Streetwise ———— Sarah Philomena Catherine Topley B2001519 BA Architectural Studies 2015 Newcastle University
1
Contents ———— Acknowledgements
3
Research Question
5
Introduction
7
Circulation and Movement
13
Moving Through the City Pedestrianism
19
Multimodality
23
Parking
29
Necessary Functional Activities
33
Integration Multifunctionality
39
More Room Outdoors
43
Optional Recreational Activities
49
Place Potential External Stimulation
55
Temporary Venues
59
Social Activities
63
Community Cohesion People Places
67
Blur the Boundaries
73
Sociable Seating
77
Conclusions
83
Bibliography
85 2
Acknowledgements ———— I express my warm thanks to Daniel Mallo and Armelle Tardiveau for their constructive criticism and guidance during this project. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to my family for their invaluable support, and my dogs for providing me with the all necessary distractions.
3
4
As designers of the urban environment, what are the design parameters that should be considered so that streets in dense European cities may function as destinations, rather than primarily spaces of circulation?
5
6
Introduction ———— “The desire to move ‘through’ a space must be balanced with the desire to go ‘to’ a place.”1 Described as the ‘corridors of our cities,’ streets are no longer recognised as places in their own right, rather they have succumbed spaces
to
the
provided
considered
by
supremacy by
the
designers
of
vehicles.2
street as
are
left
over
Generally
taken pieces
for
outdoor
granted
of
and
development.
Thus, whilst it is important to provide circulation, for streets to function effectively as destinations they should accommodate more place sensitive transport methods and overtly facilitate all
the
daily
interactions
of
citizenry.
This
approach
will
create inhabitable spaces that encourage society to stand still and appreciate what the street is offering. To determine a coherent and usable set of design parameters, this explorative study primarily investigates the urban design theories related to ‘Streets as Places,’ in comparison to post World
War
One
modernist
theories
which
declare
streets
as
inappropriate spaces for human activity. 1Pennsylvania
and New Jersey DOTs, Smart Transportation Guide(2008)via <http:// www.pps.org/blog/community-based-street-design/ 2Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 7
Danish
architect
Jan
Gehl
introduces
a
methodology
for
developing people dominant environments in his book Life Between Buildings as an alternative to the modernist status quo. Gehl recognises that although no two communities are the same, a street is still obliged to fulfil: necessary activities which are
compulsory
everyday
tasks
that
occur
regardless
of
the
setting; optional activities which are chosen depending on their value
to
the
environment;
individual and
and
social
the
quality
activities
of
which
the are
external generally
spontaneous as a result of people being present at the same time when
engaging
parameters
are
in
necessary
within
the
and
optional
designersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
activities.3
jurisdiction,
These
however,
factors such as climate, typography or heritage are beyond their control and thus will not be discussed. Each of the following chapters in this study examines the large scale
design
challenges
through
to
the
micro
detail
opportunities which urban planners should consider:
3Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 8
Circulation and Movement considers how the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s infrastructure influences pedestrian and multimodal movement through the city, as well as accommodating stationary vehicles. In doing so, this paper
begins
to
establish
more
people
dominated
design
parameters so that public life and transport networks to exist side by side. Necessary Functional Activities examines the ways in which a compact, integrated city structure uses multifunctional spaces that merge internal and external boundaries in order to benefit the daily user, prompting
them to use the street rather than
large complexes. Optional
Recreational
Activities
celebrates
a
streetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
place potential and examines how planners incorporate activities within the street environment, both permanent and temporary to encourage people to linger in their surroundings. Social Activities looks at the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity as a whole; blurring the boundaries between the public and private realm; and how street venues for social interaction intensify community relationships. This detailed visual analysis of everyday street settings describes the characteristics of dense European streets today and critically evaluates their future potential as places.4 4European
Union, Cities of Tomorrow: Challenges, visions, ways forward (European Union Regional Policy, 2011) 9
10
1 ———— Circulation and Movement Moving Through the City The general opinion of streets is that they are spaces primarily
for
the
circulation
of
vehicles.5
This
common
misconception arises because, since the first world war streets are generally designed to sustain the technical necessities of the
motorcar
as
safe
thoroughfares
and
be
cost
effectively
maintained.6 Urban designers should consider a variety of ways to enable travellers to navigate easily through urban spaces, thus improving the quality and efficiency of the journey. A
road
hierarchy
categorise
roads
framework according
is to
used their
in
city
primary
planning function
to and
capacity. This controls the distribution of traffic and ensures roads are utilised appropriately.7 There are four different road types: an Arterial Road is a high capacity urban road that connects major destinations without merging intersections; 5Nan
Ellin, Postmodern Urbanism (Blackwells, 1996)
6Leicester
County Council, Design Guide: Materials and Construction (2013) http:// www.leics.gov.uk/index/6csdg/highway_req_development_part4.htm 7Ray
E. Brindle, Road hierarchy and functional classification (ARRB Victoria: Transport Research Ltd, 1996) 11
a Sub Arterial Road joins the surrounding street network to arterials; Collectors control the movement of traffic within a specific
area;
and
Environmental
Cells
are
slow
speed
local
streets.8 The point in the framework where these different road types meet to form an intersection is identified as a Node, by A Pattern
Language
authors
Alexander
Ishikawa
et
al.
It
is
important that facilities concentrated around each Node work simultaneously and pedestrian movement interconnects them.9 This creates
a
‘physically
permeable’
environment
that
permits
a
choice of routes through the city’s urban fabric.10
8Tony
Eppell and others, A Four Level Road Hierarchy For Network Planning and Management (Proceedings 20th ARRB Conference, 2001) 9Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 10Matthew
Carmona, Tim Heath, Oc Taner and Steve Tiesdell, Public Spaces Urban Spaces (Architectural Press, 2003) 12
Cinque Terre Italy Whilst a landscape of large intermittent buildings or coarse urban grain is functional for long distance commuters; large blocks of building development and uninterrupted straight roads present the city with few opportunities for interconnecting. Alternatively, the plan of Barcelona Spain illustrates the fine urban
grain
of
a
medieval
city.
