LINGUISTIC SUSTAINABILITY
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 5 9 15 19
Sustainability. Linguistic sustainability. Linguistics in economy. Linguistics in culture. Dialects & language. Singapore case study 4 languages in Singapore Dialects in Singapore Why are dialects dying Come-back of dialects
21 25 27 35 37
S
U
1
ST IN N ABILITY
2
S
ustainability is an uprising phenomenon recently. What is sustainability exactly? Is sustainability about the environment, people and culture, or money and jobs? Is it concerning everyone, or is it for a specific audience? In Latin, sustainability is knows as sustinere, which means to hold, sus., and up. Dictionaries have ten meanings for “sustain”, main ones being to “maintain”, “support”, and “endure”. However since 1980s, sustainability has been mainly focusing on human development on Earth. Hence this became the common definition of sustainable development. In 2005 world summit, it was recognized that that are different aspects of environmental, economical, and social demands – the three pillars of sustainability. These three aspects are always interlinked with each other.
3
What is sustainability?
The idea of sustainability sprouted when there was a concern that economical development has been leading to the reduction in natural resources, making future generations at risk of a lacking. The academics and activist that shared this view started to work on the concept of sustainable development in order to continue economic and urbanistic growth without jeopardizing the needs of the future generation. Sustainability could be defined as the ability or capacity of something to sustain itself. It’s about taking what we currently need to live, and still have enough to meet the needs of people in the future. In short, sustainability for our planet Earth is that it can continue to do what it is originally made to do.
4
LIN GUIS TIC SUSTAIN ABILITY
5
Linguistic sustainability.
N
ow that you know the basic meaning of sustainability, let’s apply it into linguistic sustainability. The basic meaning of linguistic sustainability, as the name suggests, is the sustainability of languages. There are two extremes to linguistic sustainability. The first extreme: process of glottophagy, where speech communities are given a decreased variety of languages, resulting in the death of a language. The opposite extreme is the maintenance and development of human linguistic diversity, where minority languages are constantly promoted in speech communities.
Existing opinions tend to fall on either side of the extreme. Some people choose to forsake their original language and adopt only the main languages used in the world to provide advancement in economics and culture. The others are in favour of preserving linguistic diversity and maintaining distinct collective identities. This avoids anonymity of their language, allowing knowledge and wisdom of a culture to be passed to future generations. These perspectives are often clashing and seem to never be coherent.
Would there be a way of translating the procedures and gaining the ideology of “sustainability�, a way of merging the competence and merging both languages to widen the communicative scope, a way to maintain and promote group languages?
6
Rephrasing from Ramon Folch’s interview on sustainability in general, we could say that linguistic sustainability should be a process of gradual transformation from the current model of the linguistic organisation of the human species, a transformation whose objective would be to avoid that collective bilingualism or polyglottism of human beings must require the abandonment by different cultural groups of their own languagesn conclusion, this concept is against the “black or white” belief in language, where you have to either know this language or the other.
“
7
Why can’t we enforce a value of multilingualism development, just like we did for the environment?
However the ideology in today’s context is not about knowing either black or white, we have diverse languages and countless possibilities in linguistics. So then, why can’t we enforce a value of multilingualism development, just like we did for the environment? The preservation of languages covers the emotional aspects of people, making them confident and happy as seen in current day researches. Large majority groups must generate a sociolinguistic ethics, a system which will guide them in ways of acting that are respectful of linguistic sustainability.
Linguistic sustainability.
Similar to how sustainable development does not deny the demand for material improvement of human societies yet wants to maintain a balance in the ecosystem, so “linguistic sustainability� accepts multilingualism and cross-communication among groups and persons yet still encourages for continuation and full development of human linguistic groups.
8
LI N GUI $ I STC IN ECONOMY How language affects the economy.
9
Linguistics sustainability in economics.
