SPECTRUM Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University
Volume 5 (3) Winter 2015
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SPECTRUM: Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University Faculty Editors: Balazs Hargittai Professor of Chemistry bhargittai@francis.edu
Grant Julin Assistant Professor of Philosophy gjulin@francis.edu
Student Editorial Board: Shannon Adams Morgan Dutrow Cathleen Fry Paul Johns ’07 Cecelia MacDonald Sarah McDonald Steven Mosey ‘14 Rebecca Peer ‘14 Margaret Thompson
Cover: Photo by Christopher Evans
Allison Bivens ’12 Hayden Elliott Eric Horell ’13 Elise Lofgren ‘14 Gabrielle McDermott Jonathan Miller ’08 Morgan Onink William Shee Jennifer Yealy ‘13
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SPECTRUM Table of Contents Why We Run: An Experience of Time Eric J. Anello; Arthur Remillard
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Insect Foraging by Winter Birds: Do Supplemental Food Sources Increase Predation Success Margaret K. Connelly; Rachel M. Robinson; Jocelin R. Teachout; Mary K. Woloschuk; Lane J. Loya
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The Progression of Sexual Awakening in Literature Cecelia A. MacDonald; Robin L. Cadwallader
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Call for papers
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(Student authors’ names underlined.)
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Why We Run: An Experience of Time [Research conducted for RLST 401 (Special Topics – Advanced Reading in Religion)] Eric J. Anello Department of Physician Assistant Sciences School of Health Sciences eja100@francis.edu
Arthur Remillard Religious Studies Department School of Arts & Letters aremillard@francis.edu
“Pain is temporary, but your finishing time posted on the internet is forever,” so goes a popular creed among runners. Every day, millions of people across America lace up their shoes and take to the streets. Whether they run for pleasure or exercise, these runners are partaking in an incredibly religious activity. Running is already considered a special and unique experience, Doris Brown Heritage, the first woman to run a indoor mile in under 5 minutes, said, “Running is a road to selfawareness and reliance – you can push yourself to extremes and learn the harsh reality of your physical and mental limitations or coast quietly down a solitary path watching the Earth spin beneath your feet.” (Clarke). The uniqueness of time spent running is something that many runners express, and it is a different experience for everyone, every time. My study is unique because I focused on time as the primary religious characteristic of running. Time in this context is not the profane time that simply ticks away, rather it is sacred time, which does not pass, but is experienced emotionally. Mircea Eliade contends that both the religious man and nonreligious man experience these breaks in time, seeing both temporal time and sacred time, with only one major difference. For the religious man, periods of sacred time can radically interrupt temporal time, and this time is set aside as something special. Indeed, individuals use their time spent running not as a mundane task, but as something set aside and unique. Sacred time serves as a part of a runner’s biography, becoming a source of identity. Additionally, time can function as a “New Year,” an opportunity for purging and
renewal. The revelations discussed in this paper are not ones gathered from second-hand accounts; rather, they are ones that I have experienced in my own personal journey as a budding runner. I intend to illuminate how the seemingly profane act of running is reimagined when examined within the context of sacred time. Lacing Up Six months ago, I was on the outside looking in when it came to the running community. My brother had always been a runner, and I thought that any person who would willingly put their body through so much physical punishment must surely be a masochist. However, at the urging of some friends, I began to run and immediately saw that there was so much more to it than the physical process of running. Running is as much an exercise of the mind as it is an exercise of the body and it represents a tight-knit microcosm of society. Emile Durkheim states that, “We must judge the normal from within the social,” (Pals) meaning that the observer cannot think of an event within the context of their own understanding, they must put themselves in the place of others. First-hand accounts and the feelings elicited by a run cannot simply be researched; they must be experienced, which provides me with a unique perspective into the running community. An Unconventional Family Emile Durkheim stated that, “The idea of society is the soul of religion,” (Pals). Not only is running a religious activity because of frequent occurrence of sacred time, but it is further qualified
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because of the bond that the time provides to the runners. He goes on to say that, “Languages, habits, beliefs, and emotional responses –even the very concept they had of their individual selves – always came from a social framework which was there to shape them from the first moment they appeared in the world,” (Pals). Simply put, the community that forms from the ritual act of running and the sharing of sacred time becomes another identifier for the individual. This became abundantly clear to me during my first 5k race in October of 2013. The only person that I knew at the event was my brother, so the time before the race was spent away from all of the other runners. However, after the race and once we had all shared the same period of time, total strangers became instant friends, offering congratulations at the finish line, tips on the proper way to cool down and even their continued support in the following days. A bond occurs that is only understood among fellow runners. In an interview with a runner, I asked her if she felt a connection with fellow runners. “We’re kind of like a cult,” she simply stated. This point cannot be refuted, because through a sharing of space, time, a unique language and set of customs, a group of total strangers can feel a sense of collective effervescence. This feeling of “oneness” that is felt with other runners as a result of sharing time is crucial. Victor Turner described this phenomenon as communitas, and writes, “We are presented, in such rites, with a ‘moment in and out of time,’ and in and out of secular social structure, which reveals, however fleetingly, some recognition (in symbol if not always in language) of a generalized social bond that has ceased to be fragmented into a multiplicity of structural ties,” (Turner). These social bonds don’t come out of a shared space, but out of a shared moment in time. For this is the reason that he chooses the Latin communitas over the word community. Community denotes a location and that bonds form simply from a shared space. Rather, communitas forms after a sacred rite of passage is performed and the individual is deemed worthy of entry into an exclusive group. Within communitas,
