmcsKyfyg pnf;urf;csufrsm;ESifh ywfoufí jynfhpHkNyD; oD;jcm;azmfjycsuftjzpf &nf&G,f a&;om;csuu f kd w&m;½H;k u rawGUygu tajymif;tvJr&Sad om aemufxyfpnf;urf;csuf rsm;\ taxmuftxm;t& [achieving full integration] pmcsKyyf g ukrP Ü cD si;f aygif;pnf;jcif; tyd'k \ f &nf&, G cf suo f nf pmcsKy0f ifrsm;\ oabm xm;udk pmjzifh azmfjy&ef jzpfonf/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf oH;k csut f eufrS wpfck odrYk [kwf tm;vH;k udk jyKvyk &f ef &nf&, G Ef ikd o f nf/ (1) ta&;tom;onf azmfjycJah om pnf;urf;csurf sm;\ aemufq;kH azmfjycsufjzpfaMumif; ñTef;qdk&ef? xdkYaMumifh wpfpdwfwpfydkif; aygif;pnf;rIatmifjrifjcif;? (2) 4if;wdo Yk nf pmcsKy0f ifrsm; oabmwlxm;onfh pnf;urf;csurf sm; tm;vH;k jzpfaMumif; ñTe;f qd&k ef? xdaYk Mumifh tm;vH;k aygif;pyfraI tmifjrifjcif;? (3) xdt k a&mif;t0,f vkyif ef;wGif t"dutaMumif; t&mESiyhf wfoufí tjcm; rnfonfph mcsKyrf sS r&Sad Mumif; ñTe;f qd&k ef odrYk [kwf tjcm; wpfenf;tm; jzifhvnf; jyKvkyfxm;jcif;r&Sdonfudk ñTef;qdk&ef/ pmvH k ; atmufwGifazmfjyxm;aom ukrÜPDcsif;aygif;jcif;tydk'fonf jy|mef;Oya' (pmvH rnf ; jzif h)yg ta&;ygaom bmompum;udk atmufygtwkdif; aygif;pyfxm;onf/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf þwpfpw d w f pfyikd ;f aygif;pnf;rIqidk &f m pnf;urf;csurf sm;ESihf ywfoufí "pmcsKyf y g aemuf q H k ; azmf j ycsuf" jzpf&ef a&;om;xm;aom y#dnmOfpmcsKyfyg pnf;urf;csuf rsm;twGuf "&nf&G,fonf" pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf ,if;pmcsKyo f nf tjynft h 0 aygif;pnf;a&;qkid &f m pnf;urf;csufrsm;ESifh ywfoufí jynfhpHkNyD; oD;jcm;azmfjycsufjzpf&ef a&;om;xm;aom y#dnmOf pmcsKyt f wGuv f nf; &nf&, G o f nf/ ESpOf ;D ESpb f uftMum; tjcm;pmcsKyrf sm;udv k nf; qufpyf rSw, f l Ekdifjcif;rS z,fxkwfNyD;? 4if;onf EIwfoufaocHcsuf pnf;rsOf;ESifhvnf; tBuHK;r0ifyg/ tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh tjcm;y#dnmOfpmcsKy&f adS Mumif;udk pmcsKy0f ifrsm;u jiif;qd&k ef r&nf &G,fygu a&;qGJolonf aemufqHk;pmaMumif;udk atmufwGifazmfjyxm;onfh pmaMumif;jzifh tpm;xd;k Edik o f nf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

þpmcsKyfonf tjcm;csKyfqkdaom pmcsKyfwkdYudk tpm;xdk;jcif;? jiif;y,fjcif; jyKvkyf&ef r&nf&, G yf g/odjYk zpf&m ,if;pmcsKyrf sm;t& 0,f,o l \ l aemufxyf uGeyf sLwmoH;k Widgets rsm;udk xyfr0H ,f,&l ef a&G;ydik cf iG o hf nf xkpd mcsKyrf sm;yg owfrw S cf surf sm;twkid ;f yifjzpfrnf/ wpfcw k pf&H þudpw ö iG f jy|mef;Oya'yg bmompum;udk twdtusaumufaMumif; vdu k f jcif;onf a&;qGo J u l kd 'kua© &mufaponf/ Oyrm - jynfaxmifpOk ya'onf "tvkyv f yk u f ikd jf cif;\ pnf;urf;csufwpfckrSm or*¾wGif toif;0ifjcif;jzpfNyD;? xkdokdYpwif tvkyfvkyfudkifonfhaeY (odkY) pmcsKypf wif tBuKH ;0ifaomaeYrpS vsuf &uf(30)twGi;f ? xk&d ufpEJG pS cf t k euf ydrk akd emufusaom &uf ...." qkdaom tykd'fudk tvkyform;or*¾\ESifh tvkyf&SifwkdY aqG;aEG;nd§EdIif;jcif; oabmwlpmcsKyfyg jyXmef;csufrsm;wGif xnfhoGif;&ef oabmwlygonf/" okdYaomf xkdpmom;twkdif; a&;om;aom pmcsKyfonf w&m;r0ifekdifyg/ taMumif;rSm w&m;½H;k rsm;rS t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf o dk nfrmS " toif;0if" [laom pum;&yfonf or*¾\ ukeu f sp&dwf rsm;udk tcsKd ;usc&H ef om jzpfjy;D tjcm; rnfonfrsS r&Sad Mumif;? rlvt"dymÜ ,fEiS hf tjcm; qufE, G f aom t"dyÜm,fonf rsm;pGm uGmjcm;aeaMumif; qHk;jzwfxm;ygonf/ tvkyform;or*¾\ ueYfowfwm0ef&SdrItaMumif; tvkyform;rsm;xH owif;ydkY&ef ysufuGufygu tvkyform;or*¾onf rrQwonfh tvkyform;pnf;urf;udk usL;vGefaMumif; w&m;½H;k u pD&ifcsucf sco hJ nf/ tvkyo f rm;u " toif;0ifjzpfjcif;" qdo k nfh pum;&yfukd vdt k yf aom trSew f u,f toif;0ifjzpfjcif;tjzpf t"dymÜ ,faumuf,al omtcg tvkyo f rm;or*¾\ vHkNcHKa&;qdkif&m jy|mef;csufonf vdktyfaom owif;tcsuftvufray;bJ jy|mef;Oya'\ bmompum;udk aumufaMumif;vdkuf½HkrQjzpfonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

177

tcef ; (9) ta&;ygqH k ; tES p f o m&ud k a&G ; cs,f j cif ; (Determining Substance)

pm(rlMurf;)wpfc\ k ta&;ygqH;k tESpo f m&onf bmom&yftay: vdu k í f uGjJ ym;ygrnf/ tdrOf ypm iSm;&rf;jcif;? av,mOfysaH &mif;0,fa&;pmcsKyEf iS hf ajcmufveS aYf wmif;,lru I kd wm;qD;&ef twGuf Oya'a&;qGJjcif;wdkYonf tESpfom&ydkif;t& wlnDonfhpmydk'frsm;&SdEdkifonfhwdkif wlnDrI enf;yg;ygvdrrhf nf/ odaYk omf pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm; a&;qG&J mwGif omrmeftm;jzifh wlnrD rI sm; rsm;jym; ygvdrrhf nf/ yg0ifrnft h csut f vufrsm;onf t&if;jrpfEpS cf u k kd t&if;cHygonf/ ,if; t&if;tjrpf wdrYk mS Oya'ESihf ta&mif;t0,ftwGuf vdt k yfcsuw f jYkd zpfygonf/ atmufwiG f qufvufaqG;aEG; rnfh jy|mef;csurf sm;onf xdt k &if;tjrpfEpS cf pk vH;k udak omfvnf;aumif;? ESpcf t k eufwpfcu k akd omf vnf;aumif; t&if;cHygonf/ u/

jy|mef ; csuf t rsd K ;rsKd ; (Types of Provisions) yk*¾vduqdkif&m Oya'jzpfap? Oya'jyKtmPmydkifwdkYrS jy|mef;aomOya'wGifjzpfap atmufazmfjyyg ta&;ygaom jy|mef;csuf(4)rsdK;udk awGU&SdEdkifygonf/

Oya't& jy|mef ; csuf x m;jcif ; aMumif h yg0if & aomjy|mef ; csuf r sm; (Required by Law)

ta&mif;t0,fwpfckESifh ywfoufaompmcsKyfpmwrf;wGif ryg0ifrae&[k Oya't& jy|mef;xm;csufrsm;/ xdkodkYaom pmom;udk xnfhoGif;&ef ysufuGufygu ,if;pmcsKyfpmwrf;\ tmedoif&SdrIudk xdcdkufapEdkifygonf/ Oyrm touft&G,ft&cGJjcm;qufqHjcif;twGuf awmif;qdjk cif;rsm; jyKyikd cf iG u hf kd pGev Yf w T jf cif;qdik &f mtyd'k f xnfo h iG ;f rnfqykd gu pmcsKyu f kd csKyq f rkd nfh 0efxrf;tm; OD;pGma&SUaejzifh wdkifyifcGifhjyKNyD;rSom vufrSwfa&;xkd;ap&ygrnf/ xdkuJhodkY aqmif&Gufjcif;r&SdbJ vufrSwfa&;xdk;apygu pmcsKyfudkysufys,fapygonf/ EdkifiHrsm;\ zYGJpnf;yHk tajccHOya't&? Oya'rsm;a&;qG&J mwGif ed'gef;yg&efvt kd yfaMumif; jy|mef;avh&MdS uygonf/ xdo k Ykd xnfhoGif;rIr&SdvQif ,if;Oya'onf Oya'tjrift&tqifhtwef;r&SdEdkifyg/ ,ciftcef;wGif yg0ifaqG;aEG; cJo h nfh wdu k q f ikd f ppfaq;&ef pm&if;(Check List) jyKpx k m;&S&d jcif;\ &nf&, G cf surf mS vdktyfaomtydk'frsm; jynfhpHkpGm yg0ifjcif;&Sd? r&Sd wdkufqdkifppfaq;&efjzpfygonf/

178

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ta&mif;t0,f\tESpfom& (Going to the Essence of the Transaction) Oya't& yg0if&efvo kd nf[k jy|mef;xm;jcif;r&Sad pumrl tcsKd Uaomtyd'k rf sm;onf tqdyk g pmcsKyfpmwrf;taejzifh xda&mufrI&Sdap&ef rygrjzpfvdktyfygonf/ &mZ0wfOya'wpfckonf jypfrrI sm;udk twdtvif;azmfjyíjzpfap? oG,0f u kd í f jzpfap yg0ifjcif;r&Syd gu ,if;&mZ0wfOya' onf txrajrmufEdkifyg/ xdkenf;wlpGmyif csKyfqdkxm;onf[k pGyfpGJajymqdkxm;aom ta&mif; t0,fpmcsKyfwpfckwGif trsdK;trnfrazmfjyxm;aom trsdK;trnfazmfjyEdkifaom ukefypönf;rsm; a&mif;&efpmcsKycf sKyq f rkd nfqykd gu ta&;,laqmif&u G &f ef rjzpfEikd yf g/ pmcsKyw f iG f yg0ifot l m;vH;k onf tvm;wlpmcsKyrf sKd ;wGif yg0if&efvo kd nf[k owfrw S x f m;aom tcsut f vufrsm;udk twd tvif;xnfo h iG ;f Ny;D oabmwlnMD u&efvNkd y;D xdo k Ykd oabmwljcif;r&Sv d Qif w&m;½H;k taejzifh ta&; ,laqmif&u G Ef ikd af om pmcsKyrf &S[ d k qH;k jzwfEikd zf , G &f ydS gonf/ w&m;½H;k rsm;onf pmcsKyw f iG f rjzpfrae yg0if&ef vdktyfaomtcsufrsm;ESifh ywfoufNyD; trsdK;rsdK; oabmxm;uGJvGJwwfMuygonf/ ,ckacwf w&m;½Hk;rsm;wGif rjzpfraeyg0if&ef vdktyfaomtcsufjzpfaMumif;udk oG,f0dkufvsuf oabmwlonf[k cufcpJ mG oufaojywwfMuygonf/ Oyrm UCCtyd'k (f 2)t& pmcsKyw f pf&yf jzpf&eftwGuf rjzpfraeyg0if&ef vdktyfaomtcsufrsm;udk azmfjyxm;onfrSm ukefypönf; trsdK; trnf pmcsKyf0ifrsm;udk azmfjyjcif;ESifh ta&twGufudk azmfjyjcif;wdkYom jzpfygonf/ tjcm; vdt k yfaom tcsut f vufrsm;udk ,if;ud"k Oya'\ enf;Oya'wGif jy|mef;yg&Sad om jznfph u G cf suf rsm;jzifh jznfph nf;xm;ygonf/ ,if;odjYk znfph u G cf surf sm;wGif aps;? ukeyf pön;f vufa&mufvt JG yfjcif; qdik &f m owfrw S cf surf sm;? aiGay;acsjcif;qdik &f m tmrcHcsurf sm;ESihf tjcm;aomodompGm tajccH usaomtyd'k rf sm; yg0ifygonf/ rlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh rjzpfraeyg0if&ef vdt k yfaomtcsurf sm;udk od&Sd&efvdkNyD; xnfhoGif;a&;oGif;rdap&efvnf; owdjyKaqmif&Guf&ygrnf/

tvGefta&;BuD;aom (Extremely Important) rvdu k ef mrae&tcsurf sm;ESihf r&Srd jzpfyg0if&ef ta&;Bu;D aomtcsurf sm;udk od&jdS cif;tjyif rlMurf;a&;om;olonf ,if;\tawGt Y BuKH rsm;ESihf a0zefyikd jf cm;Edik rf u I kd toH;k jyKvsuf rlMurf;wGif xnfhoGif;oifhonfwdkYudk qifjcifoHk;oyfoifhygonf/ Oyrm pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfOD;onf tdrf0,fol\tusdK;udk umuG,f&eftwGuf cspm;jcif;qdkif&mtydk'f(termite clause)udk xnfhoGif;a&;om;&mwGif cspm;jcif;&Sd? r&Sd ppfaq;rI cH,Nl y;D jcif;udk a&mif;0,frjI zpfajrmufa&;twGuf pnf;urf;csut f jzpf owfrw S jf cif;xuf a&mif;ol xHrS tdr\ f t&nftaoG;udk tmrcHcsuaf y;apjcif;u ydrk x kd ad &mufonf[k jrifeidk yf gonf/ tjcm; pmcsKyf rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl l rwlnaD omtjrif&EdS ikd yf gonf/ tvm;wlyif tawGUtMuKH &adS om Oya' Murf; a&;qGJolwpfOD;taejzifh þudpö&yfudk Oya'jy|mef;NyD; tkyfcsKyfa&;tmPmjzifh ta&;,l

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

179

aqmif&u G jf cif;onf w&m;raMumif; ?&mZ0wfaMumif;t& w&m;pGjJ cif;xuf ydrk kd xda&mufrnf[k ,lqEdkifovdk tjcm;wpfOD;url yk*¾vducsif;ta&;,laqmif&Gufjcif;onf ydkrdkxda&mufrnf [k ,lqEdik yf gonf/ rlMurf;wpfckwGif tvGefta&;ygaom tykd'frsm;onf rnfonfhtydk'frsm;jzpfonfudk tcef;(7)wGif azmfjyxm;aomenf;vrf; (jyifqifjcif;ESifh pDrHjcif; - vkyfief;pwifjcif; )twdkif; aqmif&Gufygu xif&Sm;pGm od&SdEdkifygrnf/ jzpfwef&mjcif; &Sdr&Sdod&SdEdkif&eftwGuf "tu,fí" [laom ar;cGe;f rsm;udx k w k Nf y;D pdppfomG ;Edik yf gonf/ 4if;tjyif pmcsKyrf Ml urf;a&;olonf ta&mif; t0,fudpö&yftwGif; tzktxpf&SdEdkifrnfwdkYudk owdcsyf&efvdkNyD; &Sif;vif;wduspGmazmfjyjcif;jzifh a&SUjzpfEikd zf , G f tjiif;tckrH sm;udk z,f&mS ;Edik rf nfjzpfygonf/ ,if;tcsut f vufrsm;udk atmufwiG f qufvufazmfjyaqG;aEG;rnfh ta&;BuD;tcsuftvufrsm; wdkufqdkifppfaq;&ef pm&if;xJwGif xnfo h iG ;f Edik yf gonf/ 4/

ES p f o uf & ma&G ; cs,f j cif ; (Optional) vdt k yfcsurf sm;? rjzpfraeyg0if&rnft h csurf sm;ESihf xnfo h iG ;f &ef cdik rf mpGmtMujH yKonfwrYkd S vGv J suf tjcm;xnfo h iG ;f vdak om ta&;ygaomtcsurf sm;onf trItyfo\ l ESpo f ufa&G;cs,rf I ay:wGif rlwnfygonf/ pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;ol\wm0efrSm trItyfoltaejzifh a&G;cs,fEdkifonfh jzpfEikd af csrsm;udk od&adS p&ef &Si;f vif;wifjy&ef vdyk gonf/ tvkyt f udik cf efx Y m;a&;pmcsKyw f pfcu k kd a&;qGJvdkonfhvkyfief;&SifwpfOD;onf tvkyform;rsm;taejzifh vkyfief;twGufta&;BuD;onfh owif;tcsuftvufrsm;udk NydKifbufvkyfief;&SifodkY aygufMum;apjcif;r&Sd&[k wm;jrpfaom pmyd'k u f kd xnfo h iG ;f &ef pOfpm;rdcsirf S pOf;pm;rdrnfjzpfygonf/ tvm;wlyif Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J l taejzifh tjcm;jynfe,frsm;wGif jy|mef;xm;aomtvm;wlOya'rsm;udk zwf&INyD; xnfhoGif; oifo h nfwu Ykd kd tMuÓ H Pf&½SEd ikd yf gonf/txufwiG af zmfjyxm;aom rnfonfeh rlemrsKd ;wGijf zpfygap rlMurf;a&;qGJol\wm0efrSm trItyfol\ qE´udk od&Sdatmifaqmif&GufNyD; tqdkyg qE´rsm;udk rlMurf;xJwGif xnfhoGif;a&;qGJ&efjzpfygonf/

t"d u usaom tcsuf r sm;ud k wd k u f q d k i f p pf a q;Ed k i f & ef jyKpk x m;aompm&if ; (Substantive Term Checklist)

rnfodkYtawGYtMuHKr&Sdonfh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfOD;yifjzpfap? Oya'udk okawoejyKNyD; rnfonfhtydkif;onf rygrae& (odkY) t"dujzpfonfudk avhvmawGU&SdEdkifNyD; ,if;awGU&Sdonfh tcsuftvufrsm;udk wdkufqdkifppfaq;Edkifonfh t"dutcsufygpm&if;wGif xnfhoGif;jyKpkEdkifygonf/ odkY&mwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJoltopf wpfOD;onf tvGefta&;ygaom

180

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tcsurf sm;udk od&&Sd efaomfvnf;aumif;? rsm;pGmaom pdwBf uKd uaf &G;cs,x f nfo h iG ;f Edik o f nfh tyk'd rf sm; udkvnf;aumif; od&Sd&efvnf; t&nftaoG;jynfh0aumif;rS jynfh0OD;rnfjzpf&m t"duusaom tcsufrsm;udk wdkufqdkifppfaq;Edkif&ef jyKpkxm;aompm&if;udk toHk;jyKjcif;jzifh taxmuftul jzpfapEdkifygonf/ 1/

ul ; oef ; a&mif ; 0,f a &;twG u f jyif q if x m;jcif ; (Commercially Prepared) tcsKd Uaom yHpk (H form)rsm;yg0ifaom pmtkyrf sm;wGif t"dutcsurf sm;udk wdu k q f ikd pf pfaq; &ef pm&if;rsm;yg&SdwwfNyD;&Sif;vif;csufrsm;vnf;yg0ifonfhtjyif ,if;odkYaompmtkyfwkdYonf t"duusrnft h yd'k f rsm;udk azmfjyyg&Sw d wfovdk xdt k yd'k rf sm;xnfo h iG ;f jcif;jzifh Oya'aMumif;t&ESihf vufawGUydik ;f t&jzpfEikd o f nf wdu Yk v kd nf; aqG;aEG;azmfjyyg&Sw d wfygonf/ pm&if;aumif;wpfcw k iG f tykd'fwdkif;ESifhywfoufí trItyfoludk rlMurf;a&;olrS ar;jref;oifhonfwdkYudkvnf; xnfhoGif; azmfjyygrnf/ yHpk (H azmif)rsm;yg0ifaom pmtkyw f w Ykd iG f þpm&if;rsm;yg0ifaejcif;onf wefz;kd t&Sq d ;kH tcsufyifjzpfonf/ erlemyHkpH(azmif)rsm;rSmrl ,ckacwftjrifESifh MunfhvQif a&;om;rIydkif;wGif nHhonf[k qdkEdkifygonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolwpfOD;taejzifh pm&if;jzifh wdkufqdkifMunfhjcif;ESifh wlnDaom taxmuftuljyK enf;vrf;wpfcrk mS Oyrmtm;jzifh jynfe,fOya'rsm; wpfajy;nDjzpfa&;twGuf aumfr&Sifemrsm;\ trsdK;om;uGefz&ifh (National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws)? tar&duefOya'tzGUJ tpnf; (American Law Institute)ESihf jynfe,f tpdk;&rsm;aumifpD (Council of State Government) paom tzGJUtpnf;wdkYrS a&;om;aom Oya'rsm;ESifh pHerlemOya'wkdYESifh wdkufqdkifppfaq;jcif;jzpfygrnf/

rl M urf ; a&;qG J o l r S jyif q if j cif ; (Drafter Prepared) vHv Yk 0D&, d &So d nfh rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfO;D onf yHpk (H azmif)rsm;pmtkyw f iG f yg0ifonfh wdkufqdkifppfaq;&efpm&if;udk tajccHoHk;pGJNyD; ,if;\tawGUtBuHKtay: rlwnfvsuf pm&if;udk vdktyfovdk jyKjyifoGm;rnf jzpfygonf/ tawGUtMuHKenf;yg;onfh rlMurf;a&;qGJolonfyifvQif tajctaetm;vH;k udk jciH rkH o d nfh pm&if;wpfcu k kd jyKpEk ikd &f ef taxmuftuljyKonfeh nf;vrf;rsm; &&Sed idk yf gonf/ a&;qGrJ nfh pm&Gupf mwrf;\ obm0tay: rlwnfvsuf pm&if;ygtcsurf sm;onf uGjJ ym;oGm;Edik af omfvnf; rnfonfph m&if;wGirf qdk omrmeftm;jzifh wlnaD om tcsut f vufrsm; yg0ifMuygonf/ tajccHpm&if;(odkYr[kwf)jcHiHkítoHk;jyKEdkifaom pm&if;udk jyKpkrnfqdkygvQif rlMurf;a&;olonf owif;wpfyk'fudk a&;om;onfh owif;axmufuJhodkYyif rnfol? rnfonf? rnfonfhtcsdeftcg? rnfonfhae&m? rnfonfhenf;jzifh tp&Sdaom ar;cGef;rsm;rS pwif wnf

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Oya'pnf ; rsOf ; wG i f y g0if & rnf h t ajccH t csuf r sm; (The Elements of a Legal Rule)

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190

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

vkyfaqmifcsuf (The Conduct) pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf; wpfco k nf rnfonfv h yk af qmifcsurf sKd ;udu k efo Y wfvyk af qmifaponf? cGifhjyKonfudk xnfhoGif;azmfjy&ygrnf/ txufygOyrmrsm;wGif ,mOf&yfjcif;ESifh y#dyu©rsm;udk tEkwcHk½Hk;jzihf ajz&Sif;onfh vkyfaqmifcsufrsm;jzpfygonf/

aqmif&GufrI\ OD;wnfcsuf (The Object of the Action) vkyfaqmifcsufESifh oufqdkifaom 0w¬Kypönf;qkdif&m pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;onf omrmef tm;jzihf vkyfaqmifcsufESifhqdkifonfh 0w¬Kypönf;udk azmfjyyg&Sdavh&Sdygonf/ tu,fí tm;vH;k tBuKH ;0ifvQi(f universal)txl;jyKí xnfo h iG ;f &ef rvdt k yfyg/ vlwpfO;D onf olwpfyg;\ ypönf;udkzsufqD;jcif;h odkYr[kwfysufpD;atmifaqmif&Gufjcif; rjyK&yg/ ypönf;tm;vHk; tBuHK;0if ygonf (universal)/ rD;owftBuD;tuJonf bk&m;ausmif;tm; rD;½IdUzsufqD;rIjzpfyGm;aMumif; tpD&ifcHvmygu (24)em&DtwGif; pHkprf;ppfaq;&ygrnf/ (ae&mudk bk&m;ausmif;[k uefYowf azmfjyxm;ygonf/)

tajctaersm; (The Circumstances) pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;onf &Hzef&cH gtajctaeudx k nfo h iG ;f azmfjyavh&ydS gonf/ ,if; odYk xnfo h iG ;f &mwGif oufqikd &f mtrdeu Yf kd rnfonft h csed Ef iS ahf e&mwGif aqmif&u G f taumiftxnf azmfrnf[kyg0if avh&Sdygonf/ 'kw, d tqifNh rKd UBu;D rsm;wGif NrKd Uawmf0efonf NrKd U\tpd;k &a&SUaeudck eft Y yfEikd o f nf/ q,f&ufvGefygu 0,folonfpmcsKyfudk zsufodrf;EdkifNyD; ay;cJhonfh aiGrsm;udk jyefvnf&&SdcGifh&Sdonf/ txufpnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;rsm;onf aqmif&u G rf nhaf e&mESihf tcsed w f u Ykd kd uefo Y wf xm;ygonf/ odkYwnf;r[kwf enf;Oya'wpfckwGif tajctaewpfckqHk&mü awmif;qdkcsuf wpfckudk taumiftxnfazmfaqmif&GufNyD;rSomvQif xdkñTefMum;csufudk taumiftxnf azmf&jcif;udk qdv k ykd gonf/ aemufqufww JG pfco k nf pmrsuEf mS 300 xufausmfvGefygu pmrsufESmESpfzufpvHk;udk toHk;jyK&ygrnf/ tdr&f iS o f nf 24 em&DBuKd wifNy;D taMumif;Mum;Ed;k wpfay;ygu Oypmtm; iSm;&ef qE´&Sdolrsm;udk 0ifa&mufjyocGifh&Sdonf/ pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;udk >cif;csufay;aom tajctaersm;vnf; &SdEdkifygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; -

191

pwd;k qdik rf sm;onf we*FaEGaeYwiG f t&uf,ruma&mif;csjcif;rjyK&yg/ >cif;csuf taejzihf trsm;oabmwlqE´udk cH,lum a&mif;cs&efoabmwlxm;aom c½kdifrsm;wGif a&mif;cscGifh&Sdonf/

tusd K ;quf r sm; (Consequences) enf;Oya'wpfco k nf vkyaf qmifcsuw f pfcu k kd wm;jrpfygu vdu k ef m&ef ysuu f u G jf cif;\ tusKd ;qufukd xnfo h iG ;f azmfjy&efvt kd yfygonf/ ,if;udk ta&;,laqmif&u G rf [ I k ac:avh&o dS nf/ xdktusdK;qufonf jypfrIaMumif;t& wm0ef&Sdjcif;? w&m;raMumif;t&wm0ef&Sdjcif;? ypönf;udk odr;f ,ljcif;? pm&Gupf mwrf;udk Oya't&jynfph ckH ikd v f rkH rI &Sad pjcif;? odrYk [kwf t&mwpfcu k kd &,lEikd &f ef omrefowfrSwfcsufESifhrnDaMumif; owfrSwfjcif;wdkYjzpfygonf/ þtydk'fudk azmufzsufolonf ao;i,faom&mZ0wfrIudk azmufzsufaMumif; jypfrI xif&mS ;ojzihf a':vm(100)'PfaiGoifah pjcif;/ pmcsKypf mwrf;oufaocHt&m&Sd (EdBk wD yAÁvpf)u rSefuefaMumif; oufaocH wHqyf½dkufuyfxm;aom oufaoESpOf ;D \ vufrw S yf g0ifjcif;r&Syd gu xkpd m&Gupf mwrf;onf Oya't& tusLd ;oufa&mufrIr&Sd ysufjy,fygonf/ owfrw S cf surf sm;udjk ynfrh jD cif;jzifh tusKd ;cHpm;cGi&hf ydS gu xdck pH m;cGi&hf adS omtusKd ;udk pnf;rsO;f pnf;urf;wGif twdtvif; azmfjyyg&S&d ygrnf/ touf 65ESpf txuf&o dS o l nfuse;f rma&;tmrcH (pD)trsKd ;tpm;wGiyf g0ifciG &hf ydS gonf/ yk*v d¾ u d qdik &f mOya'ESihf oufqikd &f m pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif tusKd ;qufrsm; yg0ifygu xkt d usKd ;qufukd ay:aygufaponfh toH;k tEIe;f onf omrmeftm;jzifh oG,f0dkufí a&;om;xm;jcif; jzpfygonf/ tu,fítcGit hf a&;wpfcu k kd zefw;D &ef&nf&, G yf gu tqdyk gOya't& tusLd ;quf&adS om udpö&yft& tcGifhta&;&Sdoltaejzifhaqmif&Guf&efwm0ef&Sdoludk tpdk;&\tmPmudkoHk;vsuf twif;tMuyf(vdu k ef mapjcif; odrYk [kwf vdu k ef m&efysuu f u G jf cif;aMumifh epfemaMu; ay;aqmif apjcif;jyKEikd yf gonf) odaYk omf wpfcgwpf&w H iG f Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf Oya't&jzpfay:rnfh tusdK;qufudk wdkuf½dkufxnfhoGif; a&;om;Edkifygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyw f iG yf g0ifaomarmfawmf,mOfonf a&S;a[mif;armfawmf,mOfjzpfNy;D xl;jcm;rI&Sdum tpm;xdk;&eftwGuf aps;uGufwGif tvm;wl armfawmf,mOf r&Sd&m? a&mif;olrS vTaJ jymif;ay;&ef ysuu f u G yf gu odrYk [kwf tjcm;enf;jzifh pmcsKyu f kd azmufzsuyf gu 0,f,o l o l nf w&m;½Hk;rS 'D*&Djzifh aqmif&GufapcGifh&Sdonf/ uefx½du k w f monf &D;'if;wHqyd f ydu k rf sm;udo k mtoH;k jyK&ygrnf/ uefx½du k w f mtaejzifh &D;'if;wHqdyfydkufrsm;rSvGJí tjcm;aom wHqdyfydkufrsm;udk toHk;jyKygu pmcsKyf\ ta&;ygaom tcsuu f kd azmufzsurf jI zpfojzifh ydik &f iS o f nf pmcsKyu f kd csucf si;f &yfpEJ ikd Nf y;D uefx½du k w f mtaejzifh vnf; ,if;\ tcaMu;aiG&ydkifcGifh tcGifhta&;wkdYudkvnf; qHk;½HI;apygrnf/

192

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tcsKyfqdk&aomfpmcsKyfrlMurf;wGifyg0ifa&;qGJxm;aom pnf;urf;csufrsm;onf xkd pnf;urf;csurf sm;taejzifh rnfoUl tay:wGio f ufa&mufr&I o dS nf rnfonfwu Ykd ckd iG jhf yKonf vdt k yf csurf sm;? wm;jrpfaomvkyaf qmifcsurf sm;? vkyaf qmifcsu\ f &nf&, G cf su?f aqmif&u G cf surf sm;\ tajctaersm; odkYr[kwf aqmif&Guf&efysufuGufjcif;\ tusdK;qufrsm; yg0ifygu pmcsKyfwGif ta&;ygaom tydkif;rsm; jynfhpHkpGm yg0ifonf[k qdkEdkifygonf/ C/

tESpfom& ydkif;wGif uGm[rIrsm; (Substantive Gaps) rlMurf;wGif ta&mif;t0,fwpf&yfEiS yhf wfowfí rnfonft h csed ?f rnfonfah e&m? rnfoYkd ESihf rnfonfah Mumif[ h al om taMumif;rsm; ryg0ifygu (odrYk [kw)f tajccHtm;jzifh yg0if&rnf[k vufcHxm;aom taNccHtcsufrsm; yg0ifjcif;r&Sdygu ,if;onfta&;ygaom tESpfom&ydkif; uGm[rI^ vdt k yfcsurf sm; &Sad ernfjzpfygonf/ wpf&w H pfcgwGif tESpo f m&ydik ;f uGm[rIrsm;onf ta&;tom; nHhzsif;rIaMumifhvnf; jzpfEdkifygonf/ Oyrm-rlMurf;tydk'frsm;wGif azmfjyavh&SdonfrSm "If.....then" "þodkYaqmif&Guf vQif.....þodkYjzpfygrnf" wpfenf;qdkaomf X jzpfrsm;vQif tusdK;quf Y jzpfygrnf/ þpnf;urf;csuf yg0ifaom0gusonf vlom;wdkY\ pOf;pm;awG;ac:rIwGif owfrSwfxm;aom t"dygÜ ,fwpfc&k ydS gonf/ t"dygÜ ,frmS pnf;urf;csuf X jynfpckH yhJ gvQif tusKd ;quftjzpf Y rvTrJ aoG jzpfygrnf/ wenf;qdak omf X onf Y jzpfay:a&;twGuf vHak vmufaom pnf;urf;csujf zpfygonf/ odkYaomf 0gus\ t"dyÜg,frSm þrQavmufomjzpfygonf/ X onf Y jzpfay:a&;twGuf vHkavmufaompnf;urf;csufwpf&yfr[kwfyg/ xdkYaMumifh X r&Sd,HkrQjzifh Y onfvnf; r&SdEdkif[k rqdkEdkifyg/ xdkodkYrawG;bJ qefYusifbufawG;rnfqdkygu avmf*spfynm&Sifrsm;tqdkt& a&S;uyg vufccH ahJ omt&mudk jiif;Ny;D taMumif;tusKd ;rqDavsmaf om tcsuu f rkd w l nfjiif;qd&k m a&mufyg vdrrhf nf/ avmf*sppf nf;rsO;f rsm;u rnfoq Ykd akd pumrl vlrsm;pk (rlMurf;a&;olrsm;tygt0if)wdo Yk nf ]]If.....then" "þodkYaqmif&GufvQif.....þodkYjzpfygrnf" udk toHk;jyKMuonfhtcg xdkodkY vGrJ mS ;pGm ,lqwwfMuygonf/ "þodjYk zpfygu" pmom;udk oH;k onft h cg "þodkYjzpfrSomvQi"f [k oabmaygufavh&SdMuygonf/ xdktoHk;tEIef;udk oHk;pGJjcif;aMumifh qufpyfaeonfh tcuftcJESpf&yfudk jzpfaponf? &vm'frmS ta&;ygaom uGm[rIjzpfjcif; (odrYk [kw)f teufEpS cf jG zpfNy;D roJujJG cif;wdjYk zpfygonf/ "þodkYaqmif&GufvQif...þodkYjzpfrnf" (if........then)pmom;udk pmcsKyfwGifjzpfap? Oya' wpf&yf&yfwiG jf zpfap toH;k jyKonft h cg xkpd nf;urf;csut f wdik ;f aqmif&u G yf gujzpfvmrnfh tusKd ; qufudk qdkvdkonfjzpf&m pnf;urf;csuftwdkif; aqmif&Gufjcif;r&Sdygu rnfodkYjzpf rnfenf;[k ar;&ef&Sdygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh pmcsKyfwGif 0,folrSawmif;qdkygu a&mif;olonf tar&duef

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

193

tpdk;&yg q,fydkYpepf (United Parcel)jzifh ay;ydkUay;ygrnf[k azmfjyxm;onfqdkygpdkU/ 0,folrS rnfonfph mydeYk pfjzihf ay;yd&Yk rnf[k awmif;qdjk cif;r&So d nft h cg rnfojYkd zpfrnfenf;? aocsmonfrmS a&mif;oltaejzifh tar&dueftpd;k &yg q,fypYkd epf (United Parcel)jzifh ydUk &efwm0ef&rdS nf r[kwf yg/ odaYk omf ,if;\t"dygÜ ,frmS a&mif;olonf 0,foal wmif;qdv k Qirf w S yg; xdpk mydpYk epfjzifh ay;ydjYk cif; vH;k 0rjyK&ef twnfjyKxm;aom wm0ef&ydS govm;/ avmf*sppf nf;rsO;f rsm;ESihf tnDawG;awmrnf qdyk gu tajzrSm"r[kwyf g" [kjzpfygrnf/ okaYd omf "þodaYk qmif&u G v f Qi"f ... "þodjYk zpfrnf" (if ........ then)pmom;udktoHk;jyKjcif;jzifh qefYusifaom tajzwpfckudk OD;wnfaeygonf/ awmif;qdkjcif;r&Sdygu xdkpmydkYpepfudk tokH;jyK&ef wm;jrpfonf[lí jzpfygonf/ "þodkYaqmif&GufvQif....þodkUjzpfrnf" [laom pmom;aMumifh jzpfay:aeonfh ta&;ygaom uGmjcm;rIukd UCC Oya'\tyd'k f 2-207 wGif awGU&S&d ygrnf/ pmom;rSm wpfxyf wnf; r[kwfonfhwdkif þoabmtwkdif; jzpfygonf/ Oyrm- tydk'fcGJ(1)t& urf;vSrf;csufwGif yg0ifaom vufcjH cif; odrYk [kwf uGjJ ym;aom vufcjH cif;rsKd ;udk vufco H nf[k oabmaqmifaom pmom;rsm;yg0ifygrnf/ tydk'fcGJ(2)wGif urf;vSrf;csufwGif aemufxyfpnf;urf;csufrsm;yg0if ygujzpfEdkifaom Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;taMumif; xnfhoGif;a&;om;xm;ygonf/ ,if;udk "þodaYk qmif&u G v f sif "...."þodjYk zpfrnf"qdak om yHpk w H iG ;f odYk oGi;f rnfqykd g u vufcjH cif;wpf&yftwGi;f aemufxyfpnf;urf;csurf sm; yg0ifvmygu ,if;wdo Yk nf pmcsKyu f kd jyifqif&ef tqdjk yKjcif;[k t"dygÜ ,frw S , f El ikd Nf y;D ?...rvGí J ukeo f nfEpS Of ;D tMum;wGif csKyq f akd om pmcsKyf\ wpfpdwfwpfydkif; jzpfygonf/ odkYaomf UCC tydk'f 2-207 onf aemufxyf pnf;urf;csufrsm;yg0ifaom vufcHrI wpf&yfaMumifhjzpfay:vmrnfh Oya'aMumif;t& tusdK;qufrsm;ESifh ywfowfí azmfjyxm;jcif; r&Sdyg/ ,if;aemufxyfpnf;urf;csufrsm;onf pmcsKyfudk jyifqif&ef pnf;urf;csufrsm;omjzpfNyD; urf;vSr;f jcif;udk jyKvyk o f rl S vufcaH Mumif;udt k wdtvif;azmfjy&ef vdt k yfrnfavm[k ar;&ef&ydS g onf/ odrYk [kwf vdu k af vsmnDaxGjcif;r&Sad om pnf;urf;csurf sm;onftjyef tvSeaf cs&ma&mufNy;D (knockout rule)uGm[csufwGif UCC \ jznfhpGufcsufrS ae&m,loGm;ygoavm/ þudpöESifh ywfoufí Bu;D rm;aom tjiif;yGm;rI &Syd gonf/ xkt d yd'k w f iG f tjcm;aom tvm;wl tm;enf;csuf rsm;vnf;&Syd gonf/ tcsKyq f akd omf "þodUk aqmif&u G yf gu"..."þodUk jzpfrnf"[laom pmom;udk wdu k ½f u kd f xnho f iG ;f onfjzpfap? tvm;o@efwal om yHpk jH zihx f nfo h iG ;f a&;om;onfjzpfap pmcsKyo f Ukd r[kwf Oya'wpfcw k iG f ,if;pmom;udk toH;k jyKygu tajctaewpf&yf(odUk ) tjzpftysuw f pfcjk zpfNy;D ygu rnfodkUjzpfrnf[ka&;om;rnfqkdvQif xkdtajctae(odkY)tjzpftysufwpfckjzpfay:jcif;r&Sdygu rnfodkUjzpfrnfudkvnf; pOf;pm;í rvGJraoGxnfhoGif;&ef vdkygonf/

194

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tjcm;aom ta&;Bu;D onfh uGm[csujf zpfay:Edik af om udp&ö yfrmS pmcsKy(f odUk )Oya'wGif tcsdefumv toD;oD;? aps;EIef;ESifh tjcm;aomudef;*Pef;rsm;yg0ifonfh udpö&yfrsdK;jzpfygonf/ Oyrmtjzpf atmufygOya'udk Munf½h MI uygpd/Yk owfrw S x f m;aom uefo Y wfcsurf sm;xuf ausmf vGev f sif ,mOfarmif;olwo Ydk nf ao;i,faom &mZ0wfriI ,fukd usL;vGe&f majrmufNy;D ? yxrtBurd f usL;vGefjcif;jzpfygu atmufazmfjyyg twkdif;aiG'Pf odkYr[kwf axmif'Pf uscHapEkdifygonf(1) txufwGifazmfjyxm;aomuefYowfcsuf xufausmfvGefaomfvnf; ausmfvGef aom twkdif;twmonf wpfem&DvQif (10)rkdif atmufavsmhygu (15)a':vmxufravsmhbJ (25)a':vmxufrydkaom 'PfaiGudkvnf;aumif;? (2) uefo Y wfcsux f uf ausmv f eG v f suf wpfem&DvQif (10)rkid Ef eI ;f xufyNkd y;D wpfem&D vQif(15)rdkifEIef;xuf rausmfvGefygu (25)a':vmxufrenf;bJ a':vm(50)xufrydkaom 'PfaiGudkvnf;aumif;? (3) uefo Y wfcsux f uf ausmv f eG v f suf wpfem&DvQi(f 15)rdik Ef eI ;f xuf ydNk y;D ? wpfem&D vQif (25)rdkifEIef;xuf rausmfvGefygu a':vm(50)xufrenf;bJ (75)a':vmxuf rydkaom 'PfaiGudkvnf;aumif; (4) uefYowfcsufxuf ausmfvGefjyD; wpfem&DvQif (25)rkdifEIef;xuf ausmfvGefygu (75)a':vmxufrenf;bJ a':vm(200)xufrydak om'PfaiG odrYk [kwf &uf(30)xufrydak om axmif'Pfudk uscHap&rnf/ þOya'onf uefYowfxm;aom EIef;wkdYrSm 1 rS 9? 11 rS 14? 16 rS 24 ESifh 26 ESifh txufyjkd cif;udk tBuKH ;0ifygonf/ Oya'onf owfrw S x f m;aom armif;ESiEf eI ;f xuf ausmv f eG í f ,mOfarmif;ESifjcif;udk wm;jrpfxm;aomfvnf; ,mOfarmif;olonf owfrSwfEIef;xuf (10)rdkif? (15)rkid Ef iS hf (25)rkid t f xdyrkd akd rmif;ESiv f Qif tjypfay;jcif;r&Sad Mumif; awGU&S&d ygonf/ xko d jYkd zpfaejcif; onf ,if;EIe;f twdik ;f armif;ESijf cif;udk vH;k 0OóHw k m;jrpfjcif;r&Sjd cif;yif jzpfygonf/ wpfenf;qdk aomf ta&;ygaom uGm[rIwpf&yf jzpfygonf/ ta&;ygaom uGm[rIrsm; &S^d r&S&d mS azG&eftwGuf enf;vrf;wpfcrk mS ueOD;rlMurf; a&;qGJ a&;tqifhwGif oufqdkif&mpmrlMurf;ESifhywfowfí tqifhqifhoGm; yHkjyZ,m;udk zefwD;jcif; jzpfygonf/ xdktqifhqifhoGm;yHkjyZ,m; a&;qGJyHkudk tcef; (17)wGif azmfjyyg&Sdygrnf/

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195

tcef ; (10) rS e f u ef a om tawG ; jrif u d k a&G ; cs,f j cif ; Choosing the Right Concept

,cktqifhwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf trItyfoltaejzifh a&;qGJaponfh pmrlMurf;onf rnfonfudk taumiftxnf azmfvdkaMumif; em;vnfNyD;jzpfNyD; xdktaumiftxnfazmfvdkaom udpö&yfESifhywfoufí Oya't& vdktyfcsufrsm;ESifh wm;jrpfcsufrsm;udkvnf; od&SdNyD; ta&;BuD; yg0if&rnfh tcsurf sm;udv k nf; od&NdS y;D jzpfygrnf/ xdek m;vnfxm;onfwu Ykd kd pmom;jzifah zmfjyEdik &f ef rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf 4if;\ pdwful;rsm;udk yHkazmf&ayrnf/ teuf t "d y Ü g ,f (Definition) tawG;tjrifukd yHak zmfjcif;qdo k nfrmS xl;jcm;aom 0daootm;vH;k (od)Yk tcsut f vuf rsm;udk pdwfxJwGif aygif;pyfjcif;jzpfygonf/ tawG;tjrifudk yHkazmfjcif;onf pdwfxJwGifom jzpfymG ;aeygonf/ xdak y:aygufvmaom pdwu f ;l yH&k yd o f nf wpfcgwpf&w H iG f enf;usO;f pGm ay:vm ½HkrQomjzpfNyD; ,if;udk azmfñTef;&efyif tcsufwpfcsufom &SdEdkifayrnf/ tm½Hkrsm;ESifhom cHpm; Edik af omt&m jzpfEikd yf gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh "uREykf v f uf&dS wufxikd af eaomt&m" tjcm;wzufrS awG;vQif ukvm;xdkifudk NcKHí yHkazmf&rnfqdkvQif ajcav;acsmif;ygNyD; rsufESmjyifnDudk ajcav; acsmif;u taxmuftrjyKum aemufausmfrSDygNyD; wpfcgwpf&H vuf&ef;rrsm; yg0ifaom vlrsm;wufxikd Ef ikd af omt&m jzpfonf/ ,ck&nfñeT ;f vdak om tawG;tjrifukd yHak zmfjcif;qdo k nfrmS ,if;udk azmfñeT ;f &ef tcsurf sm;pGmygNy;D xdt k csurf sm;onfvnf; wpfcEk iS w hf pfck tpGe;f ESpzf ufus aom tcsurf sm;vnf; jzpfEikd yf gonf/ Oyrm- qmvfAm'd'k gvDrS 'DZikd ;f a&;qGx J m;aom ukvm;xdik Ef iS hf tmrif&SfvlrsKd; vuform;rS jyKvkyfaom ukvm;xdkifonf rsm;pGm uGmjcm;ygvdrfhrnf/ rnfonfh ukvm;xdik u f rkd qdk tm½Hrk sm;jzifh cHpm;MunfEh ikd yf gonf/ odaYk omf pdwu f ;l ESihf yHak zmfaom ukvm;xdik f onf xdkodkYr[kwfyg/

rl M urf ; a&;qG J & mwG i f tawG ; tjrif u d k yH k a zmf j cif ; \ ta&;ygrI (The Importance of Concepts in Drafting)

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196

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

0,f,l&eftwGuf pmcsKyfvdktyfonf[k qdkygpdkY/ pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;om;ol\ ta&;tom;t& xdik cf kH oGi;f oltaejzifh tdwaf ysmx h ikd cf kH (Bean bag chair)cHw k ef;&Snf (Benches)bm;oH;k acG;ajc (Bar Stools)ponfh trsKd;pHkaom xdkifcHkrsm;udk oGif;EdkifNyD; xdkodkYaqmif&Gufjcif;jzifh pmcsKyfudk azgufzsu&f mra&mufaMumif; a&;om;xm;ygonf/ xdrk Ml urf;a&;ol\ tawG;tjrif yH&k yd rf sm;ESihf trItyfo\ l vdt k yfcsuw f u Ykd kd atmifjrifpmG qufpyfEikd jf cif; r&Sí d jzpfap (odUk ) xdpk w d u f ;l yH&k yd u f kd oifhawmfaom pmom;jzifh azmfjyEdkifaom pGrf;&nfr&Sdíjzpfap jzpfygvdrfhrnf/ pmcsKyf\ jyify oP²mef? zGJUpnf;yHk? yHkpHwdkYonf ajymp&mr&Sdavmufatmif aumif;rGefaeonfhwdkif &vm'fonf vHk;0atmifjrifjcif; r&Sdyg/ */

tawG;tjrif trsKd;tpm;rsm; (Types of Concepts) tawG;tjrify&kH yd u f kd ESprf sK;d ESppf m; awGUEdik yf gonf/ Oya'qdik &f m pdwu f ;l yH&k yd Ef iS hf tcsuf tvufqdkif&m tawG;tjrifyHk&dyfwkdY jzpfygonf/

Oya'a&;&m t,l t q (Legal Concepts) rlMurf;a&;olonf vlodrsm;aom Oya'a&;&m t,ltqrsm;udkrjDS irf;Edik yf gonf/ "&yfpJ &ef vHak vmufaom taMumif;t&mtyd'k "f ? tjypfay;cHxu kd af om wm0efysuu f u G rf ?I tdraf xmifpk tvdu k f tarGcaJG 0cHpm;jcif; ? y#dÓOfukd txajrmufapaom tzd;k pm;em;rsm;? ukepf nf? 0efxrf;? vdrv f nfvn S jhf zm;vdak omoabmjzifh aqmif&u G jf cif;? ud, k pf m;vS,f ? aumfyakd &;&Si;f tp&Sad om pum;&yfrsm;ESifh tjcm;aom owfrSwfNyD;om; t"dyÜg,f&Sdonfh pum;&yfrsm;jzpfMuygonf/ þ t,ltqrsm;onf wpfcgwpf&H ½Iyaf xG;wwfygonf/ wpfcgwpf&w H iG f &SiS ;f vif;jywfom;rI r&Syd g/ odaYk omf pmrlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh trIonf\ &nf&, G cf surf sm;udk &Si;f vif;pGm em;vnfNyq D ykd gu xd&k nf&, G cf surf sm;ESihf Oya't,ltqrsm;udk wdu k q f ikd Mf unf&h ygrnf/ Oyrmtm;jzif-h trItyfol taejzifh vlwpfOD;tm; 0efaqmifrIwpf&yfudk aqmif&Guf&eftwGuf iSm;&rf;vdkNyD; xdk0efaqmifrI ay;olonf vkyif ef;jzpfajrmufa&;twGuf ,if;\ ud, k yf ikd u f &d , d m wefqmyvmrsm;udk toH;k jyK rnfjzpfNy;D trItyfo\ l Bu;D MuyfrrI vdb k J aqmif&u G &f ef jzpfygonf/ xdo k o Ykd Nd y;D vQif trIonf\ vdt k yfcsurf sm;udk Oya't,ltqrsm;ESihf wdu k q f ikd Mf unfyh gu ,if;vdt k yfonfrmS 0efxrf;r[kwb f J vGwfvyfaom uefx½dkufwmjzpfonf[k awGU&Sd&ygrnf/ trIonf\ vdktyfaom &nf&G,fcsufrsm;odkY a&mufap&ef rlMurf;a&;olonf Oya' t,ltqrsm;udk aygif;pyfí t,ltqtopfwpfck zefw;D &ef vdak umif;vdyk grnf/ rlMurf;a&;ol onf ,ckacwfpm;vmaom t&yfpum;t&ajymvQif aemufrS wpfaumufaumufvdkufí taESmifht,Sufjzpfapjcif; (stalking)[laom vkyf&yfudk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk&mwGif &Sd&if;pGJ Oya'

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

taMumif;tcsuf yg0ifaom t,ltqrsm; (Factual Concepts) t,ltq[k qd&k mü "wufxikd í f &aomt&m"[laom t,ltqESihf "jyZmwf½t kH wGi;f &Sd xdkifp&m"[laom t,ltqwdkUtMum; uGJjym;rIonf ta&;BuD;ygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJ&mwGif tcsu(f 4)csuf yg0ifavh&ydS gonf/ vly*k K¾ v d ?f t&m0wKÉ aqmif&u G cf suEf iS hf jzpf&yfrsm; jzpfygonf/ trItyfol\ &nf&G,fcsufudk taumif;qHk; azmfaqmifEdkifaprnfh taMumif;tcsuf yg0ifaom t,ltqrsm;udk a&G;cs,f(odkU)wDxGif&mwGif rlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh ,if;tcsuf (4)csufESifh ywfoufí qH;k jzwfcsuf (3)pHk &Syd grnf/ ,if;wdUk rS (1)NcKiH rkH ^I txl;jyKrI twdik ;f twmudk qH;k jzwfjcif;? (2)r&Si;f vif;jcif;^wdusjcif; twdik ;f twmudk qH;k jzwf&ef? (3)tawG;ac:oufouf^ vufawGU qefrI twdkif;twmudk qHk;jzwf&ef? þOyrm(3)&yfpvHk;wGif rnfonfudk a&G;cs,frnfqdkonfrSm trItyfol\ &nf&G,fcsufrsKd;tay:wGifom wnfrSDygrnf/

taxG a xG N cKH i k H r I E S i f h txl ; jyKrI (General Vs. Specific) pum;vHk;rsm; (odkU) pum;pkrsm;onf yHk;rsm;ESifhwlNyD; ,if;yHk;rsm;xJodkY wpfpHkwpfckaom twdik ;f twmtxd txl;jyKEikd af om &nfñeT ;f csurf sm;qefUEdik yf gonf/ "abmufqmESihf vmb&m'dk rsK;d pyfacG; wpfaumifjzpfaom acG;uav; eDr\ kd ydik &f iS rf mS e,fpm; [wf*wf'f jzpfonf/"qdak om 0gusonf tvGefao;i,faom yHk;jzpfNyD; ,if;yHk;xJodkY &nfñTef;ol(acG;)wpfaumifom 0ifqefY Edkifygrnf/ "e,fpm; [wf*wf'fydkifacG;rsm;" [k txl;jyKa&;om;rnfqdkygu xdk "yHk;"onf ydkrdkBuD;oGm;NyD; *wfpf? z&pfZf tp&Sdaom acG;rsm;ESifh tjcm;acG;rsm;vnf; tBuKH;0ifEdkifygonf/ "acG;"[kqv kd Qif ydrk u kd s,jf yefUoGm;Ny;D "tdraf rG;wd&pd mä ef"[k qdv k Qif ydí k yif us,jf yefo Y mG ;ygrnf/ tjcm;enf;qdkaomf acG;uav; eDrdkrS wd&dpämeftxd wpfqifhNyD;wpfqifh a&TUvsm;oGm;jcif;onf tcsuftvufudk txl;jyKjcif;rS taxGaxGNcKHiHkrIodkY ajymif;vJoGm;jcif; jzpfygonf/ txl;jyKr^I taxGaxGNcKiH rHk \ I twdik ;f twmudk qH;k jzwfEikd &f eftwGuf xdo k Ykd aqmif&u G jf cif; jzifh &&SEd ikd rf nfh aumif;usK;d (odUk )qd;k usK;d wdu Yk kd pdw0f ifwpm;ESihf ausnufpmG em;vnf&ef vdt k yfygrnf/ aumif;usKd;odkY qdk;jypfrsm;onf &nfñTef;ol wpfrsKd;xufydkNyD; trsm;jzpfrnfqdkygu ,if;wdkYonf rnfow l jYkd zpfrnfukd rlMurf;a&;olu od&rdS nf/ &nfñeT ;f ol tm;vH;k onf trsK;d tpm;wpfcw k nf;(odUk ) "yHk; "wpfyHk;xJodkY 0ifqefYrnfqdkygu 4if;wdkYrSvGJí tjcm;rnfonfudkrQ yHk;xJodkY xnfh&ef rjzpfEdkifawmhygu rlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh xdktaxGaxG NcKHiHkaom toHk;tEIH;udk oHk;&ygvdrfhrnf/ Oyrm- wd&dpämefxdef;csKyfa&;qdkif&m Oya'uJhodkY tmPmwnfaom trdefYudk a&;qGJrnfh rlMurf;a&;qGJoltaejzifh a&;qGJrnfh pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;rsm;wGif rnfonfhwd&dpämefrsm; tBuKH;0if rnfudk qHk;jzwf&ygrnf/ þOya'uJhodkY tmPmwnfaomtrdefYudk a&;qGJ&onfhtaMumif;rSm c½dkifaumifpD0if wpfOD;\ awmif;qdkcsufaMumifhjzpfNyD; aumifpD0iftm; 4if;\ rJqE´e,fxJu u/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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204

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tcsed t f wGi;f aqmif&u G Nf y;D pD;&ef" [laom tyd'k u f kd xnfo h iG ;f jcif;onf twlnaD om tajctae wGif rwlaom tcsdefumvwdkU&Sd&ef vdktyfonf[laom oabmudk em;vnfjcif;yif jzpfonf/ jyif;xefpGm jiif;ckef n§dEIdif;NyD;aemuf pmcsKyfvufrSwfa&;xdk;NyD;csdefwGif ESpfzufpmcsKyf0ifrsm;\ qufqHa&;onfvnf; NyKdifbuftoGifrS yl;aygif;aqmif&Gufol toGifodkY ajymif;vJvmavh &Sdyg onf/ pmcsKyu f kd taumiftxnfazmf&efrmS ESpzf ufpvH;k \ &nfreS ;f csujf zpfvmNy;D t"dygÜ ,fruGjJ ym; aom pum;&yfrsm;ESihf ywfoufí ao;i,faom oabmxm; uGv J rJG rI sm;aMumifh pdw½f yI af xG;vnf; rcHEikd Mf uyg/ ESpzf uftMum; ½d;k ajzmifrh jI zifh aqmif&u G jf cif;? tay;t,lrQwpGm aqmif&u G jf cif;jzifh ao;i,faom oabmxm;uGJjym;rIrsm;udk a&Smif&Sm;Edkifygrnf/ pwkwÄtcsurf mS Oya'ydik ;f t& Munfrh nfqykd gu t"dygÜ ,f r&Si;f vif;aom pum;&yfukd wrif toH;k jyKjcif;jzifh wpfqifch si;f ajymif;vJw;kd wufomG ;Edik Nf y;D jyóemudk ajz&Si;f &ef prf;oyfrrI sm; jyKjcif;udk jzpfyGm;apEdkif&ef jzpfygonf/ Oya'jyKvTwfawmfonf aq;udk pkwfwHBuD;BuD;jzifh aq;okwo f nfyh rm &nf&, G cf sujf zifh t"dygÜ ,fr&Si;f vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk wrifo;kH pGNJ y;D trI wpfcck si;f pDtvdu k f w&m;½H;k rsm;u pD&ifq;kH jzwfapNy;D oufqikd o f nfh tcsut f vufrsm;udk Oya'u NcKiH rkH jd cif; &S^d r&Sd od&&dS efjzpfonf/ þenf;onf aumif;vSonfr[kwyf g/ tb,fah Mumifq h akd omf tvm;wl t"dyÜg,f r&Sif;vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk t*Fvdyf½dk;&m Oya'wGifvnf; þenf;jzifh tajz&Smavh &Sdíjzpfygonf/ odaYk omf rlMurf;a&;&mwGif t"dygÜ ,f&iS ;f vif;rIr&So d nfh enf;vrf;udk toH;k jyKjcif;\ tm;enf; csurf sm;vnf; &Syd gonf/ xdt k m;enf;csurf sm;rSm tm;omcsurf sm;\ qefu Y sizf ufyif jzpfygonf/ yxrtm;enf;csurf mS t"dygÜ ,fr&Si;f vif;aom pum;&yfo;kH jcif;jzifh wdusaom pum;&yfo;kH jcif; xuf tjiif;yGm;zG,f ydkírsm;ygonf/ ESpfzufpvHk;rS vdkufavsmnDaxG&ef BuKd;yrf;NyD; ½dk;ajzmifhpGm aqmif&u G o f nfw h ikd f tcsKUd aom oabmxm; uGv J rJG rI sm;udk w&m;½H;k wGif ajz&Si;f ½Hrk w S pfyg; ajz&Si;f &ef enf;vrf;r&Syd g/ tvm;wlyif Oya'jyKtzGUJ onf Oya'rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif t"dygÜ ,fr&Si;f vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk xnfhoGif;jcif;jzifh jynfolvlxktrsm;pkrS jyif;xefpGm qefUusif&ef tvm;tvm &Syd gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh tvkyo f rm;a&;&mESihf ywfoufaom Oya'rsm;udk a&;qG&J mwGif t"dygÜ ,f r&Sif;vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;pGm yg0ifwwfaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/ oufqdkif&m Oya'wGif tBuKH;0ifjcif; &Sd^r&Sd[laom jyóemonf pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;rsm;tay: b@ma&;t& rsm;pGm oufa&mufrIrsm;udk &Sdapygonf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf w&m;½Hk;wGif w&m;pGJqdk&ef taMumif; rsm;pGmudk ay:apí jzpfygonf/ vGecf o hJ nfh tESp(f 40)twGi;f jynfe,fEiS hf jynfaxmifpk w&m;½H;k rsm;wGif tvkyo f rm;a&;&mESihf oufqikd af om trIaygif;rsm;pGmudk pDwef;vsu&f ydS gonf/ ,if;odYk jzpf&jcif;rSm tvkyo f rm;a&;&m Oya'wGif yg0ifaom tajccHt"dygÜ ,frsm;rSm &Si;f vif;jcif; r&Sí d jzpfygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

