Spectrum Volume 3(4) Spring 2013

SPECTRUM Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University

Volume 3 (4) Spring 2013

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SPECTRUM: Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University Faculty Editors: Balazs Hargittai Professor of Chemistry bhargittai@francis.edu

Grant Julin Assistant Professor of Philosophy gjulin@francis.edu

Student Editorial Board: Shannon Adams Allison Bivens ’12 Cathleen Fry Eric Horell Amanda Johnson Jennifer Kirchner Lauren McConnell ’12 Sarah McDonald Steven Mosey Aaron Rovan ‘09

Cover photo by Balazs Hargittai

Jenna Bailey Seth Burkert ‘12 Daniel Hines Paul Johns ’07 Timothy Keith Cecelia MacDonald Gabrielle McDermott Jonathan Miller ’08 Rebecca Peer Jennifer Yealy

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SPECTRUM Table of Contents Will Women Surpass Men in the 100m Dash? A Look into the Trending Times and Physiology of Male and Female 100 Meter Sprinters Daniel S. Valcicak; Stephen M. LoRusso

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Passive Co-Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage and Municipal Wastewater: Removal of Less Commonly Addressed Metals at Cerro Rico de PotosĂ­, Bolivia Rebecca A.M. Peer; William H.J. Strosnider

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Giving Voice to the Death of Dorian Gray: An Investigation of Hedonistic Suicide Dennis J. Ryan; Robin L. Cadwallader

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Call for papers

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(Student authors’ names underlined.)

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Will Women Surpass Men in the 100m Dash?

A Look into the Trending Times and Physiology of Male and Female 100 Meter Sprinters Daniel S. Valcicak Physical Therapy Department School of Health Sciences dxv100@francis.edu Introduction Andrew Tatem is a statistician at Oxford University. He examined the trending world record times of men and women in the 100m dash over a 100 year period from 1900-2000, and from these times, Tatem created a linear regression in order to predict future 100m dash times for each gender (Figure 1). Tatem noticed that these two lines would intersect, and predicted that at the 2156 Olympics, women would run the 100m dash in 8.079 seconds (s), which would beat the men’s time of 8.098 seconds (s) for the first time ever.

However, simulation technology predicted that the event could happen as early as 2064 or as late as the 2788 Olympic Games (Tatem, Guerra, Atkinson, & Hay, 2004).

The current world record for women in the 100m dash is 10.49s held by Florence “Flo Jo” Griffith-Joyner of the United States. She set this record July 16, 1988 in Indianapolis, Indiana (Castellini, 2010). Meanwhile, the world record for the men’s 100m dash is 9.58s, which is held by Usain Bolt of Jamaica. Bolt set this record on August 16, 2009 in Berlin, Germany (Castellini, 2010).

The principle question of this thesis relates to the hypothesis that women might achieve a faster world record time than men in the 100m dash in the future. Though Tatem’s article is very intriguing, it does not offer any biological or physiological evidence that this will indeed occur. Many may not want to accept Tatem’s hypothesis because there is no physiological evidence to support it; however, many may also not accept Tatem’s hypothesis because they do not want to see it come true.

Stephen M. LoRusso Physical Therapy Department School of Health Sciences slorusso@francis.edu The purpose of this thesis is not just to explore the physiological aspect of the 100m dash and the physiological differences between men and women, but also to offer opinions by coaches, athletes, and faculty on whether they consider women surpassing men possible. By researching these two areas, information can be collected to give a better explanation as to whether this phenomenon could actually occur, or whether Tatem’s statistical analysis is just wishful thinking.

The 100m dash is always an exciting event because the winner is considered to be the fastest person in the world. The fastest person in the world has always been a man, so for a woman to run faster than a man in the 100m dash would be a monumental feat for women. This thesis will investigate the probability of women outrunning men in the 100m dash.

Procedures This thesis will first present information related to the technological issues and the physiological

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differences between men and women, and how they might impact Tatem’s hypothesis. Then the results of interviews with coaches, athletes, and faculty on whether they consider it possible based on the literature cited will be explained.

Interview questions were formulated based on the research articles, and the questions were asked to three specific groups in the Saint Francis University community. The first group was the Saint Francis University track coaching staff; the second group was the Saint Francis University track runners; and the final group was the Saint Francis University exercise physiology professors and professionals. The purpose of these interviews was to provide an opinion-based answer as to whether Andrew Tatem’s model could be a likely prediction. In order to provide for a conclusion of this study, the interview questions were formulated for the specific groups and dealt with track history and regulations, male and female physiology, and lastly an opinion of the probability of whether women would surpass men in the 100m dash.

Different questionnaires were formulated for the different groups because some groups warranted specific questions. For example, track coaches and runners would know about the history of the sport, the best running form, and track regulations. Meanwhile, the exercise physiology experts would be more knowledgeable about the physiological differences between men and women.

Subjects The first interviews were conducted in January 2012 with the SFU track coaches. This group is clearly knowledgeable of the track and field world; as a result, they were interviewed in order to gain more knowledge about the 100m dash event in general. In addition, they could speak about running form, the history of the sport, and expected future trends.

The second group interviewed was the SFU track runners. Three male as well as three female runners were interviewed. Three of each gender were chosen to eliminate a biased opinion for a particular gender. The track runners are knowledgeable of the modern-day technology used

5 in track and field, such as running spikes and track surfaces. These interviews were completed in the 2012 spring semester.

Finally, the third group interviewed was the exercise physiology professors and professionals at SFU. These individuals were interviewed in order to give insight of the different physiological differences between men and women. These physiological differences are separating factors between men and women in the sports world. All of these interviews took place in April 2012.

Technological and Physiological Issues Related to Tatem’s Hypothesis As previously mentioned, the world records for the male and female 100m dashes are 9.58s and 10.49s, respectively. The women’s world record has been stagnant for almost 24 years; the men’s world record was set just three years ago. Also, women would need to improve their time by 0.91s just to tie the men’s current world record; 0.91s would be a considerable increase for such a short distance race. In order to make up this difference, women will really need to excel physiologically.

According to John Brenkus, the host of Sport Science on ESPN, the fastest 100m dash time would be 8.99s, and it would be achieved by a male sprinter. This would be done by reacting to the gun immediately without being disqualified; this means the reaction time from the gun to pushing off the blocks has a time of 0.1s. To add to this, the sprinter could have a maximum of a 2 m/s wind at his back to speed him up enough before the time becomes illegitimate; if any wind is faster than 2 m/s, the time is considered illegitimate. With wind of 2 m/s at his back, the sprinter could reduce his time by 0.1s. If the event is hosted at a location with the maximum altitude allowed -3,280 feetthen the sprinter can reduce his time by 0.06s.