5 shared experiences, such as time, are valued over a sense of location. Time as Sacred Before time is examined, it must first be understood what the term religion refers to in the context of running. Ninian Smart, in addition to characterizing the seven dimensions of religion, also provides a highly functional definition of religion. He states that religion is, “The systems of belief that, through symbols and actions, mobilize the feelings and wills of human beings,” (Smart). In terms of a distance race, symbols could range from racing bibs to the short, sporty running shorts and the action is quite self-explanatory: running. Furthermore, individuals would not take part in running if they did not feel a sense of self stemming from the activity, especially considered that it is particularly tolling on the body. Time is present within Smart’s requirements for religion. One can display their time for others to see, making it a symbol that represents them. Furthermore, time can inspire great emotions within the runner, both positive and negative. The relatively small amount of time set aside for a race has the power to make or break even the most accomplished runner’s day. Without the use of time in running, the ritual is meaningless. The logical starting point is the beginning of a race and with the notion of moving from a period of profane time, or “ordinary temporal duration” as Eliade puts it, to a period of sacred time. Much like a transition into a holiday season, things around the observer change to signify the coming of sacred time. Eliade states that our universe is, “an amorphous mass consisting of an infinite number of more or less neutral places in which man moves, governed and driven by the obligations of an existence incorporated into an industrial society,” (Eliade). The world is filled with these mundane areas and they don’t get a second thought from the observer. However, especially in the case of a distance race, a profane location can easily become an area that is so much more significant, an area that is about to be changed by sacred time. I competed in two 5 kilometer races around my
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campus and one in my hometown. The race route featured areas that I had been through hundreds of times, but because of the nature of the event and the focus on time, those locations were transformed after I crossed the threshold into the race itself. Mircea Eliade sees thresholds as symbolic passages from one space to the other. This area is meant to signify a break in the continuity of the world, a space where the profane world opens into the sacred. For a distance race, the threshold is without a doubt the starting line. In this space, individuals are dressed the part of the runner, sporting clothing that is gawked at and mocked if worn at any other venue. For example, at the beginning of my first 5k, the man warming up beside me was only wearing socks. Ordinarily, this man would appear to be in distress or just down right out of his mind, but within the context of running, I thought that he must be a very advanced runner trying to tackle barefoot running. At the starting line, individuals run in circles, lie out on the ground, jump in place and attempt to isolate themselves from the surrounding mass of people. These actions are only seen as normal because everyone there is about to go on a sacred journey, suspending the ordinary norms of daily life. So as the race starts, clothes and profane existence are dispatched as sacred ground is entered. A Sense of Self While the experience of time is vital to understanding the religion of running, time also needs to be understood within the runner’s biography. Finishing times achieved in races serve as a part of the identity of a runner. One of the first questions that fellow runners ask each other is what their personal best times are at different distances. Rare is the runner who doesn’t know his or her best time at a race distance, and the ones that don’t often mention that they understand that it is odd not to know. Time defines a runner and allows others to understand the capabilities of their fellows in a very personal way, because time is also a sensitive topic for a runner. If one runs a race and it takes longer than they had hoped, excuses will be made because it is not a matter that one just shrugs off. I
6 asked the time keeper at my most recent race about his interactions with runners regarding their times. He told me that it is an extremely delicate task and that perfection is required. He gets harassed at least once every race because an individual believes that their time was recorded incorrectly, often times by a second or two. I knew exactly this feeling because my own time was marked down as being two second slower than I had thought it was, which caused me more distress than I ever would have imagined. I felt a sense of oneness for every runner whose precious seconds had been stripped away and joined the collective loathing of the negligent time keeper. Time allows runners to understand each other without ever having met each other, but more importantly, it marks different points in the biography of a runner. A recent article from Runner’s World introduces two individuals, Tina and Andrew Josephson. The article goes on to introduce them not by their professions, but by a piece of their running biography. It states their personal best 5k times and goes on to mention that while Tina’s is 38:35, she is older and had a six year, eight month streak of running every day (Burfoot). The introduction reinforces the sheer weight that a time carries with it, because it justifies Tina’s time with her age and stipulating that she was a very dedicated runner, even if it is at a slower pace. The author wanted the readers to get a feeling for the caliber of runner that is being discussed, and the quickest way to quantify a runner is by sharing their running time. However, a runner’s biography can also be tainted with a time, even if it is a seemingly good one. During a Run for Reading 5k, finishers started to come across the finish line much earlier than expected (the leader posting a time of 15:54). Soon enough, it was discovered that several of the runners had taken the wrong route. The individuals, who were at first very impressed, quickly became angry at the organizers of the race. They had not only been given a false sense of what their time was, but also added a shameful chapter to their running biography. I heard some after the race grumbling about their times to family members,