L
anguage has a big effect on economy; language and economy are factors that go hand in hand. There are various links between language and economy, however these two cannotbe merged to form a single theory. Marschak (see more Economics of Language, Behavioral Science, 1965, 10, 135-140) was the first few to question on why the use of language changes, why are some languages better preserved than others, and what exactly does effectiveness of language mean. To him, language was something people choose in order to achieveing certain goals. He then linked that idea into economic decisions of the individual where choices are made to benefit individuals so only the best choice is made in a moment. In a setting where different races co-exist, the link between economics and language process, at both large scale and small scale, is shown in the mutual acceptance or non-acceptance of different language groups.
In considering language and economy it is necessary to take into account the course of interaction between them in both axis (positive and negative) to individuals in society. Economic factors influence the ethno-linguistic vitality of communities, and also help to promote minority languages. In some multicultural environment the effects of economic processes are linked to the circumstance of a minority, especially if the idea of bilingualism as a value is only adopted at national or local levels and not at wider international levels. When a language is linked to economy, it creates commercial potential and hence making it necessary to consider if various social and personal lines of force will influence the thinking of whether or not a language is capitalised on. Due to the need of knowing a language in order to communicate, people will start to change their behaviour and start placing importance in language and cultural diversity. This in turn contributes to the prevention of xenophobia and prejudice.
Economy in the widest meaning indirectly and directly influences many different language processes. It may influence a loss of language, maintenance of language, and even different language adaptation strategies. Language encompasses both individual and society aspects, and economy is a part of society. Language and culture are important factors that influence the economic growth of a society or an individual; it acts as an indicator of satisfaction of an individual, and has the ability to affect the quality of life of an individual. Hence in a multicultural society, language planning and policies aid to direct the society in social an economical sense. Being in a multilingual world has brought about new, different scenarios. Now speaking a language cannot solely be based on the choice of an individual, but also the obligations of society to accept the possibility of communicating through another language.
10
HOW USEFUL I ARE n almost all EU countries, all secondary school pupils have to study at least one modern foreign language until the school leaving age. The exceptions are Italy, the Republic of Ireland and the UK. In some countries, more than one language is compulsory. Sometimes pupils have to start learning a language at primary
FOREIGN
LANGUAGES IN THE ECON OMY?
school. Foreign languages are less often compulsory in English-speaking countries. This is probably because English is widely understood worldwide. This means that people who speak English often think they don’t need to bother learning other languages.
In the UK (except Scotland), the government makes pupils learn a foreign language between the ages of 11 and 14. They do not need to study a language after this, but they must attend school until they are 16. In Scotland, the government does not make pupils study a foreign language.
11
Linguistics sustainability in economics.
The proposition must define this debate especially clearly. What age would pupils have to start learning a language? For how long? If they stay at school after the minimum leaving age, do they need to carry on learning a language? Do they have a choice about which language(s) to study? Would they have to take exams in the language?
Youth’s answers: Foreign languages are important for the economy. The more languages someone can speak, the more places they can work. Foreign language skills help companies do business with other countries. It is especially important that children whose native language is not widely spoken (e.g. Dutch, Danish) learn other languages. However, it is also important for English-speakers to learn foreign languages, since not everyone speaks English. And it is polite to be able to speak some of another person’s language. Governments should try to promote economic growth. Since languages are important for the economy, governments should make all young people learn them. Other skills are more important to the economy. Many young people are hardly able to do simple sums or read and write in their own language. More time should be spent on these basic skills, not foreign languages. Not all workers need to know foreign languages. There is therefore no point in making everyone learn them
+ – 12
THE ISSUE In the present increase multicultural and global society, there are more chances of interaction between economy and language. People understand that Globalization results in the close connection influencing geographic, cultural and social diversity to distant, losing the original meaning. This can be obviously seen through the sphere of economy where capital is the main factor.
13
Linguistics sustainability in economics.
knowledge of “The language is not merely academic values‌
Multilingualism and multiculturalism are two main keys to successful cooperation, which are closely linked to the labour market and the common European market, which call the shots and dictates the free flow of capital, goods and labour. In this concept, language plays a specific role where as the importance of language and culture in society changes, a new dimension is adapted. The knowledge of language is not merely academic values, but it encompasses other disciplines too. Many socio-economic factors have impacted changes in the definition of the knowledge of one or two more languages. Hence language is no longer only to be considered within the concept of one discipline, but is to be considered in an interdisciplinary manner.