Higher altitude leads to lower air resistance while running. This would reduce Usain Bolt’s record time to 9.36s. Also according to Brenkus, the maximum room for physiological improvement is 3.7%. This reduces the time to 9.01s. Finally Brenkus believes that human determination will be the ultimate factor in breaking the 9s barrier, which

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will ultimately set the fastest 100m dash at 8.99s (Brenkus, 2010).

The 100m dash is a very explosive track event because it is such a short distance. Essentially, the sprinter is accelerating for the first 60m, and beyond that point, the runner tries to maintain speed or tries to decelerate less than his or her competitors. The sprinters begin to decelerate because the sprinter’s body is depleted of ATP. Adenosine-5’-triphosphate (ATP) is the basic currency of energy transfer in the human body. An individual has about 3 ounces (oz.) of ATP stored in the muscles at rest as well as phosphocreatine (PCr) ready to regenerate ATP as these stores are being used. This use and regeneration process creates adenosine diphosphate and an inorganic phosphate group (ADP and Pi). Between the ATP stores and the phosphocreatine system, an individual can perform up to about 8s of work (Powers & Howley, 2009). Now by looking at the world record times, one can see that these times are greater than 8s. So this means that the individual, who can store the most ATP and PCr in his or her body, will have a greater advantage of winning the 100m dash. One more ATP molecule will translate to one more muscle contraction, which will prevent the individual from decelerating at the end of the race.

There is practically no ATP left in the body at the end of the race because the PCr system cannot work fast enough to regenerate the ATP in the final second of the race in most cases. This means that all the momentum generated in the beginning of the race allows for the sprinter to cruise through the finish line. The sprinter’s momentum is the only force that is propelling the individual across the finish line because the metabolic pathways of the ATP-PCr system have ended, and glycolysis has yet to start.

Men are typically stronger than women due to an increased presence of testosterone. Testosterone is an anabolic steroid as well as an androgenic steroid. This is because it promotes muscle tissue building as well as masculine characteristics.

Testosterone encourages protein synthesis, and it is the primary contributor for typical changes in boys

6 during the time of adolescence. These changes lead to a high muscle-mass to fat-mass ratio. Sprinters, both male and female, generally have high levels of testosterone; men, however, have 6.49± 0.37 nanograms (ng) of testosterone per milliliter of blood, and women typically have 0.62± 0.02 ng of testosterone per milliliter of blood. This shows that women have about 9.5% the amount of testosterone compared to men at resting levels (Cardinale & Stone, 2006). In addition to that, one study has shown that short bouts of intense exercise increase the overall level of testosterone in 15-16 year old males. There was about a 22 picogram (pg) increase of testosterone per ml of saliva (Crewther, Lowe, Ingram, & Weatherby, 2010). These males were in the later stages of puberty, which allows for the conclusion that similar results would occur for elite male sprinters in their mid- 20s. This indicates that as men continue to train, their testosterone levels will increase even more. Women have a higher estrogen presence in the body that allows for a higher amount of fat deposition. This gives them a lower muscle-mass to fat-mass ratio compared to men. Typical male 100m athletes tend to have 6% body fat, and female 100m athletes tend to have 11% body fat (Holden, 2004).

With more muscle mass, the male sprinters are more explosive. This is because higher ratios of muscle-mass lead to greater muscle glycogen, ATP stores, and PCr. More ATP stores and PCr allow the muscles to undergo more contractions in a shorter period of time, which ultimately allows them to decelerate at a slower rate compared to women, who have a lower muscle-mass to fat-mass ratio. This is the main contributing factor that allows men to be faster than women in such a short distance, explosive event.

According to one study, physically active, yet untrained, men and women had similar proportions of muscle fiber types. However, men had a greater cross-sectional area of muscle fibers, which means if the muscle were cut perpendicular to the muscle fiber alignment, there would be a greater area compared to women. Men had 18.6% larger crosssectional area of Type I muscle fibers; 59.2% larger cross-sectional area of Type IIA muscle fibers; and

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65.5% larger cross-sectional area of Type IIB muscle fibers compared to women in the vastus lateralis quadriceps muscle (Staron, et al., 2000).

Type I fibers are considered slow twitch fibers, whereas Type IIA are fast twitch fibers, and Type IIB are the fastest twitch fibers according to this study. A greater cross-sectional area allows for a greater force production to be generated in the same number of contractions. Because men have a greater cross-sectional area for fast twitch muscle fibers compared to women, they have a greater advantage in the 100m dash.

Runner 2 stated some important points to defend Tatem’s hypothesis. Decades ago, women generally did not participate in athletics due to religious and cultural reasons. Now it is more accepted for women to participate in athletics. As the track population grows for females, there will be a greater pool from which an elite athlete can be drawn, and because the event is newer for women, the record will be broken faster due to the competition rate in the population (Holden, 2004).

With more people entering the sport, there are a greater number of elite runners to choose from.

This will cause the records to be broken at a quicker rate. To add to this, males and females train similarly for the event. If there were a more efficient way to train females compared to males, then women would begin to excel more in the event. A new training method can overcome the biomechanical differences between men and women. Women tend to have wider hips, which causes them to have more lateral displacement while running. This means a woman’s center of gravity is traveling in an “S” shaped pattern as she is accelerating down the track. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line, but because women swerve slightly as they run, they are technically running more than 100m for the event. Women tend to have valgus knees, which means the knees are bent inward, and the sprinters who tend to have varus knees, which are bent outward, are usually faster. Improved training methods in order to overcome these biomechanical differences could lead to a greater success in female performance of the 100m dash.

7 Future trends of male athletes are predicted to be taller, faster, and stronger. This can be predicted by looking at the past trend of male athletes.

Stronger athletes leads to faster athletes, which means the 100m dash times will continue to decrease for men and women as long as men and women continue to get stronger through training methods and nutrition. Another trend of past athletes is an increase in height. An increase in height does not benefit the short distance sprinters.

This is because as the sprinter is coming off the blocks, the taller sprinter may have to take his or her first steps more laterally compared to a shorter runner, who can take the initial step straight forward. Taller athletes having to move laterally to start will increase the distance for the race. This is very similar to the women’s mechanical alignment previously discussed. So, if women sprinters grow to be taller, they will have two disadvantages causing them to make lateral movements. However, this height disadvantage will only be a factor if women sprinters become as tall as Usain Bolt, who is 196cm (6’5”) (Klosterman, 2011).