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having to clarify that they got an excellent time, but didn’t actually run the correct distance. While time defines the runner and is a central part of their biography, it can also be experienced emotionally. The Emotion of Time Through the ritual act of running, one experiences sacred time. Mircea Eliade explains, “For the religious man, sacred time can interrupt temporal time through rituals,” (Eliade). Temporal time is something that is a constant facet of everyday life. Used strictly as a measurement, time passes and it cannot be said that we “experience” it, time simply is. However, a race takes time and elevates it to be the only thing that matters. The time that occurs during a race is cyclical in nature. Eliade argues that this type of time does not “pass,” because it doesn’t designate a finite amount of time (Eliade). Meaning, we do not get a chance to repeat noon yesterday, but there will always be a chance to re-experience every mile of a race. Eliade goes on to say that, “by its very nature sacred time is reversible,” so if the time experienced during a particular race wasn’t what was expected, there will always exist a chance to repeat that amount of time. The time that a race occurs in is experienced anew each and every time, allowing the individual to rewrite their running story and to constantly improve on their biography. The temporal time occurring between the periods of sacred time serve as a time of reflection so that the next time a runner enters their ritual state, they get a chance to revitalize their experience. New Years One simply has to think of a race as a “New Year” for the runner. Eliade explains, “The divisions of time are determined by the rituals that govern the renewal of alimentary reserves; that is, the rituals that guarantee the continuity of the life of the community in its entirety,” (Eliade). When speaking with runners, they frequently frame their running biography in terms of their recent races. They try different methods of training in between events and section off the periods of their career using races. A runner’s year can be broken up in
7 terms of races they participated in, how each one had its own triumphs and how the sacred time spent added a different perspective to the runner’s career. Again, Eliade states, “But the meaning of the whole ceremony, like that of each of its constituent elements, is sufficiently clear: on the occasion of the division of time into independent units, ‘years,’ we witness not only the effectual cessation of a certain temporal interval and the beginning of another, but also the abolition of the past year and of past time,” (Eliade). Each race is a chance to start anew; new techniques and new times come along with each race. No runner wishes to stay stagnant as far as their times are concerned. Even world class athletes look to shave precious seconds from their already unbelievable times. Just as Christians use Sunday church services to reflect back on their past week and seek areas of improvement, runners use races in much the same way. Every race, especially the time immediately following the race, serves as an opportunity to reflect on prior time spent and decide if it was effective or not. While improvements as a Christian cannot be quantified, improvements upon the runners’ religion are simply the measure of their time. Not only does each race serve as a way of breaking up time, but they also signify a time to detoxify the mind and body. Eliade states, “Almost everywhere the expulsion of demons, diseases, and sins coincides-or at one period coincided- with the festival of the New Year,” (Eliade). Many runners cite stress relief or body habitus as the beginning of a running career that snowballs from that point. The first day I ran, it was because a friend had mentioned it as a way of relieving stress before a test. While the experience was miserable at best, I kept on running after that day, because it made me feel differently than any other activity had. One can run if they’re feeling stressed or anxious, happy or sad, or even if they’re simply bored and looking for something to do. The time spent running is different every time and allows the individual to have a period of sacred revitalization. Events are put into context and that time is forever set aside as sacred. I have never spoken to someone who
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passed over the fact that they took a run when recounting the day’s events. It is easy for a nonrunner to believe that a runner is simply out there to perform the act of running, but 1 Corinthians 9:26 states, “Therefore I run in such a way, as not without aim; I box in such a way, as not beating the air,” (New American Standard Bible). This concept goes beyond “body as a temple” theology and illuminates a truth among runners. There is always a new goal that is being attempted or some mental obstacle that the runner is attempting to overcome. Fellow runners are sure to discuss their running and different experiences of time because they feel a shared bond through the ritual act of running and the sharing of this sacred time. Within the broad category known as “runners”, there are varying degrees of ability, age, and all manner of identifiers. However, the static characteristic shared by all runners is the use of time. Time, in the case of running, can be used as an identifier, where a finishing time becomes part of a personal biography – a story presumably with no end. Fellow runners can identify with each other by simply knowing each other’s race times. Time in this context is set aside and made sacred through the act of running, with the runner’s experience renewed in every instance. The time spent running is cyclical in nature, giving the runner opportunities to relive a particular moment during a run every
8 time that they decide to run. Through the ritual process of running, a profane life is paused, and a period of sacred revitalization is achieved, time after time.