According
to
architecture
historians Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch a dense structure of narrow streets, small scale buildings and frequent interchanges force traffic to disperse at a slower speed.11
11Hazel
Conway and Rowan Roenisch, Understanding Architecture: An Introduction to Architecture and Architecture History (Routledge, 1994) 13
Tynemouth Newcastle, England
14
Similarly,
visual
permeability
creates
gentle
transitions
between different pockets of urban activity, as people begin to see routes emerge through the cityscape. A wide, straight and well lit road is acclaimed by modernists as an efficient means of transporting cars from point A to B.12 Understandably, when a destination is in sight most commuters favour
quick,
suggests
direct
planners
routes
conceal
that
the
bypass
journey’s
obstructions. end
and
divide
Gehl the
street into contrasting spaces so that the route is ‘perceived in
stages’.
This
has
a
‘psychological
effect
of
making
the
walking distances seem shorter’ and more achievable, as people concentrate primarily on their changing surroundings and not the length of the journey. To achieve a strong sense of movement within a city, planners should
intensify
the
‘spacial
variations’
between
different
urban spaces.13 Gehl believes that ‘the quality of experiencing a large space is greatly enriched when the approach occurs through a small space.’14 This is because there is a dramatic change in perspective
and
light
when
experiencing
the
atmospheric
qualities and ‘nearness of detail’ of a small intimate space, to appreciating the scale of the whole streetscape from afar. 12Nicholas
R. Fyte, Images of the Street: Planning Identity and Control of Public Space (Routledge, 1998) 13Gordon 14Jan
Cullen, The Concise Townscape (Architecture Press, 1961)
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 15
Treviso, Italy 16
The street system of Treviso Italy contrasts the local scale of Old Town with the surrounding urban network to create a diverse walkable route through the city that fluctuates between open and enclosed
spaces.15
Interestingly,
studies
find
people
prefer
defined openness to completely exposed or restricted spaces.16 Thus, Gehl suggests that columns or treelined areas partially dividing the wide span of the street successfully ‘demonstrates the value of small spaces within large.’17 To move through a space should be more than simply a means of reaching one’s destination, rather it should be a fulfilling and tangible experience that is remembered and not rushed.
15Laura
Vaughan, Ashley Dhanani and Sam Griffiths, Beyond the suburban high street cliché - A study of adaptation to change in London’s street network: 1880-2013 (University College London 2013) 16W.
Bruce Walsh, Kenneth H. Craik, Richard H. Price, Person-Environment Psychology: New Directions and Perspectives (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, 2000) 17Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 17
Cornigula Italy 18
Pedestrianism With investigations revealing one third of community land is used to service one hour of traffic congestion per day, there is strong argument for pedestrianism.18 By dictionary definition, a pedestrian zone is an area that has been ‘concerted for the use of pedestrians only’ and restricts all vehicular access.19 Walking
is
considered
a
‘necessary
act’
that
requires
a
sufficient area of space to function effectively. Studies show that pedestrianised streets measuring approximately ten metres wide accommodate one hundred people per minute, in comparison to the small capacity of pavements in automobile dominated cities which allocate the majority of the road space to cars.20 Since its birth in the 1950s the popularity of the pedestrian precinct has ebbed and flowed. Malmo Sweden owes much of its success and popularity because of its focus on the attractiveness of the pedestrian precinct. Since 1988, The Swedish Urban Environment Council about
has the
motivated design
of
numerous public
Scandinavian
spaces
cities
alongside
to
think
recreational
activities, markets and festivals.21 18Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
Reid H. Ewing and Keith Bartholomew, Pedestrian- and Transit-Oriented Design (Urban Land Institute, 2013) 19
20Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
21M
Karrholm, The Territorialisation of Pedestrian Precinct in Malmo (Symposion Stockholm and Stehag, 2003) 19
Venice Italy
With over 250,000 inhabitants Venice Italy is a refined example of walkable urbanism and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;a fascinating paradigm of the modern ideal cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.22 Venice is compact with a fine grain street fabric that respects the human dimension and walking speed. According to Gehl this car free, densely populated city intensifies the social structure, promoting greater visual and audible contact between people and resources.23
To ensure priority within cities
is given to the most suitable transport type, designers should reconfigure the layout of road networks to generate more people dominated spaces.24 Marcello Mamoli and others, Venice as Pedestrian City and Tourist Magnet Mass Events and Ordinary Life <https://upcommons.upc.edu/revistes/bitstream/2099/12359/1/C_91_3.pdf 22
23Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
24Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org 20
English architect and author of innovative post war Townscape manifestos
Gordan
environment
as
a
Cullen,
describes
‘boisterous
jungle
the
of
present
traffic’
urban
which
has
‘penetrated every crack and crevice of our cities.’25 In 1975 the A167 motorway was built to ‘feed the traffic in and out of the city
of
Newcastle
England’.26
This
car
orientated
design
threatens the sustainability of the surrounding landscape as fast moving vehicles
produce greater levels of noise and air
pollution. Pedestrians are inconvenienced by the steep crossover bridge because they are ‘reluctant to depart from simple horizontal traffic.’27 Ideally, high speed vehicles should be located away from the city centre via ring roads which link efficiently to alternative methods of transport. In a space dominated by people, Alexander states there is no reason
to
separate
indoor
and
outdoor
activities
when
dirt,
noise and air pollution are reduced due to the absence of cars.28 Although, it must be considered that some activities and people depend significantly on alternative transportation methods.
25Gordon
Cullen, The Concise Townscape (Architecture Press, 1961)
26http://www.pathetic.org.uk/current/a167m/ 27Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 28
21
Amsterdam Holland
22
Multimodality An acceptable alternative to pedestrianised street systems would be a multi-modal public domain that ensures easy access into the city for all modes of transport: automobile, walking, cycling or public transit.29 For a street to function successfully as a destination it is important that public life and transport stimulate each other so that they can ‘exist side by side’.30 Integrated multi-modalism is seamlessly connecting these different modes within a city so that
they
other.31
function
According
simultaneously to
Delft
and
University
without
impeding
Planning
and
the
Design
Transport Network Professor Rob Van Nes, to achieve efficient multi-modalism, travellers should be ‘aware of the possibilities to
change
modes’
and
differentiate
between
short
and
long
distance journeys.32 This encourages people to choose the most appropriate speed and method of transport for the purpose of their journey.