205

'kw, d taejzifh trItyfoo l nf pmcsKyaf &;qGv J akd om wpfo;D yk*v ¾ jzpfap (odUk ) jynfoUl udk,fpm; aqmif&Gufaeaom Oya'jyKoljzpfap Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJoltaejzifh trItyfol\ tusKd;udk umuG,f&efESifh jr§ifhwif&ef wm0ef&Sdygonf/ þwm0efESifhtwl 'GefwGJí xdkrlMurf;wGif yg0ifrnfh taMumif;t&mESifh t"dyÜg,fwdkYudk xdef;csKyfEdkifaom tpGrf;udkvnf; &&Sdapygonf/ þ&&Sdvmaom wm0efESifh tpGrf;wdkYudk ayghqpGm oabmrxm;oifhyg/ rlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh t"dyÜg,f&Sif;vif;rI r&Sdaom pum;&yfudk toHk;jyK&ef rnfrQyif tjyKoabmaqmifaom rSefuef cdkifvHkaom taMumif;jycsuf&Sdaeonfjzpfap xdkodkY toHk;jyKvdkufjcif;aMumifh rdrd&&Sdxm;aom rlMurf;yg taMumif;t&mrsm;ESifh t"dyÜg,fudk qHk;jzwfEdkifonfh wm0efESifh tmPmudk vufvTwf tqH;k ½I;H cH&zG,f &Syd gonf/ pmcsKyrf Ml urf;a&;qG&J mwGif þodjYk zpfygu pmcsKy0f ifrsm;u pmcsKypf rD rH u I kd ½dk;ajzmifhpGmjzifh qufvufí pOfqufrjywf aqG;aEG;n§dEIdif;&ef qE´&SdvQif tqifajyEdkifzG,f &Syd gonf/ odaYk omf xdo k rYkd aqmif&u G Ef ikd yf gu xdw k m0efEiS t hf pGr;f onf w&m;½H;k (odUk ) Mum;aejzefajz ol\ ykc;kH ay:odUk ajymif;vJa&muf&dS oGm;rnfjzpfNy;D rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf trItyfo\ l tusK;d udk rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;jzifh umuG,fjcif;r[kwfbJ w&m;cGifwGifumuG,f&jcif;odkY ajymif;vJoGm;Edkif ygonf/ tvm;wlyif Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf t"dyÜg,fr&Sif;vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk xnfo h iG ;f vdo k jl zpfygu Oya'wGiyf g0ifaom t"dygÜ ,f r&Si;f vif;onfh pum;&yfrsm;udk w&m;olBu;D rsm;u t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkonfhtcg Oya'yg &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk tjyKoabm jrifcsifrS jrifvdrfhrnf udkvnf; xnfhoGif;pOf;pm;&ef vdkayonf/ qefYusifbuf awG;rnfqdkygu xdkOya'udk a&;qGJcJhpOfu pdwfyg0ifpm;cJhaom tzGJUrsm; tMum;wGif oG,0f u Id af om aphpyfajyNird ;f jcif;rsm;ESihf em;vnfrjI zifh oabmwlcMhJ uonfh ,if;Oya' \ &nf&, G o f nft h "dygÜ ,frsm;udk tvGew f uf<uaom tpd;k &ydik ;f tkycf sKyrf I at*sipf u D xd;k xGi;f jrifEikd f pGrf; &SdcsifrS&Sdayvdrfhrnf/ rnfodkY jzpfaeapumrl xdktajctaersKd;wGif rlMurf;a&;olonf vnf;aumif;? trItyfolonfvnf;aumif; rnfolrQ ,if;wdkUzefwD;cJhaom pm&Gufpmwrf;udk xde;f csKyEf ikd pf rG ;f r&Sad wmhbJ 4if;wdUk \ zefw;D rIonf zefw;D cJph Ofu &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf rsm;pGmuGmjcm; aumif; uGmjcm;aeygvdrfhrnf/ t"dygÜ ,f r&Si;f vif;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk oH;k pGjJ cif;\ aumif;usK;d ? qd;k jypfrsm;udk pOf;pm; jcif;rS&&Sdonfh &vm'frSm t"dyÜg,fr&Sif;vif; rjywfom;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk odvsufESifh &nf&G,fcsuf&Sd&Sdjzifh oHk;pGJjcif;jzpfrSom oHk;pGJoifhonf[k awGU&Sd&ygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf t"dygÜ ,f&iS ;f vif;jcif;? jywfom;jcif; r&Sad om pum;&yfukd toH;k jyKjcif;\ aumif;usK;d ESiq hf ;kd jypfrsm;udk csdefqNyD; aumif;usKd;onf omvGefaerSom toHk;jyKoifhygonf/ aocsmpGm pOf;pm;rIrjyKjcif;? r&nf&, G b f J t"dygÜ ,f&iS ;f vif;rIr&Sad om pum;&yfrsm;udk a&G;cs,jf cif;onfrl ayghavsmjh cif;omjzpfNy;D ,if;twGuf taMumif;jycsuf r&SdEdkifay/

206

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; temporary valuable

207

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tusOf ; csKyf E S i f h cd k i f r mrI j yoEd k i f j cif ; (Abstract Vs. Concrete) tusO;f csKyEf iS hf cdik rf mrIjyoEdik jf cif; pum;&yfrsm;udk tusO;f csKyaf &;jcif;onf t&nftaoG; ESihf &vm'fEiS o hf ufqikd Nf y;D cdik rf mrI&adS om pum;&yfonf xdt k &nftaoG;ESihf &vm'fukd &&Sad paom taMumif;t&if;(odkU) t&nftaoG;ESifh &vm'ftjzpf jyoEdkifaom pum;&yfjzpfygonf/ "rmonf"[laom pum;&yfonf tawG;tac: oufoufjzpfNy;D "oHrPd"onf rmjcif;[laom pum;&yfESifh wGJvsuf cdkifrmrIudk vufawGUjyoaom pum;&yf jzpfygonf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf tusO;f csK;H ía&;aom pum;&yfrsm;udk owdEiS t hf oH;k jyK&ef vdyk gonf/ tb,fah Mumifq h akd omf vltrsm;pk zrf;qkyef m;vnfEikd &f ef cufcEJ ikd í f jzpfygonf/ pum;vH;k wpfcu k kd Mum;odonft h cg vlwUkd \ obm0onf ,if;pum;vH;k udk vufawGUxdawGUEdik af om ypön;f wpfck tjzpf yHkazmf&ef BuKd;pm;avh&Sdygonf/ "0g&Sifweftxdef;trSwfausmufwdkif"[k ajymvQif ,if;ausmufwikd u f kd pdwx f w J iG f yHak y:vmygonf/ "um;"[k qdv k Qif tvG,w f ul um;wpfrsK;d rsK;d \ yHkudk pdwfwGifyHkazmfEdkifygrnf/ odkYaomf vlyk*¾Kdvfudkvdkufí yHkazmfonfh pdwful;onfvnf; uGJjym; ygvdrfhrnf/ Oyrm"vufjzifhudkifpkyfí&aom t&mjzpfNyD; ajzmifhíydefoG,fNyD; rmaomt&mudk xk½u kd &f ef toH;k jyKEikd Nf y;D t&mESpcf u k ykd ;l rdap&ef &nf&, G í f xk½u kd jf cif;jzpfonf" [k ajymrnfqykd gu rnfonfh t&mjzpfonfudk pOf;pm;&ef acgif;½IyfoGm;ygvdrfhrnf/ tcsdef,lpOf;pm;NyD;vQif "abmif½u kd w f "l udk qdv k akd Mumif; pOf;pm;rdygvdrfhrnf/ 4if;tjyif "um;"[laom pum;vHk;udk Mum;ygu vlwikd ;f \pdww f iG f yHak zmfrnfyh &kH yd o f nf uGjJ ym;rI&adS omfvnf; tvm;o@mefwl yH&k yd rf sK;d jzpfygvdrfhrnf/ odkYaomf "El;nHh"qdkaom pum;vHk;udkMum;ygu vlwpfOD;u acgif;tHk;udk yHk&dyf azmfaumif; azmfygvdrfhrnf/ tjcm;olwpfOD;url udwfrkefYyHkudk azmfaumif;azmfygvdrfhrnf/ xdpk w d u f ;l yH&k yd f toD;oD;onfvnf; xdOk ya'wGiyf g0ifaom "El;nH"h qdak om pum;&yfu &nfñeT ;f vdkaom udpö&yfrsm;ESifh vHk;0qufpyfrIvnf; &Sdrnfr[kwfyg/ 'kwd,taejzifh xdktusOf;NcKH;aom pum;&yfonf NcKiH o kH nfo h abmrsm;jym;Ny;D vdt k yfonfxufyí kd yg0ifjcif;^odw Yk nf;r[kwf yg0if apvdo k nfwu Ykd kd NcKiH rHk rI &Sjd cif;wdv Yk nf; jzpfwwfygonf/ 4if;tjyif tusO;f csKyf toH;k tEIe;f rsm;onf t"dygÜ ,f&iS ;f vif;rIr&So d jzifh xdek nf;vrf;udk toH;k jyKjcif;ESihf qufpyfaom tm;enf;csurf sm;vnf; &Syd gvdrrhf nf/ odaYk omf pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcEk iS hf ywfoufí tusO;f csKyu f kd twnfjyK&efEiS hf ta&;ygaom tcsufrsm;udk csjy&mwGifrl tcsuftvufrsm;yg0ifaom tusOf;csKyfudk toHk;jyK&ef ta&;BuD; ayonf/

208

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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tawG ; tjrif u d k azmf j y&ef oif h a wmf a om pum;&yf u d k toH k ; jyKjcif ; (Choosing the Right Word to Reflect the Concept )

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

209

pum;&yfukd jrif;(od)k EGm;uJo h Ukd aom wd&pd mä efBu;D [k ,lqrnfjzpfNy;D rif[ufwefNrKUd vnfwiG f Bu;D jyif; vmoltzdkY "wd&dpämefBuD;" qdkonfudk vufb&m'dk &Dx&DAm acG;uJhodkYt&G,f txdkuftavsmuf BuD;aom acG;rsKd;[k ,lqygvdrfhrnf/ tawG;tjrifEiS hf pum;vH;k a&G;cs,rf I udu k n f aD Mumif; aocsmap&eftwGuf rlMurf;a&;ol onf t&if;tjrpfoHk;ckjzifh ppfaq;oifhygonf/ ,if;wdkYrSm twdkNcKH;xm;jcif;r&Sdaom t*Fvdyf tbd"gef? Oya'tbd"gefESifh pum;vHk;ESifh 0gusrsm;pmtkyfjzpfygonf/ 4if;tjyifpum;vHk;\ t"dyÜg,fESifh Oya't& t"dyÜg,fudkvnf; trsm;uvufcHxm;aom t"dyÜg,fudkvnf; od&Sd&ef vdyk grnf/ wpfBurd w f iG f w&m;vTwaf wmfcsKyo f nf "toH;k jyK"qdak om pum;&yfukd t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef vdktyfcJh&m rl;,pfaq;0g;rIwpfckwGif vufeufudktoHk;jyKjcif;qdkaom pum;&yfESifh ywfoufí vltrsm;u "toHk;jyK"qdkaom pum;&yfudk rnfodkYem;vnfMuonfudk od&SdEdkif&ef pum;vHk; okawoejyKcsufudk rSDjirf;cJhaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/

210

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214

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ESihf rsO;f NyKd ijf zpf&ygrnf/ tvm;wlyif tiSm;csxm;a&;pmcsKyyf g t"duudp&ö yfrsm;ukd cGjJ crf;&mwGif atmufygtpOftwdkif; jzpfEkdifygonf OypmudkiSm;&rf;jcif;rjyKrD- pmcsKyf0ifrsm;udk azmfjyjcif;? iSm;&rf;rnfh Oypmudk azmfjyjcif;? umv? iSm;&rf;cESifh tjcm;aom tajccHrsm;? Oypmudk iSm;&rf;pJumv - Oypmudk toH;k jyKjcif;ESiq hf ikd af om uefo Y wfcsurf sm;? tdr&f iS rf S Oypmudk xdef;odrf;jcif;? jyifqifjcif;? toHus,favmifrIudk &yfpJ? avsmhayghapjcif;paom taMumif;rsm;aMumifh iSm;&rf;ol aexdkifaeonfh umvtwGif; OypmodkY0ifa&mufjcif;/ &yfpjJ cif;? tqH;k owfjcif; - Oypm\tajctaepay:aiG jyefvnfay;qyfjcif;ESihf tjcm; iSm;&rf;rI NyD;pD;NyD;aemufaqmif&Guf&ef udpö&yfrsm;jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyu f kd jzpfpOfrsm;twdik ;f vdt k yfovdk cGjJ crf;Ny;D pD&ND y;D aemuf acgif;pOfrsm;udk Munfjh cif; tm;jzifh tpDtpOfudk od&SdEdkifrnfjzpfygonf/ pmcsKyfudk zwfolonf ta&mif;t0,fudpö&yfwGif yg0ifrnfo h rl sm;onf rsm;aomtm;jzifh omrefy*k Kd¾ vrf sm;jzpfrnfjzpf&m? Oya'rlrsm;jzifh pDrnft h pm; jzpfpOftwdkif; wef;pDjcif;jzifh trsm;em;vnfEdkifrnfjzpfygonf/ odkYjzpf&macgif;pOfydkif;wGifvnf; Oya'aMumif;t& jyefvnf½kyfodrf;jcif;qdkif&m tcGifhta&;[k acgif;pOfwyfrnfhtpm;pmcsKyfudk jyefvnf½yk o f rd ;f jcif;[k acgif;pOfwyfvQif aqmif&u G rf nfh vkyaf qmifcsuu f kd tom;ay;azmfjy&m a&mufapygrnf/ 2/

ta&;ygrI (Importance) trsKd ;tpm;tkypf w k pfpx k w J iG &f adS om pnf;rsO;f rsm;teuf rlMurf;a&;olonf ta&;Bu;D qH;k pnf;rsO;f udk OD;qH;k a&G;cs,af zmfjyygvdrrhf nf/ Oyrm - tvkyo f rm;cefx Y m;a&; pmcsKyjf zpfygu vpmonf tvGet f a&;Bu;D aom tcsufjzpfNyD;? 0efxrf;taejzifh cHpm;cGifhtjzpf&&Sdrnfh ukrÜPDum;\ trsdK;tpm;ESifhta&mifonf þrQavmuf ta&;BuD;rnfr[kwfyg/ tcsdKUaom qdk;&Gm;onfh rlMurf;a&;olrsm;onf wpfcgwpf&HwGif tvGefta&;BuD;NyD; ,if;\trItyfoltwGuf tusdK; jzpfaprnft h csuu f kd pmcsKy\ f aemufq;kH wGix f m;Ny;D ta&;rygaom udp&ö yfrsm;ESihf a&maESmazmfjy wwfygonf/ xdo Yk Ykd wpf0ufcefu Y sNy;D vSnzhf sm;vdak om oabmygaom ta&mif;t0,f pmcsKyrf sm; udk w&m;½Hk;rS ta&;,laqmif&Guf&ef jiif;y,favh&SdMuygonf/

jzpf y G m ;rI B ud r f E I H ; rsm;jcif ; (Frequency of Occurence) ta&mif;t0,fjyKvyk &f mwGif Burd zf efrsm;pGm BuKH awGUEdik af om jzpf&yfrsm;ESihf oufqikd af om pmydk'frsm;onf BuHKawGYcJhaom jzpf&yfrsm;ESifh oufqdkifaompmykd'fxuf ydkía&SUa&mufygrnf/ aqmufvyk af &;vkyif ef; ESiyhf wfoufaom pmcsKyjf zpfygu tyfxm;onfv h yk if ef;wGif jyifqifcsurf sm;

216

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

jyKvyk jf cif;onf rMumcPBuKH awGU&aom udprö sKd ;jzpfNy;D ordik ;f 0iftaxmuftxm;rsm;udk wl;azmf awG&Y &dS ef tvm;tvmonf rMumcPBuKH awGUEdik af om jzpf&yfr[kwyf g/ xdaYk Mumifh wef;pD&mwGif vnf; jzpfysufEdkifrI tajctaeay:rlwnfí wef;pD&ygrnf/ 4/

od a omtcsuf r sm;onf rod a omtcsuf r sm;a&S U wG i f &S d j cif ; (Familiar Before Unfamiliar)

tcsKd Uaom ta&mif;t0,frsm;onf odaomtcsuf odrYk [kwf jzpf&yfrsm;tay: rlwnfí wnfaqmufxm;jcif;jzpfNy;D pmcsKy0f ifrsm;\ tcGit hf a&;ESihf wm0efrsm;rSmvnf; or½d;k usjzpfygvdrhf rnf/ odaYk omf xdt k a&mif; t0,fpmcsKyw f pfqpfcsKd ;vsuf aqmif&u G zf ;l jcif;r&Sad om udp&ö yfrsm;udk vnf; csUJ xGiaf qmif&u G Ef idk zf , G &f ydS gonf/ odjYk zpf&m rlMurf;a&;oltaejzifh pmcsKy0f ifrsm; tqifajyrI &Sad p&ef vltrsm;odaom pmyd'k rf sm;ukd a&SUwGipf v D suf qef;opfwx D iG af om pmyd'k rf sm;udk aemufyikd ;f wGifxm;&ef a&G;cs,fygvdrfhrnf/ 5/

vd k u f e m&rnf h pnf ; rsOf ; rsm;aemuf w G i f r S cRif ; csuf r sm;ud k xm;&S d j cif ; (Rules Before Exceptions)

OD;pGmvdt k yfcsuf odrYk [kwf wm;jrpfcsuw f u Ykd kd a&;om;ygrnf/ xdaYk emufrS cRi;f csurf sm;udk azmfjyygrnf/ Oyrm - qdyu f rf;wpfc\ k pnf;rsO;f rsm;wGif ckwaf rmif;jcif;ESihf ausmufcsxm;jcif;r&Sad om oabFmwpfp;D taejzifh vdkufemaqmif&Guf&ef udpö&yfrsm;pGm&Sdygrnf/ xdkYaemufwGifrS ta&;ay: tajctaersm;twGuf owfrSwfxm;aom cRif;csufrsm;&Sdygrnf/ cRif;csufrsm;udk vdkufem&rnfh udpö&yfrsm; a&SUwGif xm;jcif;onf zwfolwdkYtwGuf ½IyfaxG;ygvdrfhrnf/ 6/

"rnf o nf"ud k a &S U ? "rnf u J h o d k Y" ud k aemuf w G i f x m;jcif ; / (What Before How )

pmcsKy^f pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcw k iG f pmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf rnfonfu h pd &ö yfukd aqmif&u G &f rnfukd OD;pGm a&;om;NyD;rS rnfodkYaqmif&Guf&rnfudk &Sif;vif;ygvdrfhrnf/ Oyrm - ta&mif;t0,f pmcsKyfwpfckwGif rnfonfhukefypönf;udka&mif;csonf? rnfolu rnfolYxHa&mif;csonf? wefzdk; rnfrQjzifh a&mif;csonfwkdYudk a&;om;NyD;rSomvQif rnfodkYydkYaqmifay;&rnfESifh rnfodkYaiGacs& rnfudk azmfjyygvdrfhrnf/

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tES p f o m&onf vk y f x H k ; vk y f e nf ; a&S U wG i f & S d j cif ; (Substance before Procedure)

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218

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tyd k i f ; (3) rl M urf ; a&;qG J j cif ; qk d i f & menf ; ynmrsm;(Drafting Techniques) tcef ; (12) t"d y Ü g ,f ' d G [ rsm;tm; a&S m if & S m ;jcif ; (Avoiding Ambiguities) Oxford American Writer's Thesaurus tbd"mefwi G f 'd[ G t"dygÜ ,fay:apekid o f nfh

pum;vH;k rsm; taMumif;&Si;f vif;jyo&mü omreftcsed af jymqkd a&;om;jcif;rsm;wGio f m oH;k onfh "bef;"pum;rQomjzpfNyD; "tjyeftvSefjiif;cHk^tjiif;yGm;Ekdif"? "oabmayguf&efcufaom"? "ra&&mí ouFmruif;jzpfapEki d af om" ponfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk OyrmjyNy;D &Si;f vif;oGm;ygonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfa,mufo;kH &rnfh pum;vH;k rsm;onf xH;k wrf;pOfvmt& pnf;urf;&Sd rSeu f efNy;D qDavsmaf om t"dygÜ ,faqmif&efomjzpfygonf/ þtcef;onf ,if;ESiyhf wfoufí &Si;f jyoGm;rnf jzpfygonf/ (u) t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf (Definition) '' Ambiguity " qkad om 'd[ G pum;vH;k rSm ESpcf x k ufrenf; odomxif&mS ;onfh t"dygÜ ,f aqmifNy;D wpfcx k ufrenf;aom oabmaygufEikd o f nfh pum;vH;k udk qdv k ykd gonf/ þodYk jzpfapaom pum;vH;k onf t"dygÜ ,fwpfcu k o kd m aqmifEidk Nf y;D wpfNyKd ief ufwiG f t"dygÜ ,fEpS cf pk vH;k raqmifEidk yf g/ 'd[ G t"dygÜ ,faqmifjcif;ESihf a00g;jcif;wkYd ESprf sKd ;udk tjyeftvSet f pm;xd;k toH;k jyKavh &SMd uaomfvnf; trSet f m;jzifh uGmjcm;Muygonf/ a00g;jcif;qko d nfrmS oH;k xm;onfh pum;vH;k \ t"dygÜ ,foufa&mufreI ,frmS rwdusjcif;udk qdv k jkd cif;omjzpfygonf/ "oifw h ifah om tcsed f"[k qk&d mü a00g;jcif;udk aqmifaeygonf/ tb,haf Mumifq h akd omf "oifw h ifah omtcsed "f udk t"dygÜ ,f aumuf,&l mü oifw h ifph mG wdak omtcsed f jzpfEikd o f vdk oifw h ifph mG Mumjrihcf sed v f nf; jzpfEikd yf gonf/ ESpfckpvHk;onf a00g;aeojzifh wdwdususod&SdEkdif&ef jzpf&yfazmfjyaeaom tajctaersm;udk xnho f iG ;f pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ þwGif 'd[ G t"dygÜ ,f,El idk o f nfrmS twdq k ;kH tcsed Ef iS hf tMumjrihq f ;Hk tcsed Ef pS cf Mk um;&Sd "oifw h if"h onfh tcsed w f pfcu k kd &nfñeT ;f Ny;D xdEk pS cf Mk um;twGi;f r&So d nfh tcsed rf sm; udk r&nfñeT ;f ay/ (c)

'G d [ ruif ; jcif ; rsm;\ aemuf q uf w G J & vm'f r sm; (The Consequences of Ambiguity)

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219

tEdik &f onfjzpfap? ½H;I edro hf nfjzpfap tqkyd g w&m;pGq J jdk cif;rsm;onf tNryJ if ukepf &dwf rsm;jym; vSonh/f 'G[ d ruif;jzpfjcif;rS ay:aygufvmaom w&m;pGq J rkd rI sm;\ aemufqufwJG tusKd ;qufrsm; onfvnf; wpfOD;twGuftNrJqdk;usKd;udk jzpfay:apygonf/ 'Gd[ruif;rI ay:aygufjcif;onf pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;\ Ny;D jynhpf rkH t I ay: qd;k &Gm;pGm xdcu kd ef pfemapNy;D Oya'jyKtmPmtzGUJ odrYk [kwf pmcsKy0f ifrsm;\ &nf&, G cf surf sm;udv k nf; txrajrmufapbJ y#dnmOfujkd zpfap? Oya'jyKtmPm tzGUJ rS jy|mef;onfh pnf;rsO;f udjk zpfap ysujf y,fapygonf/ odrYk [kwf w&m;½H;k onf pmcsKyrf Ml urf; a&;qGo J \ l qkv d &dk if;ESihf qefu Y siv f suf t"dygÜ ,fjyefqjkd cif;jzifh trIonftm; qk;d &Gm;pGm tusKd ;,kwf aponfomru? a&SUaetwGufvnf; w&m;pGJqdkcH&zG,f jzpfEdkifygonf/ tu,fí t"dyÜg,f'dG[ jzpfay:ap&ef &nf&G,fcsuf&Sd&Sdjzifh vSnhfjzm;zefwD;,ljcif;jzpfygu pmcsKyfrlMurf;a&;qGJolonf usifh0wfazmufzsufrItwGuf tjypf&Sdygvdrfhrnf/ t"dyÜg,f'Gd[rsm;onf rlMurf;a&;qGJ&jcif;\ tajccHEiS v hf u kd af vsmnDaxGr&Syd g/ a&SUaerS rlMurf;a&;&jcif;rSm jyóemrsm;udk a&Smif&mS ;Ny;D tukef tusrsm;NyD; w&m;pGJqdkrIrsm;udk a&Smif&Sm;&efjzpfonf/ t"dyÜg,f'Gd[jzpfaponfh pum;&yfyg0ifjcif;aMumifh jzpfay:vmEdkifaom w&m;pGJqdkrI OyrmESpf&yftm; pOf;pm;MunfhygpdkY/ y#dnmOfonf a&mif;&efukefpnfrsm;tm; bHkabqdyfurf;rS Peerless trnf&Sd oabFmjzifh o,faqmifa&muf&Sdvmjcif; twGufcsKyfqdkxm;jcif;jzpfonf/ pmcsKyf0ifESpfzufpvHk;\ pdwfxJwGif oabFmwpfpD;wnf;[kom rSwf,lxm;Muonf/ odkYaomf Peerless trnfjzifh oabFmESpp f ;D rSm rwlno D nft h csed w f iG f bHak bqdyu f rf;rS xGucf mG vmrnfukd rnfonfh pmcsKy0f ifrS rod&adS y/ xdaYk Mumifh Peerless qdo k nfh pum;&yfonf tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh udkufnDrIr&Sdonfh t"dyÜg,fESpfckjzpfaeygonf/ xdkaMumifht"dyÜg,f'dG[jzpfapygonf/ ukefpnf 0,f,lrnfholonf atmufwdkbmvwGifxGufcGmrnfh Peerless oabmF[krSwf,lNyD; ukefpnf a&mif;csolu 'DZifbmvwGif xGufcGmrnfh Peerless oabFmtaMumif;udkom od&Sdygonf/ pmcsKyf0ifrsm;rS tqdkyg azmfjycsuftm; rwluGJjym;pGm t"dyÜg,fzGJYqdkjcif;jzifh ay:aygufvmonfh t"dyÜg,f'Gd[jzpfjcif;onf tjyeftvSefrSm;,Gif;rI oabmw&m;t& y#dnmOf\&yfwnfrItm; ysufjym;apygonf/ ta&mif;t0,fwpf&yf\ tao;pdwftcsuf tvufrsm;tm; vHkavmufpGm avhvm pHpk rf;&efysuu f u G jf cif;ESihf c&D;ESirf nfah eY&uftm; twdtusazmfjyjcif;tm;jzifh Peerless oabFmqdkonfrSm rnfonfhoabFmjzpfonfudk twdtusazmfxkwf&ef ysufuGufjcif;aMumifh xdkodkUjzpfonf[k em;vnfay;Edkifygaomfvnf; þudpö&yfonf ,if;\tjypfyifjzpfonf/ odkYaomf ukefpnf0,f,lrnfholonf Peerless trnfjzifhoabFmESpfpif; &Sdonfudk od&Sd aeonf[k ,lqMuygpdkY/ ukefpnfa&mif;csolu 'DZifbmvwGif c&D;ESifrnfh Peerless oabFm wpfpif;om&So d nf[k xifjrifaejcif;udk ukepf nf0,f,o l u l od&adS eonfjzpfap? od&&dS ef taMumif; &So d nfjzpfap ,if;onf atmufwb kd mvwGif qdu k af &mufrnfh Peerless oabFmudk &nf&, G v f suf

220

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

rjynfhrpkHaom y#dnmOftm; ,if;\a&SUaeudk rlMurf;a&;qGJ apygonf/ xdka&SUaerSvnf; þ tcsufrsm;udk od&Sdaomfvnf; &Sif;vif;pGmrazmfjybJ y#dnmOfudka&;qGJcJhygonf/ þudpöwGif t"dyÜg,f'dG[jzpfay:aeaomfvnf; ukef0,folrS wpfzufowfrSm;,Gif;jcif; oabmw&m;t& 'DZifbmvrS a&muf&Sdrnfh Peerless oabFmjzifh o,faqmifvmrnfh ukefpnfrsm;twGufcsKyfqdk onfh y#dnmOfomvQif pnf;aESmifrI&Sdygrnf/ (*)

t"d y Ü g ,f ' d G [ jzpf j cif ; trsd K ;tpm;rsm; (Types of Ambiguities) pm&Gufpmwrf;wpf&yftm; xdcdkufysufpD;apEdkifonfh t"dyÜg,f'dG[ay:aygufjcif; trsdK; tpm; (3)rsdK;&Sdygonf/ 4if;wdkYrSm pum;tquftpyfqdkif&m 'dG[ruif;jzpfjcif; (contextual ambiguity)? a0g[m&qdi k &f m 'd[ G ruif;jzpfjcif; (semantic ambiguity)ESihf 0guszUJG pnf;yHq k idk &f m 'dG[ruif;jzpfjcif; (syntactic ambiguity) wdkYjzpfygonf/

(1)

pum;tquf t pyf q d k i f & m 'd G [ ruif ; jzpf j cif ; (Contextual Ambiguity) pum;tquftpyfqdkif&m 'Gd[ruif;jzpfjcif;onf ta&;BuD;í xdef;csKyfEdkifpGrf;&Sdaom pmykd'f wpfckESifh tjcm;xdef;csKyfEdkifpGrf;&Sdaom pmydk'fwdkYtMum; vdkufavsmnDaxGrIr&Sdonfhtcg ay:aygufvmygonf/ pmcsKyf odrYk [kwf Oya'twGi;f üyif vdu k af vsmnDaxGrrI &So d nft h cg 'G[ d ruif;rIukd jzpfay:apygonf/ atmufazmfjyyg tiSm;pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f yg&So d nfo h wfrw S cf suEf pS cf u k kd aocsmpGmavhvmrnfqdkvQif tmrcHpay:aiG / iSm;&rf;onfhumvukefqHk; odkYr[kwf &yfqJvdkufNyD;aemuf &ufaygif;(30) twGi;f ydik &f iS f onf tmrcHpay:aiGtm;jyefay;&ef/ þwGif tiSm;aMumifyh supf ;D jcif;rsm;&Scd yhJ gvQif ,if;twGufukefus p&dwftm; EIwf,lxm;&ef/ ay;&efusef&SdaeonfhtiSm;c / iSm;&rf;onfu h mv ukeq f ;kH oGm;onft h cgwGif ay;&efuse&f o dS nfh tiSm;twGuf ydkif&SifutmrcHpay:aiGtm;toHk;cs&ef/ 3/tmrcHpay:aiGpmydk'fudk oifhavsmfpGmteuft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkrnfqdkygu tdrf&Sifonf tdrfOypmysufpD;rItwGuf avsmfaMu;ay;&ef&Sdaom aiGrSty tmrcHpay:aiGtjynfht0udk tdrif mS ;tm; jyeftrf;&efjzpfygonf/ odUk aomf xdt k yd'k u f kd qefu Y siaf om^jiif;aompmyd'k rf mS ay;&ef useaf eonfh tdrt f iSm;cpmyd'k jf zpfygonf/ xdpk myd'k f t& tdr&f iS o f nf tdrif mS ;c&&efuseaf iG&ydS gu tmrcHpay:aiGxJrS ckESdrfcGifh&SdaMumif; azmfjyxm;ygonf/ tm;enf;aom^csKd U,Gi;f csu&f adS om teuft"dygÜ ,fjyefqrkd rI sm;onf rMumcPawGU&aom pmcsKyt f wGi;f wGif pum;tquftpyf'[ dG ruif;rIw\ Ykd t&if;tjrpfjzpfygonf/ tmrcHay:vpD wpfcw k iG f "taqmuftOD;" ESihf "pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;\ ud, k yf ikd yf pön;f " ESprf sK;d pvH;k wGif puf,EÅ&m;

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''Bimonthly" "Biannully," "Biennially""Bemomarthly" and "

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odkYr[kwf uREykf ñ f eT Mf um;onfrmS þaowrf;pmaqmif&u G o f o l nf $ 10000 tm; em;rMum;olrsm; udk ulnDaeonfh (u) ynma&;qdkif&m tzGJUtpnf;rsm; odkYr[kwf (c) aumfydka&;&Sif;rsm; odkY ay;&efjzpfNyD; a&G;cs,f --rnfonhft&mtjzpfonfESifh t&nftaoG;NydKifjcif;/ oD;oef0Y w¬Kwpfct k m; emrfjyKjyifcsu^f txl;jyKaom pum;vH;k rsm;jzifh tqufrjywfazmfjyvdu k yf gvQif 4if;0w¬K\ pkaygif;t&nftaoG; rsm;tm; azmfjyjcif;avm odrYk [kwf oD;jcm;t&nftaoG;ygwpfcpk t D m; azmfjyjcif;avm[lí roJruGJ xGuaf y:vmwwfygonf/ xk w f v k y f o l o nf teD ? tjzL ES i f h tjyma&mif O D ; xk y f r sm;wif o G i f ; &ef OD;xkyfwpfvHk;pDonf ta&mif (3)ckpvHk;yg&ef vdkygovm;/ (t&nftaoG;) odrYk [kwf wifoiG ;f olonf oD;jcm;teD? tjzL ESihf tjyma&mif OD;xkyrf sm; wifoiG ;f &efygvm; (rnfonfht&m) quf o G , f & m jyóem/ "tvkyfvkyfonfh acG;ydkif&Sifrsm;" [k qkd&mwGif tvkyfwpfckudk vkyEf idk o f nfh acG;udk ydik q f idk o f nhf vlrsm;udk qdv k jkd cif;jzpfygovm;/ xdo k q Ykd ykd gu "tvkyv f yk o f nf"h ESifh "acG;"pum;vHk;wkdYonf qufoG,faeygonf/ odkYaomfvnf; acG;ydkif&Sifonf tvkyfvkyfol wpfOD;jzpfonf[lívnf; t"dyÜg,faqmifEkdifygonf/ þodkYjzpfygu "tvkyfvkyfonfh" ESifh "ydkif&Sifrsm;" pum;vHk;rsm;onf qufoG,faeygonf/ wGJvJcdkonfh jyKjyifcsufrsm;/ t"dygÜ ,fymG ;apEkid o f nfh txl;ygaomjyKjyifcsuf aemufwpfrsKd ;rSm wGJvJcdkonfh trsdK;tpm;jzpfygonf/ ,if;wGJvJcdkonfh trsdK;tpm;onf pmaMumif;wpfck\ tpydik ;f wGif yg0ifwwfNy;D tu,fí pmzwfoo l nf pmyd'k yf xrydik ;f wGif zwfNy;D onfw h ikd f rnfonf udk&nfñTef;aeonfudk r,lqEkdifonfhtcg ay:vmygonf/ atmufygaowrf;pmwGif ygonfh owfrSwfcsufudk avhvmMunfhygu uREfkyfaoqHk;onfh tcsdefwGif uREfkyfom;\ tkyfxdef;olonf touf&Sif aeao;aomf v nf ; rvk y f E k d i f rud k i f E k d i f j zpf a ecJ h y gvQif ol \ quf v uf Munfh½I tkyfxdef;ctjzpf uREfkyf ydkifqkdifrItm;vHk;\ wpf0uftm; olYudk cG J a 0ay;&ef / tu,fí om;jzpfol aoqH;k oGm;Ny;D tkyx f ed ;f olonf touf&iS v f suf rvkyEf idk f rudik Ef ikd f jzpfaeygu olonf tarGqufcHEkdifygrvm;/ o'´gydkif;qkdif&mtaeESifh ueOD;tpydkif; pmydk'ft& tkyx f ed ;f olonf tarG&Ekid yf gonf/ odaYk omfvnf; þaowrf;pma&;oGm;ol\ OD;wnf&nfreS ;f csuf

246

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

rjzpfEidk yf g/ þodYk w&m;0ifta&;Bu;D onfh wGv J cJ jkd yKjyifcsuu f kd ueOD;tpydik ;f pmyd'k t f m; ta&;wBu;D azmfjyjcif;tm;jzifh jyifqifowfrSwfEkdifonfrSm uRef k y f a oqH k ; onf h tcsd e f w G i f uREf k y f \ om;onf touf & S i f a eao; aomf v nf ; rvk y f E k d i f rud k i f E d k i f j zpf a eygvQif ol \ tk y f x d e f ; ol t m; quf v uf M unh f ½ I a pmih f a &S m uf E k d i f & ef uREf k y f \ yd k i f q k d i f r I t m;vH k ; \ wpf 0 uf t m; cG J a 0ay;&ef / arS;rSdefonhf jyifqifcsufrsm;/ tu,fí pmzwfolonf ta&SU&Sd pum;vHk;tm; jyifqifcsuf^ txl;jyKcsuv f m; odrYk [kwf aemufrS ygvmaom pmvH;k ? pmyd'k rf sm;tm; jyKjyifjcif;vm; ra0cGEJ idk yf gu ,if;jyKjyifcsufonf arS;rSdefaeygonf/ tu,f í 0,f , l o l o nf uk e f y pö n f ; rsm; csd K U,G i f ; aeaMumif ; "&uf aygif ; (20)" twG i f ; od & S d y gu a&mif ; ol u tpm;ay;&ef 0,folod&Sd&ef &ufaygif; (20)om uefYowfxm;ygovm;/ odkYr[kwf a&mif;olu tpm;ay;&ef wm0efESifh qufpyfaeygovm;/ om"utm;jzif h E S i f h ur® u m&uBud , m? yk ' f p k ? 0gus/ þodkY enf;jzifh a&;om;jcif;onf qGJaqmifaom jyKjyifcsufrsm;jzpfapvmEkdifonf/ xkdYaMumifh þenf;jzifh a&;om;jcif;tm;vnf; a&Smif&efjzpfonf/ Oyrm owday;jcif;vdktyfcsuf jynhfpHk&ef jyefMum;a&;Xme\ 34 U.S.C 89667 atmuf & S d Oya't& owf r S w f c G i f h j yKxm;aom yd k Y a qmif a &;vk y f i ef ; ud k oH k ; &rnf / yxrOD;qH;k tBurd zf wf&mü "ydaYk qmifa&;vkyif ef;"rSm owday;jcif;\ oD;oefv Y t kd yfcsuf tm; jznhq f nf;ay;jcif;omjzpfonf[k ,lqEkid yf gonf/ odaYk omf þokYd qdv k jkd cif;r[kwaf Mumif;tm; aemufq;kH rSygvmaom "oH;k &rnf"u ñTejf yoGm;ygonf/ þodYk t"dygÜ ,f rvGrJ mS ;Ekid &f ef tyd'k if ,f tm;jyKjcif; jyoHk;oGm;jcif;tm;jzifh wenf;vkyfaqmifEkdifygonf/ owday;jcif; vdktyfcsufjynhfpHkEkdif&ef 34 U.S.C 89-667 t& EkdifiHjcm; a&;XmerS cG i h f j yKxm;aom yd k Y a qmif a &;0ef a qmif r I u d k oH k ; &rnf / (*) Bud,mESifh emr0daooeoabmESpfrsdK;aqmifjcif;(Participles) /Bud,myk'fpkESifh NyD;cJhaom Bud,mESifh emr0daooeoabmESpfrsdK;aqmifjcif;wkdYtm; aygif;jcif;tm;jzifhvnf; t"dyÜg,frsdK;pHk ay:vmwwfapygonf/ 2009ckESpf? Zefe0g&Dv (1)&ufaeY "wG i f" toif;odkY 0ifa&mufolwkdif; onf ta&G ; cs,f c H E k d i f y gonf /

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247

þodkYqkd&mwGif (1)&ufaeYwGif vma&mufolrsm;udkom qkdvdkygovm;/ odkYr[kwf ,if;aeYwGif toif;0ifjzpfvmolrsm;udk &nfñTef;ygoavm/ jyKjcif;jyBud,mESifh Bud,mESifh emr 0daoeoabmESprf sKd ; aqmifjcif;wdt Yk m;jzifh azmfjy&mü txl;jyKjcif;cH emrfonf roJuyJG guvnf; t"dygÜ ,fymG ;vmEkid yf gonf/ rnf o l r Q &J 0 wf p H k E S i f h tjcm;wpf O D ; tm; csOf ; uyf &if r qd k i f & ef / þonfrSm &J0wfpHk0wfxm;olrsm;udk tumtuG,fay;jcif;yifavm/ odkYr[kwf wpfOD; wpfa,mufonf &J0wfpHk0wfNyD; tjcm;vlrsm;tm; csOf;uyf&ifrqkdif&ef ygvm;/ (C) 0dbwfrsm;qufwdkufazmfjyjcif; (Chain Prepositions)/ 0dbwfrsm;tm; qufwu kd f azmfjyjcif;tm;jzifh ,if;wkdYonf rnfonfudk &nfñTef;aMumif; roJuGJjzpfapNyD; t"dyÜg,fyGm;rsm; vmekid yf gonf/ a*smf*sD,mjynfe,f "&S d"tcef; (9)yg aumfydka&;&Sif;\ &S,f,m ydkifqkdif ol w d k i f ; onf ------- cG i f h & S d o nf / þodq Yk &dk mwGif a*sm*f s, D mjynfe,fwiG f aexdik Nf y;D tcef; (9)yg aumfyakd &;&Si;f \ &S,, f m ydkifqkdifolwkdif;udk &nfñTef;ygoavm/ okdYr[kwf a*smf*sD,mwGif;&Sd aumfydka&;&Sif;wpfckckwGif &S,f,mydkifolwkdif;ukdk qkdvdkygoavm/ (i) raumif;aom jynhf0jcif;rsm; (Negative Pregnants)/ tu,fí 0guswpfckwGif t&mwpfct k m; jiif;qkx d m;aomfvnf; ,if;t&monf jiif;qdx k m;jcif;r&So d nft h rSe[ f k ,lqEkid f aom 0efccH sut f jzpf owfrw S Ef idk yf gvSsif ,if;0gustm; raumif;aom jynh0f jcif;rsm;yg 0gus[k owfrSwfonf/ þodkYaom 0gusrsm;wGif yg0ifywfoufEkdifrIrsm; ygonf&Sd? rygonf&Sd t"dyÜg,f uGJjym;Edkifjcif;rsm;&Sdav&m a&;qGJolwpfa,muftaeESifh a&SmifoGm;&ef jzpfygonf/ Oyrmwpfck taeESifh wkdvDrkdvD ypönf;i,frsKd;pHkta&mif;t0,f pmcsKyfwpfck\ pum;csD ; wG i f p mcsKyf y g0if ywf o uf o l r sm; 0ef c H c suf r S m a&mif ; ol o nf uGefysLwmokH; ypönf;i,frsdK;pkHta&mif;t0,fvkyfonfh ukefonf wpfOD; r[k w f a Mumif ; / aemufrMumrDrmS yif a&mif;olonfypön;f i,frsKd ;pkH ta&mif;t0,fvyk o f nfh ukeo f nf[w k f r[kwftjiif;yGm;jyóemrsm; ay:vmygawmhonf/ txufyg 0efcHcsufrSm,if;ukefonf onf wkdvDrdkvDypönf; a&mif;0,fonfh ukefonfjzpfaMumif; oG,f0dkufpGm 0efcHoGm;jcif;ygavm/

248 (p)

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rlMurf;a&;qGJoltrsm;pkonf? vkdufem& rnfhvkdtyfcsufrsm;ukd a&;qGJ&mwGif "tu,fí ---- jzpfygu----&rnfh" 0gusrsm;ukdokH;pGJavh &SdMuonf/ þ0gusrsdK; okH;pGJ&mwGif? ykHrSeftm;jzifh csKdU,Gif;csufr&Sdaomfvnf; tykd'f(9)wGifazmfjycJYonfhtwkdif; þ0gusrsdK;aMumifh odomaom tt"dyÜg,fuGm[rI jzpfapwufonf/ xkdt"dyÜg,fuGm[rIukd jznfhpGufonfhtaeESifh rsm;aom tm;jzifh tokH;jyKMuonfh "jzpfEkdifacs&Sdaom enf;vrf;ESpfrsdK;ukd okH;pGJvSsif t"dyÜg,fr&Sif;vif;rI jzpfaponf/ tvkyf&SifESifh tvkyform;wkdYcsKyfqkdaom pmcsKyfwGif þ"tu,fí ---- jzpfygu---&rnf"h [laom tyk'd yf g&So d nf[k ,lqMuygpk/Yd "tu,fí" 0efxrf;onf vpmrJah &SmifwcifciG u hf dk (10)&ufBudKwifí pmjzifha&;om;í cGifhwifNyD; xdk0efxrf;rSmvnf; rokH;pGJ&ao;aomcGifh&uf r&Sdawmhygu wm0efcHcGifhjyK&rnf/ þ "tu,fí---" pmyk'd t f & wm0efc\ H cGijhf yKcsurf &rSD OD;pGmjynfph &Hk rnfh tcsuo f ;Hk csuf &Sdygonf/ pmjzifh a&;om;awmif;yefjcif;? 10 &uf BuKdwifawmif;cHjcif;ESifh rokH;&ao;aom cGi&hf ufr&Sjd cif;wkEYd iS hf jynfph &Hk rnf/ þtcsurf sm;ESihf jynfph v Hk Qif cGirhf mS txajrmufonf/ ok&Yd mwGif (7)&ufomBudKwifí awmif;cHaomcGifhukd wm0efcHrScGifhjyKonf qkdMuygpkdY/ xkdtcg wm0efcHtm; bufvkdufonf[kqkdí pmcsLyfazmufzsufrIjzifh tvkyform;or®*¾rS w&m;pGJqkdrnfjzpfonf/ þ ae&mwGif ar;vmEkdifzG,f&Sdaom ar;cGef;rSm wm0efcHtaeESifh txufygtcsufrsm;ESifh jynfhpkHrS omvSsif cGifhjyK&rnfavm[lí jzpfonf/ pmcsLyf0ifwkdY\ rlv&nf&G,fcsufjzpfaomfvnf; ,kwdå rwefaomtcsufjzpfojzifh t"dyÜg,f r&Sif;vif;rIjzpfaponf/ "tu,f í ---- "pmykd'fonftjcm;wpfenf;jzifhvnf; a0yg;rQjzpfapEkdifonf/ pmcsLyf wpfapmifwGif tu,fíukefpnfukd 2014ck ZGefv (30)&ufaeYwGif tu,fí xkd&ufrxkdifrSD ykdYaqmifrIjyKygu0,f,lolrS aiGom;jzifh ay;acs&rnfjzpfonf/ þpmykd'frSm vG,frSmvG,ful&Sif;vif;aomfvnf; tu,fí ZGefv(30)&ufaeYa&mufrS 0,folonf aiGom;ay;acsNyD; ukefpnftm; csufcsif;ykdYaqmif;ay;&ef awmif;qkdonfqkdygpkdY/ a&mif;olonfuek pf nfudk xkad eYwiG f csucf si;f ay;ykaYd y;&ef 0wå&m;&Syd govm;/ ,kww då efaom tajz rSm "r&S d"[kjzpfayrnf/ okdYaomf pmcsLyf0ifwkdY\ ueOD; aqmif&Gufcsufrsm;? qufpyftaMumif; t&mtcsuftvuf? tajctaet&yf&yfrsm;ukd axmuf½Ií aiGay;acsNyD;jzpfojzifh ukefypönf; ykdYaqmifay;&rnf[laom wm0ef&Sdonf[k ,lqEkdifzG,f&Sdonf/ þae&mwGif rlMurf;a&;qGJol taeESifh twnfjyK&rnfhtcsufrSm ykdYaqmifay;&rnfhaeYpGJESifh aiGay;acsrIwkdY\ qufEG,frIyif jzpfonf/ xkdqufEG,frIukd qDavSsmfaom pum;vkH;tokH;tEIef;rsm; okH;pGJjcif;jzifh r&Sif;vif;rIukd a&Smif&Sm;Ekdifayrnf/

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249

tcsLyftm;jzifhqkdaomf "tu,fí----" 0gusonf tokH;0ifrI&Sdaomfvnf; t"dyÜg,f r&Si;f vif;rIudk jzpfapEkid jf cif;aMumifh rlMurf;a&;qGo J t l aeESihf owd&&dS efEiS hf a&Smif&mS ;&efjzpfygonf/ (q) "tb,h f a Mumif h"(Because) tyd k ' f r sm; " "tb,haf Mumih" f ygaom 0guswpfaMumif;wGif tyd'k o f nf ,if;\a&SUwGif uyfvsu&f dS pmaMumif;tm;jyKjyifygovm;? odrYk [kwf azmfjycsuw f pfcv k ;kH tm; jyKjyifygovm;? roJuo JG nft h cg wGif ,if;0gusonft"dyÜg,f uGJjym;rI jzpfapwwfonf/ ydkif&Sifonf tcsdefwdk;ay;&ef awmif;qdkcsuftm; jiif;qdkjcif; rjyKEkdifay/ "tb,h f a Mumif h " qk d a omf tvk y f o rm;rsm; tjiif ; yG m ;jyóemud k Bud K wif r S e f ; qEk d i f a omaMumif h j zpf o nf / þazmfjycsufrSm BudKwifrSef;qEkdifaom tvkyform;jyóemaMumifh tcsdefwdk;ay;&ef awmif;qdjk cif;tm; vufrcHEidk pf &m taMumif;jycsuu f kd azmfjyjcif;ygvm;/ odrYk [kwf BuKd wifreS ;f q Edkifonhf tvkyform;jyóemtay: tajccHNyD; jiif;qdkír&Ekdifaom wdk;ay;&ef awmif;qdkcsuf wpfrsdK;tm; &nfñTef;ygoavm/ (Z) "jyKygrS"(Unless) tyd k ' f r sm; "jyKygrS"onf qefYusifzufoabmudk jyqkdygonf/ tu,fí "jyKygrS" tydk'fi,f\ vdktyfcsufrsm; jynfhpHkygu &nfñTef;onfh taMumif;t&m\ qefYusifbufudk jyqkdygonf/ PEERLESS oabF m Ak ' ¨ [ l ; aeY w G i f qd k u f u yf "ygrS" ACME onf csnf x k y f r sm;ud k 0,f , l r nf / tu,fí "jyKygrS" tyd'k if ,fonf jynhpf o kH mG ;Nyq D ydk gu csnx f yk 0f ,f,rl nfh cH0efcsuu f kd qefYusif oGm;aponf/ qkdvdkonfrSm PEERLESS oabFmtrSefwu,f Ak'¨[l;aeYwGif qku d u f yfcv hJ Qif ACME taeESihf csnx f yk rf sm;0,f&ef wm0efr&Sad y/ tjyeftvSet f m;jzifh tu,fí "jyKygrS" tyd' k if ,f\ vkt d yfcsuf rjynhpf ckH yhJ gvQif ,if;&nfñeT ;f csurf sm;onf vkyaf qmifomG ;Ekid f ayonf/ xkaYd Mumifh tu,fíom Ak'[ ¨ ;l aeYwiG f oabFmrqdu k u f yfcyhJ gvQif csnx f yk rf sm; 0,f,&l ef jzpfvmygonf/ "jyKygrS" tydk'fwpfckonf qefYusifzuft"dyÜg,fukd azmfaqmifNyD; jzpfonfhaemuf tydk'fi,fwpfckESifh qufEG,faeonfhtcg tBuD;tus,f ½IyfaxG;rIBuD; ay:vmwwfygonf/ omreftm;jzifh qefu Y sib f ufujdk iif;qkv d sS if trSejf zpfomG ;wwfygonf/ "jyóemrSm a&ydu k w f wf rxm;jcif;r[kwyf g" [k qk&d mü omreftm;jzifh a&ydu k w f wfxm;onf[k t"dygÜ ,faygufygonf/ pmcsKyfrlMurf;rsm;wGifrl þodkY tNrJjzpfavh r&Sdyg/ Seller will not ship by rail unless the Teamsters are still on strike on December 10, 2009.