Technological advances can play a major role in the time keeping of the 100m dash. All of the track runners concluded that lighter shoes and flexible spikes could decrease a sprinter’s time by 0.5 seconds; in a race that is about 10 seconds long, that is a huge difference. That means the sprinter’s time could be affected by 5%, which is significant in such a short distance race. Also, Mondotrack allows for quicker times. This is because it is a harder surface and built in such a way that allows for the sprinter to be propelled forward faster.

When the runner comes in contact with the ground, the amount of force applied to the ground will propel the athlete forward, and if the athlete can “turn it over” faster, then more force is applied to the ground per second, which allows for a greater forward movement. According to Newton’s Third Law of Motion, for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction; the harder the surface, the more force will be generated back through the sprinter as he or she comes in contact with the ground on each stride. This allows for the sprinter to run faster. Runner 3 made an interesting point:

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the only way time keeping will become more exact is if each runner has an electronic device, such as a microchip, attached to his or her shoe. This microchip could detect the exact moment when the sprinter comes off the blocks and the exact moment when the sprinter crosses the finish line. This would eliminate the delayed reaction of the starting gun.

Finally, when comparing the initial 100m dash record times for each sex independently, one can see that the trends for both sexes follow a similar pattern. As more people enter the event, the record is broken more frequently, and then the rate as to how fast the record is being broken begins to plateau. The women’s 100m dash times are lagging 75 years compared to men, but when both trends are placed over each other, there is a 2% vertical displacement indicating that men are faster than women even from the start of the event. This 2% vertical displacement is thought to be due to the strength difference between men and women (Wainer, Njue, & Palmer, 2000). This shows that Tatem’s trend is flawed because he used the past 100 years in which men were beginning to plateau, and the event was still novel for women. If Tatem had compared the all-time records between both sexes, then the predicted women’s trend would never intersect with the men’s trend.

Coaches, Athletes, and Faculty Interview Results For all the interviews conducted, 90% stated that women would never pass men in the 100m dash.

Coach 1 felt that Tatem’s article was a great statistical analysis; however, after years of experience in the track world, Coach 1 has a different opinion. The coach thinks if both genders were drug free, there is no way women will surpass men. Women would have a greater gain through the use of steroids and testosterone supplements because they naturally produce less testosterone in the body. Coach 1 stated that men will max out at an 8.9-8.95s 100m dash, and women will max out at a 10.25s 100m dash, but that is well into the future.

8 Coach 2 made the comparison of men and women to cars by explaining that the human body can develop only so much; e.g., through training, men and women can get only so fast. Just as one can fine tune a car, there is a limit as to how fast each gender will get. Only so much enhancing can be done until the car, or in this case the human body, will break down. Coach 2 does not believe that women will surpass men because they are just not physically strong enough for such an explosive event. Coach 2 stated that it would be surprising if men ran under 9.3s, and women will not break 10s.

Coach 3 adamantly stated that women will never pass men, unless there were an organized regimen that would allow for elite men and women sprinters to breed, but even so, there may be a need for a drug program as well in order for women to run an elite male’s time. Coach 3 stated that there is a possibility that in this life time people will see a man run a 9.4s 100m dash, and women could run 10.49s in the near future without the use of ergogenic aids. Coach 3 states this is because it was speculated that Florence Griffith-Joyner used performance enhancing drugs when she set this record. This speculation was based on her physique being more muscular than past years and compared to her competitors.

Runner 1 stated that women will not surpass men because they are simply not strong enough or fast enough to do so. Runner 1 claimed that the current elite times for men – high to mid 9s – will be the times that women will be running in 2156.

Runner 1 believes that men will max out at high 8s, and women will max out at high 9s. Runner 3 shared a similar view, stating that women are just not strong enough to beat men. Runner 3 believes that men will max out at 8.9s, and women will max out at 9.9s. Runner 3 believes that it would be pretty monumental for women to break the 10s barrier.

Runner 4 believes men will always be faster than women because of the amount of testosterone present in men compared to women. Runner 4 believes that this amount of testosterone allows men to train harder and longer compared to women, and this will ultimately make men faster.

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Runner 4 believes that men will max out at 8.72s, and women will max out at 9.8s. Runner 5 shares similar beliefs stating that men are just stronger than women, so they will be faster. Runner 5 believes that men will max out at 9.5s, and women will max out at 10.2s. Runner 6 states that men are currently stronger and faster than women, and as time progresses, they will continue to increase in speed and strength. Thus, women will not beat men in the 100m dash. Runner 6 believes that men will reach a 8.9s time, and women will reach a 10.2s.

Runner 2 is the only person interviewed who felt that women will beat men in the 100m dash.

Runner 2 believes that due to improved training methods, technological advances, and popularity growth of the sport, women will ultimately surpass men in the 100m dash. Runner 2 believes that women will run a 9.4s 100m dash, while men will max out at 9.42s.

Professor 1 stated that there is a possibility that women could surpass men due to increased training methods. If women can be trained specifically in a way that overcomes their disadvantages, there is a possibility they can surpass men. Professor 1 believes that men will max out at 8-8.52s, and women will max out at 8.5-9s.

Professor 2 stated that women surpassing men is possible; however, it is not probable. From looking at Tatem’s article, one would have to assume that the times would be decreasing indefinitely. Professor 2 believes that the times will not decrease in a linear fashion, and they will eventually have to plateau. Professor 2 believes women will most likely plateau within the next 24 years, and men will eventually run a 8.5s 100m dash, and women will eventually run a 8.75-9s 100m dash.

Professor 3 believes that the times between men and women will come close to each other as they both continue to decrease; Professor 3, however, does not think that women will beat men. This because of the hormonal difference between men and women; because men have more testosterone, they will always be faster. Professor 3 believes that men will max out at high 8s, and women will max out at low 9s.

9 Discussion Interestingly enough, the majority of the interviews contradicted what Tatem has predicted.

No one thought that men would come close to reaching a 8.098s 100m dash time. Based on the interviews, the average of the times where men will max out is 8.91s. Likewise, the average of the times where women will max out is 9.67s.

A common answer that supported men having the faster time related to the strength differences between men and women.

Based on the data collected from the interviews and the journal articles, it seems very unlikely that women will surpass men in the 100m dash. This primarily is due to the hormonal differences between the sexes. The more testosterone gives a greater muscle-mass to fat-mass ratio. More muscle-mass gives a greater advantage for men in the 100m dash; more muscle results in more power, strength, explosiveness, ATP stores, and PCr. The only way for women to gain comparable musclemass to fat-mass ratio would be through the means of testosterone supplements or other anabolic steroids. These would make women’s times closer to men’s times (Tucker, 2007).