29Vukan
R. Vuchic, Transportation for Liveable Cities (Rutgers Centre for Urban Policy Research, 1999) 30Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
31Akshay
Mani, On the move: The future of multimodal integration (2014) <http:// thecityfix.com/blog/on-the-move-future-multimodal-integration-akshay-mani/ 32Rob
Van Nes, Design of Multimodal Transport Networks: A Hierarchical Approach: 5 (Delft University Press, 2002) 23
Newcastle England 24
Uni-modal cities which focus on the mobility of single modes and segregate different road systems are widely considered as space consuming and dull. Statistics show that generally dense cities are over populated with vehicles: for every kilometre of road in Great Britain 673 billion people are car passengers, which in comparison high.33
to
Public
the
four
transport
billion
cyclists
services
reduce
entering the city, thus preventing roadside
accidents. 34
organisation
Project
for
extraordinarily
the
number
of
cars
congestion, pollution and
Planning, Public
is
design
Spaces
and
claim
educational
that
promoting
different modes of city transit will drive people away from privatised transport methods and into the public domain. This will
intensify
the
streetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
social
spaces
and
increase
the
number of informal meeting opportunities whilst travelling.35 The Dutch traffic engineer and road safety expert Hans Monderman redesigned the layout of local transport systems to benefit all road
users
in
the
Netherlands.
Monderman
believes
it
is
unrealistic in the twenty first century to outlaw motorists and instead advocates courteous and socially responsible behaviour that is influenced by an environmental context.36
33Road
Users Alliance Limited (2013)<http://www.roadusers.org.uk/road-user-data/
34Federal
Transit Association, Building a Sustainable Workforce in the Public Transportation Industry (National Academy of Science, 2013) 35Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
36Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org/reference/hans-monderman/ 25
Amsterdam Holland
26
Traffic
controls
override
human
interaction
and
discourage
attentive driving as many road users ignore their surroundings and concentrate primarily on electronic signals. Statistics show that the most frequent cause of road casualties in Great Britain is from someone failing to look properly.37 Hence, Monderman suggests that these regulatory controls are removed to encourage a safer and more vigilant driving style with frequent gestural negotiations and eye contact.38 If the height difference between the road and pavement was reduced, there would no longer be a physical
barrier
to
‘separate
and
protect
people
from
the
vehicles.’39 This concept of Shared Space is used in Amsterdam Holland as a demarcation device to enlarge the typically narrow transit space for pedestrians or bicycles and ensure equality amongst all road users. Similarly, Cullen urges designers to ‘revitalise
the
town
floor’
by
changing
the
floors
level,
materiality or design pattern.40 Raised cobbles or paving slabs force motorists to drive slowly in order to reduce the vehicles’ vibrations. A successful city plan establishes a new hierarchy of
transport
modes
that
forces
commuters
to
travel
at
an
appropriate speed and is equally accessible for pedestrians, cyclists, motorists or public transport systems. 37Steve
Merrifield and others, Improving Road Safety for Pedestrians and Cyclists in Great Britain (National Audit Office, 2009) 38Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org/reference/hans-monderman/
39Anastasia
Loukaitou-Sideris, Evelyn Blumenberg and Renia Ehrenfeucht, Sidewalk Democracy (Routledge, 2005) 40Gordon
Cullen, The Concise Townscape (Architecture Press, 1961) 27
Richmond Yorkshire England
28
Parking For many cities it is impossible for streets to feel like destinations,
because
they
function
as
the
car
parks
of
neighbouring buildings. Motorists will instinctively
attempt to park their vehicles as
close to their destination as they can, because city parking is conveniently encourages
located
planners
and to
readily
remove
available.41
the
stopping
Hence,
spaces
Gehl
located
directly outside local facilities and position them along nearby Sub Arterial streets. This will ensure the final ‘leg of the journey’ is walked, increasing the average length of time a person is present in public.42 Many European cities such as: Dubrovnik Croatia, Copenhagen Denmark or Cinque Terre Italy have successfully transformed their streets into pedestrianised zones by relocating car parking spaces around their central perimeter. However,
in
facilities
some
within
instances a
city
providing
centre
is
accessible
mandatory;
for
parking instance,
citizens with mobility disabilities usually require spaces which are
in
close
proximity
to
the
cities’
main
attractions.
Consequently in the United Kingdom, certified ‘blue badges’
41Eric
Jaffe, It's Amazing How Many More Commuters Would Drive Less if They Didn't Get Free Parking (2014) <http://www.citylab.com/commute/2014/08/its-amazing-how-many-morecommuters-would-drive-less-if-they-didnt-get-free-parking/375402/ 42Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 29
Verona Italy
30
entitle users to park in disabled spaces which are centrally located or along single and double yellow lines.43 Christopher Alexander’s A Pattern Language advocates that the area of public space utilised by parking, which equates to nine percent of land is ‘too great and destroys’ the surrounding urban environment.44 However, this is understandable because a parked car occupies a larger area than a stationary person. Hence,
in
order
to
reduce
the
length
of
necessary
parking
aisles, street parking might be positioned at 30, 40 or 60 degree
angles
to
the
kerbside
rather
than
parallel.45
This
reduces the number of parking aisles and increases street space for alternative uses. Dense cities throughout Europe use parking metres to control the length of time a vehicle is parked in a single
space
during
peak
hours.
Although,
Verona
Italy
successfully uses time restrictions to determine how the street is used by different transport modes throughout the day. City planners should encourage motorists to participate in car share schemes or use park and ride initiatives, thus reducing the volume of traffic and facilitating green recreational spaces as opposed to building car parks.