14
ETHNO LIN GUIS TICS 15
Ethnolinguistics.
culture & language E
thno linguistics are also commonly known as cultural linguistics. It is a field of linguistics that studies the link between language and culture, and also the way different ethnic groups perceive the world. As its name suggests, ethno-linguistics is the combination of Ethnology and Linguistics, Ethnology simply means the way of life of an entire community; it covers topics such as all the characteristics which differentiates one community from the other. Ethno-linguists study the way perception and conceptualization influences language, and show how this is linked to different cultures and societies. An example is the way spatial orientation is expressed in various cultures. In many societies, words for the cardinal directions East and West are derived from terms for sunrise/sunset. The nomenclature for cardinal directions of Eskimo speakers of Greenland, however, is based on geographical landmarks such as the river system and one’s position on the coast. Similarly, the Yurok lack the idea of cardinal directions; they orient themselves with respect to their principal geographic feature, the Klamath River.
16
CUL T TURE
&
LANG UAGE
he relationship between language and culture is as old as mankind. Through the centuries, people and their living practices have evolved, resulting in wide-reaching changes in societal culture. This in turn, has influenced language to be what it is today. Language is a form of expression or communication between humans. Simply putting it, spoken and written communication with pre-set meanings for each word written or uttered is what we refer to as language. Culture, on the other hand, is defined by the activities of people, sometimes governed by a geographical boundary. Every culture is unique in itself. It includes language, art, music, mannerisms, religion, games, dress, rituals, law and belief. Man started to communicate with his few kinsmen through symbols. Mutually understood grunts became spoken communication. Population started to thrive. Groups of people separated and changed. The concept of race was established and thus began the rich diversity of cultures. Large groups were classified into families and each family was then broken down to sub-families and the world
17
as it stands today, is an amalgam of all of them. Comparative linguists try to pin the origin of a language to its common ancestor. Since cultures themselves have undergone centuries of transition, it’s only natural that languages too would have evolved and changed the same way. Researchers have broadly classified the world of language into three families; European and Asian, Pacific and African, and American Indian. Each of the above families has had its own cultural traits. The peculiarity of each family shaped the way the language was spoken and understood amongst them. Every minuscule tribe had their own phonetic. Grammar, the order of words, the use of vowels, consonants and the tonal accent too varied between tribes and groups. Thus, different languages from the same region had a lot of similarities, but when examined closely, had an identity of their own. These distinctions helped evolve the respective language over centuries. Social traits, which are culture dependent, also influenced language in the way different genders or classes within the same tribe or race spoke to one another. Trade jargons were established in multilingual regions.
Ethnolinguistics.
Over time, languages borrowed sounds, grammar and vocabulary from one another. This doesn’t necessarily mean they originated from the same region. Point in case, the striking derivatives in English taken from Sanskrit and European languages that made use of American Indians’. Independently, languages like English were standardized, but the way the language is spoken in different parts of the world is a reflection of the effect culture has on it. Trousers in Britain and pants in America mean the same but sound nowhere near alike, courtesy the respective cultures. Having evolved from a common protolanguage, it’s only fair to say that there are more similarities between languages today than differences. Culture enriches language, affecting dialect, grammar and literature, to name a few. As more and more people mingle, the world is literally becoming one. As a result, different languages from their respective cultures help to understand and appreciate the evolution of the world and its people as it is today, for when man started out, language was solely meant to be the means that bridged the gap between him and his fellowmen.
“
Trousers in Britain and pants in America mean the same but sound nowhere near alike, courtesy the respective cultures.
18
DIALECT OR LANGUAGE?
19
Dialect & Language.