It will be extremely difficult for women to surpass men in the 100m dash. Their body composition just does not seem capable of handling such a demanding training regimen. The lack of muscle-mass will put them at a disadvantage. It seems safe to say that the only way a woman will be able to outrun a man in the 100m dash is through the use of performance enhancing drugs as well as specialized training methods for women.

The performance enhancing drugs would increase the female’s muscle mass which would allow for greater strength, explosiveness, and ATP and PCr storage. Even so, the use of performance enhancing drugs may still not give them enough strength to push past men due to female anatomy and physiology, namely naturally higher estrogen levels, higher adipose levels, and knee and hip structures. The advanced training methods could help women overcome their lateral displacement.

However, there may not be a better training method for women to overcome this disadvantage.

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Implications The only way for this thesis, as well as Tatem’s article, to be disproved is for the future to unfold itself. It is very possible that no one will experience women beating men in the 100m dash at the top level.

Limitations of the Study This study used only the information proposed in articles that were previously published in scientific journals, some being peer reviewed, and other magazines, along with information gathered through interviews. The interviews were conducted with personnel and students of Saint Francis University: three track coaches, six track runners, and three Exercise Physiology professors and professionals.

Because some of the information gathered is so confined to Saint Francis University, future studies may look to extend the research beyond this university’s boundaries by expanding into other university track and exercise physiology programs or include professional track athletes. It may be appropriate to extend the interview process to a higher level, such as Olympic and other professional athletes. This would give a broader range of opinion and insight that could improve this study in the future research.

Works Cited Bejan, J. D. (2009). The evolution of speed, size and shape in modern athletics. J. Exp. Biol., 2419-2425.

Brenkus, J. (2010). The Perfection Point. New York: Harper Collins.

Cardinale, M., & Stone, M. H. (2006). Is Testosterone Influencing Explosive Performance. J. Strength Conditioning Res., 103-107.

Castellini, O. (2010, 26 9). IAAF Outdoor All Time List.

Principality of Monaco: International Association of Athletics Federations. Retrieved October 3, 2011, from iaaf.org Home of World Athletics: http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/toplists/inout=o/age=n/season=2011/sex= M/all=n/legal=A/disc=100/detail.html

10 Crewther, B., Lowe, T. E., Ingram, J., & Weatherby, R. P. (2010). Validating the salivary testosterone and cortisol concentration measures in response to short high-intensity exercise. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness, 85-92.

Holden, C. (2004). An Everlansting Gender Gap? Science, 639-640.

Klosterman, C. (2011, July 12). Grantland. Retrieved October 4, 2011, from Grantland: http://www.grantland.com/story/_/id/6760031/is-fastest-human-everalready-alive

Mondo Track&Field. (2011). Mondo Track&Field. Retrieved May 31, 2012, from Mondo Track&Field: http://www.mondotrack.com/Mondotrack.cfm?id_applicazione=9&id_tip ologia_prodotto=2&id_classe=1

Norton, K., & Olds, T. (2001). Morphological Evolution of Athletes Over the 20th Century. Sports Medicine, 763783.

Powers, S. K., & Howley, E. T. (2009). Exercise Physiology Theory and Applicaiton to Fitness and Performance. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Reinboud, W. (2004). Linear models can’t keep up with sport gender gap. Nature, 147.

Staron, R. S., Hagerman, F. C., Hikida, R. S., Murray, T. F., Holster, D. P., Crill, M. T., Toma, K. (2000). Fiber Type Composition of the Vastus Lateralis Muscle of Young Men and Women. J. Histochem. & Cytochem., 623-629.

Tatem, A. J., Guerra, C. A., Atkinson, P. M., & Hay, S. I. (2004). Momentous sprint at the 2156 Olympics? Nature, 525-526.

Tucker, R. P. (2007, October 10). The Science of Sport.

Retrieved October 8, 2011, from Scientific commitment and analysis of sporting performance. : http://www.sportsscientists.com/2007/10/women-vs-men-part-iiphysiology-of.html

Wainer, H., Njue, C., & Palmer, S. (2000). Assessing Time Trends in Sex Differences in Swimming & Running.

Chance, 10-21

Daniel Valcicak ('13) is an Exercise Physiology/Pre-Professional Concentration major with a minor in Business Administration. He is a member of the Saint Francis University Men's Soccer team, as well as a member of the Saint Francis University Honors Program.

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Passive Co-Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage and Municipal Wastewater: the summary of an interesting point.

You can position Removal the text box of Less Commonly Addressed Metals at anywhere in the document. Use Cerro the Rico de Potosí, Bolivia Drawing Tools tab to change the formatting of the pull quote text Rebecca A.M. Peer Department of Mathematics, box.]

Engineering and Computer Science School of Sciences rap100@francis.edu

William H.J. Strosnider Department of Mathematics, Engineering and Computer Science School of Sciences wstrosnider@francis.edu

The viability of a passive co-treatment system was tested using a microcosm-scale, three-stage batch reactor system in which Zn-rich AMD from an abandoned adit on Cerro Rico de Potosí and raw MWW from Potosí, Bolivia were mixed at a 5:1 ratio. The AMD had pH 3.58, acidity 1080 mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent, and 12, 68, 17, 550, 0.44, 0.13, 0.13 and 0.090 mg/L of dissolved Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb, respectively among other metals/metalloids. The MWW contained 5.6 and 38 mg/L of nitrate and phosphate respectively. Previous studies noted dissolved Al, Fe, Mn, Zn concentrations decreased by 99.7%, 99.9%, 4.5%, 33.9%, respectively. The current study noted dissolved concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb decreased by 78.5%, 18.3%, 25.5%, and 45.9%, respectively, and other metals/metalloids were removed. In addition, pH increased to 7.06, and phosphate was decreased to below detection limits throughout the system. The study further revealed the broader applicability of passive co-treatment of AMD and MWW. Results from the experiment could be applicable as a treatment alternative in both developing and developed countries.

Introduction Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and Municipal Wastewater (MWW) are common environmental issues and their treatment is central to maintaining water supply across the globe. Passive co-treatment of these two waste streams is a new approach, blending aspects of passive AMD treatment and active MWW treatment. The treatment process is aided by the fact that the constituents that are lacking in one waste stream are abundant in the other. The details of the treatment system are characterized by Strosnider et al. (2013).