250

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

2009ck E S p f ? 'D Z if b mv (10)&uf a eY w G i f tvk y f o rm;rsm; qE´ j yqJ jzpf a eygrS a&mif ; ol o nf rD ; &xm;jzif h w if y d k Y j cif ; jyKrnf r [k w f y g/ tu,fí "jyKygrS" tyd'k if ,fonf jynfph NkH y;D tvkyo f rm;rsm;onfvnf; qE´jyqJ jzpfygu ta&SUtydk'fudk qefYusifbufjyKoGm;aponf/ omreftm;jzifh t"dyÜg,f,lygvQif " a&mif;olrSm rD;&wm;jzifh rykdYaqmifjcif; rSmt"dutaMumif;t&mr[kwfyg" qefYusifbufESpfcktcsif;csif; ajczsufojzifh a&mif;olvkyfaqmif&ef wm0efrSm rD;&xm;jzifh ydkY&ef jzpfygoavm/ odkYr[kwf tjcm;aom ydkYaqmifrIenf;vrf;rsm; oHk;Ekdifrnfvm;/ pmcsKyfwGif tjcm;ydkYaqmifcGifh&Sdonfh enfhvrf;rsm;ygcJhygvQif þodkY t"dyÜg,fuGJvGJrIrsm; xGufvmrnfr[kwfaomfvnf; aocsmpGm pOf;pm;Ny;D rlMurf;a&;olwpfO;D onf rnfonfeh nf;ESirhf Q þuJo h Ydk 'd[ G jyóemay:aygufvmEkid &f ef tpay;rnf r[kwfyg/ (ps) "omvQif"(Only) o'´g´ pnf;urf;t& "omvQif" onf ,if;ESifhuyfvQuf &Sdaom pum;vk;H odrYk [kwf pmwef;ukt d xl;jyKaponf/ ,if;\ wnfae&monf tvGet f a&;Bu;D ygonf/ atmufwiG f azmfjyonft h wkid ;f "omvQi"f ok;H pGjJ cif;? okrYd [kwf wnfae&majymif;vJru I dk vku d Nf y;D 0guswck\ t"dyÜm,fajymif;oGm;ykHtm; awGY&SdEkdifygonf/ tajccH0gus/ / "The buyer shall inspect the goods on the dock0,folonfukefypönf;rsm;ukd qdyfurf;wGif ppfaq;rnf/" (1) Only the buyers shall inspect the goods on the dock. 0,fol "omvQif" ukefypönf;rsm;ukd qdyfurf;wGif ppfaq;rnf/ (0,f,lolrStytjcm;ol ppfaq;cGifhr&Sd) (2) The buyer only shall inspect the goods on the docks.0,folonf ukefypönf; "omvQif" qdyfurf;wGif ppfaq;rnf/ ['Shall inspect 'ukd txl;jyKxm;aomaMumifh ukefppfaq;jcif;ukdom uefYowfxm;NyD;? ypönf;&,ljcif;uJhokdY tjcm; vkyfaqmifcsufrsm; jyKvyk fír&ay/] (3) The buyer shall only inspect the goods on the docks. 0,f,lolonf ukefypönf; omvQif qdyfurf;wGifppfaq;&Sdonf/ [Bud,maygif;-compound verb wGifonlyukd jcm;cHxnfhxm;jcif;jzihf 0,foltaejzifh qdyfurf;wGif vkyfaqmifEkdifrIukd" ppfaq;jcif; "wpfcw k nf;tjzpf uefo Y wfxm;onf/] (4) The buyers shall inspect only the goods on the docks. 0,foo l nf qdyu f rf;wGif &Sdukefypönf;rsm;ukdomvQifppfaq;onf/ [ppfaq;jcif;onf qdyfurf;&Sd ukefypönf;ukd omuefo Y wfonf/]

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (5)

251

The buyers shall inspect the goods only on the docks. 0,f o l o nf

ukeyf pön;f rsm;ukq d yd u f rf;üomppfaq;rnf/ [0,forl S ppfaq;jcif;jyKvyk rf nfh ae&mXmeukd qdyu f rf;wGio f mjzpf&ef uefo Y wfjcif;/ qdyu f rf;wGi&f adS om ukeyf pön;f rsm;uko d m ppfaq; &rnf[kvnf; t"dyÜg,faumuf,lEkdifonf/ (6) The buyers shall inspect the goods on the docks only.0,foo l nf ukeyf pön;f rsm;ukd qdyu f rf;wGio f mvSsipf pfaq;rnf/ [pmyk'd w f iG f "Only" wGif aemufqufwJG pmom;ryg&Sd ojzifh pmykd'fzGJYpnf;ykHt& rrSefuefaomfvnf; ppfaq;rnfhukefypönf;ukd qdyfurf;wGif &Sad om yrmPomvQijf zpfap&ef uefo Y wfonf[í l vnf;aumif;? pmyk'd (f 5)uJo h Ydk ae&m Xme "qdyfurf;" ukd uefYoufjcif;[lívnf; t"dyÜg,faumuf,lEkdifonf/] txufyg Oyrm rsm;ukd Munfjh cif;tm;jzifh pmcsLyfrMl urf;a&;qGo J w l pfa,mufonf ,if; "omvQiof nly" tm; ok;H jcif;rS a&Smif&mS ;Ny;D &Si;f vif;jywfom;pGm azmfqE dk idk rf nfh enf;vrf;ok;H vQif ykdíoifhavSsmfayrnf/ (n) Bud , myk ' f p k j zwf a wmuf j cif ; / omrmefBud,myk'fpk 0guswGif awGY&SdEkdifonfrSm All bank orders over $ 500 must be reported to the bank by the contrac tor within 10 days. $ 500 txuf & S d jyif q if t rS m pmrsm;tm;? uef x ½k d u f w monf (10)&uf

twG i f ; bPf o k d Y taMumif ; Mum;&ef / txufwiG f pum;vk;H <u,fpmG a&;om;jcif;uvGNJ y;D odompGm r&Si;f vif;? t"dymÜ ,fujJG cif; rsm; ryg0ifyg/ odkYaomfvnf; Bud,myk'fpkjzpfawmufjcif;tm;jzifh vkyfaqmifolonf"the contractor" aysmufqkH;oGm;Ekdifygonf/ jyif q if t rS m pm tm;vk H ; uk d (10)&uf t wG i f ; bPf t m; taMumif ; Mum;&ef / þwGif taMumif;Mum;pmyk&Yd ef wm0efrmS rnfow Yl iG f &Syd goenf; / uefx½ku d w f mygvm;? ykid &f iS yf gvm;/ (#) "onf h -Which" ES i h f ",if ; -That"/ onf ESifh ,if; pum;vkH;ESpfckrS wpfcktm; oifah vSsmaf tmif a&G;cs,jf cif;onf tvGet f a&;Bu;D ygonf/ pmvk;H ESpcf pk vk;H rSm odomxif&mS ;aom jcm;em;rI&Sdjcif;aMumifhomru? 0guswpfckvkH;\ zGJUpnf;ykH? wnfaqmufykH? o'´gpnf;rsOf;ESifh 0gus wpfckvkH;\ t"dyÜm,fwkdYudk oufa&mufrI &SdEkdifaomaMumifh jzpfonf/ owfrSwfcsufygonfh tyk'd if ,fEiS hf owfrw S cf surf ygonfh tyk'd if ,frsm;ukd pwiftok;H jyK&mwGif jzpfay:vmwwfonf/

252

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ajratmuf c ef ; eH & H w G i f yg&S d o nf h tjypf t m; jyKjyif & müa':vm 100 atmuf j zpf y gvS s if ck H & k H ; tzG J U ok d Y wif o G i f ; &ef rvk d a y/ þodkYqkdvSsif eH&HwGif&Sd tjypfrsm;tm; jyKjyif&ef 100 xufausmfvGefrnf r[kwfojzifh pmcsLyf0ifEpS Of ;D pvk;H u tjiif;ryGm;&ef oabmwljcif;ukjd yqkyd goavm/ þodq Yk ydk gu "jyKjyif&mwGif a':vm 100atmuf" [laom pum;pktm; yk'&f yfoauFw(aumfrm)cHNy;D azmfjy&rnf/ þokjYd yKjcif; tm;jzifh xkdpum;pkrSm eH&HtysuftpD;rsm;ESifh ywfoufaom tcsuftvufrsm;taMumif; jznfhpGufjcif;[líomjzpfonf/ þt"dymÜ ,faumuf,rl t I & ykid &f iS t f aeESihf aemifwiG af jratmufcef;eH&rH S tcsKd U tysuf tpD;rsm;ESihf ywfoufí ck½H ;Hk tzGUJ okYd wifoiG ;f &ef&v dS mygu? jyKjyifp&dwrf mS $ 100 xufyjdk cif;aMumifh wm;jrpfjcif;cHEidk zf , G &f o dS nf/ tjcm;wenf;aomf 0gus\ t"dymÜ ,frmS - ajratmufcef;eH&rH S tcsKd U tysuftpD;rsm; (vuff&SdtajctaewGif rowfrSwf&ao;aom)jyKjyif&ef? a':vmwpf&m atmufjzpfygu ckH½kH;tzGJUokdY rwifoGif;&efjzpfonf/ þokdY&nf&G,fygu rlMurf;a&; qGJolu ",if;"ae&mwGif "onfh" tpm;xkd;&ef jzpfonf/ þokdY jyKvkyfjcif;jzifh tjiif;yGm;Ekdifaom

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

253

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254

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256

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

þwGif tpOfvkduf yk'fjzwfrygjcif;tm;jzifh (10)aygifav;onfh uav;i,f wpfnvkH; atmfiakd eonf(h 10)aygifav;onfh uav;i,fonfaecGi&hf o dS nf[k oabmoufa&mufaeygonf/ xkdenf;wlpGmyif usef;rma&; ppfaq;olonf rD;tEÅ&m,frsm;? roefY&Sif;aom taqmuf tOD;ESifh tokH;taqmifrsm;ESifh <uufrsm;aMumifh pm;aomufqkdifwpfck tm; yd w f a pEk d i f y gonf / yk'fjzwf rygjcif;aMumifh roefY&Sif;onfh <uufrsm;[k t"dyÜm,faumuf,lEkdifonf/ tpOfvkdufyk'fjzwfrygjcif;aMumifh t"dyÜm,fr&Sif;jcif; r&Sdonfhwkdif ½IyfaxG;NyD; oabm aygufykH rSm;Ekdifygonf/ 0,f,lolonf &xm;jzifh 0ifa&mufvmaom ukefypönf;tm;vkH;ukd qkduf NyD ; aemuf (10)&uf t wG i f ; ppf a q;jcif ; ? ypö n f ; wG i f tjypf t emtqm (odkh) avQmhenf;aeonfrsm;ukd a&mif;oltm; csufcsif;taMumif;Mum;NyD; vQif bl w mrS o,f a qmif & ef tpD t pOf r sm; jyKvk y f & rnf / •þae&mÙ avQmhenf;rIrsm;aemufwGif yk'fjzwfryg&Sdojzifh t"dyÜm,f r&Sif;vif;rIrjzpf aomfvnf; 0,f,lolaqmif&Guf&ef wm0ef (3)ck&Sdonfukd wduspGm azmfjyjcif;r&Sday/ tpOfvu dk f yk'jf zwfrygojzifh 0guswpfcv k ;Hk roJujJG zpfroGm;? okrYd [kwf t"dymÜ ,fymG ;rvmcJh aomfvnf; a&;om;csuf worwfwnf; &Sad eap&ef yk'jf zwftm; tNrw J ef;xnfah y;&ef vko d nf/ aemufq;Hk yk'jf zwfxnfh ay;jcif;onf rnfaomtcgrQ rSm;onfr&Sad y/ okaYd omfvnf; csev f yS cf o hJ nfh twGuf ½IyfaxG;oGm;Ekdifp&mom &Sdygonf/ aemufqHk;yk'fjzwftm; csefvSyfrnfqHk;jzwfcJhygvQif a&;qGo J nfh wavQmufv;kH worwfwnf; &Sad p&ef aocsmpGm pDppfjcif;jzifh rdrv d &dk if; &nfreS ;f csuf onf &Sif;vif;jywfom;í Oya't&wdusrSefuefrnfjzpfonf/ Semi - Colons (;)

4if;udk tm;jyif;aomyk'fjzwf (tvGef&Snfvsm;aom pmaMumif;rsm;udk jzwfawmuf&ef odrYk [kwf twGi;f yk'jf zwfygNy;D pmaMumif;rsm;udk cGjJ cm;&ef) odrYk [kwf tm;aysmo h nfh yk'rf (woD;wjcm; tydk'fi,fwkdYudk qufoG,f&ef)tokH;jyKonf/ rnfodkYyifjzpfap rlMurf;pmcsKyfrsm;wGif (;)wkdYonf xkd Semi - Colons (;) tokH;jyKxm;aom tykd'fwykd'fcsif;pDtwGufoD;jcm; Oya'qkdif&m oufa&mufrrI sm; &Sad pygonf/ odaYk omfvnf; t"dygÜ ,fjyefqjdk cif; pnf;urf;onf pmcsKyyf g 0gusEiS hf rudkufnDonfhtcgwGif t"dyÜg,fr&Sif;vif;rIrsm; jzpfay:vmygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh Oya'wpfck onf tqihf (3) rD;½SL;rD;yef;rsm; a&mif;csjcif;ESifh toHk;jyKjcif;tm; ydwfyifxm;aomfvnf; wqufwnf;wGif jyXmef;xm;onf qkdygpdk h-

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þOya'yg rnf o nf h jyXmef ; csuf u rQ tqif h ( 3) rD ; ½S L ;rD ; yef ; rsm;tm; jynfolvHkNcHKa&;Xme\ cGifhjyKcsuf&? a'ocHaexkdifolrS vufum; a&mif; csrItm; ydwfyifxm;jcif; r&Sdyg; odkYr[kwf þjynfe,frS tjcm;jynfe,f odkY rnfonfh rD;½SL;rD;yef;rsdK;udkrqdk wdkuf½dkufwifydkYjcif;; rD;&xm;vrf; rsm;wGif tqihf(3) rD;½SL;rD;yef;rsm;oHk;jcif;; ab;tEÅ&m,f usa&mufae onf h oabF m rsm;rS tcsuf j yrD ; tjzpf oH k ; jcif ; ? vufvDa&mif;csol qrfydkif½dk qkdolonf $ 10 wefzdk;&Sd tqifh(3) rD;½SL;rD;yef;rsm;tm; bufwDayghyf qkdaom trsdK;orD;xHodkY a&mif;cs&m bufwDayghyf ucsufcsif;yif tjcm;jynfe,f wpfckwGif&Sd ol\tpfudkxH wifydkYvdkufonf/ þodkY qrfydkif½dkrSa&mif;csjcif;onf wm;jrpfcsuf\ jciG ;f csut f wGi;f wGif &Syd goavm/ tu,fí (;)wkjYd zifh jcm;xm;onfh pmaMumif;rsm;onf w&m;0ifrI &Sdygu >cif;csufwGif tBuHK;0ifygonf/ xkdYaMumifh yxrpmaMumif;onf vuúm;a&mif;csolESifh oufqidk af eygonf/ 'kw, d pmaMumif;onf bufwaD yghyf tygt0if tm;vH;k ESihf oufqidk af eonf/ wwd,pmaMumif;onf rD;&xm;vrf;rsm;ESifh oufqkdifNyD; pwkwåpmaMumif;onf tEÅ&m,f usa&mufaeonfh oabFmpD;olrsm;ESio hf ufqidk af eygonf/ tu,fí a&Smif&mS ;vdak omtEÅ&m,frmS jynfe,ftwGi;f &Sd þOya'ESihf tBuKH ;0ifonfh rD;½SL;rD;yef;rsm;tm; trSew f u,f vuf0,f&o dS rl sm; odkYr[kwf oHk;pGJ&ef tvm;tvmrnfholrsm;\ ydkifqkdifrIukd wm;jrpf&ef &nf&G,fjcif;jzpfygu qrfyikd ½f o kd nf onf>cif;csuw f iG f tBuKH ;r0ifyg/ jzpfoiho f nfrmS Oya'\ t"dygÜ ,fonf wdu k ½f u kd f wifyjYkd cif;? cRi;f csuo f nf vufum;a&mif;csorl sm;udk &nfñeT ;f aMumif; jy&efjzpfonf/ trSew f u,f þodkY &nf&G,fjcif;jzpfygu yxrpmaMumif;ESifh 'kwd,pmaMumif;Mum;wGif (;) xnhfoGif;&ef r[kwfay/ tpOfi,frsm; odkYr[kwf tydk'fi,fwkdYjzifh zGJUxm;onfh t&moHk;ckxufydkí ygaom tpOfrsm;udk azmfjy&mwGif (;)tm; ykwfjzwfae&mwGif oHk;jcif;jzifh trSwfpOfpm&if;\ xdyfqHk;odkY a&mufomG ;apEdik yf gonf/ Oyrm "&&SEd idk o f nfh ta&mifrsm;rSm teD? tjzL ESit hf jym? t0g? tpdr;f ESihf tndKESifh a&T? teDESifh c&rf;"/

258

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef ; (13) a&;qGJjcif;yHkpHESifh toHk;tEIef; (Drafting Style and Usage)

Oya'a&;qGjJ cif;\ qDavsmaf omyHpk o H nf Oya'qufpyfrrI sm;jzpfonfh &Si;f vif;rI? uspv f spf rI? ay:vGirf EI iS hf ½d;k pif;rIwu Ykd kd zGUJ pnf;wnfaxmif&ef ,if;\ vkyif ef;rsm;udk jy|mef;jcif;jzpfonf/ u/

wpf o rwf w nf ; jzpf j cif ; (Consistency) tDrmpJef (Emerson)u "rSm;,Gif;onfh wpforwfwnf;jzpfjcif;onf pdwfuav;\ raumif;qdk;0g; jzpfonf"[k qdkcJhonf/ odkYaomf Oya'a&;qGJ&mwGif ,if;uJhodkYaom &l;oGyfpGm rSm;,Gif;rSLonfh wpforwfwnf;jzpfjcif;r&Sdyg/ teuft"dyÜm,f&Sif;vif;jywfom;rI r&Sdjcif;onf wpforwfwnf; rjzpfjcif;\ tqdk;&Gm;qHk;yHkpH jzpfonf/ odkYaomf wpforwfwnf;rjzpfjcif;\ tjcm;yHkpHrsm;onf nHhaom yHkpH\ &vm'fjzpfonf/ tjyeftvSeftm;jzifh aumif;aomyHkpHwGif atmufygtcsufrsm;vdktyfonf/

wpf o rwf w nf ; jzpf a om ynm&yf a 0g[m& (Consistent Terminology) wlnaD omyk*Kd¾ v?f t&m0w¬Krsm;tzGUJ tpnf; odrYk [kwf t,ltqudk &nfñeT ;f &ef wlnaD om a0g[m& udk tNro J ;kH yg/ xl;jcm;aom yk*Kd¾ vrf sm;? t&m0w¬Krsm; tzGUJ tpnf;rsm;ESihf t,ltqrsm;udk &nfñTef;&ef xl;jcm;aom a0g[m&udk tNrJoHk;yg/ ,if;onf wlnDaomt&mudk ESpfBudrfroHk;&ef qdv k o kd nf/ tcef;aygif; rsm;pGmxJrS wpfcef;csi;f pDukd &nfñeT ;f &ef "premises" udk wpforwfwnf; oH;k Edik o f nf/ ,if;pum;vH;k udyk if enf;Oya'\ yxrydik ;f udk vdu k ef mNy;D 'kw, d ydik ;f udk csKd ;azmufum {&d,mudk &nfñTef;&ef "premises" udk oHk;Edkifygonf/ enf;Oya'\ 'kwd,ydkif;udk vdkufemí yxrydik ;f udk csKd ;azmufonfh "Leasehold" uJo h aYkd om tjcm;emrnfjzifh tcef;rsm;udk &nfñeT ;f &ef vnf; vH;k 0ok;H Ekid yf gonf/ xdaYk Mumifh enf;Oya'\ yHpk EH pS cf v k ;kH udk vdu k ef myg/ ,if;onf pmzwfo\ l ½IyfaxG;rIudk wm;qD;&ef vdktyfonfomru enf;Oya'udk csdK;azmufjcif;onf a&;qGJol\ &nf&, G cf suEf iS hf uGv J EJG ikd o f nfh w&m;pD&ifa&;qdik &f m teuft"dymÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;odYk OD;wnfEikd o f nf/ a&;qGo J u l "premises" ESihf "Leasehold" wdYk ESpcf v k ;kH udk tcef;wpfcck si;f pDuo kd m &nfñeT ;f &ef BuH&G,fcJhaomfvnf; w&m;½Hk;u qHk;jzwfonfrSm þ "premises" onf Oyrmtm;jzifh tcef; wpfckcsif;pDudk &Sif;vif;pGm &nfñTef;onf/ w&m;½Hk;u trsm;ESifhqdkifaom e,fy,ftoHk;jyKjcif; tygt0if ajriSm;pmcsKyft& cHpm;ydkifcGifhrsm;ESifh qufpyfonfh j'yf&Sdypönf;rsm;tm;vHk;udk xl;xl; jcm;jcm; &nfñeT ;f &ef vdt k yfonfh "Leasehold" udk uGjJ ym;aom a0g[m&[k qH;k jzwfEikd zf , G &f o dS nf/

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a&;qGJ&mwGif a0g[m&qkdif&m wpforwfwnf;jzpfjcif; þenf;Oya'onf t*Fvdyf pmpDpmuH;k twef;rsm;wGif wpfcgwpf&H oif,o l nfh "pm0ifciG u f sjzpfaom ajymif;vJjcif;" "elegant variation" [k qdak om enf;Oya'ESihf uGv J jJG cm;em;onf/ þpmpDpmuH;k enf;Oya'u wlnaD om pum;vHk;udk wlnDaompmydk'fwGif ESpfBudrfroHk;oifhaMumif; rSwf,lonf/ xdkYaMumifh pmwrf;&Sif wpfO;D u ",mOf"? "armfawmfum;" ESihf "Jane's Ford" wdu Yk kd "um;" tjzpf &nfñeT ;f &ef wdu k w f eG ;f cJh onf/ Oya' a&;qGJoltwGuf "um;" onf awmufavsmufusef&pfonf/ 2/

wpf o rwf w nf ; jzpf a om o'´ g zG J U pnf ; yH k (Consistent Grammatical Structure)

a&;qGJolonf tqifhqifhpum;pkrsm;yg0ifaom 0gusrsm;udk rMumcPa&;Muonf/ pum;pkwpfcck si;f onf wlno D nfh o'´gzGUJ pnf;yH&k &dS rnf/ atmufyg pnf;rsO;f udk avhvmoH;k oyfygÞ Producers of toxic chemicals have the following options: (1) require purchasers to assume responsibility for subsequent spills, (2) depositing money in a damages escrow fund, (3) termination of production , or (7) a conspicuous disclaimer of liability on every container.

þpum;pkrsm;onf o'´genf;us wlnDrI r&Sdyg/ xkwfvkyfol\ a&G;cs,frIrsm;onf Bud,mtaejzifh ]]vdktyfonf}} ? Bud,memrftaejzifh ]]tyfESHjcif;}} ? trnfcHtaejzifh ]]&yfpJjcif;}} emrftaejzifh ]]roufqdkifaMumif; &Sif;vif;csuf}} [k trsdK;rsdK;azmfjyxm;onf/ þt&monf tcsKd ;rajyonfh ½Iyaf xG;aom pnf;rsO;f jzpfonf/ pum;pk (4)ckukd wlnaD om o'´gyHpk jH zifh xnfo h iG ;f azmfjyvQif ,if;pnf;rsOf;udk atmufygtwdkif; a&;om;azmfjy&onf Þ Producers of toxic chemicals have the following options: (1) require purchasers to assume responsibility for subsequent spills, (2) deposit money in a damages escrow fund, (3) terminate production, or (4) post a conspicuous disclaimer of liability on every container.

jzpf&yfwpfcyk g tcsurf sm;tMum; wpforwfwnf;jzpf&ef vdt k yfcsurf mS ed'gef;pum;vH;k odkYr[kwf pum;pkonf jzpf&yfyg tcsufwpfckpD\ bmompum;ESifh o'´genf;us qufpyfjcif; jzpfonf/ atmufyg jy|mef;csufonf tqdkygudpö&yfESifh pyfvsOf;í jynfhpHkjcif;r&Sdyg Þ Buyer may accept the goods without inspection, authorize the shipper to hold the goods pending inspection, accept the goods and reserve a right of later inspection, or the provisions of section 6 dealing with acceptance will otherwise control.

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ed'gef;pum;vH;k ]]Edik o f nf}} (may)onf yxrpum;pko;kH cktwGuf oifah vsmo f nf/ odaYk omf "Buyer may ------- the provisions of section ------" rSm t"dyÜm,fr&SdbJ ajymqdkonf/ aemufq;kH pum;pkukd ygwln&D ef "or otherwise proceed under the provisions of section 6 dealing with acceptance" [k a&;om;azmfjyoifo h nf/ pum;pkaygif;pHyk g 0guswpfc\ k trsKd ;rsKd ;aom tpdwt f ydik ;f udk ed'gef;pum;pkt& wpfcck si;f a&wGufNyD; azmfjyxm;aomtcg a&;qGJolrsm;u 0guswpfaMumif;om jzpfonf[k arhavsmhavh &So d nf/ 0gus\ o'´genf;vrf;t& wpforwfwnf;jzpfaom zGUJ pnf;yHrk mS a&;qGo J u l ,if;zGUJ pnf;yHk wGif;okdY tjcm;0gusudk jr§Kyf&efBudK;yrf;aomtcg ysufpD;aponf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh The recipient of Title IX funds may _ a.

use the money to fund day care centers directly,

channel the money to day care centers through a tax-exempt charity. The charity's articles of incorporation must list this as a purpose of the charity.

fund college scholarships for students majoring is pre-school educational and child care programs, or

sponsor funded research into preschool education and child care programs.

pmvHk;rnf;0gusonf ydk&Snfaom0gusudk ododomom xufjcrf;ydkif;jzwfvkdufonf/ þcsdKU,Gif;csufudk "a tax-exempt charity whose articles of incorporation list this as a purpose" [k &nfñTef;jcif;tm;jzifh jyKjyifEdkifonf/ 3/

wpf o rwf w nf ; jzpf a om pmcsKyf p mwrf ; zG J U pnf ; yH k E S i f h vk y f e nf ; ud k i f e nf ; (Consistent Document Structure and Approach)

pmcsKypf mwrf;&Sd tcsut f vuftm;vH;k onf wpforwfwnf; odrYk [kwf wlnaD omyHpk jH zifh zGUJ pnf;aomtcg pmzwfow l pfO;D tzkYd jy|mef;Oya' odrYk [kwf y#dnmOfukd rnfuo hJ Ykd pDrcH efcY &JG rnfukd ydrk v kd , G u f pl mG em;vnf Edik o f nf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh tydik ;f A \ twGi;f tpOfonf ESpu f mvtvdu k f pOfxm;vQif aemuftykid ;f rsm;wGiv f nf; xkEd pS u f mvtvku d f pOfjcif;ukq d ufo;Hk Ny;D ? taMumif;t&m rsm;rS tjcm;tpOfukd ajymif;&efvkdtyfrSom ajymif;vJ&efjzpfonf/ Þ twGif;acgif;pOfrsm;ESifh udef;*Pef;rsm;vnf; tvm;wl wpforwfwnf;jzpfoifhonf/ tydkif; A onf Þ

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acgif;pOf 1/ acgif;pOf a. acgif;pOf (i) acgif;pOf twkdif;okH;xm;vQif ,if;pmcsKyf\ tydkif; B udk tvm;wl enf;vrf;twdkif; zGJUpnf;yg/ t"dutcsuo f nf jy|mef;csuw f pfcpk \ D usKd ;aMumif;qDavsmaf om zGUJ pnf;yHEk iS hf Oya'tusKd ; qufudk BudKwifarQmfrSef;wwf&efESifh ydkrdkvG,fulpGm em;vnf&ef pmzwfoludk vrf;zGifhay;aom pnf;csufwpfck wnfaxmif&ef jzpfonf/ rwlnDaom enf;vrf;rsm;jzifh wlnDaomt&mrsm; jyKvkyfjcif;onf tykd'fzGJUpnf;rI? pmom;tpDtpOfusrI pnf;pepfudk aESmifh,SufNyD; pmzwfol\ raocsmrIudk wdk;jr§ifhay;onfhjyif em;vnfrIvGJjcif;udk OD;wnfapEdkifonf/ uspf v spf j ynf h p H k j cif ; (Concision) teuft"dymÜ ,f &Si;f vif;jywfom;rI&jdS cif;ESihf wpforwfwnf;jzpfjcif;wdt Yk jyif uspv f spf jynfph rkH &I jdS cif;onf pmcsKyrf Ml urf;a&;qGo J \ l ta&;Bu;D qH;k aom aemuf&nf&, G cf suw f pfck jzpfonf/ uspfvspfjynfhpHkjcif;&Sdap&ef atmufygwdkYtm; z,fxkwfjcif;jzifh &&SdEdkifonf/

vdkonfxufydkí yg&Sdonfh taMumif;t&m (Unnecessary Content) tcef;(9)onf pmcsKypf mwrf;wpfc\ k t"duta&;ygaom taMumif;t&mESihf aqG;aEG;cJh onf/ ,if;onf tjyifyef;tm;jzifh vdktyfcsufudk ysufpD;aponf/ xkdt"dutaMumif;rsm;wGif? jyifytusdK;qufrsm;aMumifhyg&Sd&efvkdtyfonfhtcsufrsm;? vkyfief;aqmif&GufrI\ obm0t& rygrjzpfonfh tcsufrsm;? vkyfief;aqmif&GufrI\ xl;jcm;aom toGiftjyifukdvkdufí tvGerf S ta&;ygaom tcsurf sm;ESihf tjcm;a&G;cs,Ef idk af om tcsurf sm;tjzpf cGjJ cm;Ny;D xkt d csurf sm;rS ausmfvGefaom tcsufwkdYonf vHk;0 rvdktyfay/ ,if;wkdYudk xdrfcsefjcif;onf pmcsKyfpmwrf;udk ydkíuspfvspfjynfhpHkaponf/ vkyfaqmifolwpfOD; odkYr[kwf trsm; (ukd,fpm;vS,f odkYr[kwf pDrHzefwD;ol) qufpyfyg0ifaom oabmwlpmcsKyfwGif jyóemrMumcP ay:aygufjcif;onf jy|mef;csuf tcsdKUudkom trSeftm;jzifh oabmwlaomaMumifh jzpfonf/ ,if;udpö&yfjzpfvQif xdyk *k Kd¾ vu f oabmwlaom jy|mef;csurf sm;udk ñTejf yí xdyk *k Kd¾ vt f wGuf oD;jcm;vufrw S af &;xd;k pmrsufESmudk toHk;jyKyg/

262 2/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; jyef v S e f ñ T e f ; rsm;ES i f h tcef ; ^pmyd k ' f ñT e f ; rsm; (Cross-references and Section/Paragraph References )

jyefveS ñ f eT ;f jcif;u xyfwvJvJ jy|mef;csurf sm;udk avQmeh nf;atmifaqmif&u G Ef ikd o f nf/ pmrsufESmrsm;xuf aqmif;yg;rsm;? tcef;rsm;ESifh pmydk'frsm;udk jyefvSefñTef;jcif;u ydkíaumif; onf/ tb,faMumifq h adk omf pmrsuEf mS rsm;rSm ajymif;vJEikd af omaMumifh jzpfonf/ aumif;rGeaf om a,bk,senf;wpfckonf w&m;0ifoabmwlnDcsuf\ oD;jcm;jy|mef;csufrsm;udk &nfñTef;&ef ]]tcef;}} (Section)[laompum;vH;k ESihf om;rmefa&;aom pm odrYk [kwf pmjzifh oabmwlncD su\ f oD;jcm;jy|mef;csurf sm;udk &nfñeT ;f &ef "pmyd'k "f (Paragraph) [laom pum;vH;k udo k ;kH &ef jzpfonf/ t"duaomhcsuo f nf wdusap&efEiS hf wpforwfwnf;jzpfap&ef jzpfonf/ a&;qGjJ cif;vkyif ef;pOf onf Ny;D qH;k cgeD;wGif jyefveS ñ f eT ;f rsm; rSeu f efr&I adS p&efaocsmpGm pdppfjcif;udk owdjyKyg/ tcsKd Uaom a&;qGo J rl sm;onf aemufq;kH rlMurf;txd tcef; odrYk [kwf pmyd'k t f ñTe;f udk uGuv f yfjzifch sex f m;&ef qE´&o dS nf/ Oyrm-"tcef; Þ" (Section_,) jyefveS ñ f eT ;f rsm;udk pDraH qmif&u G &f ef 4if;wdu Yk , kd w f ikd f rjzpfrae vkyfMuonf/ 3/

tyf a Mumif ; xyf a omtaMumif ; t&m (Repetitious Substance) taMumif;t&m xyfjcif;udk a&SmifMuOfyg/ ajym&efvt kd yfonfukd ajymí ,if;udk wpfBurd f omajymyg/ þajriSm;pmcsKyf jy|mef;csufudk avhvmoHk;oyfyg/ Landlord's acceptance of rent payments in arrears does not otherwise affect any right Landlord has under this lease. An acceptance of late rent payments does not constitute a waiver of Landlord's right to insist upon timely rent payment in the future. Landlord's failure to call an immediate lease forfeiture when rent is late does not preclude Landlord from calling such for feiture at any time before payment is tendered.

,if;jy|mef;csufwGif wlnDaomt&mudk oHk;Budrfajymonf/ ,if;udk atmufygtwdkif; wpfBudrf wnf;jzifh azmfjyEdkifonf/ The non-enforcement of any provision of this contract does not constitute a waiver of the right to enforce the provision in the future.

xdeYk nf;wl ykaH o? worwfwnf; pHjzifah &;qGx J m;aompmtkyrf sm;rSmvnf;rvdt k yf aom a0g[m&rsm;? jynfhpHkvGef;aom pum;vHk;rsm;ukd? rvkdtyfaom tykd'frsm;? Oyrmjzifh jznfhpGuf xm;wufMuonfukd atmufazmfjyygOyrmjzifh awGY&SdEkdifygonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

263

During liquidation, the court-appointed trustee shall distribute all [a word of total inclusiveness] of the Petitioner's assets, of any kind or character, tangible or intangible [paraphrasing "all"], whether in the form of cash, real estate, moveable property, inventory, equipment, accounts receivable, securities, goodwill, or anything else of value [examples], in strict compliance with the terms of subparagraph 89 (b) (16).

pum;pyftrsm;pkwGif ]]ydkifqdkifonfhypönf;}} (assets)[lí omref&nfñTef;jcif;onf ,if;wdkY\ ]]tm;vHk;}} (any and all)? ]]trsdK;tpm;}} (kind and character)wdkYudk xnfhoGif; rpOf;pm;bJtm;vk;H tusKH ;0ifapEkid o f nf/ ]]j'yf&}dS } ESihf ]]j'yfr}hJ } ESpcf v k ;kH yg yg0ifonf/ Oyrmrsm;u xdkt&mwGif bmrQjznfhpGufjcif; r&Sd/ tcsdKUudpö&yfrsm;wGif þOyrmrsm;onf uefYowfxm;aom pum;vH;k rsm;tjzpf teuft"dymÜ ,faumuf,w l wfMuygonf/4if;udk teufaxGjym;jcif; odrYk [kwf ra&&mjcif; tEÅ&m,fwpfpHkwpf&mr&SdbJ atmufygtwdkif; azmfjyEdkifonf/ During liquidation, the court-appointed trustee shall distribute Petitioner's assets in strict compliance with the terms of subparagraph 89 (b) (16).

þt&monf jynfhpHkonfjzpfap ydkrdk&Snfvsm;aom yHkpHrSm vdktyfonf jzpfjcif;rjzpfjcif; Oya'jyóemwpf&yfrmS a&;qGo J t l aeESihf tok;H jyKonfah &;om;ykaH &;om;enf;rsm;udk rdeMYf um;jcif; rjyKrD ajz&Sif;&rnf/ 4/

yd k v sH a ompum;vk H ; ES p f c k w G J r sm;? oH k ; ck w G J r sm;ES i f h tjcm;uG i f ; quf oH w l aMumif ; uG J r sm; (Redundant Couplets, Triplets, and Other Chain Synonyms )

Oya'qdkif&mpum;vkH; ESpfvHk;wGJrsm;ESifh oHk;vHk;wGJrsm;udk a&SmifMuOfyg/ þt&mrsm;onf xif&Sm;aom tyfaMumif;xyfonfh pum;vHk;uGif;qufrsm;jzpfonf/ ,if;wkdYonf acwftquf quf qif;vmcJhNyD; zefwpf&mawaeonfh Oya'qdkif&m a<u;aMumfoH\ tpdwftydkif;jzpfonf/ Oyrmtaejzifh ]]ysujf y,faom}} (null and void) ]]ajyNird ;f jcif;}} (settlement and compromise) ]]usr;f used o f nf}h } (swear and affirm) "&ydik cf iG "hf (right; title and interest) wdyYk g0ifNy;D tjcm;udk atmufwiG pf m&if;jyKpx k m;onf/ ar;cGe;f Þ þa0g[m&rsm; wpfcpk o D nf uReaf wmf trSew f u,f vdktyfygovm;? tenf;i,fvdkovm;? þa0g[m&rsm;udk pm&if;jyKpkjcif;onf expressio unis et exclusio alterius ? t,l0g'\ tm;enf;csuf&Sdaom jy|mef;csufudk csefxm;ovm;? (ydkrdk aqG;aEG;csuu f dk tcef; 4 wGif ½Iyg/) ,if;onf oifa&;qGaJ om pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;wGif ra&&mjcif; wpf&yf&yfudk rSefuefap&ef ulnDEkdifrnfh oifhavsmfaom t"dyÜm,fzGifhqkdjcif;qdkif&m t,l0g'

264

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

odrYk [kwf rQwaom qd½k ;kd udk taxmuftuljyKvrd rhf nf[, k q l zG,&f o dS nf/ jyóemrSm t"dymÜ ,f aumuf,jl cif;wpfcu k kd axmufco H nfh t,l0g' odrYk [kwf qd½k ;kd wpfc&k w dS idk ;f ? ,if;udk ta&;edrahf p onfh tjcm;wpfc&k o dS nf/ þtajccHoabmw&m;rsm;onf w&m;½H;k u qH;k jzwfcNhJ y;D onfh tusKd ; &vm'fukd &&S&d ef t"duyHpk u H saom taxmuftulrsm;jzpfonf/ ,if;onf w&m;½H;k qH;k jzwfcsuu f kd d ok;H jyKjcif; onf OD;wnfonfh taMumif;jycsurf Qom jzpfonf/tu,fí "expressio unis" ukt jyóemwpf&yfjzpfvQif vk&d if;t"dymÜ ,ftm;vH;k yg0ifonfh ydí k a,bk,susaom tjcm;a0g[m&udk oHk;&ef pOf;pm;yg/ xdkYjyif expressio unis jyóemudk ajz&Sif;&ef pmaMumif;\ tqHk;wGif ]]ponfjzifh}} (etc.) odr Yk [kwf ]]ESit hf wl}} (and the like) uJo h aYkd om a,bk,s &nfñeT ;f csuu f kd xnfo h iG ;f vSsif ejusdem generis t,l0g'\ (]]tvm;wltrsdK;tpm;}})ukd jzpfapEkdifonfh tEÅ&m,f&Sdonf/ wpfcsdefu t*FvdyfOya'ordkif;wGif aemfref jyifopf? tv,fydkif;t*FvdyfESifh vufwif wdt Yk m;vH;k onf Oya'\ t"du odrYk [kwf tmPm&Sad om bmompum;jzpfvm&ef ,SONf yKd iMf uonf/ wlnDaom Oya't,ltqwpfcktm; uGJjym;aom bmompum; (3)rsdK;jzifh azmfjycJhMuonf/ owd&adS om a&SUaersm;onf 4if;wdq Yk E´&adS om Oya'qdik &f m tusKd ;&vm'frsm;udk aocsmrSK&adS p&ef bmompum; (3)rsKd ;vH;k rS pum;vH;k rsm;udk toH;k jyKcMhJ uonf/ ,aeY uReaf wmfwYkd odxm;onft h wdik ;f t*Fvyd pf mxJwiG f pum;vH;k rsm; tqifq h ifah jymif;vJjzpfay:aomfvnf; a&SUaersmrSm þuGi;f quf rsm;udk qufvuftoHk;jyKvSsuf&SdMuonf/ 4if;wdkY rormrlawmif;qdkjcif;rS umuG,fay;onfh taqmifvufzu YJG o YJ Ykd oabmxm;Muonf/ pdw0f ifpm;zG,&f mtcsurf mS a&S;OD; pmcsKypf mwef;a&;pGJ cJYol "Scriveners"rsm;ukd pmvkH;a&vkdufí a&;om;cay;jcif;jzpfonf/ trsm;qH;k awGUaeus ESpv f ;kH wGEJ iS hf oH;k vH;k wGpJ um;pkrsm;rSm vH;k 0rvdt k yfyg/ a&;qGo J o l nf pum;pk\ t½dk;pif;qHk;pum;vHk;udk a&G;cs,foifhNyD; tjcm;pum;vHk;rsm;udk jzKwfxm;oifhonf/ þtpOftvm pum;pkrsm;\ wpfydkif;wpfppm&if;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfonf Þ acknowledge and confess

act and deed

ajzmifhqdk0efcHonf

jyKrlaqmif&Gufcsuf

adjust, compromise, and settle

advice, opinion, and direction

n§dEIdif;ajz&Sif;onf

tBuHÓPf

agree and covenant

aid and abet

oabmwlonf

tultnD

all and every

all and singular

t&mtm;vH;k

tm;vH;k

alter and change

annul and set aside

ajymif;vJonf

y,fzsufonf

265

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; any and all

assign, transfer, and set over

tm;vH;k

vTJajymif;onf

assumes and agrees

attorney and counselor at law

vufcHonf

Oya'tusdK;aqmif

authorize, direct, and empower

bear, sustain, or suffer

vkyfydkifcGifhvTJtyfonf

cHpm;&onf

bind and obligate

build, erect or construct

vdkufem&ef wm0ef&Sdonf

wnfaqmufonf

business, enterprise, or unclertaking

by and with

vkyfief;

jzifh

cancel, annul, and set aside

cancel and terminate

y,fzsufonf

tqHk;owfonf

cease and desist

cease and come to an end

&yfpJonf

cease and terminate

chargeable or accountable

tqHk;owfonf

wm0efcHaom

changes, variations, and modifications

confessed and acknowledged

ajymif;vJjcif;

ajzmifhqdk0efcHcJhonf

conjecture and surmise

consolidation, amalgamation, or merger

rSef;qonf

aygif;pnf;jcif;

contract, agreement, covenant, and

convey, transfer, and set

understanding

over

oabmwlnDcsuf

vTJajymif;onf

costs, charges, and expenses

covenant and agree

ukefusp&dwfrsm;

oabmwlnDonf

cover, embrace, and include

deem and consider

tusHK;0ifonf

rSwf,lonf

do, execute, and perform

documents, instruments, and writings

aqmif&Gufonf

pmcsKypf mwrf;

due and owing

due and payable

a<u;wifaom

ay;&ef&Sdaom

266

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

each and all

each and every

t&mwpfckpD

wpfckpDwdkif;

engage, hire, and employ

entirely and completely

iSm;onf

vHk;0

evidencing or relating to

excess and unnecessary

ywfoufjcif;

rvdkaom^ydkaom

fair and equitable

fair and reasonable

w&m;rQwaom

oifhavsmfaom

false and fraudulent

final and conclusive

rrSefaom

aemufqHk;jzpfaom

finish and complete

fit and proper

tNyD;owfonf

oifhawmfaom

fit and suitable

for and during

qDavsmfaom

tawmtwGif;

for and in consideration of

for and on behalf of

taejzifh

ud, k pf m;

force and effect

fraud and deceit

tmPmoufa&mufrI

vdrfvnfrI

free and clear

free and unfettered

&Sif;aom

vGwfvyfaom

free and without consideration

from and after

tcrJh

aemufNyD;rS

full and complete

full force and effect

NyD;jynfhpHkaom

tjynfht0tmPmoufa&mufrI

furnish and supply

give and grant

axmufyHhonf

ay;onf

give, devise, and bequeath

goods, chattels, and effects

ay;onf

ypรถnf;

good and sufficient

have, hold, and possess

aumif;rGefjynfhpHkaom

vuf0,f&Sdonf

heed and care

hold and keep

267

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; *½kjyKonf

xdef;odrf;onf

if and when

in and for

aomtcg

wGif^ taejzifh

in and to

in my stead and place

ü^ rSm^ wGif^ 0,f

rdrdae&m

in truth and in fact

indebtedness and liabilities

trSeftm;jzihf

wm0ef&Sdjcif;

initiate, institute, or commence

just and reasonable

pwifonf

rQwaom

keep and maintain

kind and character

xdef;odrf;onf

trsdK;tpm;

kind and nature

known and described as

trsdK;tpm;

azmfjyxm;aom

lands, tenements, and hereditaments

last will and testament

e,fajrrsm;

aemufqHk;? taxmuftxm;

legal, vaild, and binding

let or hindrance

w&m;0ifaom

t[efYtwm;

levies and assessments

lien, charge, or encum-brance

pnf;Muyfjcif;

tzdk;tc

loans or advances

loss and damage

acs;aiG

epfemqHk;½IH;rI

lot, tract, or parcel

made and entered into

tpk? tyHk

csKyfqdkonf

made and provided

made, ordained, constituted, and appointed

jy|mef;cJhonf

cefYxm;cJhonf

make, declare, and publish

maintenance and up keep

xkwfjyefaMujimonf

xdef;odrf;p&dwf

meet and just

mend, maintain, and repair

jznfhqnf;ay;onf

jyifqifonf

268

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

mentioned or referred to

mind and memory

azmfjyonf

rSwfÓPf

modified and changed

nature or description

ajymif;vJonf

trsdK;tpm;

nominate, constitute, and appoint

null, void, and of noforce and effect

cefx Y m;onf

ysufjy,faom

obligation and liability

obey, observe, and comply with

wm0ef

vdkufemonf

observe, perform, and carry out

of and concerning

aqmif&Gufonf

ESifhywfoufí

ordain and establish

order and direct

tcdkiftrmoufaoxlonf

ñTefMum;onf

order, adjudged, and decreed

over, above, and in addition to

pD&ifqHk;jzwfonf

tjyif

pardon and forgive

part and parcel

cGifhvTwfonf

wpfpdwfwpfydkif;

pay, satisfy, and discharge

peace and quiet

ay;onf

Nidrfoufaom

perform and discharge

performance or observance

aqmif&Gufonf

aqmif&GufrI

place, install, or affix

possession, custody, and control

xm;onf

xdef;odrf;jcif;

power and authority

release and discharge

vkyfydkifcGifh

,m,DvTwfonf

relieve and discharge

remise, release, and quit-claim

wm0ef,laqmif&Gufonf

vGwfonf

respresents, warrants, and covenants

representations, understandings, and agreements

oabmwlnDcsuf

269

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; rest, resident, and remainder

revoked and annulled

usefonfhtydkif;

y,fzsufonf

right, title, and interest

rights and remedies

&ydkifcGifh

tcGifhta&;

rules, requirements and regulations

save and except

pnf;rsOf;rsm;

csefvSyfonf

seized and possessed

sell, transfer, alienate, and dispose of

odrf;qnf;cJhonf

a&mif;onf

shun and avoid

signed, published, and declared

a&Smifz,fonf

vufrSwfa&;xdk;xkwfjyefonf

situate, lying, and being in

sole and exclusive

wnf&Sdonf

wpfckwnf;aom

stipulate and agree

suffer or permit

oabmwlonf

cGifhjyKonf

suit, claim, or demand

supersede and displace

awmif;qdkonf

tpm;xdk;onf

terms or covenant

terminate, cancel, or revoke

pnf;urf;csuf

y,fzsufonf

then and in that event

true and correct

odkYjzpfvQif

rSefuefaom

truth and veracity

type and kind

trSefw&m;

trsdK;tpm;

understood and agreed

unless and until

em;vnfoabmaygufcJhonf

rjzpfcJhvQif

vacate, surrender, and deliver possession void and of no effect

vufvTwfonf

tusdK;oufa&mufrIr&Sdjcif;

void and of no force

void and of no value

tiftm;r&Sdjcif;

wefzdk;r&Sdjcif; tcsdeftwGif;

within and under the terms of

270

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

teufwl a0g[m&rsm;pm&if;udk ppfaq;Ny;D ,if;wdu Yk kd tpOfvu kd f tqift h wef; owfrw S f yg/ ,if;wdkYtm;vHk; tqifhwlMuygovm;/ rwlvQif expressio unis ESifh ejusdem generis jyóemrsm;onf þpm&if;wGif ykef;vQdK;uG,fvQdK; aeEdkifonf/ tqifhedrfhaom pum;vHk;rsm;udk z,fxkwfNyD; tqifhjrifhaom pum;vHk;rsm; tenf;i,foHk;&ef pOf;pm;yg/ ]]rkefvmO? yJoD;ESifh tjcm;[if;oD;[if;&Gufrsm;}} (carrots, peas, and other vegetables) udk pOf;pm;oHk;oyfyg/ ]][if;oD;[if;&Gurf sm;}} (vegetables) pum;vH;k jzifh pum;vH;k oH;k ckpvH;k udk rnfonft h wGuaf Mumifh tpm;rxd;k Edik o f vJ/ xdek nf;udk ]]usm;? jcaoFh ESihf tjcm;wd&pämefrsm;}} (tigers, lions, and other animals) udk ]]wd&pämefrsm;}} (animals) [k avsmhEdkifonf/ Oya'a0g[m&rsm;udk tvm;wl pDpOfaqmif&u G Ef ikd o f nf/ a0g[m& odrYk [kwf a0g[m&rsm;udk rSeu f efaom Bu;D pOfi,fvu kd f tqifh wGif a&G;cs,fEdkifonf/ odkYaomfvnf;pum;vkH; ESpfvHk;wGJ odkYr[kwf oHk;vHk;wGJrsm;udk t&rf;rJh ry,fzsufygESifh/ ,if;wdo Yk nf oHwal Mumif;uGJ pm&if;oufouftjzpf r[kwb f J taMumif;jycsuw f pfct k wGuv f nf; wnf&SdEdkifonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh ypönf;ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfwpfckwGif a&mif;olu ypönf;udk "pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkNyD; ay;&ef" (execute and deliver) tvkyfwm0ef&Sdoifhonf/ ypönf;ray;bJ pmcsKyfcsKyfjcif;onf (ESifhtjyeftvSef) ypönf;udk vTJajymif;&ef xda&mufrI r&Sdyg/ 5/

tjcm;rvdktyfaom azmfjycsufrsm; (Other Redundant Expressions) þtydik ;f wGif jy|mef;onfh azmfjycsurf sm;onf a,bk,srsm; jzpfMuNy;D vdu k ef m&efoifrh oifh qef;ppf&rnf/ aobmwlnDcsufpmcsLyfa&;qGJ&mwGif a&G;cs,faom pum;vHk;\ wdus? rSefuefrI tqift h ay: txl;tm½Hpk u kd yf g/ þokq Yd &dk jcif;\ tajccHtaMumif;t&if;rSm vdt k yfonfxufyí kd a&;om;jcif;onf t"dyÜm,faumuf&ef ydkrdkcufcJapNyD; ynmwwfajrmufrI okdYr[kwf vdr®mrIukd xif&Sm;atmif rjyEdkifay/ tenf;i,f tm;xkwfBudK;yrf;rIjzifh ,if;qdkvdk&if;udk em;vnfvG,f apjcif;jzifhomynmwwfajrmufjcif;ESifh xkdynm&yfqkdif&muRrf;usifvdr®mrIwkdYukd azmfjyEkdifonf/ odkYaomf vufawGUusaom tawG;onf pum;vHk;a&G;cs,frI udpö&yfrsm;tay: uGJjym;Edkifonf/ atmufygtBuHjyKcsufrsm;udk vrf;ñTefwpf&yftjzpf oHk;yg/ odkYaomf Oya'rsm; a&;qGJjcif;qkdif&m oD;jcm;tajctaet& rnfonfu qDavsmfrI&Sdonfukd rdrdomvSsif qkH;jzwf&rnfjzpfonf/ aygif ; pyf 0 d b wf r sm;ud k a&S m if y g a&S m if & ef tpm;xd k ; oH k ; yg the question as to whether (the question - ovm;ar;cGef; whether

whether)

all of the issues

all the issues

- udpö&yfrsm;tm;vHk;

271

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; at that point in time

then

- xdktcsdefwGif

in the nature

of like

- wlonf

tvG e f B uD ; us,f a om pum;vH k ; rsm;ud k a&S m if y g a&S m if & ef tpm;xd k ; oH k ; yg additionally

also

- xdkYjyif

adequate number of

enough, sufficient

- vHkavmufaom

adjacent

next to (specify

- uyfvsuf

distance?) aforesaid

previous, prior

- ,cif^ BudKwif

any and all

any

- wpfckck

at the time

when

- aomtcg

approximately

about

- cefY

at (the) present (time)

now

- ,ck

by means of

- jzifh

cease and desist

stop, cease

- &yfpJonf

circumstances in which

when, where

- tajctae

commence

begin

- pwifonf

contained in

- yg0ifaom

contiguous

next to

due (to the fact that)

because

- aomaMumifh

eventuates

occurs, happens

- jzpfyGm;onf

faciliate

help, assist

- ulnDonf

has a negative impact

harms

- xdcdkufepfemjcif;

including but not limited to

including

- yg0ifaom

inquire

ask

- ar;jref;onf

null and void

void

- y,fzsufonf

notify

tell, inform

- taMumif;Mum;onf

permit

let, allow

- cGifhjyKonf

penultimate

second to last

- aemufqHk;ydwfrwdkifrD

request

ask

- awmif;cHonf

- qufpyfaom

272

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

retain

keep

- xdef;odrf;onf

ultimate

last

- aemufqHk;

utilize

use

- toHk;jyKonf

tcsdKUtaMumif;t&mrsm;onf tcsdKUpum;vHk;rsm;wGif oG,f0dkufíyg&Sdonf/ xdkaMumifh pum;vHk;rsm;udk &Sif;vif;pGm azmfjy&ef ,if;onf rvdktyfay/ oHk;em&D (three hours)onf tcsdeftydkif;tjcm;udk t<uif;rJh em;vnfoabmaygufaponf/ oHk;em&Dtcsdefumv (time period of three hours)[k azmfjycsuo f nf rvkt d yfaom azmfjycsujf zpfonf/ atmufazmfjyyg Oyrmrsm;wGif uGif;cwfxm;aom tydkif;onf usefaom a0g[m&rsm;wGif oG,f0dkufygNyD;jzpfí y,fzsufEdkifonf Þ [ a distance of ] two miles

[ a period of ] a week

ES p f r d k i f

wpf y wf

all [ of the ] materials

alongside [ of ]

ypönf;tm;vHk;

uyfvsuf

appreciate [ in value ]

ascend [ up ]

wefzdk;wufonf

wufonf

[ as to ] whether

[ at a ] later [ date ]

ovm;

aemufydkif;wGif

[ close ] scrutiny

combine [ together ]

pdppfjcif;

aygif;pyfonf

[ completely ] destroyed

depreciate [ in value ]

zsufqD;onf

wefzdk;usonf

desend [ down ]

[ different ] kinds

qif;onf

trsdK;tpm;

during [ the course of ]

during [ the month of ] july

tawmtwGif;

ZlvdkifvtwGif;

each [ and every ]

each [ separate ] provision

wpfckpD

jy|mef;csufwpfckpD

[ empty ] space

eradicate [ completely ]

av[mjyif

vHk;0zsufqD;onf

few [ in number ]

[ foreign ] imports

tenf;i,f

oGif;ukef

273

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; join [ together ]

[ general ] public

qufonf

jynfol

[ local ] residents

merged [ together ]

aexdkifol

aygif;pyfonf

never [ at any time ]

off [ of ]

b,fawmhrS

rS? u

postponed [ until later ]

[ rate of ] speed

tcsdefa&TUqdkif;onf

tjrefEIef;

recur [ again ]

refer [ back ]

xyfrHjzpfonf

&nfñTef;onf

regress [ back ]

revert [ back ]

aemufjyefqkwfjcif;

,ciftajctaetwdkif; jyefjzpfonf

[ separate ] entities

5 p.m [ in the afternoon ]

xif&Sm;&Sdaomt&mrsm;

rGef;vGJ (5) em&D

oabmayguf & ef c uf c J o nf h O ya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm; (Legales) omrefvw l pfO;D onftxufazmfjyyg uGi;f qufpum;vH;k rsm; rsmvkt d yfonf/ xdaYk Mumifh vnf; 4if;wdkYa&SUae\ tao;pdwfaqmif&GufrIudk txifBuD;Murnf/ odkYaomf ynmrwwfonfh omrefvu l yif "wherein's", "aforesaid's", "hereinafter's" wdYk rvdt k yfaMumif;udk odonf/ trSefrSm a&S;usaom a0g[m&rsm;xuf Oya'ta&;tom;\ *kPfodu©mudk ydkqdk;atmif vkyaf qmifay;jcif; r&Syd g/ 4if;wdu Yk kd roH;k ygESi/hf oH;k &rnfqv kd Qiv f nf; csichf sed Nf y;D oH;k yg/ Oya'a&;&m a0g[m&rsm;\ wpfydkif;wpfp pm&if;rsm;rSm above-mentioned

aforegranted

txufwGifazmfjyNyD;aom

txufwGif cGifjyKNyD;jzpfaom

aforesaid

before-mentioned

txufwGif qdkcJhNyD;jzpfaom

,cifazmfjyNyD;jzpfaom

behooved

foregoing

jyKxdkufaom

txufwGifazmfjycJhaom

forthwith

henceforth

csufjcif;

þtcsdefrSpí aemifwGif

hereafter

herebefore

274

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

þrSaemuftzdkYwGif

,cifu

hereby

herein

þodkYtm;jzifh

þwGif

hereinabove

hereinafter

txufu

aemifwGif

hereinbefore

hereinto

txufu

þae&mxJodkY

hereinunder

hereof

þrSatmufwGif

þonfESifh pyfvsOf;í

heretofore

hereunder

,cifu

þrSatmufwGif

hereunto

herewith

þtcsdefxd

þpmESifhtwl

hitherto

inasmuch

þtcsdefxd

orQ? oa&GU

insofar

notwithstanding

vGefavNyD;aomumvu

odkYjzpfapumrl

nowise

saith

enf;enf;rSr[kwf

ajymonf/ ajymqdkonf

thence

thenceforth

xdkrS

xdktcsdefrSpí

thereabout

thereafter

cefY

xdkrSaemufwGif

thereat

thereby

xdkae&mwGif

xdkenf;jzifh

therefore

therefrom

xdkYaMumifh

xdkae&mrS

therein

thereof

xdkae&mü

xdkt&mESifh pyfvsOf;í

thereor

thereto

xdktay:ü

,if;ESifh yl;wGJvsuf

275

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; theretofore

thereunder

xdktcsdefrusrD

xdkrSatmufwGif

thereunto

therewith

xdktcsdefxd

xdkt&mESifh

to wit

under-mentioned

qdkvdkonfrSm

atmufwGifazmfjyaom

unto

whatever

wdkifatmif^xHodkY

b,f[mrqdk

whatsoever

whence

rnfodkYrQ

onfht&yf

whensoever

whereas

b,ftcsdefrqdk

pifppftm;jzifh

whereby

whereforce

xdkodkYtm;jzifh

tb,fhaMumifh

wherein

whereof

onfhae&mü

b,ft&mrS

whereon

wheresoever

xdkt&may:ü

rnfonfhae&mwGifrqdk

where upon

whosoever

NyD;aemuf

rnfolrqdk

whilst

within-named

pOfwGif

trnfoD;jcm;owfrSwfcsuftwGif; Oya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm;\ tjcm;yHkpHonf atmufygtwdkif; a&S;usaompum;pkrsm; yg0ifonfÞ Being first duly sworn, Sam-Jones deposes and says: Further affiant [ or deponent ] sayeth not. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused my seal to be affixed. Know All Men By These Presents: To All To Whom These Presents Come, Greeting: WITNESSETH:

276

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; þpum;pkrsm;tm;vHk;onf z,f&Sm;Edkifonf/ ,if;wdkY ae&mwGif trsm;oHk;t*Fvdyfpmudk

oH;k yg/ pum;vH;k "said," "same," ESihf "such" wdo Yk nf rESpNf rKd UzG,f Oya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm;\ tjcm;yHkpHrsm;jzpfonf/ ,if;toHk;tEIef;onf o'´genf;t& rSefuefrI&Sdonf/ "said" udk emr 0daooetjzpf b,faomtcg roH;k ygESi/hf 4if;udk y,fzsuyf g/ odrYk [kwf "the," "that," "this," odkYr[kwf qDavsmfaom emrfpm;jzifh tpm;xdk;yg/ Director shall grant or deny said application within 10 days rS Director shall grant or deny the application within 10 days [k jzpfvmonf/ "Such" udk wpfO;D qdi k ef mrf\a&SUwGif emr0daooetjzpf b,fawmhrS roH;k ygESi/hf "the," "that, " odr Yk [kwf "this" jzifh ,if;udk tpm;xd;k yg/ odaYk omf Oya'a&;&ma0g[m&rsm; tok;H rjyKjcif; qkdif&m pnf;urf;ukdrcsdK;azmufbJ "Such" udk trsm;qdkifemrf\a&SUwGif emr0daooetjzpf toH;k jyKEikd o f nf/ qdv k o kd nfrmS "of this kind, nature, or degree,"udk "such acts of misconduct will not be tolerated." tjzpf a&;om;Edkifonf/ "same" odr Yk [kwf "such" udk emrfpm;tjzpf b,fawmhrrS oH;k ygESi/hf Director shall review the application within 10 days and grant or deny same [or such] rS Director shall review the application within 10 days and grant or deny it. [k

jzpfvmonf/ odkYr[kwf "such" udk emrfpm;tjzpf ydkrdkqkd;&Gm;pGm toHk;jyKonfh þtcsufudk xnfhoGif; pOf;pm;yg/ While on duty, employees shall not drink alcoholic beverages, take illegal drugs, or smoke controlled substances. Such [replace with "these actions"] are grounds for immediate termination.

aygif ; pyf 0 d b wf r sm;ES i f h 0d b wf q d k i f & mpum;pk r sm; (Compound Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases )

]]0dbwf}} onf pum;vH;k wpfcEk iS w hf pfck qufpyfru I kd azmfjyaom pum;vH;k wpfck odrYk [kwf pum;pkwpfck jzpfonf/ "payment is due after delivery," wGif "after" [laom pum;vH;k onf "payment" ESifh "delivery" Mum; tcsdefumvqufoG,frIudk azmfjyonf/ aygif;pyf0dbwfrsm; (0dbwfqdkif&m pum;pkrsm;ESifh 0dbwfa&m[kvnf; ac:onf)wGif ESpfvHk; odkYr[kwf ESpfvHk;xuf ydkaom pum;vHk;rsm;yg0ifNyD;? 4if;wdkY 0dbwfpum;vHk;wpfck\ vkyfief;twkdif; vkyfaqmifonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

277

t*Fvdyfpmynm&Sif Henry Fowler u aygif;pyf0dbwfrsm;onf acwfopft*FvdyfpmwGif tqdk;qHk;eD;yg; tpdwftydkif;rsm;jzpfNyD; pum;vkH;rsm;ukdemrfrsm;tjzpfxifa&mifxifrSm;ap&ef pmom;rsm;azmif;yGatmif pum;vkH;rsm;oGyfoGif;xm;jcif; jzpfonf[kqkdonf/aygif;pyf0dbwf trsm;pkudk ykdí&Sif;vif;NyD; ydkrdkwdkuf½dkufjzpfaom pum;vHk;wpfvHk;jzifh tpm;xdk;Edkifonf/ a&SUae rsm;onf urÇmt h *Fvyd pf um;ajym pma&;q&mtoD;oD;xuf aygif;pyf0b d wfrsm;udk pmcsKypf mwef; rsm;wGif ydkíoHk;Edkifacs&Sdonf/ ,if;wdkYudk a&Smif&Sm;oifhonf/ ydkrdktoHk;rsm;aom aygif;pyf0dbwfrsm;ESifh ,if;wdkY\ tpm;xdk;jcif;rSm atmufygtwdkif; jzpfonf Þ aygif ; pyf 0 d b wf tpm;xd k ; jcif ; along the lines of like tvm;wl as a consequence of because of twGufaMumifh as to about ESifhywfoufí at that point in time then xdkYaemuf as the present time now ,ck^ vuf&Sd at the time at which when aomtcg at this point in time now ,ck be of help to help tultnD be means of by tm;jzifh by reason of because of aomaMumifh by virtue of by, under t& during such times as when aomtcg during the course of during tawmtwGif; during the time that while pOfwGif for the duration of during tawmtwGif; for the purpose of for, under twGuf for the reason that because tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf from the point of view of for twGuf inasmuch as because aomaMumifh in a manner similar to like tvm;wl in all probability probably jzpfEdkifacs in addition to besides xdkYtjyif

278 in accordance with in association with in back of in case of in close proximity in connection with in excess of in favor of in lieu of in order to in receipt of in regard to in spite of the fact that in terms of in the absence of in the case of in the course of in the event that in the midst of in the nature of in the immediate vicinity of in view of the fact

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; t& with ESifh^jzifh behind aemufwGif if vQif near eD;yg; by, from, about, at ESihf more than, over ydí k for axmufcHonf instead of tpm; to ap&ef received &&Syd gu about, concerning ESifhpyfvsOf;í although aomfvnf; at, in, for, by, with tm;jzifh without r&SdbJ if udpöwGif during ------ qJ if cJhvQif amid pOftawmtwGif; like ESifhwlonf near teD;0ef;usif because, considering, aMumifh

by, under

that although

apumrl

on account of

because

on the basis of

by, from

on the grounds of

because of

on the part of

by, among

prior to

before

similar to

aMumifh tajccHí aMumifh ----- \vkyf&yf BudKwifí tvm;wl

notwithstanding the fact that

279

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; subsequent to

after

the manner in which

how

under the provisions of

under

until such time as

until

with a view to

with reference to

about, concerning

with regard to

about, concerning

with respect to

about, with, on,

aemufwGif enf;[ef jy|mef;csuft& wdkifatmif ap&ef ESifhpyfvsOf;í ESifhpyfvsOf;í ESifhpyfvsOf;í

concerning, for, in with the exception of

except

with the object of

with the result that

so that

rSvGJí ap&ef aMumifh

"The fact that" jzpf & yf r S e f r S m

xd"k avho;kH pum;vH;k udk rsm;aomtm;jzifh trS0D gusrsm;wGif awGU&onf/ trS0D gusqo kd nfrmS Bud,mwpfvHk;ygonfh pum;pkjzpfNyD; t"dyÜm,fjynfhpHkonfh 0guswpfckr[kwfyg/ trSD0gusrsm;udk emrfvt kd yf onfh pmaMumif;rsm;wGif jznfph u G f oH;k avh&o dS nf/ "The fact that" qdo k nfh pum;&yf yg0ifonfh trSD0gusonf atmufygwdkYteuf wpfckckudk vkyfaqmifonf Þ (1) uwåm;yk'f "The fact that the buyer fails to inspect constitutes waiver."