Works Cited Burfoot, Amby. "College Student's App Helps Save His Mother's Life ." Runner's World (2014 ). Web. Clarke, Michael. 10 Motivational Quotes for Running to Keep you Inspired . 2013. 24 November 2013 . <www.active.com >. Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion . San Diego : Harcourt , 1957. Book. New American Standard Bible . La Habra: Foundation Publications, 1971. Web. Pals, Daniel. "Society as Sacred: Emile Durkheim." Pals, Daniel. Eight Theories of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. 85-115. Smart, Ninian. Worldviews Cross Cultural Explorations of Human Beliefs . Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall, 1995. Turner, Victor. The Ritual Process: Structure and AntiStructure . Chicago : Aldine Publishing , 1969. Book.
Eric Anello (BS ’15; MPAS ’16) is a Physician Assistant Sciences major with a minor in Religious Studies. He is a member of Phi Eta Sigma National Honor Society as well as the National Scholastic Honors Society, Delta Epsilon Sigma.
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Insect Foraging by Winter Birds: Do Supplemental Food Sources Increase Predation Success? Margaret K. Connelly Biology Department School of Sciences mkc101@francis.edu
Rachel M. Robinson Biology Department School of Sciences rmr100@francis.edu
Jocelin R. Teachout Biology Department School of Sciences jrt100@francis.edu
Mary K. Woloschuk Biology Department School of Sciences mkw100@francis.edu Lane J. Loya, Ph.D. Biology Department School of Sciences lloya@francis.edu
Birds that are active in the winter must continually meet their metabolic needs to survive many months of cold temperatures. Overwintering insects inhabiting trees provide an important food source for these birds. The objective of this study was to test whether or not winter birds on the Saint Francis University campus would forage more on tree-dwelling insects if there was a supplemental food source provided in the area. To do this, we used frozen mealworms placed in trees as surrogate overwintering insects, and measured the foraging success of birds on these insects during a three week period in the winter of 2014. Mealworm predation was compared across three sites differing in supplemented food sources: sunflower seeds, suet, and no provided food (control). Each site had four mealworms placed in holes drilled in 16 surrounding trees, for a total of 64 mealworms per site. The consumption of these mealworms was measured during the experiment to analyze whether provided food sources influence the foraging behavior of birds in the winter. Observations after three weeks indicated that the predation rates were 78%, 72% and 69% at the seed, suet and control sites, respectively. The results of the study concluded that there was no significant difference between the three sites in the percentage of mealworms eaten, even though more birds were observed at the seed feeder site compared to the control. Birds appear to prey on insects inhabiting trees independently of foraging on supplemental food sources, or perhaps different species of birds forage on tree insects compared to those that visit feeders. Introduction The arrival of winter initiates hardships for birds as colder temperatures signal a time of decreased food availability and with it, increased demands on maintaining their high metabolic rates. Birds also face the additional energy demands of finding shelter and protecting themselves from predators during this time. Many species of birds survive these difficult, cold months of winter by
actively foraging for overwintering insects such as caterpillars that inhabit the bark and branches of trees (Heinrich, 2003). This study focuses on the feeding habits of residential winter birds in central Pennsylvania, and investigates whether providing supplemental food in the form of seed or suet increases their predation rates on nearby treedwelling insects.
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The foraging behavior of winter birds and their effect on predation of insects was investigated by Martinson and Flaspohler (2003), in which they determined that placing feeders in forested areas changes the short-term abundance of both birds and local arthropods. According to Martinson and Flaspohler’s study, when winter birds were in drawn into an area containing feeders, predation on mealworms planted in the surrounding trees increased. In their study, both suet and seed feeders were used simultaneously in their feeders. However, because it was unclear whether the birds were more attracted to the suet or to the seed, we designed a new study to answer this question. The objective of this research was to study how changes in type of attractant (seed or suet) would change the birds’ foraging behavior on nearby overwintering insects (mealworms placed in trees).We also aimed to determine if different species of birds may have a tendency to consume different types of supplemental food. Our hypothesis was that predation of mealworms would be highest at the areas containing suet feeders because insectpredator species such woodpeckers, chickadees and titmice are known to be attracted to suet feeders (Kress, 2010), and are among the most prevalent tree foragers in deciduous forests in the winter (Williams and Batzli, 1979). The implications of this research extend to residential and agricultural environments because birds can be efficient regulators of detrimental pest insects and arthropods that may cause economic problem. For example, foresters have long recognized the value of woodpeckers as important regulators of pest insects such as wood-boring beetle larvae (MacLellen, 1958). By understanding the best type of supplemental food to allow for insect predation, the impact of winter birds as a natural defense mechanism against invasive or overabundant insects could be enhanced. Materials and Methods Our experiment was conducted from February 25, 2014 to March 11, 2014, in a forested area (40.506696 Latitude, -78.645111 Longitude) on the Saint Francis University campus in Loretto,
10 Pennsylvania (Figure 1). Three locations ecologically similar to one another were selected to serve as our three treatment sites (suet feeder, seed feeder, and control). These sites consisted mainly of mixed hardwood trees in middle-to-late stages of succession, with the physical environment and elevation in each of the three locations similar to each other and to the surrounding area. The center of each location was about 100 meters apart from the other locations and was arranged as shown.