Cerro Rico de Potosí, Bolivia has been intensively mined since the 16th century with few environmental controls. High-strength AMD and untreated MWW severely degrade the upper Rio Pilcomayo, a major South American water resource. The passive co-treatment of AMD and MWW may be a possible solution for sustainable treatment of these waters in Potosí and other mining regions where they commonly co-occur.

Materials and Methods The headwaters of the Rio Pilcomayo are severely polluted by untreated AMD and MWW from Potosí (19.58° S, 65.75° W) (Strosnider et al.

2011b, 2011c). Raw MWW is drained by an unknown tributary to Rio Huarampaya, where samples were collected (Figure 1). An abandoned adit of the Esperanza mine served as the AMD collection site (Figure 1). Both waste streams have been previously characterized by Strosnider et al.

(2011b, 2011c).

The experiment involved four replicate systems comprising three consecutive unit processes.

Similar to a sedimentation pond, the first unit process allowed MWW and AMD to mix and solids to settle. The second unit process simulated an anoxic limestone drain, a common passive treatment method for AMD. The last unit process simulated an oxidation pond to oxidize and precipitate Fe and then Mn. To produce a pH near that produced in the previous passive co-treatment

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study (Strosnider et al., 2011a), AMD and MWW were introduced to the system at a 5:1 ratio (5:1) using a minimal amount of MWW to investigate synergistic treatment effects. The residence times in unit processes were 24 hr, 24 hr, and 48 hr, for the sedimentation pond, limestone, and oxidation pond, respectively.

Figure 1 Location of the effluent sources with respect to the urbanized areas of Potosí and the experiment location

The sedimentation ponds were 1-L cubitainers left open to the atmosphere, the limestone units were closed 1-L cubitainers filled with limestone (porosity approximately 50%), and the oxidation ponds were 1-L cubitainers open to the atmosphere.

Cubitainers are collapsible low-density polyethylene containers commonly used for acid mine drainage incubation tests (e.g., Cravotta, 2003; Strosnider and Nairn, 2010).

After the residence time in the sedimentation pond, the effluent was carefully decanted to the limestone unit process to avoid the entrainment of oxygen. High quality (>90% CaCO3) limestone of approximately 2 cm diameter was donated by Estuquera Cayara, a local quicklime producer. The limestone effluent was decanted to the oxidation pond unit process from a height of approximately 30 cm to simulate a cascade and promote oxygenation of the effluent. It was not possible to decant the mixture without substantial resuspension of the sediment. The MWW and AMD were placed in the system within eight hours of collection. All unit processes were exposed to

12 ambient outdoor temperatures, maintaining water temperature at 8.2 to 10.3 °C throughout the experiment. The actual influent mix (ActMix) physiochemical data were recorded and samples were taken within five minutes of effluent mixing.

Due to the rapid reactivity of the waters, the chemical composition of the theoretical influent mix (TheoMix) was calculated using the ratio of AMD to MWW. Through the experiment, physiochemical data were recorded and samples were taken prior to effluent transfer from one unit process to the next; in the case of the oxidation pond, samples were taken after the prescribed residence time.

Total and dissolved metal samples were collected using 60 mL HDPE bottles, preserved with concentrated trace metal grade nitric acid, and stored at 4 °C until microwave acid digestion, following EPA method 3015. Dissolved metal samples were immediately filtered through 0.45μm nylon filters upon collection and prior to acidification. Digested metal samples were filtered through 0.45-μm nylon filters then analyzed via a Varian Vista-Pro® simultaneous inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer following EPA method 6010. Samples for anion analyses were collected in 30-mL HDPE bottles and stored at 4 °C until filtered through Dionex OnGuard® II H cartridges and 0.2-μm nylon filters.

Temperature (T), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and specific conductance (SC) were determined using an Orion 1230 multimeter. Alkalinity titrations were conducted in accordance with standard methods and Hach Method 8203 (APHA, 1998; Hach, 2006). Due to logistical issues in transportation of samples, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) recommended hold times for NO2, NO3 and PO4 were exceeded by approximately two weeks. A MetrOhm® 761 compact ion chromatograph unit was used to quantify anion concentrations following EPA method 300. Duplicate or triplicate digestions of metal samples and measurements for metal and anion concentrations were randomly obtained following USEPA protocol to ensure quality assurance and control.

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Net acidity and acidity were calculated following Younger et al. (2002). For acidity calculations, all dissolved Fe was assumed to be Fe(II) at pH>3, because Fe(II) is the dominant species in solutions with pH>3 (Cravotta, 2003; Kirby and Cravotta, 2005). To facilitate the calculation of means and application of statistical tests, values below detection limits were assigned one half the value of the detection limit (Miller and Miller, 1986). Due to the normal distribution and homoscedastic nature of the data, Welch's t-test was applied to test for significant changes through the system. All statistical testing was completed with Minitab® version 15 using α=0.05.

Results and Discussion The passive co-treatment system efficiently reduced metal concentrations for common metal/metalloid contaminants as well as less commonly addressed contaminant metals/metalloids. Dissolved concentrations of major metals such as Zn, Fe, Mn, and Al decreased throughout the system (Table 1) (Strosnider et al.

2013). Less commonly addressed metals were also removed from solution. Dissolved concentrations of Ag, Cd, Ce, Cr, Cu, Gd, Ni, Pb decreased notably throughout the system (Table 1). Among the metals removed, dissolved concentrations of Cr and Gd were decreased below detection limits in the first and second unit processes. Less commonly addressed contaminant metals were removed mostly by the clarifier unit. Notably, Ni, Pb, and Cu contaminants were removed 25.46%, 45.87, and 18.32%, primarily by the first unit process (Figure 2). However, Cd was removed primarily in the last two unit processes, with an overall removal of 78.54% (Figure 2).

Dissolved concentrations of some constituents were increased during the limestone incubation.

Although Ag is removed in the clarification unit process, the concentration was increased in the limestone unit process. The presence of Ag in local limestone may be explained by the proximity of the source to the world’s largest Ag deposit (Cunningham et al. 1996). Ca, B, Ba, K, Li, Mg, Na, and Sr concentrations also increased due to

13 limestone impurity dissolution in the second unit process (Table 1). Potosí is one of the most highly mineralized zones in the world, making the existence of impurities in local limestone unsurprising.

Three rare earth metals were tracked throughout the system (Table 1). Concentrations of Nd and Pr were increasing in all three unit processes.

However, La was removed from solution in all three unit processes.