43AA
(2011) http://www.theaa.com/motoring_advice/overseas/blue-badge-users.html
44Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 45Kingdom
of Bahrain Ministry of Municipalities and Urban Planning Affairs, Guidelines For the Design of Off-Street Car Parking <http://websrv.municipality.gov.bh/ppd/doc/ study_carpark.pdf 31
32
2 ———— Necessary Functional Activities Integration Public facilities located within each micro region should be positioned consecutively along the street to create a single, self contained space that reduces the length of the route for the
pedestrian.46
This
will
emphasise
the
importance
of
the
strengthen
the
journey and intensify the overall place experience. To
improve
the
vitality
of
street
life
and
relationship between people and place, Gehl states that cities should
return
to
a
medieval
‘integration
orientated
city
structure’. For the purpose of this text integration is the process
of
intermixing
previously
separated
people
and
activities, so that they can ‘function side by side.’47 Most medieval cities in Europe evolved organically and were built by residents in response to a site’s local typography.48 46Baleshwar
Thakur, George Pomeroy and Chris Cusack, City, Society, and Planning (Ashok Kumar Mittal 2007) 47Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
48Matthew
Carmona, Tim Heath, Oc Taner and Steve Tiesdell, Public Spaces Urban Spaces (Architectural Press, 2003) 33
Amsterdam Holland
34
Urban
Sociologists
Nancy
Kleniewski
and
Alexander
Thomas
describe a medieval city as ‘terrain-hugging’ with small scale, densely
built
structures
that
respond
sensitively
to
human
dimensions.49 The historic old town of Prague Czech Republic fits this
template:
streets
it
radiating
is from
compact, the
banks
with of
winding the
River
pedestrianised Vltava.50
The
city’s spaces are ‘exceptionally well suited to urban outdoor activities with short, walkable distances between functions.51 Similarly, in Amsterdam Holland narrow plot widths maximise the number of shop frontages within a short distance. This increases the number of individually owned businesses and intensifies the quantity and quality of available amenities and people within a small area. This is also common in Danish streets, which limit their shop frontages to five metres.52 According to Public Spaces Urban Spaces author Matthew Carmona et al a well structured dense urban environment has a small grid pattern and a ‘fine urban grain.’ This increases the pedestrian’s choice of short and manageable routes through the city and relieves traffic from a city’s central road.53
49Nancy
Kleniewski and Alexander Thomas, Cities, Change and Conflict: A Political Economy of Urban Life (Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011) 50UNESCO
<http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/616/
51Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
52Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
53Matthew
Carmona, Tim Heath, Oc Taner and Steve Tiesdell, Public Spaces Urban Spaces (Architectural Press, 2003) 35
Conversely, functionalist designers such as the french precursor of modernist urban planning Tony Garnier, believes ‘segregated urban planning’ creates more efficient conditions for the home and workplace.54 Segregation is the dispersal of functions away from a central location, generating numerous car dependant and ‘overspecialised
environments’.55
In
their
book
Sidewalks,
Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris and Renia Ehrenfeucht disagree with modernist sector
designers
should
be
inappropriate
to
who
believe
‘rigidly
that
the
separated’
integrate
large
public
arguing
and it
businesses
private
would
be
alongside
residential buildings.56 Zoning is a land use planning technique used by nineteenth century designers to control the use, form and
compatibility
architect
and
modernist
ideal
of
design in
the
urban
planner
his
City
Le Plan
development.57 Corbusier of
Swiss-French
illustrates
Chandigarh
India
this which
organises the environment into controlled ‘sectors’ of activity that connect together with large, high speed roads.58 This strict separation of urban functions is believed to have improved the quality
and
safety
of
residential
areas,
by
carefully
54Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 55Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
56Anastasia
Loukaitou-Sideris and Renia Ehrenfeucht, Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation over Public Space (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009) 57Taner
Oc and Steven Tiesdell, Safer City Centres: Reviving the Public Realm (SAGE Publications, 1997) 58Maria
Thuroczy, City of Chandigarh (2014) <http://architectuul.com/architecture/cityof-chandigarh 36
controlling
the
distribution
of
people
within
a
city
and
ensuring they reach their journey’s end without distraction. Cities
influenced
by
‘single
use
zoning’
schemes
reject
diversity and promote hostile in-between spaces, as people are forced to travel long distances to and from work by vehicle. Gehl describes these mono-functional districts as ‘monotonous’ and dehumanising, and urges designers to position workspaces within the average walking radius of action: 400 to 500 metres.59 To achieve an efficient urban development that is ‘compact and uses only as much land as is necessary’ it is important to consider
multifunctional
uses,
so
that
streets
behave
like
places of inhabitation and more than just spaces for travel.
59Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 37
Nice France
38
Multifunctionality Great places are defined by their ability to accomplish many
things
in
one
place.60
This
reduces
the
distance
and
travelling time between amenities and encourages the area to stimulate and support neighbouring uses.61 According to urban activist Jane Jacobs, it is essential for streets to behave as multifunctional destinations that ‘serve more
than
one
commercial together
and
primary
function’.62
residential
vertically
or
Multi-use
facilities
horizontally
by
along
streets
combine
positioning
them
street.63
This
the
creates a single versatile space which can be used by a variety of people continuously throughout the day.64 Most mornings the wide footpaths of Cours Saleya Nice France host a fresh flower or produce market and on Sundays a thriving brocante. However, during
the
evenings
the
open
air
market
converts
into
an
additional outdoor seating area for neighbouring restaurants. According to Gehl, this increases the street’s overall level of activity and ‘adds value to the surrounding area.’ 60Project 61Jan
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
62Jane
Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning (Pelican Books, 1965) 63David
Vlahov and others, Urban Health: Global Perspectives (John Wiley and Sons, 2010)
64Jane
Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning (Pelican Books, 1965) 39
Nice France
40
Adrienne Schmitz and Deborah L. Brett evaluate the compatibility of
new
and
Analysis,
existing
stating
uses
it
is
in
their
sometimes
book
Real
Estate
inappropriate
to
Market
position
different functions in close proximity, such as: residential buildings
and
late
closing
entertainment
activities;
or
convenience stores and speciality delis which may compete for the
same
target
audience.65
Interestingly,
Gehl
believes
separating facilities engages with people at different times of the day and significantly increases the length of time different activities
and
people
are
present
in
public.66
Secondary
diversity is ‘a name for enterprises that grow in response to the presence of primary uses.’ For instance, families primarily visit the park for a day out in the fresh air; but, whilst there, they decide to have lunch in the cafe pavilion. If a secondary
diversity
is
successful
it
becomes
a
‘primary
use
itself’ and people will visit the park specifically for that function.67 Project for Public Spaces predict that the ‘more varied the uses, the more varied the audiences become.’68 Thus, self
perpetuating
with
the
space
streets that
provide
allows
them
communities to
grow
in
and
businesses
interest
and
diversity. 65Urban
Land Institute, Real Estate Market Analysis: Methods and Case Studies <http:// fyi.uwex.edu/downtown-market-analysis/putting-your-research-to-work/building-usage/ 66Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
67Jane
Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning (Pelican Books, 1965) 68Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org 41
Brugges Belgium
Soave Italy 42
More Room Outdoors To enable streets to function as destinations, buildings should consider sharing their ‘place status’ with the entrance area immediately outside. This benefits businesses because they gain direct visual contact with the passerby and thus accommodate more outdoor interaction. Building
facades
should
be
considered
as
valuable
‘exchange
zones’ between the build and the street.69 With this in mind, Project
for
Public
Spaces
encourages
‘ground
floor
uses
and
retail activities to spill out into the sidewalks and streets’ to blur the boundaries between internal and external functions.70 Gehl concurs businesses located on the main pedestrian route benefit
from
opportunities
to
‘flow
freely
outside’
as
this
promotes their products and attracts regular commuters.71 Within the
city
walls
of
Soave
Italy
pedestrian
movement
is
concentrated in the south near the city’s main entrance and where
the
two
main
roads
intersect.