Figure 1. The location of the seed, control, and suet feeders on the grounds of Saint Francis University. Inset shows layout of each site with central feeder or control (red circle) surrounded by trees (white circles) containing mealworms. The center of the control site was approximately 100 m from the other sites.
Each site was set up identically except for the attractant or control. At the seed site, a seed feeder (Figure 2) containing sunflower seeds was attached to a sturdy branch of the center tree with rope, at a height of about four feet off the ground. In each cardinal direction from the feeder, four trees were selected and marked with a flag, for a total of 16 trees per site; the trees were spaced approximately 3 m apart (Figure 1). In each of these trees, four holes about an inch deep were drilled at shoulder height; the holes were drilled in the four cardinal directions on the tree. A freeze-dried mealworm, intended to serve as a surrogate “pest” insect, was placed in each of the four holes and then covered with wood putty, resulting in a total of 64 mealworms per site. The other two sites were arranged identically, but with a suet feeder (Figure 3) at the center tree of the suet site, and with no
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feeder at the control site. Seed and suet were replaced in the feeders throughout the study as needed. Mealworm predation was assessed at one, two, and three-week intervals after the start of the experiment. The percentage of mealworms consumed each week was compared with a 2x3 contingency table test at alpha = 0.05.
11 (47% and 45%, respectively). However, these differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.305). By the end of the second week, predation at the suet feeders climbed to 72%, but was not significantly higher than at the control or seed feeders (66% and 61%, respectively) (p = 0.423). By the end of the experiment, after three weeks, 78% (50/64) of the mealworms were eaten at the seed feeder, 72% (46/64) were eaten at the control site, and 69% (44/64) were consumed at the suet site. Once again however, these differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.478).
Figure 2. Seed feeder study site. Top, general habitat of the site; Bottom, Black-capped chickadee at seed feeder.
We also assessed the bird communities at the three sites. Nine 5-minute point counts of birds were made periodically during the study to assess the numbers and species of birds visiting each site. Within each five minute interval, birds flying within a 12-m radius surrounding the center tree were counted. If the birds flew out of the circle and flew back into the circle, the bird was counted again. Mean bird densities were compared with an ANOVA statistical test at alpha = 0.05 with Tukey post-hoc comparisons.
Figure 3. Suet feeder study site. Top, general habitat of the Site; Bottom, Downy woodpecker at suet feeder.
Results There were no significant differences in the percentage of mealworms eaten at the seed, suet, and control feeder at any time during the experiment. As seen in Figure 4, at end of the first week, mealworm predation was actually highest at the control site (58%) verses the suet and seed sites
Figure 4. The percentage of mealworms (N = 64) consumed at each experimental site during the study. Predation was not significantly different among the three feeding sites at any of the three weeks of the study.
Mealworm predation rates did not correspond to observed bird densities at the feeders. Our bird surveys demonstrated that there were significantly higher numbers of birds visiting the suet site compared to the control (p = 0.031) (Figure 5). Observations noted throughout the study include birds walking up and down the tree trunks and branches foraging for food, and birds retrieving seeds from the feeders. The six species of birds observed during our study were Poecile atriciapilla (Black-capped chickadee), Picoides pubescens (Downy woodpecker), Sitta carolinensis (Whitebreasted nuthatch), Certhia americana (Brown Creeper) Cardinalis cardinalis (Northern Cardinal), and Turdus migratorius (American Robin). The black-capped chickadee was the most
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common species observed, and was the only species seen at the control site. This species was noted feeding on both seed and suet, as well as foraging on the tree trunks and branches for insects. This species is omnivorous, feeding on a variety of seeds and arthropods (Sibley, 2003).
Figure 5. Point counts of birds in the three sites during the study. Numbers reflect average number of birds of all species of birds observed (N=9). Significant differences among groups are represented by different letters. Error bars represent 95% CI.
Discussion The lack of predation differences among the seed, suet, and control sites suggest that providing a food source for winter non-migratory birds in forests does not improve winter insect foraging, even though birds were more numerous at the suet site. This information implies that our initial hypothesis was not fully supported. Although we correctly predicted that the birds would be more attracted to the suet site, it did not lead to higher rates of mealworm predation at this site. It appears that winter birds forage heavily on trees independently of whether or not they are attracted to an area to feed on seeds or suet, as it is their nature to maximize energy intake by foraging continually during the winter. This foraging was seen in a number of species actively walking up and down the tree trunks in search of food during the study, and was evident in the high rate of mealworm consumption (near 50%) in just the first week of the study. Our results appear to contradict those of Martinson and Flaspohler (2003), in which
12 they demonstrated that significantly more insects (mealworms) were consumed in feeder plots (95%) than in control plots (89%) after 6 weeks. It should be noted, however, that predation rates in the control were very high, which is similar to what we noted in our study; statistical significance could have simply been due to their higher sample size compared to our study. Our feeder placement likely maximized bird attraction into the area, for winter birds have been shown to visit feeders placed in the woods and higher off the ground, compared to placing them in open fields and on the ground (Ya-Fu et al., 2005). Black-capped chickadees tend to locate feeders quickly, and their populations have been shown to be higher in areas where feeders are established (Wilson, 2001). However, the presence of feeders could have led to general increases in chickadees in entire forest ecosystem, which could have led to increased foraging rates on insects across all sites. Although our sites were separated by 100 m, future experiments could be conducted with the sites further apart to eliminate this potential spatial problem. This experiment demonstrated that birds may be efficient pest regulators since the predation rates on mealworms were high across all treatments (~75%). One area for further investigation is to analyze all tree species to determine if winter birds forage on certain tree species more than others. We observed informally that black cherry trees (Prunus serotina) may not be preferred, as many mealworms remained in these trees at the end of the study. It is possible that the bark of the tree deters foraging, or that there is some other predator living on or near the black cherry trees that could have been discouraging the birds from flying to them. This prediction may be supported by the fact that the “…leaves, fruits, and seeds of the black cherry…” tree consists of cyanide, which is poisonous to animals, including birds (Fitzgerald, 2008). The bark of the black cherry tree also contains the cyanide poison (“Black Cherry,” n.d.). Future investigations could determine if the poison in the components of the black cherry tree could
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discourage winter birds from flying or foraging in their proximity. The influence of temperature, time of day, and season (early winter vs late winter) on foraging could also be investigated in future studies. Also, additional observations are needed to determine which bird species is the primary consumer of mealworms, and of overwintering insects, in general. Our point counts only determined the species present in the area, and we did not observe birds directly feeding on mealworms. For future study, a camera trap could be used to determine which species of birds are eating from which site. A future improvement that could also be implemented to the research design includes performing multiple trials around campus to increase validity, and to expand the study to investigate backyard habitats using actual pest insects instead of mealworm surrogates. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the Saint Francis University Biology Department and School of Sciences for funding this research through the STARS program and the Undergraduate Research Program. We extend special appreciation and gratitude to our advisor, Dr. Lane Loya, for his time and dedication in advising us on this project for two years. Works Cited Black cherry. 2014. www.uky.edu/hort/Black-Cherry. University of Kentucky, n.d. Web. 21 September 2014. Heinrich, B. 2003. Winter world: The ingenuity of animal survival. Harper Collins, New York, NY. Pp 119-130; 239246. Fitzgerald, T.D. 2008. Larvae of the fall webworm Hyphantria cunea inhibit cyanogenesis in Prunus serotina. Journal of Experimental Biology 211: 671-77. Kress, S. 2011. http://www.audubonmagazine.org/articles/living/audubonguide-winter-bird-feeding. Audubon guide to winter birdfeeding. Audubon Magazine online. Web 1 November 2014. MacLellan, C.R.. 1958. Roles of woodpeckers in control of the codling moth in Nova Scotia. The Canadian Entomologist. 90: 18-22.
13 Martinson, T.J and D.J. Flaspohler. 2003. Winter bird feeding and localized predation on simulated bark-dwelling arthropods. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 510-516. Sibley, D.A.. 2003. The Sibley field guide to birds of eastern North America. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY. Pp 296. Williams, J.B. and G.O. Batzli. 1979. Competition among bark-foraging birds in central Illinois: experimental evidence. The Condor 81: 122-132. Ya-Fu, L., Yen-Min, K., & Bollinger, E.K. 2005. Effects of feeding height and distance from protective cover on the foraging behavior of wintering birds. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 83: 880-890.
Margaret Connelly (â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;16) is a Biology PreProfessional major with a minor is Psychology, with aspirations to attend veterinary school. She is a member of the Honors Program. She has been involved in the Marching Band, Pep Band, and the Biology Club. Rachel Robinson ('16) is a Biology PreProfessional major. She is active in the Biology club and is a Science Technology and Research Scholars (STARS) student. She is a member of Gamma Sigma Sigma National Service Sorority. Jocelin Teachout (â&#x20AC;&#x2122;16) is a Biology major with a minor in Neuroscience, Psychology, and Ethics. She is a member of Beta Beta Beta biology honors society. She active in the Biology Club, where she was captain for Relay For Life 2014. Currently, she serves on the fundraising committee for Relay For Life 2015. She is also active as an Orientation Counselor for the New Student Freshmen Orientation during the summer. Mary Woloschuk ('16) is a Biology PreProfessional major with aspirations to attend either veterinary school or graduate school. She is involved with several on-campus organizations, including Campus Ministry, the Beta Beta Beta biology honors society, and Emerging Leaders. She is also a resident assistant and a member of the Honors Program.
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The Progression of Sexual Awakening in Literature [Research conducted for ENGL 407 (Principles of Literary Research, Theory, and Practice)] Cecelia A. MacDonald Literature & Languages Department School of Arts & Letters cxmst9@francis.edu
Robin L. Cadwallader Literature & Languages Department School of Arts & Letters rcadwallader@francis.edu
Literature is a reflection of human nature; thus, many common threads can be seen in various works. One prominent example of such a connection is the theme of sexual awakening at various stages of a man’s coming of age. D. H. Lawrence’s “The Rocking-Horse Winner,” Charles D’Ambrosio’s “The Point,” and Richard Wright’s Native Son each demonstrates the progression of a boy’s sexual awakening in his attempt to reach adulthood and his subsequent failure to do so. Although these three works contain distinctly different plots and characters, the main boy in each piece represents the continuation of a singular entity who seeks to mature into adulthood through satisfying his sexual needs. The boy, Paul, in “The Rocking-Horse Winner” is the youngest of the three characters under discussion, representing the first stage in a male’s sexual awakening. Paul’s family never seems to have enough money; thus, he goes “off by himself” in order to find “the clue to ‘luck,’” which he attributes to the reason behind his family’s lack of money (Lawrence 491). Lawrence purposely placed luck in quotation marks to draw attention to the double-entendre of the word. According to intertextual critic Northrop Frye, “[a]ll documentary conceptions of literature are allegorical conceptions of it, and this fact becomes even more obvious when poems are taken to be allegories of Freudian repressions” (281). This notion links the innuendo of luck to the child’s sexual awakening. Paul’s immaturity and innocence is further highlighted by the assertion that he went off “in a childish way” (Lawrence 491). Taking the first step in sexual maturity, Paul
depends entirely on himself for pleasure. This is acknowledged in the following words: he “seek[s] inwardly for luck” (Lawrence 491). Paul finds luck by “sit[ting] on his big rocking-horse, charging madly into space, with a frenzy that made [his] little [sisters] peer at him uneasily,” and he continues to “mount again and start on his furious ride” until he climaxes (Lawrence 491). Paul’s mother hints that she believes him to be too old for the first stage: “‘Aren’t you growing too big for a rocking horse? … said his mother” (Lawrence 491). Nonetheless, Paul continues to ride the horse until luck no longer comes to him. Kurt, the narrator in “The Point,” represents the second stage of sexual awakening. At thirteen, Kurt has reached puberty, the prime age for a main character in a story about sexual awakening. In order to cross over into adulthood, Kurt must find a female to continue satisfying his sexual desires. The opportunity to advance into adulthood occurs when Kurt is escorting a drunken friend of his mother’s home one night. The woman, whom Kurt addresses as Mrs. Gurney, is middle-aged and dissatisfied with her current state of life. She acts out her insecurities by making a sexual pass at Kurt; she begins removing her clothing, one piece at a time, so that she eventually stands nude before him and instructs him to “look at [her]” (D’Ambrosio 43). He pauses and thinks through what may result if he engages with her. He is aware of all of the technical information and rationalizes that he “knew all the words for it” (D’Ambrosio 43), even though he is still a virgin. He refers to the woman as “Mrs. Gurney,” which emphasizes that he is only a child, and he admits
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that “[i]n this, I had no experience” (D’Ambrosio 43). He vacillates between kissing the woman and walking away. In the end, Kurt decides to keep walking and not to act upon his sexual curiosities with Mrs. Gurney. Therefore, he does not evolve from a child to a man. If Kurt were to develop into physical adulthood without acting upon his sexual desires, he would grow up to be like Bigger Thomas in Native Son. Bigger is a poor, uneducated twenty-year-old man; even though he is at the age when men are expected to have sexually matured, his mental and sexual maturity level remains that of a young boy. He has never pursued his sexual appetite, which leads to sexual repression. His life is dominated by fear and uncertainty, so he does not know how to appropriately act on his feelings: “Only fear and emptiness filled him now” (Wright 44). After masturbating in a public theater to the image of a beautiful young woman in a movie, he coincidentally meets her in real life. Since he is not mature and lusts after her, he does not know how to interact with her. Bigger decides that he “hate[s] the girl” because she is not like the girl “on the screen,” whom “his mind could do with…as it liked” (Wright 52, 55). This results in disaster when Bigger unintentionally suffocates her. The extent of Bigger’s failure to sexually mature is further exacerbated when he rapes his girlfriend and deliberately kills her. Rather than fully evaluating his options, he sees everything is terms of extremes: “He couldn’t take her and he couldn’t leave her; so he would have to kill her” (Wright 236). Had Bigger properly matured, he would have had a better grasp on his sexual desires and not put himself in the situation that resulted in the murder of two young women, one of whom he also raped. Ultimately, none of the boys in these three works fully experiences his sexual awakening, although, as the title of D’Ambrosio’s work
15 foreshadows, they attempt some maturity. The three boys, all of different ages, demonstrate the common progression of sexual awakening that all men are expected to experience. Paul naturally involves only himself at his stage of sexual awakening. Kurt forgoes involving a woman, although the decision would have been understandable either way because he is at the gateway of puberty where either choice is socially acceptable. On the other hand, Bigger has surpassed the age in which he is expected to have acted upon his sexual drive, resulting in actions that are violent and uncontrollable. The boys do not mature into adulthood since they do not completely act upon their sexual urges at the proper time, in the proper place, and in the proper way. Works Cited D’Ambrosio, Charles. "The Point." New Yorker 1 Oct. 1990: 36-46. Print. Frye, Northrop. “The Critical Path.” Ed. Donald Keesey. Contexts for Criticism. 4th edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003. 279-287. Print. Lawrence, D. H. “The Rocking-Horse Winner.” Story. Ed. Boyd Litzinger and Joyce Carol Oates. Lexington: Heath, 1985. 489-98. Print. Wright, Richard. Native Son. 1940. New York: Harper, 1998. Print.
Cecelia MacDonald ('15) is a double major in English Literature and Creative Writing and Thinking with a minor in philosophy. She is a member of the Honors Program and has been actively involved in the Student Activities Organization (SAO), serving terms as Vice President of Public Relations and as President. She is also a sister of the Delta Phi Epsilon sorority; within Greek Life, she served as Vice President of Membership Development for her sorority and Vice President of Public Relations for the InterSorority Council.
Call for papers Sub m ission G uid elines The purpose of SPECTRUM is not merely to disseminate new results, but also to inform and enlighten. Our readership is a general and multidisciplinary audience who may not be an expert in your field of study. Consequently, please explain all pertinent concepts essential to understanding your article as well as any concepts that might not be common knowledge. Please submit your file in Microsoft Word format as an attachment to the following email address: spectrum@francis.edu. The text should be single spaced, using 12-point Times New Roman font. Please use italics, rather than underlining, for emphasis. O r ganiz at ion of M anuscr ip t s SPECTRUM is an interdisciplinary journal accepting submissions from the natural sciences, the humanities as well as the professional schools (health sciences and business), therefore, the structure and style of each manuscript will differ from discipline to discipline. Regardless, all submissions must provide a cover sheet, a thorough introduction of the problem your research addresses, the conclusion(s), result(s) or findings of your research, as well as some form of bibliographic citation. Below are the general guidelines for these requirements, some of which may not apply to your area of research. C ov er Sheet Title Names and departments of undergraduate researcher(s) and faculty advisor(s) Abstract (200 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 300 words) Six key words Int r od uct ion Include general background of the relevant field and the larger problem your research addresses as well as its relevance within the field. In addition, explain what prompted your investigation, a summary of previous findings related to your research problem and what contributions your project brings (or was expected to bring) to the issue. M et hod s and M at er ials (If ap p licab le) Summarize important methods and materials used in your research. R esult s/C onclusions Give detailed report of the results and or conclusions reached through your research. Discussion Results should be evaluated in the context of general research problem, the implications of which should be explained with conclusions, predictions or suggestions (if applicable) for further study. T ab les (if ap p licab le) Create tables in Microsoft Word format and insert into general text accompanied by a table legend. Each table needs a number based on its appearance in the paper, where it is referenced. Figur es (if ap p licab le) Please submit figures at the end of the article, one image per page; we will fit these in as we organize the manuscript. Each figure needs a number (the figures shall be numbered consecutively in the order of their appearance in the paper) and a title. SPECTRUM will be printed black and white, but there will be an online version where figures submitted in color will appear in color. R efer ences You may use any referencing style you choose so long as it is a standard format or your discipline (IEE, APA, ACS, PubMed) and that you use it consistently and to the appropriate bibliographical standards.