Many of the less commonly addressed metals/metalloids that were released or removed from solution are health concerns for humans and the environment alike (Nordberg et al. 2007). The results from the experiment indicate that passive co-treatment could be an applicable treatment for AMD and MWW with a wide range of contaminants. Due to the co-occurrence of AMD and MWW throughout the developing and developed world, results could be applied to provide a feasible solution to chronic water quality problems. In the developing world, inexpensive, non-energy-intensive and low-maintenance solutions are essential for remediation due to the lack of funding and resources. Passive co-treatment in the developed world could result in energy and cost savings. Elements of the approach (e.g., removal of phosphate with metal oxides) may also be utilized to improve the performance of conventional AMD or MWW treatment systems.

To further the knowledge of passive co-treatment the construction of a pilot-scale system is necessary. This system could provide further information on operational and maintenance costs, sustainability requirements, and the longevity of a full-scale treatment system.

Works Cited American Public Health Association (APHA), 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed.

Cravotta, C.A., 2003. Size and performance of anoxic limestone drains to neutralize acidic mine drainage. Journal of Environmental Quality 32, 1277–1289.

Cunningham, C.G., Zartman, R.E., McKee, E.H., Rye, R.O., Naeser, C.W., Sanjines V.O., Ericksen, G.E., Tavera V.F., 1996. The age and thermal history of Cerro Rico de Potosi, Bolivia. Mineralium Deposita 31, 374–385.

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Units

14

MWW

AMD

Mix

Clarifier

Limestone

Wetland

% Removal

pH

s.u.

9.05

3.58

5.81

5.73

6.91

7.06

-

SC

μs/cm

1315

1915

1741

1744

1837

1953

-

T

°C

10

8.4

8.2

8.15

7.63

10.3

-

DO

mg/L

2.3

9.2

4.2

4.5

5

6.4

-

Alkalinity

mg/L

418

0

18

23

139

201

-

Acidity

mg/L

1.2

1083

744

750

597

474

-

Net Acidity

mg/L

-417

1083

726

728

459

273

-

Al

mg/L

0.0598

12.2

0.763

0.626

0.0297

0.0326

99.7

Ag

mg/L

<0.0016

0.003

0.0025

0.0025

0.0029

0.0034

-34.3

B

mg/L

0.270

0.176

0.187

0.186

0.264

0.293

-50.3

Ba

mg/L

0.0302

0.0237

0.026

0.027

0.0867

0.100

-300

Ca

mg/L

43.5

136

113

115

212

312

-166

Ce

mg/L

<0.0028

0.0518

0.0316

0.0322

0.0088

0.009

78.5

Cd

mg/L

0.0006

0.574

0.436

0.445

0.264

0.0936

78.5

Cr

mg/L

0.0014

0.0015

<0.001

0.0014

0.0011

0.0012

100

Cu

mg/L

0.0152

0.1616

0.0729

0.0655

0.0519

0.108

18.3

Fe

mg/L

0.1609

67.7

40.2

37.0

9.38

0.0095

100.0

Gd

mg/L

0.0042

0.011

0.0068

0.0067

0.0032

<0.0028

100

K

mg/L

58.1

12.3

21.1

21.3

23.7

25.2

-17.2

La

mg/L

0.0023

0.0149

0.0102

0.0105

0.0045

0.0045

63.8

Li

mg/L

0.205

0.138

0.115

0.115

0.115

0.119

-4.22

Mg

mg/L

8.36

19.0

16.8

17.1

18.5

21.6

-28.1

Mn

mg/L

0.118

17.3

13.6

35.1

35.6

37.4

4.52

Na

mg/L

91.8

14.3

34.8

35.1

35.6

37.4

-25.7

Ni

mg/L

0.0273

0.158

0.114

0.112

0.117

0.0983

25.5

Nd

mg/L

0.0232

0.0589

0.0483

0.0492

0.0514

0.0568

-9.76

Pb

mg/L

<0.011

0.111

0.0379

0.0326

0.0431

0.0485

45.9

Pr

mg/L

0.0888

0.181

0.173

0.172

0.234

0.263

-62.0

Sr

mg/L

0.287

1.24

1.06

1.07

1.10

1.16

-10.1

Zn

mg/L

0.211

552

418

426

361

292

33.9

Table 1.

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the summary of an interesting point. You can position the text box anywhere in the document. Use the Drawing Tools tab to change the formatting of the pull quote text box.]

Figure 2 Mean concentration of the four major metals of concern from initial mixing through each unit process in the system (n=4). Error bars represent the 95% confidence interval constructed with the t-statistic.

“ActMix” and “TheoMix” do not have error bars as they were a single measurement / calculation.

Hach, 2006. Digital Titrator Model 16900 Manual.

Kirby, C.S., Cravotta, C.A., 2005. Net alkalinity and net acidity 2: practical considerations. Applied Geochemistry 20, 1941–1964.

Miller, J.C., Miller, J.N., 1986. Statistics for Analytical Chemistry. Ellis Horwood Ltd., UK. Nordberg, G.F., Fowler, B.A., Nordberg, M., Friberg, L.T. (Eds.), 2007. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 3rd Ed. Elsevier Academic Press, New York.

Strosnider, W.H., Nairn, R.W., 2010. Effective passive treatment of high-strength acid mine drainage and raw municipal wastewater in Potosí, Bolivia using simple mutual incubations and limestone. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 105, 34–42.

Strosnider,W.H., Winfrey, B.K., Nairn, R.W., 2011a. Novel passive co-treatment of acid mine drainage and municipal wastewater. Journal of Environmental Quality 40, 206–213.

Strosnider, W.H.J., Llanos López, F.S., Nairn, R.W., 2011b.

Acid mine drainage at Cerro Rico de Potosí I: unabated high-strength discharges reflect a five century legacy of mining. Environmental Earth Sciences 64, 899–910.

Strosnider, W.H.J., Llanos López, F.S., Nairn, R.W., 2011c.

Acid mine drainage at Cerro Rico de Potosí II: severe degradation of the Upper Rio Pilcomayo watershed.

Environmental Earth Sciences 64, 911–923.

Strosnider, W.H.J., Nairn, R., Peer, R.A.M., Winfrey, B.K., 2013. Passive Co-treatment of Zn-rich Acid Mine Drainage and Raw Municipal Wastewater. Jourmal of Geochemical Exploration 125, 110-116.

Younger, P., Banwart, S.A., Hedin, R.S., 2002. Mine Water: Hydrology, Pollution, Remediation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.

Becky Peer ('14) is an Environmental Engineering major with a minor in Chemistry. She is a member of the NEC Champion Saint Francis University Women’s Swimming team, as well as the National Mathematics Honors Society, Kappa Mu Epsilon.