(2)

wdkuf½dkufuHyk'f -

"Upon delivery, the shipper must note on the invoice the fact that the buyer failed to inspect."

(3)

oG,f0dkufuHyk'f -

"The consequences of the fact that the buyer fails to inspect are that buyer waives all defects."

(4)

0dbwf\uHyk'f -

Under paragraph (c), the buyer may recover for defects that were not discovered because of the fact that the seller made timely inspection impossible.

rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf txufygpmaMumif;rsm;\ trS0D gusae&mwGif emrftppf odrYk [kwf emrf0gus udk tpm;xdk;NyD; atmufwGifjyifqifxm;ouJhodkY jyifqifNyD; ,if;odkY axmifhaeaom pmaMumif;wnfaqmufyHkudk a&Smif&Sm;Edkifonf Þ

280

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (1) (2)

"The buyer's failure to object consitutes waiver." "Upon delivery, the shipper must note on the invoice the buyer's failure to object."

(3)

"The consequences of the buyer's failure to object are that the buyer waives all defects."

(4)

"Under paragraph (c) the buyer may recover for defects that were not discovered because the seller made timely inspection impossible."

tvuF m ? ul ; ajymif ; pum;vH k ; rsm;ES i f h yk ' f p k r sm; (Rhetorical and Transitional Words and Phrases)

twdkcsKyf odkYr[kwf rSwfpkwGif tawGU&rsm;aom tcsdKUaom ul;ajymif;pum;vHk;rsm;ESifh yk'pf rk sm; onf rvdt k yfaomaMumifh ,if;wdu Yk kd rlMurf;pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif csev f yS x f m;oifo h nf/ ,if;pum;vHk;ESifh yk'fpkrsm;wGif atmufygwdkYyg0ifonf Þ admittedly (0efc& H rnfrf mS ) again (aemufxyf) also (vnf;yJ) although (aomfvnf;) accordingly (odjYk zpfí) as a result (tusdK;quftjzpf) because (tb,faMumifhqdkaomf) besides (xdkYjyif) but (odkYaomf) consequently (odkYjzpfí) despite (aomfjim;vnf;) even if (vifhupm;) even though (aomfvnf;) for example (Oyrm) for instance (Oyrm) furthermore (xdkYjyif) granted that (cGijhf yKonfrmS ) hence (xdkYaMumifh) however (odkYaomf) in addition (xdkYjyif) instead (tpm;) likewise (xdkenf;wlpGm) moreover (xdkYjyif) nevertheless (aomfjim;vnf;) next (xdkYaemuf) nonetheless (odkYjzpfaomfjim;vnf;) on the other hand (odkYaomfjim;vnf;) similarly (xdkenf;wlpGm) still (qJyJ) so (xdkYaMumifh) therefore (xdkYaMumifh) too (vnf;yJ) to the contrary (qefYusifvsuf) thus ('gaMumifh)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

281

rlMurf;pm&Gufpmwrf;wGif yg0ifonfh taMumif;t&m trsdK;rsdK;tMum; qufpyfrIonf pm&Gufpmwrf;\ tpDtpOfZ,m;ESifh ,if;wGifyg0ifonfh trSwfpOfwyfxm;aom^ tu©&mpOf wyfxm;aom acgif;pOfwdkYESifh xif&Sm;ay:vGifaeap&rnf/ 4if;wdkYudk atmufygtajctae ESpfrsdK;wGif toHk;jyKyguvnf; oifhavsmfygonf/ yxr wpfckrSm Þ pmcsKyfwGif jyefajymjcif; (odkYr[kwf aemufcHtaMumif;)ESifh Oya'wGif awGU&Sdcsufrsm; (odrYk [kwf pum;cs;D )wGif &Si;f vif;azmfjy&ma&mufNy;D ul;ajymif;pum;vH;k rsm;onf pm&Gupf mwrf;yg 4if;tydkif;wdkY\ zwfí &EdkifrIudk wdk;jrifhaponf/ 'kwd,wpfckrSm Þ pm&Gufpmwrf;wpfckonf qufpyfrw I pfc\ k jyif;xefaom Oya'ESihf nDñw G rf u I kd avQmch svykd gu Þ Oyrm - tvkycf efx Y m;rI vufpGJ^ pmcsKyfwGif ul;ajymif;onfh pum;vHk;rsm; onf vGwfvyfonfhoabm oufa&mufap onf/ 10/

"Of the -------" yk ' f p k r sm;

,if;yk'pf u k kd y,fzsuEf ikd o f nf/ odrYk [kwf ( ' ) oauFwESihf ydik q f ikd rf jI ytjzpf jyKvyk Ef ikd o f nf/ xdkYaMumifh All of the applicants must attach a current photograph to the visa application,

[k a&;rnfhtpm; All applicants must attach a current photograph to the visa application

[k a&;oifhonf/ Children of a resident alien must be listed on line 4 of Form 459,

[k a&;rnfhtpm; A resident alien's children must be listed on line 4 of Form 459.

[k a&;oifhonf/ 11/

rvdktyfaom "Who's", "Which's" ES i f h "That's" toHk;rsm; ,if;pum;vH;k rsm;udk z,fxw k jf cif;onf pmaMumif;udk ydrk u kd spv f spaf pNy;D tusKd ;rsm;aponf/ Voters who are registering to vote absentee must file within 30 days.

[k a&;rnfhtpm; Voters registering to vote absentee must file within 30 days.

[k a&;oifhonf/ The goods, which are sold only in bulk, are warranted against insect infection.

[k a&;rnfhtpm;

282

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; The goods, sold only in bulk, are warranted against insect infection.

[k a&;oifhonf/ The inspection that the buyer conducts is subject to section 3 (a).

[k a&;rnfhtpm; The inspection that the buyer conducts is subject to section 3 (a).

od&Yk mwGif 4if;wdu Yk kd a&;[eftwGurf [kwb f J t"dymÜ ,fEpS cf x G u G af prSom y,fzsu&f rnf/ Oyrm "The buyer will inspect the goods on the loading dock" qdo k nfh pmaMumif;wGif wnfae&m

onf ukefypönf;udk rSef? rrSef ppfaq;&efESifh oufqdkifonf? odkYr[kwf ppfaq;&rnfhae&mudk ñTe;f qdo k nfukd &Si;f vif;pGmrod&EdS ikd yf g/ tu,fí ukeyf pön;f rSef rrSef ppfaq;jcif;ESihf oufqikd yf gu "the goods that are on ......." [k a&;jcif;u ydkrdk&Sif;vif;aprnf/ tu,fí ppfaq;&rnfh ae&mESifh oufqdkifygu "good, which are on the loading dock" [lonfh trSD0gustjzpf ajymif;&rnf/ wpfenf;tm;jzifh cH&jcif;jyBu, d myHpk H a&;jcif;u ydrk o kd ifah vsmo f nf/ "The buyer's inspection of the goods will be conducted on the loading dock."

12/

rvkdtyfaom udef;*Pefrsm;yg0ifjcif; (Redundant Numeration ) Oya'orm;rsm;onf udef;*Pef;rsm;udk tm&yf*Pef;ESifh pmom;ESpfrsdK;pvHk;jzifh azmfjyMuonf/ This section is subject to the four (4) exceptions contained in section 8.c. One-half (½) of the payment is due on delivery. Seller will deliver thirty (30) crates.

w&m;0ifpmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;wGif ude;f *Pef;rsm; ½Iyaf xG;rIr&Sad p&efEiS hf aemufyikd ;f jyifqifrI raqmif&GufEdkifap&ef pmjzifhomru udef;*Pef;jzifh azmfjyjcif;udk tawGU&rsm;onf/ Oyrm "The sum of five-thousand, five hundred dollars ($5,500) will be paid at closing."

,if;onf pum;vHk;azmif;yGapNyD; pm&Gufpmwrf;udk aemufydkif;jyifqifrI raqmif&GufEdkifap&ef jyvkyjf cif;rSví JG tjcm;&nf&, G cf suf ryg0ifyg/ (Oyrm - csuv f ufrw S f odrYk [kwf tjcm;vTaJ jymif;Edik f aompmcsKy)f pmzwfoo l nf "thiry" onf bmudq k v kd akd Mumif;? "30" onf bmudq k v kd akd Mumif;odNy;D ,if;wdkYrSm twlwlyifjzpfaMumif; od&Sdonf/ vTJajymif;Edkifaom pmcsKyfrsm;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh t"duyrmPuJo h aYkd om pm&Gupf mwrf;udk aemufyikd ;f jyifqifEikd o f nfh tvm;tvm&So d nfh udprö sKd ; r[kwfygu ESpfcgxyfa&;&ef rvdktyfyg/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

283

acwfrcD rf;em;aom t*Fvyd pf moH;k pGo J nfh emrnfBu;D a&;om;olrsm;onf ude;f *Pef;rsm;udk pmjzifh a&;om;jcif;udk rESpfoufMuyg/ pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm; jyifqifjcif;ESifh roufqdkifygu ESpBf urd af zmfjyjcif;udk a&Smif&mS ;Ny;D ude;f *Pef;oD;oefu Y o kd m toH;k jyK&rnf/ wpfenf;tm;jzifh wpfrS wpfq,ftxdukd pmjzifah &;om;Ny;D 11 ESit hf xufukd ude;f *Pef;toH;k jyK&rnf/ pepfEpS cf pk vH;k onf pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk y½kzwf&mwGif ydkrdkvG,fulapNyD; t"dyÜm,fESpfcGjzpfjcif;udk a&Smif&Sm;um pmom;ESifh udef;*Pef;rsm;tMum; uGJvGJrIudk umuG,fEdkifonf/ odkYaomf udef;*Pef;ESifh pmom;twGJudk oknoHk;vHk;wGJESifhqHk;aom oef;txd&Sdonfh ude;f *Pef;rsm;wGif oH;k oifo h nf/ "$25,000,000" odrYk [kwf "$25,400,000" [k a&;rnft h pm; "$25 million" odkYr[kwf "$25.4 million" [k a&;oifhonf/ 13/

rvd k t yf a ompum;vH k ; rsm; (Expletives) o'´gtvdt k &Munfv h Qif rvdt k yfaompum;vH;k qdo k nfrmS ajcajcjrpfjrpf&adS om taMumif; t&m r[kwfonfh pum;vHk;yifjzpfonf/ ,if;rSm uwåm;yk'f&Sdaom pmaMumif;wGif o'´genf; vdt k yfcsuu f kd tqifajyap&efrQom toH;k jyKxm;aom tpm;xd;k emrfyifjzpfonf/ Oyrm - "There are six residential units in each pod" qdkonfh pmaMumif;wGif 'there' onf o'´genf;t& uwåm;jzpfonf/ xdpk mvH;k onf rnfonft h &mudrk Q r&nfñeT ;f bJ pmaMumif;wGif oifah vsmaf om 0gustxm;todkjzpfatmif vkyfay;½HkrSvGJí tjcm;wm0efr&Sdyg/ pmaMumif;wGif trSefwu,f &nf&G,faom uwåm;rSm "residential units" jzpfonf/ rvdktyfaompum;vHk;udk jzKwfygu pmaMumif;rSm "Six residential units are in each pod" [k jzpfonf/ rlMurf;pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif tawGU&rsm;aom rvdt k yfaom pum;vH;k rsm;rSm "it is" , "there is" ESihf "there are" wdjYk zpfonf/ rvdktyfaom pum;vHk;rsm;yg0ifonfh ta&;tom;ESifh ryg0ifonfh ta&;tom;udk EIdif;,SOfMunfhygu ryg0ifaom ta&;tom;\ &Sif;vif;rIESifh pum;vHk;uspfvspfrIudk owdjyKrd Edik o f nf/ rvd k t yf a om pum;vH k ; rsm;yg0if o nf h ta&;tom; (1)

It is the intent of Congress for this Act to prohibit all forms of obscenity.

(2)

There is included in every lease subject to this Act an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing.

(3)

There are 6 requirements for the job.

rvd k t yf a om pum;vH k ; rsm;jzKwf x m;onf h ta&;tom; (1)

Congress intends for this Act to prohibit all forms of obscenity.

(2)

Every lease subject to this Act contains an implied covenant of good faith

284

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; and fair dealing.

(3)

14/

The job has 6 requirements.

emrf t jzpf j yKvk y f j cif ; (Nominalizations) jyefazmfxm;aomBu, d mrsm;/ emrftjzpf jyKvyk jf cif;onf rlMurf;pm&Gupf mwrf;trsm;pk\ pum;vH;k udk tvGet f rif; azmif;yGapNy;D a,bk,soabmvu©Pmudk ydwq f aYkd ponf/ emrftjzpf jyKvkyfjcif; onf rlv five-and-dime Bud,mudk country-club emrftjzpf ajymif;vJxm;aom qef;jym;onfh a0g[m&jzpfNy;D 0gustxm;todk vdt k yfcsuu f kd tqifajyap&ef tjcm;Bu, d mwpfck qufwGJxm;jcif;yif jzpfonf/ "pending" qdkonfh ½dk;&Sif;onfh pum;vHk;onf "during the pendency of" jzpfvmonf/ rlMurf;pm&Gufpmwrf;wGif yg0ifonfhemrftjzpf jyKvkyfjcif;rsm;udk 4if;wkdY\ ½dk;&Sif;aom Bud,myHkpHodkY jyefajymif;oifhonf/ tawGU&rsm;aom emrftjzpfjyKvkyfjcif;rsm;ESifh4if;wdkYudk tpm;xdk;&rnfh Bud,mrsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfonf Þ emrf t jzpf j yKvk y f j cif ; Bud , m draw a conclusion (aumufcsufcsjcif;) conclude file a complaint (wdkifMum;jcif;) complain give consideration to (pOf;pm;jcif;) consider give recognition to (todtrSwfjyKjcif;) recognize has pertinence (oufqdkifjcif;) pertains have knowledge of (odjcif;) know have need of (vdktyfjcif;) need in agreement with (oabmwlnDjcif;) agree in collision with (uGJvGJjcif;) collide with in the determination of (qHk;jzwfjcif;) to determine is applicable (tusHK;0ifaom) applies is dependent on (rlwnfaom) depends on is in attendance at (wufa&mufjcif;) attends make a contribution (xnfh0ifjcif;) contribute make an appointment (wm0efay;jcif;) to appoint make application (avQmufxm;jcif;) apply make payment (ay;acsjcif;) pay

285

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; make provision for (axmufyHhay;jcif;)

provide

render a decision (qHk;jzwfay;jcif;)

decide

submit a payment (ay;acsjcif;)

pay

suggestive of (tBuHjyKjcif;)

suggests

take action (ta&;,laqmif&Gufjcif;)

act

emrftjzpfjyKvyk jf cif;rsm;ud4k if;wd\ Yk tqH;k owfrsm;jzpfonfh _ al, _ ancy, _ ant, _ ence, _ ent, _ ion, _ ity, _ ive, _ ment wdu Yk Mkd unfí h cGjJ cm;Edik af Mumif; tqdyk gOyrmrsm;u azmfjyaeonf/ 15/

cH & jcif ; jyBud , m yH k p H (Passive Voice) jyKjcif;jyBu, d m yHpk pH maMumif;wGif uwåm;yk'o f nf uHy'k u f kd yHpk w H pfrsKd ;rsKd ;jzifh jyKral eonf/ Oyrm- a&mif;csolonf (The Seller) «uwåm;yk'f» tmrcHonf (Warrants) «Bud,muwåm;yk'o f nf rnfonfjh yKvyk rf u I kd vkyaf qmifaeonfukd azmfjyonf/» ukeyf pön;f rsm;udk (The goods) «uHyk'f»/ pmcsKyfygtydk'frsm;udk twwfEdkifqHk; jyKjcif;jyBud,myHkpHjzifh a&;qGJoifhonfh/ pmaMumif;\ wnfaqmufyHkudk uwåm;yk'f - Bud,m - uHyk'fyHkpH (SVO)jzpfap&ef rnfolu rnfolYudk (odkYr[kwf bmudk) vkyfonfudk cGJjcm;NyD;ppfaq;yg/ odkYaomfjim;vnf; cH&jcif;jyBud,m yHkpHpmaMumif;wGif pmaMumif;&Sd uwåm;yk'fonf wpfckck\ jyKvkyfcH&jcif;jzpfonf/ Oyrm - the goods «uwåm;yk'f» are warranted «Bud,m uwåm;yk'ftay: jyKrlonfh tjyKtrludk azmfjyonf» by the seller / cH&jcif;jyBud,m yHkpHudk &SmazG&ef ,if;OyrmwGif Bud,maemufwGif&Sdaom 'by' 0dbwfygonfh pum;pkudk yxrOD;pGm &SmazGyg/ odkYaomf cH&jcif;jyBud,mtjzpf ajymif;&mwGif ,if; 'by' pum;pkonf &nf&G,f½HkrQom jzpfonf/ Oyrm - "All change orders must be reported to the bank, as the case may be, within 10 days." [by owner or by contractor [k t"dyÜm,faumufEdkifNyD; ESpfrsdK;pvHk;vnf; jzpfEdkifonf/ t"dyÜm,fESpfcG jzpfaponf/» ajymif;vJxm;onfh cH&jcif;jyBu, d monf tcef; 12 wGif aqG;aEG;cJo h nft h wdik ;f t"dymÜ ,f ESpfcGjzpfaponfhtjyif pum;vHk;azmif;yGjcif;onfvnf; 4if;\ t"ducsdKU,Gif;csufyifjzpfonf/ jyKjcif;jy Bu, d myHpk pH maMumif;onf ¤if;\ cH&jcif;jyBu, d mpmaMumif;xuf ydrk u kd spv f spjf ynfph o kH nf/ odkYaomf cH&jcif;jyBud,m yHkpHonf rlMurf;pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;wGif obm0uspGm oHk;pGJEdkif onf/ Oyrm - rnfonfudk jyKvkyf&rnfudk rnfolu jyKvkyf&rnfxuf ydkrdktav;ay;vdkonfh &nf&G,fcsuf&Sdonfhtcg 4if;udk toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ "Applications must be filed by each candidate before July 12" [k a&;rnft h pm; "Each candidate must file and application before July 12" [k a&;jcif;u ydkrdkxda&mufNyD; ajymifajrmufonf/ tjcm;enf;vrf;rsm;

286

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

&Sdaomfvnf; vdifwdusaom emrfpm;rsm;udk a&Smif&Sm;&ef cH&jcif;jyBud,myHkpH oHk;Edkifonf/ "An attorney must file his personal affidavit as an attachment to the motion." [k a&;rnft h pm; "An attorney's personal affidavit must be filed as an attachment to the motion." [k a&;oifhonf/ 16/

"To Be" Verb Forms Bud , m yH k p H

rlMurf;pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;wGif awGU&wufonfh 'to be' Bud,m yHkpHrsm;rSm 'was' , 'is' , 'are' , 'were' ESihf 'been' wdjYk zpfonf/ 'to be' Bu, d myHpk o H nf 'John is acting as seller's agent' pmaMumif;&Sd tulBud,m tpdwftydkif;r[kwfygu 'to be' Bud,mudk 'the seller is a resident of Texas' pmaMumif;wGif oHk;ouJhodkY t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdk&ef odkYr[kwf cGJjcm;&efoHk;oifhonf/ 'to be' Bud,mudk tjcm;t"dyÜm,fESifhoHk;vQif pmta&;tom;onf pdwf0ifpm;zG,fraumif;bJ pm;vH;k azmif;yGomG ;onf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf 'to be' Bu, d mae&mwGif jyKjcif;jyBu, d mudk tpm;xd;k ygu pmaMumif;onf ydkrdkwdkawmif;NyD; touf0ifvdrfhrnf/ 'to be' Bud,mrsm; >ywfodyfaeaom atmufygpmaMumif;udk avhvmMunfhyg/ If a subcontractor is in breach of the agreement, then the security bond is voided. If there are any suppliers of goods or materials who were in expectation of receiving payment, then the general contractor is expected to reimburse them out of the escrow funds which are held by the owner. «pmvHk;a& - 51 vHk;» 'To be' Bu, d mukNd yKjyifjcif;jyMu, d m"active verbs" jzift h pm;xk;d vSsiIf f a subcontractor breaches the agreement, this voids the security bond. If any suppliers of goods or materials expected to receive payment, the general contractor must reimburse them out of the escrow funds held by the owner [pmvkH;a&-38 vkH;] to be' Bu, d myHpk rH sm;udk rvdt k yfaompum;vH;k rsm;? emrftjzpf ajymif;vJjcif;rsm;? cH&jcif;jy Bu, d m

yHkpHwdkYESifh qufpyfawGU&wwfNyD; rlMurf;a&;olonf Oya'qkdif&m ta&;ygrIwpfckckudk azmfjy&ef oifhavsmf aompum;vHk; toHk;rjyKonfh pmaMumif;rsm;wGif awGU&wwfonf/ vrf;vGJaeaom 'to be' Bud,mudk z,fxkwfjcif;onf tjcm;trSm;rsm;udk oG,f0dkufjyifqifjcif;yif jzpfonf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolrsm; trsm;tm;jzifh oHk;pGJavh&Sdaom 'to be' Bud,mrsm;ESifh 4if;wdkY\ tpm;xdk; Bud,mrsm;rSm Þ tpm;xd k ; jcif ; to be Bud , m is able to

can

is authorized to

may

287

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; is binding upon

binds

is empowered to

may

is unable to

cannot

is directed to

shall

is required to

shall

it is the duty to

shall

(*)

em;vnf v G , f j cif ; ES i f h ½d k ; &S i f ; jcif ; (Clarity and Simplicity) t"dyÜm,fESpfcGxGufjcif;? a&SUaemufuGJvJGjcif;ESifh pum;vHk;azmif;yGrIrsm;jcif; uif;aom pm&Gupf mwrf;onf em;vnfv, G Nf y;D ½d;k &Si;f onfh pm&Gupf mwrf;jzpfonf/ tcef; 16 wGif &Si;f vif; xm;aom pm&if;yHkpHrsm;? a&wGufyHkrsm;ESifh tabbing a&;om;jcif;onf em;vnfvG,faponf/ xdkYtjyif atmufygyHkpHenf;vrf;rsm;uvnf; ,if;&nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk vkyfaqmifay;onf /

pmaMumif ; wd k r sm; (Short Sentences) pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;wGif pmvH;k a&yQr;f rQ 26 vH;k &Sjd cif;onf rlMurf;pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfc\ k ESpfvdkzG,f&nfrSef;csufjzpfonf/ rlMurf;a&;olonf ,if;&nfrSef;csuftwdkif; vkyfaqmifavav pm&Gufpmwrf;onf em;vnfvG,favjzpfonf/ pmaMumif;&Snfrsm;udk ESpfaMumif;ESifhtxufjzpf atmif cGJjcm;^ jzwfawmuf&rnf/

½d k ; &S i f ; aom pmaMumif ; wnf a qmuf y H k (Simple Sentence Structures) vltrsm; pOf;pm;oifhtwdkif; rlMurf;jyKpkyg/ Someone [noun] does something [verb] to something [direct 0bject]

wpfa,mufa,mufonf (emrf) wpfckckudkvkyfonf (Bud,m) wpfckck (wdkuf½dkuf uHyk'f) t*Fvyd pf mwGif yHrk eS jf yKvyk o f l pmaMumif;\ pum;vH;k tpDtpOfrmS uwåm;yk'?f Bu, d mESihf uHy'k f jzpfonf/ ,if;tpDtpOfukd tav;teufjyK&ef ajymif;vJvykd gu pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;wGif tvTrf;rdk;qHk;ae&mrsm;rSm pmaMumif;tpESifh tqHk;jzpfaMumif; owdjyK&rnf/ a,bk,stm;jzifh uwåm;yk'f? Bud,m? uHyk'f (SVO) tpDtpOfudk qkyfudkifxm;&rnf/ taumif;qHk;pmcsKyfyg tydk'frsm;onf atmufygtpDtpOfudk vdkufemMuonf/ 4if;wdkYonf rnfolu rnfonfudk rnfolYudk rnfonfhtcsdefwGif jyKvkyfNyD; ,if;wdkYudk rjyKvkyfygu rnfodkYjzpfrnfudk pmzwfoltm; ajymjyonf/ [who is to do what to whom, when and what will happen if they do not do so.]

288

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

trScD 0H gus? pum;n§yrf sm;wGif jrKyaf eaom ,lqcsurf sm; odrYk [kwf tjcm;taESmift h ,Suf jzpfaom pum;csyfrsm;&Sd emrfESifh Bud,m odkYr[kwf Bud,mESifh wdkuf½dkufuHyk'fwdkYudk rcGJjcm;&/ ,if;wdkYudk tMum;rsm;[k ac:onf/ pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;onf tESpfom&rsm;pGm&SdEdkifonf/ pmaMumif;rsm;cGJí wm0ef,l ap&rnf/ atmufygjy|mef;csufwGif pmvHk;rJESifh a&;xm;aom tydik ;f rsm;onf Bu, d m^ emrfEiS hf emrf^ uHy'k f tMum;rsm;udk azmfjyNy;D ,if;wdo Yk nf pmaMumif;udk oyGwftlvdkufNyD; ½IyfaxG;aponf/ Buyer, upon receipt and inspection of the goods, will, provided they are found to be in compliance with the contract and otherwise as warranted, immediately notify, per and section 6 of this contract, the seller of acceptance.

wpfjcm;enf;jzifh pOf;pm;ygu Upon receipt of the goods, buyer will inspect them. If buyer finds that the goods comply with the contract and are as warranted, buyer will immediately notify seller of acceptance. Seller's notification must satisfy the requirements of section 6 of this contract.

uwåm;yk'Ef iS hf Bu, d mtMum; 0gusrsm;xnfo h iG ;f jcif;udk txl;ojzifh ,if;0gusukd pmaMumif; \ tp odkYr[kwf tqHk;wGif ajymif;a&TUEdkifygu a&Smif&Sm;&rnf/ a&Smif&ef toH k ; jyK&ef The borrower, in its notice of

The borrower should specify the

borrowing, should specify the

method for computing interest in

method for computing interest.

its notice of borrowing.

0daooeyk'f (txl;jyKyk'f)udk 4if;txl;jyKvdkonfh pmvHk;\aemufwGif uyfxm;&rnf/ a&Smif&ef toH k ; jyK&ef The weak lawyer's contract.

The lawyer's weak contract.

wu,fwrf;awmh 'weak' onf 'contract' udk txl;jyKNyD; 'lawyer' udk txl;rjyK[k ,lq&rnf/ tom;ay;azmfjyvdkjcif;r&Sdygu Bud,m0daooersm;udk Bud,mtpdwftydkif;rsm;tMum; rxnfh oGi;f &/ ,if;onf infinitives (V1) rsm;twGuf txl;rSeu f efonf/ (to clearly write). "tom;ay;azmfjyvdkjcif;r&Sdygu" qdkonfh >cif;csufudk rsufarSmufumvwGif ,cifuxuf us,fjyefpGm vufcHMuonf/ odkYaomf rdrdpmzwfy&dowf\ ESpfoufrIudk od&Sd&rnf/ split infinitives (cGJjcm;xm; aom V1) onf a&S;½dk;pGJrsm;udk taESmifht,Sufjzpfaponf/ uHyk'fudk Bud,mESifh uyfxm;yg/

289

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; a&Smif&ef

toH k ; jyK&ef

The local court has repeatedly

The local court has misinterpreted

interpreted incorrectly that

that line of cases repeatedly.

line of cases.

trSD0gusrsm;pGmudk comma (,)? 0dkufuGif; (parentheses) rsm;ESifh dashes (-) rsm; xnfhoGif;a&;jcif;onf ½IyfaxG;apNyD; wpfcgwpf&HwGif ,if;pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;onf udpörsm;pGmudk vkyfaqmifae&onf/ ,if;tpm; oD;jcm;pmaMumif;rsm;udkoHk;yg/ Tenant (unless landlord has agreed in writing in advance) shall not keep or allow the presence of pets (including dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, hamsters, gerbils, or reptiles of any kind) in the leased premises (as defined in paragraph 6 (b) (7)), and any viloation of this provision is a material breach (justifying immediate termination of the lease).

Ed I i f ; ,S O f & ef Tenant shall not keep or allow the presence of pets in the leased promises. Landlord may waive this provision in advance in a signed writing. For the purpose of this provision, 'pets' includes dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, hamsters, gerbis, and reptiles of any kind. A violation of this provision is a material breach of the lease, justifying immediate termination.

ypö K yÜ e f v k y f & yf j yaomBud , myk ' f (Present Terms) rlMurf;a&;vQif ypöKyÜefumvudk oHk;pGJyg/ pmcsKyf odkYr[kwf Oya'onf tNrJajymaeonf jzpfonf/ rlMurf; pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;onf ¤if;wdEYk iS hf ywfoufaeorQ tm;vH;k onf vuf&jdS zpfysuf aejcif;jzpfonf[k ,lq&rnfjzpfNy;D Ny;D cJo h nfah eYu jzpfco hJ nf odrYk [kwf aemufaeYwiG jf zpfrnf[k ,lqír&yg/ twdw?f ypöKyeÜ Ef iS hf tem*wfumvtm;vH;k udk pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcx k w J iG f ok;kH pGjJ cif; onf ½IyfaxG;apEdkifonf/ If seller's inability to deliver on time is [not was or has been] caused by circumstances beyond seller's control, buyer is not [not will not be] entitled to cancel.

½dk;½dk;? omref pum;vHk;rsm; (Simple, Ordinary Words) ½d;k ½d;k omref t"dymÜ ,fwpl um;vH;k oH;k pGjJ cif;onf omrefpmzwfow l pfa,mufukd tvG,f wul ydrk ekd m;vnfapEdik af omaMumifh pum;vH;k \ qef;jym;aomyHpk ?H pum;vH;k rsm;pkaygif;oH;k jcif;udk rjyKvyk &f /

290 pum;vH k ; accommodate (tvdkuftxdkufaeonf) accomplish (NyD;ajrmufonf) accorded (ay;tyfonf) accumulate (pkaqmif;onf) acknowledge (0efco H nf) acquire (&&Sdonf) adequate number of (vHkavmufaom) adjacent (uyfvsuf) admit of (vufcHonf) advantageous (tusKd ;aus;Zl;jyKaom) afforded (ay;onf) allocate (cGJa0ay;onf) alternative (a&G;cs,p f &m) appropriate (verb) (tydi k pf ;D onf) approximately (cef)Y ascertain (aocsmaponf) assist, assistance (ulnDonf) attempt (BudK;yrf;onf) cease (&yfpJonf) commence (pwifonf) complete (tNyD;owfonf) conceal (zHk;uG,fonf) consequence (tusdK;quf) contiguous (uyfaeaom) determine (qHk;jzwfonf) donate (ay;onf? vSLonf) duplicate (rdwĂĽLul;onf) during such time as (pOfwGif) during the course of (tawmtwGif;) effectuate (jzpfaponf)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tpm;xd k ; &ef adapt, fit, suit perform, do given collect, gather recognize, admit obtain or buy enough next to, near allow good given divide choice, option take about determine help try stop begin, start finish hide result next, adjoining decide, find give copy while during carry out, cause

291

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; eliminate (z,fxkwfonf)

remove

employ (toHk;jyKonf)

use

endeavor (BuKd ;yrf;onf)

try

eradicate (tjrpfjzwfonf)

remove, erase

erroneous (rrSefuefaom)

false

evince (oabmxm;udk azmfjyonf)

show

execute (vufrSwfa&;xdk;onf?

sign

taumiftxnfazmfonf/) exceptional (xl;jcm;aom) expedite (tvkyfwGifaponf) expeditiously (jrefqefpGm) expend (oH;k pGo J nf) expiration (oufwrf;ukefqHk;csdef) feasible (jzpfEdkifaom) finalize (tNyD;owfonf) forthwith (csufcsif;) frequently (rMumcP) fundamental (tajccH) furnish (yHhydk;onf) heterogeneous (a&maESmaeaom) homogeneous (wpfom;wnf;jzpfjcif;) horizontal (a&jyifnD) immaulate (tvGeo f ef&Y iS ;f oyf&yfaom) inmovable (ra&GUvsm;Edi k af om) impact on (tusdK;oufa&mufapaom) in arrears (usefaeaom? aemufusaom) indebtedness (ta<u;wif&Sdjcif;) indicate (jyonf) inform (owif;ydkYonf) infrequent (jzpfawmifhjzpfcJ) initiate (pwifonf)

rare, unique hasten immediately spend end possible complete immediately often basic give mixed, unlike same, alike level, flat clean fixed influence late debt show tell, report rare begin

292

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

inquire (ar;jref;onf)

ask

institute (zGJUpnf;onf)

establish, begin, start

intelligible (em;vnfEdkifaom)

clear

interrogate (ppfar;onf)

question

locality (wnfae&m)

place

locate (&Smonf)

find

magnitude (t&G,t f pm;)

size

manner (enf;[ef)

way

maximum (tBu;D rm;qH;k )

most, largest, greatest

minimum (tenf;qHk;)

least, smallest, fewest

modify (jyKjyifrGrf;rHonf)

change

necessitate (vdktyfonf)

require

obliterate (acszsufonf)

erase

obtain (&onf)

get

occasion (verb) (jzpfay:aponf)

cause

percuse (zwfÂ˝Ionf)

read, review

portion (tydkif;)

part

possess (ydkifqdkifonf? &Sdonf)

have

preserve (xdef;xm;onf)

keep

prior (tvsifusaom? BudKwif)

earlier

prior to (rwdkifrDu)

before

proceed (a&SUqufoGm;onf)

procure (&,lonf? 0,f,lonf)

obtain, buy, get

proficient (uRrf;usifaom)

skilled

promulgated (xkwfjyefaMunmonf)

issue, publish

proximity (teD;tyg;)

nearness

purchase (0,f,jl cif;)

buy

purchaser (0,f,o l )l

buyer

recompense (epfemaMu;? csD;jrÂ§ifhaiGay;onf)

reward, compensate

redundant (ydv k QaH om)

extra, unneeded

remainder (usefonfhtydkif;)

rest

293

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; remuneration (ay;aiG)

salary, compensation, pay

render (ay;tyfonf)

make, give

request (awmif;cHonf)

ask

require (vdktyfonf)

need

retain (xddef;odrf;xm;onf)

keep

specified (owfrSwfonf)

named

state (xGufqdkonf)

tell, give

subsequent (aemufydkif;)

after, later

suffer

permit

sufficient (vHkavmufaom)

enough

summon (ac:onf? qifhonf)

call, send for

terminate (tqHk;owfonf)

end, finish

transmit (wpfqifhay;ydkYonf)

send

transparent (yGifhvif;aom)

clear

unavailability (r&&SE d ikd jf cif;)

lack

utilize (toHk;csonf)

use

verify (twnfjyKonf)

prove

tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm; (Terms of Art) tcef; ( 8 )wGif aqG;aEG;cJhonfhtwdkif; pum;vHk;wpfvHk; odkYr[kwf pum;pkwpfckonf tEkynmajrmufa0g[m& jzpfEdkifonf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf Oya'wGif oD;jcm;tusdK;quf &&Sdap&ef ,if;pum;vHk;udk vdktyfaomaMumifh jzpfonf/ ½IyfaxG;aom Oya't,ltqtwGuf ,if;pum;vH;k udk t"dymÜ ,fziG q fh x kd m;jcif;aMumifh odrYk [kwf ,if;pum;vH;k \ Oya'qdik &f m t"dymÜ ,f onf orm;½dk;ust"dyÜm,fESifh uGJvGJaomaMumifh jzpfonf/ tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm;onf a&SUaersm;tMum; qufqHa&;udk vG,fulapaomfvnf; rlMurf; pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk zwfonfh omrefpmzwfolrsm;twGuf tvGefqef;jym; aponf/ xdkYaMumifh tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm; onf rlMurf;\ &nf&G,fcsufjzpfonfh pmzwfoltm;vHk;udk &Sif;vif;apvdkonfh &nf&G,fcsufudk ysufjym;aponf/ odaYk omf a&SUaersm;onf tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm; oH;k pGrJ u I kd pGev Yf w T &f ef qefu Y siaf eMu NyD; ,if;onf ½IyfaxG;apNyD; rvdkvm;tyfaom w&m;pGJqdkrIrsm; jzpfapEdkifonf[k,lqMuonf/ xdkaMumuf&GUHrIonf tajctjrpf r&Sdyg/ yxrtcsufrSm - tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&trsm;pkrSm

294

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

4if;wdkYudk ckcHolrsm; ajymqdkouJhodkY Oya'qdkif&mt"dyÜm,fwGif wdusrIESifh ckdifrmrIr&Sdyg/ Oyrm w&m;½H;k rsm;u t"dymÜ ,ftrsKd ;rsKd ;zGiq hf akd om "appurtenances" , "fixtures" ESihf "tenantable" wdkYudk pOf;pm;Munfhygu - tdrfNcHajrtusdK;aqmif a&SUaersm;u twdrf;tapmif;rcHaom tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm;[k ,lqaom pum;vHk;rsm; jzpfaomfvnf; ,if;odkYr[kwfaMumif; oufaojyEkdifonf/ 'kwd,tcsufrSm tcsdKUaom tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&rsm;wGif wdusaom t"dyÜm,f&Sdaomfvnf; a,bk,stm;jzifh rlMurf; pm&Gufpmwrf;wGif vHk;0oHk;r&ay/ Oyrm "right of first refusal" onf a&G;cs,c f iG ahf y;onfukd a&SUaetm;vH;k od&NdS y;D 4if;udk tEkynmajrmuf a0g[m&[k owfrw S o f nf/ trSeaf wmh 4if;onf wdusNy;D a,bk,susonfh t"dymÜ ,fjzpfonf/ odaYk omf twif;tusyjf yK&ef a&G;cs,pf &mrSm vkyif ef;udp\ ö tao;pdwu f kd azmfjy&rnf/ a&G;cs,f p&mrsm;rSm rnfonfht&mudk 0,f,l&ef? rnfonfhaps;EIef;ESifh rnfodkYay;acsNyD; rnfodkY ydkYaqmif &rnfESifh tjcm;pnf;urf;csufrsm;udk a&G;cs,f&efjzpfonf/ 4if;rSm pmcsKyfonf wu,fwrf; rnfonfukd tm½Hpk u kd x f m;Ny;D "Jones has a right first refusal" qdo k nfh pum;vH;k a0qmrIonf wu,fwef; wefzdk;xm;&onfh tEkynm ajrmufa0g[m& jzpfapumrl rvHkavmufyg/ wwd, tcsufrSm - oD;jcm;Oya' tusdK;aus;Zl;&&Sdap&ef oD;oefYpum;vHk;rsm; odkYr[kwf pum;pkrsm;udk rjzpfrae oH;k &rnfqo kd nfrmS rjzpfEikd yf g/ tEkynmajrmuf pum;vH;k trsm;pkukd tjcm;pum;vH;k rsm; jzifh azmfjyEdik f ygonf/ ,if;rSm omrefpmzwforl sm;ESihf ydrk &kd if;ES;D Ny;D wdusrEI iS hf aocsrv I t kd yfaom pum;vHk;rsm; jzpfonf/ 6/

enf ; ynmES i f h uk e f o G , f a &;qd k i f & m a0g[m&rsm; (Technical and Trade Terms)

a&;qGJolonf enf;ynmqdkif&m? odyÜHqdkif&m? ul;oef;a&mif;0,fa&;qdkif&mESifh tjcm; a0g[m&rsm;\ txl;jyKt"dymÜ ,frsm;udk toH;k jyKaomtcg *½kjyK&efvnf;yJ vdt k yfonf/ pum;vH;k wpfv;kH udk txl;jyKt"dymÜ ,fjzifh toH;k jyKaMumif; qufpyfpOf;pm;&rnfh taMumif;t&m (context) udk Munfyh gu w&m;½H;k rsm;onf ¤if;t"dymÜ ,fukd vdt k yfovdk aumuf,El ikd o f nf/ txl;jyKt"dymÜ ,f onf qdkvdkonfht"dyÜm,fr[kwfygu a&;qGJolonf tjcm;pum;vHk;wpfvHk;udk a&G;cs,f&rnf/ Oyrm - odyeHÜ nf;tm;jzifh c&rf;csOo f ;D onf v,f,mxGuu f ek ef ,fy,fwiG f toD;wpfrsKd ; jzpfaomf vnf;yJ pm;oHk;olrsm;tMum;wGif [if;oD;[if;&GufwpfrsdK;tjzpf rSwf,lMuonf/ a0g[m&udk t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkjcif;onf t"dyÜm,fESpfcGjzpfjcif;udk z,fxkwfEdkifonf/

295

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 7/

Ek d i f i H j cm;bmom pum;vH k ; rsm;ES i h f pum;pk r sm; (Foreign Words and Phrases )

4if;onf tdraf xmifpt k vdu k f "per stirpes" uJo h aYkd om rSeu f efonfh a0g[m&r[kwyf gu Ekid if jH cm;bmom pum;vH;k rsm;ESihf pum;pkrsm;udk a&Smif&mS ;&rnf/ ,if;pum;vH;k rsm;onf vufwif odrYk [kwf jyifopf pum;vH;k rsm;jzpfonf/ "bona fide" uJo h aYkd om trsm;tm;jzifh vufcx H m;onfh pum;vHk;rsm;ukd&kd;&Sif;aomt*Fvdyfpm good faith jzifh tpm;xdk;Edkifonf/ trsm;tm;jzifh tvGo J ;kH cJo h nfh Ekid if jH cm;bmom pum;vH;k rsm;ESihf pum;pktrsm;pkukd ,cif pmtkyaf [mif;rsm;ESihf zdkifwGJrsm;wGif awGU&Sd&NyD;? 4if;wdkYESifh oifhavsmfaom tpm;xdk;pum;vHk;rsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif; jzpfonf ร Ek d i f i H j cm;bmompum;vH k ; od k Y r [k w f pum;pk tuefYtowfr&Sd (ad infinitumin) aocgeD;ypรถnf;ay;jcif; (causa mortis)

tpm;xd k ; pum;vH k ; tuefYtowfr&Sd (indefinitely) aoqH;k csed ef ;D uyfvmjcif; (approaching death)

umrpyf,Sufjcif; (cum copula) Oyrmtm;jzifh (exempli gratia (e.g.)) vufrxyf&ao;aomrdef;r (femme sole)

umrpyf,Sufjcif; (sexual intercourse) Oyrmtm;jzifh (for example) vufrxyf&ao;aomrdef;r (unmarried female)

v,f,majrxGufypรถnf; (fructus fundi)

v,f,majrxGufypรถnf; (produce of

land)

qdkvdkonfrSm (id est (i.e.)) tcsuftvufrsm;teuf (inter alia) 4if;wdkYteuf (inter se) oufqdkif&ma'o\ Oya' (lex loci)

qdkvdkonfrSm (that is) tcsuftvufrsm;teuf (among other) 4if;wdkYteuf (among themselves) pD&ifqHk;jzwfcsufcsjcif;qkdif&mOya' (law of the, jurisdiction)

vdktyfonfhtavsmuf ajymif;vJNyD;

(mutatis mutandis)

(with the necessary, changes in detail)

pdwfvGwfaom (non compos mentis) wpfESpfvQif (per annum) tcsdK;us (pro rata)

pdwfvGwfaom (not of sound mind) wpfESpf (a year) tcsdK;us (proportionately)

296

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tvm;wlOD;pm;ay; (pari passu)

tvm;wlOD;pm;ay; (of the same priority)

oD;oefY (seriatim) ESifhqufEG,fí (vis-a-vis) EIwaf jz (viva voca) 8/

oD;oefY (separately) ESifhpyfvsOf;í (in relation to) EIwfajz (orally)

"-ee" od k Y r [k w f "-or" ES i f h q H k ; aom pum;vH k ; rsm;

wpfcgwpf&H a&SUaersm;awmifrS tiSm;csxm;ol (lessor) ESifh tiSm;csxm;jcif;cH&ol (lessee) ? aygifESHol (mortgagor) ESifh taygifcHol (mortgagee) ? a&mif;ol (vendor) ESifh 0,fol "vendee" wd\ Yk teuft"dymÜ ,faumuf,rl t I ay: ½Iyaf xG;Edik yf gonf/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;ukd azmfjyaom tcg ajr&Sif (landlord) ESihf ajriSm; (tenant) ? acs;,lol (borrower) ESihf acs;iSm;ol (lender)? a&mif;ol (seller) ESifh 0,fol (buyer) uJhodkYaom rwlnDbJay:vGifaom omrmef t*Fvdyfa0g[m&rsm;udk toHk;jyK&rnf/ 9/

aygif ; pyf x m;aom emr0d a ooersm;ES i f h emrf p um;pk r sm; (Compound Adjectives and Noun Phrases ) Hyphen (-) toHk;jyKrIudk uefYowfyg/ a,bk,stm;jzifh hyphen (-) udk compound

adjectives jyKvkyf&ef toHk;jyKoifhonf/

a&wdk (short-term) aiGacs;pmcsKyw f iG f tjyeftvSef ysuu f u G rf I (cross-default) tyd'k f ygonf/ Compound Adjective onf Adjective ESpcf jk zpfonf/ 'kw, d Adjective txl;jyKaom

yxr Adjective ESifh emrfpum;pk (noun phrase) jyKvkyfonfhtcg aemufrSvdkufaom noun txl;jyKaygif;pyfxm;onfh adjective ESpcf jk zpfonf/ Adjective rsm;onf one-owner vehicle ,lepfwpfcktjzpf vkyfaqmifaMumif; pmzwfoludk azmfjy&ef hyphen (-) udk toHk;jyKygonf/ () wH;k wdk oH;k enf;onf "a year-round container supply" qdo k nfh pum;pkwiG f Adjective oH;k ck ygaomaMumifh ydkíoHk;&ef ta&;BuD;ygonf/ odkYaomf (-) wHk;wdkoHk;enf;onf rsm;pGmaom noun tpOf twef;BuD; jyKvkyfír&yg/ a Research-and-Development-Department-approved rotor-wheel-abrasion-removal device [lí azmfjyír&yg/ ¤if;udk a device for the removal of abrasions on rotor wheels that has been approved by the Research and Development Department. [lí azmfjy&rnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

297

odaYk omf >cif;csu&f o dS nf/ Nonpayment ? intercompany ESihf pro rata wdu Yk kd (-)hyphen rygbJ a&;om;&rnf/ (-)hyphen jzKwfxm;vQifawmifrS pmvHk;ESpfvHk; aygif;xm;onfhyHk aygufonf/(-) hyphen udk a,bk,stm;jzifh pum;vH;k wpfv;kH \ a&SUqufy'k f (prefix) ESiw hf í JG toH;k rjyKoifyh g/ od&Yk mwGif &v'fonf (co-op odrYk [kwf re-lease jzpfygu) ½Iyaf xG;rI odrYk [kwf toHxu G rf mS ;,Gi;f rI jzpfay:Edik af omaMumifh (-) hyphen udk oH;k &rnf/ (-)hyphen toH;k jyKrEI iS hf pyfvsO;f í oHo,&Syd gu pum;vH;k udk ,lepfwpfct k jzpf csa&;yg/ rSeu f efap&ef oif\vdt k yfcsuf rsm;twGuf ESpfouf&m acwfopftoHk;tEIef;udk aocsmapa&; vuf&Sdrl&if; odkYr[kwf Oya' tbd"mefwGif Munfh&rnf/ tcsKUd udprö sm;wGif verb (no-hyphen) odrYk [kwf noun (hyphen) tjzpf pum;vH;k toH;k jyKrI cGjJ cm;&mwGif (-)hyphen onf taxmuftuljzpfaponf/ Verb: "........ the bank is entitled to set off any deposit ......" Noun: "....... the bank is to a self-off in the event ........"

odkYaomf noun udk ñTefjy&ef article toHk;jyKí wlnDaom&v'fudk zefwD;Edkifonf/ indefinite article "a" jzifh ,if;OyrmwGif noun jyKvkyfxm; onf/ 10/

orm½d k ; usr[k w f a om pmvH k ; tBuD ; jzif h a &;jcif ; (Unconventional Captialization )

18 &mpkESpf a&;qGJolrsm;onf ta&;BuD;aom noun rsm;udk rMumcP pmvHk;tBuD;jzifh a&;cJhMuonf/ ,if;tavhtusifhonf *smrefrS qif;oufvmEdkifacs&Sdonf/ uHraumif;pGmjzifh ,if;wpfrlxl;jcm;aom tavhtusifhudk tcsdKUpmcsKyfrsm;wGif vdkufemqJjzpfonf/ 4if;onf xl;xl;jcm;jcm;r&Sdyg/ Oyrm- aqmufvkyfa&;pmcsKyfwpfckwGif wpfpHkwpfckudk&Sm&ef/ All Bills of Lading will be kept on file at the Construction Site .......... Change Orders must be approved in writing ...........the anticipated Completion Date of Construction is ..........