The
space
is
flexible
because the shops around its perimeter use this enclosed area to extend their businesses. This results in a vibrant street life that
is
as
equally
entertaining
and
enjoyable
as
an
indoor
destination. 69Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
70Project 71Jan
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 43
Treviso Italy
44
Active edge uses inhibit the movement of cars and pedestrians by obstructing the motorist’s field of vision and presenting the passerby
with
more
increases
the
number
obstacles of
to
roadside
negotiate.72
This
accidents
people
as
possibly become
distracted by multitudinous activities along the street. Whilst blank facades are serviceable and unobtrusive they are often
considered
by
the
community
as
introvert
and
inhospitable.73 Depopulated roads have increased crime rates in comparison to streets with socially active spaces that encourage mutual protection between different indoor and outdoor users.74 Cullen
suggests
that
designers
concentrate
on
the
visual
interaction between the inside and outside of buildings ‘without forbidding minimum
the
passage’
there
should
be
of a
oncoming visual
traffic.75
interactions
At
the
between
very the
passerby, the facade and the character of the inside spaces.76 This
could
wallscapes:
be
achieved
by
introducing
simply glazed
examining
a
shopfronts,
street’s tasteful
advertisements and formally addressing builds’ main entrances.
72Ercoskun
Ozge Yalciner, Green and Ecological Technologies for Urban Planning (IGI Global, 2012) 73Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
74Ian
Colquhoun, Design Out Crime (Routledge, 2004)
75Gordon 76Project
Cullen, The Concise Townscape (Architecture Press, 1961) for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org 45
Le Treport France
Brugges Belgium
46
A successful street plan positions functions in a hierarchy of importance, according to the facilityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationship with the street. Businesses that welcome interaction: niche shops, cafes or restaurants should be allocated a front facade because they are unique and help define a local area. These active frontages are defined as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;street frontages where there is an active visual engagement between those in the street and those on the ground floors of buildings.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Interestingly, urban design consultants David Lock and associates state that secondary active frontages, such
as
stores, entrances
the
facades
should to
be
the
of
banks,
located
ground
on
floor.
offices the
and
levels
These
large
department
above
with
rear
demand
less
facilities
visual contact with the street, but, may require parking spaces and direct road access.77 This will create dual aspect streets with activity on both sides. To achieve a compact integrated city plan the ground floor of buildings
should
extend
outwards
creating
a
multifunctional
street that accommodates more than one primary function at any given
time.
This
reduces
the
overall
size
of
the
city
but
enlarges the impact.
77David
Lock Associates, An A-Z OF Urban Design Concepts <http://www.dlaaust.com/media/ an-a-z-of-urban-design-concepts-and-their-misuse/ 47
48
3 ———— Optional Recreational Activities Place Potential Project for Public Spaces claims streets have surrendered to cars for so long that they are no longer perceived as places; rather
they
are
described
as
‘dysfunctional,
uninviting
and
inaccessible’. Thus, communities are urged to recognise a road’s place potential and optimise these large and empty left over spaces.78 Environmental
physiologist
Jack
Nasar,
explores
the
human
perception of streetscapes in his book The Evaluative Image of the City. Nasar identifies five key attributes of user friendly environments, attractive,
namely receptive
that to
they
should
natural
be:
open,
environments,
visually logically
organised and well maintained.79 There are numerous spaces that have achieved their place potential in Paris France, such as: the Jardin Atlantique, a 1970’s renewal project used constantly by
Parisians
for
solitary
and
community
activities;
and
the
Place du Parvis de Notre Dame, an area of land surrounding the
78Jan 79Jack
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) Nasar, The Evaluative Image of the City (Sage Publications, 1998) 49
Venice Italy
50
cathedral that offers ‘little flourishes like small parks and gardens’. However, the roads that run parallel to the River Seine Paris France are considered fast moving and characterless. As a result, the public spaces created are inhospitable and ‘detract from what should be the city's chief asset’. Hence, for the
Seine
riverfront
to
become
a
destination
worth
visiting
rather than a thoroughfare, a large ‘boulevard effect’ side walk with leafy planting and intermittent seating would encourage pedestrians to take their time and enjoy the ambiance of the area.80 Despite being Europe’s ‘largest pedestrianised street network completely free of cars’, there are still a number of underused and
unoccupied
public
spaces
in
Venice
Italy
that
fail
to
achieve their place potential.81 Ken Worpole, one of Britain's most influential urbanist writers believes ‘focal points and landmarks
help
define
and
punctuate
space’.82
Hence,
it
is
understandable that the majority of Venice’s tourists gravitate towards
the
city’s
most
iconic
and
historically
significant
plazas: Piazza San Marco and Campo Santa Margherita.83
80Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
81http://www.newurbanism.org/pedestrian.html 82Ken
Worpole, Here Comes the Sun: Architecture and Public Space in Twentieth Century European Cities (Reaktion Books, 2000) 83Harvey
M. Rubenstein, Pedestrian Malls, Streetscapes, and Urban Spaces (John Wiley and Sons, 1992) 51
Venice Italy
52
These
spaces
are
notorious
for
being
densely
populated,
in
contrast to the sparsely populated local streets and alleyways which
surround
the
city’s
wider
perimeter.
Gehl
believes
optional activities are ‘influenced by the quality of outdoor space’
and
states
that
‘improved
physical
conditions
have
resulted in a lengthening of the average time spent outdoors.’ As opposed to some locations that only aim at ‘serve the tourism industry’,
communities
should
look
at
changing
the
streets’
primary function by transforming passageways into quality public spaces that respond to contemporary social needs.84 This might easily be achieved by maintaining what already exists to ‘make do and mend’, for example: preserving the green outdoor spaces within the district of Castello to benefit the local residents. Although, in some instances it may be necessary to make subtle alterations
to
the
streets’
layout,
such
as:
partitioning,
variations in level or controlled lighting. Of
course
improvements
require
physical
and
financial
neighbourhood participation, but the overall boost to the social wellbeing and quality of lifestyle would be greatly rewarding for the areas’ sense of place.
84UNESCO
<http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Venice/pdf/ rapporto3%20very%20high%20res.pdf 53
Bern Switzerland 54
External Stimulation For should
streets
engage
to
the
become
user
by
destinations offering
worth
visiting
something
to
do.
they Gehl
questions the accessibility of indoor facilities and proposes that
the
recreational
activities
‘inside
buildings
are
supplemented with usable outdoor areas.’ Outdoor facilities located within a city centre attract a wider audience if they are constantly visible, readily available and satisfy the users’ need for stimulation.85 In 1964, public access film
producer
George
Stoney
examined
the
quality
of
urban
environments in his documentary How to Live in a City. Stoney concludes a successful activity is ‘well placed, well designed and well used.’86 Bern Switzerland seamlessly integrates outdoor activities that are well suited to their urban environment into different streetscapes to attract regular users. For example, there are a total of five free, open air pools distributed throughout the city centre. The most popular Freibad Marzili is located on the banks of the River Aare and along the main route into
the
residential
city
Marzilistrasse.
buildings
and
The
benefits
site from
a
is
surrounded
constant
flow
by of
pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
85Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
86George
Stoney, FILM How to live in a city (The University Council on Education for Public Responsibility, 1964) 55
Bern Switzerland 56
The facilities are environmentally sustainable and have been designed to complement their natural surroundings, utilising a fresh water river source.87
Similarly, up stream a large tiered
Bear Park has been built within the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s banks. The site is enjoyed
by
residents
and
visitors
who
use
the
path
on
the
opposite side of the river for commuting daily to and from town.88 A short walk from the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s centre, a Volley Ball court optimises
the
space
below
the
MonbijoubrĂźcke
highway.
This
activity is unaffected by the noise of traffic and benefits from the shelter of the road above. These once abandoned spaces have been cleverly turned into venues that provide
the community
with more social and recreational opportunities, which are in popular demand.89 Some
people
activities
may
question
outside
controlled,
when
monitored
the
indoor
and
are
logic
for
facilities protected
positioning can from
public
be
carefully
the
weather.
However, Gehl believes that integrating stimulating activities within
the
urban
landscape
can
transform
disused
and
dysfunctional spaces into lively cities that promote interaction and positive experiences for people to take home with them. It is important to consider that some streets may not be equipped to accommodate additional activities.
87Bern
Council http://www.bern.com/en/activities/nature-sport/sport-fitness/swimmingpools
88http://www.baerenpark-bern.ch/index.php?id=info&L=0 89Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 57
Bourganeuf France
58
Temporary Venues An
acceptable
alternative
to
creating
permanent
destinations would be to encourage regular temporary venues, such
as:
street
markets,
parades
or
performances.
Anastasia
Loukaitou-Sideris and Renia Ehrenfeucht explain how short lived events persuade people to come together to ‘temporarily redefine the purpose of streets’.90 These events briefly claim ownership of public space by overriding the streets’ principle function of movement and disrupting the flow of traffic. Professor
of
Architecture
and
The
Ludic
City
author
Quentin
Stevens describes temporary venues as ‘ruptures’ and believes they are ‘publicly tolerated’ because they are ‘non threatening to the normal urban order’.91 This is because the pressures of permanence are removed when places can return to their original conditions. generally
Bourganeuf
offers
a
France quiet
is
and
a
city
relaxed
of
character
lifestyle
that
that
the
residents particularly appreciate. However, for one day a week the city is awoken with
visitors and activity. Residents use
their surrounding streetscape to stage a weekly market which offers
a
variety
of
local
produce
and
novelty
items
to
complement the weekly shop.
90Anastasia
Loukaitou-Sideris and Renia Ehrenfeucht, Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation over Public Space (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009) 91Quentin
2007)
Stevens, The Ludic City: Exploring the Potential of Public Spaces (Routledge, 59
Amsterdam Holland
60
The city is closed off to vehicles and only permits pedestrian access through the market. This is easily achieved because the space is enclosed by buildings on all four sides. Whilst some people might consider this an inconvenience; Loukaitou-Sideris and Ehrenfeucht believe these sporadic events ‘break the rhythms of
everyday
life’
participate.92
This
and
force
brings
people
people
to
stop,
together
observe
and
and
intensifies
community relationships, as people collectively enjoy the spaces in between their buildings. The Waterlooplein street bazaar in Amsterdam Holland was also programmed once a week, however, it is now held daily with the exception of Sunday. Each morning the 300 stall owners erect their displays and each evening they are taken
down
and
closed
away.
The
market
is
not
structurally
permanent, although, for many people it is considered as a city landmark.93 These temporary events staged periodically bring vigour and life to
areas
considered
of
towns
dull.
people-watcher
In
which the
William
H
might words Whyte,
otherwise
of
urbanist
‘streets
be
redundant
and
are
or
professional
not
spaces
to
escape, but places to partake’.94
92Anastasia
Loukaitou-Sideris and Renia Ehrenfeucht, Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation over Public Space (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009) 93Karla
Zimmerman and others, Lonely Planet Amsterdam (Lonely Planet, 2012)
94William
2001)
H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces (Project for Public Spaces, 61
62
4 ———— Social Activities Community Cohesion In comparison to privatised buildings, public space by law is
open
and
accessible
to
all
members
of
society.95
This
encourages people to meet on neutral ground as equal members of the community regardless of age, gender or nationality. Gehl describes the street as a ‘public living room’ where ‘people occupied with various activities’ utilise the street at the same time to facilitate their individual needs.96 It is important that a city is read as ‘a single entity’ and that streets passing through a place preserve the area’s local character
and
express
the
community’s
diverse
cultural
identities.97
95Anthony
M. Orum and Zachary P. Neal, Common Ground?: Readings and Reflections on Public Space (Routledge, 2009) 96Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
Iris Aravot, Narrative-Myth and Urban Design, Journal of Architectural Education Vol. 49, No. 2 (Taylor & Francis, 1984) 97
63
Brugges Belgium
64
To achieve a successful community based street system, streets within a specific locality should capitalise on the community’s assets
and
exhibit
them
throughout
the
area.98
This
could
include: artworks, speciality shops or festivals. The residents of Bruges Belgium host an annual carnival in the city’s centre, where young and old can enjoy the popular amusement of local talent and celebrate the city as theirs.99 Streets within a city of
such
identifiable
character
encourage
tourists
to
visit,
because they are ‘distinct from others’ and recognised by many as different.100 This safeguards a street’s sense of place and ensures them. 101
that Most
people
take
automobile
their
experience
dominated
of
streets
a
place
neglect
with human
participation and thus erode the city’s sense of community.