She has completed undergraduate research in passive co-treatment of acid mine drainage and wastewater, and has co-authored several papers.

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16

Giving Voice to the Death of Dorian Gray: An Investigation of Hedonistic Suicide Dennis J. Ryan Literature & Languages Department School of Arts & Letters anm102@francis.edu

Robin L. Cadwallader Literature & Languages Department School of Arts & Letters rcadwallader@francis.edu

Authors of literature pursue the meaning of life in their works by challenging old ideals in hopes of forming new philosophies. Oscar Wilde puts forward his theories of life in The Picture of Dorian Gray, a tragedy that follows the transformation of a portrait as it takes on a man’s crimes. Through the portrait, Wilde illustrates the negative effects of Hedonism, a philosophy Dorian Gray embraces. Gray’s life of pleasure-seeking leads him to the ultimate pain of suicide, and as a result, Gray loses his voice to advocate against a life of hedonism. Therefore, the reader becomes the voice of Dorian Gray and teaches existentialism, a new philosophy that contrasts hedonism.

The Picture of Dorian Gray hinges on the unique concept of selling one’s soul. While sitting for a portrait being painted by Basil Hallward, an acquaintance of his, Gray talks with Lord Henry Wotton, his best friend, who antagonizes Gray’s soul sale resolution. Wotton tells Gray, “When your youth goes, your beauty will go with it, and then you will suddenly discover that there are no triumphs left for you” (33). Upon seeing the finished portrait, Gray declares, “How sad it is! I shall grow old, and horrible, and dreadful. . . . If it were I who was to be always young, and the picture that was to grow old! . . . I would give my soul for that!” (36-37). As a result, Gray’s negative life actions do not affect his physical appearance.

Instead, the image of Gray in Hallward’s portrait changes, reflecting the transformation of the man’s soul.

Gray’s new soul is formed through Hedonism, a philosophy Wotton adopts and teaches Gray early in the novel. Wotton informs Gray, “A new Hedonism—that is what our century wants. You

might be its visible symbol” (33). Playing on Gray’s fears that time will soon take away his beauty, Wotton convinces Gray to embrace this radical philosophy. Michael Patrick Gillespie clearly defines the power of new Hedonism in “Ethics and Aesthetics in The Picture of Dorian Gray,” stating, “[New Hedonism] makes a direct claim for the shaping effect of art upon one’s character, and it asserts the primacy of a doctrine of pleasure that absolves individuals from the ordinary responsibilities of their actions” (145). In Wilde’s novel, Gray is literally absolved from the consequences of his actions because his portrait assumes the adverse effects of his life.

Before a reader can understand Gray’s hedonistic actions, the causes beyond Wotton’s influence must be discussed. Jeff Nunokawa argues that Hedonism in Wilde’s novel originates from the opposition of boredom and desire. In “The Importance of Being Bored: The Dividends of Ennui in The Picture of Dorian Gray,” he theorizes, “Where desire possesses, or better, is possessed by, the thrill of investment, boredom is known by its lack, characterized by the condition of indifference catalogued in The Picture of Dorian Gray” (359). Lacking meaning in their lives, Gray and Wotton continually seek to fill the void created by boredom with hedonistic pleasures.

The work of the nineteenth-century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard can be used to explain new Hedonism in The Picture of Dorian Gray and its relation to boredom. Considered to be the first existential philosopher, Kierkegaard theorized that people exist in three spheres of life: the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious. Similar to hedonism, Kierkegaard’s definition of the aesthetic stage is

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living to fulfill immediate desires, which usually are sensual. Kierkegaard identifies boredom as the cause of the aesthetic stage and remarks that the individual living this life is not free. As a result, the aesthete is continually searching for pleasure to avoid the exhaustion of this life. In Either/Or: A Fragment of Life, Kierkegaard details the aesthete’s solution for boredom: “My deviation from popular opinion is adequately expressed by the phrase ‘rotation of crops.’ The method I propose does not consist in changing the soil but, like proper crop rotation, consists in changing the method of cultivation and the kinds of crops” (291). In The Picture of Dorian Gray, Gray and Wotton rotate various desires to fulfill their boredom, even at the expense of other people.

Wotton and Gray alternate boredom and relief primarily through the senses, as Wotton tells Gray, “Nothing can cure the soul but the senses, just as nothing can cure the senses but the soul” (31).

Pursuing a cure for their boredom, Wotton and Gray attend the theater, dine with friends, and even take drugs. The highlight of Gray’s sensate search for pleasure takes place when he visits an opium den, a scene Wilde describes this way: “As Dorian hurried up its three rickety steps, the heavy odour of opium met him. He heaved a deep breath, and his nostrils quivered with pleasure” (207).

Although drugs fulfill Gray’s desire for pleasure in this moment, he, like Kierkegaard’s aesthete, will never be satisfied.

The climax of Dorian’s aesthetic lifestyle occurs when he meets Sybil, an actress who plays Juliette in Shakespeare’s well-known play. After he sees her first performance, Gray falls in love and quickly becomes engaged, but he soon breaks off the engagement, claiming Sybil’s poor performance at one of her shows is the reason for the breakup.

He later confesses to her, “I loved you because you were marvelous, because you had genius and intellect, because you realized the dreams of great poets and gave shape and substance to the shadows of art” (98). The reader can gather that Gray was not in love with Sibyl as a person; he found her appealing only in her acting. When her performance suffers, she no longer satisfies Gray’s

17 senses, and without his love Sybil kills herself.

Learning the circumstances of her death, Gray comments, “It seems to me to be simply like a wonderful ending to a wonderful play. It has all the terrible beauty of a Greek tragedy, a tragedy in which I took a great part, but by which I have not been wounded” (113). Until this point in the novel, Gray’s decadent lifestyle harmed only him, but now it begins to negatively influence other people’s decisions. For example, he concludes that Sybil’s death was a Greek tragedy, not the result of his immoral disengagement. Patrick Duggan, author of “The Conflict between Aestheticism and Morality in Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray,” speculates on this moment in Gray’s life, concluding, “In his pursuit of his own pleasures, a distinctly narcissistic attitude emerges, and the incompatibly of morality and unconditional aestheticism becomes more apparent” (64).

Through actions of extreme hedonism, Gray becomes narcissistic, even more obsessed with his beauty, which remains intact because the portrait has assumed the true image of his soul’s ugliness.