I
n every language community, there are some groups that have a certain way of talking that differentiates them from others. Those differences are thought of ass dialects. Dialects not only encompass the accent, but also grammar, vocabulary, syntax and common expressions. Groups that are isolated regionally or socially tend to develop a characteristic dialect. So what exactly is the difference between a dialect and a language? The baseline is that it has no universally accepted criteria for differentiating them, and the difference is often degree rather than of kind. The Dictionary of Linguistics defines dialect as a variety of a language used by people from a particular geographic area. Some linguists do not differentiate between languages and dialects, i.e. languages are dialects and vice versa. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user’s frame of reference. Note also that the terms are not by themselves mutually exclusive; there is by itself nothing contradictory in the statement that “the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German�. However, the term dialect always implies a relation between languages: if language X is called a dialect, this implies that the speaker considers X a dialect of some other language Y, which then usually is some standard language. For example, people in Hong kong might associate Cantonese as a language because it is mainly spoken, however in Singapore Cantonese is considered a dialect because they see it as a dialect of Chinese.
20
S
IN
新加坡
21
PORE GCASE STUDY 22
6912
living languages in the world
OF WHICH
516 nearly extinct
Malay Tamil English
Mandarin
5 main dialects
singapore
has 4 main languages
23
海 福 潮 廣 客 南 建 州 東 家
Others
3,199 households of Hainanese & other minority Chinese dialect groups 17,015 Hokkien households in Singapore 115,107 people using Teochew in Singapore. 136,753 people using Cantonese in Singapore. 3,199 households of Hakka & other minority Chinese dialect groups in Singapore
24
4
SINGA’S
I
LANGUAGES
n Singapore there are four official languages: English, Chinese (Mandarin), Malay, and Tamil. These languages together with the other variety of other languages, shows Singapore’s multiracial, multicultural, and multilingual character. In 2009 alone, there were more than 20 languages identified as being spoken in Singapore. Our history of being a trading settlement in colonial times, and now the prominent cosmopolitan center of trade and services, has attracted foreigners from all around the globe. Traders from all over the world brought their languages that greatly influenced the languages in Singapore.
In the early years, the main language spoken was Melayu Pasar (Bazaar Malay), which was a mixture of Malay and Chinese, the language of trade in the Malay Archipelago. It is still used by many on the island, especially Singaporean Malays. However in this day and age, English has replaced Malay as the main language used in Singapore. This is due to the British rule of Singapore, and still carries on to be the main language upon Singapore’s independence. In the early years, English was introduced to unite the races which each had their own languages, in current age it remains
25
as the primary language of academic education. Hokkien slowly emerged as a common language among Chinese, but by the late twentieth century, Mandarin replaced it. The Singapore government promotes Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese, as it seemed to be a link bridge between the non-mandarin speaking groups and as a tool for creating a common Chinese cultural identity. China’s economic rise in the 21st century has also encouraged a greater use of Mandarin. On the other hand, other non-Mandarin Chinese languages such as Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka, Hainanese and Cantonese have been classified as dialects. Singapore government
language policies and changes in language attitudes based on such classification have led to the decrease in number of speakers of these languages. Tamil is the predominant Indian language in use, however many other dialects are found. Unlike the smaller Malay and Chinese dialects, Indian dialects can be used in schools and other situations.The loss of the dialects has been even more prominent, as many are now banned from usage on mass media and may only be spoken by the elderly.
26
ć–š S
ingapore has categorized other Chinese languages as dialects, such as, Hokkien, Teow chew, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese. Among all the dialects, Hokkien has been use as a language of business till the 1980s. It is commonly used as the common language aomg Chinese, Malay, and Indian Singaporeans. It is commonly spoken as the main language among the Chinese community in Singapore. It has been designated as the mother tongue for Chinese Singaporeans. Chinese language grew in number during the birtish colony in 1920s when it was increasingly used in schools as the teaching language. Chinese was heavily promoted with the Speak Mandarin Campaign in 1979. It was given a reason that
28
言 Dialects in Singapore.