,if;onf rvdktyfbJESifh tm½Hkajymif;Ekdifonf/ t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkxm;onfh a0g[m&rsm; tygt0if wpfOD;qdkifemrfrsm;omvQif pmvHk;tBuD;jzifha&;yg/ 11/

tjyKoabmES i f h tysuf o abm (tjiif ; ) pum;toH k ; tEI e f ; (Positive Vs. Negative Expression)

wpfpw kH pfcu k kd tjyKoabm odrYk [kwf tysuo f abmjzifh ajymEdik yf gu4if;udk tjyKoabm jzifh ajymyg/ 4if;onf &Sif;ygw,f/ tb,faMumifhqdkaomf vlrsm;onf ,if;enf;vrf;twdkif; awG;ac:aomaMumifh jzpfonf/

298

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; ]]nrxGuf&trdefYonf noef;acgif;rwdkifcif tusHK;r0ifyg/ The curfew does not apply before midnight.}} [k ajymrnfhtpm; ]]nrxGuf&trdefYonf noef;acgif,HausmfrS tusHK;0ifonf/ The curfew applies only after midnight.}} [k ajymyg/ txl;ojzifh tjiif;t"dyÜm,f (2) ckonf ½IyfaxG;rIjzpfaponf/ ]]þyk'fronf rSDcdkol om;orD;rsm;r&Sdonfh avQmufxm;olrsm;ESifh roufqdkifyg/ This section does not apply to applicants with no dependent children.}} [k ajymrnfhtpm; ]]þyk'fronf rSDcdkol om;orD;&Sdonfh avQmufxm;olrsm;ESifhomvQif oufqdkifonf/ This section applies only to applicants with dependent children.}} [k ajymyg/

12/

>cif;csuf (Exceptions ) tkyfpkBuD;rS tcsdKUtzGJU0ifrsm;udk csefvSyfjcif;jzifh a&;qGJrIrjyKvkyf&ef? &nfrSef;xm;onfh tkyfpki,frsm;jzifh wdkuf½dkufa&;qGJ&rnf/ ]]touf 40 ESpf odkYr[kwf 40 xufausmfolrsm;rSty avQmufxm;oltm;vHk;onf yHkpH 647 jznfh&rnf/ All applicants except those who are 40 years old or older must complete

Form 647.}}

[k ajymrnfhtpm; ]]touf 40 ESpfatmuf avQmufxm;oltm;vHk; yHkpH 647 jznfh&rnf/ All applicants who are less than 40 years old must complete Form 647.}}

[k ajym&rnf/ odkYaomfjim;vnf; csefvSyfxm; tkyfpki,fjzifh wdkuf½dkufa&;qGJaomtcg tkyfpkBuD;wGif jzpfymG ;aeonfrsm;ESihf pyfvsO;f í xda&mufonf[ h muGuu f kd csex f m;&rnf/ xdaYk Mumifh >cif;csujf yK onfh enf;vrf; vdktyfonf/ Oyrm - ]]Charleston ? Richland ESifh Greenville c½kdifrsm;onf ta&;ay: u,fq,fa&; aiGaMu;axmufyHhrI &cGifhr&Sdap&}} [k qdk&mwGif aiGaMu;axmufyHhrI &&Sd&eftwGuf tjcm;c½kdifrsm;u cHpm;ydkifcGifh&&ef qHk;½HI;aponf/ xdkYaMumifh >cif;csufjyKonfh enf;vrf;udk toH;k jyKoifo h nf/ qdv k o kd nfrmS ]]Charleston ? Richland ESihf Greenville c&dik rf sm;rS ty c½dkiftm;vHk; ta&;ay:u,fq,fa&; aiGaMu;axmufyHhrI &cGifh&Sdonf/}}

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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13/

yk * ¾ v emrf p m;rsm; (Personal Pronouns) "Plain English" vIyf&Sm;rIwdk;wufvmap&ef &nfrSef;csufrsm;teufrS wpfckonf omrefpmzwfolrsm; txl;ojzifh oHk;pGJolrsm;u vG,fulí em;vnfvG,faom trSwftom;jzifh rSwo f m;&efjzpfonf/ a&;qGo J rl sm;udk ]]rif;}}? ]]uReaf wmf}} ESihf ]]uREyfk }f } uJo h aYkd om yk*v ¾ emrfpm;rsm; toHk;jyK&ef wdkufwGef;&rnf/ cHhnm;rI r&Sdaom? ydkíem;vnfEdkifaom trSwftom;jzifh rSwfom; &rnf/ wpfcgwpf&H a&;qGo J rl sm;onf tvkyo f rm;vufppJG mtkyrf sm;ESihf avQmufvmT ñTeMf um;csuf rsm;uJo h aYkd om pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif cHn h m;onfh pum;vH;k rsm;roH;k bJ ,if;emrfpm;rsm; toH;k jyK& rnf/ ,if;emrfpm;rsm;onf pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;\ uefo Y wfxm;aom tqift h wef;wGif toH;k 0if aomfvnf;yJ &Sif;vif;NyD; wdusrIudk txdcdkufcHvsuf ¤if;wdkYudk toHk;rjyKoifhyg/ t"dutEÅ&m,frsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfonf/ yxrtcsuftaejzifh Who is "I" "uReaf wmf" b,fov l ?J Who is "you" ]]rif;}} b,fov l EJ iS hf Who is "we" ]]uREyfk w f }Ykd } u b,fov l J qdo k nfh ar;cGe;f rsm;wGif pmzwfol em;vnfrv I EJG ikd o f nf/ 'kw, d tcsut f aejzifh vkyif ef;udpw ö iG f taMumif;t&mrsm;pGm yg0ifNy;D 4if;wdt Yk m;vH;k udk ½Iaxmifw h pfcw k nf;rS a&;om;xm;jcif; r[kwyf gu tEÅ&m,fyq kd ;kd vmapEkid o f nf/ taMumif;t&mwpfcw k iG f uReaf wmf "I" jzpfEikd Nf y;D tjcm;wpfcw k iG f rif; "You" jzpfEikd yf gonf/ wwd,tcsut f aejzifh yk*v ¾ emrfpm;rsm;udk toH;k jyKjcif;onf pmcsKy0f if (2)ckxufydkíyg0ifaom ta&mif;t0,fvkyfief;udpörsm;wGif tultnDjyKrIxuf ½IyfaxG;rIudk ydí k jzpfEikd yf gonf/ emrfpm;rsm;onf wdusaom a&;qGJol\ rdwfaqGr[kwfyg/ a,bk,spnf;rsOf;wpfck taejzifh trnf? &mxl; odrYk [kwf tqift h wef;ESihf yk*v ¾ emrfpm;r[kwo f nfh t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m; onfh a0g[m& jzifh pmcsKyf0ifrsm;udk cGJjcm;owfrSwf&rnf/

a&;qG J a &;ES i f h ouf q d k i f a om o'´ g tajccH p nf ; rsOf ; rsm; [Some Basic Rules of Grammer Relevant to Drafting]

yd k i f q d k i f r I j yyH k p H zG J U pnf ; jcif ; [Forming the Possessive] (u) "s" aygif;xnfhjcif;jzifh wpfOD;qdkifemrf\ ydkifqdkifrIjyyHkpH? w&m;olBuD;\ pD&ifxHk; (The judge's ruling) *sdef;\trI (Jane's case) owday;umvtjzpf tcsed u f mvwpfcu k kd owfrw S o f nft h cg ydik q f ikd rf jI yudk toH;k rjyK&/ Oyrm- &uf 20 Mum owday;csuf "20 days' notice" odkYr[kwf rrSefuefonfh ydkifqdkifrIjyyHkpH "20 day's notice." xuf "20-days notice" udk oH;k &rnf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; "s" aemufrv S u kd af om ( = ) apostrophe udk pum;vH;k rsm;? ude;f *Pef;wpfv;kH wnf;ESihf

oauFwrsm;\ trsm;udef;rsm;jyKvkyf&ef toHk;jyKonf/ ,if;yHkpHonf ydkifqdkifrIjyyHkpHESifh wlaomf vnf; trsm;udef;rQom jzpfonf/ "s" aemufrSvdkufaom ( = ) apostrophe jzifh trnfrsm;udk trsm;udef; jyKvkyf&ef rrSefuefyg/ Oyrm - "the Brown's" onf rrSefuefonfh trsm;udef;yHkpH jzpfonf/ rSefuefonfh trsm;udef;ykHpHrSm ( = ) apostrophe rygonfh "the Browns" jzpfonf/ (c) ( = ) apostrophe aygif;xnfhjcif;jzifh ydkifqdkifrIjy trsm;qdkifyHkpH Oya't&m&Sdrsm;\ wifjyyHkrsm; (The lawyer's presentations) (*) Its, It's, His ESifh Hers "Its" onf "it" \ ydi k q f ikd rf jI yyHpk H jzpfonf/ "It's onf "it is" \ twdkcsHKUpum;vHk; jzpfonf/ "His" ESihf "hers" wdo Yk nf ( ' ) apostrophe rygonfh ydik q f ikd rf jI yrsm; jzpfonf/ 2/

(;) Semicolon ES i f h (:) colon toH k ; jyKyH k

(u)

(;) Semicolon - pum;quf (conjuction) rygbJ o'´genf;us (trSD) 0gus

(2)ck odkYr[kwf (2)ckxufydkí aygif;pyfaomtcg (;) semicolon oHk;yg/ Full stop taysmhpm;taejzifh ,lqyg/ The attorney's argument was compelling; he persuaded the jury.

pm&if;wGif &Snv f sm;aom odrYk [kwf a&mpyfxm;aom oD;jcm;tcsurf sm;udk jzwfawmuf&ef tok;H jyKonft h jyif þyk'jf zwfoauFw (punctuation mark) udk y#dnmOfpmcsKyrf sm;ESihf ul;oef; a&mif;0,fa&;qdik &f m pmcsKyrf sm;ESihf ywfoufí uefo Y wfxm;onf/ pm&if;wpfc\ k tpdwt f ydik ;f tjzpfrSty ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfrsm;wGif (;) semi-colon udk rdrdudk,fwdkif toHk;jyKaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygu rdrd\ toHk;jyKrIudk *½kwpdkuf ppfaq;&rnf/ (c) ( : ) colon - ( : ) colon onf aemufwiG rf nfonft h csuf vdu k af Mumif; pmzwfol udk ñTejf yonf/ 4if;onf trS0D gusaemufrv S u kd af vh&NdS y;D tcsut f vufrsm;pm&if;? rsufawmif tzGifhtydwf ( ]] }} )? teufwlyk'fESpfckudk wpfqufwnf;zGJUqdkrI? om"ujyjcif; odkYr[kwf csJUjcif; ponfh qufpyfazmfjycsuf yHkpHuGJrsm; azmfjy&ef toH;k jyKEikd o f nf/ 'kw, d tcsuf onf yxrtcsuu f kd teuft"dymÜ ,fziG q hf ykd gu odrYk [kwf csUJ um;ygu trS0D gus (2)ck jzpfaevQiaf wmifrS ( : ) colon jzifh aygif;pyf Edik o f nf/ pm&if;wpfckwGif ypönf;wpfckomvQif &SdEdkifonf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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pm&if;wpfckudk azmfjy&eftwGuf (:) colon ukdtNrJtoHk;jyK&ef rvdktyfyg/ Oyrm-( : ) colon rygbJ "The model you like is available in red, blue, white, and ochre" [k a&;Edkifonf/ pm&if;rsm;wGif ( : ) colon udk tvGeftuRHtoHk;jyKjcif;onf udk;½dkUum;&m;Edkif&m a&mufonf/ rsufarSmufa&;&mrsm;udk a[majyma&;om;olrsm;udk ( : ) colon aemufrSvdkufaom pum;vHk;\ yxrtu©&monf tBuD;pmvHk;okH;jcif;rokH;jcif;ESifhpyfvsOf;í uGjJ ym;vsu&f o dS nf/ odkY&mwGif ,if;pum;vHk;onf ypönf;rsm;pm&if;wGif yxrpum;vHk;jzpfygu ypönf;toD;oD;udk tu©&mtao;jzifh pa&;aMumif; trsm;pku oabmwlMuonf/ 3/

( / ) Slashes rsOf ; apmif ; ( / ) slash rsO;f apmif;udk Oya'qdi k &f m ta&;tom;wGif toH;k rjyKoifyh g/ tb,faMumifh

qdkaom t"dyÜm,fESpfcG jzpfay:Edkifonf/ rsOf;apmif;onf "and" (pum;quf) odkYr[kwf "or" (uGjJ ym;rI)udk ñTejf yEdik o f nf/ xdaYk Mumifh rvdt k yfaom t"dymÜ ,fEpS cf jG zpfrI jzpfay:Edik o f nf/ Oya' qdik &f m ta&;tom;wGif rsO;f apmif;twGuf oifah vsmaf om toH;k jyKro I nf &ufpJG (03^13^10) ESifh tydkif;udef; (1^2) wdkYtwGufomvQif jzpfonf/ 4/

uwåm; m ; Subject ES i f h Bud , m Verb ud k u f n D v d k u f z uf r I Subject ESifh Verb onf ta&twGuftm;jzifh udkufnD&rnf/ (u) Subject tenf;? trsm;udv k u kd í f verb tenf;? trsm; owfrw S &f rnf/ tjcm; noun rsm;onf "with" odkYr[kwf "no less than" jzifh 4if;udk qufpyfaevQif awmifrS rSefuefygonf/ The statue, as well as the regulation, favours a strict construction. The statues favour a strict construtction.

(c)

Plural ESifh Singular noun rsm;

"none" onf "no one" odrYk [kwf "not one" t"dymÜ ,faqmifygu verb

tenf; (singular verb) udk oHk;&rnf/ "none" onf t&m0w¬Kwpfck odrYk [kwf vly*k Kd¾ vw f pfO;D xufyakd Mumif; azmfjyygu verb trsm; (plural verb) udk oHk;&rnf/ forum ? memorandum ? datum ESihf criterion wdo Yk nf tenf;ude;f rsm; jzpfNyD; fora ? memoranda ? data ESifh criteria wdkYonf trsm;udef;rsm; jzpfaMumif; owdjyKyg/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; */

verb tenf; (singular verb) udk "either" ESifh "any" ESifh ¤if;\

oH;k aeusypkH H "neither ........... nor" wdw Yk iG f oH;k oifo h nf/ 5/

vufonf;uGif; Parentheses ( ) uGif;cwfazmfjycsufyg&Sdaom 0guswpfaMumif;udk uGif;cwfazmfjycsuf r&SdouJhodkY ( ) vufonf; uGif;jyifyrS yk'fjzwf&rnf/ uGif;cwfazmfjycsufwGif (?) question marks odkYr[kwf (!) exclamation point rygygu aemufqHk; odkYr[kwf ]]tqHk;owf}} yk'fjzwfoauFwudk jzKwfxm;jcif;rSty 4if;udk,fwdkif &yfwnfouJhodkY yk'fjzwf&rnf/ Payments of interest should be made quartely (on the first business day of each quarter), but will be compounded daily. The defendant protested (and why should we doubt his word?) that he had delivered the goods as specitied.

(jzKwfxm;onfh azmfjycsufwpfckvHk; ( ) vufonf;uGif;twGif; ygaeygu ,ckuJhodkYyif vufonf;uGif; rydwfrD aemufqHk;yk'fjzwfoauFw xnfh&rnf/) trSwfudk (zHk;uG,fjcif;xuf) ydkrdkay: vGifatmif azmfjyygu ( _ ) dash oauFwwpfpkHonf ydkrdkaumif;rGefayrnf/ 6/

]] }} Quotation Marks tjcm;yk'fjzwfoauFwrsm; ( (,) comma ? (.) period ? (:) colon ? (;) semi-colon ? (?) question mark ESifh (!) exclamation mark) ESifh pyfvsOf;í ( ]] }} )quotation mark ae&mcsxm;rIonf t*Fvdyfpum;ajymolrsm;wGif uGJvGJrItcsdKU&Sdonfhudpö jzpfonf/ xl;jcm;onfh tcsurf mS British toH;k tEIe;f ESihf American toH;k tEIe;f uGjJ ym;jcif;jzpfonf/ odaYk omf þEdik if H wGif a&;qGJaom pmcsKyfrsm;wGif British Spelling udk roHk;ouJhodkY quotation mark ESifh ywfoufí ESpcf t k euf wpfco k nf British toH;k jzpfonf/ American toH;k tEIe;f rSm atmufyg twdkif;jzpfonf Þ ]] }} quotation mark twGif; ( , ) comma ESSifh ( . ) period udk tNrJxnfhyg/ Unless refering to a specific individual, author will not use any gender specific terms in the text including "he," "she," "him," "his," or "her."

]] }} quotation marks jyifywGif ( : ) colon ESifh ( ; ) semi-colon udk tNrx J nfyh g/ When shipping packages containing hazardous materials, seller shall clarly mark them as "hazardous materials"; all of the materials listed

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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in section 302-b are considered "hazardous."

trSefwu,f udk;um;xm;onfh tcsuftvufrsm;jzpfygu ]] }} quotation mark twGif; (!) exclamation ESifh (?) question mark xnfhyg/ a&;qGJol\ udk,fydkif jznfhpGufcsufjzpfygu ]] }} quotation mark jyifywGif (!) ESifh (?) xnfhyg/ (!) ESifh (?) wdkYudk a&;qGJcJhaom pmcsKyfrsm;wGif toHk;jyK&ef &Sm;yg; aomfvnf; a&;qGJolonf pmcsKyfpmwrf;ESifh ywfoufí qufEG,frI&Sdygu 4if; wdkYudk toHk;jyK&ef vdktyfEdkifonf/

Allow me to say this in response to your question, "Why does the contract not contain a liquidated damages provision?"

«tqHk;owf oauFw ( . ) terminal period r&SdrIudkvnf; rSwfom;&rnf/» -

Were you serious when you suggested that we change the reference in the statue from "bars" to "jook joints" ?

od&Yk mwGif Oya'qdik &f m a&;qGo J o l nf jyifqifcsurf sm; a&;qGo J nft h cg þtrlStusifhrsm; rSaoGzDí a&;qGJ&rnf/ tu,fí ( . ) period ESifh ( , ) comma onf jyifqifonfhtydkif; jzpf&rnf[k r&nf&G,fygu 4if; ( . ) period ESifh ( , ) comma udk ( ]] }} ) quotation mark \ tjyifwGifxm;&rnf/ tu,fí ( : ) colon ESihf ( ; ) semi-colon onf jyifqifonfh bmom&yf\tydik ;f jzpf&rnf[k &nf&G,fygu ¤if; ( : ) colon ESifh ( ; ) semi-colon udk ( ]] }} ) quotation mark twGif; xm;&rnf/ -

Section 7. section 499 (c) (4) is amended by striking the word "children" and inserting "dependent minors" . «rl&if;wGif "children" qdo k nfh

pum;vHk;onf pmaMumif;\tv,fwGif&SdNyD;4if;\aemufwGif yk'fjzwfoauFw rygyg/ jyifqifcJhonfh a0g[m&wGif yk'fjzwfoauFw rxnfh&yg/ xdkYaMumifh tqHk;owf oauFw ( . ) terminal period onf ( ]] }} )quotation mark \aemufwGif &Sd&rnf/ -

Paragraph 64 is amended by inserting "territory already assigned to another agent;" after "Agent may not solicit sales in any of the following areas:" «jznf h p G u f c suf u d k (;) semi-colon jzif h yd k i f ; jcm;í

pm&if;\tpwGif jznfhpGuf&rnf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

0gustqH k ; ü jcm;&rnf h M um;tuG m ta0; (Spacing) 0gustqH;k yk'jf zwfoauFw\ aemufEiS hf aemuf0gus\ yxrpmvH;k Mum; tuGmta0;udk a&S;tpOftvmt& pnf;rsO;f onf space (2)ckjcm;í a&;onf/ ,if;onf aemuf0gus\tpudk cGjJ cm;jrifEikd &f ef space (2)cko;kH jcif;jzifh tay:,HvQyMf unfo h nft h cg odrYk [kwf tjrefpmzwfonfh tcg pmzwfoludk tultnDay;onf/ þpnf;rsOf;udk pmpDpm½dkufjcif; (word processing)ESifh tcsKd ;ustuGmta0;xm;jcif; ay:aygufvmrIaMumifh rMumao;rDEpS rf sm;u roH;k awmh NyjD zpfonf/

rS m ;,G i f ; toH k ; jyKaomES i f h wvG J o H k ; aom pum;vH k ; rsm;ES i f h azmf j ycsuf r sm; [Misused and Abused Words and Expressions ]

Effect/ Affect "Effect" onf noun jzpfNyD; tusdK;&v'f (result) odkYr[kwf ay:aygufvmjcif; (appearance) t"dymÜ ,faqmifonf/ Verb taejzifh ¤if;onf jzpfay:ap&ef (to bring about)

odkYr[kwf NyD;ajrmuf&ef (to accomplish) qkdonfh t"dyÜm,fjzpfonf/ "Affect" onf verb jzpfNyD; vTrf;rdk;&ef (to influence) odkYr[kwf wuf<uvmap&ef (to stimulate) t"dyÜm,faqmif onf/ Farther and Further

tuGmta0;yg0ifygu "farther" udo k ;kH Ny;D tcsed f odrYk [kwf ta&twGuu f kd &nfñeT ;f ygu "further" udk oHk;yg/ uREkfyf\ acG;onf tjcm;acG;rsm;xuf ydkíabmvHk;aemufvdkufonf/ My dog chases balls "farther" than other dogs. a&SUaersm;onf tjcm;olrsm;xufyí kd bmom&yf udk rMumcPavhvmvdu k pf m;onf/ Attorneys often pursue a subject "further" than others. Fortuitous

þpum;vHk;onf trSwfrxif jzpfysufonfh wpfpHkwpf&mudk &nfñTef;onf/ ¤if;udk uHaumif;aom odkYr[kwf uHvdkufaom tjzpftysufrsm; uefYowfrxm;yg/ In regard to "in regards to" [k toH;k jyKro I nf rrSeu f efyg/ "As regards" onf rSeu f efNy;D taMumif;

t&mwpfckwnf; qdkonfh t"dyÜm,faqmifonf/ "Regarding" udk ydkítoHk;rsm;onf/ Irregardless "irregardless" xuf "regardless" udk oH;k yg/ Fewer/ Less "Fewer" onf ta&twGuf (number) udk &nfñe T ;f Ny;D "less" onf yrmP "quantity"

udk &nfñTef;onf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; My troubles are less than Rebecca's because she has fewer clients. Like

Conjunction "as" tjzpf rrSefrueftoHk;jyKwufMuonf/ "like" onf "nouns" ESifh "pronouns" udk EIi d ;f ,SOo f nfh preposition jzpfNy;D "as" onf trS0D gus (a,bk,stm;jzifh verb

ygonf)h \ tpwGio f ;kH onfh conjunction jzpfonf/ ,if;uGmjcm;csuu f kd rMumao;rDEpS rf sm;u roHk;awmhonfh pum;vHk;tcsdKUwGif awGU&onf/ odkYaomf rwdrf;r,Gif; xdef;odrf;vdkolrsm;u a&;qGJqJ jzpfonf/ trS m ; trS e f He addressed the jury like an expert.

He addressed the jury as an expert would.

olonf uRrf;usifolwpfOD;uJhodkY *sL&DvlBuD;tm; &ifqdkifonf/ Loan "Loan" onf noun jzpfonf/ "lend" onf "I shall lend you $ 50" wGifyg&Sdonfh

twdkif; verb jzpfonf/ Nor Negative (2)ckxyfí toHk;jyKjcif;udk a&Smif&Sm;&ef "nor" xuf tjiif;azmfjycsuf\

aemufwGif "or" udk oHk;yg/ Principle ES i f h Principal (u) "Principal" onf ta&;ygqHk; odkYr[kwf &if;ESD;jr§KyfESHrIwGif owfrSwfxm;aom yrmP (owfrSwfaiGyrmP (principal sum) ESifh tusdK;tjrwf (plus interest)) qdkonfh adjective t"dymÜ ,fjzpfonf/ xde;f csKyo f nfh tmPmydik [ f k t"dymÜ ,faqmifaom noun vnf; jzpfonf/ (c) "Principle" onf taMumif;t&mtm;vH;k udk tajccHaom odrYk [kwf usi0hf wfukd vrf;ñTef aom tajccHOya'? t,l0g' odrYk [kwf ,lqcsu[ f k t"dymÜ ,faqmifonfh noun jzpfonf/ Secondly ? Thirdly tp&S d o jzif h Firstly ESip hf rnfqykd gu consistency &S&d rnf/ "first" ? "second" "third" tp&So d jzifh 4if;wdkYudk ydkítoHk;rsm;onf/ "secondly" ESifh "thirdly" udkoHk;&ef a&G;cs,fyguESifh tvm;wl "initially" jzifh pygu "firstly" ESifhywfoufí rcsdK;rusjzpfrIudk a&Smif&Sm;&ef/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

usm;ra&;&mudk txl;jyKí oHk;aompum;&yf [Gender-Specific Language] &nf&, G o f nfh y&dowf\ tzGUJ 0ifwpfO;D udk usL;vGeaf Mumif;? pdwyf suaf paMumif; odrYk [kwf tm½kaH jymif;apatmif a&;qGcJ o hJ nfh pmcsKypf mwrf;onf xda&mufrrI &So d nfh pmcsKypf mwrf;jzpfonf/ wcsed u f þusm;ra&;&mu cGjJ cm;jcif;ESio hf ufqidk af om a0g[m&tok;H tEIe;f ESiyhf ufowfNy;D ? Oya' J rJG rI sm;yif a&;&mESiyhf wfowfía&;om;xm;aomtokid ;f t0kid ;f wGif jyif;jyif;xefxefoabmxm; uGv &Scd o hJ nf/ a,muFsm; emrfpm; male pronoun ESihf male designation (a,muFsm;toGiaf qmifonfh *kPfyk'f) - " his" ? "he" ESifh "him" ? "chairman" "draftsman" ESifh "fireman" jzifhqHk;onfh a0g[m&rsm;ESifh ywfoufí ('Gdvdif) a,muFsm;? rdef;r toHk;jyKrIudk &nfñTef;onf/ tpOftvmt& vufcHolrsm;u &nfñTef;ajymqkdonfht&monf ykv’dif (masculine) jzpfygu emrfpm; (pronouns)wGif a,muFsm;? rdef;r (both sexes) (2) rsdK;vHk; oHk;í&onf[k qkdBuonf/ ¤if;wdkYonf "chair" qdkonfh a0g[m&onf t&m0w¬Kudk &nfñTef;aMumif;ESifh vlyk*¾dKvftjzpf &nfñTef;ygu ½IyfaxG;EdkifaMumif; tawmfav;tjiif;yGm;cJhMuonf/ Oyrm person-hole cover uJo h Ykd t"dymÜ ,fr&So d nfh tpm;xd;k rIrsm;ESihf ywfoufí &,fp&mjyKcMYJ uonf/ þt&monf bmomaA'jzpfNy;D Edik if aH &;udpö r[kwyf g/ Sexes (a,muFsm;? rde;f r) ESiyhf wfoufNy;D vlraI &;ESihf Edik if aH &; omwlnrD Q&rdS I yef;wdik rf mS ty tpOftvmt& toH;k jyKco hJ nfh toH;k tEIe;f udk pGefYvTwf&efrvdkaMumif; ,HkMunfMuonf/ tpOftvmt& vufcx H m;olrsm;\NyKid b f ufrsm;u pum;vH;k wdik ;f ? 0guswikd ;f ESihf pmyd'k f wdkif;wGif&Sdaeaom rjrifEdkifonfh usm;? r cGJjcm;rIudk awGU&onf/ 4if;wkdYtbkdY bmomaA'ESifh EdkifiHa&;tMum; &Sif;vif;aom csdwfqufrI&SdcJhonf/ EdkifiHa&;ESifh vlrIa&; omwlnDrQ&SdrIESifh ywfoufí atmifjrifrI&&Sd&ef bmompum;udk &Sif;vif;oefYpifatmif jyKvkyf&rnf[k ,lqMu onf/ usm;ra&;&mukd txl;jyKí oH;k aompum;&yf\ NyKd ib f ufrsm;onf "(s) he" ? "s/ he" ESihf her/ his rcGjJ cm;yg/ a,muFsm;ESihf rde;f r ñTe;f onfh emrfpm; (2)ckv;kH ukz d vS,fíok;H jcif; "shero" uJhodkYaom t"dyÜm,fr&Sdonfh pum;vHk;tcsdKUudk wDxGifoHk;jcif;rsm; zefwD;vmMuonf/ tpGe;f a&mufrI (2)cktMum;wGif uHraumif;aom pma&;olEiS hf a&;qGo J rl mS tkypf Ek pS cf ck \ k rauseyfrIudk a&Smif&Sm;&ef vdktyfonf/ aemufqHk;wGif Mum;ae taetxm;jzifh vufcHcJhonf/ a&;qGo J rl sm;onf ay:vGirf rI &Sb d J gender specific words udk a&Smif&mS ;onfh a&;enf;yHpk rH sm;udk awGU&SdcJhonf/ ,if;enf;vrf;rsm;rSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpfonf Þ (rvdktyfaom emrfpm;rsm; jzKwfypfyg/) [Eliminate Unnecesary Pronouns] tzGJUtpnf;wpfck\ pnf;rsOf;udk zwfEdkifygonf/ An employee of the Department of Health may elect to file under section 327 and he may obtain the proper form for doing this from pay-roll.

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Reword (pum;vH k ; jyef v nf a &G ; cs,f o H k ; EI e f ; yg)/

tmrcHay:vpDyg jy|mef;csufudk zwfEdkifygonf/ If he fails to report the injury within 10 days, the Insured forfeits coverage.

,if;udk atmufygtwdkif; jyefa&;Edkifonf Þ The Insured must report the injury within 10 days or forefeit coverage. Repeat the Noun ( noun ud k xyf c gxyf c goH k ; yg)/ noun \aemufwiG f gender-specific pronoun oH;k rnft h pm; ½d;k &Si;f pGmjzifh noun

udk xyfcgoH;k yg/ ajyjypfro I nf ta&;Bu;D ygu þenf;vrf;onf tusO;f csKyrf sm; odrYk [kwf em;vnfrI pmcRefvTmrsm;xuf a&;qGJcJhaom pmcsKyfpmwrf;wGif ydkía&;om;Muonf/ If a distributor fails to .................. That distributor [rather than he] must then ................. noun \ twd k c sH K UyH k p H od k Y r [k w f t"d y Ü m ,f w l p um;vH k ; ud k toH k ; jyKyg/ The Director of the Department of Health must certify that all imported poultry is parasite free. The Director [rather than he] has the distribution to either refuse entry to poultry that contains parasites or order it destroyed.

tcsKd Ua&;qGo J rl sm;u Oyrmtm;jzifh ,if;pmaMumif;wGif (synonym) t"dymÜ ,fwl pmvH;k "The official" udv k nf; oH;k Muonf/ yk*Kd¾ vw f pfO;D wnf;? tzGUJ tpnf;wpfcw k nf; odrYk [kwf t,ltqwpfcw k nf;udk &nfñeT ;f &ef pum;vH;k wpfrsKd ;wnf;udk toH;k jyKaMumif; pnf;rsOf;csdK;azmuf aomfvnf;yJ t"dyÜm,fESpfcGjzpfrIr&SdbJ ab;uif;onf/ Pronoun ud k "the" ? "a" od k Y r [k w f "this" tjzpf ajymif ; vJ y g/ If Buyer exercises the [rather than his] right of first refusal, ----"It" ud k o H k ; yg/ If any animal in the zoo escapes from its [rather than his] cage, all personnel shall immediately --------------"One" ud k oH k ; yg/ If one [rather than he] elects to file under section 335, -------"You" ud k oH k ; yg/ "Personal Pronoun" toHk;jyKjcif;ESifh pyfvsOf;í uefYowfcsKyfcs,frIrsm;ukd

tapmydkif;u aqG;aEG;cJhonf/ tcsdKUudpö&yfrsm;wGif "male pronoun" tpm; second

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; person "you" uko d ;Hk Ekid yf gonf/ oifcef;pm ñTeMf um;csuw f iG f A student must supply his own computer, [k ajymrnfhtpm; You must supply your own computer [k

ajymyg/ apcdkif;0dbwf "imperative mood" ud k o H k ; yg/ tvkyform;rsm;udk &nfnTef;aomvkyfief;pnf;rsOf;rsm;wGif Each employee shall stay at his work station until relieved by an employee on the next shift

[k ajymrnft h pm; Stay at your work station until you are relieved by an employee on the next shift. [k ajymyg/ "he" tpm; "he or she" ud k tpm;xd k ; oH k ; yg/ pum;vkH;azmif;yGonfhtwGufaMumifh "he or she" phrase onf ESpfvdkzG,f aumif;aom a&G;cs,fp&mr[kwfyg/ odkY&mwGif wpfenf;tm;jzifh vHk;0cGifhrjyKEdkifaom a&G;cs,frI "he/she" ? "s/he" odkYr[kwf "he" and "she" tokH;jyKjcif; odkYr[kwf tjcm;bmomaA'qdik &f m rudu k n f rD x I uf ydí k oifah vsmo f nf/ "he" udk yxrOD;pGmxm;jcif; onf rdrdESifh vdifrwlaomolrsm;udk csdK;ESdrfouJhokdY&Sdaomfvnf;yJ vltrsm;pku "she or he" ukdokH;jcif;onftvGefyiftm&kHaemufapaMumif; awGY&Sd&onf/ Plural Subjects (Subject trsm;) oH k ; yg/ Discursive writing wGif a&SUaersm;u plural subject udk toHk;jyKjcif;ESifh "they" ? "them" odrYk [kwf "their" jzifh ¤if;udk jyefvnf&nfñe T ;f jcif;jzifh gender-specific pronouns udk rMumcP a&Smif&mS ;Muonf/ omreftm;jzifh a&;qGc J ahJ om pmcsKypf mwrf; rsm;wGif singular subject toHk;jyKaomtcg a&G;cs,fydkifcGifhudk rMumcP r&Edkifyg/ odkY&mwGif ¤if;udk wpfcgwpf&H toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ A candidate for country council must pay a $ 500 filing fee. He must also provide a list of contributors. [k ajymrnfhtpm; Condidates for country council must pay a $ 500 filing fee. They must also provide a list of contributors. [k ajymyg/

toHk;tEIef; (2)rsdK;teufrS taumif;qHk;udk a&G;cs,f&ef BudK;yrf;&mwGif "An investor must notify their broker within 10 days" wGif yg&Sdonfhtwdkif; tcsKd Ua&;qGo J rl sm; u singular noun ESihf plural pronoun udk toH;k jyKMuonf/ noun/ pronoun disagreement yHp k t H csKd UtwGuf a&S;tpOftvm&Sad Mumif; vltenf;pku tcdik f trmajymEdkifaomfvnf;yJ ¤if;onf o'´genf;t& rSm;,Gif;aMumif;? ,kwådr&SdaMumif;ESifh aumif;rGeaf om style? usage ESiyhf wfoufaom pnf;rsO;f rsm;tay: gender sensitivity

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ESifhywfowfítedrfhtjrifh cGJjcm;rI rvdktyfjcif;jzpfonf/ Passive Voice oH k ; yg/ 4if;onf aemufq;kH tm;ud;k tm;xm;jyK toH;k jyKjcif;ESihf ywfoufonfh a&G;ydik cf iG hf wpfckvnf; jzpfonf/ When an applicant files Form 207, he must attach a photograph. [k ajymrnfhtpm; A photograph must be attached when an applicant files Form 207. [k ajymyg/ Gender-Neutral azmf j ycsuf y g a0g[m&rsm;ud k o H k ; yg/ man jzifhqHk;aom pum;vHk;rsm;udk gender-neutral a0g[m&rsm;jzifh tpm;xdk; Edkifonf/ Oyrm Þ (aumifpDtzGJU0if) councilman rS council member jzpfvmonf/ (trIxrf;azmfxrf;zuf) crewman rS crew member jzpfvmonf/ (a&;qGJol) draftsman rS drafter jzpfvmonf/ (rD;owform;) fireman rS fire fighter jzpfvmonf/ (qdyfurf;tvkyform;) longshoreman rS stevedore jzpfvmonf/ (rDwmzwfol) meterman (or-maid) rS meter reader jzpfvmonf/ (&Jt&m&Sd) policeman rS police officer jzpfvmonf/ (ta&mif;pma&;) salesman rS sales clerk jzpfvmonf/ (tapmif)h watchman rS guard jzpfvmonf/ "-man" ud k jzKwf y g od k Y r [k w f "-person" jzif h tpm;xd k ; yg/ "chairman" tpm; "chair" ESifh "anchorman" tpm; anchor onf vufcHEdkifaom

toHk;tEIef; jzpfvmonf/ odkYaomf tjcm;a0g[m&rsm;twGuf oabmwlnDcsufonf "-er" odr Yk [kwf "-person" jzifh "-man" udk tpm;xd;k &ef jzpfonf/ "spokesman" udk "spoker" [k oH;k jcif;xuf "spokesperson" [k oH;k vmMu onf/ od&Yk mwGif "draftsman" udk "draftsperon" oH;k jcif;xuf "drafter" [k oH;k vm Mu onf/ ok&Yd mwGif "-man" aemufqufa0g[m&tcsKd Uonf tvkyo f rm;or*¾EiS hf tvky&f iS f wdYk aqG;aEG;n§Ed idI ;f jcif; oabmwlnrD pI mcsKyrf sm;wGif "journeyman" uRr;f usit f vkyk o f rm; uJhodkYaom twwfynmESifhqdkifaom a0g[m&rsm;jzpfNyD; 4if;toHk;tEIef;onf txdkuf tavsmuf qufvufwnf&SdaeqJjzpfonf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; tcef ; (14) t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k o wf r S w f c suf r sm; (Definitions)

Oya'a&;qGo J rl sm;onf Oya'rsm;ESihf y#dÓOfpmcsKyrf sm;wGif oH;k pGaJ zmfjyxm;onfh toH;k tEI;H rsm;udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf kd owfrw S &f rnf/ wpfcgwpf&H þodYk owfrw S &f efrmS cufcw J wfygonf/ ao;i,faom bDueD D a&ul;0wfprkH sm;? twGi;f cHabmif;bDrsm;? twGi;f cHt0wfrsm; 0wfqifjyo onfh yGJrsm;ESifh t&ufqdkifrsm;wGif 0wfqifonfh 0wfpHkrsm;udk pdk;&drfonf/ zavmf&D'fjynfe,f&Sd NrKdUwpfNrKdUonf "wifyg;qHkrsm;" udk jyorIudk wm;jrpfonfh Oya'udk jy|mef;&ef vdkvm;cJhygonf/ Oya'a&;qGo J rl sm;onf cE¨mud, k 0f ,f ,if;tpdwt f ydik ;f udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd wfrw S &f ef atmufyg twdkif; aemufqHk;owfrSwfEdkifcJhygonf/ vlUcE¨mud, k 0f ,f aemufyikd ;f {&d,mjzpfNy;D rwfwyf&yfaeonft h cgwGif ajrjyifEiS hf tNyKid f oGm;aeonfh pdwu f ;l ,Of rsO;f ESpaf Mumif;twGi;f wnf&adS eygonf/ rsO;f \ yxr(odUk )tay:ydik ;f onf wifyg;qHrk sm;\ tuGaJ y:wGif qGJxm;NyD; (qdkvdkonfrSm <uufom;rsm;jzifh zGJUpnf;wnf&Sdonf/ odomxif&Sm;rIonf wifyg;\aemufzufrS ajcovHk;aemufzufodkY OD;wnfoGm;vsuf&Sdygonf/) 'kwd,(odkU)atmufajcrsOf;onf ,if;wifykqHkuGJaMumif;\ tedrfhqHk;jrifEdkifonfh trSwfodkY (odkU) tjyifokdY aumufxGufaeonfh aumufaMumif;\ tedrfhqHk;trSwf rnfonfhtrSwfrqdk ydkrdkí atmufoaYkd &mufaom trSwu f kd qGx J m;jcif;jzpfonf/ cE¨mud, k \ f wpfzufp&D dS pdwu f ;l ,Of rsO;f ESpf aMumif; ESpcf t k Mum;wGif ajrjyifukd awmifrh wfjzpfaeonfh rsO;f rsm;ESit hf xufwiG f azmfjyxm;onfh uefv Y efjY zwfrsO;f rsm;ESihf awmifrh wfjzpfaeonfh rsO;f rsm;onf wifyq k o kH m; wpfcpk o D nf ajcaxmuf wpfckpD\ tjyifydkif;udk awGUqHkonfhtrSwfudkjzwfí a&;qGJxm;ygonf/ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf tEkynmqefrnfr[kwfyg/ odkU&mwGif ,if;zGifhqdkcsufonf tenf;qHk; wdusrI &Sdygonf/ u/

toH k ; tEI e f ; \ taxG a xG p nf ; rsOf ; rsm; (General Principles of Usage) t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk owfrSwfcsufrsm;onf pmzwfolrsm;udk rnfonfh pmvHk; (odkU) pmpkonf rnfonft h "dygÜ ,f&o dS nfukd ajymjyay;ygonf/ t"dygÜ ,fowfrw S cf suo f nf a&;om;rIjrifrh m;vQif &Sif;vif;jywfom;rI? wdkwkwfrIESifh nDñGwfrI&Sdygonf/ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkowfrSwfcsufrsm;udk atmufygwdkYtwGuf avsmfuefoifhjrwfpGm toHk;jyKygonf,cifu tbd"mefwiG f t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;rIr&So d nfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm;ESihf cH,cl suf * rsm;tm; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk owfrSwfrIay;&ef? tESpfom&tm;jzifh oifhavsmfonfh emrfudk zefwD;ay;jcif;/

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t"dyÜg,f'Gd[ruif; jzpfapEdkifonfh tac:ta0:toHk;tEIef;rsm;\ &Sif;vif; jywfom;rI r&Sdjcif;udk ajz&Sif;&ef/ tbd"mefwGif bmompum;qdkif&m t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf &Sdaomfvnf; a00g;rI * jzpfaejcif;udk &Sif;vif;ap&ef/ bmompum;t"dyÜg,frS xkwfEIwfjcif; (odkU) jznfhpGufjcif;/ * t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf kd owfrw S cf surf sm;onf tpGr;f xufaom aq;rsm;yrmjzpfNy;D Oya'a&;qGo J l taejzifh owdxm;í tydktvdkr&Sd toHk;jyKoifhygonf/ nHhzsif;pGm a&;qGJxm;aom t"dyÜg,fzGifh qdck suo f nf pm&Gupf mwrf;wGif ,if;toH;k tEIe;f udk oH;k onfah e&mwdik ;f ü t"dygÜ ,fukd ysuq f ;D ap ygvdrfhrnf/ rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsuf zefwD;wdkif; atmufygwdkYudk xnfhoGif; pOf;pm;oifyh gonf/ tvGeu f s,jf yefpY mG (odUk ) usO;f ajrmif;pGm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;onf r&nf&, G b f J 'G[ d ruif; jzpfapjcif; (odUk ) tusK;d tjrwfEiS hf wm0efrsm;udk ae&majymif;a&TUapjcif;wdUk jzpfEikd yf gonf/ t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkxm;onfh toH;k tEIe;f udk qdv k &kd if;t"dygÜ ,ftm; oufoufrhJ rIe0f g;ap&ef &nf&, G í f vnf; toH;k jyKEikd yf gonf/ owdjyKreI nf;yg;onfh pmzwfolrsm;onf toHk;tEIef;wpfck\ rl&if;? omref t"dygÜ ,f[k rMumcPxifrw S Nf y;D &Si;f vif;pGm od&&dS eftwGuf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f @odYk &nfñeT ;f &SmazG avhvmrnfr[kwfyg/ y#dÓOfwGif azmfjyxm;csufudk pOf;pm;Munfhyg/ a'ocHurk P Ü o D Ykd wifjyxm;aom aiGjyefvnfawmif;cHru I kd "vufc&H &So d nfah eYrS &uf(90) twGif; ...aiGtjynfh ay;acsrnf/ (Paid In Full)" ,if;pmom;yg pum;vHk;\tprsm;udk pmvHk;tBuD;jzifh xif&Sm;pGm a&;om;xm;NyD; xdktoHk;tEIef;rsm;udk aemufydkif;pmrsufESmrsm;wGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;ygonf/ tjynfht0 aiGtrf;ygrnf[laom t"dyÜg,fudk zGifhqdkxm;onfrSm"(jynfywdi k ;f jynf (odUk ) Edik if t H rnf" \ w&m;0ifaiGjzifh ay;acs rnfjzpfNy;D vuf&adS iGvv J , S Ef eI ;f jzifh wGufcsufrnf "ESifh" w½kwfEdkifiH&Sd ukrÜPDtaejzifhvnf;aumif; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;onf/ awmif;qdkrIudk vufcH&&Sdonfhtcg"[kvnf; toD;oD;t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;ygonf/ odkU&mwGif owdjyKyg/ oifu tac:a0:udk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkygu pmwrf;xJwGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;onfh &nf&G,fcsuftwdkif;om toHk;jyK&rnf jzpfonf/ xdkuJhodkY toHk;rjyKygu 'Gd[ruif;rIjzpfay: vmygvdrfhrnf/ þtcsufonf t*FvdyfpmpDpmuHk; oifwef;rsm;rS xufjrufonfh ajymif;vJjcif; vufawGUaqmif&u G rf EI iS hf txl;qufpyfvsu&f ydS gonf/ þoifwef;rsm;onf wlnaD om oabm w&m;twGuf pum;vH;k rsm; tBurd Bf urd jf yefo;kH jcif;udk a&Smif&mS ;&eftwGuf uGjJ ym;aom pum;vH;k rsm; toHk;jyKjcif;udk tm;ay;avh &Sdygonf/ Oya'a&;qGJ&mwGif þpnf;rsOf;onf uGJjym;ygonf/ "tBudrfwdkif;wGif wlnDaom t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftwGuf wlnDaom pum;vHk;udkom oHk;yg/" *

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

a00g;rIjzpfapEdik o f nfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk &nf&, G cf surf &Sd oH;k pGrJ rI S umuG,f&ef tvdYik mS Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;onf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom tac:ta0:rsm;\ pHEeI ;f yHpk u H kd owfrw S x f m;ygonf/ ,if;owfrw S cf suo f nf yHpk \ H omrefpnf;rsO;f rsm; pmvH;k tBu;D owfrSwfjcif;ESifh tjcm;tvm;wl pnf;rsOf;rsm; yg0ifygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh- yxrpmvHk;udk tBuD;oHk;jcif;? pmvHk;tm;vHk;udk tBuD;oHk;jcif;? pmvHk; tapmif;? pmvHk;trJ (odkU) atmufajcrsOf;om;jcif;wkdY yg0ifygonf/ ydkrdktoHk;rsm;onfh yHkpHrSm yxrpum;vH;k udk pmvH;k tBu;D oH;k jcif;jzpfNy;D t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f udk oifah vsmo f nfh emrftaejzifh xyfrHEIdif;,SOf &Sif;vif;azmfjyjcif; jzpfygonf/ yxrpmvH;k udk pmvH;k tBu;D oH;k jcif;onf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f udk oifah vsmf onfhemrf\ ta&;ygaom umuG,frIwpfcktaejzifh zHk;vTrf;xm;ygonf/ þodkYjyKvkyfjcif;rSm oifjh rwfavsmu f efygonf/ taMumif;rSm pmwrf;wpfcv k ;kH wGif toH;k tEIe;f onf tESpo f m&tm;jzifh oifah vsmo f nfeh mrfwpfcjk zpfvmygonf/ þpmtkyo f nf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f udk ueOD; t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd nft h cgwGif oD;jcm;azmfjyonft h aejzifh uGi;f jzifjh zpfap? tjcm;aom trSwf tom;jzifjh zpfap ydik ;f jcm;xm;jcif;ESihf rsuaf wmif? tzGit hf ydwo f ;kH í azmfjyjcif;wdjYk zifh azmfjyxm; ygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzif-h ------ZGefv (7)&uf? 2005------(tcsdefaphonfhaeY) ------ June 7 2005 ------ (Due Date) t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f udk aemufyikd ;f wGif oH;k pGo J nft h cg ¤if;yxrpmvH;k tm; pmvHk;tBuD; oHk;jcif;jzifh azmfjyrnfjzpfNyD; rsufawmif tzGifhtydwf roHk;yg/ Oyrmtm;jzif-h "------tcsdefaphonfh&ufwGif ay;oGif;rnfholonf -------" " ------ on the Due Date the payer shall -------"

þoH;k EIe;f jcif;onf taumif;qH;k ajz&Si;f enf;r[kwyf g/ taMumif;rSm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f udk 4if;zGiq hf ckd suf obm0twdik ;f tBurd w f ikd ;f oH;k pGjJ cif;rS ¤if;udo k ;kH pGo J nft h Burd w f ikd ;f ¤if;\ yxrpmvH;k udk pmvH;k tBu;D ajymif;vJ&onfh 'ku©odkY ajymif;vJjcif; jzpfygonf/ odkY&mwGif xdkuJhodkYajymif;vJjcif;onf vufawGUusifhoHk;rIrsm;aom ajz&Sif;enf;jzpfygonf/ aemufqHk;taejzifh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf aygif;pnf;yg0ifrI (odkU) oD;oefYjzpfap&ef tav;*½kjyK&rnf jzpfygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh- ukefoG,frI vQKdU0Sufcsufonf todÓPfypönf; taejzifh jzpf^rjzpf atmufygt"dyÜg,f owfrSwfcsufwpfckt& pOf;pm;Munfhygaygif;pnf;yg0ifrI ; todÓPfypön;f qdo k nfrmS wDxiG rf I rlyikd cf iG ?hf rlyikd cf iG Ehf iS hf ukef trSww f q H yd rf sm; tm;vH;k yg0ifonfh a,bl,so;kH EIe;f xm;onfh toHk;tEIef;jzpfygonf/ (rSefonf)

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; todÓPfypön;f qdo k nfrmS wDxiG rf ?I rlyikd cf iG Ehf iS hf uket f rSwf wHqyd rf sm; jzpfygonf/ (rSm;onf) a00g;rI ; todÓPfypön;f qdo k nfrmS wDxiG rf ?I rlyikd cf iG Ehf iS hf uket f rSwf wHqyd rf sm; jzpfonf/ (jzpfaumif;jzpfrnf?) pmcsKy0f ifrsm;tm; t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf ½Iyaf xG;Edik yf gonf/ Oyrmtm;jzif-h "aiGaMu; ukrP Ü BD u;D "udk ESpb f ufem;vnfrjI zihf pGev Yf w T rf I oabmwlncD suw f iG f t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd m" aiGaMu; ukrÜPDBuD; tifefcf" (By Financial Co.,Inc)ESifh 4if;\ vufatmufcHtzGJUpcef;rsm;? rdb aumfydka&;&Sif;? t&m&Sdrsm;? 0efxrf;rsm;? a&SUaersm;ESifh pm&if;udkifrsm;yg yg0ifonf[k t"dyÜg,f zGiq hf kd xm;ygonf/ aiGaMu;ukrP Ü BD u;D rsm;ESihf qufpyfow l u Ykd kd wpfbufurk P Ü rD S awmif;qdEk ikd cf iG u hf kd pGefYvTwfjcif;jzpfonf/ xdkaiGaMu;ukrÜPDBuD;onfvnf; tvm;wlpGmyif wpfbufukrÜPDESifh qufpyfaeoltm;vH;k udk awmif;qdEk ikd cf iG rhf S pGev Yf w T af y;Edik rf nfavm/ udp&ö yf tawmfrsm;rsm;wGif þodUk jzpf&ef cJ,Of;ygvdrrhf nf/ aocsmpGmpOf;pm;Munfyh g[k t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;olrsm; tm;vH;k \ pGefYvTwfrIyg0ifEdkifrnfvm;/ tajctaet& udpötrsm;pkwGif aocsmpOf;pm;oifhygonf/ 1/

t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf & S d N yD ; jzpf a om toH k ; tEI e f ; rsm; (Terms with Established Meanings)

tbd"gefwGif tvHktavmufjynfhpHkpGm t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf &SdNyD;jzpfonfh toHk;tEIef;udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif; rjyKygESi/hf Oyrmtm;jzihf jynfaxmifppk nf;rsO;f wGif awGU&S&d onfh vH;k 0rvdt k yf onfh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqkdcsufudk pOf;pm;Munfhyg/ "yHp k "H qdo k nfrmS &ufp?JG trnf? tao;pdwjf znf&h eftcsurf sm; odUk r[kwf tjcm;aom udp&ö yfrsm;jznfph u G &f ef twGuf uGuv f yfae&mrsm; pmxJwiG x f nh&f eftwH;k rsm; odrYk [kwf vdik ;f rsm;yg&So d nfh pm&Guw f pf&u G f jzpfonf/ toH;k tEIe;f udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;rjyKrD rjzwfrawmuftwdck sKyrf jyKvyk x f m;onft h bd"gef? Oya'tbd"gef odrYk [kwf Oya'a&;&m toH;k tEIe;f azmfjyonfh pmtkyEf iS hf pmvH;k rsm;pmwGpJ rk sm;udk ppfaq;Munfh½Iyg/ þpmtkyfrsm;udk avhvmNyD;rS t"dyÜg,ftopfzGifhqdk&efvdk^rvdk Oya'rlMurf; a&;olonfpOf;pm;qHk;jzwfEdkifrnf/ 2/

tEk y nmyd k i f ; qd k i f & m toH k ; tEI e f ; ES i f h ynm&yf y d k i f ; qd k i f & m toH k ; tEI e f ; rsm; ( Terms of Art and Technical Terms)

tEkynmajrmufaom Oya'ydik ;f qdik &f m toH;k tEIe;f rsm;ESihf tjcm;aom ynm&yfyikd ;f qdik &f m

314

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

toHk;tEIef;rsm;wGif t"dyÜg,ftajcwuszGifhqdkxm;csufrsm;&SdNyD;jzpfaomfvnf; Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf 4if;t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;udk jyefvnfazmfjy&ef a&G;cs,v f u kd a&G;cs,Ef ikd yf gonf/ &nf&G,fxm;onfh pmzwfy&dowfonf toHk;tEIef;rsm; rnfonfht"dyÜg,f&Sdonfudk rod&Sdjcif; odrYk [kwf toH;k tEIe;f rsm;wGif txl;t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd su&f o dS nf[k oHo,&So d rl sm; yg0ifygu xdo k Ykd azmfjyjcif;onf txl;rSefuefygonf/ pm;oHk;olrsm;ESifh pD;yGm;a&;oabmwlnDrIrsm;wGif toH;k jyKonfh pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;ü þodYk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm; yg0ifavh&ydS gonf/ aiGacs;pmcsKyf wGif Oyrmtm;jzifh atmufygt"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkcsufrsdK; oifhawmfovdk yg0ifwwfygonf/ "aygifESHjcif;" qdkonfrSmacs;,lolydkifqdkifonfh ra&GUrajymif;Edkifonfh odkYr[kwf udk,fydkif ypönf;tay:wGif acs;aiGtwGuf jyefvnfay;qyf&efvHkNcHKrIjzihf&,lxm;onfh tmrcH odkYr[kwf odrf;,lxm;ydkifcGifhjzpfonf/ 3/

wpf c goH k ; tvG , f q H k ; t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf r sm; (Humpty Dumpty -Definitions )

toH;k tEIe;f wpfcu k 4kd if;tm;a,bk,svufcx H m;onfh odUk r[kwf tbd"geft"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf kd csufESifh vHk;0uGJvGJonfhenf;jzihf t"dyÜg,frzGifhqdkygESifh/ þodkY t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;u wpfcgoHk; tvG,q f ;kH "Humpty Dumpty" t"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf jkd cif;[k Lewis Caroll \0wåKyg Zmwfaumifukd *kPfjyKonfhtaejzihfac:qdkxm;ygonf/ 4if;u atmufygtwkdif; xifjrifcsufay;xm;ygonf"Humpty Dumpty" onf rESpfNrdKonfh avoHjzihfajymMum;onfrSm "uRefawmftoHk; tEIe;f wpfcu k kd toH;k jyKygu ,if;t"dygÜ ,fonf uReaf wmfa&G;cs,x f m;onfh qdv k ckd suo f mjzpfNy;D ,if;xufydkjcif;? avsmhjcif;&Sdonfh t"dyÜg,frjzpfEdkifygbl;" "tJvpfu ajymqdkonfrSm" ar;cGef;xkwf&ef&Sdonfuawmh "oifhtaeESifh pmvHk;rsm;udk uGJjym;jcm;em;oabmt& t"dyÜg,foufa&muf&efvkyfEdkifjcif; &Sd^r&SdbJ jzpfygw,f/" Humpty Dumpty uajymonfrSm "ar;cGef;uawmh rnfolu ocifjzpfoenf;/ 'gu t"du&nf&, G f csuyf gbJ" Humpty Dumpty \ajzMum;csuo f nf ynm&yfyikd ;f t&rSeu f efygonf/ Oya' a&;qGo J l rsm;onf þae&mwGif vH;k 0vGwv f yfciG &hf ydS gonf/ olt Y aejzihf vH;k 0qE´&ydS gu bmompum;wpfc?k pmvHk;opfwpfckudk topfzefwD;Edkifygonf/ " Uittithiday " qdkonfrSm ,HkMunfpdwfcspGmjzifh 0,f,loljzpfygonf/ "Flibbeidejibbit " qdo k nfrmS rlva&mif;olukd qefu Y sií f wifjyvmonfw h wd,ol\ umuG,rf u I kd y"merxm;jcif;udk qkv d ykd gonf/

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xdkaMumifha&;qGJxm;aompmwrf;onf "Uittithiday huh? Flibbeidejibbit" ydka&; Edik yf gonf/ þonfrmS vk;H 0,kwrdå &Syd g/ odaYk omf jynfaxmifpt k pd;k &\Oya'rS &&Sx d m;aom atmufyg t"dyÜg,fzGihfqdkcsufukd pOf;pm;MunfhygpdkU/ "19 pufwifbm 1940" qdkonfrSm "27 ZGefv 1950" jzpfonf/ jynfaxmifpt k pd;k &onf pufwifbmv 16&uf 1940jynfEh pS o f nf rnfonfukd qdv k o kd nf udo k rd nfrmS {uefrck sjzpfEikd yf gonf/ xdak zmfjycsu\ f ocifjzpfonf/ od&Yk mwGif rdu k ½f ;l aomocif jzpfygonf/ odkY&mwGif ½l;oGyfrIowfowfxuf ydkygonf/ OD;pGm Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf "tay:" qdkonfhpum;udk "urÇmajrjyif\ tv,fA[dkodkY" [k t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcJhrnfjzpfNyD; aemufydkif;wGif ,if;odkY zGifhqdkcJhonfukd arhavsmhoGm;NyD; "tay:" qdkaom pum;vHk;udk rlvt"dyÜg,ftwdkif; oHk;pGJjyef&m? pmwrf;\ aemufydkif;wGif a&;om;csufwdkYonf &Sif;vif;jywfom;rI r&Sdap&ef zefwD; ouJo h jYkd zpfygonf/ 'kwd,tm;jzihf yHkrSefpmzwfolonf xdkyHkrSefr[kwfaom t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk arhavsmh oGm;Edik Nf y;D rlvt"dygÜ ,ftwdik ;f em;vnfNy;D y#dnmOfuv kd rf;aMumif; vdu k v f aJG pygonf/ t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkcsufonf vufcHEdkifaom odkYr[kwf tbd"gefwGifyg&Sdaom qdkvdk&if;ESifh qefYusifaeygu y#dnmOfpmcsKyu f kd ra&;cJo h nfph mcsKy0f ifonf ,if;xl;jcm;pGm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suaf Mumifh odompGm tm;enf;apvQif w&m;½Hk;onf xdkrvdkvm;tyfaom pmom;rsm;aMumifhyif y#dnmOfpmcsKyfudk twnfjyK&efjiif;qdEk ikd yf gonf/ wwd,taejzihf Humpty Dumpty t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;onf oifah vsmaf om toH;k tEIef;wpfck\ vufcHEdkifaomt"dyÜg,fudk qHk;½HI;apNyD;? &nfñTef;&efr&Sdaom tajctaeudk a&mufapygonf/ tu,fí "tay:odUk " [lonfph mom;udk rdrw d yYdk rkH eS t f m;jzifh em;vnfxm;onfh "atmufodkY" [lonfh toHk;tEIef;jzpfonf[k t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk rnfqdkygpdkY? xdkodkYqdkvQif urÇmBuD; tv,fA[dkrS aumif;uifodkUwufonf[k ajymvdkvQif? rnfodkYajymrnfenf;/ "tay:odkU" [k csdKU,Gif;pGmjzihf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkol rlMurf;a&;qGJcJholonf "atmufodkY" [lonfh pum;vHk;udk "tay:odkU" [k ajymif;jyeft"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkrnfavm/ aemufq;kH tm;jzifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x dk m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f rsm;udk oH;k pGjJ cif;jzihf rSm;,Gi;f aom em;vnfrI vGrJ mS ;apjcif;\ usi0hf wfqikd &f m tusKd ;oufa&mufrrI sm;udyk g pOf;pm;&ayrnf/ y#dnmOf udk a&SUaetkypf w k pfprk aS &;om;onfh yHpk w H pfcjk zpfNy;D ? pD;yGm;a&;vkyif ef;&Sirf sm;odYk a&SUaer[kwo f rl sm;u wpfqifjh zefaY 0Ny;D pm;oH;k olrsm;? oH;k pGo J rl sm;vufoYkd a&mufomG ;onfqykd gpd/Yk rnfojYkd zpfygrnfenf;/

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xufjrufaom? qGaJ qmifEikd af om y#dnmOfpmcsKyaf &;qGjJ cif;onf usi0hf wf e,ferd w d pf nf;rsO;f udk ausmfvGefNyD; jypfrIajrmufaom? usifh0wfrnDaom odkUr[kwf udk,fusihfw&m; raumif;aom? epfemapaompmcsKyjf zpfomG ;jcif; &Srd &Sw d ikd ;f wmaom pHEeI ;f rsm;&Syd govm;/ owfrw S cf su&f ydS govm;/ wdusaom tajzvHk;0r&Sdyg/ 4/

vnf y wf a eaom t"d y Ü g ,f o wf r S w f c suf (Circular Definitions) toHk;tEIef;wpfcktm; t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsuf&mwGif &nfñTef;jcif;rjyK&yg/ þonf vnfywfaeonfh t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsufjzpfygonf/ "aESmifh,Sufjcif;" qdkonfrSm wpfOD;wpfa,mufudk OD;wnfíjyif;xefpGm tvefYwMum; jzpfap&ef? taESmifht,Sufjzpfap&ef? pdwfnpfnL;ap&ef aqmif&Gufcsufjzpfonf/ pum;pkjzihf azmfjycsuu f kd taumiftxnfazmfonfh oabmw&m;udk &nfñeT ;f oH;k pGo J nfh tcg ,if;pum;pkwiG yf g&So d nfh pum;vH;k wpfcu k o kd m t"dygÜ ,fowfrw S &f ef vkt d yfaMumif; Oya' rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l pfcsKd Uu todtrSwjf yKMuonf/ Oyrmtm;jzihf jyXmef;rIwpf&yfwiG f "aps;avsmí h tmrcHxm;aom armfawmfum;armif;ol" [lonft h oH;k tEIe;f udk cPcP&nfñeT ;f xm;rnfjzpfNy;D aps;EIe;f avsmí h tmrcHxm;aompum;vH;k onfom &Si;f vif;csuv f t kd yfrnfjzpfonf/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJoltcsdKUonf pum;pkwpfckvHk;tm; um;armif;ol[laom ydkrdkus,fjyefYaomtkyfpk\ tcGJtaejzifh oabmobm0nDñGwfrIxdef;odrf;&ef t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkMuygonf/ "aps;avsmí h tmrcHxm;aom um;armif;ol" qdo k nfrmS um;armif;olonf rawmfwq ,mOfwdkufrIwpfck vlwpfOD;pDtwGuf 4if;\ udk,fykdifwm0ef&SdrIudk a':vm 25000 atmufxm; &Sjd cif;jzpfygonf/ tjcm;aom Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf pnf;rsOf;twdkif;vdkufemNyD; "aps;avsmhí tmrcHxm;jcif;" [laom t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfzGifhqdkcsufudkum; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkvdrfhrnf/ "aps;avsmí h tmrcHxm;jcif;"qdo k nfrmS vlwpfO;D csi;f twGuf rawmfwqxdcu kd rf w I pfcpk D twGuf yk*¾dKvfa&;t& wm0ef&SdrIudk a':vm 25000 atmufxm;&Sdjcif;jzpfygonf/

wpf B ud r f o H k ; t"d y Ü g ,f o wf r S w f j cif ; rsm; (One-Shot Definitions) t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsufrsm;onftajccHtm;jzihftoHk;0ifygonf/ tb,faMumifhqdkaomf pm&Gufpmwrf; wpfckwGif &Snfvsm;aompum;vHk;rsm; xyfwvJvJyg0ifonfhtBudrfwdkif; 4if;udk xyfro H ;kH EIe;f &jcif;udk a&Smif&mS ;Edik yf gonf/ xdo k abmw&m;udak zmfjyonfh toH;k tEIe;f udk t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkay;xm;jcif;jzpfygonf/ pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;wpfck\ wm0efcHt0,fawmfudk,fpm;vS,f (10)OD;&SdvQif 4if;wdkYtm;vHk;\trnfudk wm0efcHudk,fpm;vS,frsm;ESifh ywfowfonfhudpö&yf

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ay:aygufwkdif; xyfwvJvJ xnfhoGif;ajymqkdae&jcif;onf aESmihfaES;NyD; pum;vHk;rsm; azmif;yG aernfjzpfonf/ xkad Mumifh wm0efcu H , kd pf m;vS,rf sm;udk 4if;(10)OD;twGuf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;Ny;D 4if;t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd oH;k pGyJ gu pum;vH;k \pD;yGm;a&;qefqef pum;vH;k acRwm&m ajrmufyg onf/ tjcm;wpfzufrmS rl pmwrf;wpfcv k ;kH wGif wpfBurd o f m&nfñeT ;f onfh pum;vH;k udk t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkygu pD;yGm;a&;qefqef pum;vHk; acRwm&m rajrmufEdkifyg/ pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;rSt&m&Sdonf ESpfpOftrIaqmifñTefMum;a&;rSL;tzGJUudk pawmh&S,f,m ydik q f ikd rf I odrYk [kwf tjcm;aomtNyKd it f qdik v f yk if ef;wdEYk iS hf aiGaMu;aqmif&u G rf w I u Ykd kd wifjy&onf/ þjy|mef; csuftvdkYiSm pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;\t&m&SdqdkonfrSm OuúX? 'kOuúX? twGif;a&;rSL;ESifh tufcfrDpufrIvkyfief;\ b@ma&;rSL;wdkYyg0ifNyD; xdkvkyfief;\ Oya'tBuHay; ryg0ifay/ (t&Snfacguf) OuúX? 'kOuúX? twGif;a&;rSL;ESifh tufcfrDpufrIvkyfief;\ b@ma&;rSL;onf ESpfpOf trIaqmifñeT Mf um;a&;rSL;tzGUJ udk 4if;wdpYk awmh&, S , f mydik q f idk rf I tufcrf D pufrv I yk if ef;ESiw hf u kd ½f u kd f tNydKif pD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;rsm;ESifh aiGaMu;qufpyfrIudk wifjy&onf/ (twdkacguf) odkY&mwGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;onfhoabmw&m;onf ½IwfaxG;rI&SdNyD; ,if;udk ta&;yg aom jyXmef;csut f wGi;f xnfo h iG ;f jcif;jzifh pmaMumif;onfrvdt k yfbJ &Snv f sm;aeonft h cgwGif wpfBudrfoHk; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufoHk;jcif;onf rSefuefnDnGwfygonf/ "0efxrf;wpfO;D onf a':vm 50 odr Yk [kwf ,if;xufyí kd wefz;kd &Sad om ukrP Ü yD ikd yf pön;f ck;d rI? t&uf(od)Yk rl;,pfaq;0g;oH;k pGx J m;rIaMumifh wkejYf yeftm;aESmifah ES;csed w f iG f ukrP Ü yD ikd , f mOf(odUk r[kw)f 0efcspD ufuakd rmif;ESijf cif; (odUk r[kw)f tjcm;vlwpfO;D wpfa,muftm; rvdv k m;aom rBuKd qakd om xdawGUykwfjcif;? qdwfjcif;? yGwfoyfjcif;? &nf&G,fcsufjzifh rvdktyfaom cE¨mudk,fjcif; yGwfrd ap&efaqmif&u G jf cif;? vdiyf ikd ;f qdik &f mtwdtvif; tqdjk yKr?I xduyg;? &duyg;jzift h BujH yKr?I vdiyf ikd ;f qdik &f mpaemufjcif; (odUk r[kw)f oifMum;jcif;? vdiEf iS q hf ikd af om aemufajymifjcif; (odrYk [kw)f vdiyf ikd ;f qkid &f m vIy&f mS ;rIjyKjcif;? rSwcf sujf yKjcif;? npfnrf;aom bmompum;? trlt&m vIy&f mS ;rljyKvyk jf cif; (odUk r[kw)f npfnrf;aom yHEk ydS x f m;onfph m&Gupf mwrf;rsm;? "gwfyrkH sm; jyojcif;? roifah vsmaf om ud, k af eud, k x f m;rsm;ESihf tjcm;ol\vdiyf ikd ;f qdik &f mud, k yf ikd v f w G v f yfru I kd aESmif, h u S &f efBuKd ;yrf;jcif; wdkYtwGuf csufcsif;tvkyfrS &yfem;cH&rnf/" xdkodkYaom ta&;BuD;onfh wm;jrpfcsufudk vdifydkif;qdkif&m aESmifh,Sufxdyg;rI[kqdkvQif ydkrdkaumif;rGefaom pum;vHk;jzpfrnfjzpfNyD; oD;jcm;pmaMumif;wGif ,if;toHk;tEIef;udk tus,f w0ifh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkazmfjy&rnf/ ,if;odkYazmfjyjcif;jzifh BuD;Muyfoltxuf t&m&Sd\ pnf;rsOf; pnf;urf;qdkif&m tpD&ifcHpmponfh tjcm;aompm&Guf pmwrf;rsm;wGif tus,fw0ifh &Sif;vif; jyojcif;xuf "t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf" udkom toHk;jyK&eftcGifhtvrf; &&Sdayvdrfhrnf/

318

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k j cif ; qd k i f & muG e f , uf 0 uF b m (Definitional Mazes) t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf toH;k tEIe;f wpfcu k kd oH;k pGo J nft h cg ,if;toH;k tEIe;f ud, k w f ikd u f onfyifvQif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf\ bmom&yfjzpfonfhtcg (,if;toHk;tEIef;onf xyfrHí t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkrI vdktyfaeygu) pmzwfolrsm;onf uGef,uf0uFbmtwGif;odkU 0ifa&mufjcif; jzpfNyD; pmzwfjcif;rNyD;qHk;rD qufrzwfbJ pGefYypfxm;ygvrfhrnf/ þodkY jyKvkyfjcif;onf pm&Gupf mwrf;\tcsw d t f quf qufo, G rf u I kd vH;k 0ysujf ym;apygonf/ atmufygOya' wpfc\ k t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufu@rS uGef,uf0uFbmudk azmfjy&ef xnfhoGif;xm;onfhtcsufrsm;udk pOf;pm;yg/ (1) "aps;avsmv h sut f mrcHxm;&Sad om armfawmfum;orm;" qdo k nfrmS xdak rmfawmfum;udk xde;f csKyñ f eT Mf um;Edik cf iG &hf o dS nfh ydik &f iS ?f vkyif ef;aqmif&u G o f ?l c&D;onf? tiSm;csxm;ol (odUk r[kw)f vlwpfOD;wpfa,muf---(6) "ydkif&Sif"wGif armfawmfum;udk 4if;\trnfjzifh ydkifqdkifrI&Sdjcif;? tiSm;csxm;jcif;? iSm;&rf;&eftmrcHxm;jcif;ESifh vHkNcHKaom tusdK;cHpm;cGifhudk udkifxm;olwdkYyg0ifonf/ (9) "vHkNcHKaomtudsK;cHpm;cGifhudk vufukdifxm;ol" qdkonfrSm udk"yk'fr 14(c)-67-3^(u) wGift"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk xm;onfh odrf;,lydkifcGifh "tmrcHuikd af qmifxm;cGi&hf o dS l"jzpfygonf/ xkdtcgwGifpmzwfolonf Oya'udk xyfrH&nfñTef;udk;um;&ef qufvufavhvmNyD; &SmazGonfhtcg 3(u) "odr;f ,lyikd cf iG hf tmrcHuikd af qmifxm;cGi&hf o dS "l wGif . . . . yg0ifNy;D ? tjcm;aom odrf;,lydkifcGifh r&Sdaomfvnf; tusdK;cHpm;cGifh&Sdolrsm;vnf; yg0ifaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/ 3(u) "ypön;f tusKd ;cHpm;cGi"hf wGif ukeyf pön;f tay:wGio f m wlnrD QtusKd ;cHpm;cGihf yg0if ygonf/

ta&;BuD ; aomud p ö & yf r sm; (Substantive Matters) t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;onfph um;vH;k rsm;twGuf teufziG q hf akd y;Ny;D 4if;wdUk udt k a&;ygaom tcsut f vufrsm;twGuf yHy;kd ay;&efomjzpfygonf/ ta&;Bu;D aomjyXmef;csurf sm;udk t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkcsufwGif tcef;wGifxnfhoGif; jr§Kyfvdkufjcif;onf qdk;&Gm;aom tusdK;qufrsm;jzpfEdkifjcif; (odkUr[kwf) qdkvdk&if;udkrIefrIdif;ap&ef &nf&G,fí jyKvkyfEdkifonf/ a&;qGJolonf ta&;BuD;aom tcsuu f kd xdo k x Ykd nfo h iG ;f cJah Mumif;udk arhaumif;arhNy;D t"du pmud, k yf ikd ;f wGif a&SUaemufnñ D w G rf I r&Sdaom jyXmef;csufpmydk'fwpfckudk xyfrxnfhoGif;jyefygu oJuGJ&Sif;vif;rI r&Sdap&ef zefwD; ay;ovdjk zpfaeygrnf/ t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;udk aocsmpGm*&kjyKí zwf½&I ef rvdt k yf[k ,lqonfh y#dnmOfpmcsKy0f ifrsm;onf r&nf&, G b f J pmcsKyEf iS t hf nDraqmif&u G v f Qif Bu;D rm;aom wm0ef&rdS u I kd

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319

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320

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oifhavsmfonfh ukefo,f,lonfh ypönf;ud&d,mrsm;&SdNyD; ypönf;rsm;udk xdcdkufrIr&SdapbJ toHk;jyK Edik rf nfjzpfonf/ "where" "vdt k yfygu"pum;pkonf a&mif;oltay: txift&Sm;wm0efay;tyfjcif;jzpfí y#dnmOf\ ta&;ygaomtydkif;wGif ryg0ifoifhyg/ tu,fí ukefwifukefcs&ef qdyfurf;wGif &ufwdkufonfh jyóemwpfpHkwpf&m&Sdygu y#dnmOfpmcsKyf0ifrsm;onf 4if;wdkY\ tjiif;yGm;udk ajz&Si;f &ef rnfou l rQ t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sucf ef;udk Munf&h ef pOf;pm;rnfr[kwyf g/ tu,fí tqdyk g t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftydkif;udk Munfhyguvnf; 0guswGifvdktyfcsufudka&SUwGifxm;í pDxm;ojzihf ukefwifukefcsypönf;ay;&ef rnfolYwGif wm0ef&SdonfrSm &Sif;vif;rI&Sdrnfr[kwfyg/ aemufq;kH taejzihf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suw f iG t f a&;Bu;D onfh vdt k yfcsurf sm;onf wpfcgwpf&H rarQmfrSef;xm;onfh uGufvyfrsm;udkzefwD;wwfygonf/ "ukeaf &mif;ol"qdo k nfrmS yef;NcrH sm;Xme\ nGeMf um;a&;rSL;u vdik pf ifxw k af y;xm;onfh tpm;taomuf? tazsmf,rum? vufaqmifypönf; (odkY) tjcm;aom ypönf;rsm;a&mif;csonfh yk*¾dKvfudkqdkvdkonf/ odomxif&mS ;onf&h nf&, G cf surf mS ukeaf &mif;olwt Ykd m; vdik pf ifxw k af y;xm;&rnf [lonf rSm ta&;ygonfh jyXmef;csujf zpfygonf/ pnf;rsO;f \ tjcm;aom tyd'k w f pfcw k iG f ukeaf &mif;olukd yef;Nc\ H tcsKd Uaomowfrw S {f &d,mrsm;wGif vkyu f ikd jf cif;udk wm;jrpfxm;onf[k pOf;pm;Munhyf gpd/Yk q,fvq D o kd nft h rsKd ;orD;onf vdik pf ifxw k af y;xm;jcif; r&Sb d w J m;jrpfxm;onfah e&mwGif aygifrek Yf tpmoGyaf &mif;aeonf/ od&Yk mwGio f o l nf vdik pf if&&Sjd cif; r&Sí d "ukeaf &mif;ol" [lonfh t"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf ckd suw f iG v f nf; tBuKH ;0ifjcif; r&Syd g/ xdt k usKd ;qufaMumifh olronf pnf;rsO;f udk csKd ;azmufjcif; r&Syd g/ */

&nf n T e f ; jcif ; jzif h t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf w G i f x nf h o G i f ; azmf j yjcif ; (Definitions Incorporated by Reference)

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a&SmufrI0efaqmifrI" udk todtrSwfjyKvufrSwfxkwfay;jcif;twGuf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;EdkifNyD; tjcm;Oya'wpfckwGif ,if;udk tcGefuif;vGwfcGifhudpö&yfiSm &nf&G,fazmfjyEdkifayonf/ 'kw, d tm;jzifh w&m;½H;k rsm;onf yxrOya'xJwiG yf g&Sad om t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd yxr Oya'twGuf vH;k 0oifah vsmo f nfh teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf rkd u I kd jyKvyk Ef ikd Nf y;D ,if;t"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf ckd suf onf &nfñTef;csufjyKvkyfí xnfo h iG ;f azmfjyxm;onfOh ya'twGuf oifah vsmrnfr[kwaf y/ tu,fí teuft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd nf jzpfavhjzpfx&So d nft h wdik ;f &nfñeT ;f azmfjyaom Oya'opf aemufudkvdkufvQif rqDavsmfrI? rSm;,Gif;rIrsm; jzpfay:Edkifayonf/ wwd,tm;jzifh yxrOyrmonf jyifqifjcif; (odrYk [kw)f ½kwo f rd ;f jcif;jyKvyk Ef ikd Nf y;D xdo k Ykd jzpfjcif;twGuf Oya'jyKow l o Ykd nf 'kw, d Oya'ay:wGijf zpfrnfh tusKd ;qufukd rpOf;pm;rdMuay/ þtajctaewGif tqdkyg t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf 'kwd,Oya'tay:wGif Oya't& tusdK; tmPm oufa&mufrI&SdEdkifygao;oavm/ tu,fí &SdEdkifao;onfqdkyguvnf; Oya'rsm;udk pkpnf;xm;onfh pmtkyftopfxGuf&Sdvmonfhtcg zsufodrf;vdkufaomOya' ygrnfr[kwfí xnfo h iG ;f azmfjyxm;onfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf wajz;ajz;ESi&hf mS azGí r&&Sb d J arS;rSed o f mG ;ygrnf/ t"duOya' pmMunfhwdkufrsm;\ twGJopfrsm;XmewGifom &SmazG&&SdEdkifrnf jzpfygonf/ pwkwt ¬ aejzifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf tjcm;aomOya'wpfcw k iG f jrK§ yEf x HS m;onft h cg ,if;udk arh&efvG,fulygonf/ xdktcg Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJonfh pmwrf;\ wpfae&mwGif xdk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufESifh udkufnDrIr&Sdonfhtcsufudk a&;qGJaumif;a&;qGJygvdrfhrnf/ tvm;wlyif Oya'topfEiS hf oufqikd o f rl sm;onf 4if;wdt Yk wGuf tcGit hf vrf;r&So d nft h wGuf vH;k 0 vpfvLS &SL Edkifayonf/ Oya'jyXmef;csufyg t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk xnfhoGif;xm;onfh yk*¾vduqdkif&m Oya' pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;onfvnf; tvm;wljyóemrsm;udk &ifqdkif&rnfjzpfonf/ Oya't& toH;k EIe;f wpfco k nf pm&Gupf mwrf;xJwiG &f adS om t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suEf iS hf ,if; pm&Gupf mwrf;u &nfneT ;f onfOh ya'yg t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf wlnaD e&rnf[k jy|mef;xm;onfh tcg ,if;pm&Gufpmwrf;udk a&;qGJolrsm;onf Oya'wGift"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftwkdif; xnfhoGif; oifyh gonf/ oif;zGUJ pnf;rsO;f rsm;ESihf pnf;rsO;f Oya'rsm;ESiyhf wfoufí þodjYk y|mef;avh&ydS gonf/ ,if;vdktyfcsufudk taxmuftuljyKonfh taumif;qHk;enf;vrf;rSm Oya'yg t"dyÜg,f zGiq hf ckd suu f kd wpfv;kH rusef xnfo h iG ;f jcif;onf &nfñeT ;f jcif;xufyí kd aumif;rGeyf gonf/ oDt&dk t D & pmzwforl sm;udk ta&;Bu;D onfh toH;k tEIe;f qdv k &kd if;od&adS p&ef tjcm;aom wpfae&modo Yk mG ;í rjzpfrae&SmazG&ef rvdkawmhyg/

322 C/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf t rsd K ;tpm;rsm;ES i f h t oH k ; tEI e f ; rsm; (Types of Definitions and Terminology)

t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k x m;aom toH k ; tEI e f ; (Defined Terms) pm&Gupf mwrf;onf wdak wmif;vQijf zpfap? t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf ta&twGurf rsm;jym;vQif jzpfap? tjcm;aom taMumif;jycsut f wGuf ,kw&då v dS Qijf zpfap? t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;udk pum;cs;D ? ed'gef; pmydk'f (odkYr[kwf) tao;pdwfazmfjycsuftygt0if 4if;wdkYyg&Sdrnfh ueOD;ae&mwGif pwif azmfjyEdkifonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh þypönf;0,f,la&;oabmwlnDcsufESifh tmrcHwifoGif;jcif;qdkif&m uwdjyKoltwGuf nTefMum;csufrsm; (oabmwlnDcsuf)onf qD&ufwJvNrdKU? 0g&Sifwefü 2007 ckESpf? rwfv 10&ufaeYrSpí -------a&mif;olESifh ---- 0,foltMum;wGif atmufygtcsufrsm;udk tajcjyKí tmPm oufa&mufygonf/ þoabmwlnDcsufonf (1) pmcsKyf0ifrsm;tMum; 0,f,ljcif;ESifh a&mif;csjcif; y#dnmOf ESifh (2) tmrcHwifoGif;ol (odkYr[kwf)uwdjyKol qdkif&mñTefMum;csufrsm; --------xHoYkd (tmrcHwifoiG ;f olu, kd pf m;vS,)f 4if;\ oabmwlqE´onf pmcsKy\ f aemufq;kH wGif yg&So d nf/ tcef;wpfcw k iG o f m toH;k jyKonfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;onf 4if;wdu Yk kd toHk;jyKonfh ae&müyif t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf Ekd ikd o f nf/ toH;k jyKonfah e&mwGif t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf akd om toHk;tEIef;rsm;udk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf tcef;wGifvnf; xnfo h iG ;f &rnfjzpfNyD; toHk;tEIef;udk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftcef;wGif 4if;\ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftwGuf "azmfjyxm;onfh tcef;wGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkonfhtwdkif;" [lí xnfhoGif;azmfjyoifhygonf/ &nf&G,fcsufrSm t"dyÜg,f zGiq hf ckd suu f kd ajymif;vJcv hJ Qif xdak jymif;vJcsuo f nf yg0ifonfah e&mrsm;udk vdu k v f jH yifqif&mwGif wpfae&mü rjyifqifrdvQifjzpfvmEdkifaom rjywfom;? r&Sif;vif;rIwdkYudk a&SmifvTJEdkif&efESifh teuft"dyÜg,ftcef;wGif; ajymif;vJjcif;jzifh pm&Gufpmwrf;\ vdktyfaomae&mrsm;twGif; tvdktavsmufajymif;vJoGm;aom tusdK;oufa&mufrIudk &&Sdap&efjzpfonf/ þonfrmS tvGe½f ;kd &Si;f aom t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suyf pkH jH zpfNy;D Oya'a&;om;csuf yHpk t H m;vH;k wGif toHk;jyKygonf/ "ao;i,faom t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf (vest pocket definition)" onf pm&Gupf mwrf;uwpfcw k iG f pmcsKy0f if odrYk [kwf tawG;tjrifwpfcu k kd &nfñeT ;f vdo k nft h cg toH;k jyK rnfh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;onfh toHk;tEIef;udk jy|mef;ay;xm;ygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh James Madison (a&mif;ol)ESihf Alexander Hamitton (0,f,o l o l nf) 'if0D 'Dt&yf&dS Blackacre tdrf,mudk (ypönf;)a&mif;csrItwGuf þ y#dnmOfpmcsKyfudk csKyfqdkonf/

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"þrSaemufydkif;wGif a&mif;ol[k&nfnTef;rnf" [laom Oya'a&;&mtoHk;tEIef;udk

roHk;ygESifh/ tcsdKUaom Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf rsufawmifzGifhydwf tEG,ftom;rsm;onf iSufajc&mrsm;jzifh pmrsufESmtwGif; ½IwfyGaernf[laom taMumif;jycsufESifh ,if;wdkYudk z,f&Sm;&efESpfoufMuonf/ tcsdKUaomOya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolrsm;onf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkonfh toHk;tEIef;udk pmvHk;tBuD;ESifhoHk;jcif;? wpfcgwpf&H pmvHk;trJESifhoHk;jcif;udk ESpfoufMuonf/ xdaYk emuf tqdyk gtoH;k tEIe;f udk pmud, k w f iG o f ;kH onft h cgwdik ;f rlvoH;k onft h wdik ;f pmvH;k rJ? pmvH;k Bu;D jzifh azmfjyMu onf/ tjcm;aom Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;rSm ,if;odjYk yKrjl cif;onf rvdt k yfbJ tm½Hak xGjym;aponf[k qdyk gonf/ txl;ojzifh pmvH;k tBu;D oH;k jcif;onf tm½Hak xGjym;aponf[k oabm&Muonf/ vlwpfO;D ? tzGUJ tpnf; odrYk [kwf tawG;tjrifwpfcu k kd t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf wpfco k may;yg/ ESpfckay;jcif;rS a&SmifMuOfyg/ "þy#dnmOfonf *sifbD;rf (0,fol odkYr[kwf bif;rf) ESifh -----tMum; y#dnmOfjzpfonf" [k roHk;ygESifh/ toHk;tEIef;wpfckwGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;onfh toHk;tEIef;ygvmonfESifh wpfNydKifeuf ,if;t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf twdkaumufudk usef&Sdaeaom pmwrf;wpfckvHk;wGif nDnGwfpGmoHk;&efvdkygonf/ t&Snfaumufudk xyfrHí toHk;rjyKygESifh/ xdkYtjyif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkonfh toHk;tEIef;onf pmwrf;xJwGif wpfBudrfomoHk;NyD; aemufxyf trSew f u,f xyfrt H oH;k rjyKvQif t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif; rjyKygESi/hf "pwifonf&h uf" ESihf "tqH;k owf onfh&uf" onf þtkyfpktwGif; usa&mufavh&Sdygonf/ 2/

tjynf h t 0t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k j cif ; (Full Definitions) oabmwlpmcsKyfwpfck\ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufrsm;onf ta&twGufrsm;jym;NyD; ½IwfaxG; ygu tok;H tEIe;f rsm;udk tu©&mpOftvdu k f t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf Nkd y;D oabmwlpmcsKy\ f tp (odrYk [kw)f tqHk;wGif tykdif;wpfcktjzpf xnfhoGif;oihfygonf/ þonfrmS "t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sut f oH;k tEIe;f rsm;" \ydrk pkd epfusaom yxrOD;qH;k yHo k P²mef rsm; jzpfygonf/ tjynft h 0 t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif; wpfcgwpf&H owfrw S x f m;onfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf [k &nfñeT ;f oH;k pGw J wfygonf/ ,if;toH;k tEIe;f udk jynfph pkH mG ESihf oD;oeft Y "dygÜ ,f zGiq hf rkd aI y;onf/ ,if;zGifhqdkcsufwGif yHkaoowfrSwfxm;onfh abmife,fedrdwf&SdNyD; w&m;½Hk;rsm;u pmvHk;wpfvHk; pD teufziG q hf &kd ef wm0ef&ydS gonf/ odrYk o S m tusKd ;qufrsm;aMumifh jzpfvmonfh &nfñeT ;f ud;k um; onfh jznfhpGufjcif; odkYr[kwf y,fzsufjcif;wdkYudk wm;qD;Edkifrnfjzpfygonf/ tjynfht0t"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkcsufonf NyD;jynfhpHkNyD; oD;oefYjzpfonfhtwGuf 4if;udkt"dyÜg,f zGifhqdkonfhtcg jzpfEkdifacs &Sdonfrsm;udk xnfhoGif;pOf;pm;í a&;qGJ&rnf/ "means" "qdkvdkonf" qdkonfh pmom;onf t"dyÜg,ftjynfht0 zGifhqdkcsufudk xif&Sm;ay:vGifaponf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; ",mOf" qdkonfrSm armfawmfum;? bwfpf? vSnf;? "gwf&xm; odkYr[kwf vQyfppfESifh

armif;ESifonfh vSnf;wdkYudk qdkvdkonf/ þt"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuft& jrif;ESifhqGJaom &xm;vHk;rsm;yg0ifjcif; r&Sdyg/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolonf e,l;a,mufNrdKU A[dkyef;NcHteD; ,mOfaMumydwfqdkYrIudk ajz&Sif;&ef trdefYudk a&;qGJ aejcif;jzpfvQif þuJhodkY csefvSyfxm;cJhjcif;onf xif&Sm;aomcsefvSyfrI jzpfygvdrfhrnf/ tquftpyfr&So d nfh pum;vH;k ESpv f ;kH udk wlnpD mG tjynft h 0t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf ray;oifh aomfjim;vnf; þodkYqdkjcif;onf 4if;ESifh qufpyfqif;oufvmonfh pum;vHk;rsm;twGuf rSeu f efrrI &Syd g/ Oyrmtm;jzifh pmwrf;xJwiG f "writing" "a&;om;jcif;" ESihf "written" "a&;om;xm; aom" pum;ESprf sKd ;pvH;k udk oH;k Edik o f nf/ tu,fí a&;qGo J o l nf þpmvH;k ESpv f ;kH pvH;k tm; t"dygÜ ,f twlwal y;&ef &nfreS ;f xm;ygu ,ckuo hJ Ykd t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd nfh yHpk o H nf oifah vsmrf nf jzpfygonf/ "a&;om;jcif;"qdo k nfrmS pm&Guaf y:wifpmvH;k rsm;jzifh rSww f rf;xm;jcif;jzpfNy;D "a&;om; xm;aom" qdkonfrSm qifwlaom t"dyÜg,f&Sdygonf/ tjynfht0t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf pmudk,frsdK;pHktwGuf oifhjrwfavsmfuefygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh pmwrf;wGif tbd"gefwGif t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufr&Sdaom toHk;tEIef;udk oHk;aumif; oHk;rnf jzpfygonf/ "ork'´&mab; uGef'dkrDeD,Hypönf;" qdkonfrSm ----(rnfonfh &nfñTef;csufjzpfapumrl) tvm;wlyifrMl urf;a&;qGo J o l nf toH;k 0ifum -------- oabmw&m;&So d nfh toH;k tEIe;f udk oHk;aumif;oHk;Edkifonf/ odkY&mwGif ¤if;pum;vHk;\ bmompum; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf roJruGJ jzpfNyD; pdwfcspGmoHk;&efroifhyg/ "pufrp I EH eI ;f xm;rsm;" qdo k nfrmS oufaocH "u" jzifh yl;wGw J ifjyxm;onfh þy#dnmOf pmcsKy\ f csKyq f ckd sed w f iG f tBuKH ;0ifonfh Widget ukex f w k v f yk o f rl sm; trsKd ;om;toif;rS jyXmef; xm;onfh xkwfukefpHEIef;rsm; jzpfonf/ rSwo f m;&efrmS - &nfñeT ;f csujf zifh pmxnfo h iG ;f azmfjyxm;jcif; jzpfaomfvnf; þt"dygÜ ,f zGiq hf ckd suf trsKd ;tpm;\tjypftemtqmrsm;udk vTr;f rd;k ygonf/ taMumif;rSm t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf udk y#dnmOfpmcsKyfwGif yl;wGJxm;íjzpfonf/ tjynfht0 t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf rl&if;bmompum;t& t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk uefo Y wfívnf;aumif;? zGiq hf í kd vnf;aumif;? t"dygÜ ,fopfzefw;D um tpm;xk;d &ef &nf&, G í f a&;om;jcif;jzpfonf/ "wdu k cf ef;" qdo k nfrmS tcef;trSwf 6-c? Fair View wdu k cf ef;tdr, f m? 6216? 0Jvq f if vrf;? qef'Durf;ajc? awmifu,f½dkvdkif;em;jynfe,fjzpfonf/

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aemufq;kH taejzifh tjynft h 0t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf tcef;(10)wGif aqG;aEG;xm;onfh tawG;tjrifukd yHak zmfrjI zpfpOfvyk if ef;pOfrS xGu&f v dS monfh &vm'fjzpfonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh ausmif; wnf&Sd&m c½dkiftwGif;xm;&Sdaom a&SUaetm; ausmif;om;rsm; ausmif;0if;twGif; vufeuf vuf0,fxm;&Sdjcif;udk wm;qD;onfhenf;Oya'a&;qGJ&ef arwåm&yfcHonfqdkygpdkU/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolonf xyfrHí pHkprf;rIjyKvkyfNyD;aemuf vufeufrsm;xJwGif "g;? "g;&Snf? oifwkef;"g;? aoewf? ½kyf&SifoHk;yHkwlaoewf? xdyfydkif;wGifjr§m;uJhodkY tcRefygonfh vufeuf? oa&jzifhywf xm;onfh vufuikd 'f w k ?f aMu;vufacgufEiS hf tjcm;aomyHrk eS Nf rKd Ujy wdu k cf u kd rf rI sm;wGif toH;k jyKonfh vufeufypönf;rsdK;pHkwdkY yg0ifoifhonf[ka&SUaeu pOf;pm;qHk;jzwfygonf/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf jyóem\oabmw&m;udk em;vnfoabmaygufNy;D wm;jrpfonft h oH;k tEIe;f rsm; xnfo h iG ;f &efEiS hf tjcm;aompmyd'k u f t kd qH;k wGix f nf&h ef pOf;pm;xm;ygonf/ od&Yk mwGif Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolu ausmif;om;rsm;onf bdvd,ufabmvHk;xnfhxm;onfh ajctdwf? jiKyfaumif;a&udk a&>ywfaoewfwGif xnfhoHk;jcif;? BudK;udkxHk;í tcsif;csif;jzpfap? q&m^q&mrrsm;udk jzpfap? tkycf sKyo f rl sm;udjk zpfap wdu k cf u kd &f mwGit f oH;k jyKaMumif; avhvmawGU&S&d onf/ rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf "ESit hf jcm;" pmpkonf tqdyk gvufeufrsKd ;udk tBuKH ;0ifrnf^r0ifrnfuv kd nf; xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm; jyefygonf/ xkdYtjyif Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf pmtkyfcsKyfpufrsm;? uwfaMu;rsm;? abmvfyif tcRerf sm;? axmufp;l rsm;? tcRet f wufoH tcReo f mG ;ygonfh aywHrsm;? wpfpw kH pfO;D rS vufeuf[k r,lqEkdifonfh t&m0w¬K rsm;jzpfaomfvnf;? ausmif;tkyfq&mBuD;rS þt&m0w¬Krsm;udkyg pnf;rsO;f wGif xnfo h iG ;f &ef qE´&o dS nft h wGuf xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm;ygonf/ þypön;f rsm;onf wlnrD I enf;yg;onf[x k if&aomfvnf; aoaocsmcsm aphaphpyfpyf pOf;pm;MunfNh y;D aemuf Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf &nf&, G x f m;onfh wm;qD;ydwyf ifvakd om t&m0w¬Krsm;udk wm;qD;Edik &f ef tawG; tjrifukd em;vnfoabmaygufatmifjyKvyk cf NhJ y;D pum;vH;k uspv f pfpmG jzifh vdu k af vsmnDaxG&pdS mG t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd nf/ "t&mwpfco k nf tjcm;aomolrsm;udk 'Pf&m&&Sad pNy;D ausmif;om;wpfO;D u tjcm;olrsm; udk xdo k Ykd 'Pf&mjzpfapEdik &f ef&nf&, G í f xdt k &m0w¬Kukd vuf0,fxm;&Sjd cif;" odrYk [kwf Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolonf jyóem\ tjcm;aom ½IwfaxG;NyD; em;vnfoabmaygufvmEdkifonfh tcsuf tcsKUd udk pOf;pm;rdvmEdik o f nf/ rnfonf&h vm'fukd &&Sad pumrl a&;qGo J o l nf &&Sv d monfh tajzudkf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufwGif xnhfoGif;ygvdrfhrnf/ 3/

wpf p d w f w pf a 'ot"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k j cif ; (Partial Definitions) wpfpdwfwpfa'o t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;onf pum;vHk;\ tbd"geft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk cGx J u G rf w S t f aejzifh owfrw S Nf y;D oD;oef&Y nf&, G cf surf sm;udk xnfo h iG ;f jcif; (odrYk [kw)f xkwyf ,fjcif; jzifh 4if;\ e,fedrdwfudk &Sif;vif;pGm owfrSwfygonf/

326

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

t"d y Ü g ,f o wf r S w f c suf u d k csJ U xG i f j cif ; (Enlarging Definitions) oD;jcm;oabmw&m;wpfckonf ykHrSeftbd"geft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf&Sdaom toHk;tEIef;\ t"dygÜ ,ftwGi;f tBuKH ;0ifyg0ifr&I adS p&ef (odrYk [kw)f tqdyk gt"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suw f iG f toH;k tEIe;f \ tcsdKUaom t"dyÜg,frsm; jynfhpHkpGmyg0ifrIr&Sdí jznfhpGuf&eftvkdiSm Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf "yg0ifonf" [lonfh toHk;tEIef;udk toHk;jyKygonf/ "þonfudkxdkrQjzifhuefYowfrxm;yg"[k azmfjy&efrSm rvdktyfaomfvnf; Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJolrsm;onf tuefYtowf&Sdaom pm&if; jzpfonf[k teuft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;rjyK&eftvdkY iSmxdkpmydk'fudk jznfhpGufMuygonf/ atmufyg Oyrmrsm;udk pOf;pm;Munfyh gpdUk / "tvkyo f rm;" onf tcsed yf ikd ;f (odrYk [kw)f ,m,Dtaejzifh tvkyf vkyaf eonhf yk*Kd¾ vrf sm;vnf;yg0ifNy;D 4if;wdo Yk m jzpfonf[k þt"dygÜ ,fu uefo Y wfxm;jcif;r&Syd g/ (yg0ifrI&Sdap&ef aocsmapjcif;) "wdkufcef;" wGif cef;r? aumf&pf'g? avSum;ESifhtjcm;aom bHkoHk;{&d,mrsm;yg0ifNyD; ,if;wdkYom yg0ifonf[k uefYowfxm;jcif; r&Sdyg/ (yHkrSeft"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;wGif ryg0ifonfh tjcm;wpfckckudk xnfhoGif;jcif;) t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk csJUxGifonfh rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf Humpty Dumpty uJhokdY rjzpfap&ef u½kjyK&rnf/ t*Fvyd Of ya'a[mif;wGiyf g0ifonfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd pOf;pm;Muygpd/Yk "EGm;" wGif jrif;rsm;? jrnf;rsm;? vm;rsm;? odk;ESifh qdwfrsm;yg0ifygonf/

t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf u d k o wf r S w f j cif ; (Limiting Definitions) "ryg0if" [lonfh toH;k tEIe;f udk yHr k eS t f "dygÜ ,fziG q hf rkd w I iG f yg0ifEikd af jc&So d nft h csut f csKd Uudk z,fxw k v f v kd Qif vnf;aumif;? xdo k rYkd [kwyf gu z,fxw k jf cif;rjyKvQif taotcsmyifyg0if tBuKH ; 0ifrnfudk z,fxkwfvdkonfhtcgwGif toHk;jyKonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh"atmfwu kd m;" wGif wuúpt D iSm;um; ryg0ifyg/ od&Yk mwGif Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf yHrk eS t f "dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd su\ f t"duausm½d;k wGif yg0if onfh tcsufudkz,fxkwfjcif; r&Sdap&efowdjyKoifhonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh"aomufoHk;Edkifonfht&nf" wGif a& ryg0ifyg/ a&onf aomufoHk;Edkifonfh t&nf0,f t"dutESpfom&jzpfonf/ rMumcPqdkovdk Oya' rlMurf;a&;qGJ olonf wlnDonfh&nfrSef;csufa&muf&SdatmifuefYowfjcif; (odkYr[kwf) tjynfht0 t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;enf;udk toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ "0efxrf;" qd& k mwGif wpfywfvsS ief m&D(40)xufenf;í ukrP Ü t D wGuf tvkyv f yk af om olrsm; ryg0ifyg/ ESihf

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

327

"0efxrf;" qdkonfrSm wpfywfvQif em&D(40) (odkYr[kwf) ,if;xufydkaomtcsdefudk

ukrÜPDodkYvkyfief; vkyfaqmifay;&aom yk*d¾Kvfrsm;udk qdkvdkonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf "0efxrf;"udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd onfh &nf&, G cf suu f kd od&NdS y;D rSom rnfonfhenf;ESifh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkrnfudk OD;pGmpOf;pm;oifhonf/ toHk;tEIef;rsm;udkcRif;csufjzifh a&;qGJjcif;onf a,bl,stm;jzifh ESpfoufavhr&SdMuaomfvnf; tcsdefydkif;0efxrf;rsm;udk &Si;f vif;pGmryg0ifap&ef &nf&, G yf gu "ryg0if"[laom toH;k tEIe;f onf taumif;qH;k jzpfygonf/ od&Yk mwGif omreftm;jzifh 0efxrf;wGif tBuKH ;0ifonf[k ,lqavhr&Sad om tvGwfuefx½dkuf vkyif ef;vkyo f rl sm; (odrYk [kw)f iSm;&rf;onft h vkyo f rm;rsm;udk "0efxrf;" [laom t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf kd csufwGifyg0ifap&ef &nf&G,fygu "qdkvdkonf" [laomenf;jzifh oHk;jcif;onf taumif;qHk; jzpfygonf/ 4/

tjynf h t 0 t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf E S i f h wpf p d w f w pf a 'o t"d y Ü g ,f z G i f h q d k c suf u d k aygif;pyfjcif; (Combining Full and Partial Definitions) wpfpw d w f pfa'o t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf xnfo h iG ;f jcif; (odrYk [kw)f z,f&mS ;jcif; ESprf sKd ; pvHk;udk jyKvkyfEdkifygonf/ "uefa&SUtdrfNcHajrydkifqdkifrI" wGif a&jyifrSjcm;xm;aom trsm;ydkif vrf;txd tBuHK;0ifygonf/ odkYaomf a&jyifESifh xdpyfaeaomtydkif;wGif urf;ajc\ 50%onf a&teufwpfayomvQif&Sdaom tydkif;rsm; ryg0ifay/ tvm;wl tjynfht0t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk wpdwfwa'ot"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf? tjcm; jznhfpGufcsuf yg0ifjcif; (odkYr[kwf) ESpfckpvHk;jzifh xyfrH&Sif;vif;Edkifygonf/ "XmecsKy& f 0dS efxrf;rsm;" qdo k nfrmS csu D m*dNk rKd U&Sd aumfy&kd w d ½f ;kH wGif cefx Y m;aom yk*Kd¾ vrf sm; jzpfNyD; tjcm;½Hk;rS ,m,Dwm0efjzifh &uf(30)xufausmfvGefpGm xdk½Hk;-------------wGif tvkyf vkyfaeolrsm; yg0ifonf/ odkY&mwGif ,if;pum;wGif Strongarm vHkNcHKa&;at*sifpDESifh y#dnmOf pmcsKyfjyKvkyfí cefYxm;onfhtapmifhtjzpf wm0efxrf;aqmifaeolrsm; ryg0ifyg/ "yg0ifonf"ESihf "ryg0if"[lonft h oH;k tEIe;f rsm;onf pum;vH;k t"dygÜ ,ft&vnf;aumif;? az:jyonfh t"dygÜ ,fowfrw S cf sut f &vnf;aumif; ,cif&nfñeT ;f csurf sm; tNr&J &dS efvykd gonf/ toHk;tEIef;wpfckonf wpfNydKifwnf;ESifht"dyÜg,fr&SdEdkifovdk wlnDaom t&mwpfckwnf;vnf; ryg0ifEikd yf g/ "aumfy& kd w d t f &m&Srd sm;" qdo k nfrmS OuúX? 'kw, d OuúX? twGi;f a&;rSL;ESihf b@ma&;rSL;wdYk jzpfNyD;ESifh yg0ifonf/ "yg0ifonf" onf "aumfy& kd w d t f &m&Srd sm;" wGif tbd"geft& zGiq hf x kd m;onfh t"dygÜ ,f&dS onf[rk w S , f x l m;Ny;D t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onft h &m&Srd sm; tBuKH ;0if&ef &nf&, G yf gonf/ "qdv k o kd nf"

328

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

onf pum;vHk;t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkrIudk rnfonfwdkUyg0ifonfESifh tpm;xdk;NyD; pum;&yfwpfckvHk;udk tydktjzpf trsm;odap&ef jzefYa0today;jcif;jzpfonf/ Oyrmrsm; (Examples) Oyrmrsm;yg0ifaom t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufrsm;onf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuf&mwGif tus,fcsJU yg0ifonfh ypönf;rsm;\ pm&if;az:jyjcif;ESifh oP²mefwlygonf/ odkY&mwGif &nf&G,fcsufrSm tenf;i,fujJG ym;ygonf/ "yg0ifonf}}[lonfh pm&if;\ &nf&, G cf surf mS bmompum;(odrYk [kw)f owfrw S af z:jyxm;onfh t"dygÜ ,fonftpGe;f rsm;ü &Si;f vif;rIr&So d nfukd &Si;f vif;&ef&nf&, G Nf y;D pm&if;jzifhaz:jyxm;onfh t&mrsm;pGmyg0ifap&ef jzpfygonf/ pm&if;wGif xnfhoGif;jcif;onf rlvoabmw&m;wGif &Sif;vif;uGJjym;rI r&SdrIudk ausmfvTm;oGm;apygonf/ þwGif Oyrmrsm; tBuHK;r0ifyg/ tjynfht0 (odkYr[kwf) owfrSwfxm;onfh t"dyÜg,f zGiq hf ckd su\ f yg0ifonft h csurf sm;onf vH;k 0xde;f csKyx f m;qJ jzpfygonf/ Oyrmwpfcw k iG f a,bl,s tm;jzifh yg0ifonfh aqmif&Gufcsufwpfckonf t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftwGif; usa&mufjcif; &Sd^r&Sd qdo k nfrmS tqdyk g aqmif&u G cf sujf zpfay:aponfh xl;jcm;aom taMumif;jcif;&may: rlwnfEikd f ygonf/ þudpöESifhywfoufí t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk &nfñTef;í pOf;pm;qHk;jzwfEdkifygonf/ Oyrmay;onfh bmompum;onf aemufqHk;tajz jzpfvdrfhrnfr[kwfyg/ wenf;qdk&ygrl Oyrm ay;onfh pm&if;onf pmzwfolrsm;udk t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf ydkrdkcdkifrmaom toHk;tEIef;t& rnfonfht"dyÜg,f&Sdonfudk tBuHÓPfay;jcif;om jzpfygonf/ xdaYk Mumifh ausmif;pnf;rsO;f wGif "vdrv f nfjcif;"ESiyhf wfoufí owfrw S af z:jyxm;onfh t"dygÜ ,faz:jycsuf yg&SEd ikd yf gonf/ odaYk omft"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suo f nf ½Iyaf xG;Edik o f vd?k wpfpw kH pf&m txd a00g;Edkifygonf/ wm;jrpfcsufrsm;udk od&Sdap&ef pmMunfhwdkuf&Sd pmtkyfrSpm&Gufrsm;udk NzyJ pfonf[o l nfh Oyrmonf orm;½d;k usjznfq h nf;ay;onfh wm;jrpfvyk af qmifrrI sm;\pm&if;udk Oyrmay;xm;jcif;jzifh pmzwforl sm;udk rnfonft h &monf wm;jrpfxm;onf qdo k nfukd em;vnf apEdik yf gonf/ od&Yk mwGif tkycf sKyaf &;tzGUJ onf ausmif;om;udk pmMunfw h u kd rf S pmtky\ f pm&Gurf sm; Nzq J w k yf pfíqdu k m ½d;k &Si;f pGmtjypfray;Edik yf g/ 4if;taejzifh xdo k NYkd zq J w k o f nfh rawmfwqjypfro I nf vdrv f nfraI jrmufonfqo kd nfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf rkd t I wGi;f &Sd tcsurf sm;wGiyf g&Sad Mumif; oufaojy& vdrrhf nf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;onf Oyrmay;&mwGif owdjzift h ok;H jyKoifyh gonf/ taMumif; rSm t"dyÜg,frsm;onf &nfrSef;xm;onfxufydkí t"dyÜg,foufa&mufEdkifí jzpfygonf/ Oyrm ay;jcif;udk aemufqHk;enf;vrf;tjzpf toHk;jyK&efjzpfygonf/ taumif;qHk;enf;vrf;rSm Oyrm ay;&efrvdkonfhenf;jzifh t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufudk &Sif;vif;pGma&;qGJ&ef jzpfygonf/ 5/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; i/

329

enf ; vrf ; (Methodology) t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkjcif;twGuf enf;vrf;aygif;rsm;pGm&Sdygonf/ (1) yd k r d k t uRrf ; 0if a om toH k ; tEI e f ; rsm;oH k ; jcif ; (Use more Familiar Terms) "bH"k [laom toH;k tEIe;f onf tdraf jrtaqmuftOD;ypön;f a&SUaersm;twGuf t"dygÜ ,f &Sdaomfjim;vnf; tqdkyg toHk;tEIef;onf omrefvlrsm; tuRrf;0if&if;ESD;rI r&Sdaompum;vHk; jzpfygonf/ þtoH;k tEIe;f udk ydrk o kd ed m;vnfEikd o f nfh toH;k tEIe;f jzifh atmufygtwdik ;f t"dygÜ ,f owfrSwfEdkifygonf/ "bHk{&d,m" qdkonfrSm ydkif&Siftm;vHk; toHk;jyK&eftwGuf zGifhxm;aom uGe'f rkd eD , D pH ak ygif;ydik {f &d,mjzpfNy;D ajrnDuiG ;f ? um;0ifxu G o f nfh ae&m? um;em;&efae&m? wif;epf upm;uGif;? a&ul;uefESifh em;ae&efpifwmwdkY yg0ifygonf/ (2) yd k r d k w d u saomtoH k ; tEI e f ; ud k t oH k ; jyKjcif ; (Use more Precise Terms) a00g;aomtawG;tjrifrsm;udk wcgw&H odyÜHenf;us wdusaomenf;vrf;jzifh &Sif;vif; ajymMum;Edkifonf/ "tEÅ&m,fBuD; tylcsdefjyif;jcif;" qdkonfrSm tylcsdef100'D*&DESifh txufudk qdv k o kd nf/ (3) yg0if o nf h t pd w f t yd k i f ; rsm;ud k a z:xk w f j cif ; (Identify Components) "armfawmf,mOf"udk ,if;wGifyg0ifonfh tpdwftydkif;rsm;udk &nfnTef;í t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdk Edkifygonf/ þodkYt"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf tpdwftydkif;rsm; ta&twGuf rsm;jym;rIaMumifh vG,fulrIr&Sdaomfvnf; wcgw&H ,if;enf;vrf;onf tvGefaumif;rGefaomtvkyfjzpfygonf/ "ta&meHygwf 3" qdkonfrSm ausmufp&pf?ausmufwHk;tao;? vufr0ufcGJxm;aom ausmufpvpfESifhoJwdkY tnDtrQa&mpyfxm;aomta&mjzpfonf/ (4) oD ; jcm;&nf n T e f ; csuf u d k a z:xk w f j cif ; (Identify Specific Referents) toH k ; tEI e f ; ud k ,if ; \&nf r S e f ; xm;onf h & nf n T e f ; csuf r sm;ud k pm&if ; jyKjcif ; jzif h t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf kd Edik yf gonf/ trSepf ifppf þuJo h t Ykd "dygÜ ,fziG q hf jkd cif;onf toH;k rsm;qH;k yHpk jH zpfygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh-" ypönf;ud&d,mqdkonfrSm a&cJaowåm? rD;zdk? rdkufc½dka0hzf? trIdufyHk;? jyLwif;aygufwGif wyfqifonfhavat;ay;puf? t0wfavQmfpuffESifh tajcmufcHpuf/ tEÅ&m,f&SdonfrSm ta&;ygaom tcsuftcsdKUudk csefvSyfEdkifjcif;jzpfygonf/ tu,fí tdryf ikd &f iS rf S ypön;f pm&if;xJwiG f A[dzk ek pf yk pf ufpepfukd xnfo h iG ;f &ef&nfreS ;f xm;Ny;D ,if;pufukd tdrfiSm;rS jyifqif&ef wm0ef&Sdygu ,ckt"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsufonf jynfhpHkvdrfhrnfr[kwfyg/ "ESifh tjcm;aom tvm;wlypön;f rsm;" jznfph u G jf cif;onf ,if;odYk owdrjyKrEd ikd af om udprö sm;udk ajz&Si;f ukpm; ay;aumif;ay;Edkifygonf/ odkY&mwGif ydkrdkaumif;rGefonfh vkyf½dk;vkyfpOfrSm rdrdtdrfiSm;udk tqdkyg tao;pdwfrsm;udk pOf;pm;apNyD; twdtvif; aqmif&Gufapjcif;jzpfygonf/

330 5/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; yd k r d k í us,f j yef Y a om tpk t zG J U ES i f h quf q H a &;xm;&S d r I u d k jyojcif ; (Indicate Relation ship to a larger Unit)

rMumcPqdo k vdyk if toH;k tEIe;f wpfc\ k t"dygÜ ,fonf oD;jcm;jzpfwnfaeaomtvTmudk tBuKH ;0ifapjcif; ,if;\tay: rSw D nfygonf/ xkt d vTmwGif yg0ifrrI w S pfqifh tvTmcGrJ sm;vnf; ay:aygufapygonf/ "tyef;ajz&ef udk,fydkifoHk;ypönf;\ tcGefuif;vGwfcGifh" qdkonfrSm ,if;ypönf;onf 0ifaiG&&So d nfh udprö &So d nft h wGuf oD;jcm;toH;k jyKonfh ypön;f jzpfí jynfe,f? NrKd Ue,f (odrYk [kw)f jrLeDpy,ftcGefOya't& tcGefuif;vGwfcGifh&onfh ypönf;jzpfonf/ wnfqJvuf&Sdtqifhtwef;rSm "tjcm;aom Oya'rsm;t& tcGefuif;vGwfcGifh&Sdaom ypönf;rsm;" jzpfonf/ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkxm;aomtvTmtkyfpkcGJonf txl;jyKudpö&yfrsm;twGuf toH;k jyKaomypön;f rsm;udk &nfñeT ;f onf/ tvm;wlyif t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;onf ydrk u kd s,jf yefY aom trsKd ;tpm;cGNJ y;D aemuf tajccHtm;jzifh xdt k vTmESihf wlnrD rI &So d nfh tcsuaf y:rlwnfvsuf tkyfpkcGJudk xyfrHcGJygonf/ "rQwaom &S,, f m0ifrsm;" qdo k nfrmS or*¾\ wif;jynft h zGUJ 0if odrYk [kwf rdwzf UJG tzGUJ 0if r[kwfonfh ,lepftvkyform;udk qdkvdkonf/ p/

ae&m (Location) Oya'rsm;ESihf ½Iwaf xG;eufeaJ om yk*v ¾ u d Oya'qdik &f m pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;onf t"dygÜ ,f zGifhqdkcsufudk azmfjyonfh oD;oefYtcef; yg0ifavh&Sdygonf/ Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJol trsm;pkrSm t"dygÜ ,ftvGeu f sO;f ajrmif;onfh toH;k tEIe;f opfwpfcu k kd pmud, k w f iG f yxrqH;k tBurd o f ;kH EIe;f onfEiS hf ,if;tm; t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd nfh tcef;xnfo h iG ;f &ef qE´&SdMuygonf/ pmzwfolrsm; vG,fvifhwul &SmazGEdkifap&efwGuf þtcef;onf pmwrf;\ tpwGif xnfhoGif;avh&SdNyD; t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkaom toHk;tEIef;rsm;ukd tu©&mpOfvdkuf jyKpkxm;avh&Sdygonf/ t"dyÜg,fzGifhqdkcsuftwGuf ae&ma&G;cs,frIudpöwGif txufazmfjyyg tpDtpOfonf aumif;rGeaf om enf;jzpfonf[k xif&NyD; yHkrSeftm;jzifhvnf; aumif;rGefonfhenf;jzpfygonf/ od&Yk mwGif cufcrJ rI sm;&Syd gonf/ t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f rsm;pGmyg&So d nfh &Snv f sm;aom pm&Gufpmwrf;wGif pmzwfolonf ¤if;zwfonfh pmyd'k rf sm;udk tjynht f 0em;vnf&eftwGuf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suf tcef;odYk rMumcPjyefí &nfñeT ;f &ayonf/ xdkodkY Budrfzefrsm;pGm aqmif&Guf &onfhtcg cufcJvmojzifh teuft"dyÜg,fudk &SmazGraeawmhbJ a&SUqufíom zwfavh&Sd&m ta&;BuD;aom tcsufrsm;udk ydkifEdkifpGm em;vnfjcif;r&SdEdkifay/ þtajctaeudk a&Smif&Sm;&eftwGuf toHk;tEIef;ukd pmwrf;\ tcef;wpfckwGifom

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

331

oH;k xm;ygu Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf xdt k oH;k tEIe;f udk ,if;tcef;wGio f m t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf o kd ifh ygonf/ þenf;jzifh pm&Gufpmwrf;onf pmzwf&mwGifcufcJrIrsm;udk avsmhenf;apygonf/ þtcsuo f nf pm;oH;k olrsm;ESihf ywfoufonfh pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;wGif txl;ta&;BuD;ygonf/ taMumif;rSm omrefvlrsm;onf oD;oefYt"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sut f cef;udk zwf½rI nfr[kwo f nfhtjyif pmwrf;xJwiG f ,if;toH;k tEIe;f udk awGU&Sv d Qiv f nf; jyefí &SmazGavhvmrnfr[kwfonfhtwGuf jzpfygonf/ q/

t"dyÜg,fzGifhqd kcsuf c sufu d k rnf o nf h u mvwG i f a &;qG J o ih f j cif ; (When to Draft Definitions)

or&dk;usawG;ac:rIt& Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolrsm;onf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sufudk aemufqkH; wGirf S jyKvyk o f ifyh gonf/ oDt&kd t D & a&;qGo J o l nf rnfonfph um;vH;k udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef vdt k yf onfukd pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcv k ;kH a&;om;Ny;D onftxd rodEikd yf g/ odaYk omfþtcsuo f nf rlMurf; a&;qGJoltaejzifh rlMurf;a&;jcif;vkyfief;pOf\ pkpnf;OD;ñTwfonfh oabmobm0udk jynfh0pGm em;vnfrIr&Sdjcif;udk azmfjyaeygonf/ ta&;BuD;jy|mef;csufudk pmjzifha&;qGJNyD;onfESifh teuf t"dyÜg,fwdkYudk pmcsKyfra&;rD? a&;om;pOfESifh a&;om;NyD;aemuf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sufudk jyKpka&;qGJ Edik yf gonf/ yxrtaejzifha&;qGJolonf pwifa&;qGJpOfuyif toHk;tEIef;tcsdKUudk vHk;0t"dyÜg,f zGifhqdk&rnfudk odEdkifonf/ &nf&G,fxm;aom Oya'jy|mef;csufonf tvkyform;OD;a& 50 (odrYk [kw)f ,if;xufyakd om tvkyo f rm;OD;a&yg&So d nfh pD;yGm;a&;tzGUJ tpnf;twGuf tBuKH ;0if&ef &nf&, G yf gu Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf "tvky&f iS f" [lonfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd rlMurf;pwif a&;qGJpOfuyif xnfhoGif;a&;qGJEdkifygonf/ 'kwd,taejzifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef vdktyfcsufwdkYonf Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGJoltwGuf tawG;tjrifyHkazmfonfh ta&;Bu;D onft h qifw h iG f trsm;qH;k jzpfwwfygvdrrhf nf/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf oabmw&m;topfodkYr[kwf aygif;pyfxm;onfh oabmw&m;udk zefwD;aeygu Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf ,if;oabm obm0\tESpfom&udk zrf;rd&ef t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sufudk tNrJwrf;toHk;jyK&ef vdktyfygvdrfhrnf/ wwd,taejzifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf pmwrf;udka&;qGJNyD; pDppfonfhumvwGif oabmw&m;wpfckudk pmwrf;wGiBf urd zf efrsm;pGm tjynft h 0azmfjyxm;Ny;D jzpfonfukd &SmazGawGU&Sd Edik yf gonf/ xdt k cg Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf tqdyk g oabmw&m;udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf &kd ef qH;k jzwfNy;D ? pmwrf;wGif ,if;oabmw&m;ay:vmonft h cgwdik ;f teuft"dygÜ ,fudk xyfcgxyfcg a&;om;rnfh tpm; teuft"dyÜg,ftcef;wGif xnfhoGif;ygrnf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

tcsKyftm;jzifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sufrsm;udk a&;qGJjcif;onf wpfNydKifwnf;ESifh tjyeftvSef aqmif&Guf&onfh vkyfenf;jzpfNyD; wcsdefwnf;wGif tNrJwrf;vkyfavh&Sdonhf udpör[kwfay/ (Z)

t"dyÜg,fzGifhqd kcsuf c sufr sm;ud k prf ; oyf j cif ; (Testing Definitions) Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf pmwrf;wGiyf g&So d nfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd surf sm;udk enf;vrf;rsKd ;pHjk zifh prf;oyfEdkifonf/ yxrtaejzifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf pmwrf;wpfcv k ;kH udk pDppfNy;D t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m; onfh toHk;tEIef;rsm;udk toHk;jyKrItm;vHk;udk odomxif&Sm;pGm trSwftom; jyKvkyfygrnf/ þodkYjyKvkyfjcif;onf udpö&yfrsm;pGmudk azmfjyEdkifygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh toHk;tEIef;onf pmwrf;xJwGif vH;k 0roH;k xm;jcif; (odrYk [kw)f wpfBurd o f m oH;k xm;jcif;udk &SmazGawGU&SEd ikd o f nf/ ykí d ta&;Bu;D onfrmS toH;k tEIe;f udk t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh t"dygÜ ,fEiS rhf [kwb f J omreftm;jzifh vufcx H m;aom t"dygÜ ,fjzifh oH;k pGx J m;onfukd awGU&SEd ikd o f nf/ aemufq;kH taejzifh Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf tjynft h 0t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd sujf zifh pmwrf;xJ&dS t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f udk tpm;xd;k oGi;f Munfo h nft h cg bmompum;ESi, hf w k &då rdS t I & udu k n f rD rI &Sjd cif;udk &SmazGawGU&SEd ikd yf gonf/ Oyrm - "ud, k pf m;vS,f"qdo k nfrmS "ukrP Ü ED Sifh pmjzifh a&;om;xm;um udk,fpm;vS,fpmcsKyfwGif pmcsKy0f ifjzpfjcif; jzpfonf/" t"duusaom y#dnmOfpmcsKy\ f jy|mef;csuw f pfcw k iG f "ud, k pf m;vS,f rsm;onf a&mif;tm;udk vpOfowif;ydkY&rnf/"[k jy|mef;xm;onf/ tu,fí toHk;tEIef;udk 4if;\t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suEf iS hf tpm;xk;d ygu tqdyk g0guspmaMumif;onf tvGet f ½kyq f ;kd oGm;ygvdrhf rnf/ "ukrÜPDESihf pmjzifha&;om;xm;um ukd,fpm;vS,fpmcsKyfwGif pmcsKyf0ifolwdkYonf vpOf a&mif;tm;udk wifoGif;&rnf "[lí jzpfygrnf/ udk,fpm;vS,fqdkaom pum;&yfudk ukrÜPDESifh pmcsKyfcsKyfqdkxm;ol[lí tpm;xdk;t"dyÜg,f zGifhoifhygonf/ 'kw, d enf;vrf;taejzifh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf ckd suu f kd prf;oyf&efrmS tqdyk g toH;k tEIe;f udk ,if;twGuf omrubJ ,if;ESiehf ;D pyfonfh t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf Nkd y;D jzpfonfh oabmw&m;rsm;twGuyf g Munf½h aI vhvm&ef jzpfonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh "tyef;ajzrIqikd &f m vIy&f mS ;aqmif&u G rf rI sm;" qdo k nfrmS trJvu kd jf cif;? ig;zrf;jcif;ESihf awmpcef;csjcif;jzpfrnfqykd gu pm&Gupf mwrf;xJwiG &f o dS nfh ,if;odYk aygif;pnf;xm;onfh toHk;tEIef;udk þpum;vHk;jzifh tNrJwrf; tpm;xdk;oifhygonf/ tu,fí tjcm;udp&ö yf r&Syd gu þodt Yk pm;xd;k jcif; enf;vrf;onf t"dygÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;aom toH;k tEIe;f \ t&Snfaumuft"dyÜg,fudk worwfwnf; jzpfapygvdrfhrnf/

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

333

tcef ; (15) Oya'aMumif ; t& tusd K ;quf r sm;jzpf a paompum;&yf r sm; (Terms Creating Legal Consequences)

þtcef;onf Oya'aMumif;t& tusKd ;qufrsm;jzpfapaom pum;&yfrsm;ESihf ywfoufyg onf/ rlMurf;a&;olwdkY a&G;cs,faom pum;&yfrsm;teuf "arSmftpGrf;"&Sdaompum;&yfrsm; enf;yg;ygonf/ a&G;cs,f&ef pum;&yfrsm;pGm&SdNyD; rnfonfhpum;&yfudk a&G;cs,fonfjzpfap wlnaD om tmedoif&ydS gvdrrhf nf/ od&Yk mwGif txl;jyKpum;&yfrsm;? pmcsKyx f w J iG f xdpk mcsKyt f vdiYk mS teuft"dymÜ ,f zGiq hf x dk m;aompum;&yfrsm;ESihf Oya'tusKd ;qufrsm;jzpfapaom pum;&yfrsm; onf >cif;csufjzpfygonf/ u/

xdkpum;&yfrsm;\ta&;ygyHk (The Importance of These Terms) pmcsKyfpmwrf;wpfck\ t"duvkyfief;aqmifwmrSm Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;udk zefwD;&ef jzpfygonf/ EL Verde Gallo trnf&Sd oabFma&mif;0,fa&;pmcsKyf\ Oya'tusdK;qufrSm oabFmukd vuf&ydS ikd q f idk Nf y;D vuf0,f&o dS ^l a&mif;olonf ,if;ykid q f idk rf EI iS hf vuf0,f&rdS u I kd 0,fol xHoYdk vTaJ jymif;ay;tyf&ef Oya't& wm0ef&NdS yjD zpfNy;D 0,fot l aejzifh tcsKyt f jcmtmPmydik \ f tmPmudk w&m;½H;k rsm;ESihf Oya'ukd ta&;,laqmif&u G af om tzGUJ tpnf;rsm;rS xyfqifh a&mif;ol tm; vdu k ef map&ef aqmif&u G yf ikd cf iG &hf ydS gonf/ wpfenf;qdak omf pmcsKyo f nf a&mif;oltay:wGif twif;tMuyf aqmif&GufapEkdifonfh wm0efwpf&yfudkjzpfapovdk 0,f,ltm; xdkwm0efESifh qufpyfonfh tcGifhta&;udk zefwD;ay;ygonf/ pmcsKyrf Ml urf;wpfcw k iG f yg0ifaompum;&yftrsm;pkonf xkOd ya'tusKd ;qufjzpfay:ap aomudp&ö yf\ tESpo f m&ESihf ydí k qufE, G af eNy;D ,if;wkrYd mS oabFm\ xif&mS ;aomtrSwt f om; rsm;? aps;EIe;f vTaJ jymif;^ydaYk qmify?kH tmrcHcsurf sm; oabFm\BuchH ikd rf EI iS hf tvm;wltcsurf sm;jzpf ygonf/ xdo k Ukd qkv d Qif pmzwfot l aejzifh pmcsKyo f nf wm0efEiS t hf cGit hf a&;rsm;udk zefw;D jcif;&S^d r&Sd odkUr[kwf rdrdoabmqE´tavsmuf a&mif;vkd0,fvdkjcif; [kwf^r[kwf rnfodkUcGJjcm;í od&SdEkdif rnfenf;/ ,if;wk\ Yd Oya'tusKd ;qufrsm;onf odomxif&mS ;pGmuGmjcm;ygvdrrhf nf/ pmcsKy\ f t"du tcsurf sm;ESihf EdiI ;f qvQif Oya'tusKd ;qufjzpfapaom pum;&yfta&twGuo f nf enf;yg;ygvdrhf rnf/ odkYaomf ta&twGuftm;jzifh enf;apumrl tvGefta&;ygygonf/

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; Oya'tusd K ;quf r sm;ud k azmf x k w f j cif ; ES i f h z ef w D ; jcif ; (Identifying and Creating the Appropriate Legal Consequences)

pmcsKyw f pfcw k iG f rSeu f efaomOya'tusKd ;qufjzpfaf y:&eftwGuf aqmif&u G &f rnfv h yk if ef; pOftqifh oH;k qifyh g0ifygonf/ OD;pGm rlMurf;a&;olonf trItyfo\ l txl;jzpfaomqE´rsm;ESihf us,jf yefaY om &nfreS ;f csuf rsm;udk od&&dS efvykd gonf/ 'kw, d taejzifh rlMurf;a&;olonf xdq k E´EiS hf &nfrSef;csufwdkUukd oifhawmfaom Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;ESifh qufpyf&rnfjzpfygonf/ wwd, taejzifh rlMurf;a&;olonf xdt k usKd ;qufrsm;udk azmfjyEkid &f eftwGuf oifah wmfaom pum;&yfrsm; jzifh azmfjy&ayrnf/ Oyrm - rlMurf;a&;olEiS hf trItyfow l Ukd tMum; yPmrawGUqHNk y;D aemuf trItyfoo l nf ukepf nftcsKd Uudk 0,f,&l ef pmcsKyw f pfcu k kd vdt k yfaMumif;od&cdS &hJ Ny;D xdu k ek pf nfrsm;udk (1.6.2010) aemufqHk;xm;vQuf ,if;xHokdY ydkYaqmif&rnfjzpfaMumif; od&SdcJh&ygonf/ xdk&ufxufausmfvGef ygu rlMurf;a&;olonf tjcm;a&mif;olxHrSukefpnfrsm;udk 0,f,lEkdif&ef a&G;cs,fEkdifaomtcGifh tvrf;&Srd nfjzpf&m pmcsKyu f zkd suo f rd ;f vdu k zsuo f rd ;f cGi&hf vdak Mumif; od&cdS yhJ gonf/ xkt d cg rlMurf; a&;oltaejzifh em;vnf&rnfrmS ukepf nfrsm;udk (1.6.2010)&ufaeYwiG v f nf;aumif;? xdx k uf apmívnf;aumif; ydaYk qmifay;jcif;onf 0,f,o l t l aejzifh ukepf nfuv kd ufc&H efEiS hf aiGay;acs &eftwGuf pnf;urf;csuw f pfcjk zpfonfudk od&&dS ygrnf/ okaYd omf tvm;wlyif em;vnf&efvo kd nf rSm xdpk nf;urf;csuu f kd vdu k ef m&efysuu f u G cf yhJ gvQif ,if;\Oya'tusKd ;quftaejzifh trItyfol taejzifh pmcsKyu f ydk ,fzsu&f efprG ;f tm; odrYk [kwf tmPm&Srd nfjzpfygonf/ xdaYk emuf rlMurf;a&; olonf trlonf\ qE´rsm;udk ay:vGifapaom tydk'fudk atmufygtwkdif; jyKpk&ygrnf/ tu,fí a&mif;olonf (1.6.2010)&ufaeYwGif vnf;aumif;? xkd&ufxufapmí vnf;aumif;? ydkYaqmifay;jcif;r&Sdygu 0,f,ltaejzifh pmcsKyfukd y,fzsufcGifh&Sdygrnf/ tcsKyfqdkaomf rlMurf;a&;olonf trItyfol\ vdktyfcsufrsm;udk od&dSap&efazmfjycJhNyD; Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;udkvnf; ay:vGifatmif azmfjyxm;ygonf/ xdkokdYazmfjy&mwGifvnf; oifhawmfaom ]]tu,fí}} ESifh ]]cGifh&Sdygrnf}}qkdaom pum;&yfrsm;udk xnfhoGif;tokH;jyKxm; ygonf/ */

wpfajy;nDowfrSwfxm;rIr&Sdjcif;/ (The Lack of Uniformity) Oya'aMumif;t& tusdK;quf&Sdjcif;onf tvGefta&;BuD;NyD;? tusdK;quf&Sdjcif;ESifh r&Sd jcif;wdUk tMum; uGmjcm;rIonf Bu;D rm;aomfvnf; w&m;&H;I rsm;onfvnf;aumif;? Oya'rlMurf;a&; qGo J nft h mPmydik rf sm;onf vnf;aumif;? rnfonfph um;&yfrsm;onf Oya'tusKd ;quf&adS paom pum;&yfrsm;jzpfvdrfhrnfESifywfoufí tjiif;yGm;rI &SdMuygonf/

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335

Oyrmtm;jzifh Office of the Federal Register States \toHk;tEIH;rsm;vufpGJwGif "Shall" [laompum;&yfukd Bud,mtjzpf toHk;jyKygvQif aqmif&Guf&ef wm0efwpfck&Sdjcif;udk tjyif;xefqHk; azmfjyonfh pum;&yf[k azmfjyyg&Sdygonf/ odkYaomf okawoejycsufwpfckwGif trIaygif; (1100)udk avhvmcsut f & "Shall" [laom pum;&yfonf "May" [laom t"dymÜ ,f &Ny;D rjzpfraeaqmif&u G &f aom "Must" pum;&yf\ tMum;wGif &So d nf[q k ykd gonf/ xkaYd Mumifh ,if;pum;&yfudk rlMurf;a&;olrsm;pGmu a&Smif&Sm;Muygonf/ vltrsm;\ av;pm;rIuckd , H &l aom Oya'a&;qGaJ &;tzGUJ tpnf;wpfco k nf ,if;\enf; Oya'rsm;wGif atmufygtwkdif; t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkygonf (u) wm0efwpf&yf? uwd odkUr[kwf BudKwifpnf;urf;csuf wpf&yfjzpfygu "Shall" odkYr[kwf "May" pum;&yfukd toHk;jyKjcif;onf toifhawmfqkH;jzpfygonf/ (1) Active Voice udktoHk;jyKrnfqkdygu "Shall" udktoHk;jyKoifhygonf/ Oyrm epfemxdcdkufolonf "Shall File" w&m;pGJqdk&ygrnf/ (t*Fvdyfo'´gt& Active Voice wGif Active Verb)udk toH;k jyKygonf/ (2) Inactive Verb udktxl;jyKjcif; odkYr[kwf Passive Voice oHk;&mwGif Active Verb tjzpf toH;k jyKxm;ygu "Must" [laom pum;&yfukd toH;k jyKyg/ Oyrm - avQmufvmT wif olonf "Must be"t&G,fa&mufoljzpf&ygrnf/ (Inactive Verb udktoHk;jyKxm;jcif;jzpfrnf/) ,cifu jypfrIxif&Sm;pD&ifcHcJh&zl;vQif "Must be" xnfhoGif;azmfjy&ygrnf/ (Passive Voice wGif Active Verb) udk toHk;jyKxm;jcif;jzpfonf/ þpnf;rsO;f udk Munf½h rI nfqykd gu tvGepf w d ½f yI zf , G jf zpfygonf/ ]]wm0ef}}ESihf ]]pnf;urf; csuf}} wkdY\ Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;onf rsm;pGmuGmjcm;aomfvnf; txufygpnf;rsOf;wGif azmfjy xm;csuft& ,if;wkdUonf wlnDaeonfhoabm&Sdygonf/ 4if;tjyif uwd okdYr[kwf wm0ef jzpfaom "Obligation" ESifh vdktyfcsuf "Requirement" wdkYonfvnf; omrmeftm;jzihf wm0efwpfcu k kd aqmif&u G af p&ef &nf&, G cf su&f jdS cif; odrYk [kwf pnf;urf;csuo f wfrw S &f ef &nf&, G f csuf&Sdjcif;[k t"dyÜm,f&NyD; ,if;wkdYonf t"dyÜm,fr&Sif;vif;onfhtjyif xdkpnf;rsOf;yg tjcm; pum;&yfrsm;ESifhvnf; xyfaeaMumif;awGU&Sdygonf/ xdkYtjyif aqG;aEG;onfh t"du taMumif; t&mudk Munfh½Ií oHk;oyfrnfqkdygu OyrmoHk;ckpvHk;wGif yg0ifaeonfrSm pnf;urf;csufrsm; jzpfygonf/ wm0efrsm; r[kwyf g/ odjYk zpf&m "Shall" pum;&yfut dk oH;k jyKNy;D xdpk mcsKy^f pm&Gupf mwrf; \tjcm;wpfae&mwGif wm0efudkzefwD;apaom udpö&yfü "Shall" udk ay;íoHk;rnfqkdygu a&maxG;apygrnf/ Oyrm - tusOf;om;tm; uwdu0wfjzifhvTwfjcif;bkwftzGJUonf 4if;wdkYxH wifvmaomavQmufvmT udk oabmwljcif; odrYk [kwf jiif;qefjcif; (Shall approve or deny)udk q,f&uftwGi;f jyKvyk &f ygrnf/ xdo k q Ykd ydk gu q,f&uftwGi;f cGijhf yKjcif;? y,fcsjcif;wpfpw kH pf&mudk

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aqmif&u G jf cif;r&Syd gu wm0efysuu f u G jf cif;jzifh avQmufvmT wifoo l nf tmPmay; pmcReaf wmf trdeYf avQmufciG &hf ydS govm;/ odw Yk nf;r[kwf tcsed rf aD qmif&u G jf cif;onf &Si;f vif;pGm ra&;xm; aom trdew Yf pfcyk g pnf;urf;csuw f pfcu k kd aqmif&u G v f u kd ef mjcif;oufoufomjzpfNy;D avQmufvmT udk ta&;,laqmif&Gufjcif;r&Sdygu ab;z,fxm;Ekdifaom trdefYwpfckavm[k ar;&ef&dSygonf/ tvm;wljyóemrsm;udk "May" [laompum;&yfukd toH;k jyK&mwGiv f nf; BuKH awGUEkid yf g onf/ wpfcgwpf&w H iG f wpfcw k nf;aom w&m;½H;k rSyif Oya'wpfcEk iS yhf wfoufí "May" qdak om pum;&yfuakd qmif&u G f vdu k aqmif&u G Ef idk o f nf}} [k t"dymÜ ,fziG Nhf y;D tjcm;Oya'wpf&yftwGurf l "rvkyaf qmifrae&"[k t"dymÜ ,fzi G o hf nfukd awGU&S&d ygonf/ "Shall" ESihf "Must" pum;&yfrsm; uJhokdYyif txuf&nfñTef;yg tzGJUtpnf;onf "May not" ESifh "Must not" pum;&yfwkdYESifh t"dymÜ ,fywfoufívnf; wm;jrpfcsujf zpfonf[, k q l aom ynm&yfyidk ;f t& a&maxG;aeaom pnf;rsOf;rsm;&Sdaeonfudk awGU&NyD; Oyrmrsm;udkMunfhvQuf pum;&yft"dyÜm,fukd oHk;oyf&vQif vGwv f yfpmG qH;k jzwfciG t hf mPmr&S[ d k t"dymÜ ,foufa&mufaMumif; okrYd [kwf tjyKoabmraqmif aompnf;urf;csufudk rw&m;awmif;qdkcGifh&SdaMumif; t"dyÜm,fxGufEkdifygonf/ Oya'udk rlMurf;a&;qGo J w l o Ykd nf jypfrq I idk &f mOya'rsm;udk rlMurf;a&;qG&J mwGif wpfpw kH pf ckaomvky&f yfukd aqmif&u G jf cif;rjyK&efwm0ef&jdS cif;ESiyhf wfoufí owfrw S x f m;aoma&;enf;&Syd g onf/ Oyrm rnfolwpfOD; wpfa,mufrQ (No Person Shall)wpfpHkwpfOD;onf .. rjyKvkyf&/ (Person Shall not) ..udkaqmif&GufolwpfOD;onf... jypfrIajrmufygonf/ Oya'ESifhnDñGwfjcif;r&Sd (It is unlawful to...) wpfpHkwpfOD;onf .... cGifhr&Sd (A person may not..) xko d Ykd trsKd ;rsKd ;uGjJ ym;aejcif;aMumifh Oya'rlMurf;a&;olonf pum;&yfcikd rf mNy;D toH;k rsm; aomtoH;k EH;I rsm;udk toH;k jyKoifyh gonf/ tar&duefOya'a&;qGaJ &;\ armfueG ;f xde;f ? uG,v f eG f avNyDjzpfaom Reed Dickerson onf þtcsufrsm;ESifhjynfhpHkaom oabmwlnDcsufrsm; zGHUNzdK;wdk;wufa&;ESifh ,if;oabmwlnDcsufwdkYtm; jyif;xefpGm umuG,fcJhygonf/ Oya't& tusdK;quf&Sdjcif;ESifhywfoufaom ,if;\ aqmif&Gufcsufrsm;tay: tajccHí xyfrHwdk;csJU aqmif&GufcJhonfwkdYukd atmufwGif azmfjytyfygonf/ C/ 1/

tqkdjyKoabmwlnDcsufrsm; (The Suggested Conventions) wm0ef r sm; (Duties) aqmif&u G &f efwm0ef&adS omudp&ö yfukd aqmif&u G jf cif;r&Syd gu Oya'\tiftm;uko d ;kH vQuf aqmif&u G af pEkid v f Qif ,if;onf ]]wm0ef}} jzpfygonf/ Oya't&aqmif&u G &f ef&adS om wm0efukd csdK;azmufolonf wpfpHkwpfckaomta&;,lrIukdcH&ayrnf/ Oyrm aiG'Pf? tcsKyfcsxm;jcif;?

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337

xkwyf ,fjcif;? &yfpjJ cif;ESihf ,m,D&yfp&J eftrdeUf ay;jcif; odrYk [kwf tjcm;aomudp&ö yfrsm;jzpfygonf/ pmcsKyft&&Sdaomwm0efudk aqmif&Guf&efysufuGufvQif ysufuGufolrS epfemoltm; epfemaMu; ay;&efwm0ef&Sdygonf/ odkYr[kwf w&m;½Hk;rS tNyD;tydkif 'Du&D&&Sdygu wpfzufpmcsKyf0ifonf ,if;\ pmcsKyt f &&Sad om wm0efrsm;udk xrf;aqmifjcif;rS ,m,D odrYk [kwf tNy;D tydik u f if;vGwcf iG hf &ygvdrrhf nf/ u/

Oya't& &Sdaomwm0efrsm; sm;/ (Statutory Duty) "Shall" ESifh "Shall not" pum;&yfrsm;onf w&m;raMumif;t& tusdK;oufa&muf apaom pum;&yfrsm;jzpfNy;D Oya'wGif xnfo h iG ;f oH;k pGaJ omtcg wm0ef&adS pvdak om udp&ö yfrsm; wGif toH;k jyK&ygrnf/ tjyKoabmjrifaom Oya'ynm&Siw f u Ydk þpum;&yfrsm;udk ]]tcsKyt f jcm tmPmydkif\trdefY}} [k qkdMuygonf/ tyk'd f 34(u) tEÅ&m,f&adS om wd&pämef[o k wfrw S jf cif;cH&aom wd&pämef\ ydik &f iS o f nf xkw d &d pämefukd oHZumwyfxm;aomt0ef;t0dik ;f wGif tyd'k f 34(x)wGif yg0ifonft h wkid ;f xm;&Sd &rnfjzpfNy;D xkw d &d pämefukd Ekid ef if;pGm xde;f Ekid af omvnfywfwyfqifxm;jcif; odrYk [kwf vHNk cKH aom avSmiftrd jf ziho f ,f,jl cif;rSty ,if;\ oHZumwyft0ef;t0dik ;f twGi;f rS xGuv f mjcif; rjyKap&yg/ þtyd'k w f iG f "Shall" ESihf "Shall not" udak ocsmpGmtoH;k jyKxm;ygonf/ "Shall" qkdaompum;&yfESifhywfoufí xkdrQavmufaomtjiif;yGm;rIrsm; &Sd&jcif;rSm rlMurf;a&;olwu Ydk pum;vH;k tm; tvGet f rif;toH;k jyKjcif;aMumifjh zpfygonf/ trdeaYf y;jcif;rSwpfyg; tjcm;ae&mwGif "Shall" udk toHk;jyKjcif;onf vGJrSm;pGmtrdefY[k rSwf,lapEkdifygonf/ Oyrm teuft"dyÜm,fzGifhqkd&mwGif ]]armfawmf,mOf}} qko d nfrmS .."Vehicle" shall mean........ xdkwGif rlMurf;a&;olonf xdkpum;&yf\t"dyÜm,fudk þodkYzGifhqdk&rnf[k qdkvkdjcif; r[kwfyg/ 4if;\&nf&G,fcsufrSm xdkpum;&yfudk t"dyÜm,fwpfckck owfrSwfjcif;omjzpfygonf/ teuft"dyÜm,fzGihfqkdjcif;ESifh ywfoufí tcef; 14 wGif tus,fw0ifh aqG;aEG;xm;ygonf/ tvm;wlyif pmcsKyfrsm;wGif atmufygtwdkif; yg0ifwwfygonf/ þa&G;cs,fcGifhonf 1.3.2004 aeUvnf (12;00)em&DwGif oufwrf;ukefygrnf/ This option shall expire at noon on march1, 2004.

þwGiv f nf; rlMurf;a&;olonf rdrad &G;cs,yf ikd cf iG u hf dk xkad eYwiG f ukeaf p&rnf[k trdeaYf y; jcif;r[kwyf g/ rlMurf;a&;ol\&nf&, G cf surf mS Oya'tusKd ;qufwpfcu k kd wdu k ½f u kd zf efw;D vdu k jf cif; jzpfygonf/ "Shall" rSvGJí tjcm;pum;vHk;rsm;udk toHk;jyKjcif;onf oifhawmfygrnf/ pmcsKyrf sm;ESihf Oya'rsm;wGif wm0efuzkd efw;D aom "Shall" pum;&yfukd vGrJ mS ;pGmtoH;k jyK

338

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aejcif;jzifh tcGit hf a&;rsm;? wm0efrsm; odrYk [kwf csichf sed í f qH;k jzwfciG t hf mPmwdUk udk zefw;D aMumif; udk awGU&ygonf/ tdrif mS ;onf Oypmudk csucf si;f 0ifa&mufaexkid Ef ikd af omtcGit hf a&;&Syd gonf/ The Tenant shall have the duty to make payment within 10 days of delivery. 0,foo l nf ukepf nfudk vufcH&&SdNyD;(10)&uftwGif; aiGacs&efwm0ef&Sdygonf/ Buyer shall have the duty to make payment within 10 days of delivery.

or*¾onf ,if;\ud, k yf idk t f rnfjzifh epfemcGirhf sm;udk pwifwidk w f ef;Ekid &f ef tmPm&Syd grnf/ The Union shall have the authority to initiate grievances in its own name. "Shall"qkad ompum;&yfonf "wm0ef&o dS nf"[k t"dymÜ ,faqmifonft h wGuf tdrif mS ;

onf tcGit hf a&;&S&d efwm0ef&ydS grnf/ 0,foo l nf wm0ef&&dS ef wm0ef&ydS grnf/ or*¾onf tmPm &Sd&ef wm0ef&Sdygrnf [lí t"dyÜm,fxGufygvdrfhrnf/ MoZmwdurú &So d l Reed Dickerson onf "Shall"qkad ompum;vH;k ukd wm0efrsm;udjk zpf ay:apvdo k nft h csed w f iG f toH;k jyK&efaxmufcaH jymMum;cJo h nfw h ikd f tenf;pkaomrlMurf;a&;qGo J l wkdYurl txufOyrmrsm;twkdif; "Must"wpfrsdK;wnf;udkvnf;aumif; o'´gtaetxm;t& "Shall" ESiw hf zJG ufí vnf;aumif;toH;k jyK&ef pdwx f m;xufoefMuonfukd awGU&S&d ygonf/ þodYk aqmif&u G jf cif;\ qd;k uGurf mS pnf;urf;csurf sm;udk zefw;D vdo k nftcg "Must"udk toH;k jyKEidk jf cif; r&Sdawmh&m rlMurf;a&;olwdkYtaejzifh Oya'tusdK;qufudk jzpfapEkdifaom tjcm;pum;vHk;udk &SmazGtoHk;jyK&ef vdktyfvmygonf/ c/

wpf o D ; yk * ¾ v zef w D ; aomwm0ef (Privately Created Duties) "Shall" ESihf "Shall Not"wku Yd kd Oya'rlMurf;a&;wGif trsm;qH;k toH;k jyKaomfvnf; &Hzef&cH g wGif yk*¾vduqkdif&mOya'qkdif&m pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;a&;qGJ&mwGif pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;u tjcm; pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;udk rjzpfraeudpö&yfwpfckudk aqmif&Guf&ef ñTefMum;onfhtcg odkYr[kwf wpfpw kH pfcu k kd aqmif&u G jf cif;rSa&SmifMuOf&ef ñTeMf um;onft h cg xkpd um;&yfrsm;udt k oH;k jyKygonf/ Oyrm - wpfpw kH pfO;D onf &efyakH iGwpf&yfukd wnfaxmifygu xk&d efykH aiGux kd ed ;f odr;f apmifah &Smuf &ef ,HkrSeftyfESHjcif;cH&olukd wm0efay;jcif;jzpfygonf/ ,Hrk w S t f yfEjHS cif;cH&olonf "Shall"xd&k efyakH iGrS &&Sad om0ifaiGukd tyk'f 8(C)wGif jy|mef; xm;onft h wkid ;f cGaJ 0&ygrnf/Trustee shall distribute the earned income from the trust

in the manner provided in section 8 (d).

yk*v ¾ u d ydik ;f qkid &f m Oya'pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif "Will"qkad ompum;&yfukd toH;k jyKjcif; jzifv h nf; wm0efrsm;udzk efw;D Muygonf/ odaYk omf "Shall"qkad om pum;vH;k rSm ydí k oihaf wmfygonf/

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339

tb,faMumifhqdkaomf "Will"pum;&yfonf tem*gwfwGifjzpfrnfhudpö&yfrsm;udk &nfñTef;í jzpfygonf/ odkUaomfta&;wBuD; rSwfom;&efrSm rlMurf;a&;olonf wm0efrsm;udkzefwD;&mwGif "Shall"odUk r[kwf "Will" ESpo f uf&mpum;&yf wpfcu k kd a&G;cs,Nf y;D xdpk m&Gupf mwrf;twGi;f wpfpu kd f rwfrwftoH;k oGm;&efvydk gonf/ 2/

wm0ef r sm;ud k ysuf j y,f a pjcif ; (Negation of Duties) pmcsKy0f ifEpS zf uftMum; qufqaH &;wGif wpfzufonf twdtvif;azmfjyxm;aom wm0ef &Sdygu odkYr[kwf oG,f0dkufíjzpfap wm0ef&Sdygu ,if;wm0efudk ysufjy,fapvdkvQif oD;jcm; pm&Gufpmwrf; vdktyfygonf/ xkdpm&Gufpmwrf;\ Oya'tusdK;qufonf rlv&SdcJhaom Oya' tusdK;qufudk y,fzsuf&efjzpfygonf/ uif;vGwfonf^vdktyfjcif;r&Sd ("is not required to") [laompum;&yfukd toH;k jyKjcif;jzifh vuf&dS &Sad eaom wm0efukd Oya't&jzpfap? pmcsKyrf sm;t& jzpfapwm0ef wpf&yfukd ysufjy,fapEdkifaom tmedoif&Sdygonf/ Oyrm - Oya'wpf&yft& taxGaxGtpD&ifcH&efwm0efukd tkyfcsKyfa&;ydkif;qkdif&m XmewpfckodkY wm0efay;tyfxm;NyD; xkt d yk cf sKyaf &;ydik ;f qkid &f m Xmeonfvnf; ,if;xHoYkd tpD&ifc&H efwm0efukd pGev Yf w T cf iG jhf yKEidk o f nfh tmPm&So d nfqykd gu xdXk merS atmufygtwkid ;f pnf;rsO;f owfrw S af umif;owfrw S Ef idk yf grnf/ ywf0ef;usifukdxdckdufapaompGefYypfypönf;rsm;udk pGefYypfonfh t&if;tjrpfwpfckonf wpfESpfvQif ... xufavsmhNyD; pGefYypfygu oefY&Sif;aom a&Oya'\ tydk'f 9-009(1)(c)wGif jy|mef;xm;aomESppf OftpD&ifcH jcif;wm0efrS uif;vGwyf grnf/ odw Yk nf;r[kwf taxGaxG t*Fvyd f a&S;½dk;Oya'\ enf;Oya't& 0efxrf;rsm;onf tvkyf&SifrS arwåm&yfcHygu xdkufoifhaom tcsed yf q kd if;&rnf[k jy|mef;xm;&m tvkycf efx Y m;a&;pmcsKyw f pfco k nf ,if;wm0efudk atmufyg twkdif; ysufjy,f odkUr[kwf uefYowfEdkifygrnf/ 0efxrf;onf ,if;,HkMunfudk;uG,faombmomESifh oufqkdifaom bmoma&;aeYxl; aeYjrwf (Oyrm pae odkUr[kwf we*FaEG)wdkYjzpfygu tvkyftcsdefydkqif;&ef vdktyfjcif;r&Sdyg/ odaYk omf tvky&f iS t f aejzifh xkad eYrsm;wGif xkt d vkyo f rm;ESihf bmomud;k uG,rf u I jJG ym;aom tjcm; tvkyform;rsm;udk &SmazGír&&SdEkdifaom udpö&yfrsm;rSty jzpfygonf/ tvm;wlyif Oya' odkYr[kwf pmcsKyfwpf&yfonf OD;pGmus,fjyefYaom wm0efwpf&yfudk ay;NyD;aemuf csufcsif;yif ,if;udk twkdif;twmwpfcktxd jyefvnfuefYowfEdkifygonf/ tdr&f iS o f nf tdrOf ypmudk aexdik Ef idk af omtajctae&Sad eap&eftwGuf xde;f odr;f &ygrnf/ odaYk omf tdr&f iS o f nf tdrif mS ;aexkid rf aI Mumifv h nf;aumif;? ysupf ;D rIaMumifv h nf;aumif; jzpfay: aomysufpD;rIrsm; jyifqif&eftwGuf ukefusp&dwftm;vHk;udk uscH&ef rvdktyfyg/ þOyrmwGif omrmeftm;jzif&h adS omwm0efudk OD;pGmajymMum;Ny;D rS xdw k m0efEiS hf ywfouf

340

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

aom uefYowfcsufwdkYudk owfrSwfygonf/ wm0efukd ysufjy,fap&mü atmufygtwkdif;cRif;csufudk toHk;jyKaomenf;jzifhvnf; aqmif&GufEkdifygonf/ okdYaomf oP²mefusrIr&Sdjcif;aMumifh vlBudKufenf;aomenf; jzpfygonf/ 3/

tcG i f h t a&;rsm; (Rights) tcGifhta&;rsm;onf wm0efrsm;\qefYusifbuf jzpfygonf/ tcGifhta&;udk ydkifqkdifol tay: wm0ef&SdolrS wm0ef&Sdjcif;jzpfygonf/ tcGifhta&;udk ydkifqkdifxm;olonf Oya't& aomfvnf;aumif; pmcsKyt f &aomfvnf;aumif;&&daS omtcGit hf a&;udk &,l&mwGif tcsKyt f jcm tmPmydkif\ tmPmudkoHk;vQuf xdktcGifhta&;udk &,lEkdifygonf/ tcGifhta&;udk ydkifqkdif olu, dk pf m; tcsKyt f jcmtmPmydik u f Oya'udk ud;k um;ygvdrrhf nf/ tcGit hf a&;wpfcu k kd zefw;D vdk vQif odrYk [kwf vkyaf qmifcsuw f pf&yf jyKvyk jf cif;ukd wm;jrpfvv kd Qif tcGit hf a&;&So d nf (is entitled to) qdkaompum;&yfudk toHk;jyKEkdifygonf/ w&m;Ekid o f nf þpmcsKyt f & trIqikd &f mwGif ukeu f scahJ oma&SUaep&dwEf iS hf ukeu f sp&dwf wdkUudk wpfzuftrIonfxrH S jyefvnf&&S&d ef tcGit hf a&;&Syd gonf/ (ay;&efwm0efukd oG,0f u kd í f zefw;D jcif;jzpfygonf/) rSwyf w kH ifxm;aom rJay;olonf c½dik af &G;aumufyb JG w k t f zGUJ \rJay;cGi&hf o dS rl sm;pm&if;udk Munfh&IydkifcGifh&Sdygonf/ (þa&;om;csufonf pm&if;jyKpk&efwm0efukd oG,f0dkufzefwD;ygonf/) txufOyrmESpfckwGif Oya'tusdK;qufrsm;udk &&SdEdkif&ef wm0efudkwdkuf&dkufzefwD;Ekdifygonf/ xdkodkY aqmif&Gufjcif;jzifh tcGifhta&; oG,f0dkufí jzpfapygvdrfhrnf/ rsm;aomtm;jzifh tusdK; qufrsm;udk zefwD;&mwGif wm0efwpf&yfudk zefwD;vdkufjcif;onf tcGifhta&;wpf&yfudk zefwD; vdkufjcif;xuf ydkí t"dyÜm,f&Sd&ygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh ta&mif;t0,fwpf&yftwGuf a&mif;cudk&&Sda&; tawG;tjrifwpf&yfudk ay:vGifatmifazmfaqmif&mwGif a&mif;oltaejzifh a&mif;&aiGudk &&SdydkifcGifh tcGifhta&;onf txuftydk'fudk qefYusifaejyefygonf/ aemufq;kH Oyrmtaejzifh rlMurf;a&;olrsm;pGmwko Yd nf tcGit hf a&;udk azmfaqmif&ef BuKd ;pm; Mu&mwGif xdkodkYBudK;pm;jcif;xuf tcGifhxl; odkYr[kwf vGwfvyfpGm qHk;jzwfykdifcGifh&Sdaom tmPm wpf&yfudk zefw;D vdu k jf cif;u ykrd o kd ifah wmfayonf/ Oyrmrsm;jzifh tcGix hf ;l ESiyhf wfoufonfwu Ydk dk &Sif;vif;xm;aom atmufygpmykd'fwGif qufvufaqG;aEG;ygrnf/ odkYaomf þuGJjym;rIrSm wjznf;jznf;arS;rSed v f monfukd awGU&Ny;D ? rlMurf;a&;olwu Ykd "May" odUk r[kwf "is entitled to" qdak om pum;&yfEpS cf pk vH;k udk tcGit hf a&;ESihf tcGix hf ;l rsm; ESprf sKd ;zefw;D &eftwGuf oH;k vmonfudk awGY&ygonf/ oifhtaejzifh 4if;wdkYESifh wlnDaom tjrif&Sdygu BudKufESpfouf&mpum;&yfukd toH;k jyKEidk yf gonf/ okaYd omf pm&Gupf mwrf; wpfcx k w J iG f wpfpu kd rf wfrwf a&G;cs,t f oH;k jyKomG ;&ef vdyk gonf/

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tcG i f h t a&; od k Y r [k w f w&m;pG J q k d c G i f h u d k jyef v nf t yf E S H j cif ; uif ; vG w f c G i f h E S i f h vT w f a y;jcif ; / (Surrending Rights or Causes of Action- Waiver and Releases )

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343

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txl ; tcG i f h t a&;rsm;ud k y suf j y,f a pjcif ; / (Negation of Priviledges) txl;tcGifhta&;wpf&yfonf &SdESihfNyD;jzpfygu tydk'fwpfydk'fudk xnfhoGif;jcif;jzifh ,if; txl;tcGit hf a&;udk ysujf y,faumif;ysujf y,fEidk af pygrnf/ udpw ö pf&yfuakd qmif&u G &f ef rlvblw jzpfaom vGwfvyfpGmqHk;jzwfEkdif&ef tmPm&SdaMumif;udkjiif;qkdvdkvQif odkYr[kwf xkdtmPmudk uefYowfvdkvQif "May not" [laompum;&yfukd toHk;jyK&ygrnf/ udk,fpm;vS,frsm;Oya't& tdryf ikd &f iS w f pfO;D \ Xmerefae*smonf tdrOf ypmiSm;&rf;a&;pmcsKyu f kd jyifqifciG &hf NdS y;D xdjk yifqifcsuf udk tdr&f iS rf v S u kd ef m&efvo dk nf[k ,lqMuygpdUk / xkt d xl;tcGit hf a&;udk ysujf y,fap&ef pmcsKyw f iG f atmufygtwkid ;f xnfo h iG ;f Ekid yf gonf/ tdr&f iS \ f ud, k pf m;vS,jf zpfaom Xmaerefae*smonf tdr&f iS \ f pmjzifh a&;om;cGijhf yKcsuf r&SdbJ tdrfOypm iSm;&rf;a&;pmcsKyfudk jyifqifcGifh r&Sdap&yg/

uif ; vG w f c G i f h (Immunity) uif;vGwfcGifh&Sdjcif;jzifh xkduif;vGwfcGifhudk cHpm;cGifh&Sdolonf omrmeftm;jzihf&Sdrnfh wm0efrsm;rS uif;vGwcf iG &hf &Sad pygrnf/ uif;vGwcf iG u hf kd zefw;D vdyk gu uif;vGwo f nf "immune" [laompum;&yfudktoHk;jyKEkdifygonf/ (Oya'rsm;wGif omreftm;jzifh þokdY toHk;jyKavh &Sdyg onf/) odkYr[kwf jzpfrnfhOya'tusdK;qufukd wdkuf½dkufxnfhoGif;a&;om; azmfjyyg/ (þenf;udk pmcsKyfrsm;wGif aqmif&Gufavh&Sdygonf/) þOya'ygjy|mef;csurf sm;udk aqmif&u G o f nft h pd;k &t&m&So d nf jypfraI Mumif;t& vnf; aumif;? w&m;raMumif;t& wm0ef&Sdjcif;rSvnf;aumif; uif;vGwfap&rnf/ tdrif mS ;onf tdr&f iS rf zS w d Mf um;aom wwd,olrsm;\aqmif&u G cf suaf Mumifh Oypm ysupf ;D rIrsm;twGuf wm0efr&Sdap&/

9/ pnf ; urf ; csuf r sm; (Conditions) (u) teuf t "d y Ü , f E S i f h t rsd K ;tpm;rsm; (Definitions and Types) pnf;urf;csuq f o kd nfrmS tjcm;aomOya'tusKd ;qufrsm; rpGu J yfEidk rf D jynfph &kH efvakd om tcsufrsm;jzpfygonf/ a&;om;azmfjyxm;aom pnf;urf;csufrsm;onf ta&mif;t0,fwpf&yf jzpfpOftwkid ;f jzpfymG ;ap&ef vnfywfaponfh ,EÅ&m;jzpfygonf/ xkpd nf;urf;csuu f kd jynfrh jD cif;

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tcGit hf a&;ukd pGeUf vTw&f ef "waive" udt k oH;k jyKyg/ pnf;urf;csuftm;jynfhrD&ef aqmif&GufrI&Sdjcif;? r&Sdjcif;onf wm0efwpf&yfukdjzpfay:apvdkygu "if" udt k oH;k jyKyg/

wifjyjcif;^ukd,fpm;jyKjci;f? ypönf;rSefaMumif; tmrcHcsuf? vTwfay;jcif;? tmrcH csufESifh epfemqHk;&HI;rItwGuf avsmfaMu;ay;jcif;/ ( Representations, Warranties, Releases, guaranties and Indemnities )

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352

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

owfrSwfxm;aomavsmfaMu;udk wpfzufxHrSvnf;aumif; aiGaMu;cdkifrmaom wwd,olxHrS vnf;aumif; &&Sjd cif;wdUk jzpfygonf/ xdaYk emuf oift h rIonftwGuf vdt k yfonft h cgwGif w&m;NyKd if udk w&m;pGq J &kd eftaMumif;rsm;udk zefw;D Ny;D vdt k yfaomukpm;rIukd &&Sad prnfph myd'k rf sm;udk a&G;cs,f toH;k jyKyg/ 1/

taxGaxGpnf;rsOf;rsm;ESifh emrnfrsm; - omrefwifjyjcif;^ukd,fpm;jyKjcif;ESifh ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsufay;jcif; (General Rules and Techniques: Typical Representations and Warranties)

wifjyjcif;^ud, k pf m;jyKjcif;jzpfap ypön;f rSeu f efaMumif; tmrcHcsuaf y;jcif;ESihf ywfoufí jzpfap taxGaxGpnf;rsOf;rsm;ukd pmcsKyfxJwGifpmom;rsm; vdkovdkxnfhoGif;jyifqif zefwD; Ekdifygonf/ yHkao r[kwfyg/ omreftm;jzifh wifjyjcif;^udk,fpm;jyKjcif;ESifh ypönf;rSefuefaMumif;tmrcHcsufay;jcif; wdkYwGif atmufygwdkY yg0ifygonf/ (u) pmcsKyfvufrSef a&;xdk;rnfholonf owfrSwfxm;onfhenf;vrf;jzifh zGJUpnf;wnfaxmif xm;NyD; trnfaumif;jzifh &yfwnfum ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfudk csKyfqdk&ef tcGifhtmPm&Sdjcif;/ (c) ta&mif;t0,fonf tjcm;pmcsKyw f pf&yfuakd zmufjcif;r&So d vdk Oya'udv k nf; qefu Y sicf sKd ; azmufrIr&Sdjcif;/ (*) a&mif;ol odkYr[kwf tiSm;csxm;olonf a&mif;cs odkYr[kwf iSm;&rf;aomydkifqkdifrIESifh ywfoufí cdkifvHkaomydkifqkdifrI&Sdjcif;ESifh xdkydkifqkdifrIwdkYonf tjcm;olrS odrf;,lykdifcGifh&Sdaom ydkifqkdifrIrsdK;r[kwfjcif;ESifh a<u;NrDESifh 0efav;apaomt&mrsm;rS uif;vGwfaom ydkifqkdifrIrsdK; jzpf&ygrnf/ (C) ta&;Bu;D aomtcsut f vuftm;vH;k udk ajymMum;Ny;D jzpf&rnf/ a&;om;&mwGif ]]þpmcsKyf \aemufqufwGJ X wGif azmfjyxm;csufrSwpfyg;}} [k a&;avh&Sdygonf/ txufwiG af zmfjyxm;onft h wkid ;f þodaYk &;om;csuo f nf wifjyjcif; odrYk [kwf ypön;f rSef aMumif; tmrcHcsufoufoufomr[kwfbJ xkdufoifhaompHkprf;rIudkjyKaponfh ud&d,mjzpfap ygonf/ wifjyxm;csufESifhywfoufí &SmazG&efESifh cRif;csuf&SdrIwdkUudk aqG;aEG;&efwm0efudk wifjyolESifh tmrcHolxHodkY vTJajymif;usa&mufapygonf/ xdkokdYaom udk,fpm;jyKjcif;ESifh ypönf; rSefuefaMumif;tmrcHcsufwdkYudk uwdu0wfrsm;ESifh yl;wGJavh&Sdygonf/ odkYrSom wifjycsufESifh ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsufwdkYudk qefYusifí epfemqHk;&HI;rItwGuf awmif;qdkvmrIwdkYudk ckcHumuG,fEkdifNyD; ay;avsmfvkdrIwdkYudk wm;qD;Ekdifayrnf/ (a&SUtcef;udk Munfhyg/)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; 2/

353

UCC ud k t oH k ; jyKjcif ; (The UCC Approach) Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) ESihf tusLH ;0ifaom ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyrf sm;wGif

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wif j yjcif ; ^ud k , f p m;jyKjcif ; (Representations) xH;k wrf;pOfvmrsm;t& wifjyjcif;qdo k nfrmS vuf&jdS zpfay:aeaomtcsut f vufrsm;udk ,HMk unftm;ud;k ap&efEiS hf pmcsKycf sKyjf cif; paomvkyaf qmifrw I pfcu k jkd yKvyk &f eftwGuf wdu k w f eG ;f &ef ajymMum;csufwdkUjzpfygonf/ rSm;,Gif;pGmwifjyjcif;onf y#dnmOfudkzsufodrf;&ef odkUr[kwf epfemaMu; &&St d wGuf w&m;pG&J ef taMumif;rsm;udk jzpfay:apygonf/ (vdrv f nfvn S jhf zm;rIyg0if

354

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355

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

ypö n f ; rS e f u ef a Mumif ; tmrcH c suf (Warranties) xH;k wrf;pOfvmrsm;t& ypön;f rSeu f efaMumif;tmrcHcsuq f o kd nfrmS tmrcHou l ajymMum; onfhtcsufrsm;onf ,if;ajymMum;onfhtwkdif;yif rSefuefaMumif; uwdjyKjcif;jzpfygonf/ csdK;azmufaom odkYr[kwf rSefuefrIr&Sdaom ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsufonf pmcsKyfwGif qefu Y sib f uf ajymMum;xm;jcif;rSty epfemaMu;&&S&d eftwGuf w&m;pGq J &kd ef taMumif;w&m;udk ay:apNyD; w&m;pGJqdk&eftcsdefrS pmcsKyfcsKyfNyD;csdef pmcsKyfcsKyfNyD;onfhtcsdeftxd xdktwdkif; wnf&adS evQif jzpfonf/ odw Yk nf;r[kwf xH;k wrf;pOfvmt& tdr?f Nc?H ajrOya'ESihf ywfoufygu pmcsKyfpmwrf;ESifh ta&mif;t0,fpmcsKyfwGif azmfjyjcif;r&Sdygu w&m;pGJqdk&eftaMumif;udk jzpfapygonf/ rnfonfhtcsufrsm;onf <uif;usef&pfrnfESihfywfoufí Oya'onf wajy;nD r&SdonfhtwGuf taumif;qHk;enf;vrf;rSm pmcsKyfxJwGif twdtvif; xnfhoGif;a&;om;&ef jzpfygonf/ tmrcHcsufrsm;udk a,bl,stm;jzifh atmufygyHkpHtwkdif; a&;qGJygonf/ (a&mif;ol? 0,fo?l tjcm;aom teuft"dymÜ ,fziG q hf x kd m;onfh toH;k tEIe;f )onf (&uf odkYr[kwf &ufrsm; twdtus odkYr[kwf &nfñTef;csuf)wGif (tusHK;0ifonfhtus,ft0ef;ESifh tESpfom&tjyif aocsmpGmazmfjyxm;onfh tmrcHtcsuftvuf)udk tmrcHonf/ wifjycsurf sm;enf;wl 4if;wdu Yk kd w&m;0ifOya'y#dnmOftjzpf teuft"dymÜ ,fziG q hf jdk cif;rS wm;qD;&eftwGuf tem*gwfumvjyyk'rf oH;k bJ ypöKyeÜ Ef iS t hf wdwu f mvjyyk'w f jYdk zifo h m tNrw J rf; vdkvdk a&;qGJoifhygonf/

tmrcHcsufrsm;ESifh avsmfaMu;rsm; (Guaranties and Indemnities) tmrcHolonf tjcm;aompmcsKyf0ifu ,if;xH&Sdaomwm0efudk aqmif&Gufjcif;r&Sdygu tmrcHot l aejzifh wm0ef,al qmif&u G af y;rnf[k uwdjyKojl zpfonf/tmrcHcsuf ''Guarantee'' f efaMumif; tmrcHcsu"f Warranty" (Oyrm-oif\ rku d cf ½kad 0hr;D zkt d wGuf pum;vk;H tm; ypön;f rSeu tmrcHjcif;) oabmtok;H jyKjcif;jzpfNy;D ? 4if;ukd w&m;0ifOya' teuft"dymÜ ,fziG q hf cdk sut f wkid ;f tokH;jyKvSsif (wwd,oll\ukd,fpm; 4if;\wm0efukd aqmif&Gufay;&efuwdjyKjcif;) jzpfvSsif "Guaranty" [laom pum;vkH;ukd tokH;jyK&ygrnf/tNrJowdjyK&rnfhtcsufrSm tmrcHcsuf "Guaranty" wpfco k nf tmrcHorl sS avmufom aumif;rGeo f nf[al om tcsujf zpfygonf/

avsmf a Mu;rsm; (Indeminities) avsmaf Mu;qko d nfrmS tmrcHay;&e yl;wGw J m0ef,al y;aom pmcsKyjf zpfjy;D ,if;wGif pmcsKyf 0ifwpfO;D onf avsmaf Mu;ay;&ef wm0efu, kd Nl y;D tjcm;pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D taejzifh wwd,olrsm;tm;

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avsmaf Mu;ay;&jcif;aMumifh qH;k ½H;I Ekid jf cif;rS tumtuG,af y;xm;jcif; jzpfygonf/ omrefavsmaf Mu; onf pmcsKyfwGifyg0ifonfh ....wifjycsuf odkYr[kwf tmrcHcsufwpfckckudk azmufzsufrI (odkYr[kwf) wdusrIr&Sdjcif;wkdYaMumifh jzpfapay:vmonfhqHk;½HI;rIwkdY tusHK;0ifygonf/ avsmfaMu; ay;olonf y#dnmOfwGif tjcm;aom pmcsKyf0ifjzpf&ef rvdkyg/ tmrcHcsuf(*&rfwD)uJhodkUyif avsmfaMu;rsm;onf avsmfaMu;ay;olrQavmufom aumif;rGefygonf/ avsmfaMu;ESifh ywfoufí jzpfwwfaom tajccHjyóem&yfrsm;onf tBuHK;0ifrI twkdif;twmESifh ywfoufygonf/ (1) avsmfay;&ef awmif;qdkrIudkjyKEkdifonfhtcsdefumv (2) awmif;qdrk I jzpfay:aponfh tajccH tcsut f vufjzpfymG ;cJo h nft h csed u f mv (3) awmif;qdrk w I pfck twGuf tenf;qHk;ESifh trsm;qHk; avsmfaMu;yrmP (odkUr[kwf) awmif;qdkrItm;vHk; pkaygif; (odkUr[kwf) tcsdefumv twkdif;twmwpfcktwGif; wpfck&Sd tenf;qHk;ESifh trsm;qHk;yrmP/ (4) tusHK;0ifaomepfemaMu; (wwd,olrsm;rS trSefwu,fqHk;½HI;onfh aiGaMu;? qufpyfonfh epfemaMu;? jypf'Pftjzpfay;&aom epfemaMu;? twdtus owfrSwfxm;aom epfemaMu;)ESihf (5) awmif;qdrk u I kd wifjyjcif;ESihf tjiif;yGm;onfah wmif;qdrk u I kd ajz&Si;f onfh ,EÅ&m;wkEYd iS hf ywfouf í tBuHK;0ifrItwkdif;twmudk t"dyÜm,fzGifhqkdjcif;ESifh uefYowfjcif;wkdY jzpfygonf/ 7/

pG e f U vT w f j cif ; rsm; (Releases) tcGit hf a&;? awmif;qkrd I odrYk [kwf txl;tcGit hf a&;wpfcck u k kd pGev Yf w T jf cif; jzpfygonf/ tcGifhta&;awmif;qkdrI (odkYr[kwf) txl;tcGifhta&;udk taumiftxnfazmf aqmif&GufcGifh udk zsufodrf;jcif; jzpfonf/ awmif;qkdrIrsm;udk vTJajymif;wm0efay;jcif;jzifhvnf;? tvm;wl &vm'frsm;udk &&SdEkdifygonf/ odkYaomf xdkokdY aqmif&Gufjcif;aMumifh ta&mif;t0,fwpf&yf jzpfajrmufa&;twGuf pdw0f ifpm;zG,f wnfaqmufEidk af p&ef taxmuftuljyKapygrnf/ Oyrm tjcm;awmif;qkdrIrsm;udk wpfqifhedrfh OD;pm;ay;pDjcif; (odkY) w&m;½HI;ygu avsmfaMu;ay;Ekdifonfh tqifh/tajctae &Sdjcif;? r&Sdjcif; udpö&yfrsm;/

ed * H k ; - owd j yK&rnf h vk y f x H k ; vk y f e nf ; rsm; ( Conclusion -Cautionary Procedures )

ueOD;taejzifh y#dnmOfpmcsKyfwGif twdtvif;jy|mef;xm;onfrSwyg; tjcm; twd tvif; odkYr[kwf oG,f0dkufaomwifjyrIrsm;? tmrcHcsufrsm; avsmfaMu;rsm;ESifh pGefYvTwfrIrsm;udk Oya't& jzpfEidk o f a&GU yaysmufomG ;aponfh (odUk r[kw)f uefu Y u G jf iif;qko d nfh rl&if;jy|mef;csuf rsm;udk pOf;pm;Munfhyg/ þonfrSmoG,f 0kdufí tMuKH ;0ifeidk rf nfh UCC \ a&mif;0,fEkdifaom t&nftaoG;&Sad Mumif; tmrcHcsuf (odrYk [kw)f toH;k jyK&ef avsmu f efoifjh rwfaMumif; tmrcHcsuf

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

udkvnf;aumif;? t*Fvdyf½dk;&mOya'ESifh jy|mef;Oya'wdkYt& oG,f0dkufí tMuHK;0ifEkdifrnfh jy|mef;csufrsm;udk oifykef;acsouJhodkU &Sif;xkwf&ef BudK;yrf;rIjzpfonf/ odkY&mwGif UCC 2316(1)udk Munfyh g/ (odomxif&mS ;aom tmrcHcsuEf iS hf qefu Y siaf eonfh twdtvif; tmrcHcsuf \ wm0ef&SdrIudk jiif;qdkrIonf vHkavmufaomusdK;aMumif; qifjcifrIjzifh wnfaqmufxm;jcif; r[kwyf gu ,if;jiif;qkrd o I nf tusKd ;oufa&mufr&I rdS nfr[kwyf g/) 2-316(2)(3) (oD;oefw Y m0ef r&SdaMumif; jiif;qkdjcif;ESifh oG,f0dkufum tmrcHcsufudk wm0efr&SdaMumif; jiif;qdkrI? a,bl,s wm0efr&Sad Mumif; jiif;qkjd ci;f? 0,fo\ l ppfaq;pDppfrEI iS hf vkyif ef;aqmif&u G rf )I tmrcHcsut f wGuf wm0efr&Sad Mumif; jiif;qdrk o I nf vGeu f rJ rI sm;onfw h m0efr&Sad Mumif; jiif;qefrrI sm;ESihf pD;yGm;a&;t& MoZmoufa&mufonfh pmcsKyf&Sifrsm;u &&SdonfhpGefYvTwfrIrsm;udk qefYusifaMumif;ñTefjyonf[k rSw, f &l onf/ uGjJ ym;jcm;em;Ny;D xl;jcm;onfh a&;qGrJ t I wGuf vdt k yfcsurf sm;udk taxmuftxm; jyEkid o f nfh aphpyfaqG;aEG;csed (f odrYk [kw)f pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk ueOD; aphpyfñEd§ iId ;f pOf jyKvyk x f m;onfh pmcsKyrf sm;? wifjycsurf sm;? tmrcHcsurf sm;? Oya'y#dnmOfrsm; tjzpfteuf t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf Ekd idk o f nfh azmfjycsu\ f oufaocHukd z,fxw k &f ef ,m,DoufaocH pnf;rsO;f udk jzpfay:aponfh aygif;pnf; jcif; (okdYr[kwf) wpfaygif;wnf;jzpfapjcif; pmydk'fyg0if&rnf/ vGrJ mS ;aom jyXmef;csuu f kd toH;k jyKjcif;onf r&nf&, G af om&v'fukd jzpfapekid jf y;D pmcsKyf 0if\ tcGifhta&;rsm;udk uefYowfjcif; (odkYr[kwf) rvdkvm;tyfaom tusdK;qufrsm;jzpfjcif;wkdY jzpfonf/ Oyrm- ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsufrsm;onf vuf&Sdtcsuftvufrsm;ay:wGif © m rlwnfonfjzpf&m oabmwlncD suu f kd wifjycsuEf iS hf ypön;f rSeu f efaMumif; tmrcHcsu\ f vuP &yfrsm;ESifh wlatmifa&;om;jcif;jzifh xkdoabmwlnDcsufudk tem*wfwGif csdK;azmufjcif;aMumifh wm0ef&Sdapjcif;udk wm;qD;&m a&mufygvdrfhrnf/ tvm;wlyif y#dnmOfpmcsKyfudk wifjycsuf (odrYk [kw)f tmrcHcsuEf iS hf toGiw f al pjcif;jzifh vdrv f nfr?I twktyjyKrI (odrYk [kw)f w&m;repfemrI t& wm0ef&SdrIjzpfapjyD; jyif;xefpGm epfemaMu;ay;&zG,f&SdEkdifygonf/ odkY&mwGif rSefuefaom y#dnmOfukd toH;k jyKygu þcsKd ;azmufro I nf y#dnmOfawmif;qkrd t I wGuo f m jzpfygrnf/ (w&m;pD&if cGifh e,fedrdwftrsm;pkwGif epfemaMu;udk avsmfaMu;tjzpf uefYowfxm;ygonf)/ toHk;jyKonfh I wGuf awmif;qkrd rI sm;onf jyXmef;csuf trsKd ;tpm;ay:rlwnfí csKd ;azmufrI odrYk [kwf rwdusrt f iG f pwifMuyg pkpnf;vmMuNy;D ? jyXmef;Oya'yg umvpnf;urf;owfrsm;onf uGjJ ym;aomtcsed w onf/ vGrJ mS ;pGm wifjycsut f ay: awmif;qdrk o I nf 0,f,al &;? a&mif;csa&; (odrYk [kw)f tjcm;aom oabmwlnDcsufwkdYudk vufrSwfa&;xdk;csdefwGif ay:aygufapygrnf/ ypönf;rSefuefaMumif; tmrcHcsuu f kd csKd ;azmufrt I wGuf awmif;qdrk o I nf a&mif;csrI (okUd r[kw)f ydwo f rd ;f csed u f mvwGif a,sbl,stm;jzifhay:aygufrnf/ y#dnmOfuwday;rIudk csdK;azmufrItwGuf awmif;qdkrIonf pmcsKy0f ifu y#dnmOfukd aqmif&u G &f ef ysuu f u G o f nft h cg ,if;odYk aqmif&u G rf yI suu f u G jf cif;onf a0;uGmonfh ydwfodrf;NyD;aemuf tem*wfumvwGifrS ay:aygufygrnf/