Through a grotesque display of extreme aestheticism, Wilde resolves that this philosophy needs limitations because it has consequences beyond the self. Considering this problem, Duggan points out that Wilde knows he needs a new philosophy and suggests, “As Wilde makes clear, it is only through a more restrained philosophy that aestheticism and morality may eventually align” (67). Introduced by Kierkegaard, the philosophy of existentialism can be the balance between aestheticism and morality due to its radical idea of self-responsibility.

Before examining the parallels between this new philosophy and The Picture of Dorian Gray, existentialism needs a definition. In 1946, Jean Paul Sartre, the father of existentialism, defined the ambiguous philosophy in The Humanism of Existentialism stating, “Existence precedes essence” (34). As an atheist, Sartre believed that God does not exist; as a result, the only person who can define an individual’s essence is himself.

Defending his definition, Sartre reasons, “Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself” (36). In

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this statement, Sartre asserts self-responsibility, but he does not ignore the effects single actions have on the rest of society. Addressing one’s actions in relation to others, Sartre theorizes, “Therefore, I am responsible for myself and for everyone else. I am creating a certain image of man of my own choosing. In choosing myself, I choose man” (37).

Thus, existentialism emphasizes the freedom a person has in defining his existence and the responsibility to act in accordance with all people.

Undertaking a character study of Dorian Gray in relation to existentialism exposes his true nature, like his portrait that reflects his selfish actions.

First, Gray fails to identify his unique existence and lets others create a false essence for him that conflicts with the person he was born to be. When Hallward first describes Gray to Wotton, he insists, “Unconsciously he defines for me all the passion of the romantic spirit, all the perfection of the spirit that is Greek. The harmony of soul and body—how much that is!” (20). Hallward’s statement not only pressures Gray into becoming a perfect Greek spirit, it also provides the reader with a false definition of the real Gray.

Formed through the actions of others, Gray’s false essence portrays the disharmony of body and soul. Gray’s soul, which is visible in the portrait, reflects his true self of hedonistic action. In contrast, his body lives the essence others created for him as an evil aesthete whose soul is dying because he did not accept the responsibility he has to define his own being. Reflecting on his false sense of self after breaking up with Sybil, Gray considers, “His unreal and selfish love would yield to some higher influence, would be transformed into some nobler passion, and the portrait that Basil Hallward had painted of him would be a guide to him through life, would be what holiness is to some, and conscience to others, and the fear of God to us all” (125). The only higher influence Gray yields to is his self in the portrait because he worships it at first, but he begins to fear it when he learns it reflects his soul.

The vital thread that drives Gray and later becomes the antagonist for his aesthetic rejection is the portrait painted by Hallward. As previously

18 stated, the portrait is Gray’s soul, which he comes to value above all else. Gray grasps this revelation after he rationalizes his murder of Hallward, declaring, “For it was an unjust mirror, this mirror of his soul that he was looking at. Vanity?

Curiosity? Hypocrisy?” (245). Sartre would argue that Gray’s portrait is his justice, as he asserts, “Man is condemned to be free” (41). Therefore, by his own choices Gray is destined to accept the consequences. Yet, through the soul swap, Wilde creates a loophole in Sartre’s theory: Gray’s physical body does not accept the penalties; instead, his portrait bears the decrepit stain of the existential emotions buried in his soul.

Sartre reasons that the result of being responsible for one’s actions causes the emotions of anguish, forlornness, and despair. For the sake of brevity, I will only be discussing despair. Despair, according to Sartre is the awareness that humans have the power to change only what is in their control. Yet, Sartre asserts that despair cannot be an excuse for quietism, a defense he defines as “Let [ting] others do what I can’t do” (47). To combat despair, Sartre points to the freedom man has and resolves, “Man is nothing else than his plan; he exists only to the extent that he fulfills himself; he is therefore nothing else than the ensemble of his acts, nothing else than his life” (47). The climax of Gray’s despair occurs at the end of the novel, when he realizes he has the power to change his soul.

Nevertheless, he is still responsible for his past, which prohibits him from soul redemption.

Understanding that his plan for salvation has failed, Gray ceases to exist because he no longer fulfills any meaning in life. In total despair, Gray stabs the horrid portrait, symbol of his true self, resulting in his death and his soul’s rebirth. Specifically, the portrait returns to its original beauty, representing Gray’s soul being freed from the prison house of his body. Ultimately, in dying Gray fights against despair and becomes the ensemble of his actions, reflected by his dead body which transforms into his true being, a decrepit discipline of hedonism.

Using the looking glass of existentialism, readers will find that Dorian Gray’s life becomes more than a warning label for aestheticism.

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19

Existentialism rips the shroud from Gray’s portrait, illuminating the face of anguish, despair, and forlornness. Although his soul cannot speak, the circumstance of his suicide allows his soul to be free. Therefore, the essence of Gray’s life remains relevant for interpretation even after he ceases to exist. Giving a voice to the silent soul of pure aestheticism supplies the reader with a reason for the senseless life of Gray. Wilde urges readers to become a choir of voices who refute hedonism for the salvation of humanity. In addition, the new song of existentialism delivers the message that humans are an image of their actions. Overall, the new voice of Dorian Gray speaks to the evil of aestheticism and introduces humanity to the condemnation of being free.

Gillespie, Michael Patrick. “Ethics and Aesthetics in The Picture of Dorian Gray.” Rediscovering Oscar Wilde. n.d.

Web. 7 Dec. 2012.

Kierkegaard, Søren. Either/Or: A Fragment of Life. 1843.

Trans. Alastair Hannay. New York: Penguin, 2004. Print.

Matsuoka, Mitsuharu. “Aestheticism and Social Anxiety in The Picture of Dorian Gray.”

Journal of Aesthetic Education 29 (2003): 77–100.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One. 1883. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. New York: Penguin, 1961.138-47. Print.

Nunokawa, Jeff. “The Importance of Being Bored: The Dividends of Ennui in The Picture of Dorian Gray” Studies in the Novel 28.3 (1996): 357-80. Print.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. “The Humanism of Existentialism” 1946.

Essays in Existentialism. Ed. Wade Baskin. New York: Citadel, 1993. 31-62. Print.

Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. 1890. New York: Garden City, n.d. Print.

Works Cited

Dennis Ryan ('14) is an English Literature major with a minor in philosophy. He is the vice president of the Psi Upsilon Fraternity, as well as a member of the English Honors Society, Sigma Tau Delta.

Duggan, Patrick. “The Conflict Between Aestheticism and Morality in Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray.”

WR: Journal of the Arts & Sciences Writing Program 1.0 (2008): 60-68. Print.

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