Chinese language is used to unify the Chinese community with a single language. Chinese language has been increasingly prominent in Singapore and today it is generally seen as a way to maintain a link to Chinese culture.
28
�坺 HOK
The first speakers of this language in Singapore were among the migrants who came to Singapore from the southern provinces of China such as Fujian. The language itself originated in Quanzhou and Zhangzhou in China. Hokkien is now spoken in parts of Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. There are 17,015 Hokkien households in Singapore as of 2005. People with Hokkien heritage make up the largest group within the Chinese community in Singapore.
29
KIEN
潎 Dialects in Singapore.
21% of the Chinese population in Singapore are of Teochew heritage as of 2000. They were migrants who came to Singapore and they originate from the eastern provinces of China such as Chao Zhou, Shan Tou and Jie yang As of 2005, there are 115,107 people using Teochew as their home language in Singapore.
TIO
CHIEW31
澡
HAI
ĺ?— NAM
31
The Hainanese community makes up 6.7% of the Chinese population in Singapore as of 2000. The Hainanese migrated from the Hainan province in China, mostly from the northeastern part of the province. As of 2005, there are 3,199 households of Hainanese and other minority Chinese dialect groups in Singapore. As the number of Hainanese speakers is generally small in Singapore, the actual number of speakers is part of the 43,343 people who speak the minority Chinese languages in Singapore.
хов хо╢ Dialects in Singapore.
HAK
The Hakka people in Singapore consist of 7.9% of the Chinese population in Singapore as of 2000. They originated from the Hakka speaking regions of the North-eastern part of Guangdong. As of 2005, there are 3,199 households of Hakka and other minority Chinese dialect groups in Singapore
KA
坣 �
GONG
DONG Cantonese speakers in Singapore make up 15.4% of the Chinese population in Singapore as of 2000. Most of these migrated to Singapore from the southern region of the Guangdong province in China. Cantonese speakers make up one of the larger groups of the Chinese people in Singapore with 136,753 speakers using it as their home language.
33
Dialects in Singapore.
BILINGUALISM MULTILINGUALISM Most Chinese Singaporeans know more than one language. For instance, most Chinese Singaporeans can speak English and their mother tongue, Mandarin Chinese. Some, especially the older generation, knows other Chinese dialects such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka and/ or Hainanese. While the Singapore government states that bilingualism in English and Mandarin is increasing, in reality, multilingualism is in decline.
34
方 死
言
WHY ARE DIALECTS DYING? 35
言
Dialect preservation issues.
1979 Speak Good Mandarin Campaign’s Slogan
多 講 華 語 , 少 說 方 言
N
on-Mandarin Chinese languages (classified as dialects by the Singapore government) have been in steep decline since the independence of Singapore in 1965. This is in part due to the Speak Mandarin Campaign that was launched in 1979. As part of the campaign, all dialect programmes on TV and radio were stopped. Speeches in Hokkien by the prime minister were discontinued to prevent giving conflicting signals to the people. By the late 1980s, Mandarin managed to some extent, to replace dialects as the preferred languages for communication in public places such as restaurants and public transport.
The preservation of dialects in Singapore has been of increasing concern amongst the Chinese community in Singapore since the 2000s. This has arisen largely due to a steep decline in their use of as a home language. Most Chinese Singaporeans under the age of 40 have a working knowledge of both English and Mandarin but not any of the other Chinese languages spoken in Singapore. However, the vast majority of older Chinese Singaporeans can only speak in the other Chinese languages and have little or no proficiency in Mandarin Chinese. Because of this a language barrier is formed between them and their grandparents. Chinese culture and dialect preservationists in Singapore worry that the declining use of dialects might lead to the eventual death of dialects in Singapore.