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bPfrS tmrcHcGifhjyKpm(L/C)ESifh tmrcH(*&rfwD)udk ra&maxG;oifhyg/ bPfrStmrcH cGijhf yKpm (L/C)onf xkwaf y;olEiS hf tusKd ;cHpm;cGi&hf o dS l tMum; ?oD;jcm;wdu k &f u kd t f ajccHwm0efukd wnfaxmifrwnfay;ygonf/ tmrcHcsu(f *&rfw)D onf rlvwm0ef&o dS u l kd 'kw, d tqifh wm0ef&rdS I zefwD;ay;onf/ tmrcHol(*&rfwm)onf rlvwm0ef&SdolxHrS wm0efudk tpm;xdk;&,ljcif;jzifh 4if;ud, k pf m; tcGit hf a&;rsm;udk jyeftrf;ygonf/ bPftmrcHciG jhf yKpm (Letter of Credit) xkwaf y; olonf aiGudk jyefvnfxkwf,l&ef tcGifhta&;ESifh n§dEdIif;oabmwlxm;aom twdk;EHI;udkom cHpm;cGi&hf ydS gonf/ bPftmrcHciG jhf yKpm cHpm;cGi&hf o dS o l nf ,if;bPftmrcH cGijhf yKpm0,f pnf;urf; owfrSwfcsufrsm;ukd twdtusvdkufem&rnfjzpfNyD; xkwfay;olonf aiGay;rItwGufumuG,frI tenf;i,fom &Syd gonf/ þtcsuo f nf tmrcHcsu(f *&rfw)D ESihf tmrcHol udp&ö yfrsm;ESihf rsm;pGm uGjJ ym;ygonf/ tmrcHcsuf(*&rfwD)udk tmrcHcsuftaejzifh od&Sd? todtrSwfjyK&efysufuGufrIonf tmrcHo\ l tmrcHypön;f umuG,rf u I kd pGev Yf w T jf cif;? wm0efrS uif;vGwcf iG hf tcGit hf a&;? Ekw Yd pfpm jzifh wifjyrIwkdYrS wm0efuif;vGwfcGifh&jcif; rlvwm0ef&Sdoltay:awmif;qdkcsuf ukefqHk;jcif; (odrYk [kw)f taemufjynfe,ftrsm;pk\ jy|mef;Oya'yg csKUd ,Gi;f rI tjypftemtqmudk qefu Y sif jcif;(odrYk [kw)f wlnaD om ta&;,lryI pkH w H pfcu k o hJ aYdk om jynfe,f0,fta&;ygaom Oya'jy|mef; csufrsm;udk pGefUvTwfjcif;wkdYyg0if&ef ysufuGufonftxd tusdK;quf jzpfay:apEkdifygonf/ csdKU,Gif;csuf tjypftemtqmudk qefYusifrIOya'rsm;onf tdrf? ajr? taqmuftOD;tmrcHjzifh taygifay;xm;onfh aiGacs;olonf rSm;,Gif;rI&SdrSom a<u;NrDudk jyefqyf&ef ,if;tdrf? ajr? taqmuftOD;udk Munfh&IEdkifonfh jy|mef;csufudk yHkrSefxnfhoGif;azmfjyxm;onf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh umvDzkd;eD;,m; w&m;rusifhxHk;Oya' 5806 (CAL CIV PROC CODE 5806) udk Munfhyg/ [jyXmef;Oya'yg tjypftemtqmudk qefu Y sijf cif;tyd'k o f nf aiGacs;ol /tdrf 0,forl S vlwpfO;D rS av;OD;txd aeEkid af om tdr, f mudk tdraf &mif;olbufrS twd;k jzifh tdr0f ,f&efaiGukd acs;iSm;onfh pepf (Seller take back financing) udp&ö yfwiG f oufa&mufEidk yf gonf/] wlnaD om ta&;,lrKS yHkpHOya'onf aiGacs;olbufrS taygifypönf;a&G;EIwfcGifh ydwfyifjcif;udk w&m;½Hk;wGif OD;pGm avQmufxm;cGifhudk uefYowfxm;ygonf/ 4if;aemuf xdkvkyfaqmifcsufwGifyif acs;iSm;oludk taygifypönf;tm; a&mif;csjyD;aemuf uGmjcm;aiG&vdkaMumif;twGuf w&m;pGJqkdjcif; (odk hr[kwf) xGuaf y:vmaom tajzudk pGev Yf w T Nf y;D w&m;½H;k rSr[kwb f J tjcm;enf;jzifah qmif&u G &f ef BuKd ;pm;jcif; Oyrm pmcsKyfpmwrf; (odkY) &HyHkaiGrSwpfqifh aqmif&Gufjcif;/ Oyrmtm;jzifh umvDz;dk eD;,m; w&m;rusix hf ;kH Oya' 726 CAL CIV PROC CODE 726 udkMunfhyg/ þudpöuJhodkUNrDpm;Oya't& ta&SUydkif;bPfrsm;ESifh aiGaMu;tzGJUtpnf;rsm;u taxmuftyHjh yKonfh tdrEf iS ahf jrrsm;&So d nfh taemufbufjynfe,frsm;wGif jyXmef;xm;ygonf/

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a'otwGi;f &Sd Oya'twdik yf ifco H nf þuJo h aYkd om udprö sm;udk azmfxw k &f mwGif tvGet f zd;k wef ygonf/ avsmaf Mu;udk ypön;f rSeaf Mumif; tmrcHcsut f wGuf awmif;qdrk t I ay: tusKH ;0if&ef toH;k jyKonft h cg avsmaf Mu;ay;olu 4if;0,fwm0ef&o dS nfrmS ppfreS af om avsmaf Mu;ay;&ef wm0efom jzpfonf[k uefYowfygvsif avsmfaMu;&&Sdolonf awmif;qdkrI rjyKEkdifyg/ txufygudpöonf avsmfaMu;ay;olu wwd,yk*¾dKvfodkY 4if;0,f wm0ef&SdrItwGuf jyeftrf;aiGom yg0ifrnf/ rdrd ya,m*aMumihjf ypfrEI iS hf oufomcGit hf wGuf epfemaMu;rsm; ryg0ifyg/ w&m;pD&if ydik cf iG t hf mPm e,fedrdwf tawmfrsm;rsm;wGif uefYowfcsufrsm;udk a&SmifuGif;a&;om;EkdifNyD;? omreftm;jzifh z,fcsex f m;Ekid rf nfh epfemaMu;rsm;udk twdtvif; a&;oGi;f jcif;tm;jzifh epfemaMu;&&SEd idk yf grnf/ tavsmfay;rnfholu wwd,oludk wm0ef&Sdonfhtcg wm0ef&SdrIaMumifh &&Sdrnfh avsmf aMu;udk csucf si;f awmif;cHEidk yf gonf/tjcm;udp&ö yfrsm;ESihf ywfoufonfh avsmaf Mu; (awmif;qdk csufrsm;ESifh epfemaMu;)wkdYudkrl avsmfaMu;&&Sdolu wwd,oltm; aiGay;acsjyD;csdefwGifom &&Sed idk yf gonf/ aemufq;kH taejzifh avsmaf Mu;&&Srd nfo h o l nf 4if;wm0ef&o dS u l kd ayghavsmrh aI Mumifh wwd,oltay: wm0ef&SdaprIjzpfay:cJhonfh udpöjzpfygu avsmfaMu;udk &&SdEkdifrnfr[kwfay/ a,bl,stm;jzifh avsmaf Mu;&rnho f o l nf þuJo h aYkd om tajctaersKd ;wGif avsmaf Mu;jyefvnf &EdkifaMumif; twdtvif;azmfjyxm;rSom avsmfaMu;udk jyefvnf&&SdEdkifrnf jzpfonf/ rlMurf;udk owdjzifh a&;qGJyg/ p/

>cif ; csuf r sm; (Exceptions) a&;om;xm;aompm&Gufpmwrfrsm;onf tjcm;enf;jzifh zefwD;xm;onfh tcGifhta&; wm0ef? txl;tcGit hf a&;ESihf uif;vGwcf iG rhf sm;udk csucf si;f okrYd [kwf uefo Y wfcsurf sm; rMumcP jzpfay:aponf/ ,cifu jciG ;f csurf sm;udk "xyfrí H jy|mef;xm;rS.... rnfonfrQ... " [lonf toH;k tEIe;f udk rMumcP oH;k avh&o dS nf/ acwfay:Oya'rlMurf;a&;qGo J rl sm;onf 4if;wd\ Yk toH;k tEIe;f rSm us,jf yefrY &I adS omfvnf; ,if;uJo h Ykd tEkpyd af om jy|mef;csurf sm;udak &Smif&mS ;&efBuKd ;yrf;MuNy;D tcsdKUrSm &dk;&Sif;aomuif;vGwfcGifhtwGuf "rSwpfyg; "[lonfhtoHk;tEIef;udkom oHk;Muonf/ "aowrf;pmtwnfjyKoo l nf rnfonfEh idk if aH &;ygwDurkd Q &efyakH iGay;a0jcif;rjyKeidk jf cif;rS wpfyg;? ajr0,fuse&f adS om a0pkukd 4if;\qE´twkid ;f jyeftrf;Ekid o f nf "/ "r[kwv f Qif "[lonfh toH;k tEIe;f onf &Si;f vif;rIr&So d nft h oH;k tEIe;f jzpfaomfvnf; tcsKd Uaom Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGo J l rsm;onf twdtvif;>cif;csuftaejzifh toHk;jyKMuygonf/ "þaowrf;pm0,f (odkYr[kwf) pmjzifh a&;om;yl;wGJyg&Sdonfh rSwfwrf;ay:wGifygonfh pnf;urf;csurf sm;t& wpfO;D wpfa,muftm; ay;tyfxm;jcif; r[kwv f Qif uREyfk \ f tdraf jronf

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ysuf u G u f r I E S i f h ouf o mrI r sm;qk d i f & m -- ud p ö & yf r sm; (Events of Default and Remedies )

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362

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

363

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364

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þuG e f A if ; &S i f ; rsm;ud k vd k u f e m&ef r vd k t yf o nf h t csd e f ( When Not to Follow These Conventions)

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

365

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pmvH k ; BuD ; ES i f h rsOf ; om;jcif ; enf ; (All Capitals and Underlining) pmvH;k tBu;D ESihf tao;wGí J ½du k Ef ydS jf cif;rSm pmvH;k tBu;D udo k m oH;k jcif;xuf pmzwf½&I mwGif rsufpdudk ydkíoufomaponf/ ,cifu pmcsKyfrsm;udk vufESdyfpufjzifh ½dkufESdyfcJhpOftcg acgif;pOfrsm;ESifh odomxif&Sm; vdak om tydik ;f rsm;udk "pmvH;k Bu;D csn;f " om oH;k jcif;ESihf rsO;f om;jcif;wdUk jzifo h m jyKvyk Ef ikd cf o hJ nf/ xdkYaMumifh atmufyguJhodkYaom pmudk jrifEdkifcJhayvdrfhrnf/ 3/

T.DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES. Except as provided in paragraphs c, q, and r above. THIS PECAN SHELLER IS SOLD WITHOUT ANY WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING THE WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY AND OF FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR USE AND ANY PRIOR REPRESENTATIONS BY SELLER, ORAL OR IN WRITING, TO THE CONTRARYARE VOID.

,ckacwftcgwGif Oya'rS owfrw S jf yXmef;xm;jcif;r&Sv d sif ydí k aumif;rGeaf om enf;vrf; wpfckrSm acgif;pOfudkpmudk,frSpmvHk;rsm;xuf trSwfESpfrSwfBuD;apNyD; pmvHk;udk"xlxJrI"(Bold) atmif jyKvkyfjcif;jzifh odomjrifomapvdkaom vdktyfcsufudk jznfhqnf;ay;Edkifonf/ Another way to satisfy conspicuousness requirement is to put the required language in a text box like this one.

pmaMumif;\ tvsm;twdkif;twm (Line Length) pmom;rsm;udk wDxGifa&;qGJol (Text designer)rsm;onf þtcsufESifh pyfvsOf;í wpdww f 0rf;wnf; r[kwaf y/ tcsKUd rSm zwf½&I ef tvG,q f ;kH pmaMumif;\ t&Snt f vsm;rSm pmvH;k aygif; (39)vHk;rS (52)vHkjzpfonf[k ,lqMuouJhodkY tjcm;tcsKdUrSm pmvHk; (50)rS (70)[k ,lq Muygonf/ Oya'ESio hf ufqikd af om pmcsKypf mwrf;trsm;pkrmS yHrk eS t f m;jzifh pHtwdik ;f twm 8vufr x 11 vufrpm&Gufay:wGif ab;rsOf; 1 vufr &SdwwfMuygonf/ pmvHk;trsKd;tpm;ESifh t&G,f yrmPwdUk onf pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;wGi&f adS om pmvH;k ta&twGuu f kd uefUowfygonf/ Time New Roman pmvH;k trSw(f 14)jzifh ½du k x f m;aom pmaMumif;rSm pmvH;k (67)vH;k 0ef;usif yg0ifEikd Nf y;D trSwf (12)pmvHk;t&G,f jzpfygu (78)vHk;0ef;usif yg0ifEdkifonf/ 4/

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,cktcg ydí k jrifEikd v f monfh tavhtxwpfcrk mS owif;pmaumfvrH sm;wGif awGU&S&d wwf aom uGuv f yfjznf&h ef ae&myg&So d nfh pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm; jzpfonf/ owif;pmrsm;rSm tar&duef jynfaxmifpw k iG f tus,jf yefq Y ;kH zwf½MI uonf/ e,l;a,mufwikd ;f rf ( New York Times )uJo h Ykd aom owif;pmwGif toH;k jyKEikd v f Qif qrf\aps; (Sam's market)ESihf *Repf rpf (John Smith)wdYk f ;D a&mif;0,fa&;pmcsKyw f iG v f nf; toH;k jyKEikd rf nf jzpfonf/ yHrk eS t f &G,f tMum; csKyq f akd om vdar®mo &Sad om pm&GufwGif owif;pmaumfvH t&G,ftpm; ESpfck (odkY) oHk;ck qHhEdkifygonf/ aumfvHrsm;jzifh a&;om;xm;aom owif;pmrSm zwf½I&vG,fuljcif; taMumif;&if;rSm owif;axmufwkdYrS a&;om;aom pmydk'fwdkYonf 0gusESpfaMumif; (odkY) oHk;aMumif;xuf ydkenf; onfu &Sm;vGef;ayonf/ or½dk;usenf;jzifh a&;om;xm;aom owif;pmwpfydk'fudk pdwful;,Of Munfyh gu vGepf mG rS &Snv f sm;Ny;D pdw0f ifpm;zG,f uif;aom rD;cd;k a&mifaumfvrH sm;ESihf wlayvdrrhf nf/ xdek nf;wl a&;om;xm;aom pmpkwUkd rSmvnf; xdUk twlyif jzpfygvdrrhf nf/ yHrk eS t f &G,f pm&Guaf y:wGif aumfvHESpfckoHk;í a&;om;rSmrl vufcHEdkifzG,f&m &Sdayonf/ pmaMumif;tvsm;ESifh ygwfoufí tcuftcJ&o dS nf[k ,lqMuaom pmcsKyaf &;qGo J rl sm;tzdYk tqdyk genf;udk oH;k vdu k toH;k jyKEikd o f nf/ xdkYtjyif pmcsKyfwpfapmifonf owif;pmuJhodkY 0guswpfaMumif; (odkY) ESpfaMumif;om yg&Sdaom pmyd'k rf sm;jzifh zGUJ pnf;a&;om;xm;vQif aumfvrH sm;oH;k jcif;onf qDavsmaf yrnf/ xdak umfvrH sm;rSm pmaMumif;wdk oHk;çav;aMumif;jzifh a&;om;xm;jcif;onf pmwpfaMumif; (odkU) ESpfaMumif;tm; pmrsuEf mS tpGe;f ESpzf ufukd jzefu Y suaf &;om;xm;jcif;xuf ydí k vG,u f pl mG zwf½EI ikd o f nf/ odaYk omf jim;vnf; aumfvHudk zwf½SKjcif;onf txufatmuf tjyefjyeftvSefvSef zwf½I&jcif;jzpfojzifh omreftm;jzifh pmudkvsifjrefpGmzwfjcif; (Scan)jyKoltwGuf rsufvHk;<uufom;udk ydkrdkvIyf&Sm; apygonf/ aemufq;kH taeESihf pmaMumif;wdak v pmyd'k t f pwGif ab;rsO;f rSaeí twGi;f od0Yk ifaom ae&mowfrSwfay;onfh "Tab"tuGmta0;onf wdkavjzpf&rnf/ pmaMumif; 6ƒvdkif; twGuf ƒ vu®xuf r&SnfapbJ? pmaMumif; (4)vu®vdkif;twGuf † vu® jzpf&rnf/ pmom;ud k b,f n mES p f z uf n D a tmif n § d í a&;om;jcif ; ( Justfication) tcsKUd rSm pmom;udk b,fnmESpzf ufní d§ a&;om;jcif;onf pmom;udk ydrk o kd yf&yfaponfh tjyif pmydk'ftjzwftawmufudk ydkí xif&Sm;apjcif;tm;jzifh oabmaygufem;vnfrIudk ydkí vG,u f al ponf[k ,lqMuygonf/ uRr;f usio f l ynm&Sirf sm;uvnf; ESpzf ufnEd§ idI ;f a&;om;jcif;rSm zwf½SK&mwGif ydkívG,fulaMumif; ,HkMunfaxmufcHMuonf/odkYaomf vltm;vHk;[k rqdkEdkifay/ oabmrwlnDonfh ae&mXmewpfckrSm aiGacs;oufaocHvufrSwfrsm;ESifh aiGaMu;vJvS,fa&; aumfr&Sif (Securities and Exchange Commission) jzpfonf/ ,if;XmerS pmcsKyaf &;qGo J rl sm;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

owdjyK&ef vdt k yfayonf/ tBujH yKcsuyf ifjzpfaomfvnf; SEC ESihf a&SUaetrsm;pkonf vuf0b J uf av;rsOf;ESifh n§dí a&;om;xm;aom pmydk'frsm;rS ydkízwf½I&vG,fulonf[k ,lqMuonf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf 0J? ,m ESpfzufn§dxm;aom pmydk'fwdkYwGif pmvHk;wdkU\ tuGmta0;rSm rwlnjD cif;aMumifh jzpfonf/ þodUk jzpfjcif; udk wkad om pmvH;k rsm; oH;k pGjJ cif; (pmcsKyaf &;qG&J mwGif aumif;rGev f v kd m;zG,f trltusi)hf uGeyf sLwmrsm;wGif yg&Sad om tvdt k avsmuf pmvH;k jzwfawmuf ay;onfh "hyphenation" vkyaf qmifrEI iS hf yHrk eS f pmaMumif;t&Snf tvsm;wdu Yk kd toH;k jyKjcif;jzifh tuGmta0;udk enf;atmifjyKvkyfEdkifonf/ þESpfzufnD n§djcif;udk oHk;jcif;ESifhywfoufí oabmwlnrD &I ,l&ef aqmif&u G q f jJ zpfonf/ odaYk omf toH;k jyKrnfqykd gu owdjzifh a&G;cs,rf jI yK&ef vdt k yfonf/ pmaMumif;tuGmta0; (Line Spacing) vufEydS pf uf (odUk ) uGeyf sLwmjzifh ½du k Ef ydS x f m;aom pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;onf yHrk eS t f m;jzifh pmaMumif;waMumif;ESifh waMumif;\ tuGmta0;rSm wpfaMumif; Single Spaced jzpf\/ þodUk jzifh ½du k Ef ydS x f m;aom pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;rSm pmaMumif;ESpaf Mumif;pm Double spaced jzifh &;om;jcif;xufydkí zwf½I&ef vG,fulygonf/ tcsKdUpma&;olrsm;rSm pmzwf½IvG,fulrIudk jzpfaponf[k ,HkMunfojzifh pmaMumif;tuGmta0; 1-2 odkY 1-3udk ydkíESpfoufMuygonf/ tcsKdUaom yHkESdyfpm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;onf pmydk'fwpfckESifhwpfcktMum; pmaMumif;ESpf aMumif;pmcsefí ½dkufESdyfwwfMuonf/ pmcsKyfa&;qGJol trsm;pkrSm þuJhodkY rvdktyf[k ,lqMu onf/ tjcm;wcsKdUrSm tjzLa&mifae&mvGwf White space udkydkí ESpfoufMuonf/ 6/

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rmwd u m (Table of Contents) &Snfvsm;aom pmcsKyfpmwrf;wpfapmif\ yxrpmrsufESmwGif rmwdumyg&Sd&ayrnf/ þodkYtm;jzifh pmcsKyf0ifwdkY &SmazGvdkaom tcsufrsm;udk ydkrdkvsifjrefpGm awGU&SdEdkifonf/ rmwdum wdrYk mS wkad wmif;aom pm;oH;k olqidk &f m pm&Gupf mwrf;rsm;wGif yg&Syd gu oifah wmfayonf/ rmwdum wpfckonf pmcsKyftwGif;&Sd acgif;pOf? acgif;pOfcGJwdkYESifhwuG a&;om;xm;aom pmrsufESmwkdYudk azmfjyyg&Sdoifhayrnf/

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385

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; (10)

xdo k o l nf r[kwrf eS af Mumif; jiif;qdo k nfh yrmPwpf0ufukd escrow &efyakH iGwiG f xm;&Sx d m;ygoavm? raocsmta&&maom tusdK;qufrsm;? 'g½dkufwmu wdkuf½dkufqef;ppf oHk;oyfjcif;? pDrHcefYcGJa&;qkdif&m Mum;emrIwGif qef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif;? xdkolonf þyk'frt& Mum;emcGifh r&Sdyg/

(11) (12) (13) (14)

pwifjcif;

2 N

8 N

6 Y

5 N

a<u;NrDuif;vGwfcGifh&Sdjcif;ESifh pyfvsOf;í teuft"dyÜm,frjywfom;rI ajz&Sif;jcif;udk yk'fr 115 ESifhom oufqdkifapjyD; Oya'wGif tjcm;jy|mef;csufudk jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyf&ef pmzwfoludk tñTef; (reference) ay;jcif;jzifh Oya'udk atmufygtwdkif; jyifqifEdkifzG,f&Sdygonf Þ

yk'fr 44-56-299 jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfcGifh (u) u)

yk'fr 12 (c) ESifh yk'fr 115 tcGeftmPmydkifaumfr&Sifudk jyefvnfqef;ppf oHk;oyfjcif;/ atmufygwkdYt& avSsmufxm;olrsm;(1)

yk'fr 12 (b) odkYr[kwf

(2)

yk'fr 115 t& trIzGifhavQmufxm;NyD; a&TUqkdif; tcGefa<u; cRif;csufjzifh tMuHK;r0ifvsif atmufa&TUqdik ;f tcGef tmPmydik af umfr&Si\ f jyefqef;ppfo;kH oyfru I &kd &S&d ef atmufygwdu Yk kd aqmif

&Guf&rnf Þ

386

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

1/ pD r H c ef Y c G J a &;qd k i f & mMum;emjcif ; pDrHcefYcGJa&;qdkif&m Mum;emjcif;udk&&Sd&ef wpfOD;wpfa,mufonf Þ (u) t,lcH0if&ef &nf&G,faMumif; 'g½dkufwmudk today;jcif;/ (c) t,lc0H ifvakd Mumif;n Edw Yk pfpmay;Ny;D 15 &uftwGi;f awmif;qdrk I taxmuf txm;jyjcif;/ (*) 'g½du k w f mu pmjzifah wmif;qdv k Qif odrYk [kwf trIuMkd um;em&ef wm0efay;cH&ol w&m;olBu;D u trdeaYf y;vQif bPfrw S w f rf;rSw&f mtm;vH;k twGuf xkwjf yefcsuf udk &,lcGifhjyKaMumif; vufrSwfa&;xdk;jcif;/ 2/ 'g½d k u f w mu wd k u f ½ d k u f j yef v nf q ef ; ppf o H k ; oyf j cif ; 'g½dkufwm\ wdkuf½dkufjyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; &&Sd&ef wpfOD;wpfa,mufonf Þ (u) txufyk'frcGJ 1 yg vdktyfcsufrsm; jynfhpHkjcif;ESifh (c) r[kwrf eS af Mumif; jiif;qdo k nfyh rmP wpf0ufukd wwd,yk*Kd¾ vu f xde;f odr;f xm; onfh &efyHkaiG (escrow fund)wGif xnfhjcif;/ (c) tjcm;tcGeftmPmydkifaumfr&Sif\ jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; - yk'fr 115 t& a&TUqdik ;f tcGef cRi;f csuu f kd avQmufxm;rIq;kH jzwfcsuf tygt0if tjcm;tcGef tmPmydik f aumfr&Si\ f jyefvnfqef;ppfo;kH oyfjcif;udk &&S&d ef wpfO;D wpfa,mufonf þjy|mef;Oya'yg yk'fr 44-56-1087 (u)-(e)yg vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;udk vdkufem&rnf/ c/ 1/

pm&G u f p mwrf ; ud k jyef v nf q ef ; ppf o H k ; oyf j cif ; (Document Review) rlMurf;a&;qGJolu qef;ppfoHk;oyfjcif; (Review by the Drafter) tpjyKa&;qGrJ I wpfBurd Nf y;D qH;k vQif pOf;pm;rIvyk if ef;pOf wpfzefpwifvmygonf/ tajccH tm;jzifh rlMurf;a&;qGJolonf "þpm&Gufpmwrf;onf tvkyf vkyfaqmifEkdifrnfavm"/ qdkvdk onfrmS þpm&Guf pmwrf;onf trIonf\ &nf&, G cf surf sm;udk w&m;pGq J &kd ef rvdt k yfbJ tm;ud;k tm;xm;jyK&ef xda&mufuRrf;usifpGm aqmif&Gufrnfvm;qdkonfudk ar;&rnfjzpfonf/ rlMurf; a&;qGJolonf pm&Gufpmwrf;udk ½Ia'gifhtjrif wpfckpDrS tBudrfBudrf jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyf oifyh gonf/ - t"dutm;jzifh 4if;onf NcHKiHkrdap&ef vdktyfaom t&mtm;vHk;udk NcHKiHkrdNyDavm? - Oya'qdkif&m vkdtyfcsufrsm;tm;vHk;udk jznfhqnf;ygoavm? - qdk;&Gm;aom teuft"dyÜm,f 'Gd[ ruif;rIrsm; yg0ifygoavm ? - qefYusifzwf½Iolu toHk;csEdkifonfh jzpfEdkifacs&Sdaom [maygufrsm;yg0ifoavm? - twGif;xJwGif nDñGwfrI&Sdygoavm ?

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

387

- tcGit hf a&;rsm;? wm0efrsm;ESihf Oya'qdik &f m tjcm;tusKd ;qufrsm;udk &Si;f vif;pGmESihf wdwu d sus azmfjyxm;ygoavm? - pm&Gufpmwrf;\ &nf&G,fcsufrsm;udk aumif;rGefpGm ½kyfvHk;azmfxm;ygoavm? þjyefvnfqef;ppf? oH;k oyfjcif; pm&if;wGif tcsKd Utcsurf sm;tm; zH;k 0Suaf eaom teuf t"dymÜ ,f rjywfom;rIrsm;ESihf a&;enf;yHpk H tm;enf;csurf sm;twGuf rlMurf;a&;olu jy|mef;csuf wpfcck si;f pDtm; av;av;eufeuf Munf½h &I ef vdt k yfNy;D ? a'gifvu kd jf yefvnfqef;ppf oH;k oyfjcif;[k ac:onfh oHk;oyfcsuf yg0ifygonf/ pm&if;wGifyg0ifaom tcsufrsm;wGif tjcm;tcsufrsm;onf pm&Gufpmwrf;wpfckvHk;&Sd uGJjym;aom jy|mef;csufrsm;ü oD;oefYacgif;pOfwpfckudk rnfodkYudkifwG,fajz&Sif;rnf[k rlMurf; a&;qGo J u l EIid ;f ,SO&f ef vdt k yfaom a&jyifnD jyefvnfqef;ppf oH;k oyfjcif;[kac:onfh oH;k oyfjcif; yg0ifygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh a&SUaemufrnDrñGwfjzpfrIudk rlMurf;a&;qGJolu &SmazGjcif;onf ypön;f OpömiSm;&rf;oltm; iSm;&rf;oltjzpf tNrw J rf; &nfñeT ;f avh&o dS nfukd aocsmap&ef rsm;pGm aom jy|mef;csufrsm;rS rlMurf;a&;qGJolu ajc&maumuf&ef vdktyfEdkifygonf/ u) taMumif ; t&mrsm;ud k j yef v nf q ef ; ppf o H k ; oyf j cif ; -tcsuf 10csuf y h g pm&if ; ( Review for Content-A Ten Point Checklist )

tjcm;olrsm;u rlMurf;a&;qGJxm;aom pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;udk jyefvnffqef;ppfoHk;oyf onfhtcgESifh rdrdudk,fwdkif rlMurf;a&;qGJxm;jcif;udk tjypf&Sm ppfaq;aomtcgwGif rdrd\ jyefvnfqef;ppf oH;k oyfjcif;udk pl;pdu k t f m½Hak &muf&ef atmufygar;cGe;f rsm;udk toH;k jyKEidk yf gonfÞ pmcsKyf0ifrsm;? &ufpGJ? a':vmyrmPESifh twdk;EIef; (Parties, Dates, Dollar amounts and Interest Rates)

pmcsKypf mwrf;onf ,if;wd\ Yk avsmu f efaom vkyaf qmifEikd pf rG ;f wGif rSeu f efaom pmcsKy0f ifrsm;udk cGjJ cm;azmfxw k o f vm;? &ufprJG eS u f efovm;? aiGaMu;yrmPESihf twd;k EIe;f tm;vHk;wdkYonf rSefuefjynfhpHkovm;? tcsuftvufqdkif&m azmfjycsufrIwpfckckudk rSefuefonf[k rnfonfhtcgrQ rrSwf,l&yg/ ,HkMunfyg odkYaomf rSefuefaMumif; twnfjyKEdkif&ef ppfaq;yg/ qD a vsmf a om zG J U pnf ; wnf a qmuf y H k (Appropriate Structure) pmcsKyfpmwrf;ESifh vkyfief;udpö\ tvHk;pHkaom zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufyHkonf oifh trIonf\ vdktyfcsufrsm;ESifh udkufnDtqifajyoavm? aqG;aEG;&ef&Sdaom tay; t,loabmwlnrD u I kd oifem;vnfoavm ? vuf&dS zGJ ph nf;wnfaqmifro I nf trIonf \ vwfwavmudpö&yftwGuf oifhwifhaom zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufrIjzpfaomfvnf; aiG pm&if;xde;f odr;f jcif;vkyif ef;ESihf tcGeq f ufcrH I (tax treatment)uJo h aYkd om vkyif ef;udprö sm;

388

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; twGuf oifah wmfygoavm/ oif\trIonftwGuf ydrk v kd v kd m;tyfaom tjcm; zGUJ pnf; wnfaqmufyHk&Sdoavm? pmcsKyfpmwrf;onf oifhtrIonf\ arQmfvifhcsufESifh udkufnD oavm? ,if;onf oifhtrIonfu tapmydkif;wGif oifhtm; &Sif;jycJhaom 4if; vdkvm; onfh tay;t,l oabmwlnDrIESifh udkufnDoavm? wm0efESifh txl;tcGifhta&;rsm;udk &Sif;vif;pGmazmfjyjcif; (Clear Expression of Duties, Priviledges)

tjcm;pmcsKyf0ifrsm;\ aqmif&GufrIrsm;ESifh pyfvsOf;í &Sif;vif;aom Oya't& aqmif&u G &f rnfh wm0efjy|mef;csurf sm; pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif yg0ifoavm? owfrw S x f m; aom Oya't& aqmif&Guf&rnfh wm0efrsm;udk "&rnf" (Shall) odkYr[kwf "&rnf" (Must) pum;vH;k udk oH;k xm;ovm;? tcGit hf a&;rsm; odrYk [kwf txl;tcGit hf a&;rsm;udk "cHpm;cGi& hf o dS nf" (is entitled to) [k azmfjyxm;Ny;D ? txl;tcGit hf a&;rsm;udk "Edik o f nf" (may)[k azmfjyxm;oavm? xdjk y|mef;csur f sm;onf rnfou l ? rnfonft h wGu?f rnfoYl twGuf? rnfonfudk? rnfonfhtcsdefwGif aqmif&Guf&rnf[k &Sif;vif;pGm azmfjyxm; oavm? tcsdefudkufaqmif&GufrIonf t"duusonfhtwGuf "rnfonfhtcsdef" udk owfrSwf&ef rarhavsmhygESifh/ wif j yawmif ; qd k j cif ; rsm;ES i f h tmrcH a y;jcif ; rsm; (Representation and Warranties)

oif\trIonfu tm;udk;tm;xm;jyKaeaom tcsufrsm;? azmfjycsufrsm;ESifh tmrcHcsurf sm;ESihf pyfvsO;f í oift h rIonfukd tompD;ay;aom wifjycsurf sm;ESihf ypön;f rSeu f efaMumif; tmrcHay;jcif;rsm;onf pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif yg0ifoavm? txl;jyKy'k rf sm; (tod? ½kyf0w¬K owfrSwftqifhrsm; ponf)wdkYonf oifhjrwfavsmfuefygoavm? þ wifjyawmif;qdjk cif;rsm;ESihf tmrcHay;jcif;rsm;u rSm;,Gi;f aMumif; awGU&Scd yhJ gvsi?f a<u;NrD jyefqyf&ef pdwfcs&aom tzGJUtpnf;rS jyefvnf&&SdEkdifjcif;? y#dnmOfudk zsufodrf;jcif; odkYr[kwf ta&mif;t0,f udpöjyK&efudk jyKjyifjcif;rsm; jyKvkyfEkdif&ef vdktyfaom ,EÅ&m; (avsmaf Mu;yl;wGyJ g0ifonfh uwdu0wf? y#dnmOfupk m;rIy;l wGyJ g0ifonfh ysuu f u G rf jI zpf&yf odkYr[kwf uwdu0wf y#dnmOfESifh wwd,yk*¾dKvftmrcH)&Sdygoavm/ pmcsKyfpmwrf;u oif\trIonfukd us,jf yefaY om odrYk [kwf rvdt k yfaom wifjyjcif;rsm;ESihf tmrcHay;jcif; rsm;udkjyK&ef owfrSwfjy|mef;xm;ygoavm? ,if;wkdYudk tcsdefESifh yx0Da'oqdkif&m e,fy,ftwkdif;twmtwGif; cefYrSef;jcif;? avsmhcsjcif; odkYr[kwf uefYowfjcif;jyKEdkif oavm yrmPwpfckxuf ausmfvGefaom (qkdvdkonfrSm awmif;qdkrI $25,000 xuf ausmfvGefjcif;) ½kyf0w¬KESifhywfoufaom wifjycsufudk abmifcwfí uefYowfEkdifaom

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

389

tcsufukd xnfhoGif;Ekdifygoavm/ todynmA[kokw uefYowfcsufudk owfrSwf xm;aomtcsdefwGif owfrSwfxm;aom vlyk*¾dKvfwpfOD;\ todynm A[kokwwdkYwGif wifjyawmif;qdrk u I kd txl;ojzifh wpfpw kH pfck csKd UwJrh aI Mumifh uefo Y wfap&ef xnfo h iG ;f Edik f oavm? oift h rIonf jyKvyk o f nfh xdw k ifjyawmif; qdjk cif;rsm;ESihf tmrcHay;jcif;rsm;onf tcsut f vuftm;jzifh rSeu f efygoavm ? tjcm;wpfbuf onfvnf; rSeu f efygoavm/ rSm;onf[k oif xifjrifaomt&m wpfpHkwpfck yg0ifaeygoavm/ twGif;ESifh tjyif nDñGwfrI&Sdjcif; (Internal and External Consistency) pmcsKypf mwrf;onf vdv k m;aom zGUJ pnf;yHEk iS hf udu k n f o D vm;? ,if;onf vkyif ef; udpöwGifyg0ifaom tjcm;pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm;ESifh twGif;ydkif;qdkif&m jynfhpHknDñGwfrI&Sd ygoavm? t"dymÜ ,fziG q hf kd owfrw S x f m;aom a0g[m&ESihf pum;vH;k zGUJ pnf;rIpH (boilerplate)rsm;onf ½IyfaxG;rIESifh jzpfEdkifacs&Sdaom teuft"dyÜm,f r&Sif;vif;jcif;wdkYudk a&SmifMuOf&ef vkyif ef;udp&ö yfyg pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;tm;vH;k ESihf nDñw G rf &I o dS ifyh gonf/ pmcsKyf pmwrf;rsm;tm;vHk;wGif pmcsKyfygjy|mef;csufwpfckudk tusdK;oufa&mufrIr&Sd[k qHk;jzwf apumrl usefjy|mef;csufrsm; tusdK;oufa&mufqJ[k azmfjyonfhtydk'f (Nonseverability Clause)yg&So d vm;? ,if;wdu Yk kd wlnaD om pkpnf;jcif;? aygif;pyfjcif;? Oya' a&G;cs,cf iG ?hf cHo k rm"d½;kH a&G;cs,cf iG Ehf iS hf tjiif;yGm;rIukd tjcm;enf;ajz&Si;f jcif; jy|mef;csurf sm; jzifh xddef;csKyfxm;ygoavm? ajcajcjrpfjrpf em;vnfoabmaygufjcif; (Substantive Understanding) oifonf pmcsKyfpmwrf;yg jy|mef;csufwpfckpDudk em;vnfovm;? ,if;wkdY wpfckpDESifh tjcm;pmcsKyfESifh oufqdkif&mpmcsKyfrsm;yg yk'frrsm;ESifh ,if;\ tjyeftvSef csdwfqufrIudk oif vHk;0em;vnfonfhwdkifatmif jyefvnfqef;ppfoHk;oyfyg/ aqmif & G u f r I u d k tEk r metqd k x k w f j cif ; (Hypothesize Performance) pmcsK ypf mwrf;\ trsKd ;rsKd ;aom tcsut f vufypkH rH sm;ESihf vkyif ef;udp&ö yf\ ouf wrf;wpfavSsmufrw S pfqifh awG;awmyg/ pmcsKy0f ifrsm;u pnf;urf;csurf sm;udk tcsed u f u kd f yHkpHenf;vrf;jzifh vdkufemvQif wpfqifhNyD;wpfqifh rnfonfh jzpfvmrnfudk pOf;pm;yg? wcgw&H aemufq;kH &v'fukd oabmwlpmcsKy\ f jy|mef;csurf sm;u axmufcH tm;ay;jcif; &Sd? r&Sdudk a&SUaemufajymif;jyef aqmif&GufrIpuf0ef;udk pOf;pm;jcif;onf wpfcgwpf&H toHk;0ifygonf/ aqmif&GufrIrsm;onf tpDtpOfusevsuf &Sdygoavm ? aqmif & G u f r I r [k w f j cif ; ES i f h ysuf u G u f j cif ; ud k tEk r metqd k x k w f j cif ; (Hypothesize Non-performance and Default)

oabmwlpmcsKyftm;vHk;udk vnf;aumif;? wpfpdwfwpfa'oudk vnf;aumif; wpfbufjzpfap? pmcsKyf0ifESpfbufvHk;ujzpfap aqmif&Guf&ef ysufuGufvQif rnfodkY

390

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; jzpfrnfenf;? pnf;urf;csurf sm;udk azmufzsujf cif;\ tusKd ;quf odrYk [kwf vkyaf qmif&ef ysufuGufrI\ tusdK;qufwkdYudk vkyfaqmifjcif;ESifh eD;uyfpGm csdwfqufxm;ygoavm/ ,if;wko Yd nf &Si;f vif;pGm jrifEidk af om ysuu f u G rf rI sm;ESihf qufpyfaom ukpm;rIrsm;avm? pm&Gufpmwrf;onf vkyfaqmifcsufrsm;udk aqmif&Gufaeonfh umvwpfavSsmuf h iG f jzpfEidk af om jyóem&yfrsm;ESihf udp&ö yfrsm;udk ajz&Si;f Ekid yf goavm/ rlMurf;a&;jcif; tqifw jyóemrsm;udk ajz&Si;f jcif;onf ESpb f ufpmcsKy0f ifrsm;tMum; jyóemjzpfjcif;xuf ydrk kd í aumif;rGeyf gonf/ taMumif;rSm ESpOf ;D ESpb f ufonf tp ueOD;wGif tqifajypGm n§Ed iId ;f aqmif&u G &f ef tvm;tvm ydí k aumif;rGeo f jzifh jzpfygonf/ jyóem&yfukd rjzpfrD BuKd wifwm;qD;Ekid af om tcGiahf umif;udk trdt& &,loifyh gonf/ a'0gvDcH&jcif;tEÅ&m,fudk azmfjyjcif; (Address Bankruptcy Risk) pmcsKy0f ifwpfO;D u a'0gvDc, H jl cif; toem;cHpmwifvQif odrYk [kwf ypön;f xde;f vuf0,foYkd a&muf&o dS mG ;jcif;jzpfvQif rnfojYdk zpfvmrnf qdo k nfukd ydik ;f jcm;pdppfyg/ wpfzuf pmcsKy0f iftwGuf ta&;Bu;D aomypön;f odrYk [kwf tcGit hf a&;rsm;onf 11 U.S.C yk'rf 541 t& "tdr&f majruGuyf pön;f " jzpfvmrnfavm? 11 U.S.C yk'rf 362 tvdt k avsmuf &yfqikd ;f jcif;jzifh aqmif&u G cf su&f yfqikd ;f rnfavm odrYk [kwf xdcu kd rf nfavm? 11 U.S.C yk'rf 365 t& vufcjH cif; odrYk [kwf jiif;y,fjcif;ESit hf nD pmcsKypf mwrf;udk "aqmif&u G f &rnfjzpfaom y#dnmOf" [k xnfo h iG ;f pOf;pm; cH&rnfavm? ,if;odq Yk ykd gu xdv k ufcjH cif; odkYr[kwf jiif;y,fjcif;onf tay;t,l oabmwlnDrIwGif yg0ifaom tjcm; pmcsKyf pmwrf;rsm;udk vufcjH cif; odrYk [kwf jiif;y,fjcif;rS oD;jcm;pDjzpfEikd af cs&rdS nfavm? ,if;odYk qdkygu a'0gvDcH&jcif;rjzpfEdkif&ef þypönf; odkYr[kwf þtcGifhta&;rsm;udk wwd, yk*Kd¾ vu f xde;f odr;f xm;&Sad p&ef vkyif ef;udpö (ta&mif;t0,f)udk zGUJ pnf;wnfaqmuf&ef tjcm;enf;vrf;&So d avm? pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif cGjJ cm;r&Edik af om tjcm;pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm; yg0ifoavm? tjcm;pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif yg0ifaeap&ef aqmif&u G Ef idk yf goavm? y#dnmOf azmfjycsufrsm;onf rnfonfhaqmif&Gufcsufrsm;ESifh ypönf;qdkif&m tcGifhta&;rsm;u pmcsKyf0ifwpfOD;pDtwGuf ta&;BuD;aMumif;ESifh tu,fí pmcsKyf0ifrsm;udk xdkt&mrsm; cHpm;cGifhray;ygu ,if;wdkYonf rnfonfhxdcdkufqHk;½IH;rI cHpm;EdkifaMumif;udk &Sif;vif; apygoavm? oifonf wpfbufpmcsKy0f if\ aiGay;csrEI iS hf wm0efrsm;aqmif&u G f ay;rI &,lEdkif&ef ydkifa&;ydkifcGifh? aiGacs;oufaocHvufrSwftwdk; odkYr[kwf tmrcH odkYr[kwf aiGvTJpmwrf;uJhodkY wwd,yk*¾dKvf\ acs;aiGaxmufyHhrIudk &&SdEdkifygoavm?

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif; -

391

tqd k ; qH k ; aom jzpf E d k i f a csud p ö u d k xnf h o G i f ; pOf ; pm;jcif ; (Consider the Worst Case Scenario)

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392

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

393

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394

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tjcm;ol r sm;u jyef v nf q ef ; ppf o H k ; oyf y g (Review by Other People) aumfrwDjzifh rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;onf tcs;D tES;D jzpfaom? tqifrajyaom? tusKd ;r&Sad om aqmif&u G rf jI zpfygonf/ tpueOD;tqifrh sm;wGif rlMurf;a&;qGjJ cif;onf wpfO;D wpfa,mufcsi;f BuKd ;yrf;tm;xkwrf o I m jzpf&ygrnf/ od&Yk mwGif wpfO;D csi;f rlMurf;a&;qGo J o l nf txl;ojzifh pmcsKyf pmwrf;onf Oya'qkid &f mvdt k yfrI us,yf sUH aom udp&ö yfjzpfvQif rSm;ekid yf gonf/ ta&;Bu;D aom a0g[m&rsm;udk csev f yS x f m;&ef tvGev f , G u f yl gonf/ wpfcgwpf&H þt&mudk csev f yS x f m;vQif vkyfief;udpöudk prf;w0g;0g;jzpfaprnfh pHyHkpH\ vGefpGmta&;ygonfh tpdwftydkif;jzpfjyD;? aphpyf aqG;aEG;rIrsm;wGif ,if;tcsufudk A[dkjyK aqG;aEG;cJhjcif;r&SdcJhí use&f pfcjhJ cif; jzpfEidk yf gonf/ þ ta&;Bu;D aom vdt k yfrrI sm;wGif aumif;pGmuRr;f usiaf om ? tjcm;olwpfO;D udk a0zefqef;ppfaom rsuv f ;kH jzifh pmcsKypf mwrf;udk jyefvnfqef;ppfo;kH oyf&ef awmif;qdo k ifyh gonf/ xdeYk nf;wlpmG yif jyóemudk ajz&Sif;&ef tjcm;enf;vrf;rsm;udk þpmzwfolu tBuHjyKay;aumif; ay;Edkifygrnf/ wpfpw kH pfa,mufu oifv h yk af qmifcsuv f uf&mudk jyefvnfqef;ppfo;kH oyfNy;D pmjyifjcif; odrYk [kwf tBujH yKcsurf sm;jyKonft h cg ,if;onf ratmifjrifonfv h u©Pm r[kwyf g/ trSet f m;jzifh jyefvnffqef;ppf oHk;oyfol? trIonf? BuD;Muyfola&SUae odkYr[kwf wpfzuftusdK;aqmifu tBujH yKcsuf wpfpw kH pf&may;vQif ,if;onf xdk pm&Gupf mwrf;ay:wGif pdw0f ifpm;rIukd azmfjyNy;D jyefvnf qef;ppfo;kH oyfo\ l tm½Hpk u kd jf cif;udck &H aMumif; jyoygonf/ pm&Gupf mwrf;udk jyefvnf qef;ppfoHk;oyfonfh tcg a&SUaetrsm;pkonf ,if;wdkYtoHk;jyKrnfqdkaom toduavmifwHudk vSr;f ,lonf/ tBujH yKcsurf sm;&&Sjd cif;ESihf oifv h uf&mudk jyifqifjcif;rsm;onf oifwef;wufa&muf jcif;ESihf wlygonf/ xkt Yd wGuf oifonf rvdt k yfaom emusirf EI iS hf rcsw d ifujJ zpfru I kd wwfEikd o f rQ a&SmifMuOfEkdif&ef rdrdudk,f usifhom;&ap&ef aqmif&Gufoifhygonf/

396

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

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Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

397

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398 (c)

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

trI o nf u jyef v nf q ef ; ppf o H k ; oyf j cif ; (Review by the Client) ½Iyaf xG;aom pm&Gupf mwrf;wpfcu k kd oif\ trIonfrsm;tm; wpfBurd jf yojy;D "tpufcs xm;aom rsOf;ay:wGif vufrSwfxdk;yg" [k rajymoifhyg/ bmomjyef&mwGif trIonf\ qE´rS? xdkqE´rsm;udk trIonf\ azmfjyrI? xdkqE´rsm;udk rlMurf;a&;qGJol\ em;vnfrI? xdkqE´rsm;udk azmfjyavh&Sdaom oD;oefYpum;vHk;rsm;wGif rsufajcjywfoGm;Edkifonf/ wm0efodaom rlMurf; a&;qGo J o l nf trIonfEf iS hf twlwikd í f pm&Gupf mwrf;^ pmcsKypf mwrf;udk jy|mef;csuf wpfcck si;f ? wpfcck si;f pDukd jyefvnfqef;ppfo;kH oyfNy;D jy|mef;csuw f pfcpk u D rnfonf udk qdv k akd Mumif; &Si;f jyNy;D pm&Gufpmwrf;u trIonff\ vdktyfrsm;udk xif[yfapaMumif;udk aocsmap&rnfjzpfonf/ tusO;f csKyo f nf þjyefvnfqef;ppfo;kH oyfjcif;udk a&;om;xm;aom yHpk t H jzpfom toH;k awmfcH jznfq h nf;ay;onf/ Oya'rlMurf; a&;qGjJ cif;wGif tusO;f csKyo f nf Oya'ordik ;f aMumif;\ tpdwf tydik ;f wpfcjk zpfvmEdik yf gonf/ tqdyk gtrI jyefvnfo;kH oyfjcif; twdrt f euf tqift h wef;onf oift h rIonf ud, k pf m; vS,f\ pdwf0ifpm;rIESifh avhusifhxm;rItqifhtay: rlwnfygonf/ ½Hk;\ Oya'tMuHay;ESifh pm&if;udik rf sm;onf tawmfuek pf ifpmG zwfxm;Ny;D jzpfonf[k arQmv f ifEh ikd Nf y;D 4if;wkt Yd m; &Si;f vif; onfh tay:pmay;&ef rsm;aomtm;jzifh vdktyfrnf r[kwfyg/ tqdkyg tao;pdwf aemufcH tajccHr&So d w l t Ydk wGuf tay:pmxnfo h iG ;f Ny;D trIonftaejzifh "*½kjyKrad p&ef " tay:pmwGif pm&Gupf mwrf;^pmcsKypf mwrf;wGif ta&;Bu;D qH;k tcsuf odrYk [kwf þjyifqifjcif;vkyif ef;pOftm; xif&mS ;aponft h csurf sm;udk aumufEw I af zmfjyjcif;jzifh jyefvnfo;kH oyfaepOftwGi;f ,if;wdu Yk kd ydkrdk tm½kHpdkufrdaprnf jzpfygonf/ tcsdKUtrIonfrsm;onf pm&Gufpmwrf;rsm;tm;vHk; jyefvnfoHk;oyfjcif; jyKvkyfvdkrnf r[kwo f vdk tjcm;bufrS pm&Gupf mwrf;udk awGUcsed Ef iS hf wpfcsed w f nf;wGif jrif&vsif auseyfvrd rhf nf jzpfonf/ xdo k aYkd omudp&ö yfwiG f oif\trIonfu pm&Gupf mwrf;^pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;udk jyefvnf oH;k oyfjcif; rjyKvyk &f ao;aMumif;? xdk ah Mumifh jyefvnfrf rG ;f rHz, G &f adS Mumif;udk azmfjyvsuf wpfzuf tusKd ;aqmifxo H kd h ay;ydaYk om pm&Gupf mwrf;^ pmcsKypf mwrf;rsm;ESit hf wl taMumif;Mum;pmwGif azmfjyoifhygonf/ oif\trIonfu aemufqHk;rlMurf;udk tenf;qHk;wpfBudrf jyefvnfoHk;oyf jcif;onf aumif;rGefrnfjzpfonf/ oifonf 4if;wdkY\ oabmxm;rSwfcsufrsm;udk tav;xm; &,loifhNyD; oifhawmfovdk pmcsKyfpmwrf;^pm&Gufpmwrf;udk xyfrHjyifqifoifhygonf/ xkdodkY aqmif&Gufjcif;jzifh oifhtrIonf\ ñTefMum;csufrsm;udk oifhtaejzifh trSefwu,f em;vnf Ekid rf nfjzpfonf/ tjcm;wpfzufrS oabmxm;rSwcf surf sm; jznfo h iG ;f &ef oif ysuu f u G v f Qif trIonfrsm; onf rsm;pGm *½krjyKwwfyg/ odkYaomf 4if;wkdY\ oabmxm;rSwfcsufrsm;onf oifhtjrifwGif

Oya'pmcsKyfpmwrf;rsm; rlMurf;a&;qGJjcif;

399

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Legal Drafting 3rd Edition Haggard & Kuney West Thompson

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(aemufqufwGJ) APPENDIX The following publications are among those that have influenced or contributed to the content of this book. Adams, Kenneth A., A Manual of Style for Contract Drafting (ABA 2004). Aitken, J.K., Piesse, The Elements of Drafting (9th ed. 1995). Brody, Susan L., Rutherford, Jane, Vietzen, Laurel A., Dernbach, John C., Legal Drafting. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. Copyright 1994. Burnham, Scott J., Drafting Contracts. Charlottesville, VA: The Michie Co., 2nd ed. Copyright 1987, 1993. Child, Barbra, Drafting Legal Documents, Principles and Practices. St. Paul, MN: West Publishig Co., 2nd ed. Copyright 1992. Darmstadter, Howard, Hereof, Thereof, and Everywhereof: A Contrarian Guide to Legal Drafting. Chicago, IL: American Bar Association. Copyright 2002. Dick, Robert L., Legal Drafting (1972). Dickerson, Reed, The Fundamentals of Legal Drafting. Boston, MA: Little Brown and Co. Copyright 2965, 1986. Dickerson, Reed, Materials on Legal Drafting (1981). Felsenfeld, Carl, & Siegel, Alan, Writing Contracts in Plain English (1981). Field, Arthur N., Legal Opinions in Business Transactions (PLI 2006). Filson, Lawrence E., The Legislative Drafterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Desk Reference (1992). Fox, Charles M., Working With Contracts (PLI 2002). Garner, Bryan A., A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd ed. 1995). Garner, Bryan A., Advanced Legal Drafting. Dallas, TX: Bryan A. Garner and LawProse, Inc. Copyright 1993. Garner, Bryan A., Advanced Legal Writing and Editing. Dallas, TX: Bryan A. Garner and LawProse, Inc. Copyright 1993.

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Garner, Bryan A., Guidelines for Drafting and Editing Court Rules (1993). Garner, Bryan A., The Red Book, A Manual on Legal Style.St. Paul, MN: West Group. Copyright 2002. Garner, Bryan A., The Scribes Journal of Legal Writing.New York, NY: Matthew Bender, vol. 7, 1998-2000. Copyright 2000. Garner, Bryan A., The Scribes Journal of Legal Writing. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., vol. 5, 1994-1995. Copyright 1996. Gentle Jr., Terry W., and Heminway, Joan MacLeod, Bank Mergers in Tennessee: An Annotated Model Tennessee Bank Merger Agreement. Transactions: The Tennessee Journal of Business Law, Buffalo, NY: William . Hein & Co., Inc., vol. 5 Spring 2004 Number 2. Copyright 2004. Haggard, Thomas, R.,Legal Drafting in a Nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Copyright 1996. Haggard, Thomas, R., Legal Drafting: Practical Exercises and Problem Materials. St. Paul, MN: West Group. Copyright 1999. Haggard, Thomas, R., UCC 2-207 A Suggested Analysis, 10 J. LAW & COMMERCE 257 (1991). Haggard, Thomas, R., The South Carolina Rules of Statutory Interpretation, SOUTH CAROLINA LAWYER, November/December 1991. Haggard, Thomas, R., Tips on Drafting and Enforcing a Policy Against Sexual Harassment, 36 INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT, No. 1 (January/February 1994) (with Alexander). Haggard, Thomas, R., The South Carolina Anti-Stalking Statute: A Study in Bad Drafting, SOUTH CAROLINA LAWYER (March/April 1994). Haggard, Thomas, R., The Lawyerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Book of Rules for Effective Legal Writing (1997). Haggard, Thomas, R., Contract Law from a Drafting Perspective-An Introduction to Contract Drafting for Law Students (2003) (WITH INSTRUCTIONS MANUAL). Hayakawa, S.I., Choose the Right Word, A Modern Guide to Synonyms. New York, NY: Harper and Row, Publishers. Copyright 1968. Heminway, Joan MacLeod and McLemore, Timothy,Acquisition Escrows in Tennessee: An Annotated Model Tennessee Acquisition Escrow Aggreement. Transactions: The Tennessee Journal of Business Law,Buffalo, NY: William S. Hein & Co., Inc., Vol. 7 Spring 2006 #2. Copyright 2006.

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Kuney, George W. and Lloyd, Robert M., Contracts: Transactions and Litigation. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Copyright 2006. Kuney, George W., The Elements of Contract Drafting. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Copyright 2003. Kuney, George W. and Looper, Donna C., California Law of Contract (CEB 2007). Kuney, George W., The Elements of Contract Drafting, 2d Edition.St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Copyright 2006. Lloyd, Robert M., Making Contracts Relevant: Thirteen Lessons for The First Year Contracts Course, 36 Ariz. St. L.J. 257 (2004). Lloyd, Robert M., Hard Law Firms and Soft Law Schools,83 N.C.L. Rev. 667, Copyright 2005. Martineau, Robert J., Drafting Legislation and Rules in Plain English (1991). Mullins, M.E., A Handbook for Legislative Drafters (1996). Oates, Laurel C., Enquist, Anne, Kunsch, Kelly, The Legal Writing Handbook. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. Copyright 1993. Ray, Mary B., Cox, Barbara J., Beyond the Basics, A Text For Advanced Legal Writing. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Copyright 1991. Ray, Mary B., Rammsfield, Jill J., Legal Writing: Getting It Right and Getting It Written. St. Paul, MN: West Group, 3rd ed. Copyright 2000. Schultz, Nancy L., Sirico, Jr., Louis J., Legal Writing and Other Lawyering Skills. New York, NY: Matthew Bender, 3rd ed. Copyright 1998. Shertzer, Margaret,The Elements of Grammar. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Copyright 1986. Statsky, William, Legislative Analysis and Drafting (2nd ed. 1984). Strunk, Jr, William, White, E.B., The Elements of Style. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 3rd ed. Copyright 1979. Drafting Business Contracts: Principles, Techniques and Forms. Berkeley, CA: The Regents of the University of California. Copyright 1994, 1996.

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