Lesley Bain, Barbara Gray and Dave Rodgers, Living Streets: Strategies for Crafting Public Space (John Wiley and Sons, 2012) 98
99Rough
Guides <http://www.roughguides.com/destinations/europe/belgium/festivals-events/
100Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 101Pennsylvania
and New Jersey DOTs, Smart Transportation Guide(2008)via <http:// www.pps.org/blog/community-based-street-design/ 65
Bern Switzerland
66
People Places Social interaction depends on the location and physical arrangement of public spaces within a city. Successful social spaces ‘depend on the constant presence of people’ and must remain visually and physically accessible to the passerby.102 Whyte describes the street as a ‘river of life where people come together’ and believes that chance meetings and conversations are most likely to develop along the main pedestrian flow.103 Thus, extending the pavement’s kerb towards the centre of the road
will
locations
increase in
relationships
the
between made
street’s
buildings.
within
the
capacity In
city
Gehl’s are
for
new
social
opinion,
social
usually
passive
and
superficial, however, the densely populated avenue of Barenplatz Bern Switzerland encourages strangers to interact at relatively high intensities, almost like friends. Barenplatz is designed to integrate large, weatherproof games within an external street environment
using
pavements
as
playing
boards
and
trees
for
shelter. This effective arrangement of space mimics that of a theatre: a stage for entertaining participants and benches which invite spectators to observe the activity.104 102John
1991)
Punter, Participation in the Design of Urban Spaces, Issue 200 (Landscape Design,
103William
2001) 104Jan
H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces (Project for Public Spaces,
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 67
It is not the intention of functionalist manifestos to exclude socialising; Tunnard,
rather
James
Modernist
Rose,
and
designers
Garrett
Eckbo
such
as:
consider
Christopher streets
as
inappropriate spaces for socialisation and thus replace them with privatised rear gardens and extensive grass or paved areas nearby.105
This
is
because
medical
advances
during
the
first
decades of the 1900’s formed the basis of twentieth century design, emphasising light, air and access to open spaces.106 The external Holland
public is
influenced
a by
space prime
surrounding example
modernist
of
Rotterdam a
Centraal
contemporary
intentions.
This
vast,
Station
urban
area
open
space
compliments its sleek, minimalist city context and relates to the
scale
despite
of
good
the
surrounding
intention
this
high new
rise public
buildings. landscape
However, remains
characterless and uninviting. The space is rarely used because it does little to retain one’s interest or support spontaneous interactions as people tend to ‘skirt around the edges’.107
105Sheila
Harvey, Ken Fieldhouse, The Cultured Landscape: Designing the Environment in the 21st Century (Taylor and Francis, 2005) 106Christopher
Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, A Pattern Language (Oxford University Press, 1977) 107Caroline
Holland and others, Social Interactions in Urban Public Places (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2007) 68
Amsterdam Holland Street
corners
are
considered
one
of
the
most
simplest
but
effective informal meeting points for ephemeral relationships.108 These
small,
densely
populated
areas
force
people
to
stop,
observe their surroundings and acknowledge those around them. Hence, The Federal Transit Administration encourages designers to increase a streetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total number of crosswalks to provide safer
opportunities
for
social
encounter
at
traffic
intersections.109 108Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
!109Federal Transit Administration, Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities, Part 16 (Transportation Research Board, 2012) 69
Nice France 70
Whilst it is important to enlarge the area of street allocated to pedestrians, it is sensible to restrict the width of lanes designated to cars to a social distance of 3.75 meters. This shorter distance will ‘intensify’ the quantity and quality of detail exchanged between people on either side of the road. According to Gehl lane reductions limit the level of background noise
to
60dB
which
improves
the
general
ambiance
for
communicating along the street.110 The Promenade du Paillion Nice France is a 1.2km long pedestrian urban park with an integrated tram network.111 This continuous ‘Line of Life’ is positioned between two main roads and runs through the centre of the city connecting all the existing access points to a communal public space.112 This innovative approach to conscious urban planning, functions
independently
and
without
daily
programming,
providing: an inhabitable sculpture exhibition; a water mirror fountain; and an external street space for the locals to come together throughout the year.
110Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
111Nice
Tourism< http://en.nicetourisme.com/news/promenade-du-paillon
112Gordon
Cullen, The Concise Townscape (Architecture Press, 1961) 71
Amsterdam Holland 72
Blur the Boundaries Encouraging residents to use outdoor spaces for activities they would usually carry out privately indoors will ‘strengthen the connection between people and place’ and boost the social experience people
of
walking
outside
conversations
along
the
increases, will
As
the
more
exchanges
and
as
acceptable,
develop
street.113
number
of
informal
commonplace
behaviour.114 A
communal
corridor
of
outdoor
social
spaces
with
gradual
transitions to each building will enable people of different generations and nationalities within the community to meet on neutral
grounds.115
perpendicular property’s
to
Residential the
entrance
main
housing
should
pedestrian
connects
directly
path, to
be
orientated
so the
that
the
street. 116
Additionally, plans should include a front yard with a
social
depth of 3.25 meters.117 To help identify outdoor space as a room, residents should demarcate their properties with a low picket fence or a seat wall measuring 55cm tall and define the
113Project 114Jan
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011)
115Caroline
Holland and others, Social Interactions in Urban Public Places (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2007) 116Dana
Hepler, Paul Wallach and Donald Hepler, Drafting and Design for Architecture & Construction (Cengage Learning, 2012) 117Jan
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 73
entrance invites
of
the
build
semi-informal
with
seating
facing
conversations
to
outwards.118
develop
This
across
the
properties boundaries without blocking or interrupting the flow of transit.119 Professor of Environmental Studies Gerrard Daly comments broadly on the street’s structural formation, which consists of clearly defined public, private, quasi-public and quasi-private areas; and discusses the ways in which ‘visible and
invisible
boundaries’
environment. 120 .
Holmside
are
used
Terrace
to
organise
Newcastle
the
England
urban is
a
versatile pedestrianised space between two rows of buildings. The residents perceive this area as an extension of their own gardens
and
a
communal
space
that
neighbours
are
all
collectively responsible for. There are no security cameras or gated entrances, instead each house has an unobstructed view of the street. This strong sense of safety encourages parents to allow their children to play with others within the confinements of the space created.
118Randall
Arendt and Elizabeth A. Brabec, Rural by design: maintaining small town character (Planners Press, American Planning Association, 1 Oct 1994) 119Department 120Gerrard
for Transport, Manual for Streets(Thomas Telford Publishing, 2007)
Daly, Homeless: Policies, Strategies and Lives on the Street (Routledge, 1996) 74
In the opinion of media activist and public film maker George Stoney,
â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;nobody
has
yet
designed
an
open
space
quite
so
universally used and appreciated as the Stoopâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.121 A Stoop is a flat, elevated platform that creates a semi-private entrance from the residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s private domain immediately to the street.122 It enables the user to feel at home whilst amongst others and involved but not directly. Interestingly, due to the absence of open space in Amsterdam Holland, residents are developing new outdoor However,
habits
to
service
considering
the
their
daily
chores
morphological
on
the
Stoop.
characteristics
of
Stoops: steps for seating or shelving; a back wall for leaning or
balancing;
a
flat
surface
for
congregating
and
most
importantly an outward projection for people watching across the street, this is understandable. However, it must be remembered that additional outdoor spaces do not replace existing rooms within the house; but, provide the user with greater opportunities for enjoying their street.
121George
Stoney, FILM How to live in a city (The University Council on Education for Public Responsibility, 1964) 122Jane
Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The Failure of Town Planning (Pelican Books, 1965) 75
Newcastle England
76
Sociable Seating Careful design and placement of seating allows users to participate in urban life without forcing them to be actively involved. Urban Design Regulations state that for every three metres of open public space there should be 30cm of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Primary Seatingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; provided. Primary Seating or Formal Seating are terms used to describe
objects
that
are
primarily
used
for
the
action
of
seating, such as: chairs or benches.123 In 2005, The Department for Transport formulated a design manual for streets stating that seating should be physically and socially comfortable and designed to accommodate all members of society. Suitable design features would include: a comfortable seat height of 450mm from the floor, sufficient back support and an arm rest at each end to assist those who experience difficulty standing.124 Ideally, street furniture should be lightweight, versatile and moveable. This enables the user to control their environment and allows personal choice of seating position.125
123Matthew
Carmona, Tim Heath, Oc Taner and Steve Tiesdell, Public Spaces Urban Spaces (Architectural Press, 2003) 124Department 125Vikas
for Transport, Manual for Streets(Thomas Telford Publishing, 2007)
Mehta, The Street: A Quintessential Social Public Space (Routledge, 2013) 77
Milan Italy 78
Seating should be located within a good quality micro climate that faces
an interesting view of the surrounding activity.
Whyte investigated the popularity of different seating positions and discovered a strong relationship between the orientation of the
sun
and
where
people
most
prefer
to
sit.
Furthermore,
designers should prioritise spaces that are protected from wind or
rain
behind
for
seating,
larger
example
of
England,
pieces
seating
which
such of
would
as:
street be
positions
between
building
furniture.126
Saint
sensible
Nicholas style
An
recesses
or
appropriate
Square
benches
Newcastle in
tight
clusters to enable citizens to communicate easily. Similarly, the Piazza della Scala Milan Italy benefits from large inward facing curved benches which invite people to comfortably sit amongst strangers. In comparison to isolated benches which are spaced
at
large
intervals,
Gehl
believes
reduced
social
distances improve the overall quality of the public environment and satisfy the citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs for encounter. Thus, the ratio of women to men inhabiting a space is a strong indication of the public
seating
locationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
success
because
woman
are
more
discerning about where they choose to sit.127
126William
2001) 127Jan
H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces (Project for Public Spaces,
Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (Island Press, 2011) 79
Rome Italy 80
It
is
important
transitional
to
zones
consider to
the
prevent
arrangement
the
of
obstruction
seating
of
on
in
coming
traffic.128 Inappropriate seating positions are uncomfortable for the
user
and
may
cause
accidents.
However,
some
densely
populated areas may struggle to find suitable street space to house Primary Seating when all the available space is utilised by movement. According to Whyte multipurpose street elements create new places for the passersby to pause and maximise the city’s
Sedibility:
‘a
measure
of
the
number
of
seating
opportunities offered by the street.’129 Secondary Seating or Landscape
Seating
are
objects
that
have
been
adapted
to
accommodate seating, but were ‘not specifically made for that purpose’ such as: stairways, low walls or posts.130 Rome Italy demonstrates how pedestrians are resourceful in discovering new ways
of
inhabiting
and
adapting
their
local
environment
to
accommodate their individual needs. Gehl suggests that seating conscious designers should aim to achieve
an
opportunities
entirely for
sit-able
sitting
exist
city; can
because
there
be
‘only stays
of
when any
duration.’
128London
Transport Guide< http://www.tfl.gov.uk/cdn/static/cms/documents/streetscapeguidance-2009-street-furniture-108.pdf John Luciano and others, Linking urban design to sustainability: formal indicators of social urban sustainability field research in Perth, Western Australia. ( Urban Design International, 2005) 129
130Jan
Gehl, Cities for People (Island Press, 2013) 81
82
Conclusions ———— This
paper
concentrates
less
on
a
city’s
built
public
spaces and more on the place conscious planning decisions that determine how the areas in between buildings should function as destinations.131 One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that: not only attractive streets from affluent areas have the potential to become places worth visiting; any thoughtful and well structured street system can offer positive holistic benefits and fulfilling experiences to the entire city populace. Designers should bear in mind that time and choice are precious commodities for everyone; an easily accessible infrastructure offering a variety of transportation modes will not only offer effortless manoeuvrability but, encourages greater pleasurable familiarity and ownership for one’s streets environment. In this modern day, every square metre of land in a densely populated
city
is
financially,
functionally
and
socially
accountable. Hence, to move through a space should be more than simply a means of transporting vehicles from point A to B, rather
streets
should
maximise
their
full
potential
and
131Ken
Worpole, Here Comes the Sun: Architecture and Public Space in Twentieth Century European Cities (Reaktion Books, 2000) 83
facilitate all the daily interactions of citizenry.132 This issue is of such vital importance that millions of pounds are spent redeveloping
city
centres
throughout
Europe.
Interestingly,
successful schemes are those which communicate from the top the idea of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Streets as Placesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; from government campaigns to urban designers, to architects and communities. From the initial concept brief the architect should consider the ways
in
which
the
proposed
build
will
impact
the
existing
streetscape. As well as enhance it physically and socially so that
the
wider
community
audience
will
benefit
from
its
interaction with the immediate street environment. Additionally, it is important for a designer to remember that these suggested design solutions are not replacing existing indoor spaces, but, providing people with greater opportunities to extend their life beyond the confinements of the build.
132Project
for Public Spaces (1975)<http://www.pps.org 84
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89