36
STU TO ADVOCATE
2009 I Comment by Mr Chee Hong Tat
37
n March 2009, a newspaper article was published in Singapore broadsheet daily The Straits Times on a Language and Diversity Symposium organised by the Division of Linguistics and Multilingual Studies at Nanyang Technological University. Dr Ng Bee Chin, Acting Head of the Division, was quoted in the article
as saying, “Although Singaporeans are still multilingual, 40 years ago, we were even more multilingual. Young children are not speaking some of these languages at all any more. All it takes is one generation for a language to die.� This prompted a reply from Mr Chee Hong Tat, the Principal Private Secretary of Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew.In a letter to the editor in the Straits Times Forum, he underlined the importance of English and Mandarin
Dialect preservation issues.
PID LEARNING DIALECTS?
over dialects and how using dialects “interferes with the learning of Mandarin and English’; a statement that Mr Lee Kuan Yew later corroborated in a speech at the 30th anniversary of the Speak Mandarin Campaign. Referring to the progress of Singapore’s bilingual education policy over the decades, Mr Chee Hong Tat also commented that “it would be stupid for any Singapore agency or NTU to advocate the learning of dialects, which must be at the expense of English and Mandarin.”
The use of the word ‘stupid’ in Mr Chee Hong Tat’s letter offended many Singaporeans, some of whom were speakers of the said dialects. Online response was mostly negative, with Singaporeans criticising him as being “narrow-minded and shortsighted” and “insensitive” in a furore of blog posts and forum replies.
All it takes is one generation for a language to die…
38
RETURN OF THE REPRESSED
Dialects make a come-back
39
重來
Come-back of dialects in Singapore
RENEWED INTEREST
S
ince 2000, the Singapore government appears to have relaxed its stance towards dialects. In 2002, clans associations such as Hainanese Association of Singapore (Kheng Chiu Hwee Kuan) and Teochew Poit Ip Huay Kuan started classes to teach dialects. This was in response to an increased desire among Singaporeans to reconnect with their Chinese heritage and culture through learning dialects.
Furthermore, in 2007, a group of 140 students from Primary 3 to 6 from Paya Lebar Methodist Girls’ Primary School students learnt Hokkien and Cantonese as an effort to communicate better with the elderly. The elderly themselves taught the students the languages. The programme was organised in the hope of bridging the generational gap that was formed due to the suppression of these dialects in Singapore.
Likewise, third year students from Dunman High can now take a module called “Pop Song Culture”. This module lets them learn about pop culture in different dialect groups through dialect pop songs from the 70s and 80s. Besides this, students can also take an elective on different flavours and food cultures from various dialect groups.
THE MEDIA
I
n the recent years, Singaporean film makers have been incorporating dialects into their films. In the movie “Singapore Gaga” a tissue seller sings a Hokkien song and “Perth” features a Singaporean taxi driver using Hokkien and Cantonese. Local directors have commented that dialects are vital as there are some expressions which just cannot be put across in Mandarin Chinese, and that dialects are an important part of Singapore that adds a sense of realness that locals will enjoy. The local movie 881 revived the popularity of getai after it was released. Getai, mainly conducted in Hokkien and Teochew became more popular with the younger generations since the release of the movie. On the impact of the release of the movie 881, Professor Chua Beng Huat, Head of the Department of Sociology in the National University of Singapore (NUS), commented in the Straits Times that “’’putting Hokkien on the silver screen gives Hokkien a kind of rebellious effect. It’s like the return of the repressed.” The album sales of 881 movie soundtrack was the first local film soundtrack to hit platinum in Singapore.
Putting Hokkien on the silver screen gives Hokkien a kind of rebellious effect. It’s like the return of the repressed…
40
Keep it alive, dont let the dialects die. Learn about your dialect’s history and heritage. 41
Teach it to the next generation. Remember:
a language lost, is also a culture lost. 42
BIBLIO GRAPHY Sustainability, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability Sustianability, http://www.ecoling.net/Sustainability.pdf Culture sustainability, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5NiTN0chj0 Economics and linguistics, http://www2.arnes.si/~ljinv16/tp_SNL_a.htm Foreign language debate, http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/ Debate:_Compulsory_foreign_languages_in_school Language and culture, http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/ articles/15463.aspx Entholimguistics, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnolinguistics Singapore languages. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore