Guiana : British, Dutch, and French by Bibliothèque numérique Manioc / SCD Université Antilles

MANIOC.org Conseil général de la Guyane

THE

SOUTH

AMERICAN

SERIES

MANIOC.org Conseil général de la Guyane

THE

SOUTH

AMERICAN

SERIES.

Demy 8vo, Cloth. VOL.

I.—CHILE.

By G. F. S C O T T E L L I O T , M . A . , F . R . G . S . , NATURALIST

MID-AFRICA.”

Author of

“a

With an Introduction by

M A R T I N H U M E , a Map and 39 Illustrations. “An exhaustive and interesting account, not only of the turbulent history of this country, but of the present conditions and seeming prospects, . . . and the characters of the Chileno and English and German colonists there.”- Westminster Gazette. VOL. By C.

REGINALD

ANDKS

AND THE

MARTIN

II.—PERU.

ENOCK,

F.R.G.S.,

AMAZON.”

With

Author of

“THE

an Introduction

H U M E , a Map and 72 Illustrations.

“ An important work. . . . The writer possesses a quick eye and a keen intelligence, is many-sided in his interests, and on certain subjects speaks as an expert. The volume deals fully with the development of the country. . . . Illustrated by a large number of excellent photographs.”—Times. VOL.

III.—MEXICO.

By C. R E G I N A L D E N O C K , F . R . G . S . by

MARTIN

HUME,

With an Introduction

a Map and 64 full-page

Illus-

trations. “ Mr Enock unites to a terse and vivid literary style the commercial instinct and trained observation of a shrewd man of affairs.”—Aberdeen Free Press. “Mr Enock transmutes the hard material of ancient chronicles into gleaming romance; he describes scenery with a poet's skill. Full of charm he makes his pages, alluring as a fairy tale, an epic stirring and virile.”—Manchester City News. VOL. By

HIRST.

IV.—ARGENTINA. With

Introduction by

MARTIN

H U M E , a Map and 64 Illustrations. “ The best and most comprehensive of recent works on the greatest and most progressive of the Republics of South America.” —Manchester Guardian. “In the treatment of both the main divisions of a complex theme, the historical and descriptive, Mr Hirst shows judgment and skill that are decidedly rare. . . . Mr Hirst's exceedingly able and interesting book.”— Westminster Gazette. ” A very interesting and trustworthy survey of the conditions and prospects of the country.”—Times. VOL. By P I E R R E

DENIS.

present

V.—BRAZIL.

With a Map and 36 Illustrations.

“ It is a mine of information, arranged with all the lucidity of a Frenchman ; and in one case, in the long chapter devoted to the valorisation of coffee, the treatment deserves to be called masterly.” —Globe.

VOL. By W . H . K O E B E L .

VI.—URUGUAY. With a Map and 55 Illustrations.

GUIANA

S U M M I T OF

RORAIMA. Frontispiece.

8° Res 59

GUIANA: BRITISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH

JAMES

RODWAY, AUTHOR

“A

HISTORY

BRITISH GUIANA,” “ T H E “ IN T H E

WITH

MAP

GUIANA

AND

F.L.S.

WEST

INDIES AND T H E

FOREST,”

SPANISH

MAIN,”

ETC.

ILLUSTRATIONS

T.FISHERU N W I N LONDON ADELPHI

LEIPSIC

TERRACE

I N S E L S T R A S S E 20 MCMXII

80004707

n° 3607

(All

rights

reserved.)

CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER DESCRIPTION

AND GEOLOGY

The “island” of Guiana—The coast—Lowlands— Itabos—Forest regions—Rivers—Hills and mountains Falls and rapids—Fantastic rocks—The three regions — T h e great savannah—Geological formations—Work of floods—The mud-flat—Rocks—Gold—Diamonds— Sandstone formation—No active volcanoes or disastrous earthquakes—Conglomerate—Granitic bed-rock—Differences of soils—Denudation—Natural palisades— Coast protection by Courida—Changes of currents— Sea defences—Nickcrie washed away—Georgetown's sea-wall — Well borings—Mineral waters — Cayenne islands and their phosphates—Swamps—Pegass, or tropical peat.

CHAPTER HISTORY—ABORIGINES

1665

AND

PIONEER

SETTLEMENTS

,T0

Prehistoric relics—Pottery—Timehri rocks—Kitchenm i d d e n s — Indian tribes—Population—Caribs—Aro-

CONTENTS PAGE

waks—Warows—A no-man's land—Ralegh—Kcymis's voyage—Dutch traders—Spanish raid—English settlement in Oyapok — Harcourt takes possession for England—Grant of King James I.—Guiana Company —Captain Marshall in Surinam — Lord Willoughby plants a colony in Surinam—Jews and French in S u r i n a m — G r a n t to Lord Willoughby — Growth of Surinam under the English—French attempts to settle — C a y e n n e — T h e Rouen Company—The Cape North Company—Bretigny the madman—Utter failure of French settlement—New Company with grant of the whole of Guiana—Attempts to settle—Mismanagement and failure—Dutch and Jews occupy Cayenne—Promising colony—French Equinoctial Company dispossess the Dutch—Cayenne put on a better footing—Dutch West India Company—Essequebo—Dutch traders— Berbice—Treaty of Munster—Dutch settlement in the Pomeroon by Jews — Position of the claimants to Guiana in 1665.

C H A P T E R III HISTORY—WARS

AND THEIR

RESULTS

(1666-1761)

War, England against the Netherlands and F r a n c e — English raids on the Pomeroon and Essequebo—Dutch capture Surinam and recover Essequebo — English capture Cayenne — Surinam recaptured — Peace — Surinam given to Dutch in exchange for New Y o r k — Difficulties of the English—Dutch refuse to let them leave—Another war—All the Guiana colonies ruined— Runaway negroes in Surinam — Slow restoration— Huguenots—Society of Surinam—Sommelsdijk—His character—Murdered by soldiers—War, England and the Netherlands against France—French corsairs in Cayenne—Du Casse repulsed from Surinam—Captures Berbice—Corsairs again—Capture of Surinam—Ransomed—Origin of bush negroes.

CONTENTS C H A P T E R IV

PAGE

HISTORY—DEMERARA

AND BERBICE

(1669-J.764)

Essequebo as a trading factory—Dispute with Berbice — V a n Berkel's visit to Kijk-over-al—Description of the young colony—Corsair raids—Berbice captured and ransomed—Difficulties in paying—Curious position— Van Hoorn's Company—The Berbice Association— Charter of Berbice — Gravesande in Essequebo — Remove down the river—Essequebo opened to all nations—Land boom—Capital and labour from English islands—Opening of Demerara—Dearth of slaves— No runaways allowed—Progress of Berbice—Great slave insurrection—Panic among the whites—Rebels overrun the colony—Massacres—The fort untenable— Inmates frightened—Fort abandoned and set on fire —Governor with a few whites take refuge at the mouth of the river—Assistance arrives — Recovery of the colony—Ruin—Difficulties in restoration. CHAPTER V HISTORY—WARS

AND BRITISH

CONQUESTS

(1780-1831) .

Progress of Demerara—War—Bristol privateers terrorise Demerara — British man-of-war arrives — Surrender of Demerara and Berbice—French allies of the Netherlands overcome British force—French rule— T o w n laid out—Peace negotiations—Restoration to Dutch—West India Company's misrule leads to its downfall—Revolution in the Netherlands—" Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity "—British man-of-war arrives —Governor leaves in her—A petty revolution—British fleet's offer of protection is refused—Slave insurrection —British forces demand surrender—British rule— Introduction of capital and labour—Restoration after Peace of Amiens—Recapture by British—American war—Final cession to Great Britain—Berbice Association's properties—Anti-slavery agitation—East Coast insurrections—Case of Rev. John Smith—Union of Demerara and Essequebo with Berbice under the name of British Guiana.

IOO

CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE

HISTORY—THE

EMANCIPATION

AND AFTER

(1834-I9II).

121

The emancipation—Difficulties of planters—Immigration started—First East Indian coolies—Bad results through ignorance — Chinese coolies — Reduction of differential duties—Negro dislike to Madeirans—Riot— Emancipation of slaves in Surinam—Gold discovery— Difficulties from disputed boundary—British Government introduces law and order—Venezuela protests— Surveyor and party of police captured—Venezuela asks assistance from the United States—President Cleveland's message — Arbitration — Brazilian boundary settled—Balata industry—Position of Guiana to-day— Getting rid of a bad name—Changes on the plantations —Expensive government. CHAPTER VII CAYENNE : T H E BLOT

O N GUIANA

I39

French Guiana a danger—Once fairly prosperous— Colonising in the wrong w a y — T e n thousand lives lost—Continual mistakes—The revolution—Capture by British and Portuguese—Beginning of the exile system —Sufferings of political prisoners—A bad name—Vain efforts at colonisation—Exiles under Napoleon I I I . — The bad name as a deterrent from crime—Republic of Counani — Convict settlements — Refugees in other colonics—Dreaded everywhere—Moved on—Deplorable results of the system—A Frenchman's v i e w s — Horrors of confinement in a tropical country—Cayenne town well situated — A century ago—Capabilities — Population to-day. CHAPTER GOVERNMENT

VIII .

British Guiana's Court of Policy—Expensive government — Law — Drunkenness — Churches — Schools — Orphan asylum—Department of Science and Agriculture

153

CONTENTS

PAGE

—Negro's contempt for field work—Crown Communication — Telegraphs — Post office — palities — Fires — Water supply—Precautions mosquitos—Medical service — Immigration ments—Village administration — Railways — service—Anthony Trollope's opinion—Heavy for a small community—Surinam—Cayenne.

CHAPTER VILLAGES

AND

RIVER

PEOPLE

lands— Municiagainst requireSteamer taxation

IN B R I T I S H

GUIANA

171

Similarity of the three Guianas—Labour difficulties— Villages — Plantations bought by freedmen — Their gradual ruin—Drainage choked—Dams broken down —Public roads—Government interference—Villagers resent taxation—Negro thieves—Want of control— East Indians grow rice—River people—Bovianders— Careless habits—An old-time Dutchman—Idlers of today—Children managing boats — The degenerate — Indian missions—Opinions of a negro catechist—A better type. CHAPTER THE

PEOPLE

AND

IMMIGRATION

X .

Races represented—National traits in negro—Bush negroes — Coloured people — N egro characteristics — The East Indian, the man of the future—The Chinese —Madeira Portuguese—Native Indians—Wild Indians disappearing — Javanese—Cayenne rogues—Whites— Jews—Effect of a hot climate—Tropical man—Labour difficulties — Slavery — Acclimatisation — Tropical colonies entirely dependent on labour supply—Land worthless without labour—Immigration experiments— First East Indian coolies—Opposition of anti-slavery party—East Indian immigration established—Chinese coolies—Slave emancipation in Surinam—India the only source of a tropical labour supply—“ New slavery” —Disputes with East Indians only connected with wages—Immigration Department—Results of immigration.

186

CONTENTS CHAPTER

XI PAGE

THE

NATIVE

INDIANS

. 2 1 1

The different tribes—Their houses—Canoes—Cassava, “thestaff of life”—Pepper-pot—Cultivation—Woman's work and man's work—The hunter and f i s h e r m a n Weapons—Cotton hammocks—Mosaic feather-work— Geometrical patterns on baskets and aprons—Laps— Dancing dresses—Piaimen — Esoteric cults — Wordbuilding—Polygamy in the chiefs—Its a d v a n t a g e s Curare—Medicines—Independent nature of the Indian —Blood-feuds—Hospitality—The Akawois, the gypsies of Guiana—Thrift unknown—Famine—Piwarrie feasts —Drunken orgies —Native modesty—Danger of clothing—Use of the Indian to the traveller—Decreasing in number near the settlements—Christian missions.

CHAPTER THE

CENSUS AND

MORTALITY

XII DIFFERENT

RACES

227

Sanitary conditions—Drunkenness—Ganje—Opium— Decrease of population—Laxity of sexual relations— Slave nurseries—Census returns—Coloured people— Infant mortality—Birth rate—Causes of death—Sanitary arrangements—Tight clothing—Cleanliness of the naked man.

CHAPTER FAUNA

AND

FLORA

XIII .

Animal life — Interdependence—“ Tigers ” — C a v i e s — Ant bear—Snakes, lizards, and frogs—Birds—Fishes— Insects—Work for the microscope—Plant life—Flowers —Giant weeds — Multiform vegetation—Epiphytes— Parasites—Sand reef plants—Foliage large and striking —Palms—Ferns—Selaginellas and lycopodiums.

237

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

XIV PAOB

AGRICULTURAL

AND

NATURAL

PRODUCTS.

249

Early trade products — Tobacco-planting — Sugar — Early plantations—Empoldering the coast—Dams and trenches—First sugar-mills—Steam-engines—Vacuum pans—Cotton—Coffee—Cacao — Rice — Plantains and bananas—Coconuts—Indian corn—Fruits—Cassava— Isinglass — Cattle-farming — Tobacco — Fisheries — Timbers and furniture woods—Balata—Rubber—Gum anime—Hyawa, or incense gum—Tonka beans—Oils— Tanning barks — Fibres — Saouari nuts — Medicinal plants—Minor fruit products—Paper stock—Pegass— Bitumen — Sands—Clays — Gold — Diamonds—Population of gold diggings—Falls and rapids as sources of power in the future.

CHAPTER TRAVEL

NOTES

XV .

Communication — Waterways — Local steamers — Georgetown—Races and nationalities—Sugar estates— The Tadjah festival—Humours of the people—Indians in town—Airy buildings—Other towns—Picturesque scenery in the interior—Kaieteur Falls—Roraima—A botanical “El Dorado”—Grand cliffs—Difficult to reach—River travelling—Beauty of the forest—Creek scenes—Obstructions—Indian settlements—Reports of dangerous animals—No real dangers—Pleasure of camping out—A few pests—Some inconveniences— Sickness — Unexplored region—Climate—Bugbears— Bad name no longer deserved—A rainy country — N o fogs, ear thquakes, or hurricanes.

273

CONTENTS CHAPTER

XVI PAGE

TRADE

293

Value of exports—Amounts at different periods—Sugar —Gold — Balata — Timber — Diamonds — Coconuts — Coffee—Cacao—Isinglass — Rice—Rubber—Collecting of forest products—A larger population required— Labourers in the towns—Imports—Salt provisions— Wages—Banks—Exports 1910-11.

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

. .

3 3

ILLUSTRATIONS SUMMIT

RORAIMA

Frontispiece FACING

IN A RAPID

A T A R O I P U ; OR, T H E

CATTLE

ON T H E

A BULL

ON A C A T T L E

INDIANS AT

PRIMITIVE

TENT-BOAT

INDIANS

(WYWAl)

GOVERNOR

O F AN

GEORGETOWN

A GOLD

PLACER

EARLY

SEA

HORSE

ROCK

. 2 9

- 3 1

- 3 3

- 4 1

DRESS

WATER

PRIMITIVE

RANCH

PRIMITIVE

WALL,

SAVANNAH

HOME .

SOMMELSDIJK,

DEVIL'S

FESTIVE

SURINAM

SUGAR-MILL

. 15

.73

. 8 9

. 1 0 1

PLANTER

SUGAR-MILL

PAGE

101

129

ILLUSTRATIONS FACING

GEORGETOWN

GOVERNMENT

OFFICE

BROAD STREET,

SPROSTON’S

A VILLAGE

SHOP

GIRL

INDIAN

WOMAN

MACOUSHI

INDIAN

MISSION

WITH

HER

A FISHERMAN’S

VICTORIA

REGIA

ENTRANCE

CEMETERY,

153

165

167

171

185

.195

.211

TAPIR,

MORNING

FESTIVE

LEFT

CATCH

AND

DRESSES

RIGHT

IN G E O R G E T O W N

A STREET-CORNER,

A STREET

137

WAPISANO

ATTACKING

BURDEN

WOMAN'S APRONS

AND

ITS C U S T O M E R S

GIRL

MACOUSHI

JAGUAR

WITH

BUSH

GEORGETOWN

INDIAN

IN T H E

GEORGETOWN

DOCK,

G I R L S O F AN

GEORGETOWN

217

.221

VIEWS

GEORGETOWN

237

241

245

273

275

GEORGETOWN

TO CEMETERY,

PAGE

ILLUSTRATIONS FACING

RORAIMA

S U M M I T O F RORAIMA

LANDING

FIREWOOD,

STABROEK

MARKET,

GEORGETOWN

297

299

McConnell, Esq., and for those of cattle and primitive Indians to J. Ogilvie, Esq.,

Roraima to J. J. Quelch, Esq., and F. V .

and J. Martin, Esq.

The author is indebted for the photographs of

PAGE

INTRODUCTION T H E story of G u i a n a is one of colonisation under very g r e a t difficulties, of t r a d i n g ventures, failures t h r o u g h ignorance, quarrels, w a r s , corsairs, bush n e g r o e s , a n d labour e x p e r i m e n t s . A l t h o u g h not g e n e r a l l y thought of m u c h importance to-day, it was once a bone of contention to the g r e a t nations of E u r o p e . T h e first country of A m e r i c a to be e x p l o r e d b y others than S p a n i a r d s a n d P o r t u g u e s e , it still stands alone as distinctly f o r e i g n from the rest of S o u t h A m e r i c a . English, F r e n c h , and D u t c h took possession and fought a m o n g themselves for the different t r a d i n g stations and colonies, ultimately settling matters without reference to the o r i g i n a l c l a i m a n t s . T o the E n g l i s h m a n it represented R a l e i g h ' s d r e a m of E l D o r a d o ; that a N e w B r i t a n n i a could be established which in a f e w y e a r s w o u l d b r i n g more treasure to the M o t h e r C o u n t r y than M e x i c o a n d P e r u w e r e then s e n d i n g to her g r e a t r i v a l . The D u t c h m a n did not d r e a m of empire, but he w e l l knew that the f r a g r a n t w e e d t o b a c c o , which so e a r l y b e c a m e a necessity to him, was to be h a d h e r e . W h a t the F r e n c h m a n thought is h a r d to say, for he has done little with his slice of the country ; possibly he only c a m e for a share because he w o u l d not be left as a n outsider. T h e P i l g r i m F a t h e r s t h o u g h t of c o m i n g to G u i a n a before they decided upon the b l e a k e r shores of N e w E n g l a n d , and it was often c o m p a r e d with V i r g i n i a a s a field for settlements. A little later c o m p a r i s o n s 19

INTRODUCTION

were m a d e between it and the N e w N e t h e r l a n d s , when the a d v a n t a g e s of a w a r m climate and two or three crops a y e a r w e r e proven to the satisfaction of the writers on the m a t t e r . E v e n when, after the D u t c h war, S u r i n a m was virtually e x c h a n g e d for N e w Y o r k , few D u t c h m e n felt a g g r i e v e d and some E n g l i s h m e n were h a r d l y prepared to a g r e e to the transfer. N o w a d a y s , even t h o u g h one of its G o v e r n o r s called British G u i a n a a â&#x20AC;&#x153; magnificent province,â&#x20AC;? it is p r a c tically i g n o r e d . It g a i n e d a few w e e k s ' notoriety when the Venezuelan B o u n d a r y trouble raised fears of a war with the U n i t e d States, but soon a g a i n fell into the b a c k g r o u n d when the cloud passed o v e r . D e m e r a r a s u g a r is w e l l known, but few r e c o g n i s e that D e m e r a r a p r a c t i c a l l y means British G u i a n a . Its g o l d , diamonds, balata, a n d g r e e n h e a r t timber are only familiar to experts, and even they s o m e times confound it with the W e s t Indian islands, if it is not confused with G u i n e a and N e w G u i n e a . T h e n e w s p a p e r m a n k n e w the country in connection with the D r e y f u s case, and, no doubt, looked upon it as unfit for a d o g , m u c h less a C h r i s t i a n . A century a g o , when a l l the colonies were t e m p o rarily British, it was thought of some importance, a n d d u r i n g the a n t i - s l a v e r y a g i t a t i o n D e m e r a r a was stigmatised as next door to the nether regions, with b l a c k - h e a r t e d whites and p u r e - m i n d e d b l a c k s as masters and s l a v e s . Of late y e a r s it has been the experimental field for tropical immigration, and the lessons taught b y the experiments have been e x c e e d ingly valuable. In fact, from the earliest times, G u i a n a has been a field for labour experiments ; a n d if so m a n y proved failures a m o n g a f e w partial, successes, the lessons taught will no doubt be useful in p r e v e n t i n g future m i s t a k e s .

INTRODUCTION

T h a t the first settlements failed we, with our fuller k n o w l e d g e , c a n say m i g h t have been easily p r e d i c t e d . B u t , in the a b s e n c e of k n o w l e d g e and experience, the pioneers of a settlement, whether in G u i a n a or Virginia, c o u l d h a r d l y be e x p e c t e d to do better. A d v e n t u r e r s “ they were called, and their e x p e r i ments, whether t r a d i n g v o y a g e s or attempts to found new colonies, were certainly r i s k s . W e may laugh as we r e a d of the “ O r a n g e ” colony in the O y a p o k in 1 6 7 6 , with its hundred directors, the e l a b o r a t e provisions for a settlement, and also the e x p e c t e d profits. E v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t possible seems to have been m a d e , and yet it failed ignominiously like so m a n y other schemes that did not a l l o w for the c l i m a t e . O n l y the results of the pioneer w o r k of S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l were visible ; little was k n o w n of their difficulties. S u c c e s s e s only, a n d these but few, r e m a i n e d — f a i l u r e s were lost in oblivion. S p a i n failed as far as her W e s t Indian colonies were c o n c e r n e d ; Hispaniola was by no means a success. O n l y in settled countries like M e x i c o a n d P e r u could a n y thing be g a i n e d . T h o s e who c a m e after her g o t only what she thought worthless or of little i m p o r t a n c e . T h e later arrivals were traders, privateers, or pirates. T h e i r t r a d i n g was often forced, or at least illegal, their p i r a c y attacks o n the w e a k e r S p a n i s h settlements. N o g r e a t galleons were these, but vessels of 50 to 150 tons, sometimes small craft of 15 to 2 0 . T h e y were the fly-boats we read about which often depended for safety on their speed and small d r a u g h t of w a t e r . T h e y w e r e the k i n d of vessels that h u n g on to the S p a n i s h A r m a d a in the C h a n n e l , g i v i n g a few blows, running off, and then returning a g a i n and a g a i n before the e n e m y could demolish t h e m .

INTRODUCTION

It w a s in such a vessel of 50 tons that L e i g h took 4 6 men a n d boys to the O y a p o k in 1 6 0 4 to found the first E n g l i s h settlement in G u i a n a . All he k n e w of the country was g a t h e r e d from the accounts of K e y m i s ' s v o y a g e . N o E u r o p e a n h a d yet done m o r e than trade in the rivers. H e wanted to found a colony, and at first it seemed as if he would have b e e n successful. T h e natives g a v e him a w e l c o m e , but it could not be expected that they w o u l d g i v e his people all their provisions. F o r , like most tropical people, they lived from hand to m o u t h . T r o u b l e b e g a n when L e i g h ' s supplies g a v e out and the e x p e c t e d vessel did not a r r i v e . T h e remnant left b y a D u t c h trader and for a time the O y a p o k was a b a n d o n e d . T h i s is a type of several attempted colonies ; all failed for want of k n o w l e d g e and experience. W h e t h e r E n g l i s h , D u t c h , or F r e n c h , the result w a s m u c h about the s a m e . B u t they did not a b a n d o n their attempts a l t o g e t h e r . O n e fell to be followed b y another which did a little better. The English started in what is now F r e n c h territory ; then they g a i n e d a measure of success in S u r i n a m to be ousted b y the fortunes of w a r . T h e D u t c h were m o r e p l o d d i n g ; their e a r l y settlements in E s s e q u e b o and B e r b i c e w e r e retained, notwithstanding troubles with E n g l i s h and F r e n c h . F o r over a c e n t u r y the D u t c h went on in a quiet w a y slowly d e v e l o p i n g their rivers a n d c o n t e n d i n g with bush n e g r o e s . It was, however, the E n g l i s h who ultimately b r o u g h t capital a n d e n e r g y into the colony of E s s e q u e b o and D e m e r a r a , until at last they obtained actual possession of these rivers a n d m a d e them of g r e a t e r importance than those of their D u t c h n e i g h b o u r s . B e s i d e s lessons in colonisation, G u i a n a shows us

INTRODUCTION

what a settlement is when w o r k e d b y a t r a d i n g c o m pany. T h e meanness which l o o k e d for immediate profit was conspicuous in the W e s t I n d i a C o m p a n y a n d the B e r b i c e A s s o c i a t i o n . In the case of the former the settlers were h a m p e r e d in e v e r y direction b y monopoly laws and, m o r e especially, stinted in their labour supply ; in B e r b i c e n o w o r k i n g b l a c k s m i t h or carpenter c o u l d c a r r y on his trade for w a g e s , because the w o r k m e n of the Association monopolised these t r a d e s . T h e companies fell at last, but as l o n g as they controlled the settlements there was little p r o g r e s s . It is true they b r o u g h t some capital, but it was a l w a y s too little for a n y t h i n g like permanent g o o d . P o s s i b l y the most interesting lessons to be learned are those b e a r i n g upon a tropical labour s u p p l y . N a t i v e Indian w o m e n were the first slaves, but they were not a success ; then c a m e the A f r i c a n , who has b e e n a bane as well as a b l e s s i n g . W i t h such a l a r g e country behind the plantations r u n a w a y s were safe in the forest ; and in S u r i n a m they b e c a m e such a serious d a n g e r that at one time it a p p e a r e d as if the c o l o n y must be a b a n d o n e d . O n l y by the help of the Indians were they c a p t u r e d and suppressed in D e m e r a r a . T h e r e is no doubt, however, that w i t h out the n e g r o G u i a n a would have been still in the same position as the O r i n o c o delta on the one hand a n d the r e g i o n north of the A m a z o n on the o t h e r , S l a v e r y c a m e to an end, but the p r o b l e m of a labour supply was rendered all the more acute, in spite of the predictions of the A n t i - S l a v e r y party that free m e n w o u l d w o r k all the harder when i n duced to do so b y w a g e s . T h e c o n t r a r y was p r o v e d at once, a n d the exports soon fell to about a third. L a b o u r must be h a d o r the colonies would soon be

INTRODUCTION

as worthless as the land really w a s and still is. E x p e r i m e n t s were tried, and at last the right kind of labourer was found in the E a s t Indian c o o l i e . If G u i a n a is ever to be developed, it will be as a new India. A m o n g the lessons was one that should have been learned b y the A n t i - S l a v e r y p a r t y â&#x20AC;&#x201D; t h e fact that the n e g r o does not increase in G u i a n a . O f course, the heavy death-rate was a s c r i b e d to overwork, a l t h o u g h e v e r y one knew that the slave would not labour half as hard as a n E n g l i s h m a n in his own c o u n t r y . He was c a p a b l e of d o i n g more, as is shown by later experience. T h e p a r t y m a d e an interesting e x p e r i ment in B e r b i c e , when a Commission was appointed to c a r r y on four Government plantations a n d control the colony tradesmen, w h o were slaves like the p e o p l e on the estates. B u t they c o u l d not reduce the d e a t h rate nor m a k e the estates pay, and had to g i v e them up as failures. Of course, the planters j e e r e d at them for their i g n o r a n c e . T h e r e is no doubt that Guiana is a magnificent country, with g r a n d rivers, waterfalls, and w o n d e r ful m o u n t a i n s . Its scenery is hardly equalled a n y where in the w o r l d for picturesque beauty. The traveller and the naturalist will revel in its streams and forests. T h e cultivation, so far, is no m o r e than a few strips about three miles d e e p on the coast and banks of the rivers ; the interior is in m u c h the same position so well described b y R a l e g h o v e r three centuries a g o : â&#x20AC;&#x153; G u i a n a is a country that hath yet her m a i d e n h e a d , never s a c k e d , turned nor w r o u g h t . T h e face of the earth hath not been torn, nor the virtue and salt of the soil spent by manurance, the g r a v e s have not been opened for g o l d , the mines not broken with sledges.â&#x20AC;?

IN A RAPID. To face p. 25.

GUIANA CHAPTER DESCRIPTION The

is the

Rivers as

name

Orinoco

boundaries of

AND GEOLOGY

“island” of Guiana—The coast— Lowlands— Itabos—Forest region—Rivers—Hills and mountains—Falls and rapids— Fantastic rocks—The three regions—The great savannah— Geological formations—Work of floods—The mud-flat—Rocks— Gold—Diamonds—Sandstone formation—No active volcanoes or disastrous earthquakes—Conglomerate—Granitic bed-rock— Differences of soils—Denudation—Natural palisades—Coast protection by courida—Changes of currents—Sea defences— Nickerie washed away—Georgetown's sea wall—Well borings— Mineral waters—Cayenne islands and their phosphates— Swamps—Pegass or tropical peat.

GUIANA the

north-west

island

the

and

from

country

Amazon, the

lying

which

south.

general

between form

was

the

spoken

idea,

partially

confirmed b y m o d e r n e x p l o r a t i o n , that the t w o g r e a t boundary

rivers

interior.

This

Negro

and

its

were

connected

connection, branches

with

far

away

means

the

in the

Orinoco,

the Rio quite

p o s s i b l e , but s o m e w h a t difficult for a n y t h i n g but the lightest Like

Indian

corials.

the v a l l e y

it m a y

the

considered

Amazon, an 25

offshoot,

which it

system land

GUIANA

forest a n d s t r e a m . T h e coast is g e n e r a l l y an alluvial flat, often below h i g h - w a t e r m a r k , f r i n g e d with courida (Avicennia nitida) on the sea-shore, a n d m a n g r o v e (Rhizophora manglier) on the banks of the tidal rivers. W h e r e it is not e m p o l d e r e d it is subject to the w a s h of the sea in front a n d the rising of the s w a m p w a t e r b e h i n d . In fact, it is a flooded country, as the n a m e , from wina or Guina ( w a t e r ) seems to imply. T h e lowest land is the delta of the O r i n o c o , where the rising of the river often covers the w h o l e . C o m i n g to the north-west of British G u i a n a , we have a number of channels (itabos) f o r m i n g natural w a t e r w a y s t h r o u g h s w a m p s , n a v i g a b l e for canoes a n d s m a l l v e s s e l s . A similar series of n a t u r a l canals is found in D u t c h G u i a n a . F r o m the O r i n o c o to C a y e n n e this alluvium is rarely a b o v e h i g h - w a t e r m a r k , a n d is subject to g r e a t c h a n g e s from currents, the only protection b e i n g the n a t u r a l palisade of courida, with its fascine-like r o o t s . O n the coast of C a y e n n e , however, the land rises, a n d there a r e r o c k y islands ; here the s w a m p s c o m e at some distance behind the shore, a n d between r i d g e s a n d banks of sand. B e h i n d this low land comes the o l d b e a c h of some former a g e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; r e e f s of white quartz sand, the stunted v e g e t a t i o n of which c a n only exist because the rainfall is heavy a n d almost continuous. T h i s is the fringe of the g r e a t forest region w h i c h extends over the g r e a t e r part of the c o u n t r y . H e r e the land rises a n d b e c o m e s hilly, a n d the rivers are obstructed by a m o r e or less continuous series of r o c k s , which form rapids, a n d prevent them running d r y when the floods r e c e d e . B e h i n d these, to the south, the hills g r a d u a l l y rise to mountains of 5,000 feet, a n d in

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

the case of a peculiar g r o u p of sandstone c a s t e l lated rocks, of which R o r a i m a is the highest, to 8,000 feet. T h e numerous rivers b r i n g d o w n v e g e t a b l e matter in solution, c l a y and fine sand suspended, a n d g r e a t masses of floating trees and g r a s s e s . T h e s e form islands in the l a r g e r estuaries and bars at the mouths of most of the r i v e r s ; they also tinge the ocean for about fifty miles b e y o n d the coast f r o m g r e e n to a dirty y e l l o w . W i n d and w a v e break down the shore in one place and extend it in another, g i v i n g a g r e a t deal of trouble to the plantations by t e a r i n g a w a y the dams which protect their cultivation. E v e r y l a r g e river has its islands, which b e g i n with s a n d - b a n k s , and by means of the courida and m a n g r o v e become ultimately h a b i t a b l e . In the E s s e q u e b o there a r e several of a l a r g e extent, on which formerly w e r e m a n y s u g a r plantations, one of which remains in W a k e n a a m . T h e C o r e n t y n e a n d M a r o w y n e have also fair-sized islands, but none of these has ever been settled. Off the coast of C a y e n n e the rocky l i e s du Salut and C o n n e t a b l e are quite exceptional, for the coast is elsewhere a low mud-flat, s l o p i n g v e r y g r a d u a l l y and quite shallow. T h e longest river is the E s s e q u e b p , which rises in the extreme south, and like most of the l a r g e r streams, flows almost due n o r t h . It is about 600 miles in l e n g t h ; the C o r e n t y n e is nearly as long, and the M a r o w y n e and O y a p o k are p r o b a b l y about the same length. O t h e r rivers that would be considered of great importance in E u r o p e are seen at intervals of a few miles all a l o n g the coast. T h e D e m e r a r a , on which the capital of B r i t i s h G u i a n a is situated, is about the size of the T h a m e s , and 2 5 0 miles l o n g , and the Surinam, on the left bank of which is P a r a -

GUIANA

maribo, 3 0 0 . A l l are b l o c k e d b y rapids at various distances from 50 to about 100 miles inland, up to which they a r e n a v i g a b l e for small vessels, but beyond, only for properly constructed boats, that can be d r a w n t h r o u g h the falls or over p o r t a g e s . T h e smaller rivers, called c r e e k s , whether they fall into the sea or into the l a r g e r streams, a r e very n u m e r o u s ; over a thousand h a v e Indian n a m e s . M a n y of them a r e of a fair size, a n d the majority h a v e d a r k w a t e r of the colour of w e a k coffee, whence the name R i o N e g r o has been g i v e n to several South A m e r i c a n rivers. T h e s e take their rise in the p e g a s s s w a m p s , so c o m m o n e v e r y w h e r e , a n d a r e tinged b y the dead leaves of the dense g r o w t h of s e d g e s , which prevent these bodies of water f r o m a p p e a r i n g like l a k e s . T h e r e are, however, a few deeper s w a m p s , where a l a k e - l i k e expanse is seen in the centre, but no real lakes appear to exist a n y w h e r e . T h e creeks a r e often connected with each other b y channels, called itabos, or, b y the Venezuelans, canos, t h r o u g h which it is possible to pass for l o n g distances without g o i n g out to s e a . D u r i n g the rainy season these channels are easily passable, and light canoes c a n be pushed t h r o u g h from the head of one creek to that of another, the result b e i n g that l a r g e tracts of country a r e easily passed. In this w a y the R i o N e g r o a n d A m a z o n can be reached from the E s s e q u e b o in one direction and the O r i n o c o in another, the watersheds b e i n g illdefined from there being no long mountain ranges. T h e h i g h e r hills a n d mountains are not g r o u p e d in a n y o r d e r . T h e g r o u p called the P a k a r a i m a a r e the most important from their position on the boundary between British G u i a n a , Venezuela, a n d B r a z i l , a n d also from the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of R o r a i m a g i v i n g rise

ATAR0IPU ; THE

DEVIL’s

ROCK. To face p. 29’

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

to streams which feed the O r i n o c o , A m a z o n , and Essequebo. T h i s peculiar c l u m p of red sandstone rocks forms the most interesting natural object in Guiana. R o r a i m a is the principal, but there a r e others, n a m e d K u k e n a a m , I w a i k a r i m a , W a i a k a p i a p u , & c , almost equally curious and striking. A l l have the a p p e a r a n c e of great stone castles, standing h i g h above the slopes, which are c o v e r e d with rare and beautiful plants, some of which are unknown elsewhere. T h e main characteristics of this g r o u p are due to weathering, the result being grotesque forms that stand boldly forth, together with fairy dells, waterfalls decorated with most delicate ferns a n d mosses, and g r a n d clumps of orchids and other flowering plants. T h e R i v e r P o t a r o is peculiarly interesting f r o m the series of rapids and falls which occur in its course. T h i s is a b r a n c h of the E s s e q u e b o , and f r o m its mouth in a s c e n d i n g we come to the T u m a t u m a r i cataracts or rapids, the P a k a t u k and A m a t u k falls, besides a g o o d l y n u m b e r of others, to finally culminate in the mighty K a i e t e u r . U p the E s s e q u e b o is a curious natural rock-pile, called C o m u t i or T a q u i a r i , from the Indian name for a water-jar, to which it has some resemblance. O n the summit of a forest-clad hill a pile of four great rocks rises for about 300 feet, and consists of four blocks of granite, the lowest supporting the second on three points, a b o v e which comes the j a r shaped rock, with the fourth as a c o v e r . Farther on a g a i n , on the b a n k of the Guidaru, is A t a r o i p u , or the D e v i l ' s R o c k , a magnificent p y r a m i d rising to a height of 5 5 0 feet above a wooded hill of 3 5 째 feet. S t a n d i n g so h i g h a b o v e the surrounding forest, this forms a most striking object. Other

GUIANA

fantastic rocks have been c o m p a r e d to a felled tree and a cassava press. N o doubt the other G u i a n a s have interesting natural objects, but the interior has not been so w e l l explored as that of the British c o l o n y . T h e T u m a c H u m a c Mountains, which are supposed to divide the A m a z o n watershed from that of G u i a n a , will no doubt reveal many beauties to the lover of the picturesque in the future. Magnificent falls are to be observed on the M a r o w y n e , one called S i n g a t i t y being c o m parable to an u n d u l a t i n g snowfield f r o m which mists are rising, and when the sun shines a magnificent rainbow arches over the whole. T h e country m a y be r o u g h l y divided into four zones, which are particularly conspicuous in British G u i a n a , the coast, the forest, the sandstone f o r m a tion, and the s a v a n n a h . E a c h is characterised by its g e o l o g i c a l and natural conditions, on which depend their plants and a n i m a l s . T h e coast region is the inhabited portion. Apart f r o m the courida and m a n g r o v e belt, and the g r a s s e s and s e d g e s of the savannah, its flora contains few native plants and almost as few a n i m a l s . T h e cultivated g r o u n d s are occupied by exotics, and, when a b a n d o n e d , by a host of cosmopolitan weeds, none of which originally existed in the country. T h e forest varies somewhat a c c o r d i n g to the soil. In the river bottoms, and what is called the w a l l a b a s w a m p , the soil is rich and the v e g e t a t i o n dense and v a r i e d . O n the sand-dunes the trees are thin on the slopes and reduced to low bushes on the t o p . T h e h i g h e r hills have a similar flora, v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g to the strata, the c l a y and sand b e i n g m u c h richer in ferns and low plants than the rock. T h e sandstone region is, however, the richest in

C A T T L E ON' THE

SAVANNAH. To face p. 31.

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

flowering plants as w e l l as ferns. It possesses an e x t r a o r d i n a r y abundance of springs, and is intersected by streams of all sizes. T h e trees are not so tall as the true forest, and there are open places with g r a s s and low flowering p l a n t s . T h i s is the r e g i o n in which the K a i e t e u r F a l l s and R o r a i m a are situated. T h e g r e a t s a v a n n a h is a tableland about 300 to 400 feet a b o v e the sea level, c o v e r i n g some 1 5,000 square miles, undulating and broken by isolated granitic r o c k s , blocks of c o n g l o m e r a t e and reddish masses of quartz a n d c l a y . C l u m p s of trees rise here and there where the soil is richer, and in the depressions marshy g r o u n d permits the g r o w t h of palms, ferns, and marantas, but the g e n e r a l character is somewhat harsh f r o m the w i r y s e d g e s and hard herbaceous plants. T h e g e o l o g i c a l formations are either primary granitic rocks or g r a v e l s , sands, and c l a y s , the result of the immense p o w e r of water in past a g e s . The rivers are still at work, as m a y be seen f r o m the amount of suspended matter they continually pour into the sea. T h r o u g h o u t the lower lands the watercourses are continually c h a n g i n g ; many a creek on the coast, once m a r k e d on the old m a p s , is indistinguishable since the plantations w e r e laid out. B u t these c h a n g e s m i g h t n a t u r a l l y be e x p e c t e d where the lands are flat with no rising g r o u n d t o form channels. In the forest, however, the gullies are often c h o k e d by vegetation, and when the heavy rains fall and the floods rise 40 feet a b o v e the a v e r a g e c h a n g e s will naturally o c c u r . T h e scour of such a flood, which carries with it fallen trees and great masses of debris, must necessarily be v e r y g r e a t , and is sufficient to account for the alluvium of the

GUIANA

coast without r e c k o n i n g upon the deposits of the A m a z o n current, which also passes a l o n g the coast and n o doubt contributes to the result.

T h e mud-flat, as proved by borings for artesian

wells, is made up of layers of soft mud, clay, sand, and shells, mixed with m o r e or less decomposed v e g e t a b l e matter. T h e soil on the surface varies from clay to c l a y - l o a m , e x c e e d i n g l y fertile when properly drained and freed f r o m its impregnation of salt. T h i s varies m u c h in depth in some parts of the coast, e x t e n d i n g a b a c k for a distance of twenty miles, in others but a mile or t w o . B e h i n d this rises a series of sand-dunes, evidently the beach of some former a g e , the quartz sand of which has been w a s h e d until it is perfectly white, and would be barren were it not for the heavy rains. T h e same white sand is found in the borings under the c l a y and is obviously derived from the p r i m a r y and m e t a morphic r o c k s , which, disrupted l o n g a g o by volcanic a g e n c y , c r o p out immediately behind and form the g r e a t barriers to river n a v i g a t i o n in the shape of falls and rapids. In the E s s e q u e b o rocks are seen at about thirty miles from the mouth, and off C a y e n n e there are r o c k y islands of the same formation. F r o m the E s s e q u e b o and the D e m e r a r a gneiss is quarried for sea defences and road metal. O n a branch of the lower E s s e q u e b o , called the G r o o t e C r e e k , g o l d is obtainable, but the washings are rather p o o r ; this is the nearest g o l d - b e a r i n g district to the coast, the others b e i n g b e y o n d the rapids. T h e water-courses and even the slopes of the hills throughout the granitic, metamorphic, and volcanic formations a r e more or less auriferous. G o l d is also found in the quartz, but hitherto in too small a proportion to p a y for c r u s h i n g .

A BULLONA C A T T L E RANCH. To face p. 33.

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

T h r o u g h o u t this r o c k y region l a r g e boulders of a l l shapes a n d sizes are scattered in confused heaps here and there, especially at the r a p i d s . A t the falls and a l o n g the river banks they are c o a t e d with a b l a c k or rusty film of oxides of m a n g a n e s e or iron which m e t a l s also colour some of the s a n d s . Iron is also very widely diffused in the shape of ferruginous c l a y , pyrites, a n d hematite, the latter in some p l a c e s c o v e r i n g low h i l l s . D i a m o n d s are found in quartz g r a v e l and white c l a y , which last is a pure f o r m of k a o l i n a n d sometimes extends as a surface c o v e r i n g for several square miles, rising also in hills as a t O r e a l l a , in the C o r e n t y n e . G a r n e t s are found in the granitic gneiss a n d schistose formations, a n d quartz c r y s t a l s , some of them of the beautiful amethystine variety, also o c c u r . Felstones, q u a r t z porphyries, and syenites are c o m m o n , and there are indications of antimony, p l u m b a g o , and, perhaps, m e r c u r y , but hitherto only in small quantities. In the south-west of British G u i a n a is a s a n d stone formation, p r e s u m a b l y of the new red variety, a b o u t 1 4 0 miles l o n g b y 1 0 0 b r o a d . S o f a r as c a n be g a t h e r e d , it is not f o s s i l i f e r o u s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; i n fact, there are a p p a r e n t l y n o fossils w h a t e v e r in G u i a n a . The strata consist of beds of pink and white sandstone a n d c o n g l o m e r a t e , which latter is in some places m u c h indurated. It is due to a superficial layer of this hard c o n g l o m e r a t e that the K a i e t e u r F a l l has retained its position for a g e s , while the P o t a r o has cut its w a y b a c k from the escarpment of the f o r m a t i o n . T h e sandstone extends in broken masses across the country, but does not a p p e a r to widen e l s e w h e r e ; but possibly in some former a g e it m a y have c o v e r e d a l a r g e part of the c o u n t r y . A l m o s t throughout the sandstone formation it is 3

GUIANA

interbedded with g r e a t sheets of volcanic rock, g r e e n stone (principally d i o r i t e ) , which has disrupted, not only here but also in other parts, t h r o u g h g r a n i t e , gneiss, and q u a r t z - p o r p h y r y . D e n u d a t i o n has done m u c h to remove the g r e a t e r portion of these erupted masses, l e a v i n g visible the h u g e d y k e s which m a r k the sites, most noticeable at the rapids a n d f a l l s . O n all sides are m a r k s of enormous volcanic activity in past a g e s , and it m a y be from this c a u s e that the sandstone is d e v o i d of fossils. T h e r e is n o t h i n g to indicate recent volcanic action ; on the contrary, G u i a n a appears to be a l m o s t free from seismic d i s turbances, the slight earthquakes felt n o w a n d then b e i n g p r o b a b l y due to the n e i g h b o u r i n g volcanic regions of the W e s t Indies a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . T h r o u g h o u t the c o n g l o m e r a t e of the sandstone formation jasper p e b b l e s of all shapes are of c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e , a n d in other parts there are found finely mottled soapstone, often beautifully a n d r e g u l a r l y veined. O n the b o u n d a r y towards B r a z i l extensive s a v a n n a h s take the p l a c e of the forest. T h e soil here is rather poor, c o m p o s e d of g r a v e l , sand, and r e d c l a y , c o v e r e d with layers of thin loam, w h i c h is deeper in the depressions, where, d u r i n g the rainy season, shallow pools are f o r m e d . H e r e and there the bed rocks, p r i m a r y or metamorphic, s u d d e n l y c r o p out a n d rise to lofty hills. T h e red c l a y s a r e in some places c o m p a r a b l e to sienna, a n d m a y be utilised as paint ; there is also a g o o d y e l l o w o c h r e . O t h e r c l a y s , widely distributed, are suitable for b r i c k m a k i n g , a n d were once l a r g e l y utilised for that purpose. K a o l i n has been shipped for porcelain, but has not yet found a suitable m a r k e t . F r o m the a b o v e s k e t c h of the g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a tion it will be understood that the b e d rock is granitic

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

a n d that the o v e r l y i n g strata a r e l a r g e l y the result of sunlight a n d flood through l o n g a g e s . A s m i g h t be expected, the lower lands are v e r y f e r t i l e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; i n fact, they are p r o b a b l y a m o n g the richest in the w o r l d . S o m e of the plantations on the coast of D e m e r a r a have been under cultivation for over a century with one plant, the s u g a r - c a n e , and only of late years has a n y attention been g i v e n to m a n u r i n g or e v e n fallowing. T h a t a soil c a n endure continuous c r o p p i n g with such a s t r o n g plant for fifty years is almost w o n d e r f u l . It may, however, be stated that, e v e n in British G u i a n a , there are differences which have left their impression on the history of s u g a r production. T h e coast-lands of E s s e q u e b o are not so rich as those of D e m e r a r a ; it has followed, t h e r e fore, that the once flourishing estates in that country have m o s t l y b e e n a b a n d o n e d ; m u c h the s a m e m a y be said of B e r b i c e , where but v e r y few r e m a i n . The islands in the E s s e q u e b o have a s a n d y soil, which in time becomes poorer, and here also one plantation after another has b e e n g i v e n u p . Surinam and C a y e n n e m a y be c l a s s e d with these, and can h a r d l y bear s u g a r cultivation for a n y length of time, a n d certainly not while the product is at its present low price. W h e n first e m p o l d e r e d and not quite free from salt these lands are the ideal for cotton plantations, as is proved b y their former output ; they are also w e l l suited for b a n a n a s a n d p l a n t a i n s . A b o u t ten miles from the coast there is a distinct c h a n g e in the natural v e g e t a t i o n . Here sugar-cane cultivation ceases, but coffee a n d c a c a o do well ; these thrive best a w a y from the sea b r e e z e s . They c a n also be g r o w n in the river bottoms and on the slopes of the hills of the interior, where there is a continual w a s h from the r i d g e s . T h e sand-dunes

GUIANA

are barren, but even here pineapples and the fibre plants, such as sisal hemp, c a n be well g r o w n . The forest region is g e n e r a l l y rocky, with g r a v e l s , c l a y s , a n d sands in the hollows ; once denuded of its c o v e r ing, it will not bear cultivation. T h e first crop after c l e a r i n g and b u r n i n g m a y be g o o d , but attempts to g o on a l w a y s fail, e a c h year g i v i n g a less return. T h i s w a s the cause of failure on the D e m e r a r a R i v e r , where the old charts show that hundreds of p l a n t a tions once existed where n o w there is only s e c o n d g r o w t h forest. T h e same evidences m a y be seen in the upper S u r i n a m R i v e r and in C a y e n n e near the coast. T h e s a v a n n a h region of the interior is fit for g r a z i n g cattle and for h o r s e - b r e e d i n g , but at present there is n o possible w a y of b r i n g i n g the animals to the c o a s t . T h e r e is, however, a project for a r a i l w a y to the interior of B r i t i s h G u i a n a , which will p r o b a b l y g i v e the necessary facilities, and be useful in other w a y s to g o l d - d i g g e r s and b a l a t a - b r e e d e r s , as well as to the w o o d c u t t e r . P r o b a b l y in the future water p o w e r from the numerous falls and rapids will assist in d e v e l o p i n g the interior of the c o u n t r y . Possibly the most striking features about the country are the w o r k of its rivers. E v e r y w h e r e there has been denudation, and on e v e r y hand g r a v e l s , sands, and c l a y s indicate that the w o r k has been g o i n g on for a g e s . H a r d l y a n y t h i n g like the slow, m e a n d e r i n g streams of some other countries is to be seen ; on the contrary, the r a g i n g torrent is e v e r y where, rising at times forty feet, to scour the river bank, c a r r y off bushes and trees, and batter down e v e r y t h i n g that stands in its w a y . W h e n the flood is h i g h trees will c o m e down and float out to sea, where they have been mistaken at a distance for w r e c k s .

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

W h e n , on the contrary, they a r e thrown ashore b y the tide, they help to protect the c o a s t . T h e river b a n k s a r e protected b y n a t u r a l palisades of a giant arum, s e v e r a l kinds of thorny bushes, a n d the stilted m a n g r o v e . T h e a r u m is Montrichardia arborescens, the m o c c a - m o c c a of the colonists, which rises to a height of twenty feet, t a p e r i n g f r o m the base, where it is six inches in diameter, to a b o u t a n inch below its c r o w n of a r r o w - s h a p e d l e a v e s . T h e s e stems a r e clustered b y thousands in the shallows, e x t e n d i n g e v e r y w h e r e b e y o n d the influence of salt water to form b r e a k w a t e r s , not only for the river banks but for islands as well where they g e n e r a l l y face the s t r e a m s . T h e m a n g r o v e prefers b r a c k i s h water, a n d g e n e r a l l y continues the w o r k d o w n to the s e a . T h e coast is protected b y the courida (Avicennia nitida). A g o o d line of these trees, with their interlaced roots, will withstand the o r d i n a r y tidal forces, a n d in time drive b a c k the waves as it extends o u t ward. B u t there is no stability about currents, for they a r e continually c h a n g i n g . A t one place land is b e i n g m a d e u p , in others g r e a t slices a r e c a r r i e d a w a y , a n d the r u s h i n g tide uses the fallen trees a s b a t t e r i n g rams to b r e a k down other portions of the natural r a m p a r t . We m a y safely state that, notwithstanding every now a n d a g a i n a n estate has to be a b a n d o n e d because of its difficulties with sea defences, the shores a r e b e i n g continually extended a little. This making up of land is, however, most conspicuous in the g r e a t rivers, where, within our m e m o r y , islands have been formed ; D a u n t l e s s Island is an e x a m p l e , a t the mouth of the E s s e q u e b o . O n the other hand, t h e little town of N i c k e r i e , on the D u t c h side of the

GUIANA

C o r e n t y n e , has been taken over by the sea, r e q u i r i n g a new town to be built farther inland. This was the o n l y part of D u t c h G u i a n a w h e r e a settlement c a m e so near the coast, and, like G e o r g e t o w n , which is in a similar position, it has h a d a hard s t r u g g l e . T h e capital of British G u i a n a has, however, succeeded in d e f e n d i n g itself by a massive sea wall, thus saving itself from the fate of N i c k e r i e . It is an interesting fact that, whereas the D u t c h in what is now B r i t i s h G u i a n a initiated a system of r e c l a i m i n g land on the coast, they did not attempt such an arduous task in Surinam. T h e c h a n g e s of the incidence of the w a s h on the coast are quite evident off the G e o r g e t o w n sea w a l l . A t one time there is a sandy beach, and a y e a r o r so later oozy m u d . A t the eastern point the b e a c h is sometimes so hard that a m a n m a y ride over it at low water, later it is so soft that the feet of a pedestrian will sink at e v e r y s t e p . O n account of these c h a n g e s there are also differences in the amount of a n i m a l life as w e l l as in the species to be f o u n d . A few years a g o the anemones were to be o b s e r v e d in pools between the stones ; later these pools were filled with sand, to be followed by m u d . N o coral is found in this m u d d y water and but few living molluscs, but dead shells are thrown up on the b e a c h in m a n y places, whence they are taken to m a k e u p the country roads, after m i x i n g with burnt c l a y . A r t e s i a n wells have been b o r e d in m a n y places to a depth of about two hundred feet. T h e strata, as m i g h t be expected, consist of clay, sand, a n d finely broken shells, m o r e or less m i x e d with d e c a y e d w o o d . T h e s e show that the alternations of m u d and sand have g o n e on for a g e s , but there does not seem to be a n y r e g u l a r order in the deposits, for a stratum

DESCRIPTION AND GEOLOGY

of sand, seventy feet thick, will come between fourteen a n d three feet layers of clay, the sand p r e d o m i n a t i n g . T h e water o b t a i n e d is i m p r e g n a t e d with chlorides of sodium a n d m a g n e s i u m , so as to be unfit for domestic use ; it has, however, been found valuable on cattle f a r m s . O n account of the l a r g e proportion of iron it was at one time r e c o m m e n d e d as a c u r a t i v e a g e n t , a n d a spa w a s started in G e o r g e t o w n . On exposure to the air a pellicle of ferric oxide f o r m s on the top, r e n d e r i n g the w e l l s a n d tanks unsightly ; but the w a t e r is not unwholesome, especially after some of the iron has been eliminated in this w a y . T h e g r e a t d r a w b a c k to all the soils is the s m a l l amount of lime they contain ; a little is n a t u r a l l y derived from the slow decomposition of shells, but this must be supplemented o n the plantations b y importations from B a r b a d o s . S o m e of the islands off C a y e n n e are the resort of immense n u m b e r s of sea-birds, the phosphatic deposits of which are b e i n g utilised. T h e swamps behind the settled shores of B r i t i s h G u i a n a and in the low lands of the other colonies m a y be c o n s i d e r e d as tropical b o g s . Instead of mosses, we h a v e giant sclerias, s e d g e s with sawlike teeth (hence c a l l e d r a z o r - g r a s s e s ) on the m a r g i n s of the leaves and on the k e e l s . T h e s e g r o w u p in the water, g i v i n g the effect of a pasture to! what is really a s h a l l o w l a k e . T h e l a k e l i k e expanse is, however, only visible when, after a d r o u g h t , the r a z o r g r a s s is burnt down to mere b l a c k e n e d tufts, to a g a i n sprout with the floods. B e l o w these s w a m p s is a stratum of peat called p e g a s s , w h i c h burns with a steady g l o w and leaves a red ash, due to ferric o x i d e . T h e s e s w a m p s are m a i n l y the result of rampant v e g e t a t i o n which g r o w s into the c r e e k s that provide

GUIANA

natural outlets for the h e a v y r a i n f a l l . MarantaceĂŚ a n d p r i c k l y palms are c o m m o n on the m a r g i n s of these streams, and d u r i n g the d r y seasons they e x t e n d b y m e a n s of suckers until l a r g e c l u m p s extend f r o m either side and contract the channels, sometimes c h o k i n g them a l t o g e t h e r . M u c h of the land now c o v e r e d b y the r a z o r - g r a s s was once forest, but when the d r a i n a g e was c h o k e d the trees g r a d u a l l y died off a n d sank down to help in f o r m i n g the b e d of p e g a s s . T h e s e places m a y be drained a n d cultivated where the deposit is not too d e e p , but the p e g a s s alone is not fertile. H o w e v e r , deep cultivation will in m a n y places b r i n g up the lower stratum of clay, which, mixed with the pegass, will, after w e a t h e r i n g , produce g o o d c r o p s .

INDIAN'S AT

HOME. To face p. 41.

CHAPTER HISTORY—ABORIGINES

AND PIONEER T O 1665

SETTLEMENT

Prehistoric relics—Pottery — Timehri rocks — Kitchen-middens — Indian tribes—Population—Caribs—Aravvaks—Warows—A noman's-land — Ralegh — Keymis's voyage — Dutch traders — Spanish raid—English settlement in Oyapok—Harcourt takes possession for England — Grant of King James I. — Guiana Company—Captain Marshall in Surinam—Lord Willoughby plants a colony in Surinam—Jews and French in Surinam— Grant to Lord Willoughby—Growth of Surinam under the English—French attempts to settle—Cayenne—The Rouen Company—The Cape North Company—Bretigny the madman — Utter failure of French settlement — New Company with grant of the whole of Guiana—Attempt to settle—Mismanagement and failure—Dutch and Jews occupy Cayenne—Promising colony—French Equinoctial Company dispossess the D u t c h — Cayenne put on a better footing—Dutch West India Company —Essequebo—Dutch traders—Berbice—Treaty of Munster— Dutch settlement in the Pomeroon by Jews—Position of the claimants to Guiana in 1665. G U I A N A a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n first p o p u l a t e d b y one or more migrating

tribes, who

probably

Mexico through Central America.

came

from

T h e y w e r e in the

neolithic s t a g e , for, with the e x c e p t i o n of a f e w rather fine

quartz c h i p p e d a r r o w - h e a d s , all the

found and

are

polished.

throughout

the

very

high

These country

type,

implements now 41

and

implements

beautifully are again,

formed

picked

especially

GUIANA

after heavy rains or floods, as well as at depths of several feet by g o l d - d i g g e r s . Besides these scattered specimens, several fine lots h a v e been unearthed on the M a h a i c a and C o r e n t y n e R i v e r s , which appear to indicate that there w e r e factories of such implements in different localities. S o m e v e r y fine specimens have been picked u p on the S a n d Hills, D e m e r a r a R i v e r , which point to that place h a v i n g once h a d a w o r k m a n of some excellence on or n e a r the spot. G r a v e s a r e not common, but some human bones and other relics, found in c l e a r i n g s u g a r estates on the east coast of D e m e r a r a , point to the possibility of there h a v i n g been burial-places in these localities. Unfortunately, however, the people w h o discovered the remains when d i g g i n g k n e w n o t h i n g of the value of a proper investigation. A t Counani, however, two g r a v e s were found, f r o m which fine specimens of pottery, almost intact, w e r e obtained. M o s t of the relics of the primitive inhabitants are found in kitchen-middens on s a n d - r e e f s in the district between the O r i n o c o and the E s s e q u e b o . S o m e of these form l a r g e mounds, 20 feet or m o r e in diameter and as high, which, on excavation, are found to contain human and animal bones, shells of molluscs, broken pottery, pebbles in course of manufacture, and m o r e or less worn and d a m a g e d implements. T h e pottery consists of f r a g m e n t s , in some cases d e c o r a t e d with patterns found on b a s k e t - w o r k of the present day, and of figured handles a n d ornaments similar to those found in M e x i c o and P e r u . They are of two distinct types, the more ornate, and possibly the older, h a v i n g incised lines p r o b a b l y done by a pointed stick, the others r o u g h l y moulded by the fingers. A m o n g them the most c o m m o n figures are f r o g s and grotesque human heads, with a fair number

HISTORY

r e c o g n i s a b l e as the k i n g vulture, so w e l l k n o w n to students of M e x i c a n relics. It will be as w e l l to mention here that the Indian of t o - d a y m a k e s only a plain earthen pot, rarely o r n a m e n t e d with a few w a v y lines or painted in a v e r y rude manner. R o u g h animal figures are, h o w ever, c a r v e d at the ends of their w o o d e n benches and on d a n c i n g sticks. M a z e and cross patterns of a h i g h order are conspicuous on b a s k e t - w o r k and the bead aprons of the w o m e n . T h e only other relics of antiquity are the T i m e h r i r o c k s . T h e s e are found about the rapids of the g r e a t rivers, and consist of e n g r a v e d figures s u g g e s t i n g human forms, the sun, f r o g s , snakes, lizards, and turtles. A s a similar e n g r a v e d r o c k has been found in M e x i c o , which m a y be a record of the h a l t i n g place of some primitive w a n d e r i n g tribe, it has been s u g g e s t e d that those in G u i a n a and on the R i o N e g r o have been cut for a similar purpose. T h e r e are, however, difficulties in a c c o u n t i n g for such elaborate w o r k s by a people whose implements a p p e a r to have been unequal to e n g r a v i n g on h a r d primitive r o c k s . W e have, however, in the B . G . M u s e u m , a stone pick, which s u g g e s t s that this difficulty was not so g r e a t as might a p p e a r at first s i g h t . T h e kitchen middens are entirely w a n t i n g in Indian settlements of t o - d a y ; in fact, n o t h i n g like such a population as is s u g g e s t e d n o w exists a n y w h e r e in Guiana. T h e collection of sheds, o r benabs, which constitutes an Indian v i l l a g e , and which is continually b e i n g c h a n g e d f r o m one site to another, c o u l d never produce such a l a r g e r u b b i s h - h e a p . If, however, we can credit some of the early writers, there must have been a fairly dense population in C a r i b a n a , the name of the north-west coast.

GUIANA

M a j o r John Scott, w r i t i n g in 1 6 6 5 , said that the most numerous of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;nationsâ&#x20AC;? w a s the C a r i b s , and that the coast of G u i a n a had as m a n y as 4 2 , 8 0 0 families. If we take this to m e a n an Indian family as we k n o w it, with the two or three heads, sons-inlaw, and their children, h a r d l y less than twelve, we have over half a million of this tribe alone. B u t , even a l l o w i n g for cannibalism, w e can hardly accept such an evidently crude estimate. H i s estimate of the A r a w a k s as 8,000 families and the W a r r o w s 5,400 is quite as u n r e l i a b l e ; possibly, h o w e v e r , of other tribes 4,000 persons m a y be n e a r l y correct, and if we s a y persons instead of families for the others we shall be not far w r o n g . H o w e v e r , such estimates must necessarily be only g u e s s w o r k , yet they s u g g e s t that the early v o y a g e r found a much denser population on the coast of G u i a n a than c a n be found n o w a n y w h e r e in South A m e r i c a . O f the three coast tribes the C a r i b s , called Galibis b y the F r e n c h , were certainly the most warlike, and it is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d that they were c a n n i b a l s . If we take the kitchen-middens as representing the refuse of their c o o k i n g , we m a y say that they lived mainly on molluscs and fish, g a m e b e i n g scarce near the coast and human flesh only procurable in w a r . N o proper h u n t i n g - g r o u n d s , and therefore no r e g u l a r meat supply, was p r o b a b l y the reason w h y h u m a n flesh was eaten. Cannibalism, however, could h a r d l y have been the rule, for human remains form but a small portion of the refuse. T h e C a r i b s were undoubtedly very s t r o n g and fierce. W h e t h e r they were a later m i g r a t i o n than the other tribes is d o u b t f u l ; the A r o w a k s informed the S p a n i a r d s that the C a r i b s were the original inhabitants, and that they (the A r o w a k s ) came a l o n g

PRIMITIVE INDIAN IN FESTIVE DRESS. To face p. 45.

HISTORY

the coast and at first w e r e friendly. B u t , finding these fierce people to be cannibals, they quarrelled and fought, so that on the discovery the Spaniards were asked to help in their defence. T h i s they sometimes did, thus g a i n i n g the enmity of the g u a r d i a n s of G u i a n a , who in their turn g o t help f r o m D u t c h and E n g l i s h , w h o w e r e then declared enemies of Spain. T h e A r o w a k s lived up the rivers and c r e e k s , w h e r e the men could hunt and fish and the w o m e n cultivate their cassava-fields in p e a c e . T h e i r enemies, h o w ever, often found t h e m out, and both tribes f o u g h t valiantly, the g e n e r a l result being that the A r o w a k was conquered or compelled to retire farther a w a y f r o m the coast. N o w that the C a r i b s are almost extinct, it is the less w a r l i k e people who have survived to form the bulk of the Indian population of t o - d a y . T h e W a r o w s w e r e the people who lived in trees, a c c o r d i n g to the old v o y a g e r s ; in fact, they build their huts on piles in places that are often inundated. T h e y do not a p p e a r to have taken part in the quarrels of the other tribes, but seem to have held their own in the delta of the O r i n o c o , living mainly on fish and the fruit of the E t a p a l m . T h e i r canoes or corials were considered the best in the country, and no doubt the C a r i b s found it to their a d v a n t a g e to k e e p on g o o d terms so as to be a b l e to purchase the best c r a f t . F r o m the situation of one of their v i l l a g e s , apparently in the water, Vespucci n a m e d their country Venezuela, or Little V e n i c e . G u i a n a seems to have been n e g l e c t e d by the S p a n i a r d s , partly, n o doubt, f r o m its position on the frontiers of B r a z i l . T h e r e is a record of an attempt to settle in the R i v e r B a r i m a in 1 5 3 0 , by P e d r o de A c o s t a , who was driven off by the C a r i b s , and of

GUIANA

two or three raids in search of cassava bread ; otherwise the country w a s left a l o n e . T h e s e a r c h for E l D o r a d o , the g i l d e d k i n g of M a n o a , h a r d l y belongs to G u i a n a , except so far as it led to R a l e g h ' s v o y a g e s . A t first this mythical city was located up the O r i n o c o , and later in the interior of G u i a n a , but as the story has been so often told, we will only state that R a l e g h ' s first v o y a g e , 1 5 9 5 , a n d the publication of â&#x20AC;&#x153; T h e D i s coverie of G u i a n a â&#x20AC;? m a d e k n o w n the country to E u r o p e , and induced D u t c h , E n g l i s h , and F r e n c h traders to sail into its rivers. T h e v o y a g e of C a p t a i n K e y m i s , 1 5 9 6 , however, did m o r e than that of R a l e g h , for he g a v e the first list of the rivers to be seen in sailing a l o n g the coast. T o h i m we are indebted for something like a detailed account of the country, which, t o g e t h e r with the information g a t h e r e d in C a p t a i n B e r r i e ' s v o y a g e in the f o l l o w i n g y e a r , left little of the coast-line u n k n o w n . T h e publication of accounts of these v o y a g e s , translated into several l a n g u a g e s , including Latin, soon induced adventurers of other nations to undertake t r a d i n g v o y a g e s to this c a n n i b a l land on the g r e a t wild coast. T h e first traders were D u t c h , w h o since their revolt f r o m Spain found it difficult to g e t tobacco, for w h i c h they a l r e a d y had a g r e a t liking. In small vessels of fifty to a hundred tons they encountered the d a n g e r s of an ocean v o y a g e and the risk of destruction by their e n e m y . E v e r y effort was m a d e by the S p a n i a r d s to capture them and prevent their settling, but as S p a i n w a s v e r y w e a k on this side n o t h i n g could be done. A s e a r l y as 1 5 9 7 a S p a n i s h party captured five D u t c h m e n in a boat, who were t r a d i n g in the B a r i m a R i v e r , and at the same time they heard of m e n w h o w e r e clothed and fought with a r m s in the E s s e -

HISTORY

quebo, but not h a v i n g force e n o u g h to risk a fight, they did not stay l o n g a b o u t these rivers. O n l y one case is reported of a real attack on a t r a d i n g post. T h i s was in 1 6 1 3 , when t w e l v e men from T r i n i d a d , twenty f r o m the n e w town on the O r i n o c o , and a priest sailed f r o m T r i n i d a d to the Corentyne. H e r e there was a wooden fort thatched with p a l m - l e a v e s , occupied by a few D u t c h and C a r i b Indians, n e a r which w a s a t o b a c c o plantation. T h e S p a n i a r d s waited until n i g h t before a t t a c k i n g , a n d when the a l a r m w a s g i v e n by a d o g they called on the inmates to surrender. T h e D u t c h a n s w e r e d that they would rather die, and defended the place until the a t t a c k i n g p a r t y set it on fire. E v e n then the defenders refused to c o m e out, p r e f e r r i n g to die in the flames, only their C a r i b friends m a k i n g their escape. A b o u t the same y e a r F o r t K i j k - o v e r - a l , the parent of the colony of E s s e q u e b o , is said to have been erected. T h e r e is some doubt as to the exact date, but the evidence is fairly plain for 1 6 1 3 or 1 6 1 6 . A t this time the S p a n i a r d s at M a r g a r i t a and T r i n i d a d w e r e a s k i n g the M o t h e r C o u n t r y for assistance to drive the F l e m i n g s and E n g l i s h from their settlements, who w e r e said to have three or four flourishing settlements between the O r i n o c o and the A m a z o n s . N o t h i n g , however, was done, and the natural result followed: Spain lost a n y little c l a i m she had on Guiana. G o i n g b a c k a few y e a r s , w e find that the E n g l i s h were beforehand in a t t e m p t i n g a real settlement. W h e t h e r they purposely left the western portion to the N e t h e r l a n d s , on account of its nearness to the S p a n i s h settlements, is not quite certain, but it w a s in the O y a p o k , n o w the b o u n d a r y river between F r e n c h

GUIANA

G u i a n a a n d Brazil, where all the early E n g l i s h a d v e n turers started their colonies. F r o m the first the E n g l i s h w e r e more than traders, their idea being to plant tobacco, cotton, a n d other things, as well a s to purchase from the I n d i a n s . The E l Dorado m y t h had not yet been discountenanced altogether ; it followed, therefore, that g o l d - s e e k i n g w a s a m o n g the possibilities. In 1 6 0 4 C h a r l e s L e i g h sailed f r o m W o o l w i c h in the Olive Plant, a b a r k of fifty tons, c a r r y i n g fortysix men a n d b o y s . A r r i v i n g in the O y a p o k on the 22nd of M a y , they went u p to an Indian town, where they were received in a friendly manner a n d offered assistance in food, a n d g r a n t e d land in consideration for help if their Indian friends w e r e attacked by other tribes. H o u s e s were built, a n d the nucleus of a town n a m e d Mount H o w a r d established. Unfortunately, however, want of experience led to difficulties, and ultimately sickness carried off C a p t a i n L e i g h and several others before help could arrive from England. T h e relief ship w a s unfortunately lost in the W e s t Indies, and the remnant a b a n d o n e d the place, some in t w o D u t c h vessels a n d others in a French trader. F o r five y e a r s n o t h i n g further w a s done, but in 1 6 0 9 R o b e r t H a r c o u r t made a second attempt to colonise the O y a p o k . T h i s w a s on a l a r g e r scale than that of L e i g h , but his three ships were small, the largest of eighty a n d the others thirty-six a n d nine tons. T h e last had a c r e w of four m e n ; no wonder these people were called adventurers. T h e Indians w e r e well pleased to see them, and the chief of the town, C a r i p o , as well as t w o others, w h o h a d been in E n g l a n d , were able to act as interpreters. Using the names of R a l e g h a n d L e i g h , H a r c o u r t took

HISTORY

possession by t w i g and turf, i.e., c h o p p i n g a tree and d i g g i n g with his sword, and b e g a n an unsuccessful hunt for g o l d ; this possibly interfered with a proper settlement of his p e o p l e . H o w e v e r , he g o t a Patent in 1 6 1 3 f r o m K i n g J a m e s I. for all the country called G u i a n a , between the rivers A m a z o n and E s s e q u e b o . Sir W a l t e r R a l e g h touched the mouth of the O y a p o k on his last sad v o y a g e in 1 6 1 7 , where he found his old Indian servant L e o n a r d , who once lived with him in the T o w e r for three or four y e a r s . B y this time H a r c o u r t ' s colony had been abandoned, but two years later a n e w project w a s formed for a n A m a z o n C o m p a n y , with C a p t a i n R o g e r N o r t h as G o v e r n o r . K i n g J a m e s w a s then friendly with S p a i n , and hesitated when she protested a g a i n s t the licence, which, however, w a s g r a n t e d and then almost immediately r e v o k e d . N o r t h rushed off to G u i a n a before the revocation was published, and on his return with a c a r g o of t o b a c c o , he was imprisoned in the T o w e r and his vessel and c a r g o seized. A s , h o w e v e r , notwithstanding the protests of the S p a n i s h A m b a s sador, no proof could be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d that the c a r g o had been obtained f r o m Spanish territory, N o r t h was released after seven months, and his d a m a g e d t o b a c c o g i v e n u p . T h e d e l a y w a s disastrous to N o r t h ' s O y a p o k colony, and t h o u g h it still lingered on in a small w a y , it was further h a m p e r e d by fear of attacks f r o m the P o r t u g u e s e from B r a z i l , w h o , it must be r e m e m b e r e d , were then under the K i n g of Spain. H o w e v e r , it w a s reported that, in 1 6 2 3 , C a p t a i n N o r t h and some Irishmen b r o u g h t into E n g l a n d f r o m G u i a n a 28,000 l b . of t o b a c c o . In 1 6 2 6 a n e w A m a z o n C o m p a n y was projected to take over the rights of H a r c o u r t a n d N o r t h , a n d in the following y e a r a g r a n t was made to the C o m p a n y 4

GUIANA

of N o b l e m e n and Gentlemen of E n g l a n d for the Plantation of G u i a n a . A few of the old settlers w e r e still in the O y a p o k under M a s t e r John Christmas, and to these were now a d d e d a hundred E n g l i s h and Irish, who went out in a D u t c h vessel. In the t w o f o l l o w i n g years four vessels with two hundred colonists were sent, and the reports w e r e f a v o u r a b l e . F o r t s , buildings, and s u g a r - w o r k s w e r e b e i n g erected, and the Indians d o i n g all they could to feed and assist the colonists. T h e C o m p a n y , however, appears to have been much h a m p e r e d by want of m e a n s , and in 1 6 2 9 K i n g Charles I . w a s a s k e d to take the a d v e n turers and their plantation under his protection. If the K i n g would send out 3,000 men, with 100 pieces of ordnance and ammunition, transport the settlers and protect their estates, there was g r e a t probability of a profit of £ 5 0 , 0 0 0 per a n n u m . T h e prime cost was estimated at £ 4 8 , 0 0 0 , or £ 1 5 , 0 0 0 in ready money. T h e only result of this application appears to have been a licence to export four d r a k e s (small c a n n o n ) for the C o m p a n y to use in d e f e n d i n g their plantation. F r o m this time the O y a p o k colony seems to have been in difficulties. N o r t h appears to have lost his Patent, and was told he m i g h t have it a g a i n b y submitting to ecclesiastical and civil g o v e r n m e n t , for which no provision was m a d e . T h e n there were differences in the C o m p a n y ; some of the subscribers had paid n o t h i n g . C a p t a i n Bamfield c l a i m e d £ 3 0 0 and was informed that he would have £ 1 0 0 from the first m o n e y they received from arrears of a d v e n t u r e . In 1 6 3 8 G e o r g e Griffith, an E n g l i s h merchant, said that the old C o m p a n y was d o i n g nothing in G u i a n a , and he wanted protection for his private trade. If s o m e t h i n g w e r e not done to e n c o u r a g e adventurers,

HISTORY

the country would fall into the hands of the D u t c h and P o r t u g u e s e . T h e F r e n c h were also m a k i n g some poor attempts to found settlements, and this m a y h a v e h e l p e d to dishearten the E n g l i s h , w h o finally g a v e u p the O y a p o k , which, s t r a n g e to say, has never been settled d o w n to the present time. T h e failures in one river did not deter the E n g l i s h from m a k i n g further attempts. P e o p l e f r o m the O y a p o k started the first settlements in the W e s t Indies, S t . K i t t ' s , and B a r b a d o s ; the latter was indebted to G u i a n a for help in her first p l a n t i n g . F r o m there also c a m e some of the sixty E n g l i s h colonists w h o a c c o m p a n i e d C a p t a i n M a r s h a l l , w h o , in 1 6 3 0 , started a colony in S u r i n a m , which l i n g e r e d until about 1 6 4 5 , when, b e c o m i n g friendly with a party of F r e n c h m e n who h a d quarrelled with the Indians, they w e r e cut off or dispersed. C a p t a i n M a r s h a l l ' s colony seems to have h a d fair prospects, for a little town w a s laid out and n a m e d Tararica. T h i s b e c a m e the centre of the first r e a l colony in G u i a n a , the honour of f o u n d i n g which b e l o n g s to F r a n c i s , L o r d W i l l o u g h b y of P a r h a m , w h o in 1 6 5 0 b e c a m e G o v e r n o r o f B a r b a d o s . T h e S u r i n a m R i v e r was not quite deserted at that time, for a small colony of J e w s had taken refuge there about 1 6 4 4 , after the defeat of the D u t c h in B r a z i l . L i v i n g quietly, they s e e m to h a v e done little towards d e v e l o p i n g a real settlement, and when L o r d W i l l o u g h b y sent o v e r an e x p l o r i n g party they w e r e not e v e n mentioned. T h e remains of the F r e n c h fort stood on the site of what is n o w F o r t Z e e l a n d i a , and possibly there m a y h a v e been some ruined houses at T a r a r i c a , but M a r s h a l l ' s p e o p l e w e r e g o n e a n d not a F r e n c h m a n could be found. It remained, therefore, only to conciliate the Indians, which w a s soon

GUIANA

done, for the E n g l i s h had a l w a y s been on friendly terms with t h e m . T h e civil w a r in E n g l a n d b r o u g h t out to the W e s t Indies a fair n u m b e r of C a v a l i e r s , and the n e w colony of S u r i n a m w a s provided for their reception. T h e experience g a i n e d by so m a n y failures and the c o m p a r a t i v e prosperity of B a r b a d o s w e r e no doubt factors to be reckoned upon in establishing this new settlement. A g a i n , B a r b a d o s k n e w the value of the n e g r o , and was able to c o m m a n d a supply. Without his help S u r i n a m would almost certainly have g o n e the w a y of the other settlements ; by his aid it attained a fair measure of success. In 1 6 6 3 a g r a n t was m a d e to L o r d W i l l o u g h b y of a tract of land between the R i v e r s S a r a m a c c a and M a r o w y n e , includi n g the watersheds of the S u r i n a m and C o m m o w i j n e R i v e r s , to be called W i l l o u g h b y L a n d . F r o m a report to the S e c r e t a r y of State, m a d e in N o v e m b e r , 1 6 6 3 , it appears that the country w a s b e c o m i n g populous, h a v i n g a l r e a d y 4,000 inhabitants, with fresh arrivals c o m i n g w e e k l y . D u r i n g the previous two months nine vessels had been cons i g n e d there, and if the E n g l i s h nation were really informed of the g o o d n e s s of the country, there would soon be thousands more settlers. T h e chief c o m modity was s u g a r , as g o o d as could be m a d e , a n d w e r e the planters supplied with plenty of n e g r o e s , â&#x20AC;&#x153; the strength and sinews of that W e s t e r n world, they would a d v a n c e their fortunes and his M a j e s t y ' s customs.â&#x20AC;? S o m e of the settlers were b r e e d i n g cattle, and there was a store of excellent fish. T h e inhabitants were v e r y generous and o b l i g i n g , the country healthy and fruitful, the air moderately hot, and the natives at peace with the E n g l i s h . T h e town of T a r a r i c a was on M a r s h a l l ' s C r e e k , and

HISTORY

consisted of about a hundred houses, a G o v e r n m e n t building, and a c h u r c h . L i k e B a r b a d o s , the colony w a s a little E n g l a n d , h a v i n g parishes, and a G o v e r n ment on the lines of the h o m e P a r l i a m e n t , with at one time a P r o t e c t o r ' s and at another a K i n g ' s representat i v e . C a v a l i e r s a n d R o u n d h e a d s h a d their quarrels, and one or t w o malcontents w e r e b a n i s h e d . O n e of the republicans went so far as to stab L o r d W i l l o u g h b y when on a visit, but fortunately the wound was not mortal. A c c o r d i n g to W a r r e n , whose account of the E n g l i s h c o l o n y is very quaint, â&#x20AC;&#x153; the G o v e r n m e n t is M o n a r c h i c a l , an imitation of ours, by a G o v e r n o r , Council, and A s s e m b l y ; the laws of E n g l a n d a r e also theirs, to which are a d d e d some b y Constitutions no less o b l i g i n g , p r o p e r to the conveniences of that Country.â&#x20AC;? A t this s t a g e it will be w e l l to trace the d e v e l o p ment of F r e n c h G u i a n a , which, h o w e v e r , as we shall see, has a l w a y s b e e n behind the others. Possibly it was m o r e a m a t t e r of honour than a n y t h i n g else that led F r e n c h m e n to settle in the c o u n t r y . Where the D u t c h c a m e only to trade, and the E n g l i s h to trade and settle, the F r e n c h a p p e a r to have d o n e neither, the result t o - d a y b e i n g a d i s g r a c e to the country. C a y e n n e has been the F r e n c h m a n ' s g o a l from the b e g i n n i n g , and he has been most pertinacious in c l i n g i n g to that poor s p o t . It is reported that as early as 1 6 1 3 , 1 6 0 families settled there. L i k e the later colonists, they q u a r r e l l e d with the Indians ; not b e i n g a b l e to g e t on without native help, most of them perished a n d the remnant left. T w o years later 280 people from Z e e l a n d tried to settle on the same spot with similar results. N o doubt the Indians were influenced b y evil treatment at the

GUIANA

b e g i n n i n g , a n d retaliated on people of a n y nation that a r r i v e d there. T h e s e C a r i b s or G a l i b i s w e r e a l w a y s one of the causes of non-success in C a y e n n e . S o m e merchants of R o u e n , w h o h a d been t r a d i n g a l o n g the coast for some y e a r s , in 1 6 2 4 left t w e n t y six persons in the R i v e r S i n a m a r y to collect produce from the Indians, but for some reason or other this little t r a d i n g factory w a s not a s u c c e s s . T w o y e a r s later a c o l o n y was started on the C o n a n a m a , for the protection of which a fort was e r e c t e d a n d an a r m e d vessel p r o v i d e d . V e r y little is k n o w n of this, but it p r o b a b l y went the w a y of the o t h e r s . S o m e F r e n c h adventurers tried to a g a i n settle C a y e n n e in 1 6 3 1 , but, as usual, they g o t m i x e d u p with the I n d i a n quarrels a n d ultimately b e c a m e dispersed or d e stroyed. T h e most disastrous of the F r e n c h projects was the C a p e N o r t h C o m p a n y , formed at R o u e n in 1 6 4 3 . T h r e e or four hundred m e n were sent out, u n d e r the c o m m a n d of the Sieur de B r e t i g n y , who c a n o n l y be described as a m a d m a n . A s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , he q u a r r e l l e d with the Indians at o n c e , who, of course, retaliated. H e seems to have h a d a continual fear that some one would m u r d e r him, w h i c h was h a r d l y wonderful when he punished the poor F r e n c h m e n with a refinement of torture o n l y possible to a d e p r a v e d m i n d . T h e g a l l o w s , the g i b b e t , a n d the wheel were not e n o u g h ; he must invent other cruelties, w h i c h he called p u r g a t o r y a n d h e l l . H e a s k e d his people to tell their d r e a m s , a n d punished them if these were not to his l i k i n g . O n e of them d r e a m e d he s a w the G o v e r n o r dead, o n which he was b r o k e n on the wheel, for B r e t i g n y a r g u e d that the thought of m u r d e r must h a v e been in the d r e a m e r ' s m i n d . A t last his temper b e c a m e

HISTORY

u n b e a r a b l e , and most of his people took refuge a m o n g the Indians, a few for g r e a t e r security g o i n g to S u r i n a m , where they built their fort near the Indian v i l l a g e of P a r a m a r i b o . B r e t i g n y was not satisfied with these desertions to the Indians, for he n a t u r a l l y e x p e c t e d the refugees w o u l d incite the cannibals to come and attack h i m . T a k i n g some of his m y r m i d o n s , he therefore went up the river a n d d e m a n d e d that the r u n a w a y s b e given up. T h i s b e i n g refused, his people fired on the Indians from the boat, but the red men, f r o m the c o v e r of trees a n d bushes, poured a shower of a r r o w s a n d killed e v e r y one of the p a r t y . Finally, b r i n g i n g the bodies ashore, they were m a d e the occasion of a g r e a t c a n n i b a l feast a n d d a n c e . T h e Indians, h o w e v e r , did not f o l l o w up their victory by a g e n e r a l m a s s a c r e , as they could easily have done, but offered peace if the whites would leave them alone. T h i s they were quite w i l l i n g to do n o w their tyrant was d e a d . As, however, all hopes of success were g o n e , the settlers left in despair, some for the n e w F r e n c h c o l o n y at S t . K i t t s . Very few remained, and most of these were a d o p t e d b y the I n d i a n s . A small n u m b e r of B r e t i g n y â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s people went b a c k to F r a n c e , w h e r e a g e n t l e m a n of N o r m a n d y n a m e d D e R o y v i l l e h e a r d from them of the fertility of G u i a n a and its suitability for plantations. With some of his friends, he g o t up a c o m p a n y and a subscription of e i g h t thousand c r o w n s . O t h e r s were induced to join, and finally, in 1 6 5 2 , the K i n g g r a n t e d Letters Patent for the C a p e N o r t h or E q u i n o c t i a l C o m p a n y , with the exclusive right of t r a d i n g a n d settling in G u i a n a between the A m a z o n and the Orinoco. T h e R o u e n C o m p a n y , whose rights were

GUIANA

thus infringed, had not entirely a b a n d o n e d C a y e n n e , a l t h o u g h they hardly got e n o u g h to pay the cost of a n occasional t r a d i n g v o y a g e . H e a r i n g of this new C o m p a n y , however, they hurriedly sent off a supply of g o o d s and sixty men, who arrived more than three months before their r i v a l s . W i t h these supplies the fort was put in o r d e r and the few inhabitants were a b l e to extend their o p e r a t i o n s . T h e new C o m p a n y got together about eight hundred people, under the c o m m a n d of D e R o y v i l l e , and in July, 1 6 5 2 , left H a v r e in two vessels, a r m e d with twenty-six and thirty-six g u n s . On a c c o u n t of a l o n g v o y a g e of nearly three months the provisions were reduced, a n d short a l l o w a n c e s c a u s e d a mutiny, in which the leader was k i l l e d . A t last, however, they a r r i v e d at C a y e n n e , where the settlers took the vessels for promised supplies from the R o u e n C o m p a n y , and under this mistake six of the chief m e n went off to g i v e them a w e l c o m e . T h e y were civilly detained a n d o b l i g e d to send for the c o m m a n d e r of the fort, who, h a v i n g no p o w e r to resist, w a s c o m p e l l e d to s u r r e n d e r . T h e n e w arrivals were under a dozen heads or â&#x20AC;&#x153; lords,â&#x20AC;? who soon b e g a n to quarrel a m o n g t h e m selves ; four w e r e arrested, one of w h o m was executed and the other three put on one of the islands until a n opportunity served for the A n t i l l e s . Two of the r e m a i n i n g lords died, but even with six things w e r e m i s m a n a g e d w o r s e than e v e r . T h e peace with the Indians w a s broken ; the new arrivals plundered their p r o v i s i o n - g r o u n d s and took a w a y some of them as s l a v e s . T h i s meant war ; the o u t l y i n g settlements were burnt ; those who e s c a p e d took refuge in the fort, where no provision supply h a d been stored, and none could be g o t on account of the Indians

HISTORY

h a v i n g control of e v e r y t h i n g outside. F a m i n e and disease carried off a g r e a t number, and at last the remnant went off in leaky boats to S u r i n a m , where they were h e l p e d on their w a y to the W e s t I n d i e s , T h u s the colony was entirely deserted, e v e r y t h i n g in the fort, i n c l u d i n g g u n s , ammunition, and merchandise, h a v i n g to be a b a n d o n e d . In 1 6 5 6 a n u m b e r of D u t c h and J e w s took p o s s e s sion of C a y e n n e . B y k e e p i n g on g o o d terms with the Indians they very soon put the n e w settlement on a fair b a s i s . B u t the F r e n c h h a d not entirely g i v e n up the idea of a G u i a n a colony, notwithstanding their m a n y failures, and in 1 6 6 3 the French E q u i n o c t i a l C o m p a n y for colonising the country between the A m a z o n a n d O r i n o c o was p r o j e c t e d . T h e G o v e r n o r was M . de la B a r r e , and in F e b r u a r y , 1 6 6 4 , five vessels, with two hundred colonists a n d two m e n - o f - w a r , sailed f r o m R o c h e l l e . T h e y arrived off C a y e n n e on the 1 1 t h of M a y and c o m p e l l e d the D u t c h c o l o n y to surrender. A t first the Indians were p r e p a r e d to fight, but finding that the n e w colonists were m o r e reasonable than the other F r e n c h men, they offered their friendship a n d a l l i a n c e . U l t i m a t e l y an a g r e e m e n t w a s d r a w n up, which, b e i n g respected b y both parties, prevented further trouble. T h e F r e n c h c o l o n y was n o w able to follow the lead of its n e i g h b o u r , a n d m a y be c o n s i d e r e d as h a v i n g m a d e a fair start. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, it g o t a b a d n a m e f r o m the first, a n d later mistakes h a v e only tended to confirm it. H a v i n g dealt with the E n g l i s h and French failures a n d disasters, we must n o w return to the D u t c h , w h o m we left as traders with one small factory in E s s e q u e b o . T h e E n g l i s h and French settlements were mostly in the hands

GUIANA

of companies, many of them very small ; but we have now to deal with a D u t c h C o m p a n y which was of some c o n s e q u e n c e . A n d where these other c o m panies were f o r m e d of private persons and supposed to be at peace, the D u t c h W e s t India C o m p a n y was intended to fight as well as c a r r y on a n i l l e g i t i m a t e trade with the Spanish possessions. D o w n to 1 6 4 8 the N e t h e r l a n d s were at w a r with Spain, a n d the C o m p a n y was e m p o w e r e d to maintain a r m i e s a n d fleets, to build forts, to c a r r y on w a r , and m a k e treaties. T h e a r e a of its jurisdiction w a s both sides of the Atlantic, the west coast of A f r i c a , and east of A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g G u i a n a . A t one time it possessed almost the whole of B r a z i l , on the conquest of which it spent about ÂŁ4,000,000, arid in its operations d a m a g e d Spain to the extent of about ÂŁ 17,000,000. S u c h was the C o m p a n y which in 1 6 2 1 was c h a r t e r e d and which a y e a r or two later took o v e r the E s s e q u e b o t r a d i n g f a c t o r y . T h e first official c o m m a n d e r of K i j k - o v e r - a l was J a c o b Canijn, who c a r r i e d on the post until 1 6 2 7 . T h e r e appears to have been private traders in E s s e q u e b o as well as those of the C o m p a n y , and a m o n g them w a s o n e A e r t A d r i a e n t z van G r o e n w e g e n , who is said to h a v e built the F o r t K i j k - o v e r - a l , and was a f t e r w a r d s c o m mander. H e seems to have often g o n e to l o n g distances on his t r a d i n g expeditions, a n d is said to h a v e lived here f o r t y - e i g h t years, d y i n g at the a g e of e i g h t y - t h r e e . In n o other part of G u i a n a w a s there a n y t h i n g to equal these journeys from the Essequebo factory. In 1 6 2 7 the W e s t India C o m p a n y g a v e permission to A b r a h a m van P e e r e or Perez of Vlissingen to colonise the R i v e r B e r b i c e . Under the a g r e e m e n t , b y which forty men and twenty boys

HISTORY

were a l l o w e d to g o , the settlers had the right to establish a fort at some place suitable for t r a d i n g a n d to do e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y to the interests of the colony as l o n g as they did not settle or trade in E s s e q u e b o or a n y other river where the C o m p a n y h a d a settlement. T h u s the colony of B e r b i c e was started, but as yet there was no real D u t c h settlement in G u i a n a . T h e W e s t India C o m p a n y h a d its hands full in other directions a n d d i d n o t h i n g for E s s e q u e b o ; it w a s e v e n proposed to a b a n d o n it in 1 6 3 2 , but some of the directors b e i n g in favour of its retention, it w a s kept u p . N o doubt its unprofitableness was due to the fact that the o r i g i n a l traders, who h a d been there before the C o m p a n y was formed, had the pick of the t r a d e . It was in 1 6 2 7 that the infant c o l o n y of B a r b a d o s g o t help from E s s e q u e b o . Thirty A r a w a k Indians were b r o u g h t to teach the E n g l i s h h o w to plant cassava, y a m s , and other g r o u n d p r o visions ; thus c o m m e n c e d a n intimate connection between G u i a n a and B a r b a d o s , w h i c h has been of the greatest importance to both down to the present d a y . It has been s u g g e s t e d that the Courteens, w h o founded the island colony, were also interested in the E s s e q u e b o trade, and perhaps the e m p l o y e r s of V a n G r o e n w e g e n , w h o is said to have been a friend of C a p t a i n P o w e l l , the leader of the B a r b a d o s pioneers. I n 1 6 4 8 the T r e a t y of M u n s t e r was s i g n e d and the w a r between S p a i n and the N e t h e r l a n d s c a m e to an e n d . T h e main occupation of the W e s t Indian C o m p a n y was n o w g o n e , but its losses in B r a z i l w e r e so great that little c o u l d be done to develop its t r a d e . Its only resource was n o w the b r i n g i n g of slaves from its A f r i c a n factories to A m e r i c a , but few were yet

GUIANA

b r o u g h t to E s s e q u e b o . T h e factory did not pay expenses, and at last, in 1 6 5 7 , the C o m p a n y decided to a b a n d o n it. T h e r e were, however, a few of the directors in favour of its retention, and they a g r e e d to take it over as a fief a n d to p a y ÂŁ 1 2 5 a n n u a l l y from the profits on a n a t t o . T h e n e w owners were the B u r g o m a s t e r s and directors of the C o m p a n y in the three Z e e l a n d towns of M i d d e l b u r g , Vlissingen, a n d V e r e ; they at once decided to do s o m e t h i n g towards f o u n d i n g a real settlement. P r o b a b l y they saw what L o r d W i l l o u g h b y was d o i n g in S u r i n a m , and thought they c o u l d do as m u c h in their own possession. A s E s s e q u e b o , near the fort, w a s not quite suitable, the R i v e r P o m e r o o n was chosen as the site for an entirely n e w settlement, n a m e d N o v a Z e e l a n d i a . T h e most prominent m o v e r was a Jewish merchant, D a v i d N a s s y ; b y his influence a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e m a d e to transport J e w s from the N e t h e r l a n d s a n d to supply slaves f r o m A f r i c a , at a cost of 1 5 0 g u i l d e r s e a c h . Inducements in the shape of free land a n d slaves on easy credit terms were offered, with the result that a f a i r b e g i n n i n g was m a d e . T w o towns were laid out (on p a p e r ) , but it does not a p p e a r that they ever g o t b e y o n d that s t a g e . A small fort was, however, erected a n d a deputy c o m m a n d e r appointed, who w a s under the C o m m a n d e r of E s s e q u e b o . S u g a r w a s g r o w n there, and first offered for sale at M i d d e l b u r g in 1 6 6 1 . N o w that each of the nations concerned in G u i a n a was fairly established, it will be well to review their position in 1 6 6 5 . T h e y all c l a i m e d the whole of the country from the O r i n o c o to the A m a z o n s , but were quite u n a b l e to d o more than o c c u p y a few places, even when supposed to control a l a r g e river

HISTORY

with its affluents. T h e s e settlements were then : B r i t i s h — S u r i n a m or W i l l o u g h b y L a n d ; D u t c h — A p r o u a g e , B e r b i c e , E s s e q u e b o , a n d P o m e r o o n ; and F r e n c h — C a y e n n e and S i n a m a r y . T h e British c o l o n y was of most importance, situated on the two R i v e r s S u r i n a m and C o m m e w i j n e , w h i c h join a few miles from the s e a . O n the site of what is now F o r t Z e e l a n d i a was the fort built b y the F r e n c h , o c c u p i e d b y the E n g l i s h as a defence to the entrance of the R i v e r Surinam, but the Indian v i l l a g e of P a r a m a r i b o , close by, w a s not yet o c c u p i e d . T h e capital, T a r a r i c a , a town of about a hundred houses, was situated some fifty miles u p the river ; here w e r e G o v e r n m e n t buildings a n d a church. T h e plantations to the n u m b e r of five hundred were scattered up and down the rivers, the lowest b e i n g some twenty miles a b o v e the fort, which, therefore, could be easily cut off f r o m the colony b y an e n e m y . T h e names of the plantations s u g g e s t that there w e r e C a v a l i e r s , w h o c a l l e d them after t h e m selves, such as N e a l e , W i l k i n s , a n d T a l b o t , a n d R o u n d h e a d s , who affected B i b l e n a m e s like S u c c o t h , G i l g a l l , B e e r s h e b a , and G o s h e n . T h e s u g a r plantations n u m b e r e d a b o u t forty, some driven b y w i n d but the majority b y oxen or h o r s e s . T h e land near the mouth of the river was c o n s i d e r e d less healthy, but near the town there w e r e savannahs, with plenty of g a m e . T h e only cattle were those used for the mills, h o g s did not thrive on account of v a m p i r e bats ; it followed, therefore, that meat c o u l d o n l y be obtained by h u n t i n g . L e a f - c u t t i n g ants were such pests in some places that it was difficult to plant j “ t h o u g h but little creatures,” said W a r r e n , “ yet they were so m a n y and hurtful that S u r i n a m h a d scarce a g r e a t e r trouble.” S o m e J e w s lived at what

GUIANA

was called the J e w s ' S a v a n n a h , a few miles b e y o n d the town, but these people were not so numerous as they b e c a m e later. T h e r e were no g o l d - s e e k e r s , but W a r r e n said the Indians told of m i g h t y princes in the interior, a n d g o l d e n cities, h o w true he k n e w not ; but, h o w e v e r that m i g h t be, it was a b r a v e country to a mind untainted with ambition and that c o u l d live a c c o r d i n g to N a t u r e . T h e F r e n c h colony of the â&#x20AC;&#x153; island â&#x20AC;? of C a y e n n e o c c u p i e d an i r r e g u l a r square of about twelve miles e a c h w a y , with a fort c a l l e d C e p e r o u or S t . L o u i s , near which were a few houses h a r d l y worth c a l l i n g a v i l l a g e . T h e inhabitants had small plantations, but few n e g r o e s to w o r k them ; this was one of the reasons w h y Indian quarrels c a m e about when their assistance was d e m a n d e d instead of b e i n g a s k e d for in a friendly w a y . T h e soil was h a r d l y rich e n o u g h for s u g a r , but cotton, tobacco, and anatto were g r o w n and exported. F r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g C a y e n n e w a s a poor colony, although, no doubt, it could have been m a d e v a l u a b l e . T h e D u t c h m a d e a fair start with the P o m e r o o n , but it was too e a r l y to predict its future. Essequebo and B e r b i c e were t r a d i n g factories with only a few settlers. T h e F o r t of B e r b i c e was a w o o d e n building, surrounded b y palisades, situated some fifty miles up the river, a n d the few plantations w e r e m a i n l y p r o v i s i o n - g r o u n d s for the supply of the traders and the petty g a r r i s o n . T h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y plots of cotton, t o b a c c o , a n d anatto, with perhaps some sugar. A n o t h e r small t r a d i n g post w a s in the A p r o u a g e , but it was never of any i m p o r t a n c e .

CHAPTER HISTORY—WARS

III

AND THEIR

RESULTS

War, England against the Netherlands and France—English raid on the Pomeroon and Essequebo—Dutch capture Surinam and recover Essequebo—English capture Cayenne—Surinam recaptured—Peace—Surinam given to the Dutch in exchange for New York—Difficulties of the English—Dutch refuse to let them leave—Another war—All the Guiana colonies ruined— Runaway negroes in Surinam—Slow restoration—Huguenots — Society of Surinam — Sommelsdijk — His character — Murdered by soldiers—War, England and the Netherlands against France—French corsairs in Cayenne—Du Casse repulsed from Surinam—Captures Berbice—Corsairs again— Capture of Surinam—Ransomed—Origin of bush negroes.

Now that the nations interested in G u i a n a h a d g o t o v e r their first difficulties, and each founded a real colony, it m i g h t be supposed that developments would have p r o c e e d e d without further trouble. H i t h e r t o , a l t h o u g h e a c h c l a i m e d the whole of the country, there had been no disputes except that for the possession of C a y e n n e . N o w , however, a E u r o pean w a r upset e v e r y t h i n g , and troubles of another kind b e g a n . E n g l a n d , in 1 6 6 5 , w a s pitted against the N e t h e r l a n d s and F r a n c e , with the result that i m mediately the G o v e r n o r of S u r i n a m c a p t u r e d a small D u t c h fort in the A p r o u a g e a n d a F r e n c h settlement in the S i n a m a r y . 63

GUIANA

E a r l y in 1 6 6 6 M a j o r John Scott was commissioned by L o r d W i l l o u g h b y to m a k e a raid upon the other D u t c h settlements, and by the help of the C a r i b s he c a p t u r e d and d e s t r o y e d that in the P o m e r o o n , a n d then went up the E s s e q u e b o and occupied F o r t Kijk-over-al. In his report he spoke of h a v i n g burnt the enemy's towns, forts, g o o d s , a n d settlements, to the value of ÂŁ 1 6 0 , 0 0 0 , and disbursed for the K i n g ' s service 7 3 , 7 8 8 pounds of m u s c o v a d o sugar. T h i s is p r o b a b l y a n e x a g g e r a t i o n , for he o c c u p i e d one of the forts, and n o doubt w a n t e d to justify his claim for the cost of the expedition. A n E n g l i s h privateer also a t t a c k e d B e r b i c e , but w a s repelled, then the p l u c k y D u t c h C o m m a n d e r of that river went over to E s s e q u e b o and recaptured K i j k over-al. O n r e c e i v i n g the news o f this E n g l i s h raid, the States of Z e e l a n d sent out a fleet of seven vessels a n d a thousand men under A b r a h a m C r y n n s e n , to join the F r e n c h at C a y e n n e and g o with t h e m to attack S u r i n a m . N o t finding the promised F r e n c h fleet, he went on and d e m a n d e d the surrender of the E n g l i s h c o l o n y . G o v e r n o r B y a m could get no help f r o m his people because the settlement was some fifty miles f r o m the fort, w h i c h stood on the site of the present F o r t Z e e l a n d i a , in front of which the D u t c h fleet was a n c h o r e d . A f t e r a little c o n sideration, he therefore surrendered, on condition that he and his soldiers should m a r c h forth with their a r m s and flying colours, and be at liberty to g o w h e r e they pleased. T h e G o v e r n o r hurried up to T a r a r i c a and summoned the Council and A s s e m b l y for advice as to surrender or further resistance. T h e s e bodies, however, were a g a i n s t fighting, for they w e r e not in a condition to resist such a p o w e r -

HISTORY

ful e n e m y . O w i n g to sickness, one-fourth of the ablest men h a d been swept a w a y , a n d of the r e mainder, a third w e r e w e a k and unfit for s e r v i c e . If they, stood out, the enemy w o u l d daily b u r n a n d destroy their habitations and settlements, and their, slaves w o u l d flee a w a y into the b u s h . F o r these and other reasons they advised a speedy a c c o m m o d a t i o n with the e n e m y before the e x p e c t e d F r e n c h fleet arrived. G o v e r n o r B y a m therefore did his best to g e t easy, terms, and after considerable d e l a y a n a g r e e m e n t w a s m a d e , the most important article, in v i e w of what h a p p e n e d later, b e i n g — “5.

In case any, inhabitant of the C o l o n y shall now or hereafter intend to depart hence, h e shall h a v e p o w e r to sell his estate, and the G o v e r n o u r in this case shall p r o c u r e that he be transported at a moderate freight, t o g e t h e r with his estate.”

H a v i n g , as the D u t c h said, “ t a u g h t the covetous Britons g o o d manners,” C r y n n s e n n a m e d the fort Z e e l a n d i a , and left a g a r r i s o n of 1 5 0 men, after which he p r o c e e d e d to B e r b i c e , where he found that E s s e q u e b o h a d been r e c o v e r e d . G o i n g on to K i j k - o v e r - a l , w h e r e he left t w o of his officers, he then p r o c e e d e d to the W e s t Indies, a n d thence home to boast of the “ g l o r i o u s ” capture of Surinam. T h e D u t c h fleet left S u r i n a m about the end of M a r c h , 1 6 6 7 , and in June f o l l o w i n g A d m i r a l H a r m o n arrived in B a r b a d o s f r o m E n g l a n d with a squadron of seven m e n - o f - w a r , t w o ketches, and two fireships. A f t e r a cruise a m o n g the islands he c a m e b a c k to B a r b a d o s , and it w a s d e c i d e d on the 19th of A u g u s t that C a y e n n e should be a t t a c k e d . 5

GUIANA

M e a n w h i l e , however, peace h a d been s i g n e d on the 2 1 st of July, with the proviso c o m m o n at that time for an allowance of ten w e e k s for captures f r o m C a p e S t . Vincent to the E q u a t o r . T h e s e â&#x20AC;&#x153; d a y s of g r a c e â&#x20AC;? would expire on the 29th of S e p t e m b e r for G u i a n a , and the news of the treaty a r r i v e d in B a r b a d o s about the middle of N o v e m b e r . It followed, therefore, that p e a c e had actually, been concluded when the attack on Cayenne was a r r a n g e d , and, as we shall see later, other o p e r a tions took place after the time limit for p l a c e s a b r o a d had been p a s s e d . U n d e r the treaty it w a s a g r e e d that all places c a p t u r e d by either party were to be retained, the effect of w h i c h w a s that what is n o w N e w Y o r k became B r i t i s h and S u r i n a m Dutch. T h e G o v e r n o r of C a y e n n e was w a r n e d of the E n g l i s h fleet, and the people of the o u t l y i n g districts w e r e visited by him a n d called to the fort. While still e n g a g e d in this mission he descried the fleet in the offing, on w h i c h he at once hurried to F o r t S t . L o u i s and took t w o hundred m e n to oppose a l a n d i n g . G e t t i n g another hundred, h e p r o c e e d e d to the p l a c e where he e x p e c t e d the e n e m y ' s attempt a n d waited all n i g h t . T h e E n g l i s h were, however, on their g u a r d , and with fifteen boats suddenly c h a n g e d their course and went off in another d i r e c tion. T h e G o v e r n o r rushed a l o n g the shore, w a d i n g t h r o u g h mud and s c r a m b l i n g o v e r m a n g r o v e roots with his p a n t i n g followers t r a i l i n g a l o n g w a y b e h i n d . B y the time he reached the spot sixty E n g l i s h w e r e d r a w n up in g o o d order with flying colours, while p o o r D e L e z y had only about a s c o r e . Quite u n daunted, however, he fired his pistol before e v e n a r r i v i n g within r a n g e . T h e E n g l i s h returned the

HISTORY

fire, slightly w o u n d i n g the Governor and his Lieutenant, w h o were the only F r e n c h m e n within r a n g e . T h e n D e L e z y called on his men to c h a r g e , but found they had left their swords in the m a n g r o v e s w a m p s . N o t h i n g was left to him but an ignominious flight, the E n g l i s h being too busy with their l a n d i n g to follow at o n c e . T h e F r e n c h m a d e a stand at the v i l l a g e of R e m i r e , w h e r e were about sixty houses, the E n g l i s h soon f o l l o w i n g in perfect o r d e r . The invaders were, however, v e r y thirsty, and w a n t e d to p i l l a g e the wine-store, but their G e n e r a l p r e ferred to burn the v i l l a g e , for the F r e n c h w e r e p o u r i n g a most g a l l i n g fire f r o m the h o u s e s . The w a l l of fire c o v e r e d the retreat a n d permitted the G o v e r n o r to reach the fort, where the colonists were already taking refuge. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the s u p posed strength of this fortress D e L e z y seems to h a v e been d i s c o u r a g e d , for, t a k i n g t w o hundred of his men, he e m b a r k e d and fled to S u r i n a m . A s e r g e a n t took c o m m a n d of those w h o remained, but he w a s also frightened, and g o t off in the night, to t a k e r e f u g e a m o n g the I n d i a n s . T h e n a Swiss sergeant tried to induce the fifty soldiers w h o r e mained to hold out l o n g e n o u g h to obtain an honourable capitulation, but even this they refused. The panic was so g e n e r a l that n o t h i n g was left but to surrender as prisoners of w a r . In the fort the victors found 3 9 cannon, 1,500 balls, 27 barrels g u n p o w d e r , 26 b a r r e l s bullets, 400 shells, 6 barrels brimstone, 80 pieces armour, 200 bundles match, and 4 3 0 small a r m s . W i t h such an a r m a m e n t the wonder is w h y there should h a v e been such a p a n i c . It is interesting to note that a r m o u r must h a v e been worn, a l t h o u g h people who live in a tropical climate like G u i a n a can h a r d l y

GUIANA

see how it could be e n d u r e d . T h e property in the colony included 295 n e g r o e s , 51 s u g a r coppers, stills, & c , 10 mills, 4 9 cattle, and 10 h o r s e s . T a k i n g as m u c h of the plunder as possible, the E n g l i s h then set fire to the houses and churches and left for Surinam. T h e F r e n c h afterwards declared that A d m i r a l H a r m o n k n e w of the peace negotiations, and therefore took no m e a s u r e s to retain the colony for E n g l a n d . A r r i v e d at F o r t Z e e l a n d i a on the 3rd of O c t o b e r , the E n g l i s h found the g a r r i s o n prepared to fight, even the r u n a w a y F r e n c h m e n t a k i n g p a r t . O n the 7th the E n g l i s h landed, and after a g a l l a n t assault, in which fifty-four of the d e f e n d e r s were killed or w o u n d e d , the fort s u r r e n d e r e d . In s p e a k i n g of this affair, L o r d W i l l o u g h b y said : â&#x20AC;&#x153; H a n s e x c e e d e d M o n s m u c h in his defence and it w a s an honourable p a r t i n g blow.â&#x20AC;? T h u s S u r i n a m w a s a g a i n restored to E n g l a n d , and e v e r y t h i n g possible done to put matters on a sound f o o t i n g . A l l hopes of prosperity were, h o w ever, blighted when the news c a m e that it h a d been ceded to the N e t h e r l a n d s by t r e a t y . Lord W i l l o u g h b y , however, was not content to let his property g o without d o i n g something ; he therefore sent off his son with orders to use his utmost e n d e a v o u r s to b r i n g off the inhabitants and their m o v a b l e s , so as to prevent the D u t c h f r o m g e t t i n g a n y a d v a n t a g e from the c o l o n y . If the people w o u l d not leave W i l l o u g h b y w a s determined to suspend the transfer as l o n g as possible, or until he g o t special orders. H i s idea was to strengthen other B r i t i s h colonies and leave S u r i n a m b a r e . H e n r y W i l l o u g h b y hurried off to Surinam, and, a c c o r d i n g to his instructions, did e v e r y t h i n g possible

HISTORY

to m a k e the colony useless to the D u t c h . T h e s u g a r mill of his father's plantation, P a r h a m H i l l , w a s stripped and burnt, and some of those who intended to leave also demolished or burnt the buildings on their estates. T h e Jews, however, took no part in these d i s t u r b a n c e s . In January, 1 6 6 8 , the A m b a s s a d o r s of F r a n c e and H o l l a n d complained to K i n g C h a r l e s of these actions, c l a i m i n g restitution and satisfaction for what had been done contrary to the articles of the t r e a t y . M e a n w h i l e , a Z e e l a n d f r i g a t e and six t r a d i n g vessels arrived in N o v e m b e r , b r i n g i n g the news of the p e a c e a n d d e m a n d i n g the rendition of the c o l o n y . The E n g l i s h G o v e r n o r B a r r y replied that he c o u l d not surrender his c h a r g e without positive orders f r o m the K i n g or L o r d W i l l o u g h b y . T h e r e was thus a d e a d l o c k for several months, in the course of which an E n g l i s h f r i g a t e arrived with an invitation f r o m L o r d W i l l o u g h b y for the planters to g o to A n t i g u a . S o m e hesitation w a s , however, felt in a c c e p t i n g this offer, there b e i n g yet hopes that the colony m i g h t be retained. W h a t e v e r hopes remained were, however, lost w h e n on the 1 5 t h of A p r i l A d m i r a l C r y n n s e n a g a i n a p p e a r e d with three m e n - o f - w a r , and delivered to the n e w E n g l i s h G o v e r n o r Bannister the K i n g ' s letters for the restitution of the c o l o n y . The Governor hesitated, and called his C o u n c i l together, w h o a g r e e d that the K i n g ' s o r d e r s must be o b e y e d . E v e n then the surrender w a s not m a d e until the o r i g i n a l articles of capitulation w e r e confirmed and a promise g i v e n that e v e r y t h i n g done to the prejudice of the D u t c h should be f o r g o t t e n . S u r r e n d e r h a v i n g been m a d e , the E n g l i s h b e g a n to think of r e m o v i n g ; but their D u t c h masters,

GUIANA

feeling sore at the trouble they had given, were inclined to dispute their right to c a r r y off their effects, especially the s l a v e s . W h e n , therefore, Bannister m a d e formal d e m a n d for a licence for himself and some of the most important of the colonists, Crynnsen, on the g r o u n d that he w a s a c t i n g b e y o n d his sphere in c o m p r e h e n d i n g others, sent him to H o l l a n d as a prisoner. Bannister protested, and wrote to L o r d W i l l o u g h b y , who sent to C r y n n s e n stating that he conceived only the land to be D u t c h ; that E n g l i s h m e n o u g h t not to be detained or refused permission to transport their g o o d s and n e g r o e s , yet C o l o n e l Bannister w a s sent prisoner to the H i g h and M i g h t y for asserting these articles. A great deal of correspondence took p l a c e , but Bannister w a s released in D e c e m b e r , yet even then the E n g l i s h w e r e detained in S u r i n a m on one pretext or another. In M a r c h , 1 6 7 2 , the E n g l i s h and F r e n c h declared w a r a g a i n s t the N e t h e r l a n d s , one of the pretexts b e i n g this trouble about S u r i n a m . The Declaration stated that the D u t c h had been bound, under the T r e a t y of B r e d a and articles of surrender, to permit the E n g l i s h in that colony to remove with their effects ; they had not carried out their obligations, but, on the contrary, imprisoned Bannister for d e m a n d i n g permission to l e a v e . C o m p l a i n t s had been m a d e , and after two yearsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; d e l a y two vessels were sent to transport the British subjects ; but only a f e w of the poorest went off, to c a r r y b a c k the p r a y e r s of the richest and most influential to be delivered f r o m this servitude. F u r t h e r complaints w e r e m a d e , but the E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t got no satisfaction. T h e D u t c h replied that the E n g l i s h planters w e r e not willing to forsake their effects

HISTORY

and subsistence, they therefore stayed upon their o w n c h o i c e . D u r i n g the w a r no attempt was m a d e upon S u r i n a m by the E n g l i s h , and it m a y be p r e sumed that such a ruined colony w a s hardly w o r t h h a v i n g ; the D u t c h , however, took N e w Y o r k . Peace w a s concluded in F e b r u a r y , 1 6 7 4 , and the fifth article provided that permission should be g i v e n to the E n g l i s h in S u r i n a m to leave, together w i t h their substance, g o o d s , and slaves, a n d that the D u t c h G o v e r n o r should not m a k e a n y special laws a g a i n s t the E n g l i s h colonists. U l t i m a t e l y most of the E n g l i s h left, the l a r g e r portion g o i n g to J a m a i c a , w h e r e they met with a c o r d i a l w e l c o m e . T h u s the three colonies of G u i a n a w e r e â&#x20AC;&#x153; nipped in the bud â&#x20AC;? ; P o m e r o o n entirely destroyed, C a y e n n e devastated, and S u r i n a m ruined. T o a d d to the trouble in C a y e n n e , to which D e L e z y returned when the E n g l i s h left, it received another severe b l o w f r o m the D u t c h . In M a r c h , 1 6 7 6 , it was captured by A d m i r a l B i n k e s after D e L e z y h a d d e c l a r e d his intention to await an attack, and that he w o u l d not d e r o g a t e from the h o n o u r and v a l o u r of a true F r e n c h m a n , which he intended to protect at the cost of his life. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g this declaration, h o w ever, no sooner had the D u t c h stormed the palisades than he surrendered, to be sent a prisoner to H o l l a n d . T h e D u t c h were n o w in possession of the whole of G u i a n a , but the honour of F r a n c e must be vindicated, and therefore fifteen vessels were sent out in O c t o b e r to r e g a i n C a y e n n e , in which they easily s u c c e e d e d . W e m a y now leave F r e n c h G u i a n a , for its war troubles were ended for a t i m e . A s for its p r o g r e s s as a c o l o n y this is h a r d l y w o r t h n o t i n g , for there n e v e r has been a p r o p e r settlement. N o doubt it would have been inconsistent with the honour of

GUIANA

F r a n c e to g i v e it up, but it could be n o g r e a t loss. S u r i n a m was n o w the only real colony in G u i a n a , but the D u t c h w e r e not d i s c o u r a g e d . M o s t of the plantations were ruined ; very few E n g l i s h remained, and many, of the slaves left behind deserted rather than submit to n e w m a s t e r s . T h e y ran a w a y to become the dreaded bush n e g r o e s of later times, a n d there w a s no m e a n s of c a p t u r i n g t h e m . W i t h o u t settlers n o t h i n g could be done, and therefore every, possible inducement w a s offered. A f e w of the ruined Jews f r o m P o m e r o o n c a m e first, a n d these w e r e followed by a fair n u m b e r of H u g u e n o t s . H o l l a n d was then a r e f u g e for the distressed. F i r s t c a m e the Jews, and about this time F r e n c h Protestants b e g a n to flee for their lives. These were the people w h o helped E n g l a n d to become a g r e a t m a n u f a c t u r i n g country, a n d the few hundreds who went to S u r i n a m were a g o d s e n d to that d i s tressed c o l o n y . T h e y settled in the new town of P a r a m a r i b o as poor w o r k m e n , but later we find them all over the D u t c h colonies as p l a n t e r s . In 1 6 8 5 c a m e the revocation of the E d i c t of N a n t e s , which d r o v e thousands to take their flight, with h a p p y results w h e r e v e r they took r e f u g e . A m o n g other p l a c e s , a fair n u m b e r c a m e in a ship to S u r i n a m and t o o k up a plantation n a m e d L a P r o v i d e n c e . These people w e r e sufficiently numerous to require their o w n c h u r c h , and their influence for g o o d w a s felt t h r o u g h o u t the c o l o n y . B e f o r e a n y t h i n g else the D u t c h m a n w a s a t r a d e r . A s such he w a s not satisfied without a profit ; it follows therefore that the owners of S u r i n a m w e r e discontented. T h e r e w e r e no returns, and s o m e t h i n g must be d o n e . S o they g o t u p a syndicate called

SOMMELSDIJK, G O V E R N O R O F SURINAM.

To face p. 73.

HISTORY

the S o c i e t y of S u r i n a m . F i r s t the P r o v i n c e of Z e e l a n d sold the c o l o n y to the W e s t India C o m p a n y for 260,000 g u i l d e r s , and they, finding that their capital was insufficient, in 1 6 8 3 sold one-third to the city of A m s t e r d a m , and another third to Cornelis van A e r s s e n van S o m m e l s d i j k . T h i s third shareholder w a s appointed G o v e r n o r , and proved the salvation of the c o l o n y . Sommelsdijk w a s one of those a r b i t r a r y g e n t l e men w h o almost m a k e us love a d e s p o t . T h e r e is no doubt that a s t r o n g hand w a s wanted ; the hour c a m e , and here w a s the m a n . H e found e v e r y t h i n g in confusion ; order must be introduced. T h e colony did not want the t y p i c a l D u t c h G o v e r n o r , w h o planned out something for the next g e n e r a t i o n to accomplish, but one with the ardent desire to drive things on at o n c e . H e arrived in S u r i n a m on the 24th of N o v e m b e r , 1 6 8 3 ; his c h a r a c t e r is thus g i v e n by Pistorius :â&#x20AC;&#x201D; â&#x20AC;&#x153; H i s E x c e l l e n c y ' s disposition was u p r i g h t and pious ; by his daily e x a m p l e he b e c a m e a leader and m o d e l to his subordinates by a c t i n g in a c c o r d a n c e with his Christian duties. T h o s e who followed closest in his footsteps b e c a m e his best friends, independent of colour, creed, or station. H e w a s the enemy to e v e r y t h i n g loose, vicious, or immoral, and without r e g a r d to the offenders b e i n g of h i g h position or low d e g r e e he condemned them fearlessly.â&#x20AC;? T h i s m a y be true and yet not quite all the truth. F o r if he h a d been n o t h i n g m o r e he could h a r d l y have b r o u g h t order out of c h a o s . F o r some time the C a r i b s had been troublesome ; they took the part of the E n g l i s h ; S o m m e l s d i j k conciliated t h e m . H o r s e s for the s u g a r - m i l l s w e r e required ; he winked at their i l l e g a l importation f r o m N e w E n g l a n d . He

GUIANA

also looked after the labour supply a n d m a n a g e d to get slaves. A b o v e e v e r y t h i n g , however, he would have no idlers ; therefore he set the garrison to d i g a canal, which still remains as his m o n u m e n t . H e undoubtedly p l a y e d fast and loose with the charter of the colony, and n e g l e c t e d the orders of the directors of the S o c i e t y . H e told them that they could not drive trade a n d c o m m e r c e into g r o o v e s . E x p e r i e n c e had t a u g h t him what he h a d never t h o u g h t of before ; h a d he, like a fool, followed his instructions to the letter, the State, the city, and himself, would have had cause to r e g r e t it. â&#x20AC;&#x153; G o d be t h a n k e d ! â&#x20AC;? he said, that had not h a p p e n e d . H i s portrait shows a typical cavalier, a g e n t l e m a n of the period, and one w h o could h a r d l y be e x p e c t e d to m a k e a business m a n . His accounts were said to have been b a d l y kept, a n d the directors were of opinion that he would ruin the C o m p a n y . F o r t u n a t e l y for S u r i n a m , h o w e v e r , from his position he could afford to ignore such complaints and c a r r y on his g o o d w o r k . B u t even in S u r i n a m , a l t h o u g h the friends of law and o r d e r w e r e f a v o u r a b l e , there were many malcontents. In June, 1 6 8 7 , he issued a proclamation that the Court would sit to hear a n y complaints against him as G o v e r n o r ; but n o one a p p e a r e d , and t h o u g h this notice was repeated in O c t o b e r and January, with a promise to a p p e a r in person and g i v e satisfaction to a n y one w h o felt a g g r i e v e d , these were equally without result. T h e r e was s t r o n g religious feeling at the time, especially a m o n g those who had suffered persecution f r o m the R o m a n C a t h o l i c s , but S o m m e l s d i j k seemed to h a v e h a d the rare virtue of t o l e r a n c e . Three priests w e r e a l l o w e d to come to the colony ; but complaints were made to the directors, who ordered

HISTORY

them to be sent b a c k . Meanwhile, however, they died, and S o m m e l s d i j k sent their r e m a i n s with the f o l l o w i n g characteristic letter :— “ HIGHLY

HONOURED

SIRS,—By

Captain

John

P l a z I t a k e the liberty of s e n d i n g t o Z e e l a n d ,the bodies of three popes w h o died here, w h o y o u a r e pleased to call D i v i n e s . I believe that a Chest of D u c a t s would have pleased y o u more, those h o w e v e r are fruits which u p to the present have not been grown here. I n the absence of these, I hope that an abundance of s u g a r will sweeten and mollify y o u r c r y i n g throats, and, when moistened with s y r u p a n d juice, cure y o u of your r a g i n g fever a n d cause y o u t o be m o r e en courant with what happens here.” T h e h o n o u r a b l e g e n t l e m e n w e r e not m u c h pleased with this letter, so they sent b a c k the remains pi the priests to be buried in the c o l o n y . T h e soldiers in S u r i n a m h a d been a c c u s t o m e d to do as they pleased ; t a k i n g them altogether, they were a n u i s a n c e . S o m m e l s d i j k g a v e t h e m plenty of w o r k , and, as provisions were short, he reduced their rations, without a proper explanation. Used to i n d u l g e in their unbridled passions, they w e r e not prepared to listen to reason ; they considered t h e m selves ill-used a n d d e t e r m i n e d to resist. O n the 17th of July, 1 6 8 8 , they refused to p r o c e e d with the works on the S o m m e l s d i j k c a n a l unless their rations were increased. H a v i n g been b r o u g h t before the G o v e r n o r , they were dismissed with scant courtesy ; in case the store w a s well supplied they m i g h t expect additional rations. Grumbling and muttering, they returned to work, but t w o days later they absolutely refused to g o on, a n d d e c l a r e d that

GUIANA

if rations were not at once increased they would kill the G o v e r n o r . T h e i r C o m m a n d e r and his lieutenant tried to pacify them, with a promise of success, until S o m m e l s d i j k appeared, sword in hand, and a d v a n c e d to cut down the leaders, the C o m m a n d e r t a k i n g his place beside h i m . Not having any quarrel with their C o m m a n d e r , they hesitated, c a l l i n g upon him to retire, but w h e n he refused they, fired a volley, k i l l i n g b o t h . T h e soldiers then took possession of the fort and terrorised the whole colony until the b u r g h e r s rose, almost to a m a n , and s u c ceeded in c a p t u r i n g them, after w h i c h eleven were executed. In 1 6 8 9 war a g a i n b r o k e out, this time the E n g l i s h and D u t c h joining a g a i n s t F r a n c e . Cayenne had lately been a r e f u g e for pirates or privateers whose occupations could not be carried on when there w a s p e a c e . T h e y had c o m m e n c e d to plant when w a r b r o k e out, but on the arrival of the noted corsair D u C a s s e they left e v e r y t h i n g to join h i m in a raid on S u r i n a m . T h i s colony w a s , h o w e v e r , in a g o o d condition, a n d the n e w Governor, S c h a r p huijsen, c o m p e l l e d t h e m to retire, l e a v i n g one of their vessels g r o u n d e d to be c a p t u r e d by the D u t c h . D u C a s s e then went on to B e r b i c e , which he c a p t u r e d . T h e D u t c h were less fortunate in 1 7 1 2 , when another w a r with F r a n c e b r o u g h t to the front Jacques C a s s a r d , â&#x20AC;&#x153;the H e r o of Nantes.â&#x20AC;? H e arrived in S u r i n a m on the 8th of O c t o b e r with e i g h t l a r g e and thirty small vessels and a b o u t 3,000 m e n . For three w e e k s these r o u g h fellows p i l l a g e d the colony, g o i n g up and down the rivers and d r i v i n g the planters to t a k e r e f u g e in the bush with their s l a v e s . Among other insults it is reported that they broke into the Jewish s y n a g o g u e , killed a h o g within the building,

HISTORY

and sprinkled its blood over the furniture. Finally, C a s s a r d w a s b o u g h t off by, a ransom of 7 4 7 , 3 5 0 guilders, which, in the absence of coin, was mainly, paid in s u g a r , slaves, merchandise, provisions, stores, and j e w e l l e r y . In fact, the c o l o n y w a s stripped of almost e v e r y t h i n g that could be c a r r i e d off. A s if it w e r e not e n o u g h to be ruined b y war, a new d a n g e r was p r o d u c e d by, this r a i d . M a n y of the n e g r o e s who were sent a w a y to hide in the forest never c a m e back, but joined the r u n a w a y s who h a d hitherto been of little c o n s e q u e n c e . In a few y e a r s , h o w e v e r , the bush n e g r o e s b e c a m e very d a n g e r o u s , for they m a d e incursions on the plantations, b u r n i n g and d e s t r o y i n g houses a n d s u g a r - w o r k s , Killing the whites, and c a r r y i n g off the slaves to increase their own communities. In less than ten y e a r s after C a s s a r d â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s departure the bush n e g r o e s b e g a n to m a k e their presence felt in the o u t l y i n g districts of the c o l o n y . In their raids on the plantations they g o t firearms, in addition t o bows and arrows which they m a d e for t h e m s e l v e s . Soldiers and b u r g h e r s were sent out to capture them, but with little success, for the n e g r o e s k n e w w e l l how to hide and shoot f r o m behind t r e e s . If b y chance some were captured, they were punished severely as e x a m p l e s , in hopes of deterring the slaves from t a k i n g to the b u s h . B u r n i n g over slow-fires, b r e a k i n g on the wheel, and h a n g i n g w e r e s u p p l e mented in one or more cases by s u s p e n d i n g with a hook t h r o u g h the ribs until the m a n d i e d . Great efforts were m a d e to subdue them, in every case u n successfully, until, the n u m b e r b e i n g g r e a t l y increased b y r u n a w a y s f r o m the plantations they destroyed, they became a real d a n g e r . T h e peril was m u c h g r e a t e r than that formerly endured from the Indians, because

GUIANA

there were a l w a y s n e g r o friends on the plantations ready to g i v e information of their w e a k points and open the w a y . In 1 7 3 0 there was a n e g r o revolt on the plantation â&#x20AC;&#x153; B e r g - e n - D a a l , â&#x20AC;? which extended to other estates, and, which required three years of hard fighting before it could be suppressed for a time. F o r n e a r l y twenty years after this the s t r u g g l e between b l a c k s and whites went on w i t h slight intermissions, in e v e r y case the result b e i n g favourable to the bush n e g r o e s . Hitherto all efforts were strained to capture them as r u n a w a y s , but in 1 7 4 9 an attempt w a s m a d e to m a k e a treaty of peace on the understanding that they were to be free and be bound to restore a n y slaves who might run a w a y f r o m the plantations. T h e first treaty w a s made with a C a p t a i n A d o e , w h o received from the G o v e r n o r a staff of office and a promise of a lot of presents. Unfortunately, h o w ever, a treaty with one chief w a s not respected by the others, and when the presents w e r e b e i n g carried to A d o e the bearers were a t t a c k e d by C a p t a i n S a m s a m and cut off. T h e presents not a r r i v i n g , A d o e considered the treaty broken, a n d a g a i n b e g a n to m a k e r a i d s . T h i s sort of thing went on for some time, and when the d a n g e r w a s not f r o m the bush n e g r o e s it w a s from the slaves in g e n e r a l , who no doubt were incited to revolt from their k n o w l e d g e and envy of the o t h e r s . In 1 7 6 1 p e a c e w a s m a d e with the A u c a n s , and a y e a r later w i t h the S a r a m a c c a n s , but this did not prevent a g r e a t insurrection of slaves next year, which almost drove the whites out of the colony and resulted in n e w sets of r u n a w a y s t a k i n g the field. T h e y took r e f u g e on the M a r o w y n e , and were supposed to have g o t assistance in g u n s , & c , from the F r e n c h . F o r twenty

HISTORY

years war r a g e d with these r u n a w a y s under the t w o chiefs B o n n i and B a r o n . W h i t e soldiers were b r o u g h t f r o m H o l l a n d , a contingent of B l a c k R a n g e r s embodied, and the n e w d a n g e r f o u g h t under difficulties so well described by C a p t a i n S t e d m a n . At last, however, the B o n n i bush n e g r o e s were pacified but not conquered, for they, d e m a n d e d a n d g o t their full liberty.

CHAPTER HISTORY—DEMERARA

IV AND BERBICE

Essequebo as a trading f a c t o r y — D i s p u t e with B e r b i c e — V a n Berkel's visit to Kijk-over-al—Description of the young colony —Corsair raids—Berbice captured and ransomed—Difficulties in paying—Curious position—Van Hoorn's Company—The Berbice Association — Charter of Berbice — Gravesande in Essequebo—Remove down the river—Essequebo opened to all nations—Land boom—Capital and labour from English islands —Opening of Demerara — Dearth of slaves — No runaways allowed—Progress of Berbice—Great slave insurrection—Panic among the whites—Rebels overrun the colony—Massacres— T h e fort untenable—Inmates frightened—Fort abandoned and set on tire—Governor with a few whites takes refuge at the mouth of the river—Assistance arrives—Recovery of the colony —Ruin—Difficulties in restoration. E S S E Q U E B O lost little b y the w a r w h i c h almost ruined C a y e n n e a n d S u r i n a m , for there w e r e n o to

new

who A

destroyed.

The

Commander,

lived at the

vessel

arrived

fort

and a

filling

been

since

India

Hendrik

once

trading goods, collected

West

Rol,

traded year,

Rol

although was

interests

with the

last v o y a g e . were

trader,

Company. 80

and

few

Indians. and

had

Berbice

was

to be styled

plantations.

looked

When,

sent 1669,

stores

up with s u c h p r o d u c t s the

there

good the

April,

bringing

in the s a m e position, not y e t w o r t h y colony,

plantations

Company

the

therefore,

well

the

TENT-BOAT

OEANEARLY

PLANTER.

Tofacep. 81.

HISTORY

traders of B e r b i c e went b e y o n d what he considered their boundaries, he took action, and in 1 6 7 0 seized a boat and c a r g o , w h i c h he found in the P o m e r o o n . T h e news was b r o u g h t b y an Indian, and the C o u n c i l of B e r b i c e commissioned their factor, A d r i a n v a n B e r k e l , to proceed to F o r t K i j k - o v e r - a l and inquire into the matter. H i s account of this journey gives a picture of the primitive condition of the country, and some interesting details of the Indian v i l l a g e s , where he stopped when g o i n g t h r o u g h from B e r b i c e to the D e m e r a r a R i v e r , which as yet was a wilderness. T h e party consisted of V a n B e r k e l , the predicant, and three other E u r o p e a n s , who, o n a r r i v i n g at the bank of the D e m e r a r a , met a tentboat which had been sent round the c o a s t . With ten Indians they d r o p p e d d o w n the river and p r o c e e d e d a l o n g the coast to the E s s e q u e b o , where they were struck by the beauty of its m a n y islands, none of which w a s yet occupied. K i j k - o v e r - a l was twelve hours from the sea o n a little island, a stone's-throw from the shore. E v e r y body w a s l o o k i n g out for them, for a tent-boat was a strange thing in these w a t e r s . O n their a r r i v a l at the landing, the C o m m a n d e r , s w o r d in hand, c a m e down and gave them a hearty welcome. T h e n the party passed up the steps t h r o u g h a double line of soldiers, w h o fired a volley as a salute. Arrived at the e n t r a n c e , they p r o c e e d e d upstairs, when three cannons were fired, a n d the secretary received t h e m in state. S o g r a n d w a s this reception that V a n B e r k e l and his party thought it quite princely. Coming n o w to R o l ' s cliamber, the B e r b i c e factor wanted to g o into business at once, but the C o m m a n d e r said he must not think of such a t h i n g ; it would be time e n o u g h after three or four d a y s ' rest. His 6

GUIANA

E u r o p e a n followers were entertained by the soldiers, and he and the predicant invited to take as m u c h drink as they liked, either from a l a r g e jar of wine on the floor or a flask of g i n on the table., Then c a m e a g r a n d dinner of five courses, to which they did justice, after which they went to bed full. N e x t m o r n i n g they took a walk, but there was not m u c h to s e e . T h e fort was square ; on the lower floor was a m a g a z i n e and store for heavy g o o d s , above were three rooms, one for the C o m m a n d e r , a second for the secretary, where light stores and t r a d i n g g o o d s were kept, and a third for the soldiers. In the afternoon arrived a Christian servant with a n invitation from H e e r de G r a a f , a private planter, to pay him a visit next d a y . T h i s was a c c e p t e d , and next m o r n i n g they went over in a corial a n d found e v e r y t h i n g in first-rate order, with the a p p e a r a n c e of an estate in E u r o p e . T h e dinner was perfect, consisting of m a n y kinds of meat, including deer, fowl, duck, turkey, pigeons, l a b b a , and w a t e r - h a r e . T h e drinks were m u m , wine, and brandy, with which they kept m e r r y until the evening, when they returned to the fort full and jolly. T h e r e were only three private estates, that of D e G r a a f being the largest, h a v i n g about thirty slaves ; the other two had about a dozen e a c h . T h e planters lived a princely life as far as food and drink were concerned, but he who wanted society must not g o there. T h e sun was very oppressive, and there were m a n y things w a n t i n g to m a k e life a g r e e a b l e . The living at the fort was not so g o o d as on the p l a n t a tions ; on the latter was plenty for the worshippers of both Venus and B a c c h u s . O n the fourth day the C o m m a n d e r a l l o w e d his visitor to come to business, and after some discussion

HISTORY

it was a g r e e d that in future the people of B e r b i c e should not trade in the D e m e r a r a R i v e r , and that the A b a r y should be the b o u n d a r y . T h e boat was restored, but the c a r g o h a d been a l r e a d y used ; R o l , however, paid V a n B e r k e l its value in b a l s a m copaiba. S u c h , n o doubt, is in brief a fair picture of E s s e q u e b o at this period, and v e r y little p r o g r e s s w a s m a d e for a l o n g time. T w o c a r g o e s of slaves were brought to E s s e q u e b o , and three s u g a r plantations started for the C o m p a n y , and in B e r b i c e there were five estates b e l o n g i n g to private settlers. It m a y be presumed that these were m u c h inferior to that of D e G r a a f . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g there had been few Indian difficulties in E s s e q u e b o , but in B e r b i c e sufficient c a r e was not taken to prevent red slaves being b o u g h t ; this was a l w a y s a cause of trouble, a n d was ultimately prohibited. In E s s e q u e b o this w a s done in 1 6 8 6 , when a proclamation was issued that no one should buy such slaves without first b r i n g i n g them before the C o m m a n d e r , on pain of confiscation. In 1 6 8 6 an attempt was made to a g a i n settle the P o m e r o o n , but with little success. T h r e e years later it was a t t a c k e d by a F r e n c h pirate, who burnt the little fort and the few huts of the planters, after w h i c h the project was entirely a b a n d o n e d . Kijko v e r - a l was not then a t t a c k e d , but in 1 7 0 8 came a F r e n c h privateer n a m e d A n t h o n y F e r r y with three vessels and three hundred m e n . A few soldiers were sent down the river when their arrival was reported, but they could do n o t h i n g . T h e e n e m y c a m e up the river, b u r n i n g the Indian villages on its b a n k s , a n c h o r i n g at last opposite B a r t i c a . Here the

GUIANA

m a n a g e r of Plantation Vryheid tried, with the a i d of his slaves, to stop their l a n d i n g , but the enemy, simply l a u g h e d at them. T h e s e defenders fled to the bush, and the m a n a g e r sent to the fort for h e l p . B u t the C o m m a n d e r thought it better to keep inside his refuge, for he k n e w well that his f o r c e Was insufficient for an a t t a c k . T o save the plantations he was ultimately compelled to ransom the c o l o n y for 50,000 guilders, which was paid in slaves a n d g o o d s , with only 2,500 g u i l d e r s in c a s h . In connection with the corsair raids on E s s e q u e b o it is stated that in 1 7 0 9 a second party c a m e a n d finished the work of the first. T h e y plundered a n d burnt both the C o m p a n y ' s and private estates, took a w a y five hundred h o g s h e a d s of s u g a r a n d a number of slaves, so that there remained but two sugar-mills in the c o l o n y . B e r b i c e suffered in 1 7 1 2 frotn C a s s a r d ' s people, with serious results. U n d e r the c o m m a n d of B a r o n M o u a n s three l a r g e and several small vessels a t t a c k e d F o r t N a s s a u . T h e C o m m a n d e r refused to surrender until the n e i g h b o u r i n g plantations had been plundered a n d the fort b o m b a r d e d for three d a y s . T h e corsairs then d e m a n d e d a l a r g e r ransom than the colony could p a y ; after a g r e a t deal of talk this was r e d u c e d to half. E v e n 300,000 g u i l d e r s was quite b e y o n d the means of this small settlement ; still, n o t h i n g remained to be done but to try and satisfy t h e s e people, who only w o r k e d for prize m o n e y . By s c r a p i n g up e v e r y t h i n g portable the G o v e r n o r of B e r b i c e succeeded in g e t t i n g 1 1 8 , 0 2 4 g u i l d e r s in slaves, sugar, stores, and a barque, the b a l a n c e b e i n g g i v e n in a bill of e x c h a n g e on the mercantile house of V a n P e e r e , the proprietors of the c o l o n y . Not yet satisfied, the corsairs d e m a n d e d a further 10,000

HISTORY

guilders in cash, which was m o r e than the colony, possessed, but at last 6,000 w a s collected a n d the balance m a d e up with g o l d a n d silver trinkets a n d ornaments a n d a few pieces of plate. A s security for the draft t w o of the m e m b e r s o f the C o u n c i l were taken to F r a n c e , one of w h o m died on the v o y a g e a n d the other about a y e a r and a' half after his a r r i v a l . H e was not liberated b e c a u s e the V a n P e e r e s refused to accept the bill on the g r o u n d that the amount was m o r e than the v a l u e of B e r b i c e . T h e Marseilles m e r c h a n t s who fitted out C a s s a r d wanted money, not territory ; the corsairs fought for themselves, not for the G o v e r n m e n t . It followed, therefore, that n o claim w a s m a d e for B e r b i c e when peace w a s signed at U t r e c h t in 1 7 1 3 , the only reference b e i n g a d e m a n d of the F r e n c h A m b a s s a d o r that the V a n P e e r e s should be forced to p a y . N o t h i n g , however, was d o n e for some time, and m e a n while B e r b i c e was in a curious position, for under the laws of that time the p r o d u c e could only be shipped to the N e t h e r l a n d s , for it w a s not F r e n c h territory. T h e r e were n o means of c o l l e c t i n g the money, but at the same time the people of B e r b i c e were not prepared to do a n y t h i n g that might result in reprisals when another war c a m e a n d the corsairs were a g a i n let loose. It was a d e a d l o c k that could only be g o t over b y an a g r e e m e n t between the parties. A t last one of the F r e n c h merchants went to A m s t e r d a m and sold the bill for 108,000 guilders to three D u t c h m e n , w h o thus b e c a m e owners of B e r b i c e , with the V a n P e e r e s , who, n o doubt, w e r e c o n c e r n e d in the transaction. T h i s w a s k n o w n as the V a n H o o r n ' s C o m p a n y f r o m the n a m e of the principal s h a r e h o l d e r . B e r b i c e did not flourish, for the capital of the

GUIANA

C o m p a n y was too small, and there w a s little profit, which was what all the t r a d i n g companies wanted, but rarely g o t . After six years it w a s therefore decided to establish a n e w C o m p a n y to be c a l l e d the Association of the O w n e r s of the C o l o n y of B e r b i c e , with a capital of 3,200,000 g u i l d e r s . T h e prospectus stated that the colony was a d m i r a b l y situated a n d the soil suitable for s u g a r - c a n e , the proof of which was shown by the fact that there were a l r e a d y six plantations. T h e r e w e r e two estates in c a c a o , a n d indigo, coffee, cotton, and anatto could also be g r o w n . T h e r e was a g r e a t fort (Fort N a s s a u ) and a g u a r d house between the fort and the mouth of the river, a redoubt opposite the fort, a n d four posts in the interior. O n all the plantations there were 895 slaves, and the produce of 1 7 2 1 w a s c a l c u l a t e d at 700 h o g s h e a d s of s u g a r , besides other things., T h e r e w a s n o g r e a t d e m a n d for the shares, only about three-fourths b e i n g subscribed, a n d even these were not properly paid u p . H o w e v e r , the â&#x20AC;&#x153; Societat â&#x20AC;? w a s formed, with a proper directorate, w h o attempted to m a k e the colony of more importance. T h e then G o v e r n o r T i e r e n s was promised 1,200 slaves to open out about ten n e w s u g a r plantations, and ordered to increase the cultivation of other things. Coffee h a d lately been introduced into S u r i n a m , and the G o v e r n o r of that colony sent a boatload of beans to start it in B e r b i c e . T h e W e s t India C o m p a n y , finding that something w a s b e i n g done, tried to enforce their supreme rights, but the directors told them that B e r b i c e was c a p t u r e d b y F r e n c h privateers and r e d e e m e d by the former o w n e r s . T h e dispute lasted some time, a n d w a s only settled by the necessity for slaves, which only the W e s t India C o m p a n y could supply. This caused

HISTORY

the B e r b i c e Association to a g r e e to pay 300 guilders for e v e r y vessel sent to the c o l o n y . N o t quite satisfied, and t h i n k i n g that possibly the W e s t I n d i a C o m p a n y m i g h t at some future time refuse to continue the g r a n t , the B e r b i c e Association d e c i d e d to apply to the S t a t e s - G e n e r a l for a charter, which was g r a n t e d on the 2 7 t h of S e p t e m b e r , 1 7 3 2 . U n d e r this charter a n annual h e a d - t a x of fifty pounds of s u g a r for e a c h inhabitant w a s imposed, a customs duty of 21/2 per cent, on both exports and imports, and a t o n n a g e duty. N o other taxes could be imposed d u r i n g the first ten y e a r s , and not even afterwards without consent of the S t a t e s General. T h u s B e r b i c e b e c a m e a chartered c o l o n y and thus conditions w e r e imposed not a l w a y s f a v o u r a b l e to its development in the future. E s s e q u e b o w a s of little importance as a Colony until the a r r i v a l of L a u r e n s S t o r m van â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s G r a v e s a n d e , w h o a r r i v e d there as secretary in 1 7 3 8 . H e r m a n u s G e l s k e r k e w a s then C o m m a n d e r , a n d at once the relations between the chief a n d his secretary b e c a m e Very c o r d i a l . F o r some time the C o m m a n d e r h a d seen the necessity for considerable c h a n g e s , the principal b e i n g a removal from Kijk-over-al to the mouth of the r i v e r . A l r e a d y a w o o d e n fort was put up on a small island called G r e a t F l a g Island, but this w a s quite unsatisfactory, and a brick building was s u g g e s t e d b y G r a v e s a n d e two months after his arrival. After some delay the C o m p a n y g a v e permission, the fort w a s built, and the removal took place in 1 7 3 9 . T h e results of this c h a n g e were soon apparent. Hitherto there were only a few scattered plantations near the mouth of the river, but after the r e m o v a l there w a s a g r o w i n g tendency to v a c a t e the w o r n out estates near K i j k - o v e r - a l . T h e development

GUIANA

would, however, have been v e r y slow had not t h e C o m m a n d e r and his able secretary been a b l e to w r i n g from the directors a concession which was so n o v e l as to be almost revolutionary. Hitherto only D u t c h men might receive g r a n t s of land and practically only Zeelanders, the exceptions being French H u g u e n o t s , who, however, were considered as n a t uralised. N o w the R i v e r E s s e q u e b o was opened to all nations, with free land and ten y e a r s ' f r e e d o m from t a x e s . T h e news was circulated throughout the British W e s t Indies, and immediately there was a considerable influx of British from B a r b a d o s , S t . K i t t s , A n t i g u a , a n d other p l a c e s . T h e s e b r o u g h t slaves and also capital, with the result that the prospects of the colony were entirely c h a n g e d . W h e n in 1 7 4 3 , after the death of G e l s k e r k e , the energetic secretary b e c a m e C o m m a n d e r , there were even g r e a t e r signs of p r o g r e s s . A l l the available land, with the f a c a d e s on the river, w a s taken up by 1 7 4 5 , and a t t e n tion w a s directed to the D e m e r a r a . G r a v e s a n d e saw the need for such an extension, and g o t permission in O c t o b e r of that y e a r . T h e settlers were, however, w a r n e d that if they went to their new g r a n t s they must do so at their own risk, for the C o m p a n y would build no fort or otherwise afford protection. Notwithstanding this d r a w b a c k , applications poured in, and on the 3rd of April, 1 7 4 6 , five concessions were g r a n t e d on condition that cultivation should be c o m m e n c e d within a y e a r and six w e e k s . Thus began the new settlement, which ultimately b e c a m e of more importance than any in G u i a n a . U n d e r the wise administration of G r a v e s a n d e , E s s e q u e b o and its offshoot b e c a m e of some importance. N o l o n g e r was it a t r a d i n g factory, but a

PRIMITIVE

WATER

SUGAR-MILL.

To face p. 89.

HISTORY

real colony, a l t h o u g h as yet in its infancy. The C o m m a n d e r would h a v e done m u c h m o r e h a d h e not been h a m p e r e d b y a C o m p a n y that wanted profit at o n c e . G r a v e s a n d e k n e w very well that the infant must be fostered, that no colony could be built up at once, and that m o n e y was wanted to d o m a n y things n e c e s s a r y for future benefit. B u t the m e a n ness of the C o m p a n y a l w a y s stood in his w a y . He went so far as to ask the directors to a l l o w h i m to resign in 1 7 4 6 ; he had spent all his s a v i n g s , as well as his salary, which was only 500 g u i l d e r s per annum, besides rations. B u t the directors k n e w he was the right m a n , so they sent him a flattering letter, s a y i n g they were v e r y m u c h pleased with his administration, and would a g r e e with his v i e w s in r e g a r d to D e m e r a r a if he withdrew his resignation. His salary being increased to 800 g u i l d e r s a n d one of his sons appointed assistant, he decided to remain. T h e r e w e r e m a n y difficulties ; first and foremost w a s the scarcity of l a b o u r . T h e W e s t India C o m p a n y held the m o n o p o l y of the slave trade, but they w e r e very cautious in their dealings with n e w settlers. T h e y were justified in this b y the fact that m a n y of the E n g l i s h were inclined to speculate in the g r a n t s they took up rather than to develop t h e m . Gravesande once proposed to buy slaves from the E n g l i s h , but this w a s out of the question, and he was r e p r i m a n d e d for t h i n k i n g of such a t h i n g . H e was, however, p e r mitted to erect a b r a n d w a g t at the m o u t h of the D e m e r a r a R i v e r as a s i g n a l - s t a t i o n a n d look-out for vessels a r r i v i n g or d e p a r t i n g ; this was on the site of what is n o w G e o r g e t o w n and was built in 1748. T h e r e were few difficulties with the slaves in E s s e q u e b o and D e m e r a r a , mainly because they were

GUIANA

not very numerous, a n d from the friendly terms of the colonists a n d Indians r u n a w a y s were either b r o u g h t b a c k or k i l l e d . G r a v e s a n d e would have nothing like the bush n e g r o e s in S u r i n a m . In 1 7 6 3 , however, the colony was m u c h a l a r m e d b y a disaster to B e r b i c e , which went n e a r to d e s t r o y i n g that colony altogether. B e r b i c e h a d been p r o g r e s s i n g slowly for some years a n d was now a real colony, a l t h o u g h the p l a n t a tions were still situated w e l l b e y o n d the coast in the m a i n r i v e t a n d its branch, the C a n j e . Accordi n g to the returns of 1 7 6 2 , there were in B e r b i c e , e x c l u d i n g native Indians, 3 4 6 whites, 2 4 4 Indian slaves, and 3,833 n e g r o slaves, m a k i n g a total o f 4 , 4 2 3 . T w o slave vessels a r r i v e d in 1 7 6 3 , increasing the n u m b e r of n e g r o e s , a n d some of the whites died of a â&#x20AC;&#x153; sickness,â&#x20AC;? the result b e i n g a g r e a t e r p r e ponderance of the b l a c k e l e m e n t . T h e r e w e r e sixty soldiers a n d their officers to protect the colony, besides w h o m e v e r y white m a n was a m e m b e r of the B u r g h e r M i l i t i a . T h e G o v e r n o r was W o l f e r t S i m o n van H o o g e n h e i m , a man of g r e a t ability, who in July, 1 7 6 2 , dealt with a slight disturbance, in which thirty-six slaves set fire to their master's house a n d ran a w a y into the bush, most of w h o m w e r e c a p t u r e d and punished. In F e b r u a r y , 1 7 6 3 , the slaves on two plantations in the R i v e r C a n j e revolted, killed two whites and three slaves, and then took refuge up the C o r e n t y n e , from whence they a p p e a r to have incited the g r e a t insurrection which f o l l o w e d . A l l the estates in the C a n j e were plundered, the whites killed, and then the n e g r o e s to the n u m b e r of nine hundred b a n d e d t o g e t h e r and m a r c h e d t h r o u g h the path to F o r t N a s s a u . N o a l a r m had been g i v e n , so that the first

HISTORY

news w a s b r o u g h t b y refugees from the B e r b i c e plantations who ran a w a y to escape the r e b e l s . T h e r e was a g e n e r a l stampede, for e v e r y one seemed m a d with fright ; some fled to F o r t N a s s a u , others u p the river to a brick house at P e e r e b o o m , on the W i e r o n i e , and a few d o w n to Post S t . A n d r i e s , w h e r e N e w A m s t e r d a m n o w stands. E v e r y w h e r e , as the whites ran a w a y , the slaves joined the rebels, until o n l y a few who followed their masters remained faithful. T h e plantations were plundered without hindrance, and the rebels exulted over their success. N o attempt was m a d e , however, to attack the fort. T h e trouble at F o r t N a s s a u w a s increased b y the g e n e r a l panic ; only the G o v e r n o r and a planter n a m e d A b b e n s e t t s were inclined to resist. The C o u n c i l of G o v e r n m e n t first met on the 2nd of M a r c h , when the G o v e r n o r reported that the b u r g h e r s w e r e called upon to g o against the rebels, but only a few a s s e m b l e d , and these ran a w a y when they saw the numbers of the e n e m y . M r . Abbensetts d e c i d e d to defend his plantation, â&#x20AC;&#x153; Solitude,â&#x20AC;? and asked f o r assistance, but no one w o u l d g o ; even the captains of the two slave vessels, when o r d e r e d up the river, went but a short d i s t a n c e . O n l y twenty soldiers were at F o r t N a s s a u , and eight of these were sick ; the few b u r g h e r s w e r e weak. T h e Councillors inspected the fort and r e ported the defences to be in a v e r y b a d condition. T h e military officers said it m i g h t stand the first attack, but they must leave a w a y open for retreat to the ships. T h e two captains were a s k e d to stand b y in case of an e m e r g e n c y , which they p r o m i s e d to d o . A b b e n s e t t s a p p e a r e d on the 3rd, and w a s authorised to demand assistance from the slave vessels ; but even with a g u a r a n t e e of c o m p e n s a -

GUIANA

tion for d a m a g e s and offers of r e w a r d for the capture of the rebels the captains refused to g o . A f e w who remained with this b r a v e m a n g o t frightened when they heard of attacks a n d m u r d e r s in the n e i g h b o u r hood, so that even A b b e n s e t t s c o u l d do nothing more than leave and c o m e into the fort. O n the 6th P r e d i c a n t R a m r i n g and his wife a r r i v e d with news of the defeat of the whites at P e e r e b o o m , where twenty, i n c l u d i n g w o m e n a n d children, had taken refuge with some of their faithful n e g r o e s . T h e y successfully resisted two attacks, after which one of the rebels c a l l e d out that they had fourteen barrels of p o w d e r and c o u l d prevent the whites from escaping. A council of the b e s i e g e d was held in which the outlook was discussed. T h e y saw no s i g n s of help from outside and would soon be s t a r v i n g . O n e of the whites then opened a parley, and in reply to his remonstrances a r e b e l said that the Christians were c r u e l ; they did not want any whites in the c o l o n y ; they would be g e n t l e m e n themselves ; all the plantations must be g i v e n u p . A truce w a s d e c i d e d upon for a day, and it w a s then a g r e e d that the whites should be permitted to leave in the boats and g o down the river unmolested. T h e refugees a c c o r d i n g l y left the house, but when in the act of e m b a r k i n g the rebels fired, k i l l i n g or w o u n d i n g the w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n . T w o or three men m a n a g e d to swim a c r o s s the river and to get into the bush, where they suffered g r e a t h a r d s h i p s . T h i s c a m e as another shock to the inmates of the fort, who wanted to g e t on board the vessels a n d leave at o n c e . T h e G o v e r n o r , however, with A b b e n setts, tried his best to get them to stay, a n d went with the C o u n c i l to m a k e a second inspection of the fort. T h e palisades w e r e then found to be quite

HISTORY

rotten n e a r the g r o u n d , a n d were likely to fall if the g u n s were fired ; the n e g r o e s could either pull them a w a y or climb o v e r . T h e fort could be easily surrounded, and there would then be no m e a n s of obtaining water. T h e n the provisions were g e t t i n g low n o w that n e a r l y a l l the whites, with a n u m b e r of faithful n e g r o e s , h a d c o m e in. H o w e v e r , it was a g r e e d to remain for the present, as the G o v e r n o r h a d a l r e a d y sent to S u r i n a m for assistance and the captains of the slave vessels were w i l l i n g , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the sickness of their c r e w s , to r e m a i n . N o w c a m e news f r o m the lower part of the R i v e r C a n j e that the n e g r o e s w e r e revolting, and this b r o u g h t on another p a n i c . E v e n the secretary took a w a y the b o o k s a n d p l a c e d them on b o a r d one of the vessels, so that when c a l l e d to read the minutes he c o u l d not produce t h e m . O n b e i n g rebuked, he said he was not b o u n d to remain there and be shot for twenty g u i l d e r s a m o n t h . O n the 7th the b u r g h e r s petitioned to be a l l o w e d to l e a v e . T h e fort was u n tenable, the n e i g h b o u r i n g plantations were on fire ; they therefore wanted to g o on b o a r d the v e s s e l s . T h e officers a g r e e d that their position w a s d a n g e r o u s , for many of the petitioners were sick and worn out b y the privations and fatigue of their flight through the b u s h . O n the 8th a w o m a n with her child a r r i v e d ; she had been a prisoner, but was sent with a m e s s a g e . T h e rebels n u m b e r e d a thousand ; they were under chiefs who kept strict o r d e r . S h e was shown the mutilated bodies of seven m u r d e r e d whites. The letter she b r o u g h t recited some g r i e v a n c e s , and then went on to say that the G o v e r n o r must g o b a c k to H o l l a n d at once ; if he a g r e e d and fired four guns as a s i g n a l , they would leave him alone, otherwise he

GUIANA

m i g h t fire three g u n s a n d they would then come d o w n a n d fight. O n this the b u r g h e r s b e c a m e clamorous, the officers were called in, and on b e i n g a s k e d if they c o u l d defend the fort replied with a most emphatic â&#x20AC;&#x153; N o !â&#x20AC;? E v e n Abbensetts became d e pressed and despondent. T h e defences were rotten, the soldiers weak, the b u r g h e r s frightened, and the g o o d faith of the n e g r o e s with them was uncertain. N o t h i n g could be g a i n e d b y a defence ; they would be worse off here than down the river ; the way to the C a n j e was then open, but how l o n g that m i g h t be they c o u l d not tell. H e therefore proposed that the fort be a b a n d o n e d a n d that they proceed down the river to Plantation D a g e r a a d . T h e other C o u n cillors assented, but the G o v e r n o r said it was a h a r d a n d bitter t h i n g for h i m to consent to the p r o p o s i tion, but as they all a g r e e d there was n o t h i n g to be done but reluctantly to c a r r y out their w i s h e s . It was then a g r e e d to a b a n d o n the fort that evening, after setting it on fire and s p i k i n g the g u n s . T h u s the c o l o n y of B e r b i c e was left to the mercies of the r e b e l s . T h e vessels went down the river, where they found the rebels b u r n i n g a n d p l u n d e r i n g ; at one plantation they were fired at and at another rescued a poor w i d o w . O n the e v e n i n g of the 10th, a w e e k after the news of the rising, they came to D a g e r a a d , then the lowest estate on the B e r b i c e River. H e r e all was as yet quiet, and they a g r e e d to wait for assistance. T h e G o v e r n o r o r d e r e d the vessels to remain, but the captains wanted to g o , one of them first d e m a n d i n g payment in proper bills of e x c h a n g e for the slaves he had b r o u g h t . This matter h a v i n g been settled, the vessel left, c a r r y i n g a w a y some of the small supply of provisions which h a d been s a v e d . T h e secretary also went off in the

HISTORY

vessel, in spite of the protests of the G o v e r n o r , s a y i n g he w o u l d r e n d e r his accounts in H o l l a n d , for there was now neither G o v e r n o r nor C o u n c i l in B e r b i c e . R u m o u r s of revolts c a m e in at intervals with threats from the rebels of a n attack on D a g e r a a d , which c a u s e d another panic and a petition to be a l l o w e d to g o down to Post S t . A n d r i e s , now the lunatic a s y l u m at N e w A m s t e r d a m . T h i s w a s g r a n t e d , a n d the vessels which remained floated down, l e a v i n g the last of the plantations to the r e b e l s . They arrived on the 16th a n d found the post in a miserable c o n dition for d e f e n c e . H a v i n g no use for a set of c o w a r d s who c l a m o u r e d for permission to depart, the G o v e r n o r let them g o and settled down with a few to await the a r r i v a l of assistance. T h e vessels left B e r b i c e with letters to the directors, dated the 27th of M a r c h . The Governor wrote that he was anxiously w a i t i n g for help at the Post S t . A n d r i e s in a b a r r e n savannah, with only, one battery of two rotten cannon to defend it. The rebels n o w n u m b e r e d three thousand, had four h u n d r e d muskets, plenty of ammunition, and cutlasses a n d other sharp weapons, while the whites h a d but few muskets and no ammunition for the battery even if the guns c o u l d be fired ; provisions were scarce, and if a t t a c k e d they c o u l d get no w a t e r . F r o m this state of almost utter d e s p o n d e n c y the G o v e r n o r was roused on the 28th by sight of a vessel, which p r o v e d to be E n g l i s h , b r i n g i n g a hundred soldiers from S u r i n a m . T h e r e b e i n g no D u t c h ship at hand when the a p p e a l for help arrived, the G o v e r n o r c h a r t e r e d the Betsy, and at the same time sent a detachment to the C o r e n t y n e to prevent the rebels from joining the bush n e g r o e s in S u r i n a m . T h i s opportune a r r i v a l altered the aspect of affairs

GUIANA

a n d c a u s e d G o v e r n o r H o o g e n h e i m to m a k e a step towards the r e c o v e r y of B e r b i c e by g o i n g back to D a g e r a a d , the name of which (“ d a y b r e a k , ” ) perhaps, s u g g e s t e d hope. A t the same time a small d e t a c h ment was sent up the C a n j e to recover some of the plantations. A r r i v e d at D a g e r a a d , they were joined by several hundred faithful n e g r o e s who did not like the rule of the rebel chief Coffy. T h i s potentate sent a m e s s a g e by a white lad who had been captured, a n d who was o r d e r e d to return with the a n s w e r at the risk of his life. S t y l i n g himself G o v e r n o r of B e r b i c e , Coffy a s k e d H o o g e n h e i m to come and talk with h i m . H e would divide B e r b i c e into two parts, his people would g o up the river but never a g a i n be s l a v e s . O f course, the G o v e r n o r would not come to such terms, especially when he had a l r e a d y repulsed a party of rebels the previous d a y . N o t h i n g , however, could be done on the offensive until on the 3rd of M a y two vessels arrived from S t . E u s t a t i u s with 1 5 4 s o l d i e r s . T h e y c a m e at a time when provisions and other necessaries were almost exhausted, and H o o g e n h e i m hoped to be a b l e to do something at last. It was a g r e e d , however, that the force was insufficient to do a n y t h i n g decisive, for it was feared that they could only drive the negroes, into the bush to be a future d a n g e r to the colony., It was also a g r e e d to offer r e w a r d s — f o r the c a p t u r e of Coffy 500, A k k a r a (another c h i e f ) 400, for e a c h live rebel 50 and if d e a d 20 g u i l d e r s . O n the 13th of M a y the rebels attacked D a g e r a a d in force, and had it not been for the last a r r i v a l s it w o u l d p r o b a b l y have been the final c a t a s t r o p h e . B u t e v e r y precaution had now been taken, and with the help of the ships and after five hours’ sturdy,

HISTORY

fighting they w e r e repulsed with c o n s i d e r a b l e loss. T h i s c h e c k e d them a n d prevented a further attack, which w a s a mercy, for sickness fell upon the party ; soon there w e r e h a r d l y e n o u g h to serve as sentries. O n the 29th of M a y H o o g e n h e i m wrote that a hundred men were sick, the vessels were helpless, m a n y were dead, and they w e r e without proper food a n d m e d i c i n e s . “ F o r G o d ' s sake,” said he, “send a n d help us in our hour of n e e d I ” B y the 29th of A u g u s t fifty-four soldiers f r o m one ship w e r e dead, nearly all the sailors of the two others, besides two C o u n c i l l o r s , two captains, a n d a b o o k - k e e p e r . A n accession was m a d e on the 7th of J u l y by the a r r i v a l of a b a r q u e from S t . E u s t a t i u s , with a supply of provisions a n d forty men, which c a m e at a time when there w e r e not e n o u g h soldiers to relieve g u a r d . T h e news of the revolt c a u s e d m u c h a l a r m in D e m e r a r a when it w a s b r o u g h t b y s o m e r e f u g e e s . G r a v e s a n d e took such measures as w e r e possible to prevent the rebels f r o m c o m i n g over, a n d b y means of a contingent from B a r b a d o s and a party of Indians effectually c h e c k e d them on that side. M e a n w h i l e the n e w s also a r r i v e d in H o l l a n d , a n d at once a petition to the S t a t e s - G e n e r a l w a s d r a w n up, a s k i n g for two frigates and six hundred m e n . T w o vessels w e r e a c c o r d i n g l y prepared, one leaving on the 23rd of J u l y and the other on the 15th of A u g u s t with 260 men, and later another vessel. At the b e g i n n i n g of D e c e m b e r the w o r k of r e c o v e r i n g the c o l o n y was b e g u n , which was much facilitated b y the action of D e m e r a r a a n d b y quarrels a m o n g the n e g r o e s . It appears that Coffy q u a r r e l l e d with another chief n a m e d A t t a ; b e i n g conquered, he shot himself ; A k k a r a was also deposed a n d o r d e r e d to w o r k . Four

GUIANA

other leaders were chosen, but these were c h a r g e d with treating the others worse than their former masters ; in fact, it w a s a c h a n g e from one s e r v i tude to another of a worse t y p e . U n d e r such c i r c u m stances the rebels were n o l o n g e r united when the expedition started u p the river on the 9th of December. T h e y retreated into the bush as the vessels a p p e a r e d , so that when detachments were sent ashore at the plantations there w a s no fighting. S o m e surrendered and e x c u s e d themselves on the g r o u n d that they h a d b e e n forced to join against their own wishes. W h e n fifty or more surrendered in a day there was some difficulty as to their d i s p o s a l â&#x20AC;&#x201D; i n fact, the trouble was, in the absence of a n y discipline, to re-establish the m a n a g e m e n t of the estates, most of which were in ruins a n d the cultivation c h o k e d b y w e e d s . A t the W i k k i e creek there w a s some severe fighting, in which the rebels as well as the whites suffered ; but, of course, the victory was to the latter. A t S a v o n e t t e they found the D e m e r a r a contingent, w h o h a d f o u g h t and driven b a c k a p a r t y that wanted to cross o v e r to D e m e r a r a . Parties were sent into the bush with indifferent success, the n e g r o e s h a v i n g the a d v a n t a g e from their familiarity with bush fighting. B y the end of January, however, a g r e a t m a n y h a d surrendered, including two chiefs, and on the 2 7 t h of M a r c h 2,600 w e r e reported as h a v i n g returned or been captured, i n c l u d i n g the c h i e f s . E x e c u t i o n s n o w took place as w a r n i n g s , some of them p a r t i c u l a r l y cruel, including b u r n i n g over a slow fire, after which, but not until the end of the y e a r , a g e n e r a l amnesty w a s p r o c l a i m e d . T h e sufferings of the whites from sickness and exposure were so g r e a t that when the time c a m e for their departure the vessels could h a r d l y be m a n n e d .

HISTORY

B e r b i c e was ruined a n d the w o r k of restoration was almost as g r e a t a s the planting of a new c o l o n y . O n e - t h i r d of the whites were gone, some of w h o m , no doubt, feared to return or could not u n d e r t a k e the serious task of establishing a n e w their ruined estates. T h e n e g r o e s were about half the f o r m e r number, a n d more w e r e wanted before the arduous w o r k c o u l d be c a r r i e d out. T o restore the fort and posts the Association wanted money, and at first they proposed an increase of taxation, but the ruined planters said that this w a s a time when they w a n t e d h e l p a n d not an increase of their b u r d e n s . Every one was e m b a r r a s s e d ; the directors even went so far as to s u g g e s t that the c o l o n y should be a b a n doned, for the costs of the expeditions h a d not only left them penniless but h e a v i l y in d e b t . A little help was g i v e n b y the States in the shape of loans, but this was too small to restore the c o l o n y . G o v e r n o r H o o g e n h e i m b e c a m e sick a n d depressed, his m e m o r y was impaired, and t h o u g h only thirty-five y e a r s of a g e , his troubles m a d e h i m feel like an old m a n ; he therefore asked the directors to accept his r e s i g n a tion when the worst was over and when his arduous w o r k was finished.

CHAPTER HISTORY—WARS

AND BRITISH (1780-1831)

CONQUESTS

Progress of Demerara—Wars—Bristol privateers terrorise Demerara — British man-of-war arrives—Surrender of Demerara and Berbice—French allies of the Netherlands overcome British force—French rule — Town laid out — Peace negotiations — Restoration to Dutch—West India Company's misrule leads to its downfall—Revolution in the Netherlands—“ Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”—British man-of-war arrives—Governor leaves in her—A petty revolution—British fleet's offer of protection is refused—Slave insurrection—British forces demand surrender—British rule—Introduction of capital and labour— Restoration after Peace of Amiens—Recapture by British— American war — Final cession to Great Britain — Berbice Association's properties—Anti-slavery agitation—East Coast insurrection—Case of Rev. John Smith—Union of Demerara and Essequebo with Berbice under the name of British Guiana. DEMERARA

progressed slowly

but on the r i g h t

during

administration

Governor

the

lines

Gravesandc.

T h a t a b l e m a n could not do a l l he desired, but n e v e r theless he laid the f o u n d a t i o n on which the c o l o n y of B r i t i s h G u i a n a is l a i d .

T o h i m w a s l a r g e l y due the

fact that there w e r e no bodies of r u n a w a y s to terrorise the of

colony, Berbice.

upper

anything

The

Demerara

enemy's

laying-out was

corsairs, and

the of

a mistake perhaps 100

great

catastrophe

plantations due

justifiable

fear

the

in v i e w

SEA W A L L ,

GEORGETOWN.

(See p. 38.)

PRIMITIVE

HORSE SUGAR-MILL.

To face p. 101

HISTORY

101

the fact that there was absolutely no protection in case of w a r . In the natural course of development, however, estates w e r e g r a n t e d down to the coast, notwithstanding the feeling of dread, which w a s justified by the course of events. In 1 7 8 0 E n g l a n d was at w a r with her revolted colonies, and presently F r a n c e , the N e t h e r l a n d s , and Spain combined against her. N o w was the time for the D u t c h colonies in G u i a n a to be on the look-out, for they were c h a r g e d , as well as certain W e s t Indian islands, with f a v o u r i n g the privateers of the A m e r i c a n colonies of G r e a t B r i t a i n . W a r w a s d e c l a r e d on the 20th of D e c e m b e r , 1 7 8 0 , and immediately privateers seem to have s p r u n g up in the W e s t Indies, or w e r e there a l r e a d y . O n the 3rd of F e b r u a r y , 1 7 8 1 , A d m i r a l R o d n e y c a p t u r e d S t . E u s t a t i u s ; on h e a r i n g this four privateers from Bristol went off to D e m e r a r a at once, where they arrived on the 2 1 s t . T h e r e being no fort or any means of defence, they b l o c k a d e d the river, sailed u p a n d down, c a p tured all the boats they saw, and terrorised the plantations. A n e x t r a o r d i n a r y m e e t i n g of the C o u n c i l w a s c a l l e d on the 22nd to consider the situation, but n o t h i n g could be done, for even the B u r g h e r Militia were unable to a s s e m b l e . N e x t day a letter was b r o u g h t to the C o m m a n d e r s i g n e d by four captains, stating that as there was w a r with the S t a t e s - G e n e r a l , they intended to cruise there until the a r r i v a l of m o r e warships a n d 2,000 troops, which they hourly expected, when they would enter both rivers. T h e y also informed him that S t . E u s t a t i u s was captured and that five vessels had g o n e against S u r i n a m . O n the 24th an officer arrived under a flag of truce a n d d e m a n d e d the surrender of the river, which, after

102

GUIANA

deliberation, was done. O n the 27th, however, two British m e n - o f - w a r arrived with a letter from the G o v e r n o r of B a r b a d o s , in which the G o v e r n o r of D e m e r a r a was asked to surrender on the same terms as S t . E u s t a t i u s . A s , however, these terms w e r e not known, two Councillors w e r e deputed to a r r a n g e with L o r d R o d n e y , which was done at S t . E u s t a t i u s on the 14th of M a r c h , but fortunately not on the same terms, as the island. B e r b i c e w a s a t t a c k e d b y two privateers on the 6th of M a r c h , and ultimately surrendered on similar terms to E s s e q u e b o a n d Demerara. O n the 1 7 t h of O c t o b e r the E n g l i s h G o v e r n o r , K i n g s t o n , arrived in D e m e r a r a and put matters on a sound f o o t i n g . W i t h so m a n y E n g l i s h planters in the colony it n a t u r a l l y followed that there w a s no s t r o n g antipathy to the British occupation, a l t h o u g h the losses of boats and produce w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e . T h e n e w G o v e r n o r w a s not pleased with the situation of the public offices on a small island up the river, he therefore at once proposed to remove them to what is n o w a part of G e o r g e t o w n . S e v e r a l other improvements were s u g g e s t e d , including the important one of roads and bridges, but the British o c c u pation so soon c a m e to an end that they could not be carried out. In J a n u a r y , 1 7 8 2 , there were seven British vessels a r m e d with ninety guns and m a n n e d by 3 7 6 m e n . O n the 30th of that month a F r e n c h s q u a d r o n of eight m e n - o f - w a r , with 1 3 6 g u n s and 1,850 men, a p p e a r e d off the coast of D e m e r a r a , and next d a y they entered the mouth of the river. B e i n g unable to cope with such a force, the British vessels sailed up the river, intending to m a k e a stand at the first island. T h e F r e n c h A d m i r a l , the Count de K e r s a i n t ,

HISTORY

103

d e m a n d e d the surrender of the river, with a threat of d e s t r o y i n g all the plantations of the E n g l i s h if this w e r e not complied with at o n c e . A f t e r consideration, an honourable capitulation was a r r a n g e d , and the three rivers were taken over on behalf of the allies. T h e F r e n c h immediately set to w o r k as if the colonies were their own, upsetting both the British and D u t c h colonists. E v e r y t h i n g was to be altered at once ; in fact, the n e w authorities treated them as if they b e l o n g e d to the K i n g ' s d o m a i n . F o r t s were projected at the mouth of the D e m e r a r a on either bank, and a town must be built where the British were building the n e w public office. In the flowery l a n g u a g e of the proclamation after stating that this was the only e x a m p l e o f a E u r o p e a n colony throughout the world without a town or v i l l a g e , it s a i d : â&#x20AC;&#x153;That it is considered necessary, f r o m the g r e a t extent o f this river and its banks, to h a v e a capital which w i l l become the business centre ; where R e l i g i o n will have a temple, Justice a palace, W a r its arsenals, C o m m e r c e its counting-houses, and Industries its factories ; where also the inhabitants m a y enjoy the a d v a n t a g e s of social intercourse.â&#x20AC;? T h e town was therefore planned, g r a n t s made, a n d a fair start given to what is n o w G e o r g e t o w n . The D u t c h in their slow w a y had t a l k e d of a town for over ten y e a r s , and even d r e w elaborate p l a n s . B u t it w a s not at the mouth of the river, for here neither w o o d nor fresh water could be g o t . H o w e v e r , the site was chosen, a n d it was a g o o d e x a m p l e of the old s a y i n g that the D u t c h d r e w plans for others to carry out. A c c o r d i n g to a F r e n c h report on the condition of the three rivers, it appears that there were then about 34,000 n e g r o e s , including 18,000 in D e m e r a r a

104

GUIANA

and 8,000 in each of the other rivers. T h e r e were 387 l a r g e plantations with 15 to 3 0 0 slaves, a n d 2 5 0 small with less than 15 e a c h . T h e value of the products w a s about ÂŁ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 . T h e F r e n c h authorities called on the planters for a supply of labour f o r the forts, did what they liked with the revenue, raised the taxes, ordered the canals to be c l e a n e d , roads to be made, a n d a l t o g e t h e r drove the p o o r D u t c h to protest a g a i n s t such friends

and allies. In 1 7 8 3 negotiations for a peace ended in the T r e a t y of P a r i s , signed on the 3rd of September, a n d on the 6th of M a r c h , 1 7 8 4 , the F r e n c h g a v e over the control of the three rivers. A t once attempts were m a d e to revert to the conditions which formerly existed, but there had been such an upset that this could not be d o n e . T h e W e s t India C o m p a n y wanted money to put things in order, and to g e t it they proposed certain c h a n g e s which w e r e not a g r e e a b l e to the settlers. D e l e g a t e s were sent out, a n d on their report it was a g r e e d to retain the n e w town, which they n o w c a l l e d S t a b r o e k , and the fort on the east side of the river to be n a m e d W i l l i a m F r e d e r i c k . A new G o v e r n o r was sent out, w h o at once d i s c h a r g e d all the officials, as well as the C o u n c i l l o r s , w h o under the old r e g i m e were elected for life or as l o n g a s they remained in the colony. S o m e were, however, nominated by the C o m p a n y f o r the n e w Council, but they refused to sit, c l a i m i n g that they were a l r e a d y Councillors a n d could not be d i s c h a r g e d . A s representatives of the people, they w e r e not nominees of the C o m p a n y . T h e G o v e r n o r tried to g e t others, but only after m a n y had refused could he m a k e u p a quorum. T h i s pretended C o u n c i l , as it w a s called, c o m m e n c e d to alter the taxes, which w e r e , in the

HISTORY

105

main, assessed on the n u m b e r of slaves ( a h e a d - t a x ) g i v e n in by the planters. A l m o s t to a m a n these refused to send in the returns, and therefore no h e a d tax was collected. P r o c l a m a t i o n s w e r e issued with threats, but it was n o use, for the planters c o m b i n e d in protesting against any n e w impositions without r e p r e sentation. T h u s a d e a d l o c k o c c u r r e d , a n d the d i r e c tors of the C o m p a n y , as well as the S t a t e s - G e n e r a l , were d e l u g e d with petitions and protests, which ultimately e n d e d in the r e n e w a l of the C h a r t e r b e i n g refused and the final w i n d i n g - u p of the W e s t India C o m p a n y in 1 7 9 1 . U n d e r a Colonial Council the two rivers w e r e put on a better f o o t i n g . A plan of redress or reform was adopted a n d the old C o u n c i l restored. T h e fort w a s put in o r d e r a n d a g a r r i s o n sent out. These latter preparations were taken in view of the disturbances in E u r o p e due to the F r e n c h revolutionary action in c a l l i n g on â&#x20AC;&#x153; B a t a v i a n s â&#x20AC;? to join them a g a i n s t the S t a d t h o l d e r and his friend the K i n g of England. T h e probability of w a r with F r a n c e was discussed in the Council on the 1 7 t h of M a r c h , 1 7 9 3 , when rumours w e r e reported of a probable invasion f r o m C a y e n n e . A r r a n g e m e n t s were then m a d e for a line of s i g n a l stations a l o n g the coast, but as n o t h i n g happened they soon fell into disuse. In July, 1 7 9 4 , the Council w a s w a r n e d against the F r e n c h ideas of L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , and F r a t e r n i t y , but in A p r i l followi n g news c a m e of the flight of the S t a d t h o l d e r and friendly relations with F r a n c e . O n the 3rd of M a y , 1 7 9 5 , the British m a n - o f - w a r Zebra arrived with a letter f r o m the P r i n c e of O r a n g e , dated at K e w , c o m m a n d i n g the G o v e r n o r to consider all forces sent b y G r e a t B r i t a i n as of a p o w e r in alliance with the S t a t e s - G e n e r a l , and as c o m i n g to

106

GUIANA

prevent the colony f a l l i n g into the hands of the F r e n c h . T h e G o v e r n o r was a partisan of the Prince, but the Council a g r e e d that they could not o b e y the Prince, because they h a d been officially informed of the restoration of friendly relations with F r a n c e . G o v e r n o r van Grovestins then went on board the Zebra and sailed with her, thus l e a v i n g the colony without a head at a most critical p e r i o d . T h e G o v e r n o r sent a letter a n n o u n c i n g his d e p a r ture, and advising that certain secret dispatches be o p e n e d . T h i s was done, and two n a m e s were found of successors in case of the G o v e r n o r ' s death or a b s e n c e . O n l y one of the persons n a m e d was in the colony, and he excused himself on the plea of illhealth and w e a k n e s s . T h e C o u n c i l could not decide what should be done, a n d on the 8th S t a b r o e k was in a ferment. T h e two parties, F r e n c h and O r a n g e , m a r c h e d about d i s p l a y i n g c o c k a d e s , and almost fought with each other. Cries of “ L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , and F r a t e r n i t y ” came from the one p a r t y , and a drunken fellow ran about c r y i n g , “ Justice must be done ; some m e n must be h a n g e d . ” B y remonstrating, the secretary succeeded in prev e n t i n g the m o b from t a k i n g a w a y the papers of the colony, but the b u r g h e r s , b e c o m i n g a l a r m e d , met at a coffee-house and passed a n u m b e r of resolutions to meet the c o n t i n g e n c y . A f t e r d e c l a r i n g that the G o v e r n m e n t was overthrown by the G o v e r n o r ' s departure, and that the people would have no other G o v e r n o r , they wished the administration to be placed in the hands of the Councillors, who, in succession, should e a c h act as President for eight d a y s . T h e Council a g r e e d , but the F i s c a l resigned rather than be a party to such a revolutionary project. U n d e r this a r r a n g e m e n t the B u r g h e r Militia was

HISTORY

107

called out and the u p r o a r ceased, the only serious result b e i n g some excitement a m o n g the slaves. O n the 27th of M a y a British fleet of nine vessels appeared, and next d a y a letter was b r o u g h t under a flag of truce, stating that H . B . M . h a d o r d e r e d a force to protect D e m e r a r a and its dependencies f r o m the F r e n c h a r m s , and inviting the inhabitants to place themselves under the m i l d protection of the British Government. T h e Council met and a g r e e d that as peace was restored between F r a n c e and the N e t h e r lands, they could not and must not accept this offer. A s it appears that there w e r e no orders to use force the fleet d e p a r t e d after the answer w a s r e c e i v e d . N o w c a m e trouble with the n e g r o e s , who g o t distorted ideas f r o m the talk of equal rights and liberty. S o m e bush n e g r o e s w e r e c a m p e d a b a c k of the west coast of D e m e r a r a , and plotted with the slaves in that district for a g e n e r a l rising. In June there w a s almost an insurrection, and m a n y of the planters came to town with their families. B y the e m p l o y m e n t of Indians and a g o o d n u m b e r of troops, some of w h o m w e r e b r o u g h t f r o m B e r b i c e and Surinam, the n e g r o e s were captured or shot. Letters were published on the 2 7 t h of June that A n t o n y B e a u j o n was appointed G o v e r n o r under the B a t a v i a n R e p u b l i c , and the peculiar administration came to an e n d . T h e colony of D e m e r a r a and E s s e q u e b o h a v i n g refused to put itself under the protection of G r e a t B r i t a i n , a fleet with 1,200 m e n set out f r o m B a r b a d o s on the 1 5 t h of A p r i l , 1 7 9 6 , and arrived off the D e m e r a r a R i v e r on the 20th. A n officer was sent under a flag of truce to d e m a n d the surrender of the colony on very easy t e r m s . T h e G o v e r n o r called his Council together, w h o could do n o t h i n g but accept

108

GUIANA

them, for there was no D u t c h force to offer resistance. T h e troops were then landed and the colony again became British, to the satisfaction of the majority of the inhabitants. A few d a y s later B e r b i c e surrendered on similar terms, but Surinam was not taken until 1 7 9 9 . T h i s capture by the British m a d e a g r e a t impression on the two colonies that now form British G u i a n a . A t once there was an influx of capital and labour, the results of which are seen t o - d a y in spite of the vicissitudes of the planters in later y e a r s . A s was usual at that time, a fleet of merchant vessels followed the m e n - o f - w a r , and there w a s at once a d e m a n d for stores, which led to the extension of the town of S t a b r o e k . â&#x20AC;&#x153; P r i m e G o l d C o a s t n e g r o e s â&#x20AC;? w e r e also imported in considerable numbers to supply the new planters f r o m the W e s t Indies, who c a m e to take up new land or buy the estates of D u t c h m e n who were not quite satisfied with the n e w conditions. The c h a n g e will be best understood when we state that hitherto taxes were paid in produce, with the result that m u c k y s u g a r , soiled cotton, and the sweepings of the coffee logies w e r e often set aside to pay the receiver. H i t h e r t o also there h a d been n o p r o p e r roads, the vehicle e v e r y w h e r e being the tent-boat ; n o w roads a n d b r i d g e s w e r e o r d e r e d to be m a d e a l o n g the coast and for some distance up the rivers, e v e r y planter b e i n g bound to m a k e up the section through his estate. Posts were established at intervals, with s i g n a l stations by which the arrival of an enemy could be t e l e g r a p h e d by semaphore signals, and the roads a n d b r i d g e s must be in order to allow troops and g u n s to p a s s . O n the east coast a party was sent before these conveniences were ready, and the troops h a d to be billeted on a plantation at the o w n e r ' s

HISTORY

109

expense until the p a s s a g e was free, which naturally was not l o n g u n d e r such c i r c u m s t a n c e s . E v e n in the town the main street w a s only a g r a s s y d a m , on which riders were prohibited f r o m g a l l o p i n g because the turf would be c h u r n e d into m u d . N o wheeled c a r r i a g e s existed, but a few ladies enjoyed the luxury of sedan c h a i r s . T h e cultivation was at once extended, so that where in 1 7 9 9 the shipments f r o m the three rivers w e r e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; s u g a r , 3 5 , 1 8 9 c w t s . ; rum, 1 4 , 4 5 6 g a l l o n s ; coffee, 3 9 , 0 8 9 c w t s . ; a n d cotton, 3 , 5 9 3 , 0 5 3 l b . ; they increased in 1801 to s u g a r , 9 5 , 0 3 1 c w t s . ; rum, 1 3 9 , 7 8 1 gallons ; coffee, 1 4 2 , 8 1 9 c w t s . ; and cotton, 7,622,942 lb. A l l the plantations w e r e n o w e m p o w e r e d a l o n g the coast and m a i n l y planted with cotton. B e r b i c e was extended to the C o r e n t y n e by an a r r a n g e m e n t with the G o v e r n o r of S u r i n a m , which was now in the hands of the B r i t i s h . T h e present town of N e w A m s t e r d a m w a s started a little before, but it h a d not g o t b e y o n d a forest c l e a r i n g with a lot of bare stumps until the B r i t i s h c a m e and took up the whole coast. E v e r y t h i n g flourished, for prices w e r e h i g h , and it a p p e a r e d as if the country would soon b e c o m e the most important in this part of the world. Fortunes w e r e to be m a d e and the W e s t Indian n a b o b b e g a n to a p p e a r in E n g l a n d and to stand as the e m b l e m of a p e r s o n a g e of m u c h the same importance as the A m e r i c a n millionaire of to-day. A c h e c k came in 1 8 0 2 , when the D u t c h colonies were g i v e n u p to the B a t a v i a n Republic, but in less than a y e a r they w e r e a g a i n B r i t i s h . T h e b o o m was not n o w so pronounced, for there w a s a d r e a d that another p e a c e would upset e v e r y t h i n g , but p r o g r e s s was steady, until a g r e a t s h o c k c a m e . In 1807, the

110

GUIANA

slave trade was abolished, and at once the labour supply came to an e n d . N o l o n g e r could the planter increase his cultivation in the usual w a y by purc h a s i n g additional slaves, for the demand m a d e prices almost prohibitory. It is true that all the estates worth h a v i n g w e r e occupied, but no single one could cultivate the whole a r e a of its g r a n t . T h e former method was to open out twenty-five or fifty acres of the 2 5 0 , and when that was under cultivation buy slaves out of the profit to e x t e n d the w o r k ; n o w every one wanted m o r e labour, and only those who g a v e up were willing to sell. T h e “ sinews of the W e s t e r n world ” could no l o n g e r be obtained, and many a b u d d i n g plantation was a b a n d o n e d . A l t h o u g h the F r e n c h war continued there was no attempt to recapture the D u t c h colonies ; in fact, the tricolor was almost u n k n o w n in the W e s t Indies. W a r freights and insurances were, however, kept up, for there was still d a n g e r in the C h a n n e l , but the h i g h prices enabled the planter to g o on. In the early years of the century the v a l u e of the exports from the three rivers amounted to over two million sterling, and those from Surinam, which was then the most v a l u a b l e , were about as m u c h . T h e s e were the “ g o o d old times ” of the planter, when common s u g a r s sold at a hundred shillings, w h e r e now the very superior article h a r d l y fetches one-tenth of that price. C o t t o n and coffee were equally valuable at 2s. and 1s. 2d. per pound respectively. T r o u b l e came a g a i n in 1 8 1 2 , when the A m e r i c a n W a r b r o u g h t a host of “ S a u c y ” and “ S c u r v y J a c k s ” and “ Hornets ” about the coasts. A t one time the mouth of the D e m e r a r a was b l o c k a d e d , and n o vessel could pass without the risk of c a p t u r e . T h e colonies were, however, left alone, for this w a r

HISTORY

111

was not a w a r of conquest ; nevertheless, the Y a n k e e s caused more trouble than N a p o l e o n . One of the disasters of this w a r w a s the sinking of the British m a n - o f - w a r Peacock b y the U . S . ship Hornet off t h e east coast of D e m e r a r a , after a fight which showed g r e a t pluck on both sides. In 1 8 1 2 D e m e r a r a had a British G o v e r n o r , w h o was intensely l o y a l . H u g h L y l e C a r m i c h a e l did his level best to drive off the A m e r i c a n privateers b y sending out some of the a r m e d traders, a n d h e s u c c e e d e d . H e also abolished some of the D u t c h institutions, in spite of protests that under the capitulation the inhabitants were g u a r a n t e e d their ancient laws and u s a g e s . T h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e w a s introduced into the courts, a n d S t a b r o e k w a s r e n a m e d G e o r g e town. A n d y e t there was n o certainty that the colonies w o u l d be retained when the w a r was over, if ever such an event should o c c u r . P e r h a p s some t h o u g h t that as it h a d lasted f o r over twenty years it w o u l d never c o m e to an e n d . T h e y e a r 1 8 1 4 s a w the downfall of N a p o l e o n , but his sudden rise next y e a r m a d e the outlook still doubtful, till after W a t e r l o o . T h e n c a m e the question, W h a t will be done with the D u t c h colonies? T h e local papers s p o k e of this uncertainty ; with resignation they m a d e up their minds to b e c o m e D u t c h , then a g a i n they were p l u n g e d into a state of â&#x20AC;&#x153; betweenity,â&#x20AC;? and afterwards b e g a n to r e c o m m e n d the importation of S w e d i s h dictionaries. A t last, h o w e v e r , in July, 1 8 1 5 , the news c a m e that D e m e r a r a , E s s e q u e b o , a n d B e r b i c e w e r e to be retained with the C a p e of G o o d H o p e in consideration for a p a y ment of one million sterling to S w e d e n o n account of her claims on H o l l a n d , a n d a further t w o millions for i m p r o v i n g the defences of the L o w C o u n t r i e s .

112

GUIANA

“ T h u s , at last,” said the Demerara Gazette, “ they have c o n d e s c e n d e d t o inform us to w h o m we belong.” D u r i n g the w a r Surinam h a d prospered, b u t C a y e n n e suffered g r e a t l y . T h e F r e n c h were under G o v e r n o r Victor H u g h u e s , a m a n of some note, a n d it w a s n o t captured until 1 8 0 9 , when a c o m b i n e d force of British a n d P o r t u g u e s e from B r a z i l t o o k it after several d a y s ' hard fighting. T h e capitulation was signed on the 1 2 t h of J a n u a r y , a n d after that until the peace the flag of P o r t u g a l w a s kept flying, but as P o r t u g a l w a s a n a l l y of G r e a t B r i t a i n , w e m a y s a y that the British controlled t h e whole of Guiana. B e r b i c e w a s c o m i n g d o w n the river when it was first captured by the British, but as yet it w a s h a m p e r e d b y the Association, w h o did little to develop the c o l o n y . T r u e , they h a d their o w n plantations, a n d these g a v e some trouble. T h e question whether they were private property or b e l o n g i n g t o the G o v e r n ment w a s difficult to d e c i d e . A t the first conquest G o v e r n o r v a n B a t e n b u r g w a s retained in office, a n d he g o t the British authorities to consider t h e m as not liable to confiscation ; but after 1 8 0 3 he decided otherwise, a n d the British authorities b e c a m e p o s sessed of four plantations with their slaves, a s well as a b o d y of w o r k m e n , carpenters, blacksmiths, & c , called winkels, w h o were also s l a v e s . A t first these were leased, but on complaints of the a n t i - s l a v e r y party of the h i g h death-rate, they were g i v e n over to a parliamentary b o d y called the B e r b i c e C r o w n Estates' Commissioners, which included several prominent anti-slavery a g i t a t o r s . T h e y e x p e c t e d to do wonders ; not only was the death-rate to b e reduced, but a revenue be derived as w e l l . In this, h o w e v e r , they did not succeed, for the number of

HISTORY

113

slaves went on d e c r e a s i n g and the profit was the same as beforeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;i.e., n o t h i n g . In their report for 1 8 1 2 - 1 4 they said that a worse field or a less f a v o u r able time for an experiment c o u l d scarcely have been chosen, for what with the losses f r o m A m e r i c a n privateers and the low price of produce, it c o u l d not h a v e been expected that the estates would suddenly become remunerative. E v e r y t h i n g they thought desirable was d o n e to improve the condition of the slaves, including missionary instruction, but with all that they m a d e no profit, while their n e i g h bours, under the s a m e conditions, m a n a g e d to do fairly w e l l . In 1 8 1 4 , when a r r a n g e m e n t s were b e i n g m a d e to settle things in view of the peace, the B e r b i c e Association claimed their plantations a n d slaves as private property, and it was a g r e e d to g i v e them up, which was done two years later. U n d e r the circumstances v e r y little could be done, for they were not p a y i n g the cost of administration, a n d it w a s therefore decided to dispose of them. T h i s was done in 1 8 1 8 , the four Working plantations realising, with the 683 slaves, the sum of ÂŁ 6 6 , 0 0 0 ; others, which had been abandoned, could not be s o l d . T h u s the owners of B e r b i c e d r o p p e d out, a n d after winding up their affairs the second G u i a n a trading c o m p a n y c e a s e d to exist. S u r i n a m w a s also free from its first trammels, and might have g o n e on p r o g r e s s i n g had it not been for two misfortunes in the shape of fires, which almost d e s t r o y e d P a r a m a r i b o , a n d the fact that the D u t c h take more interest in their E a s t e r n colonies. T h e difficulties of the planters in g e t t i n g a labour supply w e r e intensified about 1 8 2 0 . S l a v e s could hardlv be obtained at a n y price, a n d as there w a s 8

114

GUIANA

n o n a t u r a l increase, they became fewer every y e a r . Coffee and cotton fell in prices, the latter m a i n l y from the competition of the Southern S t a t e s . E v e r y where a l o n g the coast of D e m e r a r a a n d B e r b i c e plantations were seized for debt, a n d when offered for sale only the n e g r o e s found p u r c h a s e r s . Insolvents were c o m m o n ; even the G o v e r n o r of B e r b i c e c o m p o u n d e d with his creditors. S u g a r g a v e fair profits, therefore all the slaves from the cotton-fields went to g r o w canes. It was the survival of the fittest, and in spite of later attempts to g r o w t h e a b a n d o n e d products, no one has h e a r d of a real success. T h e g r e a t trouble n o w to be faced was the British anti-slavery party. T h e slave w a s represented as o v e r w o r k e d and cruelly treated, and his master as an o g r e . S o m e g o o d people went so far as to g i v e up the use of s u g a r because it could only be g r o w n by slave l a b o u r . A n d yet all this time the planter was at his witsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ends to preserve his labour supply, which n o w b e c a m e so v a l u a b l e . W h e n slaves could be bought for ÂŁ 2 0 they m i g h t possibly be o v e r w o r k e d , but now that an a b l e - b o d i e d man was worth four or five times as much, no risks must be t a k e n . T h e r e is a l w a y s a desire to k e e p a v a l u a b l e horse in g o o d condition, especially when it cannot be replaced. It is a fact, h o w e v e r d e p l o r a b l e it m a y appear now, that the slave was better fed and housed than the n e g r o of t o - d a y . T h e r e was no poverty, for every master must keep his n e g r o , whether in sickness or old a g e . T h e r e was also practically no crime, for on a plantation order was kept in the same w a y as in schools of the same period. A whipping was g i v e n to the incorrigible, and he was sent about his w o r k . N o t h i n g like the c a t - o â&#x20AC;&#x2122; - n i n e -

HISTORY

115

tails could be tolerated, for that meant a w e e k ' s confinement and a corresponding loss. To charge a planter with ill-treating or starving his slaves w a s a deadly insult that could only be met with a challenge. In a D e m e r a r a paper we have seen a n advertisement c a l l i n g for a full inquiry into the libel on the writer's character by a c h a r g e of illfeeding his s l a v e s . A planter m i g h t be poor, or even insolvent, but his human property must be well treated. A g r e a t deal was said about the difficulties of manumissions, but these were quite proper under the circumstances. It might suit a n e e d y planter to g i v e f r e e d o m to a n old or worn-out n e g r o , but the l a w said he must first p a y a h e a v y sum to the P o o r ' s F u n d to provide against the freed m a n b e c o m i n g a pauper. A faithful n e g r o w a s sometimes freed, but we h a v e a case on record w h e r e one of them refused to be free as l o n g as his master remained alive or in the colony. W e h a v e met poor old men and w o m e n w h o remembered slavery and were g r o a n i n g over their poverty ; they wanted the g o o d o l d days when “ M a s s a ” could not drive them out to starve. F r o m about 1 8 1 3 the influence of the anti-slavery party h a d been felt in D e m e r a r a , but it was not till ten years afterwards that the crisis c a m e . During these ten years missionaries had been at work, a g a i n s t the wish of the planters, w h o considered them to be in the position of outsiders interfering in a family. T h e slaves were children, and the master, as a parent, resented their g e t t i n g a d v i c e from any one but himself. T h e n he believed them to have s t r o n g feelings a g a i n s t slavery, h o w e v e r they m i g h t speak in other terms. N o doubt they quoted such texts as “ B e subject to the powers that be ” a n d Servants, obey

116

GUIANA

your masters,â&#x20AC;? but m a n y of them wrote to the societies at home in terms that the planters c o n sidered libellous. O n the 1 5 t h of M a y , 1 8 2 3 , F o w e l l B u x t o n m o v e d in P a r l i a m e n t that the state of slavery was repugnant to the British Constitution and the Christian religion and also that it ought to be abolished as quickly as was consistent with the w e l l - b e i n g of the parties concerned. M e a n w h i l e slaves, a l t h o u g h still to b e attached to the soil, should be a l l o w e d certain privileges, including g i v i n g evidence in courts of law, the r e m o v a l of all obstructions to their manumission, religious instruction and m a r r i a g e , a free S u n d a y , and the restraint of the master's authority. Mr. C a n n i n g did not g o quite so far, but proposed three resolutions : first, to ameliorate their condition ; second, to g i v e them civil rights ; and third, that measures be taken as soon as possible. T h e G o v e r n ment, when these w e r e carried, acted at once, a n d sent dispatches to all the colonies concerned, includi n g D e m e r a r a , the main point insisted upon being the abolition of f e m a l e f l o g g i n g . A l r e a d y , in view of what was c o m i n g , the C o u n c i l had been t a l k i n g of r e d u c i n g the hours of w o r k on the plantations, but it was left o v e r . A special m e e t i n g was called on the 2 1 s t of July, when the dispatch f r o m the S e c r e t a r y of State w a s read. T h e matter was, h o w ever, left over for consideration till the next m e e t i n g of the 4th of A u g u s t , when a letter f r o m certain absentee proprietors in L o n d o n was read, in which an active co-operation was r e c o m m e n d e d . T h e m e e t ing was adjourned to the 6th, when an ordinance was proposed and carried, providing, first, to prohibit female slaves from b e i n g flogged ; second, to d i s continue the whip in the field ; and third, to provide

HISTORY

117

measures to control f e m a l e s . It will be seen from these dates that there w a s n o delay in c a r r y i n g out the orders from E n g l a n d . M e a n w h i l e , however, in the few d a y s that e l a p s e d before the law w a s authorised, the slaves learnt that something h a d been done b y Parliament, a n d rushed to the conclusion that f r e e d o m had been g i v e n a n d was kept b a c k b y their m a s t e r s . T h e y talked a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , especially at a c h a p e l on P l n . le Ressouvenir, on the east coast of D e m e r a r a , the minister of which was the R e v . J o h n Smith, of the L o n d o n Missionary S o c i e t y . H o w far the missionary h a d k n o w l e d g e of these discussions is doubtful, but nearly e v e r y one in the c o l o n y thought he must h a v e known. H o w e v e r that m a y have been, a plot w a s formed at the chapel after a S u n d a y m e e t i n g to have a g e n e r a l rising on M o n d a y , the 18th of A u g u s t , when the planters' houses w e r e to b e stormed, arms taken, and the white people put into the s t o c k s . L a t e r they would send the whites to town a n d wait for the arrival of the G o v e r n o r , w h o would, of course, c o m e to m a k e inquiries. T h e plot was simple and foolish, but it cannot be s u p p o s e d that turbulent m o b s of h a l f - s a v a g e s w o u l d be bound b y any rule or order once their passions were aroused. It w a s afterw a r d s p r o v e d that M r . S m i t h h e a r d a rumour that something was g o i n g on, but did not inquire into it. O n M o n d a y m o r n i n g , between six and seven o'clock, a mulatto house-servant told his master that all the slaves would rise that e v e n i n g . A t once M r . Simpson, who was a b u r g h e r officer, hurried off to the G o v e r n o r , who at once ordered the c a v a l r y to proceed u p the coast. T h e n u m b e r was only fourteen, but they hurried off, followed by the G o v e r n o r in a c a r r i a g e , to C a p t a i n Simpson's estate,

118

GUIANA

where an investigation was held and the news sent up the coast to the different plantations. The militia of the district were also called out, but before they could assemble a fire w a s seen, on which the G o v e r n o r ' s p a r t y hurried off to find out the cause. T h e y were met by a body of a r m e d n e g r o e s , w h o rushed upon them, shouting, “ W e have them ! ” T h e G o v e r n o r inquired what they wanted, on which they a n s w e r e d , “ O u r rights.” W h e n called upon to put d o w n their arms, a few did so, and the G o v e r n o r told them of the intentions of the Government a n d the new laws, advising them to return p e a c e a b l y to their homes, where he would see them in the m o r n i n g . T h e r e was some hesitation at first, but presently, with cries of “ N o ! N o ! ” they blew their shells and c a m e towards him, some of the m o r e quiet ones advising him to g o a w a y . S e e i n g n o t h i n g better could be done, he left. T h e n b e g a n the east coast insurrection, which some feared might become something like the trouble in B e r b i c e in 1763. H o w e v e r , the people of D e m e r a r a were not so frightened ; they resolved to fight for their homes and properties. Martial law w a s d e c l a r e d , the militia and soldiers were sent up the coast as soon as possible, a provisional battalion enrolled in G e o r g e t o w n , and every white m a n in the colony, without exception, called upon to serve. T h i s call met with an e a g e r response, the only m a n a p p a r e n t l y w h o did not c o m e f o r w a r d b e i n g M r . S m i t h , a l t h o u g h he admitted h a v i n g seen the p r o c l a m a t i o n . Methodist ministers reported themselves, but w e r e not a s k e d to serve, but M r . S m i t h c l a i m e d exemption when all exemptions were c a n c e l l e d . T h e results of these measures were soon apparent, for by the end of the week the n e g r o e s b e g a n to

HISTORY

119

surrender themselves. F e w of the whites were killed, but the slaughter a m o n g the n e g r o e s w a s considerable, a l t h o u g h there w a s n o real battle. On the a p p e a r a n c e of a force they t o o k their w a y to the bush, where they were hunted b y Indians a n d b r o u g h t b a c k to be h a n g e d . A severe lesson w a s perhaps wanted, but e v e r y one must regret the necessity for so m a n y executions, the h a n g i n g in chains and the heads stuck on poles at the fort and a l o n g the public road. M r . Smith was arrested and c h a r g e d with stirring up discontent a m o n g the slaves, conspiring to b r i n g about the rebellion, k n o w i n g of the plot and s a y i n g n o t h i n g about it, and c o m m u n i c a t i n g with a w e l l k n o w n rebel after the insurrection without attempti n g to arrest him or to g i v e information. H e was tried by a court-martial, on which n o one interested in a plantation sat, a n d the trial was as carefully conducted as in a n y court of justice. H e w a s found guilty and sentenced to be h a n g e d , but this sentence was never intended to be c a r r i e d out, as c a n be seen by the fact that it was referred to the home authorities for confirmation. P o o r Smith was w e a k in mind and b o d y ; as far as c a n be g a t h e r e d he was consumptive. N o doubt trouble b r o u g h t the end a little sooner, but there was n o cruelty in his detention, for his prison w a s an airy r o o m or g a r r e t in the F i s c a l ' s house. H e died before the n e w s c a m e that he was pardoned on condition that he left the colony and did not g o to any of the W e s t Indian islands. T h e anti-slavery party m a d e capital of his death and c a l l e d him a m a r t y r , but we cannot find any principle in his actionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;they were certainly not worthy of a g o o d citizen. T h i s insurrection was quite a g o d s e n d to the anti-

120

GUIANA

slavery party, who tried their best to whitewash the n e g r o e s and to paint M r . Smith in the brightest colours. T h e g e n e r a l result w a s continued friction, especially when n e w O r d e r s in C o u n c i l were m a d e for compulsory manumissions with or without the consent of the master, w h o resented the idea that his property should be alienated in such a m a n n e r . H o w e v e r , opposition was useless, and in the end a protector of slaves w a s appointed f r o m E n g l a n d , whose business was to see that the n e g r o e s had all the rights of free m e n except b o n d a g e to the master. A savings bank was established where slaves m i g h t deposit the proceeds of their sales of provisions, and where wills were kept s h o w i n g what should be done with these s a v i n g s in case of d e a t h . T h e only obligation n o w was nine h o u r s ' w o r k per day, and the master was bound to supply food, clothing, a n d houses, as well as m e d i c a l a t t e n d a n c e . In 1831 B e r b i c e was united to D e m e r a r a and E s s e q u e b o to form the C o l o n y of British G u i a n a . H i t h e r t o the two G o v e r n m e n t s were as separate a s they h a d been under the D u t c h , but it was c o n sidered more e c o n o m i c a l to have the whole a d m i n istered by one set of officials. S o m e of the B e r b i c i a n s did not like it, for it was m o r e dignified to have a colony than to sink to a mere county. A s a matter of fact, B e r b i c e was a l w a y s behind D e m e r a r a , mainly from the fact that she h a d a l w a y s been dominated b y the D u t c h element, while the sister c o l o n y g o t E n g l i s h and S c o t c h settlers from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g t h r o u g h the e n l i g h t e n e d policy of G r a v e s a n d e . We still call it the ancient or old-fashioned county, and there is no doubt that, like E s s e q u e b o , it has lingered behind while D e m e r a r a has progressed more than even S u r i n a m , which was once far more important.

CHAPTER HISTORY—THE

EMANCIPATION (1834-1911)

AND AFTER

The emancipation—Difficulties of planters—Immigration started— First East Indian coolies—Bad results through ignorance— Chinese coolies—Reduction of differential duties—Negro dislike to Madeirans—Riot—Emancipation of slaves in Surinam—Gold discoveries—Difficulties from the disputed boundary—British Government introduce law and order—Venezuela protests— Surveyor and party of police captured—Venezuela asks for assistance from the United States—President Cleveland's message—Arbitration—Brazilian boundary settled—Balata industry —Position of Guiana to-day—Getting rid of a bad n a m e — Changes on the plantations—Expensive government. S L A V E R Y w a s d o o m e d , a n d in 1 8 3 4 it c a m e to a n e n d

in the British possessions. E v e r y o n e in the colonies predicted utter ruin, while the abolitionists c r o w e d over their v i c t o r y . T h e g o o d people of E n g l a n d thought they w e r e d o i n g a wonderful thing when they voted twenty millions to c a r r y out a g r a n d a n d g o o d principle. E v e r y o n e will a d m i t that s l a v e r y w a s a blot o n humanity, but that n e e d not prevent o u r s y m p a t h i s i n g with those w h o lost their labour supply a n d with it a l l hopes for the future. F o u r short y e a r s of g r a c e were allowed, d u r i n g which the n e g r o e s , w h o were n o w called “apprenticed labourers,” w e r e b o u n d to w o r k seven a n d a half hours a d a y . A l l the infants born d u r i n g this term were, 121

122

GUIANA

however, free, a n absurdity which the abolitionists c o u l d not perceive until, too late, it was b r o u g h t to their n o t i c e . P o o r babies ! T h e y were n o b o d y ' s children, for it could not be expected that the planter would keep u p the estate's nursery when n o t h i n g c o u l d be g a i n e d b y it. T h e r e is no g o o d in s u p pressing the truth, a n d it m a y as well be spoken : the n e g r e s s is not a g o o d mother, whether as slave or free w o m a n . T h e o l d m a n a g e r knew it well, for it was one of his duties to see that babies were kept clean and properly f e d . T h e abolitionists said the slave w o m e n w e r e kept at w o r k so that there was no time for s u c k l i n g or w a s h i n g the little o n e s . Such cases m a y have been found, but when we know that e v e r y c h i l d meant an addition to the value of a plantation, we k n o w also that self-interest alone would ensure c a r e for the n u r s i n g mother. W e can u n d e r stand that when e v e r y t h i n g depended on â&#x20AC;&#x153; M a s s a â&#x20AC;? the mothers took little responsibility, and were not yet p r e p a r e d for such a revolution as now took p l a c e . T h e n e g r o was n o l o n g e r punished b y the master ; the m a g i s t r a t e w a s b r o u g h t from E n g l a n d so that he m i g h t be free a n d independent. B u t the t r e a d mill was also introduced and the c a t - o â&#x20AC;&#x2122; - n i n e - t a i l s , once so rarely used, was found more n e c e s s a r y . One of the Q u a k e r s who c a m e out to see how the apprenticeship system w o r k e d was s h o c k e d . The people were worse off than when they were s l a v e s . S o m e disturbances took place when the c h a n g e was made in 1 8 3 4 , but the apprentices did v e r y w e l l o n the w h o l e . M a n y were willing to w o r k overtime for w a g e s , and in this w a y saved fair sums before the final emancipation, with which some of the ruined plantations were b o u g h t , to ultimately become the villages.

HISTORY

123

The compensation m o n e y in British Guiana a m o u n t e d to about one-third the value of the s l a v e s . A s , however, m a n y of the estates w e r e m o r t g a g e d for half their a p p r a i s e d value, the difference must be m a d e up or the place a b a n d o n e d . W i t h o u t labour every one k n o w s the land to be worthless, and t h o u g h there m i g h t be a mansion and a hundred n e g r o dwellings, these c o u l d h a r d l y be sold at their value as o l d materials when b r o k e n d o w n . W i t h so m a n y foreclosures a n d bankruptcies the l a w y e r s were busy, a n d it is interesting to note that they w e r e a m o n g the few w h o kept on their plantations. W e knew one l e g a l g e n t l e m a n as late as the e a r l y seventies who, it w a s said, c o u l d not replace the r a g g e d g o w n he wore in court on account of the burden of k e e p i n g up a s u g a r plantation. If this w e r e the case in g o o d times, what must it have been when ruin was s t a r i n g e v e r y one in the f a c e ? F o r the freed m a n w o u l d only w o r k when a n d w h e r e he chose, rarely m o r e than two or three days in a w e e k . F o r a time every means was taken to induce the labourers to w o r k , some planters, in their fear of ruin, offering h i g h e r w a g e s than c o u l d be justified by the price of s u g a r . T h e n a n attempt was m a d e , in 1 8 4 2 , to r e g u l a t e w a g e s b y a combination, with the result that a strike took place on the W e s t C o a s t . A l r e a d y efforts had been put forth to get labour from outside. I m m e d i a t e l y that the hours were r e d u c e d by the apprenticeship law attempts were made t o import free n e g r o e s from the W e s t Indies a n d A f r i c a , but without m u c h s u c c e s s . Then Madeirans w e r e b r o u g h t in c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s , only to drift from the plantations and b e c o m e pedlars a n d petty shopkeepers. A few M a l t e s e were found inefficient, and, soon b e c o m i n g v a g r a n t s , w e r e quickly sent b a c k .

124

GUIANA

E v e n G e r m a n s and Irish were s u g g e s t e d as suitable, but, fortunately, n o such hazardous experiments were tried. S o e a g e r was the d r o w n i n g planter to c a t c h at a straw that he forgot how n e c e s s a r y it w a s for e v e r y n e w - c o m e r to g e t seasoned, and as a natural c o n s e q u e n c e the M a d e i r a n s died in considerable n u m b e r s . Y e l l o w f e v e r w a s then in the colony, and the poor h a l f - s t a r v e d creatures who came from M a d e i r a because it w a s ruined b y the vine disease became easy victims. A t last the right k i n d of labourer was found ; Mauritius d i s c o v e r e d that the E a s t Indian coolie w a s a g o o d m a n in the canefield. T h e first plantations to receive E a s t Indians were those of John G l a d s t o n e , the father of the g r e a t politician, and M e s s r s . J o h n a n d H e n r y M o s s . T h i s w a s in 1 8 3 8 , when two vessels b r o u g h t 4 0 6 f r o m C a l c u t t a , but t h e same y e a r the permission to recruit such labourers w a s rescinded. T h i s prohibition was d u e to the influence of the A n t i - S l a v e r y Society, whose a g e n t in D e m e r a r a did e v e r y t h i n g possible to prove that the coolies were ill-treated. A commission of inquiry was appointed, and in their report, d a t e d June 1 5 , 1 8 3 9 , they stated that several cases of i l l - u s a g e h a d been proved, but these were due to the S i r d a r s , who c l a i m e d that they did no more than what was done in I n d i a . On a c c o u n t of the ignorance of their l a n g u a g e the planter left o v e r the entire control of the coolies to these people. T h e necessity for immigration led to the appointment, in 1 8 3 8 , of an official as a g e n t to e n c o u r a g e e m i g r a t i o n from the W e s t Indies, and in the f o l l o w i n g y e a r to a V o l u n t a r y Subscription I m m i g r a t i o n S o c i e t y . T h i s S o c i e t y brought between A p r i l , 1 8 4 0 , a n d

HISTORY

125

F e b r u a r y , 1 8 4 1 , 1,620 people, but these m a d e little impression o n the labour m a r k e t . The Government was u r g e d to do s o m e t h i n g , and especially to press upon the B r i t i s h authorities the necessity for coolie immigration on a l a r g e s c a l e . A s s l a v e r y still existed in Surinam, the n e g r o e s there b e g a n to run a w a y whenever they could steal boats to b r i n g t h e m across the R i v e r C o r e n t y n e . T h e s e evasions led to the posting of a vessel off the coast, which m e a s u r e was successful in c h e c k i n g t h e m . In 1 8 4 5 the British G o v e r n m e n t permitted coolie immigration to be resumed as long as provision w a s m a d e for a return p a s s a g e after five y e a r s . Unfortunately, these people were p i c k e d up in the bazaars of C a l c u t t a and M a d r a s , a n d when they arrived were found in most cases to be utterly u n fitted for plantation l a b o u r . N o t b e i n g bound b y any contract, they often b e c a m e v a g r a n t s and a burden on the c o l o n y . T h i s would not do, and by the end of 1 8 5 0 it was felt that s o m e t h i n g m o r e must be d o n e . T o pay the cost of i m p o r t i n g a n d a b a c k p a s s a g e for people who were useless was out of the question. A n d yet the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t , b a c k e d by the anti-slavery party, refused to a l l o w contracts, coercion, or a vagrancy ordinance. D e l e g a t e s from this party who visited the colony that year g a v e a most disheartening account of the position. F o r m e r l y a land of mud and money, it w a s n o w a wilderness of m u d and mosquitoes. The coolies imported were the refuse of the population, most of them u n a c c u s t o m e d to field labour, and in D e m e r a r a were n o t h i n g better than m e n d i c a n t s . S o m e h a d p r o b a b l y died of want, others were l y i n g a b o u t the streets or p i c k i n g up refuse from the gutters. F r o m 1 8 3 4 to 1 8 4 8 , 4 6 , 5 1 4 i m m i g r a n t s

126

GUIANA

of all nationalities were imported at a cost of ÂŁ 3 6 0 , 6 8 5 , besides the extra expense to the colony of hospitals, gifts to b e g g a r s , prisons, and police. In 1 8 5 3 Chinese coolies were imported for the first time. T h e planters were not quite a g r e e d as to their suitability ; but there is no doubt that these people have become valuable colonists. B y this time the system of indenture had been legalised, and there was no longer so m u c h g r o u n d for complaints as to the quality of the i m m i g r a n t s . In this as in every other innovation there must be mistakes at the beginning. B e s i d e s the labour difficulty the planter was met by the g r a d u a l reduction of the differential duties, by which his s u g a r h a d to compete with that from countries where slavery still e x i s t e d . T h i s he c o n sidered iniquitous, for the people who were prominent agitators against s l a v e - g r o w n s u g a r were now freet r a d e r s . B y p l u c k and e n e r g y , however, and with the aid of powerful machinery, i n c l u d i n g the v a c u u m - p a n , D e m e r a r a s u g a r c a m e to the front and g o t its g o o d n a m e . Plantations were united, the cost of m a n u f a c ture m u c h decreased, and about 1 8 7 0 the estates were in a better position than at any time b e f o r e . Exports rose to double the amount of those b e f o r e the e m a n cipation, and it a p p e a r e d as if the colony w o u l d continue to prosper and increase its cultivation if only e n o u g h labour were p r o c u r a b l e . In the early eighties, however, the output of b e e t - s u g a r , with the bounties on its export, b r o u g h t prices so low that ruin a g a i n stared the planter in the f a c e . The exports did not fall off to any g r e a t extent, but the value was reduced to about half, d r i v i n g every planter to his wits' ends to reduce the cost in every direction. M a n y estates were abandoned, and only those that

HISTORY

127

could reduce expenses and extend cultivation were kept u p . E v e r y y e a r this has g o n e on until n o w only forty factories are in operation ; in some cases these take the canes from as m a n y as six of the o l d p l a n t a tions. T h e largest is Plantation D i a m o n d , with nearly 8,000 a c r e s , the others r a n g i n g from 1 to 2,000, the annual output of s u g a r a v e r a g i n g 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 tons from about 70,000 a c r e s . Immigration did not altogether please the n e g r o and his friends. T h e M a d e i r a n c a m e to D e m e r a r a more destitute than even the slave had once been, yet he g r a d u a l l y c a m e to the front by his thrift a n d honesty. He was certainly c r i n g i n g and w o u l d stand insults to any extent if he g a i n e d a few p e n c e . In the opinion of the n e g r o he was a low fellow, not a â&#x20AC;&#x153; buccra,â&#x20AC;? or gentleman, nor the ideal white m a n . T h e n he was a R o m a n Catholic, while most of the b l a c k s were rabid Protestants ; this was an offence. B e y o n d e v e r y t h i n g he had driven out almost e v e r y pedlar a n d small shopkeeper of the c o l o u r e d race b y u n d e r selling, and c o u l d g e t credit where a b l a c k m a n ' s application would have been treated with contempt. It was the o f t - r e c u r r i n g complaint against the foreigner, for the n e g r o was the native or Creole who alone had the right to prosper in his o w n country. In 1 8 5 6 an a n t i - P o p e r y a g i t a t o r n a m e d John S a y e r s O r r , a native of the colony, arrived from a tour in G r e a t Britain and the U n i t e d States, where several towns m a d e things too hot for him. Soon after his arrival he b e g a n a series of open-air lectures, in the course of which he abused the Pope, the priests, and the P o r t u g u e s e . F e a r i n g trouble, the authorities prohibited the meetings, and, as O r r persisted, he was c h a r g e d before the magistrate with

128

GUIANA

b r i n g i n g together an unlawful a s s e m b l a g e and using inflammatory and seditious l a n g u a g e , a n d was c o m mitted for t r i a l . T h i s inflamed the n e g r o e s , a n d when a false report went round that a P o r t u g u e s e man had s t a b b e d a b l a c k they c o m m e n c e d a c o w a r d l y attack upon the M a d e i r a n s a n d their s h o p s . Houses and shops w e r e stormed by m o b s , led by w o m e n a n d boys, and the owners w e r e o b l i g e d to take refuge with other whites. F o r a time not only G e o r g e t o w n but the country districts of D e m e r a r a and E s s e q u e b o were under m o b law, and it was not until the a r r i v a l of a m a n - o f - w a r that the riot w a s q u e l l e d . S i m i l a r riots took place in G e o r g e t o w n in 1 8 8 9 and a strike riot in 1 9 0 5 , all g o i n g to show the s a v a g e nature of the low-class n e g r o when e x c i t e d . T h e natural development of B r i t i s h and D u t c h G u i a n a has a l w a y s been h a m p e r e d by w a n t of l a b o u r . W e have seen how it brought ruin into the British colony, mainly because the emancipation w a s too sudden. T h e D u t c h a v o i d e d such a catastrophe b y b i n d i n g the slave for ten y e a r s , to w o r k for w a g e s when freedom was g i v e n in 1 8 6 3 . In anticipation of entire f r e e d o m coolie i m m i g r a n t s were introduced in 1 8 7 2 to the n u m b e r of 2 , 7 2 0 . T h e r e has, however, been n o t h i n g like the revolution which took place in D e m e r a r a . Still, the emancipation h a d its effects, for some plantations were g i v e n up, a n d p r o b a b l y were it not for the E a s t Indians and J a v a n e s e the five s u g a r factories could not have been kept w o r k i n g . T h e s e five are all that remain in what w a s o n c e a s u g a r colony, and though m o r e attention has been paid to c a c a o d u r i n g the last century, even this has been b l i g h t e d by the w i t c h - b r o o m f u n g u s . Bananas are b e i n g exported, but it is doubtful whether the subsidy to the line of steamers e m p l o y e d will be kept

GOLD

PLACER.

To face p. 129.

HISTORY

129

up. O n l y immigration on a l a r g e scale can b r i n g S u r i n a m b a c k to its once flourishing state. Every year it has to get a g r a n t from the Mother C o u n t r y to the amount of near a million g u i l d e r s , while British G u i a n a is entirely independent of such assistance. T h e industry which once raised the hopes of the three colonies is g o l d - s e e k i n g . G o l d was first d i s c o v e r e d in F r e n c h G u i a n a about 1820, but for a l o n g time little was d o n e . In S u r i n a m g o l d - d i g g i n g w a s c o m m e n c e d on the M a r o w y n e about 1 8 7 5 , a n d has n o w extended to several other rivers, but the ardent enthusiasm of the e a r l y y e a r s has settled d o w n into a m o r e quiet f e e l i n g . B u t the industry is by no means dead, for a r a i l w a y is b e i n g laid down in S u r i n a m to afford more e a s y a c c e s s to the d i g g i n g s . A s l o n g a g o as 1 8 6 3 an attempt was m a d e to start q u a r t z - c r u s h i n g in the C u y u n i , British G u i a n a , but it failed, partly from the poorness of the ore a n d partly from the mine b e i n g in territory then claimed by V e n e z u e l a . P l a c e r w a s h i n g w a s , however, started a b o u t 1 8 7 9 by some people from C a y e n n e , and d u r i n g the next five years it was c a r r i e d on with fair returns to the few people e m p l o y e d . Little was k n o w n of the amount of g o l d collected, for the w a s h i n g s w e r e in disputed territory, which b y a n a r r a n g e m e n t with V e n e z u e l a in 1 8 5 0 was not to be o c c u p i e d by cither p a r t y . T h e first river to be exploited was the Puruni, a b r a n c h of the M a s a r u n i , a n d the people c o n c e r n e d were in the employ of M . H e n r i L e d o u x , then F r e n c h C o n s u l for B r i t i s h G u i a n a . A t first e v e r y t h i n g w a s carried on in a quiet way, but soon it was reported that g o l d was b e i n g g o t in considerable quantity, and something like a rush took p l a c e . T h i s , however, w a s nothing like that of C a l i f o r n i a or Australia, for 9

130

GUIANA

the real d i g g e r had no money and must be financed b y some one, often quite a n o v i c e . A boat, with proper hands as well as labourers, must be provided, with supplies of food a n d other necessaries for three months. T h e usual w a y w a s for a m a n to g o to a likely person, show him a few g r a i n s of g o l d g o t from the w a s h i n g of one or two battels, and then ask to be fitted out at a cost of five hundred d o l l a r s . T h e r e would be, of course, a fortune for both parties when the expedition returned. T h e sharper g e n e r a l l y returned with a few ounces and a lame story that there was too m u c h w a t e r or not e n o u g h , and if the dupe believed all he was told another trip was m a d e with a similar result. Sometimes the men stole a w a y and could not be found, a n d there w a s n o means of p r o s e c u t i n g them, for the whole transaction was in a w a y i l l e g a l a n d in a country where neither British G u i a n a nor Venezuela h a d a n y right to interfere. A few c a m e b a c k with the results of g o o d finds, a n d these e x a m p l e s were a l w a y s more c o n spicuous than the failures. T h e man w h o got nothing did not g o d r i v i n g round in a c a b , treating his friends at every rum-shop, or s h o w i n g off his g i r l in a hired c a r r i a g e , but when he w a n t e d to fleece a new m a n he could point to such e x a m p l e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t could not let things g o on like this ; there must be some rule and o r d e r . Already in 1880 an ordinance was passed, at the instance of M . L e d o u x , to provide for g r a n t s of land, c o r r e c t returns of g o l d and silver, a tax of 2 per cent., a miner's certificate for five dollars, and provisions to prevent b l o c k i n g w a t e r w a y s . N o districts were m e n tioned, there w a s as yet n o reference to the b o u n d a r y dispute, n o r did Venezuela take any notice of the irruptions into what she considered her territory until

HISTORY

131

1884. T h e n a movement was m a d e b y g r a n t i n g a l a r g e tract of land in the delta of the O r i n o c o to a n A m e r i c a n , the chart of which s h o w e d it to include part of the disputed territory. T h i s led to the sending of a n official to put u p notices w a r n i n g trespassers that they w o u l d not be permitted to e n c r o a c h on what was c o n s i d e r e d a part of the British colony. A Venezuelan n a m e d W e l l s was prosecuted for interfering with a British subject and duly c o n v i c t e d . T h i s b r o u g h t matters to a head, for in 1886 a proclamation was issued that, whereas g r a n t s had been m a d e b y Venezuela within territory c l a i m e d by her M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t , the G o v e r n o r p r o c l a i m e d that no title would be admitted, and that a n y person e x e r c i s i n g a n y r i g h t under such pretended title would be treated as a trespasser. T h e colonists h a d been w a i t i n g for y e a r s to get some such declaration, for they considered the a g r e e ment with V e n e z u e l a a mistake a n d w a n t e d a settlement. N o w that it was b e l i e v e d that g o l d was to be the salvation of the colony (sugar b e i n g then m u c h d e p r e s s e d ) , it b e c a m e absolutely necessary to take a stand of some k i n d . B u t the matter w a s not yet put on a proper footing, for in 1887 the then a c t i n g G o v e r n o r said in the C o u r t of P o l i c y that he had applications for m i n i n g licences in the disputed territory, a n d h a d been directed b y the S e c r e t a r y of State to caution persons interested that these w e r e issued subject to the possibility of the land b e c o m i n g a part of Venezuelan territory, when no c l a i m for compensation w o u l d be a d m i t t e d . T h i s m a d e some stir in the colony, a n d a m e e t i n g w a s held in G e o r g e town, where resolutions were passed u r g i n g the Imperial G o v e r n m e n t to maintain its rights and to settle the b o u n d a r y question as speedily as possible.

132

GUIANA

A l r e a d y , in view of the proclamation, an impetus h a d been g i v e n to the g o l d industry a n d a C o m p a n y p r o j e c t e d with a capital of a million d o l l a r s . This C o m p a n y was actually started, but with a s m a l l e r c a p i t a l than proposed, mainly on a c c o u n t of the G o v e r n o r ' s statement. In July, 1 8 8 7 , a g o l d - m i n e r s ' association was proposed, but not a d o p t e d at the time ; later the idea developed into the Institute of M i n e s a n d F o r e s t s , which has done a g r e a t d e a l to prevent fraud and to provide suitable labour for the diggings. V e n e z u e l a could not see B r i t i s h G u i a n a d e v e l o p i n g her g o l d - d i g g i n g s without interfering. N o t o n l y did she protest but went out of her w a y to h a m p e r a s u r v e y o r in his w o r k and to arrest him, also to attack and loot a police-station on what was c o n sidered B r i t i s h territory. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these interferences, the officials of the colony did not retaliate ; they protested when taken as prisoners, but never fired a s h o t . E v e n the Venezuelans could d o n o t h i n g but set them free, to find their w a y b a c k to the colony as best they c o u l d . T h e g e n e r a l result was a fairly g o o d control over the d i g g e r s , so that life and property were as safe a s they could be in such p l a c e s . N o real trouble ever o c c u r r e d ; this seems to have been entirely due to the fact that the disputed territory was not left over to what m i g h t have b e c o m e a lawless set of p e o p l e . In 1 8 9 0 a G o l d Commissioner was appointed and efforts were made to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y open up the country. T h i s could not be done in a hurry, for tropical countries a l w a y s g o s l o w l y . Y e t by means of steamers the distances to be t r a v e l l e d were reduced, and by regulations in r e g a r d to boats and their bow and steersmen the d a n g e r s of the rapids b e c a m e less.

HISTORY

133

B y these means the output of g o l d was increased, until it r e a c h e d in the y e a r 1 8 9 3 the value of over half a million pounds s t e r l i n g . This w a s g a t h e r e d b y a b o u t five thousand labourers, entirely n e g r o e s , who a l o n e are well suited to the r o u g h w o r k a n d exposure inseparable f r o m placers in the t r o p i c s . Probably Venezuela envied this half-million annually, c o m i n g from what she considered her territory, for she b e g a n to u r g e upon the U n i t e d States the desirability of i n t e r f e r i n g . H e r e was, she said, a poor w e a k nation b e i n g bullied a n d d e p r i v e d of her rights b y that of the strongest. T h e A m e r i c a n people k n e w n o t h i n g of the true story of the case, and, unfortunately, the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t , conscious of its integrity, did not think it n e c e s s a r y to enlighten t h e m . It followed, therefore, that when certain agents of V e n e z u e l a wrote pamphlets to show that the o l d colony of E s s e q u e b o h a d a l w a y s b e l o n g e d to S p a i n and her successor there w a s no one to deny the assertion. A g a i n , L o r d S a l i s b u r y , w h o was then a t the h e a d of affairs, objected to arbitration b e c a u s e the a r e a in dispute w a s so plainly British, as s u c c e s sive to its former D u t c h o w n e r s , that he considered only a small portion at a l l doubtful. Offers to V e n e z u e l a h a d been m a d e a t various times of fair slices of the territory, a l l of which, unfortunately for her in the end, she persistently refused. A t last the President of the U n i t e d S t a t e s , G r o v e r C l e v e l a n d , m a d e a startling d e c l a r a t i o n which almost b r o u g h t on a w a r between the two g r e a t E n g l i s h speaking nations. P r e s i d e n t C l e v e l a n d proposed, in D e c e m b e r , 1 8 9 5 , to appoint a C o m m i s s i o n to inquire and report on the merits of the case, regardless of the consent of the British G o v e r n m e n t . â&#x20AC;&#x153; W h e n such report is m a d e and accepted it will,

134

GUIANA

in m y opinion, be the duty of the U n i t e d States to resist, b y every means in its power, as a wilful a g g r e s s i o n upon its rights and interests, the a p p r o priation by G r e a t B r i t a i n of a n y lands, or the exercise of g o v e r n m e n t a l jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation, we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela.â&#x20AC;? T h i s w a s c o m p u l s o r y arbitration, and a n a s s e r tion of the M o n r o e D o c t r i n e of A m e r i c a for the Americans. If something were not done before the Commission reported trouble would certainly arise. F o r t u n a t e l y , the matter was discussed in a temperate w a y , and a l t h o u g h the Commission investigated the claims of both parties, it w a s not required to decide ; for on the 2nd of F e b r u a r y , 1 8 9 7 , G r e a t Britain and Venezuela a g r e e d to submit to arbitration, a n d in 1 8 9 9 the decision w a s g i v e n at P a r i s by which British G u i a n a w a s secured a g a i n s t future t r o u b l e . T h e extreme claim of G r e a t B r i t a i n was not pressed, and t w o small areas were g i v e n to V e n e z u e l a that were within the line d r a w n by S i r R o b e r t S c h o m b u r g k , but these w e r e not considered of m u c h value, a l t h o u g h one of them has since been proved auriferous. A n o t h e r boundary dispute with B r a z i l w a s easily settled, and thus British G u i a n a at last k n e w the extent of her territory and how far licences could be g r a n t e d . T h i s w a s undoubtedly, of m u c h i m portance, but meanwhile the output of g o l d s l o w l y d e c r e a s e d until now it reaches only about half that of the best y e a r s . Still, the w o r k of d e v e l o p i n g the interior is g o i n g on in connection with balata a n d timber. B a l a t a has been k n o w n as a kind of g u t t a - p e r c h a for about fifty years, but at first, like india-rubber,

HISTORY

135

it w a s considered m o r e as a curiosity than as a valuable economic p r o d u c t . In 1 8 6 5 , 20,000 pounds were exported, but d u r i n g the last three y e a r s the exports a v e r a g e d over a million pounds per a n n u m . A n u m b e r of companies are now at work, with the result that the whole colony is b e i n g exploited ; in fact, the industry has become almost as important as that of g o l d - s e e k i n g , for t h o u g h the returns are not so g r e a t in pounds sterling t h e y are less p r e carious. T h e industry is also of g r e a t importance in S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e . T h e position of British and D u t c h G u i a n a t o - d a y is on the whole e n c o u r a g i n g . By, m e a n s of i m m i g r a t i o n the former has attained a position that c o m p a r e s f a v o u r a b l y with most tropical c o l o n i e s . U n l i k e S u r i n a m , it requires no subsidy f r o m the Mother Country, and is a b l e to p a y its w a y without difficulty. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the decrease in the n u m ber of plantations, the exports of s u g a r k e e p up in spite of m a n y difficulties. C o m p l a i n t s are m a d e in British G u i a n a that things are worse than they were in the old times. F o r t u n e s could be m a d e a century a g o , and g o o d incomes forty y e a r s back, when s u g a r bounties h a d m a d e little impression. N o w , however, the planter has to work very hard to m a k e a small profit, a n d difficulties, once of little importance, such as d r o u g h t or deluge, put the b a l a n c e on the w r o n g side. S e v e r a l estates have been driven to ruin d u r i n g the last few years by encroachments of the s e a . W e r e there no public roads to k e e p u p the s e a - d a m s m i g h t b e retired, but as it is, the road must be protected in front at a n enormous c o s t . T h e nearest estate to G e o r g e t o w n once b e l o n g e d to M r , Quintin H o g g , the w e l l - k n o w n supporter of the P o l y t e c h n i c in L o n d o n ,

136

GUIANA

but he g a v e it u p on account of difiiculties with sea defences, on which he spent s o m e t h i n g like a hundred thousand p o u n d s . T h e s e a - w a l l of G e o r g e t o w n is a g r a n d success, but estate-owners under present c o n ditions cannot afford to lay d o w n tens of thousands of tons of stone for such a massive s t r u c t u r e . B r i t i s h G u i a n a and D e m e r a r a are mere n a m e s to most people in E u r o p e and N o r t h A m e r i c a . Those w h o k n o w a little class the colony with the W e s t Indian islands, and perhaps r e m e m b e r that their families were ruined at the E m a n c i p a t i o n . Others have heard of it as a “ white man's g r a v e ”—a h o t b e d of yellow f e v e r — o n l y to be classed with C a y e n n e . N o doubt it w a s unhealthy at one time, when the whites were noted for their d r i n k i n g habits, and when soldiers w e r e b r o u g h t f r o m cold climates and placed in b a r r a c k s the surroundings of which were flooded at every, tide. T h e old chestnut w h i c h says an Irishman w r o t e that “ the people c o m e out to D e m e r a r a , and they drink, a n d they drink, and they die, and then they write home and tell their friends that the climate killed them,” w a s applicable when G e o r g e t o w n w a s a r e e k i n g morass on the north, with filthy, mud-lots on the w e s t . T h e n D e m e r a r a g a i n e d a b a d n a m e which it has been t r y i n g h a r d of late years to wipe out, with a m e a s u r e of success. E v e r y one k n o w s , h o w e v e r , that a s t i g m a of that kind dies hard, even when it is k n o w n that yellow fever has not a p p e a r e d for thirty y e a r s . In the old times, when the pioneers of these colonies were b r i n g i n g order out of c h a o s , they w e r e not afraid of sickness, neither were British soldiers c o w a r d l y in that respect, e v e n in the presence of “ Y e l l o w Jack.ö T h e planter incurred risks which he d a r e d not put on his slaves ; only the strongest

GEORGETOWN.

To face p. 137.

HISTORY

137

survived, but the g e n e r a l result was that a v e r y few m a d e fortunes a n d flaunted a s n a b o b s at the assemblies of B a t h and other fashionable resorts. N o w that fortunes are no longer to be had only the bad n a m e persists. A s a matter of fact this bad name stands in the way of p r o g r e s s . C a p i t a l c a n be spared for almost any S o u t h A m e r i c a n republic, but hardly for the W e s t Indies a n d G u i a n a . H e r e is a British colony almost as l a r g e as the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , only w a i t i n g for a g o o d supply of capital and labour to become, what one of its G o v e r n o r s c a l l e d it, a magnificent province. W i t h such a stable G o v e r n m e n t as here exists there are none of the revolutionary difficulties which, unfortunately, a r e almost chronic in the n e i g h bouring S t a t e . T h e r e is room here for immense extensions of c a c a o - p l a n t i n g , which, n o doubt, could be c o m b i n e d with r u b b e r . A l r e a d y both are successfully c u l t i vated in a small w a y . T h e r e need be no real difficulty, for the pioneer has a l r e a d y been at w o r k ; it is for the people of E u r o p e , C a n a d a , and the U n i t e d States to come in with capital and l a b o u r . W h a t is the position t o - d a y ? T h e small s u g a r plantations of old time have been replaced by l a r g e estates with p o w e r f u l m a c h i n e r y and systematic cultivation ; in fact, they are central factories. F r o m about twenty pounds a ton the modern planter has reduced the cost of production to less than half. W a g e s are low, for the price of sugar is kept d o w n b y the continental bounties, but it still p a y s where the conditions are f a v o u r a b l e . T h e plantations of British G u i a n a are the b a c k bone of the colony ; without t h e m it would be in the same b a c k w a r d position as S u r i n a m , h a v i n g to

138

GUIANA

b e g for an annual subsidy. O n them depend not only the labourers, but a host of tradesmen, s h o p k e e p e r s , merchants, and the people connected with the s h i p p i n g . W i t h o u t them the colonies m i g h t possibly sink to the condition of some of the W e s t Indian islands, where o n l y a few peasants live in a halfs a v a g e condition by g r o w i n g plantains a n d y a m s . S u c h people could not support a n y t h i n g like the present G o v e r n m e n t , which is certainly too expensive in B r i t i s h G u i a n a for such a small c o m m u n i t y . But then it must be considered that the country, is l a r g e and must be controlled in a w a y even to its utmost b o u n d a r y . N o w h e r e , perhaps, is there m o r e security for life and property, but this is g a i n e d at c o n s i d e r able expense. T h e taxes run t o over ten dollars a head, and are mostly raised by customs d u t i e s . S h o p s p a y heavy licences, and the excise imports on spirits are also l a r g e . A l l these a r e absolutely n e c e s s a r y to keep u p the expensive system, w h i c h includes justice a n d police, with jails a n d a penal settlement, medical officers, with hospitals, a lunatic and a leper a s y l u m , steam n a v i g a t i o n with the upkeep of w h a r v e s , roads, sea defences, r a i l w a y s , and, in fact, all the o r d i n a r y appliances of civilisation suitable for a population of s e v e r a l millions. The capitalist, however, is quite safe f r o m a n y t h i n g u n d e r hand ; he finds out what is to p a y and tips n o b o d y , which is somewhat different f r o m the experience of foreigners in some of the republics.

CHAPTER

CAYENNE : THE BLOT

VII

GUIANA

French Guiana a danger—Once fairly prosperous—Colonising in the wrong w a y — T e n thousand lives lost—Continual mistakes— The revolution—Capture by British and Portuguese—Beginning of the exile system—Sufferings of political prisoners—A bad name—Vain efforts at colonisation—Exiles under Napoleon III. — T h e bad name as a deterrent from crime—Republic of Counani—Convict settlements—Refugees in other colonies— Dreaded everywhere—Moved on—Deplorable results of the system—A Frenchman's views—Horrors of confinement in a tropical country—Cayenne town well situated—A century ago —Capabilities—Population to-day.

CAYENNE

is now

blot on

G u i a n a and

danger

to the other colonies. B u t it was not a l w a y s so, nor is there a n y real need for such a d i s g r a c e f u l state of t h i n g s . W e have seen in another chapter h o w one colony after another failed t h r o u g h m i s m a n a g e m e n t , and n o w we must s h o w that all the experience that was g a i n e d and utilised by others has been i g n o r e d b y the F r e n c h . T h e F r e n c h colony c o u l d once c o m p a r e with her neighbours ; she w a s a l w a y s a little behind, but not as she is t o - d a y . O n c e there w e r e plantations ; only a few ruins indicate their sites. In 1 7 5 2 the exports were : anatto, 2 6 0 , 5 4 1 l b . ; s u g a r , 80,3631b. ; cotton, 1 7 , 9 1 9 l b . ; coffee, 26,881 l b . ; c a c a o , 9 1 , 9 1 6 l b . ; 139

140

GUIANA

and timber, 6 1 8 l o g s . A l l these resulted from the industry of ninety F r e n c h families, with the aid of 1,500 n e g r o e s a n d 1 2 5 Indians. O n proper lines this fair b e g i n n i n g could have led to something at least equal to the output of D e m e r a r a , then in its infancy. B u t the F r e n c h m a n must do something w o r t h y of his g r e a t and g r a n d c o u n t r y — s o m e t h i n g to show the world what a fine c o l o n y this “ equinoctial F r a n c e ” would become if properly exploited. Settlers must be induced to g o in their thousands at once, not a few at a time, and they must found a colony quite apart from that which was well k n o w n — f a r a w a y from the experienced settlers w h o could instruct them in the right manner of living and w o r k i n g in the tropics. O f course, these people would have said at once that only b l a c k men could do field work, and the projectors of the g r e a t c o l o n y on the river K o u r o u did not want their people's minds w a r p e d or prejudiced by such ideas. N o , they must be free to w o r k on the same lines as they did in their native A l s a c e . T h e r e f o r e , in 1 7 6 3 , twelve thousand were induced, by the offer of free lands, to g o to this g r a n d and beautiful place, where the soil was rich and every one could have his little Eden. T h e projectors i g n o r e d all past experience ; acclimatisation was a factor quite b e y o n d their k n o w ledge, and they p r o b a b l y supposed that in a hot climate dwellings could be erected in a d a y . W h a t ever m a y have been the idea, the fact remains that no provision was m a d e for their housing, and the food was scant and unsuitable. N o one with a n y k n o w l e d g e of the proper a r r a n g e m e n t s necessary was e n g a g e d to teach even the rudiments of tropical education. Isolated, and without proper food a n d

CAYENNE

141

shelter from the d r e n c h i n g rains, they necessarily b e c a m e sick. M o s t of them died v e r y soon ; those who remained were too sick to w o r k and improve their surroundings. T h e place chosen was low ; n o account was taken of possible floods. T h e F r e n c h w e r e not like the D u t c h , they k n e w n o t h i n g of empoldering. T h e floods c a m e and drowned a part of those w h o h a d survived the malarial f e v e r s . Two thousand only returned to F r a n c e , with stories of disease a n d insect p l a g u e s ; the c l i m a t e w a s b l a m e d for the i g n o r a n c e of the projectors, w h o lost o v e r a million sterling on account of their foolishness. If such a t h i n g w e r e done n o w a d a y s , these people would certainly be treated as criminals. T h r e e years later another experiment w a s m a d e , in hopes of better success, but with a similar result. T h e people sent w e r e the d r e g s of the population, unfit to be free colonists a n y w h e r e ; in the tropics they were practically sent out to die. T h i s cost the C o m p a n y , t h r o u g h their criminal m i s m a n a g e m e n t , the lives of hundreds, a n d in c a s h about 800,000 livres. T h e real c o l o n y was not, however, a failure, for in 1 7 7 5 , when there were 1,300 whites a n d 8,000 slaves, produce to the v a l u e of half a million livres was e x p o r t e d . In 1 7 9 0 the produce r e a c h e d 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 francs ; this m a y be considered the p a l m y d a y s , for afterwards there was a decline. D u r i n g the N a p o l e o n i c w a r s it shared the fate of other F r e n c h colonies so far as to be cut off from communication with the M o t h e r C o u n t r y . The R e v o l u t i o n was reflected as in H a i t i , slaves were declared free in 1 7 9 4 , only to be a g a i n b r o u g h t under servitude. A s might be supposed, this could o n l y lead to trouble. A t first the n e g r o e s would not

142

GUIANA

w o r k for w a g e s ; in fact, f r e e d o m meant idleness as far as they w e r e c o n c e r n e d . B u t the F r e n c h authorities would h a v e no drones, so force w a s brought to bear upon t h e m until they consented to annual e n g a g e m e n t s . T h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s m a d e it m o r e easy to re-enslave them, when the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t repented of its rashness. The final emancipation took place in 1 8 4 8 . A Colonial A s s e m b l y w a s established in 1 7 9 0 , but the deputies b e c a m e s o u n m a n a g e a b l e that seven were arrested and sent to F r a n c e . T h e colony w a s not captured by the British at the same time as those of the D u t c h , but it was bound to suffer the same fate in the e n d . In January, 1 8 0 9 , while under the rule of the g a l l a n t Victor H u g h u e s , it was c o m pelled to surrender, after a h a r d fight, to a combined British and P o r t u g u e s e fleet. T h e P o r t u g u e s e flag was kept flying until 1 8 1 7 , when the ruined colony was restored. M e a n w h i l e the b a d name which C a y e n n e g a i n e d f r o m the K o u r o u and other disastrous experiments had been further emphasised b y the revolutionary leaders, w h o sent their opponents to what was called the dry guillotine. It is even stated that a prisoner once chose the real guillotine when offered the choice of exile to C a y e n n e . French Guiana became a b y w o r d for unspeakable horrors., B u t it was not the country that could be b l a m e d , but the brutal treatment of gentlemen evidently sent out to die. In 1 7 9 7 sixteen deputies, a m o n g them the c e l e brated G e n e r a l P i c h e g r u , were arrested and p a r a d e d t h r o u g h the streets of Paris in four c a g e s like wild beasts. E x p o s e d to the winter's cold, they were thus carried to R o c h e f o r t and put on b o a r d ship for Cayenne. A f t e r r e c o v e r i n g somewhat f r o m their

CAYENNE

143

exposure a n d sea-sickness, they n a t u r a l l y b e c a m e h u n g r y , and one of t h e m was c o m p e l l e d to s c r e a m out from the close cabin w h e r e they w e r e confined, “ C a p t a i n , I ’ m starving ! ” T h e result of this outcry was a slight increase of their rations of boiled beans a n d biscuits. A f t e r a v o y a g e of fifty d a y s they w e r e at last landed in the “ white man's g r a v e , ” a n d w e r e at once sent to a post at S i n a m a r y . A s they passed a l o n g a settler compassionately r e m a r k e d , “ O h , g e n t l e m e n ! you are come into a tomb.” A n d it was a t o m b to several of them, for h o w could white men, n e w l y arrived from a c o l d country, endure c o n finement in a miserable room without the simplest conveniences, m u c h less comforts, a n d in a b u r n i n g hot climate w h e r e every respectable house is open to the b r e e z e ? A f e w escaped, to tell the story of their sufferings f r o m the climate, insects, and b a d food, and to confirm the opinion that C a y e n n e was unfit for even a d o g . In 1 7 9 8 five hundred political prisoners were exiled to further b l a c k e n the character of C a y e n n e . It seemed as if e v e r y t h i n g w a s b e i n g done to m a k e it detested in F r a n c e . T h e r e w a s , however, a little break when the colony c a m e into the hands of the P o r t u g u e s e , but after the restoration t o F r a n c e it n e v e r again rose from its depths of d e g r a d a t i o n . It could not be e x p e c t e d that F r e n c h planters would g o there, even when s o m e writers c a l l e d attention to its resources. O n e of t h e m said he would like to see F r a n c e b e a r i n g in mind that she h a d a h e r i t a g e n a m e d Guiana, the soil of which, when c l e a r e d of forests, would yield e v e r y t h i n g in a b u n d a n c e . France had not seriously m a d e use of it, but left it in the h a n d s

144

GUIANA

of some indolent farmers, w h o were contented to scratch the borders. It would be of great a d v a n t a g e to create a powerful colony, and it was only by immigration on a l a r g e scale that the wealth of Guiana could be b r o u g h t into existence. But they still h a n k e r e d after E u r o p e a n colonists to work in the field, a l t h o u g h their own experience had been so disastrous. T h e y would set slaves to clear the land until, when the place was comparatively healthy, bound white men might be imported. H o w e v e r , free m e n have not been induced to come to Guiana b y such representations, a n d we m a y as well say at once that any attempt of the kind will certainly end in disaster. N o t being able to g e t free colonists, the renewal of transportation was started by N a p o l e o n I I I . H e , no doubt, thought that some of his political opponents would be safer out of his w a y in this remote country, from which so few ever returned. H e therefore, in 1 8 5 4 , turned C a y e n n e into a penal settlement, thus c o n d e m n i n g what might be a beautiful c o l o n y into a sink of iniquity. E v e n he however, must have seen the error, for a few y e a r s later it was a g r e e d that no F r e n c h m a n should be sent there ; it was fit only for A f r i c a n s , A r a b s , and A n n a m e s e . Y e t , in spite of all this, transportation of F r e n c h m e n was renewed in 1 8 8 4 . N o w the bad n a m e of C a y e n n e is utilised a n d e x a g g e r a t e d as a deterrent f r o m c r i m e . T h e j u d g e says something like this when the habitual criminal is brought before him : â&#x20AC;&#x153; Y o u scoundrel 1 if y o u c o m e before this court a g a i n you will be sent to C a y e n n e , where you will p r o b a b l y die.â&#x20AC;? N o doubt this acts on a few as does the fear of the executioner, but there is surely n o g o o d in k e e p i n g up the b a d

CAYENNE

145

n a m e for such a p u r p o s e . If the place w e r e really so b a d as it is painted, why not a b a n d o n it altogether ? W h y let six hundred military spend their best years in such a pest-hole? W h y , a g a i n , try to h o l d the territory a n d quarrel with B r a z i l about the C o u n a n i district? T h i s district w a s for a l o n g time in dispute, and w a s settled b y arbitration d u r i n g the last d e c a d e . W h i l e still pending, however, it was the occasion of a g r a n d colonisation scheme, which w a s started with such a flourish of trumpets as is only k n o w n a m o n g such impulsive people as the F r e n c h . A n e w republic under the n a m e of C o u n a n i was projected in 1888 and provided with all the necessary officials, includi n g a President a n d his s e c r e t a r y . The Company sold honours in the shape of a G r a n d O r d e r of t h e S t a r of C o u n a n i to provide means w h e r e b y the republic c o u l d be put on a sound footing. Gold was there w a i t i n g to be picked up, forest products easily accessible ; it was a wonderful E l D o r a d o , a wilderness c a p a b l e of b e c o m i n g a paradise. N o t h i n g was said of poor C a y e n n e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; t h e b a d n a m e w a s , of course, suppressed. B u t the whole project e n d e d in a fiasco ; the G o v e r n m e n t s of B r a z i l a n d F r a n c e a g r e e d to k e e p out the President a n d his staff, w h o a r r i v e d in G e o r g e t o w n to find their w a y b l o c k e d by a gunboat. P o o r President G r o s was c o m p e l l e d to g o b a c k , and the republic e n d e d in n o t h i n g . T h e F r e n c h praise the colony at one time and c o n d e m n it at others. W e m a y g i v e them credit for g o o d intentions, these b e i n g to found a tropical c o l o n y of r e f o r m e d c h a r a c t e r s ; those w h o failed in F r a n c e m i g h t h a v e an opportunity to g a i n something better in C a y e n n e . T h e r e f o r e settlements were established in o u t l y i n g districts, where convicts w e r e 10

146

GUIANA

e n c o u r a g e d to m a r r y females of their o w n types and m a k e homes for themselves. A visitor to o n e of these said the convicts g e n e r a l l y looked cheerful ; some, h o w e v e r , were villainous-looking, the murderers especially s o . T h e surroundings seemed to be in g o o d order, the huts neat a n d clean, n o doubt f r o m official inspection and c o n t r o l . Bananas, cassava, y a m s , sweet potatoes, s u g a r - c a n e s , and t o b a c c o were g r o w n , and a few of the married couples did very w e l l . T h e n there are the Iles du S a l u t , one of t h e m k n o w n as D e v i l ' s Island, where poor D r e y f u s w a s imprisoned. T h e labour of the convicts has c o n verted terraces into g a r d e n s , and cut down the trees which once covered t h e m . B u t when these workers died they were t h r o w n into the sea to feed the s h a r k s . H o w e v e r , we understand that this has now been abolished. T h a t there must have been something w r o n g in the treatment of these people is evident. Rogues are not g e n e r a l l y fools, and would h a r d l y risk their lives, as they continually do, to g e t a w a y from a place if they were well treated. A story is told of four such r u n a w a y s w h o g o t off into the forest, with the intention of finding their w a y t h r o u g h the w i l d e r ness and across the m i g h t y rivers to D e m e r a r a . T h e y had n o provisions, no weapons to kill g a m e , no hooks for fishing, and no k n o w l e d g e of hunting. They were m a d with starvation, and when two h a p p e n e d to be left together, one fell on his companion and stabbed him with his knife. T h e others returning, one of them joined the murderer in a horrid cannibal feast, for which, when captured, the two w e r e guillotined. Many

a sad

story

could,

doubt,

told

CAYENNE

147

the sufferings and privations of these r e f u g e e s . T h e y hate C a y e n n e and fear to remain there ; possibly this d r e a d has been fostered b y their g u a r d s , w h o h a v e been spoken of as c r u e l t y r a n t s . However that m a y be, there is a n a t u r a l feeling in every o n e that revolts from a n y t h i n g that appears like torture. T h a t s o m e t h i n g of the kind must exist is evident. Of course, a r o g u e wants to g e t to s o m e place where he is not k n o w n , a n d will therefore often risk his life in a leaky b o a t . H e lands in S u r i n a m or D e m e r a r a , s t a r v i n g , and either b e g s or steals to k e e p b o d y a n d soul together. O u t of pity the refugees are sometimes helped as far as food is concerned, but told to m o v e on. T h e y are not wanted, for h o w e v e r plausible their stories m a y be, a n d their promises of g o o d conduct for the future, the poor wretches c a n n o t be a l l o w e d to r e m a i n . E x p e r i e n c e has taught both D u t c h a n d British that they cannot be trusted ; f r o m S u r i n a m they are driven to D e m e r a r a . British G u i a n a wants g o o d colonists, but not r o g u e s or vagabonds. T h e y are arrested b y the police, and almost every month an official notice is issued o r d e r i n g certain persons, whose n a m e s have been g i v e n to the police, to l e a v e the colony within fourteen d a y s . W h e n some of t h e m m a n a g e to g e t w o r k the G o v e r n m e n t insists on their leaving, even when e m ployers h a v e petitioned that they be a l l o w e d to g o on with their e m p l o y m e n t . â&#x20AC;&#x153; M o v e on ! â&#x20AC;? is the cry from the authorities, and g o they must. If their boat has not been battered to pieces they try Venezuela, where perhaps t h e y steal food f r o m the settlers' p r o v i s i o n - g r o u n d s . W h a t ultimately becomes of them n o b o d y k n o w s , but it has been hinted that Venezuelans d o not hesitate to shoot them at o n c e . T h e F r e n c h refugee is the b u g b e a r of D e m e r a r a .

148

GUIANA

H e is the thief, the burglar, and the footpad. When a party lands on the coast the women take to their heels and the men g o off for the police. F o r t y years a g o his reputation was so widespread, that w h e n ever a crime of violence took p l a c e the police first looked for a refugee. If you w o k e up in the night to find a hand at the window, it was a F r e n c h m a n . A w o m a n d a r e d not g o out after dark in a v i l l a g e on the coast for fear that o n e of them might b e l u r k i n g in the bushes, ready to pounce upon her. N o w and then they quarrelled a m o n g themselves, using knives, thus g i v i n g trouble to police, m a g i s trates, and j u d g e s . N o w o n d e r that they were feared and detested ! W h y were they not handed over to the F r e n c h authorities? A t one time they w e r e detained until an officer arrived to m a r c h them off o n board a F r e n c h steamer ; this is n o longer g e n e r a l l y the case ; the officials of C a y e n n e will not take the trouble to c a r r y t h e m b a c k . A l t h o u g h supposed to be confined to the colony, even there they are pests and nuisances, burdens on the community, a d a n g e r to property and even life. T h e idea of colonising with such wretches is an admitted failure, yet the system is continued. O f late years only the very worst criminals are sent to C a y e n n e . It is the last resort ; the idea of reforming the rogue appears to have g i v e n place to something like killing him. T h e bad reputation of C a y e n n e appears to be fostered by the F r e n c h authorities as a deterrent. Botany Bay w a s vile e n o u g h , but it was not in the tropics ; E n g l i s h m e n refused to allow its continuance, and it is for F r e n c h m e n to protest as strongly a g a i n s t Cayenne. A s if the F r e n c h authorities wanted to m a k e a hell upon earth, they k e e p up a system that

CAYENNE

149

is a l r e a d y c o n d e m n e d by the most enlightened of that nation. A s for S u r i n a m and D e m e r a r a , t h e y must n a t u r a l l y protest against such a slur on G u i a n a , and the trouble and expense entailed on them b y the r e f u g e e s . P o s s i b l y B r a z i l also is ready to protest against the irruption of these people into the C o u n a n i district. It m i g h t be supposed that w e are e x a g g e r a t i n g the evil, but really w o r d s are not s t r o n g e n o u g h . In 1 9 1 0 M. B o u c o n w r o t e a pamphlet entitled, “La T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Coloniale,” in which he a d v i s e d i m m e diate abolition. F r o m this brochure it appears that, after s e r v i n g as prisoners for a term, d u r i n g w h i c h they are e m p l o y e d on the roads, and even by t h e free settlers, the convicts a r e released as libérés, free in a w a y but not to leave the c o l o n y . This ticket-of-leave man, as w e should c a l l him, has no money, and is not put in the w a y to m a k e a living.. T h e r e f o r e , says M . B o u c o n , three-fourths die of h u n g e r — s u r e l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n . O f course, they g o w a n d e r i n g about in s e a r c h of work, which is naturally hard to get, for most of the r o u g h labour is already b e i n g done by prisoners under c o n t r o l , which naturally is m o r e reliable. E v e n when t h e free m a n k n o w s a trade he is not p r o v i d e d with tools, and not g e n e r a l l y permitted t o remain in t h e town where w o r k m i g h t perhaps be obtained. Off he g o e s to the country, to perhaps try for work, otherwise to steal g r o w i n g provisions w h e n actually starving. T h e n he is liable to be arrested and punished as a v a g a b o n d . E v e n when e m p l o y e d h e gets such a bare pittance that he c a n hardly live, m u c h less t a k e such precautions against the rains and noxious insects as are a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y for the white m a n . A few of the prisoners from tropical

150

GUIANA

colonies are w o r k i n g at the g o l d - d i g g i n g s , but these places are not suitable for the F r e n c h m a n , unless he is a n overseer or c l e r k . If h e tries to w o r k with the shovel, he has often to stand up in w a t e r all day, and is exposed to d r e n c h i n g rains. T h e result is naturally sickness and d e a t h . W h i t e labour has been tried on the w o o d - c u t t i n g establishments with the same results. L a w s have been passed to provide for the sick, but they are not properly carried out. A sanatorium at the mouth of the M a r o n i b e c a m e such a dreadful place that it w a s c o n d e m n e d by the Surgeon-General and abandoned. A few who h a v e received permission to return to F r a n c e h a v e neither m o n e y nor friends, and therefore cannot leave, for' no free p a s s a g e s are g i v e n . S u r e l y the liberated prisoner might be carried b a c k and not left stranded where he has no means of g e t t i n g w o r k . About half of the libĂŠrĂŠs are prohibited f r o m living in t o w n on account of complaints from the citizens, which complaints are natural, but, as M . B o u c o n says, not justified by any increase of crime. T h o s e allowed to remain are treated as social pariahs or lepers, a n d are bound to act as spies upon e a c h other. S u r e l y such a condition of things will not m u c h l o n g e r be a l l o w e d to continue. It m a y be s a f e l y stated that C a y e n n e will never b e c o m e a v a l u a b l e c o l o n y until this blot is r e m o v e d . T o compel a white m a n to w o r k in the field is torture, and this is c o n d e m n e d e v e r y w h e r e . T h e prison cell is just as bad, for n o white m a n in G u i a n a c a n endure a close r o o m . T h e ideal house is o n l y a shed, open to the wind on every side, a n d an E n g l i s h m a n , when visiting the M o t h e r Country, is at o n c e struck b y the p o k y rooms and stuffy d w e l l i n g s ; in G u i a n a he practically lives in the open air.

CAYENNE

151

C a y e n n e is not m o r e unhealthy than other tropical colonies. In some respects it c o m p a r e s f a v o u r a b l y with the other G u i a n a s , for the town is higher a n d can be easily drained. Visitors, however, speak of its sordid a p p e a r a n c e a n d of the want of g o o d r o a d s . T h i s could easily be put right, and there is n o reason whatever, except the curse of a penal settlement, to prevent it from a g a i n c o m i n g up to justify what C h a r l e s W a t e r t o n said a century a g o : “ C a y e n n e is c a p a b l e of b e i n g a n o b l e a n d productive c o l o n y . ” It was then, as now, thought the poorest in G u i a n a , yet there were beautiful places like the national plantation or B o t a n i c G a r d e n . “ N o plantation in the W e s t e r n w o r l d c a n vie with La Gabrielle. Its spices are of the choicest kind, its soil particularly favourable to them, its a r r a n g e ments beautiful. “ W h i l e the s t r a n g e r views the spicy g r o v e s of L a G a b r i e l l e and tastes the most delicious fruits which have been originally imported hither from all parts of the tropical world, he will thank the G o v e r n ment which has supported, and admire the talents of the g e n t l e m a n w h o has raised to its present g r a n d e u r , this noble collection of beautiful fruits.” Beautiful spots c a n still be found in the n e i g h bourhood of the t o w n . If G e o r g e t o w n is a g a r d e n city, w h y should not C a y e n n e be e v e n m o r e l o v e l y ? S t a n d i n g on a r o c k y eminence, it c o m m a n d s a pleasant view of the harbour, with the shore line broken by jutting reefs which form alcoves and delightful places for b a t h i n g . T h e town itself is e m b o w e r e d in palms with f o r e s t - c l a d hills in the background. It is not so fertile as the coast of D e m e r a r a , but there are fertile places in the colony, waiting to be e m p o l d e r e d on the s a m e system as that of the other colonies.

152

GUIANA

F r e n c h authors have praised it for over two centuries. â&#x20AC;&#x153; L e s richesses d e la G u y a n e F r a n g a i s e â&#x20AC;? have been the subject of m a n y b o o k s , but these riches do not attract capitalists or settlers. M a r t i n i q u e is a F r e n c h tropical colony, subject to hurricanes and volcanic eruptions, but it is not a failure. Only the convict system n o w stands in the w a y of p r o g r e s s , and it is for the enlightened F r e n c h m a n to protest in every possible w a y a g a i n s t its continuance. Like the other colonies in Guiana, it c a n only prosper when suitable immigrants can be obtained, but at present these can hardly be e x p e c t e d to g o there. A c c o r d i n g to a return d a t e d M a r c h 5, 1 9 1 1 , the population n u m b e r e d 4 9 , 0 0 9 . T h e town of C a y e n n e contained 1 3 , 5 2 7 , m o r e or less connected with m e r cantile pursuits, other towns and v i l l a g e s 1 2 , 7 9 8 , m a k i n g a total urban population o f 2 6 , 3 2 5 . The convicts n u m b e r e d 6,465, military 603, and seamen 7 4 , besides which there w e r e 12,000 g o l d - s e e k e r s and 3 , 5 4 2 Indians. T h e s e g o l d - s e e k e r s produce nearly the whole of the exports, which amount to about 400,000 pounds sterling per a n n u m . There a r e n o extensive plantations, but a little c a c a o a n d s u g a r are g r o w n , as well as v e g e t a b l e s , to supply local w a n t s . A n essential oil f r o m the rosewood is of some importance.

G O V E R N M E N T OFFICE IN THE BUSH.

To face p. 153.

CHAPTER

VIII

GOVERNMENT British Guiana's Court of Policy—Expensive government—Law— Drunkenness—Churches—Schools—Orphan Asylum—Department of Science and Agriculture—Negro's contempt for field work—Crown lands—Communication—Telegraphs—Post Office —'Municipalities—Fires—Water supply—Precautions against mosquitoes—Medical service—Immigration requirements—Village administrations — Railways — Steamer service—Anthony Trollope's opinion—Heavy taxation for a small community— Surinam—Cayenne. BRITISH GUIANA

is a l m o s t a C r o w n c o l o n y , for

the

G o v e r n o r is g e n e r a l l y responsible o n l y to the C o l o n i a l Office, a n d is in a w a y a b s o l u t e , except in financial m a t t e r s . T h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l is c a l l e d the C o u r t of P o l i c y a n d consists of a n e q u a l n u m b e r of officials and e l e c t i v e s . A s the G o v e r n o r enjoys the right of a casting vote a n d c a n a l w a y s control the official section the electives h a v e little real p o w e r ; in practice, h o w e v e r , the G o v e r n o r does not insist upon c a r r y i n g a measure when the electives c o m b i n e . T h i s C o u n c i l is c o m p o s e d of e i g h t officials, including the G o v e r n o r , a n d the same n u m b e r of electives, chosen b y the p e o p l e o n a n income or property qualification. F o r w a y s a n d means a C o m b i n e d C o u r t is f o r m e d of the C o u r t of P o l i c y , with s i x electives c a l l e d F i n a n c i a l Representatives, chosen b y the people in the 163

154

GUIANA

same w a y as the colonial m e m b e r s of the Court of Policy. In the C o m b i n e d C o u r t the people's r e p r e sentatives are in the majority, but n o m e m b e r c a n propose a m o n e y vote without the consent of the Governor. T h e representatives are of all shades, two or three of them b e i n g pure n e g r o e s , others coloured, one of P o r t u g u e s e origin, and the others British. A s m a y be expected, there is no united action, and therefore the G o v e r n o r and his party a r e a l w a y s in the a s c e n d a n t . M o s t of the representatives are lawyers or mercantile people w h o have little time to think of public matters ; it follows, therefore, that the laws are m a d e by officials, w h o g e n e r a l l y k n o w but little of the condition of the colony or of its requirements. T h e tendency of late years has been to pass laws for e v e r y t h i n g â&#x20AC;&#x201D; i n fact, red-tapeism rules to the exclusion of c o m m o n - s e n s e . N e w countries are h a m p e r e d b y too m u c h law, and however s a t i s factory it m a y be to k e e p o r d e r and protect life and property there is h a r d l y room in a small c o m m u n i t y like this for such a code as e x i s t s . T h e want of local k n o w l e d g e often causes much trouble, for laws are m a d e that almost immediately are found to b e u n w o r k a b l e and yet have been kept nominally in force for m a n y y e a r s . A g a i n , so much r e d - t a p e i s m is very expensive, r e q u i r i n g often as m a n y as three c l e r k s to do what could better be done by one w e r e there not so m a n y f o r m s . T h e result is that the expenditure of the colony increases annually ; since 1 8 7 6 the increment amounts to a million dollars. It is true that part of this increase is a c c o u n t e d for b y the development of the colony in the shape of steamer subsidies and control of the g o l d - d i g g i n g s , but these extensions do not account for the w h o l e . T h e r e is a small public debt which on the 3 1 s t of

GOVERNMENT

155

M a r c h , 1 9 1 1 , amounted to $ 4 , 2 5 8 , 1 5 2 . 0 0 , and the elective m e m b e r s often try to g e t things on loan account when the G o v e r n m e n t are inclined to raise more t a x e s . T h e revenue for the y e a r e n d i n g M a r c h 3 1 , 1 9 1 1 , was $ 2 , 7 0 2 , 8 8 4 . 6 9 and the e x p e n d i ture $ 2 , 6 0 5 , 2 3 8 . 1 4 . S o m e will be inclined to s a y that this is too m u c h for what we m a y call a y o u n g colony of less than three hundred thousand inhabitants. A t times projects have been mooted for confederation with the W e s t Indies and then t a k i n g the whole over to the D o m i n i o n of C a n a d a ; this last seems feasible, for there is no doubt that closer relations with B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a would be of assistance to G u i a n a . A t present, on account of the competition with b e e t - s u g a r in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , C a n a d a is t a k i n g the g r e a t e r portion of the s u g a r production of D e m e r a r a , and no doubt there is room for further extensions in that quarter. W h e n the D u t c h colonies were surrendered the capitulation g u a r a n t e e d the people their ancient laws a n d u s a g e s ; it follows, therefore, that D u t c h laws were enforced for m a n y years, only to be g r a d u a l l y modified as times c h a n g e d , and especially after the slave e m a n c i p a t i o n . P a r t s of the old civil l a w are still retained, but p r o b a b l y this remnant will be abolished in a f e w y e a r s . T h e c r i m i n a l l a w is now founded on that of E n g l a n d , with modifications. T h e people of British G u i a n a can h a r d l y be described as l a w - a b i d i n g ; the fact is that the numerous laws m a k e offences e q u a l l y n u m e r o u s . T h e convictions before j u d g e s a n d magistrates are so numerous that we m a y put them down at 1 per cent. per a n n u m . T h e majority are fines, but there are sufficient g r a v e c r i m e s to m a k e us w o n d e r when the l o w - c l a s s n e g r o will b e c o m e really civilised.

156

GUIANA

Q u a r r e l s and fights are v e r y common, especially between women and mainly on account of the laxity of sexual relations. T h e E a s t Indian murders his faithless wife without the slightest hesitation, and no doubt wonders that the law should h a n g him for doing what every husband has done for a g e s , l a w or no law. T h e coolie labour laws a n d the g o l d d i g g e r ' s cash advances account for a g r e a t m a n y convictions, but these offences are not very g r a v e . T h e f t of the pettiest kind is common, but robberies with violence are r a r e . T h e g r e a t d r a w b a c k is the want of a s t r o n g public opinion against vice a n d crime—i.e., the almost entire absence of self-respect a n d s h a m e . T h e friends of the criminal think none the worse of him because he has been fined or sent to g a o l . In one district the magistrate has often spoken to the c r o w d who club together to pay fines that should never have been incurred. T h e s e people c a n g e t ten to fifty dollars in such an e m e r g e n c y , when they are at the same time actually b e g g i n g for pennies. E v e r y n e g r o is a lawyer ; he knows the consequence of his actions, and yet he will s o m e times vent his spite upon another when he has no means of p a y i n g the fine. S o m e of the incidents in the courts would be a m u s i n g were they not so d e plorable. O n one occasion we s a w the aunt of a prisoner, when g i v i n g evidence, jump up in the box a n d tell him that for years she had been p r a y i n g to G o d that he should be sent to M a s a r u n i (the penal settlement) and n o w she was g l a d . Sometimes the prisoner c a l l s a witness and asks, “ Y o u k n o w m e ? ” who says, “ Yes,” and then g o e s on, “ Y o u k n o w me for tief ? ” with similar questions for as l o n g as the m a g i s t r a t e p e r m i t s . Visitors to the colony say they see no drunkenness,

GOVERNMENT

157

and it is a fact that very few cases of i n c a p a b i l i t y are seen. Unfortunately, however, r u m - d r i n k i n g is m u c h too prevalent a n d is responsible for m a n y of the quarrels and fights which g i v e work to police and magistrates. T h e beer-drinker is m o r e often ready to lie d o w n in the gutter, but the b l a c k man who has taken a schnap of rum is primed for a r o w . T h e n e g r o is very religious in his w a y and the colony subsidises the principal C h u r c h e s . T h e present system of parishes was settled in 1 8 2 5 , e q u a l rights being c l a i m e d b y the E n g l i s h and S c o t c h C h u r c h e s . U n d e r this system G e o r g e t o w n is in the parish of S t . A n d r e w to the P r e s b y t e r i a n and of S t . G e o r g e to the A n g l i c a n ; the country parishes alternate with e a c h other, the result being that one of the S c o t c h C h u r c h extends for a few miles a n d then the E n g l i s h C h u r c h takes its s h a r e . T h e R o m a n Catholics a n d the Methodists receive annual g r a n t s , but the Independents have not a s k e d for a s s i s t a n c e . S e v e r a l s m a l l e r d e nominations are represented, i n c l u d i n g M o h a m m e d a n mosques and H i n d u temples, but are not assisted by G o v e r n m e n t , except in a few cases with g r a n t s in-aid for their s c h o o l s . T h e school system is denominational, each C h u r c h h a v i n g its o w n in the parishes as well as mission schools in o u t l y i n g districts. T h e g r a n t s are m a d e on the reports of the G o v e r n m e n t Inspector of Schools, who examines the pupils and passes those who reach certain standards, on which the c l e r g y w h o m a n a g e the schools receive certain sums p e r h e a d . T h e a v e r a g e cost of e a c h scholar is about $5 a n d the annual G o v e r n m e n t g r a n t $ 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 . Attendance is compulsory within the settled districts. T h e r e is a very g o o d S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l in G e o r g e t o w n c a l l e d Queen's C o l l e g e , w h i c h is a n undenominational

158

GUIANA

G o v e r n m e n t institution, a n d c o m p a r e s f a v o u r a b l y with the first-grade G r a m m a r Schools in E n g l a n d . In connection with this C a m b r i d g e L o c a l E x a m i n a t i o n s are held annually, on the result of which a s c h o l a r ship at some British university is a w a r d e d . A s the examination is open to all, pupils from private schools m a y take part a n d g a i n the scholarship if they come up to the standard of e x c e l l e n c e . G i r l s as well as b o y s m a y compete, a n d on one occasion a g i r l g a i n e d it a n d is n o w a qualified m e d i c a l practitioner. Several g i r l s ' schools of a h i g h class are established in G e o r g e t o w n , but hitherto they have received no Government grants. T h e r e is a n orphan a s y l u m in G e o r g e t o w n a n d a reformatory school in E s s e q u e b o , the latter under the control of the D i r e c t o r of Science a n d A g r i c u l ture, a G o v e r n m e n t D e p a r t m e n t of the utmost i m portance. T h i s department controls the Botanic G a r d e n s and G o v e r n m e n t L a b o r a t o r y in G e o r g e t o w n , besides some a g r i c u l t u r a l experiment stations in other parts of the c o l o n y . T h e staff includes a n u m b e r of a g r i c u l t u r a l instructors, who visit the o u t l y i n g districts a n d g i v e advice to f a r m e r s . U n d e r the auspices of the department a l o n g series of a g r i c u l tural experiments has been c a r r i e d on for about twenty years, a m o n g the results of which are the D e m e r a r a seedling canes, which a r c n o w k n o w n wherever the s u g a r - c a n e is cultivated. A m o n g the educational institutions we m a y p l a c e the British G u i a n a M u s e u m and the C a r n e g i e F r e e L i b r a r y , both of w h i c h receive g r a n t s - i n - a i d f r o m the G o v e r n m e n t . T h e g e n e r a l effect of education is a desire to become clerks, office-boys, and s h o p m e n . F i e l d w o r k is beneath the notice of the rising generation of b l a c k a n d c o l o u r e d ; even the creole E a s t Indian follows

GOVERNMENT

159

suit. T h e consequence is that the mercantile class is o v e r s t o c k e d a n d G e o r g e t o w n is pestered with a lot of idlers who h a v e n o visible means of subsistence. E v e n those w h o own v i l l a g e lots n e g l e c t them and come to town, where they d e g e n e r a t e into u n e m p l o y e d a n d u n e m p l o y a b l e s . E v e r y effort is n o w b e i n g put forth to induce these people to â&#x20AC;&#x153;go b a c k to the land,â&#x20AC;? but hitherto without much s u c c e s s . It is quite obvious that when a family can be supported o n the result of one g o o d d a y ' s w o r k a w e e k there is more real comfort and independence than as a store hand at $ 1 0 a m o n t h . B u t the b o y wants to ape the g e n t l e m a n , to w e a r clothes unsuitable for the tropics, to force his feet into tight-fitting boots, a n d , above e v e r y t h i n g , to idle or p l a y . T h e first g e n e r a tion after the emancipation h a d fathers who k n e w how to w o r k ; that now rising u p has no such examples. T h e c r e o l e whites a n d E u r o p e a n s a r e ardent lovers of cricket, therefore the y o u n g n e g r o must follow their e x a m p l e . T h o u s a n d s of square miles of land c a n be h a d from the G o v e r n m e n t in g r a n t s of various sizes, i n c l u d i n g h o m e s t e a d s of five acres at a cost of fifty cents per a c r e . A f t e r b u i l d i n g a house d u r i n g the first y e a r and a residence of ten y e a r s on the p l a c e it becomes the a b s o l u t e property of the g r a n t e e . This homestead g r a n t was the outcome of a complaint made some years a g o that the then price of $ 1 0 per acre was prohibitory, but there has been no rush for these a l l o t m e n t s . A s a matter of fact a b a n d o n e d plantations and land in private hands is so c h e a p that at present there is h a r d l y any need for C r o w n lands, situated as they are in o u t - o f - t h e - w a y districts. P r a c tically the whole f a c a d e of coast a n d rivers b e l o n g s to private owners, and o n l y in a few cases have estates

160

GUIANA

come into the hands of the G o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h nonpayment of taxes for k e e p i n g up roads or sea defences. O n e or two of these have been put in order a n d sold, mostly to E a s t Indians, and m a y possibly in time b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g better than the present n e g r o v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t g i v e s licences for c u t t i n g timber and b a l a t a - b l e e d i n g over l a r g e tracts of country, a l s o leases and licences for a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes and c o n cessions for g o l d a n d d i a m o n d m i n i n g . Royalties are collected on the export of g o l d , balata, timber, a n d a few other t h i n g s . C o m m u n i c a t i o n is easy within the settled c o a s t line a n d for some distance up the principal rivers. T h e roads are g o o d a n d a r e supplemented by a fleet of steamers, some of w h i c h are posted as f e r r y - b o a t s . T e l e g r a p h i c communication is also complete from one e n d of the colony to the other, with stations at the post-offices. T h e r e is c a b l e communication through the W e s t Indies from G e o r g e t o w n and a wireless station to provide against failures of the cable, which are rather frequent. T h e British G u i a n a system is not connected with Surinam, where c a b l e c o m m u n i c a tion exists t h r o u g h another line. It would be of a d v a n t a g e to have such a connection, and possibly in time it m a y be m a d e . T h e British G u i a n a Post Office is quite up to date with s a v i n g s banks, a telephone e x c h a n g e , a p e n n y post, sixpenny telegrams, and a p a r c e l post, with r e g u l a r deliveries in most p l a c e s . T h e savings b a n k s are m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d by the E a s t Indians, who often have l a r g e deposits when the time c o m e s for their departure, the a v e r a g e savings of those people w h o return b e i n g $ 1 0 0 per h e a d . T h e savings b a n k s have over a million dollars on deposit, which m a y be considered creditable to a tropical c o l o n y .

GOVERNMENT

161

T h e municipal g o v e r n m e n t s of G e o r g e t o w n and N e w A m s t e r d a m are under m a y o r s a n d town councils, who g e n e r a l l y assess the taxes on lands a n d buildings at the rate of 2 per cent. of their v a l u e . A s the majority of the buildings are detached a n d surrounded by g a r d e n s it necessarily covers a l a r g e area ; in fact, it is a G a r d e n C i t y . It is almost a square, a b o u t a mile and a half each way, with fifty miles of b r o a d streets, m a n y of which have canals in the centre or draining trenches at the sides, connected with sluices that are o p e n e d at low water, a n d when n e c e s s a r y draining engines are u s e d to g e t rid of a h e a v y rainfall. A s the city is built upon a mud flat the roads are necessarily expensive, for the materials sink in v e r y w e t w e a t h e r a n d w o u l d b e c o m e q u a g mires were they not attended to at o n c e . U n d e r the care of the municipality there is never any difficulty, a n d there is rarely a n y t h i n g like a flood n o w a d a y s . F o r m e r l y , however, when a rainfall of two to six inches in the t w e n t y - f o u r hours filled up e v e r y trench and could not be got off at once, some of the roads were impassable except to b a r e - l e g g e d p e o p l e . The houses do not suffer in such cases because they are a l l built on pillars to avoid the d a m p , w h i c h even in dry weather w o u l d render a g r o u n d floor unhealthy. Most of the streets are lined with trees, and e v e r y house of a n y importance h a s a n u m b e r of p a l m s and flowering shrubs in its g a r d e n . T h e s e trees are not only pleasant to the eyes but they are also useful in c a s e of fire, for they prevent in m a n y cases the s p r e a d i n g from one house to another. U n l i k e the trees of northern climes, especially pines and firs, the trees here do not ignite unless the heat first dries them c o m p l e t e l y . W e have seen a kitchen saved by 11

162

GUIANA

a m a n g o - t r e e when otherwise it w o u l d certainly have been burnt with the house. F i r e s w e r e once more c o m m o n and disastrous than a t present. T h e more c o n g e s t e d part of G e o r g e t o w n is the business quarter, W a t e r Street, which was almost entirely d e s t r o y e d by two fires in 1 8 6 4 . As g e n e r a l l y happens after such disasters, the street w a s widened and the buildings were isolated, with the result that later fires have been confined within a limited a r e a . T h e r e has also been a g r e a t i m p r o v e ment in the fire b r i g a d e and the water s u p p l y . Fire-stations are well distributed throughout the city, under the c h a r g e of the police and connected b y telephone, so that immediately an a l a r m is g i v e n the engines are on the w a y , with a g e n e r a l result that little d a m a g e e n s u e s . T h e fire b r i g a d e is kept u p by the G o v e r n m e n t , the municipality, and the fire insurance companies, of which there are two, c o n d u c t e d on the mutual principle with g r e a t s u c c e s s . T h e w a t e r supply has a l w a y s been a difficulty ; in fact, the D u t c h in p r o j e c t i n g a town in D e m e r a r a w e r e v e r y particular that the site should have wood a n d water in its n e i g h b o u r h o o d . F o r this reason they were not a l t o g e t h e r pleased that the B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h in 1 7 8 1 a n d 1 7 8 2 chose a m u d flat at the m o u t h of the river for m i l i t a r y r e a s o n s . This, however, was quite in a c c o r d a n c e with the o l d s a y i n g that the D u t c h laid out plans but the B r i t i s h a c c o m p l i s h e d the w o r k . H o w e v e r , the town was an a c c o m plished fact, but the difficulty of a water supply has been felt b y every citizen. T h e o n l y w a y was to erect vats and cisterns for s t o r i n g rain-water, a n d this is still necessary, for the municipal w a t e r supply is unfit for d r i n k i n g . A b o u t ninety y e a r s a g o a c a n a l was d u g to supply certain estates n e a r the town with

GOVERNMENT

163

savannah water, a n d ultimately this w a s e n l a r g e d a n d e x t e n d e d to form the L a m a h a C a n a l . T h e w a t e r is of the usual brown-coffee colour of b o g water, not unwholesome but repellent, and unfit for domesticpurposes unless clarified. It is, h o w e v e r , v e r y useful in m a n y w a y s and is laid on in most of the houses a n d is connected with fireplugs in all the streets. N e w A m s t e r d a m has a similar w a t e r of a rather better quality, but throughout the coast the only g o o d supply for d r i n k i n g is that collected from the roofs of the b u i l d i n g s . T o supply the poor of G e o r g e t o w n there are town tanks where in d r y weather r a i n water is sold at a penny a b u c k e t . W h e n the d r y s e a s o n â&#x20AC;&#x201D; f r o m A u g u s t to N o v e m b e r â&#x20AC;&#x201D; p a s s e s without rain there is a l w a y s a difficulty in p r o c u r i n g w a t e r of any k i n d . F o r m e r l y punts were sent u p the river for thirty miles to b r i n g supplies from the s a n d hills, but this has not been necessary for m a n y y e a r s past. T h e plantations have e a c h a c a n a l to provide drinking water for the labourers, but these s o m e times g e t very low and filthy when a real d r y spell is o n . T h e G o v e r n m e n t has done something on the west bank of the D e m e r a r a b y d a m m i n g up the g r e a t savannah, so that fresh w a t e r m a y be obtained at a n y time ; this is c a l l e d the c a n a l ' s polder. The estates and v i l l a g e s also do their best, but the fact remains that the water supply for the poor is i n sufficient and not as g o o d as it m i g h t b e . W e m a y safely state, however, that this will be remedied in the near future. Since the d i s c o v e r y of the connection of mosquitoes with malaria, y e l l o w fever, a n d elephantiasis efforts have been m a d e in G e o r g e t o w n to prevent the b r e e d i n g of larvĂŚ in vats a n d w a t e r vessels. T h e G o v e r n m e n t has passed laws to c o m p e l s c r e e n i n g a n d the r e m o v a l

164

GUIANA

of a l l receptacles that c o u l d h a r b o u r these pests, with g o o d results. T h e difficulties are, however, veryg r e a t in a low c o u n t r y like the coast of G u i a n a , with hundreds of square miles of s w a m p s behind the i n habited portions. Mosquitoes seem to be less t r o u b l e some of late years in G e o r g e t o w n since the sanitary a r r a n g e m e n t s have been improved, a n d e s p e c i a l l y since street avenues have been p l a n t e d . S o m e have g o n e so far as to say that trees h a r b o u r mosquitoes. P o s s i b l y they do afford cover for them and thus in a w a y prevent their t a k i n g refuge in the h o u s e s . Our experience of over forty years is that these pests take refuge in bushy places to l e e w a r d of a s w a m p when there is a breeze, but otherwise they p r e f e r open p l a c e s . In a low country like D e m e r a r a trees are important agents in p r e v e n t i n g pools of s t a g n a n t water from r e m a i n i n g l o n g within r e a c h of their roots. T h e y not only drain the land but also raise it a foot or more for as l a r g e an a r e a as the branches e x t e n d . W h e n G e o r g e t o w n was almost w a n t i n g in trees yellow fever was rampant, but it has not a p p e a r e d since systematic street p l a n t i n g was p r o p e r l y c a r r i e d out. T h e r e is a g r e a t difference in the condition of the street parapets of late y e a r s , partly on account of the planting a n d partly from better d r a i n i n g . F o r m e r l y they were oozy in wet weather and the feet w o u l d sink in water, now we c a n t r e a d firmly without wetting our b o o t s . Such ooze was no doubt c o n g e n i a l to mosquito l a r v ĂŚ . T h i s matter m a y seem trivial, a n d yet it is so important that it has received the attention of the G o v e r n m e n t a n d the municipality as well as the m e d i c a l profession e v e r y w h e r e throughout the c o l o n y . T h e British G u i a n a m e d i c a l service is efficient and well p a i d . U n d e r the G o v e r n m e n t immigration

BROAD

STREET,

GEORGETOWN.

To face p. 165.

GOVERNMENT

165

system every estate must provide a proper hospital, medicines, and appliances, with dispensers or sick nurses. T h e district m e d i c a l officer attends r e g u l a r l y a n d orders w h a t e v e r he thinks suitable for his patients. U n d e r this system the death-rate on p l a n t a tions has decreased, and is now less than that of the g e n e r a l population. T h e I m m i g r a t i o n A g e n t is also a G o v e r n m e n t official and p a y s r e g u l a r visits of inspection. T h e g e n e r a l result is that the coolie is somewhat p a m p e r e d and is sometimes inclined to p l a y the m a s t e r . E v e r y t h i n g possible is done to satisfy him, whether sick or well, and he is the real head of the plantation. N o t h i n g less will suit the British authorities and the Indian G o v e r n m e n t , a n d no doubt they are r i g h t . A n overseer or even a m a n a g e r must be d i s c h a r g e d if the I m m i g r a t i o n A g e n t sends an adverse report, otherwise the estate m i g h t be left without l a b o u r e r s . T h i s p o w e r is not abused, but it causes anxiety at times when a coolie makes an unfounded complaint of ill-usage which he is r e a d y to b a c k up with a host of witnesses, w h o are b o u n d b y custom to tell as m a n y lies as m a y be necessary to bolster up a c a s e . S o much discretion is required that n o t h i n g short of a c h a n g e of m a n a g e r s will at times satisfy the coolies, once they have taken a dislike to the m a n in c h a r g e . However, the g e n e r a l result of the immigration system is so beneficial that a few d r a w b a c k s must be e x p e c t e d and taken as a part of e v e r y m a n a g e r ' s w o r k . T h e G o v e r n m e n t have had m a n y troubles with the villages in the past, and even yet the Councils are b y n o means e a s y to m a n a g e . S e v e r a l ordinances have been passed at different times, most of w h i c h were found u n w o r k a b l e . M o n e y has been lent to allow of sanitary improvements, the m a k i n g up of

166

GUIANA

roads, and the o p e n i n g of trenches, but some villages could not pay, and ultimately their debts were wiped off. In 1 8 9 2 the present system was i n a u g u r a t e d . T h e l a r g e r v i l l a g e s were p l a c e d u n d e r a B o a r d of H e a l t h , with the Inspector of V i l l a g e s as an officer. T h e affairs of each were to be under a V i l l a g e Council, elected b y the t a x - p a y e r s . T h e s e Councils have done fairly well, but there is still r o o m for improvements in e v e r y v i l l a g e . A s we first saw some of them forty years a g o , they were unfit for even a n e g r o ; in wet w e a t h e r it was practically impossible to w a l k about the s o - c a l l e d streets. U n d e r strict G o v e r n m e n t rule the roads are a l w a y s passable, and the surroundings of the d w e l l i n g s not quite so b a r e and s o r d i d . T h e L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t B o a r d , the successor to the B o a r d of H e a l t h , now controls about ninety v i l l a g e s and country districts. L o a n s are g r a n t e d for improvements and the arrears are small. T h e railways a r e three, the longest being 60 miles, c o n n e c t i n g G e o r g e t o w n with N e w A m s t e r d a m . T h e second starts f r o m the bank of the D e m e r a r a and extends a l o n g the west coast for 15 miles. Both of these are w o r k e d by the D e m e r a r a R a i l w a y C o m p a n y u n d e r a G o v e r n m e n t g u a r a n t e e of interest. T h e third is a line to connect the D e m e r a r a with the E s s e q u e b o above the rapids of the latter river ; it is 18$ miles l o n g , and is w o r k e d by M e s s r s . S p r o s t o n s , Limited, in connection with their s t e a m boat s e r v i c e . T h e local s t e a m e r service is of the utmost importance in B r i t i s h G u i a n a . B y means of a fleet of various sizes, the coast f r o m the B e r b i c e to the B a r i m a is a c c e s s i b l e , the rivers D e m e r a r a , E s s e quebo, and B e r b i c e a r e ascended as far as n a v i g a b l e , the islands of the mouth of the E s s e q u e b o kept in 1/2

SPROSTON'S

DOCK,

GEORGETOWN. To face p. 167.

GOVERNMENT

167

communication, and steam f e r r y - b o a t s ply on the B e r b i c e , D e m e r a r a , and a c r o s s to the E s s e q u e b o island of L e g u a n in connection with the W e s t C o a s t Railway. T h e C o r e n t y n e has not yet a steamer service, but a m o t o r - c a r runs from N e w A m s t e r d a m to S k e l d o n . Sprostons, Limited, are the steamer contractors and the G o v e r n m e n t p a y s an annual subsidy of $ 5 7 , 0 0 0 . In connection with their business they have a d o c k in which m o d e r a t e - s i z e d vessels c a n be overhauled and repaired, and a foundry where repairs to m a c h i n e r y c a n be m a d e . T h e d o c k is such a convenience that the local steamers f r o m S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e are b r o u g h t at intervals to be put in o r d e r . T h e firm also carries on a trade in timber for which it has m a n y facilities. S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e are not so well served as the B r i t i s h colony, but they have several local s t e a m boats, and there is a service of S p r o s t o n s ' to both colonies at r e g u l a r intervals. A t present there a r e n o means of g e t t i n g f r o m G u i a n a to B r a z i l without g o i n g to B a r b a d o s , but we m a y anticipate that in the n e a r future the communication m a y be continued from C a y e n n e to P a r a . It will be seen f r o m the a b o v e that the G o v e r n m e n t of British G u i a n a has done a g r e a t deal to m a k e the colony a d e s i r a b l e p l a c e to live in. E v e n fifty y e a r s a g o , when A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e wrote, he was delighted with it, a l t h o u g h it was then far less healthy than it is t o - d a y . H e said the G o v e r n m e n t was a mild despotism, t e m p e r e d by s u g a r . The Governor was the father of his people and his wife the m o t h e r . T h e colony formed a l a r g e family, which g a t h e r e d itself under the parental w i n g s . W h e n he settled out of E n g l a n d for g o o d British G u i a n a would be

168

GUIANA

the land of his adoption. “ If there were but a snug secretaryship vacant t h e r e — a n d these things in D e m e r a r a are very s n u g — h o w I would invoke the g o d d e s s of p a t r o n a g e ! ” F o r D e m e r a r a is the E l y s i u m of the tropics, the H a p p y V a l l e y of R a s s e l a s , the one true and a c t u a l U t o p i a of the C a r i b b e a n S e a s , the Transatlantic E d e n . T o the n e g r o of G u i a n a the G o v e r n o r represents “ M a s s a ” of the olden time. H e is very loyal, a n d it was a c o m m o n t h i n g after the E m a n c i p a t i o n for h i m to speak of Queen's l a w a n d to contrast it with that of his old master. T h e r e seems to have been an idea that as the K i n g or Q u e e n h a d abolished slavery they would be likely to help the freedmen in other t h i n g s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t must do this, that, and the other thing, but not a s k for additional taxes. T h e ordinary citizen, however, is sometimes inclined to wish that these b e g g a r s h a d a little more c o m m o n sense. H o w e v e r , the G o v e r n m e n t does not a l w a y s respond to their petitions. W i t h a l a r g e r population more could be done without p u t t i n g heavier burdens on the t a x - p a y e r s . Unfortunately, there is a class of people in the colony w h o sneer at the s u g a r plantations a n d speak as if they would be better off without them and the E a s t Indians. H o w they could have a n y G o v e r n m e n t at all under such circumstances p r o b a b l y never enters their minds, o r what they w o u l d do if the million and a half s t e r l i n g n o w spent in the colony were w i t h d r a w n . T h e G o v e r n m e n t of S u r i n a m is vested in a G o v e r n o r appointed by the Q u e e n o f H o l l a n d . He has m o r e p o w e r than the G o v e r n o r of British G u i a n a , but is assisted b y a n E x e c u t i v e Council of four official members. T h e r e is a L e g i s l a t i v e A s s e m b l y (Koloniale Staten), elected for six years by the citizens

GOVERNMENT

169

who pay income-tax on not less than 1,400 g u i l d e r s . O r d i n a n c e s are proposed by the G o v e r n o r and C o u n c i l to this A s s e m b l y , and after p a s s i n g must be approved by the Q u e e n . E s t i m a t e s of income and expenditure are also submitted in the same w a y to be confirmed by the H o m e G o v e r n m e n t , which has g e n e r a l l y to pay the deficiency which a l w a y s occurs, g e n e r a l l y to the amount of about a million g u i l d e r s . In 1 9 1 0 the income was estimated at over four and the e x penditure at five millions, leaving a deficiency of 900,000 g u i l d e r s . T h e colony is divided into t w e l v e districts besides the capital, e a c h m a n a g e d by a district commissary. Education is compulsory between the a g e s of seven and fourteen ; G o v e r n ment P r i m a r y Schools, a S e c o n d a r y and a N o r m a l S c h o o l are under the E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t , besides which there are m a n y private schools, i n c l u d i n g those of the M o r a v i a n B r e t h r e n , in some of which the n e g r o E n g l i s h or â&#x20AC;&#x153; talki-talki â&#x20AC;? is used. T h e churches include the D u t c h R e f o r m e d , A n g l i c a n , M o r a v i a n , and some other Protestant sects, as well as R o m a n C a t h o l i c and two J e w i s h S y n a g o g u e s . C o m p l e t e religious toleration is allowed as in H o l l a n d , and salaries are paid to the principal c l e r g y by the G o v e r n m e n t . A railw a y to the interior for the convenience of g o l d d i g g e r s and balata-bleeders has a l r e a d y been laid down for a hundred miles, and it is proposed to extend it farther. S u r i n a m is certainly g o i n g a h e a d . For a long time her people have been l o o k i n g with envy on the p r o g r e s s of D e m e r a r a , a n d u r g i n g the G o v e r n ment to do s o m e t h i n g to prevent the utter downfall of the c o l o n y . N o w that coolie i m m i g r a t i o n has been adopted, a D i r e c t o r of A g r i c u l t u r e appointed, a n d a b a n a n a trade c o m m e n c e d , it is hoped that prosperous

170

GUIANA

times m a y d a w n after the downfall of what was once the most important of the G u i a n a colonies. T r o u b l e is l o o m i n g ahead in the shape of a b a n a n a disease, which, c o m i n g after the witch b r o o m on the c a c a o , is very d i s c o u r a g i n g . Gold and balata are, however, well to the fore, and S u r i n a m m a y yet become self-supporting. C a y e n n e is g o v e r n e d by a G o v e r n o r , assisted by a Council of officials. T h e r e is also a n E l e c t i v e Council of sixteen m e m b e r s . T h e M o t h e r Country pays about a quarter of a million sterling to keep up this poor colony, but only about ÂŁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 of this is spent on the settlement as distinguished from what is required for the penal establishment. T h e r e is a c o l l e g e and six P r i m a r y S c h o o l s , and the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h is well represented. S o m e attention is paid to a g r i c u l t u r e , but, unfortunately, the fact that it is a penal colony obtrudes itself e v e r y w h e r e .

A V I L L A G E SHOP WITH ITS CUSTOMERS. To face p. 171.

CHAPTER VILLAGES AND RIVER-PEOPLE

IX IN B R I T I S H

GUIANA

Similarity of the three Guianas—Labour difficulties—Villages— Plantations bought by freedmen—Their gradual ruin—Drainage c h o k e d — D a m s broken d o w n — P u b l i c roads—Government interference—Villagers resent taxation—Negro thieves—Want of control—East Indians grow rice—River people—Bovianders —Careless habits—An old-time Dutchman—Idlers of to-day— Children managing boats—The degenerate—Indian missions— Opinions of a negro catechist—A better type.

T H E three G u i a n a s are much alike in their situation near the coast, three w e d g e s of the g r e a t A m a z o n r e g i o n of S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h e largest is the British colony with about 90,000 square miles, the D u t c h comes next with 46,000, and then the F r e n c h with 31,000. T h e climate and rainfall a r e alike, as are also the g e o l o g i c a l formations, the fauna, and flora. M u c h the same products are g r o w n or have been g r o w n in the parts selected for cultivation ; all have begun with s u g a r . T h i s staple has, however, entirely g o n e from C a y e n n e a n d is r e d u c e d to five plantations in S u r i n a m and to forty in B r i t i s h G u i a n a . Other products have had their d a y ; coffee and cotton have dwindled to a v e r y little ; c a c a o is well represented in S u r i n a m , a n d a few plantations g r o w it in Demerara. A l l have had their labour difficulties—these and the 171

172

GUIANA

convict system have put C a y e n n e into the b a c k g r o u n d . T h e slaves in F r e n c h colonies were emancipated in 1 8 4 8 , but they were too few in C a y e n n e for the c h a n g e to m a k e m u c h difference. S u r i n a m was not ruined by her emancipation in 1 8 6 3 as the British colony was after 1 8 3 4 , but in both the n e g r o g r a d u ally severed himself from his old w o r k on the plantations. W h y he should g i v e up the kind of labour for which he was most fitted is a p r o b l e m . He can and will w o r k intermittently if sufficient inducement be offered, but he cannot be depended upon to continue for five d a y s a w e e k unless removed from his usual surroundings and taken to the g o l d d i g g i n g s . A s the w o r k of a plantation is continuous, especially when s u g a r - m a k i n g , the planter must have a reliable set of labourers on w h o m he can depend. T h e inhabited portion of British G u i a n a extends a l o n g the coast and u p some rivers for short distances, the whole line e x t e n d i n g to about two hundred miles, with a depth of one to six miles ; there are also plantations on three canals which connect with the D e m e r a r a R i v e r , and which were once lined with coffee estates. T h e whole cultivated a r e a on which live n e a r l y three hundred thousand people is hardly more than three hundred square m i l e s . T h i s m a y be considered rather a dense population for such a n a r e a , the east coast of D e m e r a r a c o m i n g first. H e r e v i l l a g e s , some of three thousand people, alternate with plantations, the b a c k lands of which v i l l a g e s are cultivated in a loose m a n n e r by some of the inhabitants, w h o occasionally w o r k for a few d a y s on the a d j o i n i n g plantations. T h e s e v i l l a g e s represent the ruined estates of the old planters, who, not b e i n g able to g o on after

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

173

the E m a n c i p a t i o n , sold t h e m to their former slaves, who in m a n y cases had a m a s s e d fair sums by w o r k i n g overtime, or even while yet slaves, f r o m the grounds allotted them, and the h o g s and poultry they were allowed to k e e p . M o s t of these ruined estates were in w o r k i n g order, or could have been continued under proper supervision. B u t the freedman would have no master, even of his own colour, for a n y t h i n g like a boss was h i g h l y repugnant to h i m . In one case an attempt w a s m a d e to k e e p on the s u g a r planting, but it soon came to an end where all were masters and no one w a s content to t a k e orders f r o m his fellow b l a c k m a n . A t first these estates were o w n e d in common, but later they were divided into lots, with the view that each should have a section in front for a d w e l l i n g and a larger slice behind for a p r o v i s i o n - g r o u n d . T h i s m i g h t have w o r k e d v e r y well had there been any bond of union, but when the e m p o l d e r i n g of land is t h o r o u g h l y understood, it will be seen that s o m e t h i n g m o r e was absolutely n e c e s s a r y . The owner or m a n a g e r of a plantation on this coast must be continually i n s p e c t i n g his d a m s and trenches, and be on the w a t c h for any flaws that m a y lead to an inrush of the sea in front or the bush w a t e r behind. T h i s can only be done b y one who knows the w e a k points, and w h o can c o m m a n d a supply of labour at an hour's notice if a b r e a c h o c c u r s . It c a n easily be understood that the n e g r o was not n o w p r e p a r e d to turn out at such a short notice, with perhaps h e a v y rain f a l l i n g , to wade up to the middle in a r u s h i n g torrent and c a r r y b a g s of c l a y to stem the flood. T h e natural consequence of n e g l e c t was an inundation, with houses s t a n d i n g in water a n d the d a m s impassable except by w a d i n g . Sometimes the only

174

GUIANA

means of g e t t i n g about a v i l l a g e was by boats o r corials. T h e canals were as necessary as the dams, for when they became c h o k e d the heavy rains which fell within the empoldered area could not be carried off. T h e â&#x20AC;&#x153; kokers,â&#x20AC;? or flood-gates, must also be in order, with watchmen to see that they a r e opened and shut a c c o r d i n g to the tide, and that they are not undermined by crabs and thus rendered useless. Enough has been said to show the absolute necessity of proper control, and it can easily be understood that these people could only have v a g u e notions of the d a n g e r s to their cultivation entailed by the least c a r e lessness. Most of the plantations when purchased were w e l l stocked with fruit-trees, on w h i c h the n e g r o e s could almost live at some seasons. T h e old notion that the tropical man sat u n d e r a tree and a l l o w e d the fruit to fall into his mouth was only a n e x a g g e r a t i o n o f a fact, for it is well k n o w n that the n e g r o will live almost entirely on m a n g o e s when they are plentiful. H e r e , then, was an ideal life ; the freedman did a little to keep u p the plantains and other v e g e t a b l e s a l r e a d y present, and then sat down under his o w n fruit-tree, with no master to m a k e him afraid. But N a t u r e in G u i a n a is too rampant for such a state of things to last. E v e r y d r a i n i n g trench b e c a m e c h o k e d with w a t e r plants, their outlets were silted up, and even if no b r e a c h in the d a m s took place, there was d a n g e r from heavy rains. E v e r y m e m b e r of the community was supposed to d i g and clean a certain portion of the main d r a i n a g e as well as that on his own plot, but v e r y few did it. W e have seen a v i l l a g e canal where such an a r r a n g e m e n t existed ; there was a piece of c l e a n - d u g trench

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

175

between two lots, where n o t h i n g but tall weeds w e r e visible, then a few hundred y a r d s a l o n g the line c a m e another open spot, the g e n e r a l result b e i n g that no w a t e r flowed to the outlet sluices, a n d the d a m w a s under w a t e r when the rain fell. U n d e r such circumstances the once well-drained estate was g r a d u ally reverting to the s w a m p f r o m w h i c h it h a d been reclaimed with so m u c h labour and c a r e . In some cases the sea poured in at s p r i n g tides, in others the v i l l a g e was flooded for w e e k s in the rainy seasons. T h e n the sun came and dried up the mud, p r o d u c i n g vile odours, and l e a v i n g pools for mosquitoes to s w a r m and c a r r y on their d e a d l y w o r k when d r y weather c a m e . T h e fresh-water canal, which once w a s d u g for the convenience of a proper supply, w a s , of course, polluted b y the flood, which c a r r i e d with it the contents of the cesspools ; n o d r i n k i n g water was, therefore, obtainable, for f e w of the v i l l a g e r s h a d such a convenience as a rain-water vat, so n e c e s s a r y here, where there are n o s p r i n g s or w e l l s . A n o t h e r matter was also of the utmost importance. U n d e r the old plantation system e v e r y estate w a s bound to m a k e and k e e p up the public road and the necessary b r i d g e s as far as they extended t h r o u g h the estate. T h i s o b l i g a t i o n w a s almost entirely i g n o r e d by the v i l l a g e r s , so that by 1 8 5 0 some of the roads were impassable in wet weather, and even the mails from G e o r g e t o w n to N e w A m s t e r d a m were often d e l a y e d or b o g g e d . At one time it was actually proposed to c a r r y only letters on h o r s e b a c k , because of the difficulty of g e t t i n g t h r o u g h in wheeled vehicles, and it a p p e a r e d at that time as if the colony would have to revert to the D u t c h s y s t e m of tentboats.

176

GUIANA

S o m e t h i n g must be done and that speedily. The Government could not see the colony g o b a c k from a state of civilisation to b a r b a r i s m . So they took over the roads t h r o u g h the villages and restored the lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e n c a m e the difficulty of dams and d r a i n a g e . B y this time most of the fruit-trees were killed by stagnant w a t e r at their roots, and the v i l l a g e huts on their stilted pillars stood up either in a shallow lake or on a bare mudbank, a c c o r d i n g to the season. T h e G o v e r n m e n t said they must be drained and that the v i l l a g e r s must be taxed to pay the cost. T h e v i l l a g e r s were quite w i l l i n g to have their surroundings put in o r d e r at the expense of other people, but not to pay t a x e s . If they were satisfied to live in mud and slush, why should the G o v e r n m e n t interfere? H o w e v e r , a commencement w a s made by m a k i n g u p the d a m s and d i g g i n g the trenches of one v i l l a g e , to pay for which a tax was imposed. T h i s was resented ; some refused to pay even as little as a dollar. T h e old idea was that â&#x20AC;&#x153; M a s s a â&#x20AC;? must do e v e r y t h i n g for them, n o w it w a s the G o v e r n m e n t . A s for p a y i n g or even w o r k i n g out an o b l i g a tion, such a thing was impossible under f r e e d o m . T h e G o v e r n o r , Sir F r a n c i s H i n c k s , would have no d e l a y ; he was determined that the v i l l a g e s should no l o n g e r remain as a d i s g r a c e to the c o l o n y . U n d e r their then condition churches and schools could h a r d l y be attended and even police supervision was almost impossible. T h e defaulters had their little properties levied u p o n and sold, the officials first d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g possible to get payment or even promises to p a y within a reasonable time. W h e n n o t h i n g remained but to deliver the property to the new owner there was almost a riot. O n e m a n w h o had thus lost a

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

177

cottage went in and sat down, refusing to leave. â&#x20AC;&#x153; T h i s is m y house a n d I shall stop here.â&#x20AC;? H e w a s turned out by the police, arrested, and fined, but even then he appealed and got j u d g m e n t in his favour on a technical point. F o r a time it seemed as if the v i l l a g e s would never be put in order, but at last the malcontents were c o w e d and a steady a d v a n c e was m a d e . T h e villages to-day are g e n e r a l l y in a far better condition than they ever were before. N o longer do we see such floods as once m a d e them a d i s g r a c e to all concerned. V i l l a g e Councils have been in existence for some y e a r s , which w o r k under the G o v e r n ment Superintendent, and are not quite so conspicuous for b i c k e r i n g as they once w e r e . B u t much remains to be done, for there is a sad want of some bond of union a m o n g the n e g r o e s themselves. T h e y have a proverb to the effect that a black d o g does not bite his mattee black d o g , but the black m a n has no love for one of his o w n c o l o u r . W e see here and there a really industrious n e g r o t r y i n g to cultivate his piece of land to the best a d v a n t a g e , but c o n tinually h a m p e r e d by a lot of thieves, w h o will not w o r k themselves even when they h a v e the s a m e opportunities. C a s e s have been k n o w n of people b e i n g hired to g o a b a c k for twenty bunches of plantains, which h a d been m a r k e d as ready to cut, only to find that every one h a d been c a r r i e d off the previous n i g h t . T h i s is of course disheartening, and we can hardly wonder that some have g i v e n up in despair. S p e a k i n g g e n e r a l l y of the coast lands of British G u i a n a , we m a y state that they cannot be w o r k e d properly without the supervision of the white m a n . T h e continual attention to d a m s , canals, and sluices 12

178

GUIANA

means that e v e r y estate a n d v i l l a g e must have a superintendent, who can c o m m a n d labour at the right time. T h e s u g a r estates have such men, and the result is patent, but the v i l l a g e s never prospered because such a head was w a n t i n g . O f course such w o r k is expensive, and here also the v i l l a g e s a r e behind, for they cannot be heavily t a x e d . What would pay a s u g a r estate to have properly done cannot pay the v i l l a g e s , for in the one case the a r e a under cultivation is l a r g e and uniform, while in the other it is much s m a l l e r a n d p a t c h y . The n e g r o ' s character is impulsive, and this is shown in e v e r y t h i n g he d o e s . H e will take upon himself at one time to do really g o o d work, and you think his efforts will be successful, but he soon tires and g i v e s up, thus g i v i n g scope to the rampant weeds, which soon turn his provision-ground into a wilderness. C l e a n cultivation is seen where there are Chinese, and the E a s t I n d i a n s ' g r o u n d s are almost equal, but it is rare to find such a t h i n g where the owners a r e negroes. D u r i n g the last few years the E a s t Indian has c o m e to the front as a r i c e - g r o w e r , but the n e g r o has not taken up the industry to any g r e a t e x t e n t . Formerly the imports of rice w e r e enormous ; even a s late a s 1 8 9 9 o v e r eleven thosand tons were b r o u g h t f r o m I n d i a . N o w about 40,000 acres are u n d e r this c u l t i vation, the imports are almost nil, and the exports amount to about five thousand tons per annum. As m a y be supposed, this is an ideal country for r i c e g r o w i n g , and with proper attention to the distribution of water there are n o difficulties in its w a y . Then the E a s t Indian is in most cases well a c q u a i n t e d with the conditions necessary, and can therefore increase the output to almost any extent, for the

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

179

suitable land now unused amounts to thousands of square miles. M i l l s are w o r k i n g in several districts turning out a product which c o m p a r e s favourably with that from the southern States of N o r t h A m e r i c a . A w a y f r o m the coast the country is sparsely populated only on the banks of the g r e a t r i v e r s . H e r e resides a motley set of people of a l l shades, difficult to classify but c o m m o n l y mixtures of white, n e g r o , and Indian. T h e y are g e n e r a l l y called B o v i a n d e r s , p r o b a b l y because they live a b o v e yonder, a w a y up beyond the plantations. S o m e a r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m the o r i g i n a l owners of the estates that failed and were abandoned when the land near the coast was found m o r e fertile. S u c h o w n e r s h i p is still r e c o g n i s e d where descent can be traced, but the land is only useful for cutting firewood, of a rather low g r a d e , because the v a l u a b l e timber trees have long been carried off, and the s e c o n d g r o w t h is of a different c h a r a c t e r . T h e s e people have adopted some of the habits of the Indians, but instead of living in open sheds they build low huts with thatched sides, which m a k e them very undesirable a b o d e s for a tropical c l i m a t e . A community of Chinese on the D e m e r a r a river have, however, adopted the Indian benab, with the addition of palisaded sides, w h i c h a r e a i r y and c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e low hut is characteristic of the black man, for even the bush n e g r o e s of S u r i n a m , who, no doubt, learnt m u c h f r o m the Indians, live in a similar poky h o v e l . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g s of such huts are overrun by w e e d s , often to the smothering of the few fruit-trees which remain from the old time when a D u t c h m a n perhaps lived on the spot and kept it in such order as is never seen n o w a d a y s . W h a t these places w e r e like in the olden time m a y

180

GUIANA

be g a t h e r e d from the f o l l o w i n g extract f r o m one of Waterton's E s s a y s :— “ In the year 1807, some thirty miles up the beautiful R i v e r D e m e r a r a , there lived an elderly D u t c h settler whose n a m e w a s L a i n g . “He w a s one of those f a r m i n g - l o o k i n g g e n t l e m e n who sauntered u p and d o w n his s y l v a n domain with a l o n g pipe in his mouth and with a straw hat on his head, broad e n o u g h to serve both himself and his wife by w a y of an umbrella in the b l a z i n g heat of an equinoctial sun. “ M y n h e e r L a i n g had stubbed the s u r r o u n d i n g trees to a certain extent ; and this enabled him to have a little d a i r y and e n o u g h of land to feed his cattle and to enclose a g a r d e n for the culinary wants of his household. “ In passing up and down the river in your Indian c a n o e his house a p p e a r e d to g r e a t a d v a n t a g e . It stood near the top of a gently sloping hill ; whilst the h i g h trees of magnificent f o l i a g e surrounded it on e v e r y side, s a v i n g that which faced the river, and there the g r e e n s w a r d c a m e down quite to the water's e d g e . O n v i e w i n g it you would have said that it was as lovely a place, for a m a n of m o d e r a t e desires, as could be found on this terrestrial g l o b e . ” T h i s spot is now a wilderness like almost all the old river plantations ; it has fallen into the hands of people w h o have no idea of comfort or convenience, a n d w h o live after a fashion by d o i n g n o t h i n g . How they live is a problem, for we r a r e l y find them or their families with a n y t h i n g to e a t . O n one occasion we stopped at such a place where there w e r e four huts, and, w a n t i n g something to eat, inquired if any of them had a fowl, e g g s , fruit, or b a r b e c u e d meat, some of which can at times be found at such p l a c e s .

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

181

T h e reply w a s that they had n o t h i n g but a few g r e e n plantains, of which a k i n d of p o r r i d g e was made for the c h i l d r e n . W e had to be satisfied with a f e w of these roasted, which, without butter or a n y other seasoning, are a m o n g the most tasteless of all vegetables. T h e r e is g e n e r a l l y a bed of plantains near the hut, but they are nearly a l w a y s c h o k e d with w e e d s . T h o s e w h o have never lived in the tropics m a y perhaps think these weeds something like those of temperate climes ; but such is not the case, for they are thickets, impassable without the aid of a cutlass. W e e d i n g under such circumstances is necessarily v e r y hard work, a n d these people a r e decidedly averse to labour of a n y k i n d . N o doubt the Indian blood comes to the front, for c h o p p i n g down trees is m o r e c o n g e n i a l than tilling the g r o u n d , w h i c h is w o m e n ' s w o r k . T h e s e people often own an estate of 2 5 0 acres, the g r e a t e r portion of which is h a r d l y p e n e t r a b l e . H e r e , w h e r e there is no difficulty with the d r a i n a g e , and no e m p o l d e r i n g necessary, it m i g h t be supposed that a man could live c o m f o r t a b l y by w o r k i n g a f e w hours every day ; in fact, one d a y ' s w o r k every w e e k would be sufficient to provide the f e w real needs of a household. T h e r e are n o roads a l o n g the b a n k s of the river, so e v e r y family must have its bateau, or d u g - o u t canoe. It is interesting to note h o w early in life a boy or g i r l learns to m a n a g e one of these c r a f t . Little more than babies, they g o off to the nearest shop, perhaps five miles a w a y , to buy a p e n n y w o r t h of salt fish to flavour the otherwise tasteless plantains. Sometimes they g o â&#x20AC;&#x153; for a walk,â&#x20AC;? as they call it, and visit some other children, the mothers n e v e r

182

GUIANA

t h i n k i n g that there is any risk. Y e t a traveller s o m e years a g o , n o doubt e x a g g e r a t i n g for effect, described the n e i g h b o u r h o o d as s w a r m i n g with d a n g e r o u s animals, such as j a g u a r s , a l l i g a t o r s , and rattlesnakes, all of which m i g h t be seen in a m o r n i n g ' s walk. A s a matter of fact, few people, even those w h o live in the forest, have ever seen a l i v i n g j a g u a r , and the other animals are too w a r y for a n y one to discern but the huntsman or naturalist. The nearest to a sight of the j a g u a r is g e n e r a l l y its footprints or the remains of its dinner. F o r m e r l y the D u t c h m e n took wives f r o m the Indians, with the result that m a n y of the h a l f - b r e e d s owned plantations and w e r e important personages on the rivers. S o m e h a d been sent to E u r o p e for their education and were g e n t l e m e n of the o l d school and yet d e g e n e r a t e s in almost every respect. T h e r e is a fascination a b o u t such a life which even the civilised man c a n h a r d l y resist. T o be free f r o m the cares and worries of the strenuous life and the burdens of conventionality has its attractions. With f e w wants, and these so easily supplied, the m a n d e g e n e r a t e s until he becomes lower than the real savage. Y e t they seem a l w a y s happy, for there is n o ambition ; a shelter f r o m the rain and a m e a l of plantains can easily be g o t without the p r o v e r b i a l sweat of the b r o w . C l o t h i n g is a luxury, h a r d l y needed by children at all, a n d is reduced in the a d u l t to the simple shirt and trousers of the man and a frock for the w o m a n . In these upper river districts there are Indian missions, where there is g e n e r a l l y a catechist or schoolmaster, who thinks himself a v e r y superior person and looks down upon the Indian as a n a k e d savage. W h a t the Indian thinks of this n e g r o

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

183

teacher is h a r d to say, but we can g e t s o m e i d e a of the mind of this exalted p e r s o n a g e , for one of them wrote a book a b o u t twenty-five years a g o , w h i c h is a medley of curious n o t i o n s . F o r t u n a t e l y for the curious, he did it all himself and g o t it printed b y a j o b b e r ; it follows, therefore, that we m a y t a k e it as the g e n u i n e o u t p o u r i n g of his m i n d . W e do not s u g g e s t that he w a s a t y p i c a l n e g r o or an a v e r a g e schoolmaster, nevertheless, we m a y safely state that others of a similar type m a y be f o u n d . T h e quiet Indian w a s a pitiable creature, b u t — “ P o o r Children of the Forest, I c a n readily excuse if they a p p e a r to be lazy ; for the everlasting s l e e p y like s o u n d i n g rills of pleasant cool sweet waters, coupled with their ' c o l d d a m p ’ forest earth, a r e sufficiently reasonable causes to induce these c o l d people into a r m s of Morphus or ’ N a t u r e ’ s S w e e t R e s t o r e r ’ — B a l m y Sleep.” H i s bateau c r e w w a s v e r y m i x e d :— A b r o w n fellow (not an I n d i a n ) g r i n n e d a sort of smile, with almost open m o u t h — y a w n i n g out lazin e s s — a n d his c l o s i n g lips of s u n l i g h t - p a i n t e d - h e a t , as if b e a t i n g f r o m his proud little c o l o u r e d heart (as such hearts do g e n e r a l l y a p p e a r to b e a t ) t h r o u g h similar signs, such jealous symbols.” T h i s wants interpreting, as d o e s also the next p a r a g r a p h :— “ A l l these lads o f m y batteau’d c r e w of lads, w e r e of mixed races of Indians and f a i r b o v i a n d e r s , o r those sometimes curious folks, w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e and actions could w a r r a n t a n y sensible s t r a n g e r w h o had seen a wild Indian, a n d a domesticated mulatto, to suppose and conclude when j u d g i n g that if strikes between any such two individuals be p r o d u c e d w h a t natural consequences must ensue.” 1“

184

GUIANA

T h e whole book, or rather pamphlet, is loaded with such g e m s , and is d e c i d e d l y humorous, a l t h o u g h this w a s certainly not intended by the a u t h o r . Below the surface there is often something s u g g e s t i v e to the psychologist, as in the f o l l o w i n g attempt to picture the Indian :— “ W i t h all the affection or love manifested t o w a r d s these A b o r i g i n e s e , or a m o n g s t them, they a p p e a r to be m o r e n a t u r a l l y c a p a b l e of living out of their woods than are they f o r g e t f u l of what perhaps they still consider the usurpation of their now buried authority ; for it seems to me that notwithstanding their true signs of contentment and acts of unquestionable love or affection to those of a different tribe or r a c e than that of themselves ; yet there is nearly apparent a m o n g them some l i n g e r i n g shyness, some sort of discontentedness, some mourners as if for property lost, and will not be really comforted whilst ’tis not r e c o v e r a b l e ; some t i n g y doubt, some restless a n tipathy of doubt, which notwithstanding a l l their k n o w n E n g l i s h songs or h y m n s of praise which they can sing, still lingers i r r e m o v a b l e within their breasts and hearts.” F o r t u n a t e l y for British G u i a n a this t y p e is rare, and we are g l a d to say it is d y i n g o u t . The new missions have g e n e r a l l y white men at their head with some ideas beyond conventionality. T o o much stress w a s formerly, laid upon the matter of c l o t h i n g , which is undoubtedly one of the causes of the p a s s i n g a w a y of the A m e r i c a n r a c e . T h e old missionary t h o u g h t it indecent for the people to g o about in laps and aprons only, and the expression “ clothed and in his right mind ” w a s taken as a p p l i c a b l e t o tropical m a n . W e c a n safely affirm, however, that in a climate like G u i a n a , where sudden showers

GIRLS

OFANINDIAN MISSION. To face p. 185.

VILLAGES AND R I V E R - P E O P L E

185

fall a l m o s t without w a r n i n g , the n a k e d m a n will a l w a y s be less liable to chills a n d f e v e r . T h e Indian with one shirt should take it off when wet, even if he does shock the g o o d missionary, for, after all, health is more important than conventionality. That this is now b e i n g understood is shown by the pretty g r o u p of children, here reproduced from a photo, of the P a t a m o n a a n d M a c o u s h i tribe, attending S t . M a r y ' s A n g l i c a n mission s c h o o l on t h e R u p u n u n i . Only a prude could c a v i l at this p i c t u r e .

CHAPTER THE

P E O P L E A N D IMMIGRATION

Races represented—National traits in negro — Bush negroes— Coloured people—Negro characteristics—The East Indian, the man of the future—The Chinese—Madeira Portuguese—Native Indians — Wild Indians disappearing — Javanese — Cayenne rogues—Whites—Jews—Effect of a hot climate—Tropical man — Labour difficulties — Slavery — Acclimatisation — Tropical colonies entirely dependent on labour supply—Land worthless without labour—Immigration experiments—First East Indian coolies—Opposition of anti-slavery party—East Indian immigration established—Chinese coolies—Slave emancipation in Surinam—India the only source of a tropical labour supply— “New slavery”—Disputes with the East Indians only connected with wages—Immigration department—Results of immigration. THE

varied

t h a n those of a n y other c o u n t r y in the w o r l d .

people

Every

race

Indo-

European,

Guiana

are

represented—the the

African

probably European

n e g r o , the

Chinese,

as p e o p l e f r o m A n a m and J a v a , a n d American.

Besides

these

there

and

finally,

are

well

the true

mixed

breeds

in all p r o p o r t i o n s — w h i t e with b l a c k , n e g r o with E a s t Indian a n d C h i n e s e , n e g r o with A m e r i c a n , a n d w h i t e with

East

Indian,

Chinese, and

American.

the

e t h n o l o g i s t these must n e c e s s a r i l y be p e c u l i a r l y interesting. Among

the

other

points 186

interest

there

the

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 187 impress of the three nationalities upon the n e g r o , which are very conspicuous in the w o m e n . The F r e n c h n e g r e s s is unlike her sister in S u r i n a m , a n d she also differs from the E n g l i s h type in D e m e r a r a . A g a i n , they all stand apart f r o m the real A f r i c a n and the bush n e g r o , illustrating the possibility of the perpetuation of a c q u i r e d characters and the manner in which tribal differences have been d e v e l o p e d . “ T h e F r e n c h , ” said an old writer, “ a r e a civil, quick and active sort of people, g i v e n to t a l k i n g , especially those of the female sex ” ; the D u t c h have a m o r e heavy look and w e a r their clothes loose and b a g g y , cleanliness b e i n g more conspicuous than a g o o d fit ; the E n g l i s h (including specially the B a r b a d i a n ) a r e decidedly careless a n d slovenly, and inclined to ape the latest fashion. A F r e n c h m a n s p e a k s of the D e m e r a r a negress as d r e s s i n g up in her mistress's o l d g o w n s and w a n t i n g a style of her own ; w e h a v e seen a c o o k g o i n g to m a r k e t in an o l d silk dress once t r i m m e d with lace, now s m u d g e d with soot and r e e k i n g with g r e a s e . T h e y all have a love for finery but no taste in colour ; here and there, h o w ever, a g i r l with a pure white dress and e m b r o i d e r e d h e a d k e r c h i e f pleases the e y e and proves that dress is of some importance in our estimate of these people. T h e n e g r o m a n has n o peculiarity in his clothes ; he simply follows the E u r o p e a n . H i s w o r k i n g dress is g e n e r a l l y the dirty and r a g g e d remains of what w e m a y call his S u n d a y suit. H e m a y be c l e a n otherwise, but his c o v e r i n g g i v e s us the c o n t r a r y impression. T h e r e is a c h a r a c t e r about the D e m e r a r a Creole, but he is not so E n g l i s h as the B a r b a d i a n , w h o is “ neither C a r i b n o r Creole, but true B a r badian born.” L o y a l t y to the M o t h e r C o u n t r y a s

188

GUIANA

well as to his own island is very, conspicuous ; he has followed the white man in this as w e l l as in his l a n g u a g e , which retains some of the obsolete w o r d s and phrases of the Stuart period, including the asseveration “ deed en fait ” for “ in deed a n d in faith.” T h e s e national characteristics g o to prove that the n e g r o has been c h a n g e d somewhat by environment, and this c a n be easily seen when he is c o m p a r e d with the A f r i c a n , w h o is represented here and there by a few of the old people w h o w e r e rescued f r o m s l a v e r s . T h e bush n e g r o of S u r i n a m , w h o r a n g e s also t h r o u g h C a y e n n e and into B r a z i l i a n territory, is a distinct t y p e . M a d e u p of a n u m b e r of A f r i c a n tribes, and p r o b a b l y dominated b y the C o r o m a n t e e , the most independent of these, he has not been m u c h affected by his short service under the D u t c h . From a physical standpoint he is a fine fellow, m u s c u l a r and b r a w n y ; a g o o d boatman and warrior, he has held his o w n for t w o centuries. H a v i n g first g a i n e d his f r e e d o m by his s t r o n g arm, he f o u g h t to retain it ; the result is a m a n that must be respected. P o s s i b l y he learnt something from the native Indian, but he has never been very friendly, for the a b o r i g i n e s d o not like the n e g r o . In D e m e r a r a , and to a less extent in S u r i n a m , Indians w e r e f o r m e r l y employed to hunt r u n a w a y slaves, and this accounts for the i l l - f e e l i n g . W e m a y consider the bush n e g r o as an A f r i c a n s a v a g e , v e r y s l i g h t l y altered by the c h a n g e from the forests of the C o n g o to the wilds of G u i a n a . Like A f r i c a n tribes, the communities have no bond of union, but are e a c h under its own g r a n m a n , or chief. T h i s s e g r e g a t i o n has been the cause of m u c h trouble in the past, for a treaty might be m a d e with one

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION

189

chief which was by. no means binding on the others. T h e i r huts are low and confined, l a c k i n g a n y c o n veniences and without o r d e r . T h e i r few arts a r e of A f r i c a n t y p e s , and their tribal m a r k s coarse scars. S m a l l c l e a r i n g s are m a d e near their d w e l l ings in which g r o u n d provisions e n o u g h to support their families are raised, and sometimes a little rice to sell. T h e y also cut timber a n d b r i n g it to P a r a maribo for sale, with the proceeds of which they buy finery. L a t t e r l y they have been found useful to c a r r y g o l d - d i g g e r s and b a l a t a - b l e e d e r s into the interior, for they are well accustomed to n a v i g a t e the r a p i d s . In S u r i n a m the latest estimate of their n u m b e r is 8,000 ; a few y e a r s a g o they were put d o w n as about 25,000 in all G u i a n a . T h e y do not a p p e a r to increase to any extent ; in fact, j u d g i n g by the n u m b e r of runaways who have taken to the bush in t w o centuries, the d e c r e a s e f r o m w a r and other causes must have been e n o r m o u s . T h e i r sexual relations, which are very loose, as a m o n g n e g r o e s g e n e r a l l y , do not consist with an increase, but at the same time there is no doubt that we have here a survival of the strongest. W h e t h e r these people will ever m i n g l e with other n e g r o e s is doubtful ; at present the bush n e g r o despises the fellow with a master or employer, and the black man of the settled portion of the c o l o n y treats him as a savage. In British G u i a n a the r u n a w a y s were hunted by Indians ; it followed, therefore, that no such c o m munities of wild men were possible. T h e river people are l a r g e l y of mixed A f r i c a n and Indian blood, more often perhaps with more or less of the E u r o p e a n . T h e y c a r r y on the timber trade and are prominent as boat h a n d s . F o r m e r l y , e v e r y family had its bateau

190

GUIANA

or corial, but since steamers have been p l y i n g u p the rivers a craft is less n e e d e d . T h e coloured people are of all s h a d e s . T h e offs p r i n g of black and white is the mulatto, who g e n e r a l l y partakes e q u a l l y of the character of both races, but with variations. T h e man is c o a r s e r l o o k i n g than the woman, but as a rule he is s t r o n g and healthy ; if, however, he marries a w o m a n of his o w n colour the offspring are in m a n y cases w e a k e r than the p a r e n t s . A c o b is a reversion t o w a r d s the n e g r o , the child of one black parent with a mulatto, three-quarters black and h a r d l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . T h e mustee or quadroon, w h o is t h r e e fourths white, a n d the costee or octoroon m a y be c o n s i d e r e d as p r a c t i c a l l y white and in many c a s e s can only be distinguished as coloured by those w h o know their p a r e n t a g e . In G u i a n a colour prejudice is most conspicuous a m o n g these lighter people, for they want to m a r r y a “ h i g h e r ” colour than t h e m selves, and are considered as d e g r a d i n g the family when d e m e a n i n g it by c o m i n g down towards the n e g r o . A black woman will think more of her illegitimate mulatto children than of those she has borne to her n e g r o h u s b a n d . T h e ideal of the pure n e g r o is the b u c r a — t h e w e l l - t o - d o E u r o p e a n ; poor whites or coloured people are in his opinion unworthy of respect. H e rarely g e t s on well as servant t o one of his own colour ; quarrels and fights a r e c o m m o n a m o n g w o r k m e n where they are under men of their own c l a s s . T h e n e g r o also despises the C h i n a m a n and E a s t Indian, who in turn prefer to h a v e few dealings with t h e m . T h e g e n e r a l result is that there are not many sexual unions between the races. N o w and a g a i n a respectable b l a c k man, doctor or lawyer, marries a white w o m a n , but such

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION

191

unions g e n e r a l l y b r i n g t r o u b l e . T h e tendency now is for the d a r k e r c o l o u r e d people to m e r g e t h e m selves in the b l a c k a n d the lighter in the white ; the probable result will ultimately be t o increase the distinction and reduce the present v a r i a t i o n s . T h e r e will almost certainly, however, a l w a y s r e main a c o l o u r e d class, the future of w h o m has often been considered by travellers and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . S o m e have g o n e so f a r as to s a y that they will ultimately be the rulers of the W e s t Indies, but there is little foundation for such an opinion. No doubt the l i g h t e r - c o l o u r e d people will in time t a k e the place of the pure whites f r o m their g r e a t e r suitability to the climate ; their n u m b e r will, h o w ever, p r o b a b l y never be g r e a t e n o u g h to m a k e m u c h impression. T h e coloured m a n is not so a g g r e s s i v e as the educated n e g r o , w h o has c o m e to the front in late y e a r s a s a political a g i t a t o r , a n d w h o s p e a k s of â&#x20AC;&#x153; the p e o p l e â&#x20AC;? as b e i n g those of his own race, notwithstanding the fact that in B r i t i s h G u i a n a they are e x c e e d e d in n u m b e r by the E a s t I n d i a n s . T h e n e g r o is prominent in the L e g i s l a t u r e and the learned professions ; he is the schoolmaster, the d i s penser or sick nurse, and the lower g r a d e c l e r k , but he does not succeed as a s h o p k e e p e r . The g o l d and d i a m o n d d i g g e r s and b a l a t a - b l e e d e r s are also b l a c k men under white superintendence. He undoubtedly fills a p l a c e which, in his absence, could o n l y be o c c u p i e d b y inferior w o r k m e n of other races, and is g r a d u a l l y b e c o m i n g a useful m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y . A s a plantation labourer he fails, m a i n l y because he expects h i g h e r pay than estates c a n afford. H e is c a p a b l e of d o i n g more h a r d w o r k than any other tropical labourer, but he prefers a job of a few hours rather than steady, continuous

192

GUIANA

w o r k . H i s passions are easily roused, and when the fit is on it is useless to reason with h i m . A f t e r g i v i n g his e m p l o y e r v o l l e y s of a b u s e he sometimes asks a favour as if he had done n o t h i n g . S o m e will boast that they bear no malice, that they a r e open-minded, m u c h better than some other people who will not f o r g e t an offence. Morality, is l a r g e l y a matter of law. â&#x20AC;&#x153; Y o u can't d o m e n o t h i n g â&#x20AC;? is a c o m m o n reply when he is told that something he was d o i n g was w r o n g . M a n y of t h e m are well versed in the law, for c r o w d s assemble round the m a g i s t r a t e s ' courts e v e r y d a y . S o m e t i m e s one will s a y that if he had ten dollars to pay the fine he w o u l d do something illegal ; in fact, it is notorious that people who complain loudly of poverty can often pay fines of what is to them very, l a r g e a m o u n t s . One day a poor w o m a n will be b e g g i n g a penny and the next p a y i n g two to five pounds in the c o u r t . Y e t they have rarely a n y t h i n g saved, but the fines can be raised b y loans and gifts f r o m their relations a n d friends. T h e E a s t Indian will certainly be the m a n of the future in G u i a n a if the i m m i g r a t i o n system is continued. A l r e a d y he is a h e a d in British G u i a n a , and forms more than a third of the population of S u r i n a m , if we include the J a v a n e s e . T h o u g h not so s t r o n g as the n e g r o , he is more reliable, and without him there would be no D e m e r a r a or S u r i n a m sugar. H e enjoys better health in the tropics than other races, as is easily seen by the census returns of India and death rates on the plantations. A g r e a t increase of population m a y g e n e r a l l y be p r e dicted where people are kind to their children, a n d in this the E a s t Indian is pre-eminent. W e shall say s o m e t h i n g further about him in another place,

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 193 a n d will only here deal with his clothes. H e is p r o b a b l y t h e only real tropical m a n w h o dresses to suit the climate, and he is a l w a y s w e l l d r e s s e d . W i t h a few y a r d s of cotton cloth he drapes himself in a manner that could only be emulated by a g r e a t artist. A n y one w h o k n o w s w h a t tight-fitting E u r o p e a n c l o t h i n g means in the tropics c a n a p p r e ciate the loose folds of the E a s t I n d i a n . Through the a g e s he has learnt how to dress in a g r a c e f u l and picturesque manner, which, however, is p r a c tically inimitable by others. T h e w o m e n w e a r most g a u d y colours, but their taste is so perfect that there is rarely a n y t h i n g d i s c o r d a n t . A n d yet these people are h a r d l y e v e r of a h i g h e r class than that of the field l a b o u r e r . T h i s n a t u r a l taste in d r a p e r y and colour must have been the result of experience d u r i n g l o n g a g e s ; that light c l o t h i n g is a success is p r o v e d by the natural increase, notwithstanding w a r , famine, and pestilence. The Chinese were imported as agricultural labourers, but m a y be considered as failures in that line, a l t h o u g h in other respects v e r y useful colonists. T h e y have been c o n d e m n e d in other countries as undesirable, and even in B r i t i s h G u i a n a they w e r e once stigmatised as sly r o g u e s a n d thieves. Now the s t i g m a is undeserved, for they f o r m a t r a d i n g class of considerable i m p o r t a n c e . A few h a v e w o r k e d at the g o l d - d i g g i n g s as w e l l as in the forest as wood-cutters and c h a r c o a l - b u r n e r s ; there is a l s o a small a g r i c u l t u r a l settlement on the D e m e r a r a R i v e r which is a picture of clean economic c u l t i vation. T h e y are, however, m o r e conspicuous for their success in c a r r y i n g on small c o u n t r y shops, where the profits are h a r d l y sufficient to support people w h o are not content with a v e r y bare l i v i n g .

194

GUIANA

T h e only white men ever imported as labourers were the M a d e i r a P o r t u g u e s e . M a d e i r a w a s almost ruined by the vine pest about the time of the slave emancipation, and thousands of poor people c a m e to British G u i a n a . F o r want of c a r e d u r i n g the y e a r of seasoning m a n y died, and the remainder w e r e found quite unfit for field w o r k . T h e y were, h o w ever, useful colonists, a n d are now traders a n d in many cases w e l l - t o - d o property o w n e r s . T h e y c a m e as paupers, but b y thrift a n d industry went a h e a d , until practically e v e r y spirit-shop and corner g r o c e r y w a s in their h a n d s . O n l y the C h i n a m a n can c o m pete with them, and he only does so in the v i l l a g e s . T h e M a d e i r a n is a l a w - a b i d i n g citizen, but he c r i n g e s too m u c h to the n e g r o . T h e g e n e r a l result of the competition of the small shops is that the p o o r e r classes g e t their provisions very, c h e a p . Unfortunately, by g i v i n g w a y to the demands of their customers, a condition of things has arisen that n o independent shopkeeper could possibly endure. H o w e v e r , the M a d e i r a n has learnt to bear and f o r bear, a n d he h a r d l y e v e r resents the insults a n d b u l l y i n g s which the n e g r e s s with her p e n n y is a l w a y s r e a d y to launch upon h i m . H e is g e n e r a l l y l o o k e d upon as mean, and willing to stint himself to save, but this is a c h a r a c t e r which is g e n e r a l l y wanted in the tropics, where the tendency to thrift is a l w a y s sadly lacking. T h e native Indian c a n h a r d l y be r e c k o n e d as a m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y ; he is, however, useful to the traveller, the g o l d - d i g g e r , and b a l a t a - b l e e d e r . A s a boatman, wood-cutter, or huntsman, he is in his place, but his sturdy independence prevents him f r o m b e c o m i n g a reliable servant. M a k e him y o u r friend and he will do a n y t h i n g in his p o w e r for

INDIAN

GIRL. To face p. 195.

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 195 you, but he takes orders f r o m n o o n e . T h i s refers to the m a n of the forest w h o s e wants are few, a n d when satisfied, there is n o further necessity for his working. F o r a g u n , powder, or shot y o u m a y induce h i m to help y o u ; w h e n he g e t s these he n a t u r a l l y wants to be free to use t h e m . T h e r e is, however, a class of half-civilised Indians g r o w i n g up w h o are fairly reliable, but they do not remain in town longer than is necessary for transacting their business as carriers of timber, c h a r c o a l , and c o r d wood. N o Indian m a n c a n endure the t r a m m e l s of civilisation ; sometimes a buckeen, as the w o m e n are called, will take a place as house-servant, but even these are not c o m m o n . Unfortunately, the m e n are g i v e n to r u m - d r i n k i n g , and laws are m a d e for the c o u n t r y districts to prevent the sale to t h e m of spirits. T h e real wild Indian is d i s a p p e a r i n g f r o m his old h a u n t s . Forty, y e a r s a g o he could be found in m a n y of the c r e e k s of the D e m e r a r a river w h e r e now only a few of his d e g e n e r a t e d descendants e x i s t . A s a huntsman he must h a v e a sort of g a m e p r e serve, which is impossible w h e r e g a n g s of w o o d cutters and b a l a t a - b l e e d e r s c a r r y o n their w o r k . He still exists, however, in the f a r interior, living in m u c h the same w a y as he did when A m e r i c a w a s discovered, except that he does not fight. T h e men are still e x p e r t hunters and fishermen and the women as proficient in cultivating a n d p r e p a r i n g the staff of life, c a s s a v a - b r e a d . T h e i r old w e a p o n s , the b o w and blow-pipe, are l a r g e l y r e p l a c e d by the g u n , but the l a r g e fishes about the rapids a r e still shot in the old w a y . It is g e n e r a l l y supposed that the Indian is d y i n g out ; whether this is really s o is not quite c e r t a i n .

196

GUIANA

T h e r e is no doubt, however, that he has disappeared from the coast of British G u i a n a ; he has also g o n e f r o m those districts in S u r i n a m a n d C a y e n n e that are o c c u p i e d by bush n e g r o e s . W h e n the colonies w e r e in their infancy he was a p o w e r in the land, n o w he is of little importance. H o w e v e r this m a y be deplored, we m a y safely affirm that no c o u n t r y c a n maintain a l a r g e population of hunters and fishermen, w h e r e each small community must h a v e its own p r e s e r v e . P o s s i b l y the l a r g e n u m b e r of C a r i b s once reported as l i v i n g on the coast of G u i a n a really existed because they w e r e c a n n i b a l s . T h e meat supply was of little importance, even when s u p plemented b y fish. C a n n i b a l i s m is now quite unknown in the country, and even two centuries a g o the C a r i b s resented a n y imputations of a taste for h u m a n flesh. T h e name is generally, supposed to h a v e been derived f r o m these m a n - e a t e r s , and there seems no reason for d o u b t i n g the reports of the early, t r a v e l l e r s . T h e Javanese of Surinam, w h o number nearly ten thousand, m a y possibly a d d another v a l u a b l e element to the population. T h e y are not considered as s t r o n g as the E a s t Indians, but a r e d e c i d e d l y useful l a b o u r e r s , and may. become g o o d colonists in the future. C a y e n n e has a sort of colonising with the refuse of her tropical settlements, A l g e r i a and other parts of A f r i c a as well as A n a m . T h e y certainly a d d to the variety of races in G u i a n a , but it will be l o n g before they b e c o m e m o r e than r o g u e s and v a g a b o n d s . M e a n w h i l e they are a d a n g e r to other colonies, for the F r e n c h r e f u g e e has become notorious in e v e r y thing obnoxious to a l a w - a b i d i n g c o m m u n i t y . O f the whites, other than P o r t u g u e s e , little c a n be

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 197 said. F e w of t h e m settle in the country, for officials and estates m a n a g e r s g e n e r a l l y retire when their work is d o n e . T h e r e is no leisured class and c o n sequently no idlers, except the white women, w h o , unfortunately, lead very dull lives, that are only relieved by r e g u l a r visits to the M o t h e r C o u n t r y . In S u r i n a m there are two Jewish communities w h o keep up the old traditions, but even they are hardly p r o s p e r o u s . In P a r a m a r i b o they are g e n e r a l l y s h o p keepers of a somewhat better t y p e than the M a d e i r a n s in British G u i a n a , but c o m p a r a b l e to the P o r t u g u e s e merchants of G e o r g e t o w n . Hardly, a trace of the old D u t c h families can now be found in B r i t i s h G u i a n a , but the n a m e s a r e conspicuous a m o n g coloured Creoles and b l a c k s . In l o o k i n g over a m a p of the w o r l d we see E u r o p e a n colonies or possessions e v e r y w h e r e , but they are only p r o g r e s s i v e to any g r e a t extent outside the t r o p i c s . T h e white m a n cannot labour in the field under a b u r n i n g sun ; he can only direct a n d control. If there is a dense native population s o m e t h i n g m a y be done, but even then there is not the same desire for w o r k as is felt in a cold climate, nor is the l a b o u r e r driven so m u c h b y cold and hunger. O n e w h o has lived for m a n y y e a r s in a hot climate and then g o e s home must either c o d d l e himself over the fire or else be continually on the move. In fact, a climate m a k e s him energetic or languid, and he can easily understand w h y the man of the tropics cannot do half the w o r k of one born and bred in a temperate c l i m e . A g a i n , there is the winter, the incentive to thrift, for without stores laid up m a n must starve for half the y e a r . Such, however, is not the c a s e w h e r e there is no c o l d season, fruits and v e g e t a b l e s ripen twice a year,

198

GUIANA

and are practically to be had at all times without a resort to storehouses and b a r n s . It follows, t h e r e fore, that there is no incentive to thriftâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;no particular desire to w o r k more than is really necessary to provide for the wants of the d a y . U n d e r such conditions the m a n of the tropics has lived for a g e s , and the Indian of tropical A m e r i c a has become m o r e independent than possibly any other r a c e . H e is a hunter and fisherman ; and his wife does the little cultivation which provides b r e a d for the f a m i l y . U n d e r such conditions it cannot be expected that these people would e v e r w o r k on a plantation, and only the ignorant S p a n i a r d s m a d e such experiments as drove the inhabitants of the Indies to suicide. A few of the e a r l y settlers in G u i a n a tried compulsion, with disastrous results to themselves ; others attempted to c a r r y out the w o r k by white l a b o u r . B u t it would not d o . Sickness and death carried t h e m off one a f t e r another until the remnant was c o m p e l l e d to flee the c o u n t r y . T h e n c a m e the benevolent idea of s a v i n g the Indian b y b r i n g i n g another tropical r a c e â&#x20AC;&#x201D; p e o p l e w h o h a d a l w a y s been labourers in A f r i c a , either as a c t u a l slaves or under chiefs whose c o m m a n d s must be o b e y e d on pain of death. S l a v e r y was natural to them, and only a few were prepared to s t r u g g l e for freedom. U n t i l A f r i c a n s were b r o u g h t to G u i a n a every attempted colony failed, but immediately after the importation of these suitable tropical labourers we find the E n g l i s h c o l o n y of S u r i n a m m a k i n g a fair start. W h a t e v e r m a y be said against n e g r o slavery there is no doubt that hardly one of the n e g r o e s of t o - d a y wishes to g o b a c k to A f r i c a . T h e G u i a n a Creole b l a c k man looks down with contempt on his b l a c k

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 199 brother who was rescued from a slaver and b r o u g h t here as a free m a n . S l a v e r y has peopled the W e s t Indies a n d Guiana, a n d will, no doubt, result in future benefit to the w o r l d . T h e mistake of a l l early settlers w a s in t a k i n g n o account of the fact that even the G u i n e a n e g r o had to be acclimatised to G u i a n a . T h e white m a n found out for himself that he c o u l d do little for the first year after his arrival, but he did not consider that the c h a n g e f r o m one tropical country to another was of m u c h importance. T h i s he h a d to learn by bitter experience, not once only, but several times. E v e n horses must be seasoned before they c a n be put to w o r k ; as for E n g l i s h p l o u g h - h o r s e s , they die very quickly. It m a y be safely stated that tropical countries c a n only be d e v e l o p e d by tropical races. T h e E u r o p e a n m a y direct, but h e cannot labour in the field. A D u t c h G o v e r n o r of G u i a n a once said that a plantation without slaves is a b o d y without a soul ; in the absence of labour land is worthless. If there is not a supply in the country the planters must g i v e up or import people from other tropical countries. O n the amount of imported labour has a l w a y s d e p e n d e d the prosperity of G u i a n a . T h e most important of the three colonies is that b e l o n g i n g to G r e a t B r i t a i n , and it is so because the l a b o u r supply, a l t h o u g h not b y a n y m e a n s as l a r g e as c o u l d be wished, is g r e a t e r than in the other c o l o n i e s . T h e ups and downs in the past w e r e dependent on the n u m b e r of slaves, a n d these w e r e a l w a y s deficient. A t the same time, as l o n g as the slave t r a d e w a s permitted, this was only a matter of m o n e y . However c h e a p the A f r i c a n m i g h t be, he was a l w a y s an expensive item in the l a y i n g out of a plantation,

200

GUIANA

and when a m o r t g a g e was passed the number of slaves was of far m o r e importance than a c r e a g e , buildings, or cultivation. T h e c r y was a l w a y s for cheap n e g r o e s on l o n g creditâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the m o r e the better. U n d e r the D u t c h , what is now British G u i a n a b e c a m e of some importance when it was opened to all nations. T h e result was the a r r i v a l of British settlers f r o m the W e s t Indies, b r i n g i n g capital and l a b o u r e r s . T h e t w o rivers D e m e r a r a a n d E s s e q u e b o were developed by this cause a l o n e . F o r a time the boom continued, but the labour supply was still deficient. A planter, with his 2 5 0 a c r e s , could only cultivate a small portion. F r o m 1 7 9 6 , however, while under British rule, the supply of A f r i c a n s w a s increased, with the result that in three years the exports were trebled. N e w land was taken up, cultivation extended, capital flowed in, the whole sea-coast w a s b l o o m i n g with cotton. T h e n , in 1807, c a m e the abolition of t h e slave trade and a serious c h e c k to development. S u r i n a m was practically ruined when it was g i v e n up to the N e t h e r l a n d s . U n d e r the capitulation the British colonists were permitted to l e a v e with their effects, which in their opinion included slaves, of w h o m there were over four thousand. The Dutch k n e w that a colony without labour was worthless, so they put as m a n y obstacles as possible to this removal. O n l y by another war was the full p e r mission g r a n t e d , and n e a r l y half the slaves taken off to J a m a i c a , where they and their owners met with a hearty w e l c o m e . P o o r S u r i n a m was put b a c k for some twenty years, and J a m a i c a g a i n e d a d v a n t a g e s which n o doubt m u c h assisted in her development as a y o u n g c o l o n y . After the slave trade was abolished by G r e a t Britain other countries still carried it on, even when

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 201 their G o v e r n m e n t s w e r e supposed to discountenance it. S e v e r a l vessels brought A f r i c a n s to Surinam, n o t withstanding the reports and protests of the British consuls. T h e fact w a s , the d e m a n d for labour justified the risk of execution for piracy. In the British colony the want was quite as urgent, but no illicit s l a v e - t r a d i n g took place. Protests were, however, m a d e against the law that prevented labourers from being removed from one colony to, another. P r i c e s were very h i g h where the d e m a n d was g r e a t and correspondingly lower in depressed W e s t Indian islands. W h y should the trade be hampered? H e r e in D e m e r a r a ÂŁ 1 0 0 to ÂŁ 1 5 0 w a s asked for an a b l e - b o d i e d m a n ; in some of the islands he w a s worth about half as m u c h B u t the l a w prevented r e m o v a l . N o w came the British emancipation. I m m e d i a t e l y the hours of w o r k were r e d u c e d f r o m 10 to 7 per d a y â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a reduction of one-fourth. A l r e a d y most of the plantations of cotton and coffee were a b a n d o n e d to concentrate labour on s u g a r estates ; n o w ruin stared the planter in the face, for in four years the apprentice would be entirely free. W h e n this critical time arrived the labour supply failed ; w o m e n n o longer went into the field, m e n only w o r k e d when they pleased, and at extortionate w a g e s . M o r e than half the plantations were a b a n d o n e d , and the others w o r k e d at a loss in hopes that immigration m i g h t prevent total ruin. 1/2

A l r e a d y a few n e g r o e s had been b r o u g h t f r o m the W e s t Indies, but n o t h i n g like a supply was obtainable. S o m e Africans f r o m c o n d e m n e d slavers also helped a little, and an attempt was made to g e t Kroo boys. B u t the E x e t e r H a l l contingent would not a l l o w recruiting of labourers in A f r i c a for fear

202

GUIANA

it m i g h t develop another kind of slave t r a d e . S u g g e s t i o n s were m a d e to bring Irish and G e r m a n s , but without success, only a few people c o m i n g who were quite unfit to labour in the field. Maltese were tried, but without success, and were sent b a c k . M a d e i r a n s , w h o were then suffering very m u c h from the result of the vine disease, were b r o u g h t in some numbers, but they could not labour in the field. T h e y , however, became g a r d e n e r s , pedlars, and s h o p keepers, their d e s c e n d a n t s now f o r m i n g a v e r y important element in the population. F i n a l l y , coolies f r o m India were b r o u g h t under engagement. A t last the best labourer h a d been found, but the p l a n t e r waited a l o n g time before he g o t a proper supply. T h e first coolie immigrants from C a l c u t t a c a m e as s t r a n g e r s to a s t r a n g e land. T h e planter knew nothing of their habits, customs, or l a n g u a g e , and could only leave them to their sirdar who, it was said, beat the coolie and drove him into the field whether sick or w e l l . N o one seems to have thought of the care necessary d u r i n g a c c l i matisation or the s y m p a t h y required by a s t r a n g e r . T h e coolie was an experiment ; he was the last resort of the ruined planter, w h o had n o m o n e y to provide all the necessaries n o w d e m a n d e d by, the Government. T h o s e g o o d people the A b o r i g i n e s â&#x20AC;&#x2122; friends, & c , w e r e soon up in a r m s a g a i n s t a system of i m m i g r a t i o n under contract, a n d yet they c o u l d h a r d l y think it desirable for people to be d u m p e d d o w n in a foreign country without a r r a n g e m e n t s b e i n g m a d e for their support. It was absolutely n e c e s s a r y that some one should be responsible for their food a n d shelter, and e q u a l l y necessary that a c o n s i d e r a tion be g i v e n . B u t , in their opinion, the i m m i g r a n t s

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 203 were g o i n g into a â&#x20AC;&#x153; new slaveryâ&#x20AC;? ; the planters wanted to drive them as they once did the slaves. Complaints were m a d e that the Sirdars beat the coolies, and a m a n a g e r was fined, a l t h o u g h he k n e w nothing of the matter. T h e r e were difficulties c o n nected with a contract m a d e in India a n d not ratified in the colony, on the strength of which some of the coolies left the plantations and b e c a m e v a g r a n t s . A curious case was that of the Gladstones, when they sold Plantation V r e e d - e n - H o o p . A n official was sent to inform the coolies that their contract with John Gladstone & C o . was broken b y the c h a n g e o f ownership ; unless they chose to sign on with the new proprietor they were free to do as they liked. T h e result was that some left and joined the v a g r a n t s . T h e end of the agitation was that coolie immigration was stopped by the British G o v e r n m e n t . After a g r e a t d e a l of trouble and the p a s s i n g of m a n y ordinances the present system w a s a d o p t e d . U n d e r this a r r a n g e m e n t the coolie agrees to serve five years and to w o r k at the current rate of w a g e s , after which a residence of another five years entitles him to a free p a s s a g e b a c k to India. T h e r e is a Protector of I m m i g r a n t s and a l a r g e staff of a g e n t s , G o v e r n m e n t m e d i c a l service, provisions for housing, and hospitals. Under this s y s t e m about five thousand h a v e a r r i v e d a n n u a l l y until of late, when the n u m b e r has been lessened, more than half of w h o m remain in the c o l o n y . B y their means the exports of s u g a r have nearly d o u b l e d as c o m p a r e d with those of the highest years before the e m a n c i p a tion. E v e n now, however, there is a want of c h e a p labour if the c o l o n y is ever to be developed to the extent that m i g h t be wished. C h i n e s e coolies have a l s o been b r o u g h t to British

204

GUIANA

G u i a n a under similar a r r a n g e m e n t s , but without success. T h e y are not so well suited for field labour, but most of them have b e c o m e very useful colonists, competing with the M a d e i r a n s as small s h o p k e e p e r s . T h e slaves in S u r i n a m were emancipated in 1 8 6 3 , but the c h a n g e was not so violent as in the British colony, for the n e g r o served ten years for w a g e s before b e c o m i n g entirely free. T h e want of labour is, however, m u c h felt, and coolie immigration from India and J a v a on similar lines to that in British G u i a n a has w o r k e d well for some years past. W h e n we search the world for a g o o d tropical labourer we h a v e to profit by the experience of the D e m e r a r a planter. H a v i n g e x c l u d e d the A m e r i c a n race, we m a y g o over to A f r i c a . B u t the tropical n e g r o is not prolific, nor is his country over-populated. W a r and the slave trade have done their work, and it m a y be safely stated that even were the n e g r o the best labourer, he is practically unattainable. In A s i a we have Chinese, but they a r e more suitable to temperate climes, as are also the people of J a p a n . U l t i m a t e l y we must come to India as the only p l a c e within the tropics where the people are prolific, and where at times it is of a d v a n t a g e that the population be reduced by e m i g r a t i o n . F o r a g e s I n d i a has been civilised, and for as m a n y a g e s the b a l a n c e of human life has been kept by war, pestilence, and famine. U n d e r British rule these c h e c k s have been m u c h reduced, with the result that the people a r e too n u m e r o u s . It has become n e c e s s a r y to look out for new homes, and here in tropical A m e r i c a there is room for millions. â&#x20AC;&#x153; G i v e m e m y heart's desire in coolies, and I will m a k e you a million h o g s h e a d s of s u g a r without stirring from the colony,â&#x20AC;? said a D e m e r a r a planter to A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e , fifty years

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 205 ago. A s yet the number h a r d l y exceeds 150,000 ; but we can safely look f o r w a r d to an increase, for, unlike the n e g r o , the E a s t Indian does not die out. In m a n y respects this n e w India, as the early v o y a g e r s called A m e r i c a , is similar to the E a s t e r n tropics, a n d the children of the coolies are g r o w i n g rice as their forefathers have done for a g e s in the old country. T h e y have learnt how to a c c o m m o d a t e themselves to the n e w conditions, and are fast b e c o m i n g t h e b a c k b o n e of British G u i a n a . T h e g o o d people who stigmatise coolie immigration as a “ n e w slavery ” do not understand the E a s t Indian. H a v i n g thrown off the fetters of caste, h e has b e c o m e more independent than he once was at home. T h e s y s t e m m a y be a five-years b o n d a g e in one sense, yet in another it is such freedom as w a s never before k n o w n by these people. N o doubt the losing of caste m a y be felt at first, but a f t e r w a r d s the m a n comes m o r e to the front ; instead of being one of a hidebound set he becomes an individual. E v e r y one knows that travel to a foreign country and the observation of other people develops the m i n d . T h o s e who speak of b o n d a g e would perhaps like to have the s t r a n g e r to a n e w country left entirely free to b e c o m e a v a g r a n t and a burden on the c o m munity. B u t they would not advise an E n g l i s h labourer to g o to one of the temperate colonies without h a v i n g some w o r k provided for him on arrival. T h i s is what is done in British G u i a n a . T h e planter takes the coolie as a raw hand, a “ tenderfoot ” if you like, and turns him out at the end of five years as a fit and proper colonist, if he is content to f o r e g o his b a c k p a s s a g e at the end of a n o t h e r five-years residence. A s over 100,000 E a s t Indians are now settled in British G u i a n a and h a r d l y think

206

GUIANA

of g o i n g back, it m a y be safely stated that the future prospects of the colony are l a r g e l y dependent upon them. W h a t m a k e s the prospect more bright is the fact that his exemplary kindness to his children prevents the heavy death-rate a m o n g the little ones so conspicuous in the n e g r o v i l l a g e s . T h e d a r k side is perhaps indicated in the fact that the rising generation, by m i x i n g with what is called the “ centipede ” class of n e g r o boys, m a y b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g like the “ hooligans ” of N o r t h A m e r i c a . H o w e v e r , it is hoped that this evil influence m a y be r e d u c e d before it becomes serious. L e t us see what these “ n e w slaves,” as they have been called, really a r e . In the first place “ S a m m y ” is n o fool. H e m a y be somewhat of a hypocrite, or even a liar, but you c o u l d no m o r e treat him as a slave than you c o u l d y o u r f e l l o w - E u r o p e a n . He k n o w s his rights ; he is a l w a y s ready to resent a n y t h i n g like t y r a n n y . L i k e the E n g l i s h w o r k m a n , he is a l w a y s r e a d y to dispute about w a g e s . T o u c h h i m on this sore point and he is a r m e d at o n c e — t h e a r m b e i n g a formidable h a c k i a stick, the quarter-staff of the m e d i æ v a l E n g l i s h m a n . Misunderstandings occur, and S a m m y must be pacified. H e is, however, open to reason, and here comes in the i m m i g r a t i o n a g e n t , to see that he is not cheated. S a m m y a slave ! T h e idea is a b s u r d . H e is the real master of the s u g a r estate ; without him e v e r y t h i n g would g o to ruin. T h e G o v e r n m e n t humours and pets him. T h e planter must see that he is properly housed and doctored, but a b o v e e v e r y t h i n g his w a g e s must be paid when due. A t the least suspicion of stopping his pay, even for bad work, off he g o e s to the I m m i g r a t i o n Office. Sometimes a g a n g of fifty will m a r c h twenty miles to have a matter

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 207 of a penny a task a d j u d i c a t e d . O n occasion he does not hesitate to c h o p or beat an overseer w h o perhaps finds fault with his w o r k . O n the whole, however, he is not vindictive ; he sticks up for what he believes to be his r i g h t s . N o w h e r e in the tropics, except India, do w e find a thrifty p e o p l e . F o r a g e s they have been forced by c i r c u m s t a n c e s to h o a r d up v a l u a b l e s ; p r o b a b l y the g r a s p i n g n a t u r e of their rulers was the p r e d i s posing f a c t o r . T h e m a n loads his wife with silver, and sometimes g o l d , until it seems as if she m u s t feel the w e i g h t as a b u r d e n . T h i s w a s the old w a y ; he n o w deposits his m o n e y in the s a v i n g s b a n k . G u i a n a wants the m a n w h o saves, not he who spends e v e r y t h i n g at o n c e a n d then becomes a burden on the c o m m u n i t y . P e r h a p s at some future time, if he survives, the n e g r o m a y also learn thrift, but at present w e c a n o n l y h o p e for the development of such a g r a n d v i r t u e . T h o u g h not so s t r o n g as the n e g r o , the coolie c a n be d e p e n d e d upon for five d a y s ' work every w e e k . O f course, there are m a l i n g e r e r s , and in the e a r l y d a y s of i m m i g r a t i o n , w h e n the s w e e p i n g s of the b a z a a r s were sent off, m a n y w e a k and unfit coolies were only burdens on the estates, until they c o u l d b e sent b a c k . N o w , h o w e v e r , the selection is well done, and it is quite a pleasure to see the arrivals from a coolie ship. W h e n they first land they g o about the streets h a n d in h a n d , c h a t t e r i n g with their m o r e experienced c o u n t r y m e n , a n d specially inquiring as to w a g e s . T h e y are not v e r y energetic, but they want m o n e y a n d will w o r k a n d save to g e t it. W a g e s run to about a shilling a d a y , and food costs about f o u r pence. T h e m a n ' s c l o t h i n g is only a few y a r d s of white cotton, and the w o m a n ' s dress, although a l w a y s

208

GUIANA

g r a c e f u l a n d picturesque, is not expensive. The s a v i n g s of a couple are invested at first in necklaces, nose and finger rings, bracelets and anklets, all of which can be p a w n e d or sold if n e c e s s a r y . There is a s t r o n g feeling of amity between them, which m a k e s them combine for a n y object they think desirable. T h i s feeling, however, gives trouble in the m a g i s t r a t e s ' courts, for all relations and friends will combine to deceive when one of the party is c h a r g e d with an offence. N o doubt this feeling is intensified by living in a foreign country. M o n e y - l e n d i n g is c o m m o n , and often very h i g h rates of interest a r e c h a r g e d , but as a rule the borrower is honest. U n l i k e the C h i n a m a n , the E a s t Indian is not a g a m b l e r . F r o m the l e g a l standpoint, perhaps the g r e a t difficulty with the c o o l i e - m a n is his jealousy. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the number of w o m e n b r o u g h t from India is insufficient ; some of them leave their husbands when offers of rich j e w e l l e r y a r e m a d e b y other m e n . In such cases the husband does not hesitate to c h o p the faithless w o m a n to pieces. Possibly he wonders that the law takes c o g n i s a n c e of such a thing and wants to h a n g him, for after all it is one of the primary laws of nature to kill a w o m a n under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s . W e can h a r d l y h e l p a d m i r i n g this trait in his character, for after all the c o n d o n i n g of such an offence is dishonourable. C a r e lessness in sexual relations is by n o m e a n s c o n ducive to morality or the higher family life. When we see h o w h a p p y the E a s t Indian is with his wife a n d family around him, we are c o m p e l l e d to contrast t h e m with the n e g r o e s , whose infidelity is c o m m o n arid hardly r e p r o b a t e d . C o o l i e riots are now l a r g e l y a story of the p a s t , but they must not be forgotten. T h e causes w e r e

T H E P E O P L E AND IMMIGRATION 209 almost entirely disputes about w a g e s ; they m a y b e c o m p a r e d to the strikes so c o m m o n n o w in E u r o p e and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . S o m e have been serious, but hitherto have a l w a y s been confined to a particular estate. Combination was conspicuous within that area, but never b e c a m e universal in British G u i a n a . A r m e d police and even soldiers h a v e been necessary at times, but the row was soon over. In no case was there a n y renewal of the disturbance ; arbitration by the immigration officials a l w a y s settled the matter. “ S a m m y ” is open to reason, and has g r e a t respect for the “ coolie papa,” as they call the chief of the department. T h e d a n g e r a l w a y s lies in a misunderstanding ; the planter has therefore learnt to be v e r y cautious in his dealings, and to see that there must be n o mistake in the pay-sheet. N o t h i n g serious has o c c u r r e d for nearly forty years, but now and a g a i n an overseer is assaulted, or a g a n g m a y be seen m a r c h i n g off to the immigration agent to m a k e a complaint that w a g e s are too little. The matter is at once taken in hand, and the a g e n t ' s decision is considered final by both planter and coolie. T h e s e decisions m a y appear at times somewhat arbitrary, but the authorities are prepared to enforce them, even g o i n g so far as to d e m a n d the d i s c h a r g e of an overseer, and in one case, at least, of a m a n a g e r . T h e proprietor is bound to submit, o t h e r wise the coolies m i g h t be r e m o v e d ; this would, in many cases, mean utter ruin. T h e results of coolie immigration in British G u i a n a can best be seen b y c o m p a r i n g it with the other colonies. C a y e n n e has done practically nothing, and only of late y e a r s has S u r i n a m b e g u n to develop its cultivation by their a i d . E v e r y w h e r e in G u i a n a the n e g r o is d e c r e a s i n g ; in the middle of the eighteenth 14

210

GUIANA

century S u r i n a m h a d a l a r g e r population of slaves than the whole number of its present inhabitants. British G u i a n a also received compensation in 1 8 3 4 for about the same n u m b e r of b l a c k and c o l o u r e d people as it has to-day, l e a v i n g immigrants from the W e s t Indies, China, and India out of the c a l c u lation. T h e n e g r o in B a r b a d o s increases rapidly, as also does he in the Southern S t a t e s ; here he is certainly decreasing. Surinam was the most important colony before the F r e n c h w a r s , 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 1 5 , a n d it prospered under British rule ; since that time it has been at a standstill. Possibly it m a y a g a i n rival British G u i a n a in the future should immigration be i n c r e a s e d . P o s s i b l y also the Javanese m a y be an important factor in this development. F o r w o r k on rubber and c a c a o plantations they seem the ideal labourers. L i k e the Chinese, they are very careful in what they u n d e r t a k e ; in fact, they m a y be c o n sidered as skilful g a r d e n e r s rather than rough labourers. If G u i a n a ever becomes noted for its rubber plantations, the Javanese will undoubtedly come to the front, but they do not a p p e a r to be as suitable for s u g a r estates as the E a s t I n d i a n s .

indian

woman

with

her

burden.

MACOUSHI

GIRL.

To face p. 211.

CHAPTER T H E NATIVE

XI INDIANS

The different tribes—Their houses—Canoes—Cassava, “ the staff of life”—Pepper-pot—Cultivation—Woman's work and man's work—The hunter and fisherman—Weapons—Cotton hammocks—Mosaic feather-work—Geometrical patterns on baskets and aprons—Laps—Dancing dresses—Piaimen—Esoteric cults —Word-building—Polygamy in the chiefs—Its advantages— Curare—Medicines—Independent nature of the Indian—Bloodfeuds—Hospitality—The Akawois, the gypsies of Guiana— Thrift unknown—Famines—Piwarrie feasts—Drunken orgies— Native modesty—Danger of clothing—Use of the Indian to the traveller—Decreasing near the settlements—Christian missions.

T H E Indians of G u i a n a are of different tribes, e a c h with its o w n l a n g u a g e , but their m a n n e r of l i v i n g varies but little. T h e C a r i b s or G a l i b i s , once the rulers of the coast, are n o w m u c h reduced in number, but branches under the n a m e s of A r e c u n a s , A k a w o i s , P a t a m o n a s , and M a c u s h i s a r e still w e l l represented in the interior. T h e y are n o w quite peaceful, neither fighting with e a c h other nor interfering with the colonies. T h e A k a w o i s are, to some extent, w a n d e r ing traders, but their occupation has n o w b e c o m e of little c o n s e q u e n c e . T h e W a r a u s of the coast still exist and c a r r y on the w o r k for which they were once famed, the m a k i n g of corials or c a n o e s . This was the tribe o n c e reported to live in trees, the fact being that their huts are raised a b o v e the mud flats 211

212

GUIANA

on the stems of E t a palms, the upper part h a v i n g been cut off. T h e y are g e n e r a l l y considered dirty, as well as u g l y ; this is p r o b a b l y due to their s u r roundings. T h e A r a w a k s inhabit the creeks a little inland ; they are the same g e n t l e tribe that once was at enmity with the C a r i b and that found it so difficult to stand against him. P r a c t i c a l l y , also, this is the only tribe that has become more or less civilised from contact with the E u r o p e a n . T h e inland tribes besides these are, in British Guiana, W a p i s i a n a s , including Atorais and A m a r i p a s , T a r u m a s , W a i - w o i s , and P i a n o g h o t t a s ; in S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e , R o u c o yennes, E m e r i l l o n s , T r i o s , A p a r a i , O y a m p i , a n d O u a p i c h i a n e . S o m e of these are d y i n g out as certain others have in the historic period. S m a l l p o x was once very fatal, but it has not been recorded in G u i a n a as epidemic for fifty y e a r s . T h e native Indian is leaving the coast, but he can still be found in the far interior, living in m u c h the same manner as he did when G u i a n a was discovered. H i s settlements can h a r d l y be called v i l l a g e s , for they arc composed of but a few houses, and rarely contain more than half a dozen families. T h e forest houses are large thatched sheds, open on all sides, g e n e r a l l y l a r g e e n o u g h to contain twenty people or more without c r o w d i n g . S l u n g to the rafters are the h a m m o c k s , which are beds, couches, a n d seats, practically the only articles of furniture ; here and there is, however, a bench, but this is of little importance. O n the S a v a n n a h the houses are circular, with wattled sides and open d o o r w a y s , to keep out the d a m p , chilly wind which sometimes blows in these open p l a c e s . T h e r e is no wind in the forest, therefore only a shelter from the rain is necessary.

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

213

T h e open shed, or b e n a b , w a s p r o b a b l y invented to protect the fire, and a small shed is still u s e d for that purpose, especially where the house is enclosed. In former times, and even still in o u t l y i n g parts, the fire is carefully preserved, because of the difficulty in very wet weather of kindling it by the primitive method of drilling one stick b y another. T h e settlements are almost universally on the b a n k s of rivers ; every m a n has his d u g - o u t canoe or corial, and in the s h a l l o w e r creeks a bent slab of b a r k called a w o o d - s k i n . W i t h the aid of these small craft they journey to l o n g distances, hunt and fish, as perfectly at h o m e in t h e m as we should be in the most stable b o a t s . T h e staff of life is c a s s a v a , the root of a poisonous plant which t h r o u g h the a g e s has been c u l t i v a t e d and m a n u f a c t u r e d into f o o d a n d drink. T h e poison, which is prussic acid, can be driven off b y heat, a n d no doubt it w a s a wonderful discovery, perhaps causing m a n y a disaster before the poison w a s properly eliminated. T h e root is peeled a n d g r a t e d , after which the pulp is pressed in a curious s n a k e - l i k e tube of basket work, c a l l e d a â&#x20AC;&#x153; matapee,â&#x20AC;? which on shortening opens out to take the pulp, and when d r a w n out b y a weight or lever is l e n g t h e n e d and m u c h reduced in diameter, with the result that the poisonous juice is e x t r a c t e d . T h e pulp is then spread in a layer upon a hot stone or iron plate to form a p a n cake, which is wholesome and palatable, especially with sauce from the pepper-pot, otherwise it is d r y and has been called saw-dust b r e a d . T h e expressed juice is e v a p o r a t e d to the consistency of molasses and becomes cassareep, the basis of the pepper-pot, into which a n y k i n d of meat is t h r o w n and b y daily sterilisation is kept sweet for e v e r . T h e c a k e s are

214

GUIANA

c h e w e d and thrown into water to form an intoxicating drink called “ piwarrie,” of which the Indian is very fond, a l t h o u g h it takes a g a l l o n or two to m a k e h i m drunk. T h e r e is a sweet c a s s a v a , with less poison, which c a n be boiled and eaten as a v e g e t a b l e , but this is not used for c a k e s . S o m e of the Indians m a k e a g r a n u l a r preparation called “ farine” or “ couac,” which c a n be stored a n d kept for a l o n g time ; the starch of the root c a n a l s o be p r e p a r e d as a p o w d e r or g r a n u l a t e d into t a p i o c a . T h e c a s s a v a is g r o w n on a c l e a r i n g in the forest b y the w o m e n , but the men c h o p d o w n the trees, leaving t h e m to d r y for a f e w months, after w h i c h they are burnt. It is interesting to note that t h o u g h the fire in such a c l e a r i n g is like a furnace, yet the surrounding trees are only scorched, for such a thing as a real forest fire is u n k n o w n . B e t w e e n the b l a c k e n e d l o g s the cassava stalks a r e planted b y simply d i g g i n g holes with a cutlass, which n o w replaces the pointed stick, once the only d i g g i n g implement. S u c h a c l e a r i n g is fertile for t w o or three y e a r s , but later weeds b e g i n to overrun it, and then another is m a d e . Besides cassava, sweet potatoes, y a m s , Indian corn, and capsicums are g r o w n in small quantities, but the staff of life is g e n e r a l l y cassava. T h e w o m e n do all the p l a n t i n g a n d preparation of food, their province being, from the Indian's point of view, that of production ; a m a n destroys life, but a w o m a n represents fertility. B r e a d b e i n g provided b y the wife, it is the man's special business to g e t m e a t . H e is the hunter a n d fisherman, a n d must g o out at r e g u l a r intervals to supply the pepper-pot a n d b a r b e c u e . H e is as m u c h bound to do his duty as the woman is to do hers ; a wife has been k n o w n to leave her husband when he

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

215

b e c a m e too lazy to hunt or fish. D o g s are kept to assist in t r a c k i n g g a m e , but the Indian himself is a n excellent t r a c k e r . H i s n a k e d skin harmonises with the tree trunks, and his footfall is so silent that nothing in the forest is a l a r m e d . His weapons are of the utmost importance. A l t h o u g h the g u n is n o w c o m m o n , the b o w and a r r o w are still used, especially for shooting l a r g e fish that will not take a bait. T h e blow-pipe with poisoned darts is also used for birds and m o n k e y s . The m a k i n g of these weapons is the man's work, for it would not do for a w o m a n to handle them ; in fact, they would be spoiled. A g r e a t deal of time is spent in fixing up the b o w s , which must be the right length, about the height of a m a n , a n d the a r r o w s with different points to suit e a c h kind of g a m e , beast or bird. F o r m e r l y the man was also a warrior, a n d he still g e n e r a l l y keeps a heavy h a r d - w o o d club h a n g i n g u p in his b e n a b , a l t h o u g h he m a y never h a v e reason to use it, except as a kenaima or a v e n g e r of b l o o d . This duty is sometimes imposed upon h i m when a relation is killed in a d r u n k e n quarrel or even a c c i dentally, for the law of retaliation prevails here as in most other primitive c o m m u n i t i e s . N e a r the house a r e g e n e r a l l y g r o w n a few c o t t o n bushes for h a m m o c k s , a g a v e s or bromelias for b o w strings and h a m m o c k - r o p e s , a r r o w - c a n e s for a r r o w shafts, a n a t t o shrubs for the red paint with w h i c h the face is painted, and beenas o r c h a r m s to promote success in h u n t i n g . T h e w o m a n spins the cotton into s t r o n g cord for h a m m o c k s with a spindle and her fingers. H e r cotton h a m m o c k is so well netted that no colonist would have any but the native article. It was evidently an invention of some past

216

GUIANA

a g e , to avoid l y i n g on the d a m p g r o u n d or a g r i d d l e like bed of sticks. It a p p e a r s to have been u n k n o w n in the O l d W o r l d before the discovery of A m e r i c a , a n d to h a v e been a d o p t e d at once by the e a r l y v o y a g e r s ; the name is the C a r i b “ hamaka,” not, as some suppose, “ h a n g mat,” which looks so p l a u s i b l e . T h e more c o m m o n h a m m o c k is netted in a peculiar way, but some are woven, and a few of these decorated with f e a t h e r - w o r k . M o s a i c f e a t h e r - w o r k seems to have been peculiar to A m e r i c a . It reached its highest point in M e x i c o , where the Spanish priests utilised the artists in a p p l y i n g it to the f o r m i n g of excellent mosaic pictures, some of which are still in existence. T h e Indians of the interior of G u i a n a , on the borders of B r a z i l , m a k e e l e g a n t d e c o r a t e d h a m m o c k s , but they are n o w very s c a r c e . T h e Indian c r o w n is a head-dress that s u g g e s t s the halo of a saint. It is w o r n a b a c k of the head so that it shows as a c o r o n a rather than a hat ; there is, however, a cylindrical variety which, n o doubt, is that represented in old pictures ; so far, we believe, this k i n d is only found a m o n g the Indians of the upper M a r o w y n e . T h e h a r m o n y of c o l o u r i n g is excellently p r o d u c e d by l a y i n g feathers of one colour over another, the result being a band of three tints finished off by three long tail feathers of a m a c a w . T h e s e concentric circles of different colours are reproduced upon the decorated h a m m o c k s , but there are also other patterns. G e o m e t r i c a l patterns of most intricate lines a r e found on b a s k e t - w o r k , o l d pottery, queyus or a p r o n s , and on their painted f a c e s . T h e g e n e r a l idea of a painted Indian is v a g u e ; the fact is not a p p r e c i a t e d that this painting is done in a most careful a n d artistic m a n n e r . T h e lines are thin and delicate,

INDIAN

WOMAN’S

APRONS,

T o face p. 217.

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

217

more c o m m o n l y red lines on the forehead, the cheeks, arid at either end of the lips, g e n e r a l l y a n g l e d , b a r r e d or latticed, often varied with b l a c k a n d y e l l o w . T h e cross is c o m m o n , as is a l s o L H T, the b r o a d arrow, and k e y patterns. T h e s e are g e n e r a l l y rather simple, but far more intricate g e o m e t r i c a l patterns a r e f o u n d on the b a s k e t - w o r k a n d a p r o n s . T h e m a z e in a host of forms, and the cross, with its variant, the swastika, are conspicuous, together with g e o m e t r i c a l modifications of snakes, m o n k e y s , f r o g s , d o g s , trees, a n d even m e n . T h e lines are a l w a y s true, and the g e n e r a l effect v e r y g o o d . W a v y lines a r e seen on pottery, but the e x i g e n c i e s of w o r k i n g with c o l o u r e d b e a d s and strips prevent other than combinations of straight lines in baskets a n d a p r o n s . T h e queyu, or a p r o n , is the only article of dress worn by the w o m e n . Since intercourse with E u r o pean traders was c o m m e n c e d it h a s been m a d e of glass b e a d s , but w h e n A m e r i c a was discovered it w a s simply in its best form strings of threaded seeds, a n d in some cases only a t r i a n g u l a r strip of bast, the inner b a r k of the m o n k e y - p o t . N e c k l a c e s of seeds as well as b e a d s are also w o r n b y the w o m e n . The man's lap is a piece of blue S a l e m p o r e cloth h u n g from a cord d r a w n tightly round the b o d y above the hips ; this is usually his only article of dress, but when out hunting he carries a skin wallet for his powder and shot, h u n g f r o m a c o r d passing over the fight shoulder a n d under the left a r m . O n l y on festive occasions does he w e a r the feather c r o w n in conjunction with n e c k l a c e s of the canine teeth of the p e c c a r y or the incisors of the acouri or a g u t i . At dances he wears a mantle of the tail feathers of the m a c a w arid h a n g s d o w n his b a c k f r o m his n e c k lace a b o b of toucan's skins or a circlet h u n g with the

218

GUIANA

elytra of a Buprestis beetle to m a k e a rustling noise. In addition there is a c a l a b a s h rattle in the h a n d with a belt and anklets of rattling seeds. In h i s right hand is a length of about five feet f r o m the trumpet-tree, which he strikes on the g r o u n d to m a r k time, and blows at intervals. T h e chief, w h o is also leader, g e n e r a l l y wears a mantle of d r y p a l m - l e a v e s , which rustles as he m o v e s to the time of a d r u m . T h e movements are quite deliberate, and the whole affair is carried out without the least a p p e a r a n c e of excitement, it being more of the nature of a m a r c h with s t a m p i n g than a real d a n c e . T h e r e is n o bond of union between the different families, a n d h a r d l y a trace of the old system of electing a war-chief. Sometimes we see an a c k n o w l e d g e d captain, w h o is often a Piaiman, a sort of doctor, priest, and chief in one person. S o m e of these are decidedly clever, a n d have ideas that a r e almost startling to one w h o only thinks of them as impostors. M r . F . P . Penard, of Surinam, w a s a b l e to g e t a g r e a t deal of their hidden lore, f r o m which it appears that they h a v e esoteric cults only k n o w n to the initiates. Unfortunately, M r . P e n a r d died before he could c o m p l e t e the w o r k , in w h i c h he appears to have g o n e farther than a n y other anthropologist. His w o r k was to h a v e dealt with C a r i b w o r d - b u i l d i n g , which w o u l d have been most interesting had he lived to finish it. H e said the l a n g u a g e w a s v e r y rich, a n d g a v e examples of h o w w o r d s w e r e built, one of which was ono to sleep, oni to d r e a m , oni to w a k e , onu to think, and ona to realise. In connection with m a n y of these w o r d s a r e myths, some of which are peculiarly interesting. O n l y the initiates k n o w these root w o r d s and their proper m e a n i n g , which, of course, they are supposed

T H E NATIVE

INDIANS

219

to k e e p secret ; this they c a l l aw-la, the self o r ego, a n d the n a m e s built up wa-la, things c o m p a r e d or like. T h e A r a w a k s must build up words in the, same w a y , a s m a y be seen in n a m e s like ara, the r e d m a c a w ; aroa the j a g u a r , arowta the r e d m o n k e y , pirara a fish with red spots, caria-caria a red flower, curri-curri a r e d bird, caricuri g o l d , & c . ; the m e a n i n g of the root w o r d would in this case b e red, from which would come shining, fierce, a n d bloody. T h e P i a i m a n h a s been condemned b y g o o d people as the upholder of a religious system which must be abolished before the Indian c a n b e c o m e a civilised man or a m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y . B u t as he represents the old traditions a n d laws of the c o m munity, we should not be too hasty in c o n d e m n i n g him, certainly n o t until w e have replaced his n a t u r a l religion b y s o m e t h i n g better. Meanwhile, however hard it m a y be to g e t at his esoteric thoughts a n d ideas, they should be carefully studied for the light they throw on primitive m a n . T h e Indian is g e n e r a l l y a m o n o g a m i s t , but the chief is entitled t o h a v e t w o o r t h r e e wives, f o r he has sometimes to entertain strangers, a n d must therefore be able to provide a l a r g e r food supply than one w o m a n c a n cultivate. H i s dignity requires him to be somewhat different from the others, but a t present he is n o t r e c o g n i s e d as h a v i n g a n y real authority. Missionaries sometimes attempt to g e t them to abolish p o l y g a m y , but this is a matter in which they should not interfere, for a discarded woman has n o place in the primitive c o m m u n i t y , and it would be cruel to have her cast off. There n o such person as an old maid or even a n unattached widow, for every w o m a n is married when l s

220

GUIANA

she arrives at the suitable a g e . While admitting that m o n o g a m y is the better condition, we must also admit that the natural man is p o l y g a m o u s , like m a n y animals, and that there is nothing really w r o n g in the s y s t e m under certain conditions. T h e P i a i m a n is, no doubt, in s o m e cases a n impostor, but in others he seems to be a very sharp fellow. H e is, in a way, a seer, for his k n o w l e d g e of the habits of animals enables him to advise the others where to hunt and fish with the greatest prospect of success. A s a medicine-man he k n o w s the properties of the plants which g r o w in the forest, and also the method of p r e p a r i n g the c e l e b r a t e d a r r o w poison, c u r a r e . T h e r e are, no doubt, s u p e r stitious observances connected with his process, but. similar unnecessary rules were laid down in E u r o p e a n herbals of a century a g o . S o m e of his remedies are g o o d â&#x20AC;&#x201D; f o r e x a m p l e , v a p o u r b a t h s , counter-irritation with stinging ants, and the application of b a r k s containing tannin to cuts and ulcers. Inoculation against snake-bites is worth investigating, for while we do not admit its entire efficacy, there m a y be s o m e t h i n g in it. T h e bush n e g r o e s and C r e o l e s of S u r i n a m are g e n e r a l l y inoculated, and have confidence in the supposed immunity. T h e most striking characteristic of the Indian is his quiet, gentle nature ; this is especially noticeable in the A r a w a k . If he does not a g r e e with you h e g o e s off, and will perhaps leave you to find y o u r w a y alone without t r o u b l i n g himself about his p a y . T h e f t is impossible within the community, for e v e r y thing is practically c o m m o n . A t the same time, the individual b e l o n g i n g s are respected as a matter of custom rather than law. P e r s o n a l w r o n g s lead to a blood feud in which the whole f a m i l y is concerned,

MAC0USH1

AMI

WAPISIANO

FESTIVE

DRESSES.

T o face p. 2it

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

221

the nearest of kin to the person t a k i n g upon himself to a v e n g e the w r o n g in the case of murder or m a n slaughter. T h e primitive man is so liberal with a n y thing he has that h e will sometimes hand over a weapon or article of dress if he sees that the stranger admires it ; a w o m a n has been even k n o w n to hand over her pretty b e a d apron to a white traveller, e x p o s ing herself stark n a k e d . Sometimes they will leave themselves almost bare of food to supply a l a r g e party. T h e y cannot understand that a white m a n must not be e q u a l l y free with his b e l o n g i n g s , a n d no doubt think him v e r y mean to withhold a v a l u a b l e knife or g u n when the chief has been so liberal. Hospitality is e x p e c t e d f r o m the chief, who, by means of help f r o m others, m a k e s a l a r g e c l e a r i n g and e m p l o y s his wives to plant it. If a party is travelling they sometimes exhaust the provision supply, a n d the poor chief has to take his p e o p l e to the next settlement, where they can do as the others had d o n e . A l l this is a matter of course, a n d no one is a n n o y e d . W e m a y suppose that there is a limit to such hospitality, as is shown in the history of the early colonies, but it m a y be safely stated that a m o n g themselves it is never resented. Something like the rule of d o i n g unto others as we would they should do unto us has been a d o p t e d for a g e s . N o doubt this has another side, which is shown in the position of the A k a w o i s , the g y p s i e s of G u i a n a . This tribe was o n c e m u c h feared by the other Indians, and even by the e a r l y settlers. T h e y were w a n d e r i n g traders, noted for their skill in p r e p a r i n g the a r r o w Poison, which, possibly b e c a u s e it w a s t r o u b l e s o m e to concoct and required m u c h care and trouble, was correspondingly valuable. T o o costly to be g i v e n a w a y for a mere a s k i n g , it was bartered for h a m -

222

GUIANA

m o c k s , tools, and w e a p o n s . N o t content to k e e p shops in any. one place, these people h a w k e d about the country, g o i n g l o n g distances, and sometimes a m o n g tribes that w e r e by n o means p r e p a r e d to welcome strangers. In such cases the traders were not content to take a refusal, but fought until a n a r r a n g e m e n t was m a d e , or conquered a n d took what they w a n t e d . A s m a y be supposed, the Indian is not thrifty ; such a virtue is u n k n o w n in the tropics. S o m e food products cannot b e stored, but c a s s a v a is an exception, for as farine or couac it will k e e p in a d r y p l a c e for m o n t h s . A s a rule the Indian's supply of his staff of life is limited ; his cultivation is regulated by the fact that one w o m a n has to do all the w o r k after the m a n has m a d e the c l e a r i n g . W e cannot expect h a r d labour f r o m these w o m e n , a n d therefore the supply is never m o r e than the requirements of the family. A b a d season, perhaps a flood, or m o r e g e n e r a l l y a drought, reduces this to almost nothing, and then a famine ensues. O r a w a n d e r i n g family m a y unexpectedly c o m e a n d eat up e v e r y t h i n g , with the same result. If the famine is g e n e r a l , as is sometimes the case, the poor Indian is put to g r e a t straits, for at times g a m e , birds, a n d fishes are difficult to c a t c h . F a m i n e , w a r , and disease have been the factors that a l w a y s kept down a n y possibility of an increase in numbers, and thus the b a l a n c e of life in man, as in other animals, w a s preserved. E v e n with a g o o d season the provision s u p p l y might be wasted on that d e p l o r a b l e o r g i e , a piwarrie feast. T h i s is the g r e a t blot on the Indian's c h a r a c t e r ; a b o v e e v e r y t h i n g else he has a l o n g i n g to get drunk. N e a r the coast restrictions are put on

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

223

the sale of rum, which has d o n e so m u c h in the past to wipe him off the face of the e a r t h . B u t he c a n always fall b a c k u p o n his b e l o v e d piwarrie or casseri. T h e first is m a d e with toasted c a s s a v a bread, c h e w e d by the w o m e n a n d children round a h o l l o w e d l o g or a corial. A t intervals they spit the c h e w e d pulp into this g r e a t vessel, spoiling, in some cases, the food of a family for w e e k s . W a t e r is poured o n , and in a b o u t f o r t y - e i g h t hours the beer is r e a d y . Then begins a disgusting orgie. T h e men lie in their h a m m o c k s , a n d the w o m e n hand round the liquor in c a l a b a s h e s . P l e n t y is required to m a k e a m a n drunk, in some cases three or four g a l l o n s , It acts as a diuretic in all cases, and in some as an emetic as well ; it can therefore be understood that the o r g i e is d i s g u s t i n g . W h e n d r u n k the Indian is no l o n g e r the g e n t l e m a n of the forest ; he boasts of former deeds, rakes up old feuds, and sometimes provokes a q u a r r e l which ends in a fight, with a consequent b l o o d - f e u d . W h e n these o r g i e s o c c u r the traveller should g e t far a w a y , but this is not often possible, for his o w n boatmen will certainly want to join the r e v e l a n d to linger for two or three d a y s . In a n y case a white m a n will h a r d l y be a b l e to sleep if he takes u p his quarters within hearing of the din. E v e n the w o m e n t a k e part and lose their usual modest d e m e a n o u r . It might be supposed that a w o m a n with n o m o r e covering than a b e a d a p r o n about a foot square could h a r d l y be described as modest, but such is really the c a s e . P r o b a b l y no w o m e n in the world are more free f r o m the s u g g e s t i o n of indecency than the Indian. In the first place her colour harmonises with her s u r r o u n d i n g s . W h e r e a n a k e d white w o m a n , as painted by an artist, at o n c e s u g g e s t s that s o m e -

224

GUIANA

thing is wanted to cover her, no such idea is possible in the case of the red or b l a c k race, except, perhaps, to the p r u d e . W e have seen the really modest women of the forest, and have been told b y white w o m e n w h o have lived a m o n g them that there is not the least s u g g e s t i o n of indecency in them. S u c h g e s t u r e s as a r e seen a m o n g n e g r e s s e s , and e v e n sometimes a m o n g white women, are quite u n k n o w n . B u t the g o o d people say they must be clothed, even in the tropics, where comfort consists only with the v e r y lightest c o v e r i n g . It is a very s u g g e s t i v e fact that the Indian boatman w h o wears a shirt and trousers g e n e r a l l y takes them off and packs them a w a y when he sees a heavy shower c o m i n g . T h e rain beats on his bare shoulders a n d does not hurt him, but if the white man g e t s drenched and has not a dry suit he often g e t s fever. T h e sun c o m e s out, the Indian puts on his dry clothes and g o e s on with his p a d d l i n g in c o m f o r t . T h e sooner the white man learns that the dress for a tropical climate should not be in the E n g l i s h fashion the better for his health. T h e Indian is by n o means useless to the community. In the past, a l t h o u g h he never would till the soil, he was the meat provider when there w e r e no cattle or other domestic animals. Every planter then kept an Indian huntsman, who, when treated as a friend, was much a t t a c h e d to the white man. H e was also useful in c l e a r i n g the land, for he is an expert with the a x e . A s a g u i d e in the forest he is indispensable, for no traveller can g e t on without h i m . T h e captains and b o w m e n of the g o l d - d i g g e r s and balata-bleedersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; boats are almost universally Indians, or of the blood of the red man, more or less mixed with white and b l a c k . These

T H E NATIVE INDIANS

225

things are within his province as a man; agriculture is w o m a n ' s w o r k and would be d e g r a d i n g , or at least improper. S o m e of his old prejudices will possibly be modified in time, for a l r e a d y he will, o n occasion, c a r r y loads for a traveller over the S a v a n n a h , one of the w o m a n ' s special duties, which formerly he could hardly be g o t to p e r f o r m . It is only, however, when special inducements are offered that he will d e m e a n himself in such a w a y . S o m e t h i n g will h a v e to be done for him when the country is overrun b y the g o l d - d i g g e r , b a l a t a bleeder, and wood-cutter, for his h u n t i n g - g r o u n d s will be n o l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e . A l r e a d y he is g e t t i n g a w a y f r o m these disturbing elements and will, perhaps, w a n d e r off to that wilder country to the north of the A m a z o n , l e a v i n g only a few halfcivilised people to represent the numerous tribes which once occupied the coast a n d kept off some e a r l y v o y a g e r s , w h o were not considered as friends. W i t h i n our own f o r t y - y e a r s experience there has been a great c h a n g e . O n the c r e e k s of the D e m e r a r a we have seen the unsophisticated red m a n , living his natural life as a hunter or fisherman, a n d m o v i n g up and d o w n the creek in his own d u g - o u t c a n o e . He is n o w represented by a few wood-cutters a n d charcoal-burners w h o have lost the old pleasant manners and quiet demeanour of their fathers. S o m e will say that they are b e c o m i n g civilised, but the first stages in a radical c h a n g e of a n y people a r e not pleasant. T h e i r old s a f e g u a r d s of habit a n d custom g i v e w a y before the n e w conditions, and for a long time n o t h i n g is a d o p t e d to take their p l a c e . Christian missionaries d o not a l w a y s try to find out the g o o d points of native races with a view to developing them on suitable lines. T h e i r attempts to 15

226

GUIANA

b r i n g t o g e t h e r l a r g e r communities than the n e i g h bouring h u n t i n g - g r o u n d s c a n support a r e bound to end disastrously. T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c s in Venezuela did better, for they started with cattle farms, thus providing meat from the b e g i n n i n g and r e n d e r i n g w i d e h u n t i n g - g r o u n d s unnecessary. O n such lines reservations' m a y be g r a n t e d , but not otherwise, for l a r g e communities of hunters and fishermen in one place are impossible.

CHAPTER THE

CENSUS AND

MORTALITY

XII OF D I F F E R E N T

RACES

Sanitary conditions—Drunkenness—Ganje and opium—Decrease of population—Laxity of sexual relations—Slave nurseries— Census returns—Coloured people—Infant mortality—Birth rate —Causes of death—Sanitary arrangements—Tight clothing— Cleanliness of the naked man.

G U I A N A is not n o w an unhealthy country. T h e r e is no y e l l o w - f e v e r , n o s m a l l p o x or other epidemic d i s ease, and even consumption is not s u c h a pest as in some other countries. T r u e , there are m a l a r i a a n d dysentery, both of w h i c h will, no doubt, be m u c h reduced, if not eliminated, when the d r a i n a g e is improved and a better water supply secured for the lower c l a s s e s . T h e r e is n o doubt a g r e a t d e a l o f sickness of the l o w - f e v e r type, due to improper modes of living, close d w e l l i n g s , and unsuitable clothing, but this is l a r g e l y p r e v e n t a b l e . A t one time the d r i n k ing habits of the whites were responsible for a g r e a t deal of the mortality ; in fact, a m e d i c a l m a n in G e o r g e t o w n sixty years a g o showed that in his p r o fession at least one-third of the deaths w e r e due to d r u n k e n n e s s . T h i s is not so conspicuous n o w a d a y s , a l t h o u g h , unfortunately, e x c e s s i v e drinking, is still too c o m m o n . T h e n e g r o is not often a d r u n k a r d , but he 227

will

228

GUIANA

sometimes indulge in rum until he b e c o m e s m a d d e n e d and g i v e w o r k for the police and m a g i s t r a t e s . The E a s t Indian rarely takes spirits, but he likes to h a v e a pipe of g a n j e or Indian hemp ; the C h i n a m a n also loves his opium. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the s m o k i n g of these drugs has been d i s c o u r a g e d in favour of r u m - d r i n k ing, which is decidedly more injurious. Possibly s m o k i n g of opium or g a n j e tends, as does t o b a c c o , to lassitude, but n o t h i n g that is s m o k e d can possibly g i v e so m u c h trouble as r u m - d r i n k i n g . However we m a y feel convinced of the needless waste of time a n d money on these things, we have to admit that intoxicants of some kind satisfy a c r a v i n g of almost every race. T h e n e g r o in G u i a n a is not increasing in n u m b e r s . D u r i n g slavery the d e c r e a s e was set d o w n to cruelty a n d oppression, but under present circumstances w e must look for the real c a u s e . T h i s is undoubtedly the absence of the p r o p e r appreciation of the duties of mother and father. S e x u a l relations have a l w a y s been lax, and p r o b a b l y they are more so than they could possibly h a v e been when under the paternal c a r e of the old m a s t e r . M a n was originally a p o l y g a m i s t , but promiscuous sexual intercourse is decidedly unnatural and w r o n g . M a n is a m a m m a l ; children are born in a h e l p less condition, as in m o n o g a m o u s animals ; this seems to indicate that even p o l y g a m y was a d r a w b a c k . The rule e v e r y w h e r e in the animal world is, that when the y o u n g are helpless they must h a v e parental c a r e f r o m both sexes. H e n c e cats and d o g s , that pair under n a t u r a l conditions, h a v e blind a n d helpless kittens and puppies, while horses and cattle, on the contrary, w a l k about with their foals a n d calves almost immediately after these are b o r n . Polygamy

CENSUS OF D I F F E R E N T RACES

229

and promiscuity mean that paternal c a r e is wanting and children a r e n e g l e c t e d . T h e n e g r o of the lower class has a l w a y s been noted for his laxity, even w h e n l e g a l l y m a r r i e d . T h i s applies to both sexes, and therefore children are often considered an i n c u m b r a n c e . U n d e r slavery, a n d especially after 1 8 0 7 , when importation was stopped, the greatest possible c a r e w a s taken of the children. Privileges were g r a n t e d to mothers, and it w a s part of the m a n a g e r ' s duties to see that babies were properly fed and kept c l e a n . W e h a v e seen a g o l d medal presented b y the E s s e q u e b o Agricultural Society to the planter w h o raised the greatest number of n e g r o babies in proportion to the w o m e n on his estate. B u t notwithstanding all their efforts, the planters found their labour supply d e c r e a s i n g . Even the B e r b i c e commissioners, w h o b e l o n g e d to the a n t i slavery party, c o u l d not lower the d e a t h - r a t e on the colony plantations while under their m a n a g e m e n t . Surinam shows a similar state of t h i n g s . It is estimated that 300,000 slaves w e r e imported before the trade w a s abolished, a n d a few shiploads s m u g g l e d after it b e c a m e p e n a l . It is impossible to account for the d e c r e a s e there in view of the immense n u m b e r of r u n a w a y s ; but as the population in 1 8 1 6 , when the colony was restored to the D u t c h , was only 60,000, there must have been a serious n a t u r a l d e c r e a s e . D o w n to 1 8 7 2 , when immigration b e g a n , the n u m b e r remained about the same, notwithstanding e v e r y effort to preserve the labour s u p p l y . In fact, S u r i n a m was at a standstill, while B r i t i s h G u i a n a was g e t t i n g over her emancipation difficulties by means of imported coolies and other people from the W e s t Indies. Palgrave,

his â&#x20AC;&#x153; D u t c h

Guiana,â&#x20AC;?

speaks

very

230

GUIANA

strongly upon the n e g r e s s e s and their b a b y - w o r s h i p . A l t h o u g h these w o m e n m a k e little gods o f their infants, they are at the same time entirely w a n t i n g in thoughtfulness. H e a t e d f r o m fieldwork, a w o m a n often rushes h o m e and catches up the infant to her breast, with the c o m m o n result that in half an hour she is h o w l i n g over her offspring convulsed or d e a d . O r perhaps, when she is about to g i v e the required nourishment, a friend comes in and invites her to a d a n c e or m e r r y - m a k i n g close b y . Off she g o e s , m a k i n g some sort of a r r a n g e m e n t for s u p p l y i n g the wants of her infant, or perhaps none at all, purposes to c o m e b a c k in an hour, stays until m i d night, to perhaps find her b a b y sick unto d e a t h . O v e r - f e e d i n g , injudicious f e e d i n g , ailments m i s u n d e r stood, q u a c k - d o c t o r i n g , superstitious u s a g e s , violent outbursts of passion in which even maternal love is forgotten, account for the fact that half the n e g r o c h i l d r e n die before they are w e a n e d . U n d e r s l a v e r y e v e r y plantation h a d its nursery, where old w o m e n were e n g a g e d in l o o k i n g after the infants while the mothers were w o r k i n g . These foster mothers were c a l l e d to account if the infants died, for every death meant a loss to the estate. Possibly, a l s o , at times the old â&#x20AC;&#x153; m a m m a s â&#x20AC;? m i g h t g e t a w h i p p i n g when n e g l e c t was p r o v e n . T h i s m a y have a p p e a r e d cruel at times, but the result w a s the s a v i n g of m a n y a child w h o would otherwise h a v e died. T h e population of British G u i a n a in 1 8 3 1 was estimated at 1 0 0 , 5 1 8 , m a d e up of whites 3 , 5 2 9 , free b l a c k a n d c o l o u r e d 1 1 , 0 5 0 , and slaves 8 9 , 4 6 8 . At the emancipation in 1 8 3 4 the British G o v e r n m e n t paid compensation on 8 4 , 9 1 5 . S o m e were, no doubt, manumitted in the four y e a r s , but not e n o u g h t o

CENSUS OF D I F F E R E N T RACES

231

account for the d e c r e a s e ; however, w e cannot entirely trust these figures. A t the first census in 1 8 5 1 , when the total population w a s 1 3 5 , 9 2 4 , o n l y 8 6 , 1 4 5 w e r e recorded as natives of the c o l o n y . A s there w e r e about 40,000 immigrants, some of w h o m h a d been here for fifteen y e a r s , their children would necessarily help to swell the total of natives, which, without a l l o w i n g for such additions, shows a falling off. In 1 8 6 1 the natives h a d increased to 9 3 , 8 6 1 , in 1 8 7 1 to 1 1 3 , 5 7 0 , a n d in 1 8 8 1 to 1 4 9 , 6 3 9 , these additions b e i n g undoubtedly due to i m m i g r a t i o n . In 1 8 9 1 the returns help to show that the creole n e g r o h a d d e c r e a s e d , for the number born in t h e colony of A f r i c a n or n e g r o parents w a s 9 6 , 1 8 2 . In face of the fact that something like 50,000 n e g r o e s had been b r o u g h t from the W e s t Indian islands since 1 8 3 4 , m a n y of them with wives, to swell the total of the native population when their children w e r e born here, it c a n at once be seen that the native blacks are not increasing. T h e b l a c k s in G e o r g e town are so well k n o w n to be either B a r b a d i a n s or the children of W e s t Indians, that the D e m e r a r a Creole is certainly inconspicuous. T h e m i x e d races in 1 8 9 1 n u m b e r e d 2 3 , 9 7 7 ; this gives the total of black and coloured as 1 2 0 , 1 5 9 . T h e last census of 1911 g o e s to confirm the opinion that the n e g r o is slowly d y i n g out. T h e b l a c k s a r e 1 1 5 , 4 8 6 , of w h o m 1 0 5 , 6 5 3 w e r e born in the colony, and the m i x e d races 3 0 , 2 5 1 , with 2 7 , 1 1 2 natives. T h e position is s o m e t h i n g like this : in 1 8 3 1 there were in British G u i a n a about, in round n u m b e r s , 97,ooo b l a c k and c o l o u r e d people ; there are n o w 132,000 natives, i n c l u d i n g the children of the host of immigrants f r o m the W e s t Indies. W e can h a r d l y conceive that the W e s t Indians, who numbered about

232

GUIANA

50,000, and a r e prolific, can be credited with less than the 3 5 , 0 0 0 . T h e m i x e d races are increasing to some extent, but it is difficult to say h o w m u c h of this comes f r o m the m a r r i a g e s of this class or from illicit c o n nections between the different r a c e s . It is possible that e d u c a t e d b l a c k men in the future may, by m a r r y i n g white w o m e n , affect the number of coloured p e o p l e . T h e census returns of British G u i a n a , 1 9 1 1 , g i v e the f o l l o w i n g : Whole Population.

Races.

Whites, Portuguese „ Others East Indians Chinese Negroes Mixed races Aborigines Not stated Total

10,084

... ... ... ...

...

3,937 126,517 2,622 115,486 30,251 6,901 243 296,041

The urban population w a s — Georgetown and environs New Amsterdam

...

Natives.

8,176 2,207 66,668 1,988 105,653 27,112 6,901

— 218,705

57,577 8,604 66,181

T h e v i l l a g e s n u m b e r e d 53, v a r y i n g in population f r o m 5 1 4 to 4 , 9 5 1 . T h e most important a r e on the east coast of D e m e r a r a , the largest b e i n g B u x t o n a n d F r i e n d s h i p , the next Plaisance, with its n e i g h bour S p a r e n d a a m h a v i n g 3 , 6 9 4 and T r i u m p h 2 , 7 8 6 . T h e total of all the v i l l a g e s was 7 0 , 5 0 2 . T h e a b o r i g i n a l Indians of the interior who are b e y o n d the reach of the census enumerator are esti-

CENSUS OF D I F F E R E N T RACES

233

mated at 13,000, against 10,000 in 1 8 9 1 . This, however, does not g o to prove that they h a v e increased, but rather that a more fair estimate c a n now be m a d e . T h e death-rate a m o n g all classes is h i g h , about 31 per thousand. T h i s is l a r g e l y due to the infant mortality, which is n e a r l y one-fifth of the total for children under one y e a r . T h e births a r e a little less than the deaths ; n e g r e s s e s are g e n e r a l l y prolific, but rarely b r i n g up l a r g e families. It is not rare to find a black w o m a n who has borne eight or ten children and has lost m o r e than half. After the children have g o t well a d v a n c e d , however, they are g e n e r a l l y s t r o n g a n d h e a l t h y â&#x20AC;&#x201D; w e m a y presume that the strongest h a v e survived. Centenarians are often reported, but these reports are not often reliable. W e once made inquiry into a case w h e r e a b l a c k man w a s put clown at 1 6 5 , but could only come to the conclusion that he m i g h t h a v e been a h u n d r e d . A few old people who were slaves a r e found here and there, but they a r e r a r e . T h e d e a t h - r a t e for children under one y e a r 1 9 1 0 was as 'follows :â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

for

Per thousand Births.

Portuguese Other Europeans East Indians Chinese Aborigines Blacks Mixed races

263 88 230 154 168 259 201

T h e low rate for E u r o p e a n s other than P o r t u g u e s e is l a r g e l y due to the fact that white men are often single, and in some cases, w h e n m a r r i e d , send their wives and children to the home country. The

234

GUIANA

P o r t u g u e s e a r e often ill-fed a n d h a r d - w o r k e d ; their h i g h d e a t h - r a t e g o e s to prove that the white m a n cannot flourish in the tropics. A s m i g h t be expected, the b l a c k c h i l d r e n die in g r e a t numbers ; after the P o r t u g u e s e , they h e a d the list. T h e future d e v e l o p ment of the country will depend upon a race which increases ; possibly when the E a s t Indians can a l l m a r r y they will c o m e to the front, even apart f r o m immigration. E v e r y year the Creole n e g r o e s w i l l b e c o m e fewer, but the decrease is hardly a p p r e c i a b l e . T h e birth-rate is highest in the b l a c k s , with about 30 to the thousand ; then come the mixed races and E a s t Indians with about 27 ; w e m a y e x p e c t the E a s t Indians to have a h i g h e r rate as females grow up. T h e principal causes of death are m a l a r i a l a n d other fevers, dysentery, pneumonia, bronchitis, a n d tubercular diseases. It is interesting to note that less than a century a g o D e m e r a r a was r e c o m m e n d e d as a suitable p l a c e for consumptives, and also that phthisis w a s quite u n k n o w n a m o n g the l a b o u r i n g population. S u c h , unfortunately, is not the case t o - d a y , and the cause m a y be l o o k e d for in t h e c h a n g e s which took place after the E m a n c i p a t i o n , some of which we have dealt with in another c h a p t e r . T h e sanitary a r r a n g e m e n t s in the v i l l a g e s , as well as the towns, h a v e been m u c h improved of late y e a r s , but close dwellings are still too c o m m o n . T h e n e g r o is afraid of the night air, a n d will close up fixed ventilators before g o i n g to b e d . In G e o r g e t o w n , where landlords are bound to provide such ventilators, it is not u n c o m m o n to see them p l u g g e d u p with old a n d dirty r a g s . B u t the real trouble is, n o doubt, the w e a r i n g of tight c l o t h i n g . T r o p i c a l man g e n e r a l l y g o e s

CENSUS OF D I F F E R E N T RACES

235

n a k e d , and if clothed, a l w a y s wears his g a r m e n t s loose. T h e n e g r o has taken to E u r o p e a n c l o t h i n g , and affects especially the black coat of the learned professions, which a p p e a r s to be his highest i d e a l . F o r m e r l y his dress w a s of the simplest, n o w it must be tailor-made a n d a c l o s e fit, quite unsuited to G u i a n a . A s for the w o m e n they have adopted the corset, and their figures, once s o r e m a r k a b l e , are quite spoilt. F o r t u n a t e l y for the E a s t Indians, they h a v e not yet injured themselves b y tight c l o t h i n g , a n d it is to be hoped they will not follow such a b s u r d fashions. N o doubt corsets a n d close-fitting dresses are responsible for the increase of consumption, as w e l l as c h i l d - b e a r i n g difficulties h a r d l y k n o w n in the o l d time. T h e conventional idea of d e c e n c y must b e utterly c o n d e m n e d in the tropics. T h e m a n or w o m a n w h o works in the field, at one time with the burningsun o v e r h e a d a n d at another in a h e a v y d o w n p o u r of rain, must not h a v e a lot of c l o t h i n g to remain sodden until dried off b y the intense h e a t . T h e r e is another side to this question. E u r o p e a n s are a c c u s t o m e d to c h a n g e their u n d e r c l o t h i n g at frequent intervals, and must therefore h a v e a s t o c k of clean linen. B u t the m a n with one shirt a n d the w o m a n with a single f r o c k are in quite a different position ; they must g o n a k e d while this one g a r m e n t is b e i n g w a s h e d . A s a n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e there is little w a s h i n g and m u c h dirty linen. Black men and Indians are not dirty until they w e a r clothes ; in fact, it m a y be safely stated that m a n y E u r o p e a n s are m o r e dirty than the a b o r i g i n e s of G u i a n a . W e see black men w e a r i n g coats that h a v e never been washed, and never will be, and can a l s o see that here is one of the causes of the h i g h d e a t h -

236

GUIANA

rate. T h i s is, n o doubt, a d i s a g r e e a b l e subject, especially to the prude, but there is n o g e t t i n g o v e r the fact that the n a k e d man is more healthy than he w h o wears the conventional g a r b of civilisation. E v e n the white man has in many cases taken to E u r o p e a n c l o t h i n g w h e r e formerly he wore white linen or cotton, thus i g n o r i n g a l l past experience, and especially the example of E a s t e r n nations, who have learnt through the a g e s that the c o v e r i n g should be light and loose. S o m e g o o d people teach the Indians to clothe their little ones ; we c a n h a r d l y call this a n y t h i n g but murder, for in a country like G u i a n a these sweet little children are e x p o s e d to all weathers and are bound to suffer from even one wet g a r m e n t .

JAGUAR

ATTACKING

TAPIR,

RIGHT.

JAGUAR ATTACKING TAPIR, LEFT. (Group in B. G. Museum.) T o face p. 237.

CHAPTER FAUNA

AND

XIII FLORA

Animal life—Interdependence—“ Tigers ”—Cavies—Ant bear— Snakes, lizards, and frogs—Birds—Fishes—Insects—Work for the microscope—Plant life—Flowers—Giant weeds—Multiform vegetation—Epiphytes—Parasites—Sand - reef plants—Foliage large and striking—Palms—Ferns—Selaginellas and lycopodiums.

T H E c h a r a c t e r of G u i a n a as a land of forest a n d stream is impressed on its a n i m a l a n d v e g e t a b l e life. Its animals are as v a r i e d as its plants, and t h o u g h both k i n g d o m s h a v e been investigated for o v e r two centuries, new species are found by e v e r y collector. W h i l e w r i t i n g this I have before me the descriptions of over two h u n d r e d new species of insects just w o r k e d out b y a specialist, a n d no doubt, w h e n fuller investigation is m a d e thousands m a y be a d d e d to the already multitudinous lists. E v e n m a m m a l s of the bat family and small rodents remain to be d e s c r i b e d . N o w h e r e in the world, perhaps, are such beautiful adaptations to natural conditions a n d such perfect interdependence. T h e trees bear nuts a n d fruits to feed monkeys, rodents, birds, bats, a n d fishes, a n d because these are present in such n u m b e r s the cat family is also w e l l represented. A g a i n , every tree has flowers that require insect fertilisation, consequently m y r i a d s of insects are here ; these, in turn, are kept within 237

238

GUIANA

bounds by ant-eaters, birds, m o n k e y s , lizards, a n d those classes of insects which feed on them, such as mantids, wasps, and robber flies. In the water the smaller fishes feed on fallen fruit ; they provide s u s tenance to the l a r g e r species, which in turn b e c o m e the prey of a l l i g a t o r s and otters. O n the g r o u n d , in the water, a n d u p in the trees the s t r u g g l e g o e s on by w h i c h the b a l a n c e of life is kept e v e n . Notwithstanding this universal war on every side, species hold their own and develop g r e a t e r capabilities a c c o r d i n g to their n e e d s . B e a u t i f u l contrivances have been g a i n e d to suit the conditions under which they live, a m o n g them being protective coloration and the careful adjustment of means to the end, whether to c a t c h a n d hold or to g e t a w a y . The j a g u a r stalks the acourie so that not a t w i g is snapped or a leaf rustled, but the sharp rodent is a l w a y s on the alert, ready to leave its feed of nuts the m o m e n t it recognises the nearness of its f o e . U n d e r this pitch-dark canopy, through which no g l i m m e r of m o o n and stars can penetrate, m a n y a painful t r a g e d y g o e s on every n i g h t . B u t the acourie still lives, in spite of its enemies, for, like its relation, the g u i n e a - p i g , it is v e r y prolific. The Indian says that e v e r y animal has its tiger ; he himself is one of these, a n d must m o v e as silently or be content to g o without meat. U n d e r such circumstances wonderful developments h a v e taken place. W i t h the exception of about three species of deer there are no herds of g r a z i n g animals, a n d even these are more often solitary. E a c h animal, with the exception of the peccaries, g o e s alone to fight the battle of life. T h e r e are stories of w a r a c a b b a tigers hunting in p a c k s , but as t h e y h a v e n e v e r been seen and such combination is unknown

FAUNA AND FLORA

239

a m o n g the cats, w e m a y safely put them d o w n a s unreliable. W e h a v e a beautiful series of these g r a c e f u l animals, including the j a g u a r a n d its d a r k variety, puma, ocelot, h a c k a tiger, a n d several tiger cats, n o n e of t h e m r e a l l y d a n g e r o u s to m a n . T h e other c a r n i v o r a include the s a v a n n a h fox, m u c h l i k e that of E u r o p e , the coatimondi, a n d the k i n k a j o u . T h e i r p r e y consists mainly of the cavies, which r a n g e in size f r o m that of a p i g to a r a t . T h e largest, the c a p y b a r a or w a t e r - h a r e , is sometimes caught in our canefields, where it c a n d o a g r e a t deal of d a m a g e . O t h e r s of the family, such a s the labba, a c o u r i or a g o u t i , a n d the little adouri, m i g h t be as troublesome a s rabbits w e r e they not c h e c k e d by the native Indian a n d the c a t s . T h e largest m a m m a l s a r e the m a n a t e e a n d the tapir, both herbivorous, the former confined to water, the latter almost a m p h i b i o u s . T h e tapir is sometimes killed by the j a g u a r ; possibly the manatee m a y be kept down by a l l i g a t o r s . B o t h of these l a r g e a n d unwieldy creatures are protected somewhat b y their thick skins, but otherwise, a s they h a v e n o defensive weapons, they a r e , n o doubt, often d e s t r o y e d when immature. T h e cavies a n d other rodents are a l s o p r e y e d upon by snakes, of w h i c h there a r e m a n y species, a f e w of which a r e poisonous. T h e land a n d water camudis (Boa constrictor a n d Eunectes murinus) a r e often v e r y l a r g e ; their prey g e n e r a l l y consists of the smaller rodents, but when hungry, they will not hesitate to a t t a c k l a r g e animals such a s the alligator. S e v e r a l animals a r e omnivorous, i n c l u d ing peccaries, m o n k e y s , opossums, a n d k i n k a j o u s . T h e insects a r e kept d o w n b y that wonderful a n i m a l the a n t - b e a r a n d its relatives, the small ant-eater

240

GUIANA

a n d the armadillo, a s well a s b y lizards, birds, a n d other insects. T h e g e n e r a l result is that n o single species is rampant, but a l l hold their o w n . T h e wonderful variety of animals s u g g e s t s that the winners in the battle of life h a v e a h a r d s t r u g g l e . W e c a n quite a g r e e with the Indian's idea of each animal h a v i n g its tiger, for it is e a s i l y c o n c e i v e d that the cavies, as prolific a s g u i n e a - p i g s , might seriously upset the balance of life were there n o cats. S n a k e s , lizards, a n d f r o g s a r e numerous a n d v e r y beautiful. T h e g r e a t pythons will take to the w a t e r ; in fact, they a r e called w a t e r - c a m u d i s ; they are dark in colour a n d h a r d l y distinguishable. Others of more brilliant colours only g l o w in the sunlight ; on the tree-trunks they harmonise with the bark in such a w a y that only a careful o b s e r v e r c a n see t h e m . L i z a r d s and f r o g s are, if possible, m o r e beautifully protected b y their c o l o u r s . T h e i g u a n a is g r e e n , like the foliage of the trees, a n d some of the lizards have the p o w e r of c h a n g i n g colour from g r e e n on the leaves to brown on the b a r k . T h e lovely g r e e n s of the f r o g s c a n be contrasted in the same w a y with their mottled yellows a n d b r o w n s . O v e r a hundred species of f r o g s a r e found, a n d n o doubt m a n y n e w ones will r e w a r d the collector. B i r d s a r e as varied as the other classes ; about a thousand species have been r e c o r d e d . O n the coast the l o n g - l e g g e d ibises are conspicuous, the c u r r i curri (Eudocimus ruber) b e i n g particularly noticeable f r o m its c o n g r e g a t i n g in flocks, which in the g l o w i n g sunlight are peculiarly brilliant. T h e jabiru or n e g r o - c o p is the largest of this class ; it is found beside the g r e a t rivers where they run t h r o u g h open savannahs. It is about five feet high, white, with

A FISHERMAN’S

MORNING CATCH.

FAUNA AND FLORA

241

a red n e c k ; a flock, when standing on the b a n k of a river, has been c o m p a r e d with a c o m p a n y of soldiers. T h e flamingo is almost as tall and even more striking, a n d the egrets, in their spotless purity, suggest that every effort should be put forth to prevent their extinction. G a m e birds are numerous and include the curassow (Crax alector), almost as l a r g e as a turkey, the t r u m peter (Psophia crepitans), a n d the l a r g e musk duck (Cairina moschata). M a n y other birds a r e eaten by the Indians, but the law to protect wild birds now in operation in British G u i a n a prohibits shooting except to a very limited extent. T o enumerate the lovely birds found in G u i a n a would require a v o l u m e ; w e will therefore only mention that they v a r y in size from the tiny h u m m i n g birds to g r e a t m a c a w s . T h e curious hoatzin, a link with reptiles, is c o m m o n in B e r b i c e , a n d the c o c k of the rock, unique in its o r a n g e colour, c a n be got in the interior. W i t h s o m a n y birds, most of w h i c h feed on fruits and insects, it naturally follows that the birds of Prey a r e also numerous. T h e l a r g e s t is the h a r p y eagle, which m a y be c o m p a r e d with the g o l d e n e a g l e of E u r o p e . O t h e r fine h a w k s a r e c o m m o n , as a r e also owls a n d vultures. N o c t u r n a l insects a r e responsible for the number of g o a t s u c k e r s , whose weird cries are so startling to a traveller. The balance of life is as beautifully preserved b y birds as by other animals. Fishes a r e p r o b a b l y as numerous in species a n d a s varied as b i r d s . Off the coast sharks, saw-fish, a n d giant rays feed upon shoals of smaller species, some of which a r e of g r e a t importance for food. T h e fishes of the g r e a t rivers are also valuable, as they f o r m a 16

242

GUIANA

most important element in the food supply of the Indian. S o m e a r e v e r y l a r g e ; the a r a p a i m a has been reported to sometimes w e i g h 400 pounds, a n d m a n y other species r a n g e as h i g h as twenty to fifty. T h e i r beauty when alive is s o m e t h i n g wonderful, the m a r k i n g s of spots often e q u a l l i n g those of the p e a c o c k in colour and s h e e n . A s for the sizes and shapes, they a r e e q u a l l y v a r i e d . W h e n w e c o m e to the insects w e are m o r e than bewildered by their beauty a n d v a r i e t y . T h e r e are m o r e species of butterflies in G u i a n a than in the whole of E u r o p e , a n d p r o b a b l y n e w species will c o n tinue to be d i s c o v e r e d as they h a v e hitherto been b y almost e v e r y collector. O n account of their size a n d beauty, however, butterflies h a v e been collected for over t w o centuries, b e g i n n i n g with M a d a m e M e r i a n , whose delineations of S u r i n a m insects a r e still v a l u a b l e . M o t h s are far m o r e numerous, a n d n e w species are continually b e i n g d i s c o v e r e d . In other classes the same b e w i l d e r i n g variety is to be seen ; we have, in the British G u i a n a M u s e u m , a b o u t forty thousand species, a fair proportion of which a r e probably new. A t present over t w o hundred n e w species of H y m e n o p t e r a are b e i n g described by a specialist, and p r o b a b l y an equal n u m b e r m a y prove n e w on a full investigation. E x a m p l e s of m i m i c r y a n d protective coloration are e v e r y w h e r e patent, and beautiful illustrations of the manner in which the balance of life is kept up c a n be studied. T h e nests of termites, wasps, and ants are p e c u liarly interesting f r o m their variety. S o m e wasps m a k e immense pendulous cylinders a y a r d long, of one g a l l e r y a b o v e another ; a second will spread out one l a y e r of cells in the s h a p e of a pot-lid, a third a r r a n g e s the cells underneath a p a l m - f r o n d

FAUNA AND FLORA

243

and covers them with a curtain. T h e nests a r e g e n e r a l l y constructed of wood pulp, the most c o n spicuous e x a m p l e s b e i n g like p a p e r or c a r d b o a r d evidently g n a w e d from g r o w i n g trees. T h e majority are, however, m o r e f r a g i l e , p r e p a r e d from b a r k or rotten w o o d . M i m i c r y of wasps by flies and moths, a n d of ants by H o m o p t e r a a r e patent. B e a u t i f u l e x a m p l e s of the imitation of g r e e n a n d d e a d leaves a r e f o u n d in the locusts and other g r a s s h o p p e r s . M a n t i d s a n d stick insects ( P h a s m i d æ ) are p r a c t i c a l l y invisible in the bushes from their resemblance to their s u r r o u n d ings, a n d moths c a n hardly be distinguished when they a l i g h t . In the water insect larvae, especially mosquitoes, swarm, to feed fishes, water-beetles, b u g s , a n d d r a g o n flies. A s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , p r a w n s a n d the tiny C r u s t a c e æ a r e very numerous and varied, r e a d y for the w o r k e r with his m i c r o s c o p e . Rotifers and worms, including m a n y species of Dero, d e l i g h t the student, w h o can work in comfort all the y e a r round. Protozoa are, of course, e v e r y w h e r e ready for the host of students who may, perhaps, at some future time come here to c a r r y on their w o r k . P l a n t life in G u i a n a shows as beautiful a d a p t a tions to natural conditions as the fauna. T h e first impression to a s t r a n g e r is o n e of g r a n d e u r a n d even perhaps c o a r s e n e s s . T h e g r a s s e s are l a r g e , some of t h e m rising a b o v e our h e a d s — w e are not speaking of b a m b o o s but c o m m o n w e e d s . V e r y few flowers are seen in the pastures, for the g r a s s e s o v e r fun e v e r y t h i n g . O n l y on the roadside can a few wild plants m a n a g e to exist in d r y weather, but even these a r e o v e r p o w e r e d when the heavy rains c o m e . T h e wet savannahs are equally w a n t i n g in flowers,

244

GUIANA

for the s e d g e s g a i n the m a s t e r y . U n d e r such circumstances a n y t h i n g like buttercups a n d daisies a r e impossible, a n d even thistles a r e entirely w a n t i n g . F l o w e r s a r e , however, conspicuous in the c a n a l s a n d ditches, where they s t r u g g l e with each other. B y g r o w i n g in different w a y s , s u b m e r g e d , floating, or rising a b o v e the surface, they g i v e a lot of trouble w h e n c l e a n i n g is n e c e s s a r y . T h e y a r e , of course, weeds in such p l a c e s when they stop the flow o f w a t e r ; nevertheless some of them, including the waterlilies, a r e v e r y beautiful, a n d the flowers of E i c h o r n i a , the water hyacinth, are lovely. W e e d s in cultivated land a r e rampant. T h e s e a r e not l o w - g r o w i n g herbs like those of temperate climes, but g r e a t shrubs, a n d even trees, s o m e of which will g r o w fifteen feet in a rainy season. T r e e s like the p a p a w have stems as soft a s c a b b a g e - s t a l k s , a n d c o m e u p e v e r y w h e r e in g a r d e n s a n d plantations ; even the s a n d - b o x , a l t h o u g h not so soft, is a rampant w e e d . A f t e r a year's n e g l e c t a g a r d e n will b e c o m e a j u n g l e , impenetrable without the use of a cutlass, a n d a coffee or c a c a o plantation is enclosed b y bush in four or five y e a r s , many of the weed-trees rising sixty feet and covered with masses of creepers, epiphytes, a n d parasites. T h e vegetation of G u i a n a is multiform. The forests a r e not m a d e up of one o r a few species, but of h u n d r e d s . O w i n g to differences in t h e m a n n e r of g r o w t h , b r a n c h i n g , a n d shape and size of leaf their crowns interlace with e a c h other to form a perfect c a n o p y and exclude from the g r o u n d every r a y of direct sunlight. L o w e r g r o w i n g shrubs a n d bushes a r e only found on the b a n k s of the rivers, where they extend for s o m e distance into the water. T h e n come the giant arums (Montrichardia arbores-

VICTORIA

REGIA

IN GEORGETOWN.

FAUNA AND FLORA

245

cens) to form palisades, a n d b e y o n d these floating grasses extend a s far a s the s t r e a m will permit. It c a n be easily seen that there is here n o p l a c e for dwarf plants ; n o flowers c o m e out under the trees, for they a r e never b a r e . T h e n e w leaves push off the o l d a n d prevent the g r o w t h of m y r i a d s o f competitors from the litter of s e e d s . Every small plant must either live in the w a t e r or u p in the trees, and in the dense forest even epiphytes c a n h a r d l y find e n o u g h diffused sunlight. N e a r the c r e e k s , h o w ever, the break allows a half-light to penetrate, a n d here every b r a n c h is c r o w d e d with orchids, b r o m e l i a s , ferns, cacti (Rhipsalis), peperomias, and aroids. H e r e , also, specialisation is c a r r i e d to e x t r e m e s , for e v e r y part of the main trunk a n d b r a n c h e s is occupied. O n the upper e d g e g r o w bromelias, with leaves f o r m i n g cups in which water is a l w a y s found, on the sides orchids with n o d d i n g leaves a n d flower spikes, a n d b e l o w other orchids with pendant leaves and flowers, a s well as g r a s s - l i k e ferns a n d t h e mistletoe-like c a c t u s . E v e r y t w i g is d e c o r a t e d b y a host of tiny orchids, some of which a r e but a n inch h i g h , t o g e t h e r with d e l i c a t e c r e e p i n g ferns and p e p e r o m i a s , a l l r e v e l l i n g a m o n g mosses a n d hepaticĂŚ. B e s i d e s t h e epiphytes there a r e the s m o t h e r i n g creepers, the s t r a n g l i n g figs, a n d the b l o o d - s u c k i n g loranths. T h e bush ropes a r e e v e r y w h e r e prominent, some h a n g i n g in s c r e w - l i k e twists where some y o u n g sapling has been strangled, others irregularly flattened, c a l l e d m o n k e y s â&#x20AC;&#x2122; ladders, a n d a host o f cables the tops of which a r e lost in the c a n o p y a b o v e . T h e s e a r e a l w a y s a t w o r k fighting for p l a c e s , first to rise, a n d when once in the sunlight to s p r e a d their branches over the trees. T h e tree tries to push

246

GUIANA

its branches t h r o u g h the g r e a t flowery pall, the smotherer to cover up e v e r y t h i n g and g a i n the mastery, in which it often s u c c e e d s . T h e wild fig provides a fruit attractive to birds, who, however, reject the seeds, which are deposited in the forks of the trees, where they soon sprout. T h e aerial roots soon b e g i n to flow as it were like pitch d o w n the trunks, s p r e a d i n g as they g o , uniting with e a c h other, until a reticulated cylinder covers the stem. Like iron bands they compress the e x o g e n until it can n o l o n g e r g r o w ; it dies, and its successful a n t a g o n i s t takes its p l a c e , s e e m i n g t o exult in its v i c t o r y as it utilises the remains of its victim as food for itself. T h e blood-suckers are p r o p a g a t e d b y birds in a similar way, but they are true parasites, never t o u c h ing the g r o u n d . T h e aerial roots twine round the branches and twigs e v e r y w h e r e , octopus-like, t w i n i n g a n d s u c k i n g by means of disks which a d h e r e so tenaciously that they cannot be loosened without t e a r ing. E v e r y branch has the p o w e r of g i v i n g o u t these suckers ; it follows, therefore, that the parasite becomes a g r e a t bush, often l a r g e r than the c r o w n of its v i c t i m s . E v e n when one is s u c k e d d r y there a r e g e n e r a l l y others a l r e a d y secured, so that the monster m a y g o on for a v e r y l o n g time. Only w h e n the tree stands a l o n e d o e s the parasite c o m e d o w n with its v i c t i m . O n the sand-reef, w h e r e the soil is barren, the bushes are low, the creepers run over the sand, the orchids g r o w a m o n g the shrubs, and provide a supply of w a t e r for the dry season in g r e a t p s e u d o - b u l b s , the ferns b e c o m e h a r d a n d g r a s s - l i k e a n d lichens flourish upon the sand, with a few h a r d y mosses. P l a n t life is e v e r y w h e r e , a n d as v a r i e d as in the forest, a l t h o u g h distinct. In another p l a c e we s p e a k

FAUNA AND FLORA

247

of the flowers o n the R o r a i m a slope, a n d that maybe taken to represent the mountain flora. T o a s t r a n g e r the most striking plants a r e those with l a r g e f o l i a g e . T h e aroids c o m e first with the g r e a t Philodendrons, which a r e tropical ivies c l i m b ing to the tops of the highest trees, there u n f o l d i n g g r e a t heart or a r r o w s h a p e d leaves, sometimes six feet in diameter. S o m e a r e perforated a s if holes had been purposely made, others cut into segments a s if recklessly snipped with scissors. A l l throw a e r i a l roots d o w n the trees ; if a b o v e a creek these will drop straight d o w n to the water as fifty-feet lines, to divide into a m a t of roots as they i m m e r g e t h e m selves. A l o n g the c r e e k s g r o w thickets of marantas and wild plantains, the foliage of which is so striking. S o m e of the aroids come up where they c a n get room, but they h a r d l y compete with the marantas. T h e palms a r e here in a l l their g r a c e f u l beauty. T h e stately eta (Mauritia flexuosa) stands a s one of a line of sentries round the s w a m p , its f a n - l i k e leaves h a n g i n g g r a c e f u l l y o v e r a little g a r d e n , which has been formed on the d e a d a n d rotting foot-stalks, in which the most conspicuous flower is the o r a n g e coloured orchid (Catasetum longifolium), with g r a s s like leaves w a v i n g in the w i n d . T h e manicole (Euterpe oleracea) rises f o r 80 to 1 0 0 feet, its stems but 4 to 6 inches in d i a m e t e r ; t h e leaves h a n g g r a c e f u l l y , a n d s h o w their white u n d e r surfaces even in a light breeze. T h e more sturdy cocorite a n d troolie a r e here also, the latter with its leaves almost entire. T h e n c o m e those a g g r e s s i v e palms which g r o w in clumps, a n d w a r n off a n i m a l s , as w e l l as plants, b y their needle-like t h o r n s . N o t only is the stem triply a r m e d , but the leaf-stalks, mid-ribs,

248

GUIANA

and the leaves t h e m s e l v e s . T h e s e palms g r o w close together, the needles of one stem i m p i n g i n g on those of another, until the c l u m p extends f o r m a n y y a r d s in every direction a n d is impassable. T h e climbing palms (Desmoncus) a r e n o t only a r m e d with needles, but provided with a double r o w of hooks at the e n d of each leaf. T o c l i m b a tree the g r o w i n g stem pushes itself between the branches with the h o o k s pressed close, then they a r e opened out a n d hitched on to a n y t h i n g that will g i v e a holdfast. Here and there we find pretty delicate palms (Geonoma) with stems not l a r g e r than w a l k i n g - s t i c k s , in contrast with others a foot o r m o r e in d i a m e t e r . F e r n s a r e more delicate, but the tree-ferns a r e as l a r g e as the smaller p a l m s . S o m e c l i m b the trees to l o n g distances, others run a l o n g the b r a n c h e s , d e c o r a t i n g them with their g r a c e f u l fronds. O n the banks of the creeks filmy ferns a r e found matted upon the boles of the trees, a n d on the slopes of the s a n d - r e e f those d e l i c a t e species of T r i c h o m a n e s which curl up a n d wither at once if b r o u g h t into the sunlight. In some places, where the forest is n o t too dense, g r e a t beds of selaginella a r e seen, a n d in some s w a m p s lycopodiums massed like miniature pine-woods.

CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL

XIV

AND NATURAL

PRODUCTS

Early trade products—Tobacco-planting—Sugar—Early plantations —Empoldering the coast—Dams and trenches—First sugar-mills —Steam-engines — Vacuum pans — Cotton — Coffee— Cacao — Rice—Plantains and bananas—Coconuts—Indian corn—Fruits —Cassava—Isinglass—Cattle-farming — T o b a c c o — Fisheries— Timbers and furniture woods—Balata—Rubber—Gum anime— Hyawa, or incense gum—Tonka beans—Oils—Tanning barks —Fibres—Saouari nuts—Medicinal plants—Minor forest products—Paper stock—Pegass—Bitumen—Sands—Clays—Gold— Diamonds—Population of gold diggings—Falls and rapids as sources of power in the future.

T H E first E u r o p e a n s w h o c a m e to G u i a n a were not colonists but t r a d e r s . T h e y c a m e at l o n g intervals and g o t whatever the Indians c o u l d spare in e x c h a n g e for hatchets, knives, trinkets, beads, bells, cloth, and a few other t h i n g s . They, g o t in return tobacco, cotton, pita-hemp, anatto, a n d letter-wood, the products of the Indian c l e a r i n g or the forest. T h e r e was also a l a r g e d e m a n d for h a m m o c k s , w h i c h were m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m cotton or eta fibre, a n d which seamen had a l r e a d y found v e r y convenient. Later it was found m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s to leave a small party behind to collect against the return of the ship ; these constituted the first t r a d i n g factories. T h e only cultivation n e a r the l o g - h o u s e or fort w a s g e n e r a l l y a field of t o b a c c o and the provision-ground, 349

250

GUIANA

which the Indian women and ultimately slaves b o u g h t from the C a r i b s were induced to keep in o r d e r . The supplies were, however, very precarious, and with all the inducements that were offered the Indians of a n y one river could not m a k e up a c a r g o o n c e a year when the little ship a r r i v e d . T h e first plantations w e r e of t o b a c c o , but soon the E u r o p e a n d e m a n d for s u g a r , which the Spanish colonies did not supply in sufficient quantity, led to the introduction of the cane, p r o b a b l y f r o m B r a z i l . T h e first plantations w e r e in S u r i n a m , which was the pioneer a g r i c u l t u r a l colony, a b o u t 1 6 5 2 . A little later, in 1 6 5 8 , a c o l o n y w a s started on the P o m e r o o n R i v e r by some D u t c h a n d J e w s , and in 1 6 6 0 s u g a r was exported from this settlement. S l a v e s were now brought from A f r i c a , a n d intending settlers were r e c o m m e n d e d not to b r i n g white servants, for blacks were v e r y c h e a p . Little food need be provided for t h e m because they c o u l d easily catch fish, oysters a n d crabs, and in three months plenty of y a m s a n d sweet potatoes would be raised. A few cartloads of canes would be e n o u g h at the c o m m e n c e m e n t ; then, as the land was cleared, these would g i v e a l l that might be required. W i t h six or eight slaves a planter could double his capital in three years, a n d a f a m i l y be worth 40,000 guilders in five y e a r s . L i k e m a n y other calculations of the s a m e kind, these were not borne out b y e x p e r i e n c e . H o w e v e r , these two real colonies were started and attained a measure of s u c c e s s . B u t , unfortunately for both, w a r between E n g l a n d and the N e t h e r l a n d s ruined that in the P o m e r o o n and p r o v e d unfortunate for S u r i n a m . U n d e r the articles of capitulation of the latter colony, the E n g l i s h w e r e a l l o w e d t o leave with their effects, which they understood meant

AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

251

slaves. I n the course of the troubles m a n y of the coppers from the s u g a r - h o u s e s were taken a w a y a n d the buildings d a m a g e d . B u t the D u t c h k n e w v e r y well that a colony without labour w a s worthless, a n d they therefore put every obstacle in the w a y of the r e m o v a l . B y insisting on their rights, however, a n d after another war, t w o thousand, which was half the population, were a l l o w e d to d e p a r t . T h e s e people went to the then infant colony J a m a i c a , where they met with a hearty welcome, while poor S u r i n a m g o t a few of the ruined planters f r o m the P o m e r o o n . S u r i n a m w a s a waste, most of the plantations o v e r run with w e e d s a n d the mills b r o k e n d o w n . The Worst misfortune w a s , h o w e v e r , the loss of half the labour supply, a n d , to a d d to the trouble, some of the n e g r o e s that h a d been b o u g h t ran a w a y into the bush, to b e c o m e later a d a n g e r to the w h o l e colony. T h e slave a l w a y s resented a c h a n g e of masters, a n d even a r e m o v a l after he w a s o n c e settled. Somehow the D u t c h g o t a b a d reputation for cruelty, a n d there was undoubtedly some g r o u n d for this on account of their c r i m i n a l law, which, however, w a s 째 t a b l a c k code, for it was that of the S p a n i s h Netherlands. A g a i n the n e g r o t o o k his cue from bis late E n g l i s h master, w h o resented the transfer 째 f the c o l o n y . U n d e r G o v e r n o r S o m m e l s d i j k the colony b e g a n to recover, a n d notwithstanding the invasions of F r e n c h corsairs it b e c a m e fairly p r o s p e r o u s . It w a s , h o w ever, almost at a standstill for about a century, until by coolie immigration a n d the starting of a b a n a n a trade it b e g a n to show a little m o r e e n e r g y . Sugar bas, h o w e v e r , g o n e d o w n v e r y m u c h a n d is of little c o n s e q u e n c e . n

Coming

back

Essequebo,

which

was still

252

GUIANA

trading factory, we find n o settlers of consequence until 1 7 4 0 . T h e land in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of the fort was sandy, with outcrops of rock, covered with virgin forest. T h e few plantations were carried on like the Indians' c l e a r i n g s . T r e e s were felled a n d a l l o w e d to remain until the d r y season, when they were burnt. T h e result was a litter of c h a r r e d l o g s , between which canes w e r e planted in h o l e s . The first c r o p was g e n e r a l l y g o o d , sometimes g i v i n g a return of over a ton of s u g a r per acre, but e v e r y y e a r this b e c a m e less until the soil w a s e x h a u s t e d ; then a n e w c l e a r i n g b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y . U n d e r such conditions s u g a r e x p o r t s w e r e v e r y small, and even the two or three c o m p a n y ' s plantations h a r d l y paid expenses. N o w and a g a i n a plantation w a s a b a n doned as worthless a n d a n e w one t a k e n up, to be as quickly ruined. W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen that the coast of G u i a n a is a deep alluvium, and p r o b a b l y the few D u t c h m e n s a w something of its possibilities l o n g before a n y t h i n g was done. B u t the coast was open to F r e n c h corsairs and E n g l i s h pirates, while here, fifty miles up the river, they did not often a p p e a r . T h e n a g a i n , even a D u t c h m a n c o u l d see what an a r d u o u s task it must be to reclaim the s w a m p and m o r a s s , b y e x c a v a t i n g trenches and piling up d a m s . It followed, therefore, that the estates in D e m e r a r a were first laid out on the banks of the river f r o m twenty to e i g h t y miles u p w a r d . B u t a g a i n these were failures, for a l t h o u g h not so poor as E s s e q u e b o , the land w a s soon exhausted. T h e n b e g a n the g r a n d w o r k of e m p o l d e r i n g , first near the mouths of the river and later a l o n g the coast. U p to his e y e s in muck the planter w o r k e d for months, risking his life daily, and often d o i n g himself more w o r k than he d a r e d to

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

253

impose on the n e g r o slave, whose life must not be risked on account of his v a l u e . T h e D u t c h m a n led the way, but it was the E n g l i s h and S c o t c h planters who carried out the work, for they were g e n e r a l l y more pushing a n d less cautious. A s m i g h t be expected, m a n y died, but as the value of tropical produce was high, every one hoped to g e t a fortune. F e w succeeded, a n d of the others only some t o m b stones remain to indicate their disastrous failures. T h e system of e m p o l d e r i n g introduced b y the D u t c h a n d more fully e x t e n d e d by the British planter is modelled on that of H o l l a n d . T h e coast of G u i a n a is fringed by a courida s w a m p , which forms a n a t u r a l fascine d a m in front of every plantation. T h e g r a n t s were free, consisting of 2 5 0 acres, with fagades on sea or river of about a quarter of a mile, a n d e x t e n d ing to three miles b a c k . T h e condition of this strip when g r a n t e d was that of a morass or b o g , flooded during the rainy season or at h i g h spring tides. T h e work of e m p o l d e r i n g was c o m m e n c e d by cutting canals and t h r o w i n g up b a n k s a s far as the c u l t i vation was to extend, to k e e p out the flood from the morass on three sides and the sea in front. Within this area other ditches were cut, the mud b e i n g thrown up to form raised beds on which cotton or the s u g a r - c a n e w e r e p l a n t e d . T h e flood f r o m outside being e x c l u d e d , it only remained for the rainfall on the Polder to be let off w h e n n e c e s s a r y b y flood-gates, or kokers, which were opened at low water and closed with the rising tide. T h i s system is still carried out everywhere in the settled districts, whether p l a n t a tions, v i l l a g e s , or t o w n s . In m a n y cases steam d r a i n ing engines have been erected, for a d a y ' s rainfall sometimes amounts to five or six inches, a n d h a s been k n o w n to reach as h i g h as ten.

254

GUIANA

tWhen first empoldered the soil is v e r y rich, but being i m p r e g n a t e d with salt, is less suited for the s u g a r - c a n e than for cotton. After w a s h i n g b y the rains, however, and e x c l u d i n g further contamination from sea water, it is excellent for the sugar-planter, w h o in some cases has g o n e on cultivating without a c h a n g e for over fifty y e a r s . It is, however, found necessary, after such a l o n g time, to use m a n u r e . It will be easily understood that only a v e r y rich soil could remain fertile under the s a m e cultivation for such a l o n g period, without f a l l o w i n g or alteration of c r o p s . S o m u c h depends upon the security of the d a m s that the planter has to be continually on the a l e r t . If the pressure on the b a c k d a m b e c o m e s too g r e a t after a heavy rainfall, the labourers must be turned out at a n y time to strengthen it or repair a b r e a c h with b a g s of mud, otherwise the estate m a y be flooded. E v e n worse is the d a n g e r in front, for the s e a water will d a m a g e the canes b e y o n d recovery. T h e expense of k e e p i n g up the sea d a m s has latterly b e c o m e so g r e a t that several fine plantations on the west coast have been a b a n d o n e d . T h e tidal w a s h c h a n g e s at intervals a n d m a k e s a sudden onslaught on the protecting fringe of courida, with the result that the d a m must be retired inland or the estate given up. T h e difficulty in the w a y of retiring is g e n e r a l l y the public road, for if it becomes necessary to g o a b a c k of this, then a n e w r o a d must be m a d e . T h e earliest s u g a r - m i l l s on the rivers were driven by water-courses, where these were a v a i l a b l e , otherwise b y cattle or horses. O n the coast, h o w e v e r , windmills were most c o m m o n on account of the p r e vailing s e a - b r e e z e . T h e t r a d i n g vessels of a century

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

255

a g o took their b e a r i n g s f r o m these windmills, as they sometimes d o t o - d a y f r o m the factory c h i m n e y s . B u t the enterprising D e m e r a r a planter w a s not satisfied with such an unreliable s o u r c e of p o w e r , which w a s liable to a serious f a l l i n g off when m o s t required ; he therefore a d o p t e d the s t e a m - e n g i n e as soon as it b e c a m e w o r k a b l e in 1 8 0 5 . T h i s date may be put d o w n as a starting-point for the d e v e l o p ment of the s u g a r industry, which resulted in the adoption of v a c u u m pans in 1 8 3 0 , after w h i c h D e m e r a r a s u g a r g o t its g o o d n a m e in the B r i t i s h market. A century a g o cotton w a s the principal export of D e m e r a r a and B e r b i c e , its importance h a v i n g been much increased when the B r i t i s h t o o k o v e r these colonies in 1 7 9 6 . F r o m the mouth of the D e m e r a r a to the C o r e n t y n e a continuous line of this h a n d s o m e shrub w a s under cultivation, which, in the n e w empolders, still i m p r e g n a t e d with salt, flourished t o perfection. In 1 8 0 7 , however, when the slave trade was stopped, further increase b e c a m e impossible, and then c a m e a drop in price from the competition of the Southern S t a t e s . S u g a r paid better a n d the slaves w e r e g r a d u a l l y d r a w n off to that cultivation, until ultimately hundreds of cotton plantations w e r e abandoned, only a few being k e p t up as cattle f a r m s . Ultimately cotton fell off to nothing, and t h o u g h it was attempted to reintroduce its cultivation d u r i n g the A m e r i c a n war, this was not a success. T h e r e a r e no particular reasons why it should not be revive'd, except the scarcity of labour, which m i g h t prevent a crop from being picked at the proper time. A w e e k 0r t w o m a k e s little difference to the s u g a r - c a n e s , but cotton would be b l o w n a w a y if not picked to the day. W e h a v e a l r e a d y mentioned this as one o f

256

GUIANA

the products collected by the early traders from the Indians, who still cultivate e n o u g h for their own w a n t s . Coffee was introduced to B e r b i c e a n d C a y e n n e in 1 7 2 5 from Surinam, to which plants had been b r o u g h t from A m s t e r d a m in 1 7 1 8 . It could not be g r o w n well in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of K i j k - o v e r - a l , but it was a success in C a y e n n e a n d B e r b i c e . L a t e r , when D e m e r a r a was settled, it b e c a m e one of the staple products of plantations that w e r e not exposed to strong w i n d s . B e r b i c e coffee g a i n e d a reputation, but, as in D e m e r a r a , it g a v e place to s u g a r on the failure of the labour supply. Cultivation fell off to n o t h i n g for m a n y years, but lately there has been a revival. A s , however, the output of B r a z i l is so very g r e a t , the low price is likely to prevent d e v e l o p ments to any g r e a t extent. C a c a o is probably a native of G u i a n a , and was cultivated in A m e r i c a for centuries before its d i s covery. S u r i n a m exports a fair quantity, but latterly, o w i n g to the w i t c h - b r o o m fungus, its p r o s pects are not so e n c o u r a g i n g . Cayenne once grew c a c a o , but n o w its plantations have been practically a b a n d o n e d ; D e m e r a r a , however, has two or three estates in g o o d condition, a n d will p r o b a b l y increase its output in a few y e a r s . T h e r e is r o o m for g r e a t development, for c a c a o g r o w s well within the forest region, in the fertile river bottoms, but it cannot endure the sea-breezes. E v e n on the coast, however, it m a y be protected by w i n d - b r e a k s of tall trees. T h e product is of g o o d quality, quite equal to that g r o w n in T r i n i d a d or near C a r a c a s . R i c e , which up to the last few years w a s imported in enormous quantities, is now so l a r g e l y g r o w n that the exports from British G u i a n a have become of some importance. T h e imports in 1 8 9 9 reached 1 1 , 3 0 0

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

257

tons, but ten years later they fell to 3 5 4 tons, and there was an export of 5,489 tons. A b o u t 40,000 acres are n o w under cultivation, and this will p r o b a b l y be m u c h extended, n o w that the E a s t Indies h a v e made a fair start. T h e flat lands of the coast a r e eminently fitted for this cereal, for a r r a n g e m e n t s for irrigation can be easily m a d e . S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e are e q u a l l y fitted, a n d will, n o doubt, soon e x t e n d their cultivation, which, in view of the importation of coolies, has become h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e . T h e quality is much superior to the ordinary E a s t Indian g r a d e s and well compares with that of Louisiana, f r o m which the seed appears to have been b r o u g h t in 1 7 8 2 to feed the n e g r o slaves. T h e n e g r o is a lover of the plantain, which is grown in enormous quantities. It has been h i g h l y praised for its food value, a n d c o m p a r e s w e l l with wheaten b r e a d . W e m a y consider it as a n unripe banana, from which it differs v e r y little. It is never eaten as a fruit, but when ripe c a n be sliced a n d fried to m a k e a n excellent adjunct to our dainty dishes. T h e unripe plantain is usually boiled, but it is even nicer roasted and buttered ; it can also be sliced and dried in the sun, after which, b e i n g g r o u n d into flour, it can be kept for a l o n g time and used f째r p u d d i n g s . If well known, this plantain flour should be appreciated in other parts of the world as a food for infants and invalids. T h e r e is quite room for development of this v a l u a b l e food product, which c o u l d replace with a d v a n t a g e a r r o w r o o t a n d sago. T h e b a n a n a , as a fruit, g r o w s u n d e r similar c o n ditions as the plantain, a n d is b e i n g e x p o r t e d from Surinam to the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Attempts h a v e a l s o been m a d e in D e m e r a r a t o establish a n export trade, 17

258

GUIANA

but hitherto without s u c c e s s . A s a b y - p r o d u c t of b a n a n a culture, where there will a l w a y s b e a fair number of bunches too ripe for shipment when the steamers arrive, it is h i g h l y desirable that a r r a n g e ments be m a d e to d r y the surplus as chips or figs, which latter can be prepared to take a p l a c e with the real fig and d a t e . B a n a n a flour from the unripe fruit is similar to the product of the plantain ; h a v i n g a sweetish taste, it will suit some palates, a n d c a n be used without s u g a r . T h e unripe fruit, a n d specially their skins, contain a fair quantity of tannin ; experiments might be tried with a v i e w to their utilisation ; the stems and leaves also g i v e a n astringent juice, on the surface of which a pellicle forms that, when dried, is an inferior rubber. T h e coconut is l a r g e l y cultivated and g r o w s well on the coast, where it is all the better for a little salt. It seems to revel in the sea-breeze, against which it braces itself in a manner peculiar to itself. S e v e r a l plantations a n d one oil and fibre factory a l r e a d y exist in British G u i a n a . T h e r e is g r e a t r o o m for development, and there a r e signs of an increase, not only in the exportation of nuts but c o p r a as w e l l . T h e more carefully prepared desiccated c o c o nut, n o w l a r g e l y used in confectionery, could a l s o be produced here, as well as mats a n d other fibre products. T h e r e are about 10,000 acres in c u l t i vation in British Guiana, a n d e v e r y y e a r shows a n increase. M a i z e or Indian corn is g r o w n to some extent, but it seems to be more suitable to sub-tropical c o n ditions like those of the Southern U n i t e d S t a t e s . In some places, however, it flourishes, a n d can be g r o w n e v e r y w h e r e for s t o c k - f e e d i n g . G u i n e a corn is not m u c h g r o w n , but there is no reason why it

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

259

should not be d e v e l o p e d . A r r o w r o o t is a minor product, which m a y be classed with c a s s a v a starch and tapioca ; other s t a r c h - p r o d u c i n g tubers and seeds m a y a l s o be utilised. T h e bread-fruit is c o m m o n , but not m u c h appreciated ; there is room for improvement in its c o o k i n g ; when dried it forms a g o o d flour. T r o p i c a l fruits other than the banana c o u l d be well g r o w n h e r e . A t present little care is taken to select g o o d varieties, consequently they are not suitable for e x p o r t . O r a n g e s , s h a d d o c k s , and limes come first ; they are so c o m m o n that in the country districts the g r o u n d is often littered with them. L i m e plantations a r e in operation, a n d the production of citrate of lime will justify the increase of this cultivation. M a n g o e s of the c o m m o n kinds f o r m part of the food supply of the n e g r o e s when they a r e cheap, which is twice a y e a r . D u r i n g the seasons they are often sold at t w e n t y or thirty for a penny, a n d the n e g r o e s m a y b e seen e v e r y w h e r e with their faces smeared with the yellow pulp. Pine-apples are often common, and could be e x p o r t e d fresh or c a n n e d ; they g r o w on the sand-reefs practically wild, but not really so, for e v e r y t h i n g g o e s to prove that they indicate the site of some Indian settlement w h i c h once existed on the spot. One of the most delicious of the fruits is the sapodilla, which, like a medlar, is not fit to eat until it is v e r y soft and a p p e a r s rotten. P r o b a b l y it w o u l d bear a v o y a g e well a n d b e c o m e popular, but it is not attractive in appearance, b e i n g c o v e r e d with a rough b r o w n skin. T h e pulp is of a d a r k w a r m brown, e x c e e d i n g l y sweet and luscious at the proper stage of ripeness. M a n y of the fruits m a k e g o o d jams a n d jellies,

260

GUIANA

and in this connection the g u a v a must be mentioned. T h e r e is room for a preserve factory, where c a r e will be taken to prevent burning b y the use of w a t e r baths and s t e a m . A s prepared in the r o u g h Creole w a y g u a v a jelly is almost w a n t i n g in the true flavour, which prevents its full appreciation. In food products it is a l s o n e c e s s a r y to pack in such a way as to be attractive ; this c o u l d easily be d o n e . C a s s a v a , the staff of life of the Indian, could be exported in the form of biscuits which, b e i n g toasted and buttered, are g e n e r a l l y a p p r e c i a t e d . P a c k e d in tins, they keep for any length of time, and e v e n in barrels they are not m u c h deteriorated. The poisonous juice obtained in m a k i n g it, when e v a p o r ated to the consistence of molasses, forms cassareep, the basis of the famous p e p p e r - p o t . W i t h capsicums and properly diluted with water, it is kept in an earthen pot (an enamelled saucepan will d o ) a n d a n y kind of meat put in from time to t i m e . Every d a y it is put on the fire and b r o u g h t to table, with the result that it becomes an everlasting resource. F o r all kinds of meat and g a m e are put in at intervals, with m o r e cassareep and capsicums, until some of the contents m a y be months o r years in stew. T h e r e is a s a y i n g that only when the D u t c h m a n died w a s the pepper-pot e m p t y . Isinglass, or fish-glue, is e x p o r t e d in small q u a n tity ; it is the s w i m m i n g - b l a d d e r of the g i l b a c k e r , a l a r g e fish of the Silurid family. T h e fish is c a u g h t at the mouths of the g r e a t rivers, and is fairly c o m m o n ; its flesh is eaten, and of a v e r y g o o d flavour. C a t t l e - f a r m i n g is c a r r i e d on to some extent, but not, as yet, b e y o n d the necessities of the colonies ; in fact, there are importations from Venezuela now

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

261

and a g a i n . T h e interior of British G u i a n a is likely to furnish a g o o d supply in the near future, for it borders upon the g r a s s y plains of the upper R i o N e g r o , where ranches are c o m m o n . A railway is under consideration, which, if it should be laid down, would bring this part of the country within reach of the coast a n d cause a g r e a t development of cattlebreeding. T o b a c c o , which was once an export from Guiana, is now only g r o w n by the Indians for their o w n use. T h e r e is, however, n o reason why it should not be cultivated, for experiments lately made h a v e proved that a g o o d quality c a n be p r o d u c e d . A n a t t o is another of the old exports which is still g r o w n to a slight extent in C a y e n n e , but w e believe that it is only used now in small quantity for c o l o u r i n g butter and cheese. I n d i g o comes under the same c a t e g o r y , and would not p r o b a b l y be worth r e v i v i n g . T h e r e is room for d e v e l o p i n g the fisheries. At present some boats are e n g a g e d in d e e p - s e a fishing to supply the local m a r k e t s , but formerly the Indians dried pacou a n d other fresh-water fishes to some c o n siderable a m o u n t . T h e r e is no reason why this industry should not be revived to prevent such a l a r g e importation of salt c o d f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a . The rivers a b o u n d with fish to the n u m b e r of three o r four hundred species, m a n y of which are w e l l flavoured a n d w o r t h salting. A t present they f o r m a large portion of the food supply of the Indians a n d Bovianders. Shrimps, or rather p r a w n s , are so plentiful in the canals a n d trenches that people m a y be seen e v e r y w h e r e c a t c h i n g them in b a s k e t s . T h e forests of G u i a n a p r o d u c e some of the finest timbers in the w o r l d . A b o u t three hundred kinds are k n o w n , v a r y i n g in weight and hardness to an

262

GUIANA

enormous degree, m a n y being so heavy as to sink in water. S u c h woods a r e s l u n g in the water outside a punt, a n d in this w a y b r o u g h t down the rivers, for at present f e w of the lighter kinds that float have been much used. O n e of the heaviest a n d most striking is the letter-wood (Brosimum Aubletii), which is as hard as e b o n y a n d w e i g h s about 80 l b . to the square foot. O n l y the heart w o o d has the peculiar pattern of very dark lines, which g i v e s it its n a m e , a n d this is rarely more than four inches in diameter. It w a s much appreciated b y the early v o y a g e r s , a n d fetched a g o o d price in E u r o p e , but at present it is rather scarce. A n o t h e r very hard species is the w a m a r a , which has the same dark brown colour without the markings. G r e e n h e a r t (Nectandra RodiĂŚi) stands pre-eminent in E u r o p e , as w e l l as in the colonies, for its durability in water a n d its resistance to the s h i p - w o r m a n d termites. It is yellow, with a g r e e n i s h cast, v e r y close-grained, a n d hard, a n d when d r y weighs about 70 l b . to the square foot. M o r a (Mora excelsa) is almost as valuable, but not so hard a n d not quite so heavy. Its colour is a pleasant ruddy brown, a n d it is l a r g e l y used in the colonies, like g r e e n h e a r t , for house timbers. W a l l a b a (Eperua falcata) is a dark wood that can easily be split into staves a n d shingles. It contains a n oleo-resin which is p r o tective against termites ; it is very useful for house timbers, vats, a n d p a l i n g s . T h e best woods for boat building a r e the different kinds of silverballi (Nectandra sp.), which are hard and elastic, w e i g h i n g about 50 l b . to the square foot. T h e r e are two kinds, y e l l o w a n d brown, both of which a r e also g o o d furniture w o o d s . A similar

AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

263

wood is h a c k i a (Tecoma leucoxylon), which is light brown a n d m a k e s g o o d s p a r s . T h e Indiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; p a d d l e s are m a d e from m a s a r a or yaruri (Aspidosperma excelsa), which is c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y its thin, flat buttresses, that only require s h a p i n g a n d a little thinning to be ready for u s e . G o o d furniture woods a r e numerous, the most useful b e i n g c r a b - w o o d (Carapa latifolia) ; when p r o p e r l y c u r e d this almost equals m a h o g a n y , which it resembles in g r a i n a n d colour, especially when o l d . It is, however, m u c h lighter, w e i g h i n g only about 40 l b . to the foot, a n d b e i n g much softer, c a n be more easily w o r k e d . Already this w o o d is b e i n g exported, a n d there c a n be n o doubt that, when well k n o w n , it will be m u c h a p p r e ciated. A t present, however, the logs a r e cut u p before they a r e properly matured, with the result that the boards split ; this fault c a n be easily remedied by c u r i n g in the l o g . Other timbers have suffered in their reputation from the same c a r e l e s s ness. R e d c e d a r (Cedrela odorata) is a l s o a g o o d furniture wood, specially useful for c a b i n e t s . W a m a r a (Swartzia tomestlosa), the wood used b y the Indians for clubs, is heavy, a n d equals m a n y of the varieties of m a h o g a n y . Locust (HymenĂŚa courbaril) is lighter coloured, but heavy, g e n e r a l l y over 50 l b . to the foot, a n d could be well used to contrast with d a r k e r woods. H u b u b a l l i (Mimosa guianensis) is of a light brown, with d a r k e r veins, a n d well w o r t h introducing ; its weight is about the same as locust. Purpleheart is unique, but it does n o t retain its beautiful dark violet colour when exposed to t h e light ; n e v e r theless it is a fine brown a n d w o r t h u s i n g to a greater extent than at present ; it is h a r d a n d w e i g h s about 60 l b . to the foot. N u m e r o u s others a r e to be had, v a r y i n g in colour from deep m a h o g a n y t o

264

GUIANA

oak, a n d of all degrees of hardness a n d w e i g h t . T h e best light w o o d for inside cabinet w o r k is the S i m a r u b a (S. officinalis), which is almost white, e v e n - g r a i n e d , a n d weighs only 30 l b . to the foot. T h e tree is very large, a n d l o g s of six feet diameter can be obtained ; when properly cured it is the ideal wood for light boxes a n d d r a w e r s . O f the numerous other kinds at least a hundred a r e available, all of which would, n o doubt, become v e r y useful if properly introduced. A t present the G u i a n a wood-cutter has to realise on his timbers at once, a n d therefore he cannot afford to cure them, hence complaints of splitting. F r o m the damp, steamy forest the l o g s are floated to a m u d flat in town, where they remain c o v e r e d with water at h i g h tides a n d exposed to the burning sun at low water. T h i s , however, does not affect the real quality of the wood, a n d could b e immediately rectified with a little more c a p i t a l . Besides timber, the G u i a n a forest produces balata, well k n o w n as a kind of g u t t a - p e r c h a m u c h used for belting. It comes from the bullet or bully-tree (Mimusops globosa), which is t a p p e d in the same w a y as india-rubber. D u r i n g the last f e w years the output has enormously increased, and a s there a p p e a r s to be n o limit at present to the demand, like rubber it has increased in v a l u e . T h e G o v e r n m e n t s issue licences to collect within certain defined areas, a n d n o w that companies a r e continually being formed, the whole country is r a n g e d b y prospectors a n d bleeders. T h e output is n o w over a million pounds annually from British G u i a n a alone ; S u r i n a m ships double as much, a n d C a y e n n e has b e g u n . T h e milk from the tree is so m u c h like that f r o m the c o w that it is sometimes used with coffee, but p r o b a b l y it is not very wholesome. T h e a v e r a g e yield from a

AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

265

tree is about one g a l l o n , which, o n d r y i n g , produces 5 l b . b a l a t a ; some trees have, at times, p r o duced as m u c h as five g a l l o n s . T o ensure a supply in the future tapping must not be repeated until the first wounds a r e h e a l e d â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a b o u t four y e a r s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; w h e n an equal supply m a y be obtained. R e g u l a t i o n s have been m a d e to prevent carelessness in t a p p i n g a n d to ensure the continuity of the product. R u b b e r trees of several species are found in the forest, a n d a r e n o w b e i n g exploited. Hevea and sapium a r e represented, but whether it will p a y t o tap them is not quite certain ; there is n o doubt, however, that plantations of Hevea braziliensis c a n be m a d e a n y w h e r e in the forest region, a n d a l r e a d y sufficient has been done to show that plantation rubber will be a product of G u i a n a in the near future. A m o n g the forest products is the l o c u s t - g u m , o r anime, a resin well k n o w n as the basis of varnishes generally called c o p a l . It cannot be collected b y tapping, but when the tree dies a n d rots the resin flows t o g e t h e r in masses, to be a c c i d e n t a l l y found by w o o d - c u t t e r s . P o s s i b l y it m i g h t p a y the b a l a t a bleeder to search for such deposits with a steel rod as is done in N e w Z e a l a n d for k a u r i resin, which is formed under similar conditions.. A n o t h e r resin c a n be produced b y bleeding the h y a w a (Icica spp.). In its pure state it is white, like c a m p h o r , and has a very pleasant resinous odour ; when burnt a s incense it equals the better k n o w n g u m benzoin, for which it is a n excellent substitute. A t present it is h a r d l y k n o w n , a n d is one of the natural forest p r o ducts that m a y be worth c o l l e c t i n g . L i k e benzoin, is sometimes used m e d i c i n a l l y for c o u g h s ; t h e branches of the tree m a k e excellent torches. The x t

266

GUIANA

oleo-resin, b a l s a m copaiba, is also found a n d sometimes collected b y the Indians, but only in small quantities ; it is the produce of several species of copaifera. Another balsam is obtained from Humirium floribundum, but it is not yet r e c o g n i s e d in c o m m e r c e . T h e r e is also a n essential oil k n o w n as laurel oil, obtained from Oreodaphne opifera, which has a reputation in the colony a s a n external a p p l i cation for rheumatic a n d other pains. T h e w e l l - k n o w n tonka bean, the basis of so m a n y perfumes, is also collected in small quantities ; probably it m a y b e c o m e an article of export when the b a l a t a - b l e e d e r finds it e c o n o m i c a l to collect e v e r y thing within his r a n g e . Vanilla g r o w s wild, a n d there is n o reason w h y something should not b e also done with this v a l u a b l e flavouring. T h e r e is a spice c a l l e d the A k a w o i s n u t m e g , used f o r colic, that might be found of some value, either in c o o k i n g or for medicine. Oils a r e prepared from various p a l m nuts, a n d a v e g e t a b l e tallow from the dalli (Virola sebifera), a tree near allied to the n u t m e g . T h e c r a b or c a r a p a oil is, however, the most important of the forest oils. It is extracted by g r a t i n g the nuts, e x p o s i n g t h e pulp to the direct rays of the sun or over a fire until the a l b u m e n is c o a g u l a t e d , a n d then p r e s s i n g . E v e r y Indian m a k e s it to lubricate his b o d y a n d to dress his hair, with a v i e w to prevent the a t t a c k s of noxious insects. T h e C r e o l e s also k n o w that it is effectual in k e e p i n g the h e a d free f r o m v e r m i n . Its g r e a t objection is a rather s t r o n g a n d unpleasant odour, possibly d u e to the bitter principle which it contains, a n d from which it derives its properties. A soap has been made from it, which is c l a i m e d to be useful in d e a l i n g with scald h e a d .

AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

267

T a n n i n g b a r k c a n be obtained in g r e a t quantity n e a r the mouths of the rivers f r o m the m a n g r o v e (Rhizophora manglier). S e v e r a l tanneries a r e in operation, a n d p r o b a b l y they will soon supply t h e local demand for leather. A t present n o other b a r k has been found equal to the m a n g r o v e , a l t h o u g h many contain fair quantities of tannin. O n the sand reefs a r e found several wild plants which produce g o o d fibre. T h e y include species of a g a v e , bromelia, nidularium, a n d the p i n e - a p p l e . T h e pita h e m p a n s w e r i n g to sisal w a s m u c h v a l u e d by the early traders to Guiana, a n d every Indian m a k e s his h a m m o c k - r o p e s , fishing-lines, and bow-strings of this fibre. A n o t h e r t y p e is the eta, or tibiserie, from the y o u n g leaves of Mauritia flexuosa, from which â&#x20AC;&#x153; g r a s s â&#x20AC;? h a m m o c k s a r e m a d e . It m a y be compared with the w e l l - k n o w n rafia, so m u c h used in E n g l a n d b y n u r s e r y m e n . V e r y pretty n a t u r a l ribbons m a y be obtained f r o m the inner bast of m o n k e y - p o t trees (LecythideĂŚ), which could be m a d e into hats. S o m e of the species h a v e the bast free from holes, a n d almost a s fine a s a silk r i b b o n . W h e n the timbers of G u i a n a are fully appreciated these basts will, n o doubt, b e c o m e b y - p r o d u c t s . As weeds in cultivated g r o u n d , several fibre plants a r e common ; some of t h e m would m a k e excellent s u b stitutes for jute, a n d , if utilised, render unnecessary the enormous importations of rice a n d s u g a r b a g s . Of food plants the forest produces v e r y f e w . T h e r e is one that must be mentioned, a n d that is t h e saouari, p r o b a b l y the most delicious nut in the w o r l d . It is h a r d l y k n o w n in c o m m e r c e , but it m a y b e described as a l a r g e tuberculated, hard-shelled n u t of the type of the w e l l - k n o w n brazil-nut, which is also found h e r e . Its only fault is the hard shell,

268

GUIANA

which n o ordinary nut-crackers c a n g r a s p , m u c h less break. H o w e v e r delicious this saouari m a y be, it is not sufficiently c o m m o n to form a n y part of the g e n e r a l diet of the Indian. W h e n the m a n of the forest suffers f r o m famine, which he does sometimes, when the cassava c r o p fails, he has to fall b a c k upon m o r a a n d other seeds that a r e even less palatable than a c o r n s . A v e r y few trees h a v e edible fruits, but these are often difficult to obtain without c u t t i n g down the trees. It is rather a shock to our ideas when we see a kinip (Melicocca bijuga) cut down for the s a k e of its fruit, which is only a thin stratum of pulp round a l a r g e seed, but it has been done. T h e medicinal p l a n t s a r e numerous, but little is yet k n o w n of them. B e e b e r i n e is g o t f r o m the g r e e n h e a r t bark a n d seeds, but it has not come up to the expectations of those w h o once thought it equal to quinine as a f e b r i f u g e . S i m a r u b a b a r k is a g o o d stomachic, but little used, a n d other medicines of the same class, such a s the stems of species of Aristolochia a n d leaves of Mikania, m a k e fair s u b stitutes for other stomachic bitters. T h e curare poison is, n o doubt, v a l u a b l e ; perhaps other poisonous plants m a y , after proper investigation, b e p r o v e d useful, such a s those used to stupefy fishes. A t present, however, w e a r e v e r y ignorant of their properties. A forest industry is c h a r c o a l - b u r n i n g ; the product is l a r g e l y used in the colony, a n d is shipped to B a r b a d o s , t o g e t h e r with firewood. W a l l a b a shingles, paling, a n d vat staves a r e of g r e a t economic value, and a r e also shipped. A t one time orchids were exported in quantity, but a heavy licence a n d export duty k i l l e d the industry, a n d t h o u g h the dues h a v e been lowered, it has not revived in British G u i a n a .

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

269

N o w a n d again a collector g o e s to R o r a i m a , mainly for Cattleya Lawrenciana, but there is n o reason why the shipments should not be m u c h increased. A small trade in w a l k i n g - s t i c k s once existed, but this also h a s been killed b y the G o v e r n m e n t , w h o are altogether too strict in controlling the C r o w n lands. Light woods suitable for paper stock are numerous, a n d will n o doubt be utilised in the future. Some bamboos a r e found wild a n d p r o b a b l y wild pines, which have been used in B r a z i l , m a y u l t i mately g o to the paper-mill. N o doubt m a n y useful forest products remain to be discovered. A possible natural resource is p e g a s s , a kind of peat found to a depth of several feet b e l o w the swamps or wet s a v a n n a h s . It is less fibrous than peat, the l o w e r stratum b e i n g almost solid a n d t h e upper m a d e up of several layers of l e a v e s . It burns with a ruddy g l o w a n d leaves a red a s h . Possibly it m i g h t be found useful to a b s o r b petroleum a n d m a k e a g o o d fuel. T h e s w a m p s extend behind the coast throughout the country, a n d therefore the amount of pegass is e n o r m o u s . It has been s u g gested as a source of ammonia, for it contains about 2 per cent. of n i t r o g e n . Efforts have been made d u r i n g the last t w o years to locate a deposit of bitumen off the coast of B r i t i s h Guiana, n e a r the mouth of the W a i n i R i v e r . Specimens h a v e been picked u p on the shore, a n d there is not the least doubt that something like the pitch lake of T r i n i d a d must exist near b y . It is also h o p e d that petroleum m a y be found, b u t a l t h o u g h t w o c o m panies have been prospecting, it is not y e t proven to exist. T h e pitch is certainly there, a n d w e m a y soon hear of its b e i n g found. A pure white quartz sand, suitable for g l a s s -

270

GUIANA

m a k i n g , and k a o l i n for pottery, are obtainable in a n y quantity, for they f o r m reefs and hills in many p a r t s . R e d and yellow ochreous c l a y s are found in several places. A sample of the red p i g m e n t was reported as c o m p a r a b l e to the tierra de Sienna of the painter. E v e r y w h e r e there are clays suitable for b r i c k - m a k i n g , and possibly there m a y be yet a g o o d cement m a t e r i a l found in micaceous s a n d . T h e g o l d - d i g g i n g s of G u i a n a extend t h r o u g h the forest region, o n l y that little k n o w n section between the B e r b i c e a n d C o p p e n a m e R i v e r s b e i n g as yet free from s e e k e r s . A s m i g h t be expected, f r o m the c o n formation of the land and the g e o l o g i c a l formation, the primary rocks come nearer the coast in C a y e n n e a n d recede b a c k w a r d in Venezuelan territory, w h e r e the C a r a t a l d i g g i n g s are situated at about t w o hundred miles distance. T h e zone is fairly well defined, and almost every river is impeded b y rapids and cataracts which indicate a rise of the c o u n t r y f r o m the mud-flat and sand-reefs. T h e pay-dirt is g e n e r a l l y g o t f r o m existing river-beds, or those of some former time, and is m a d e up of r e d and white c l a y s , with sand and g r a v e l . T h e r e are also c o n g l o m e r a t e s and g o l d - b e a r i n g quartz, but up to the present real mining has not been successful on account of the small yield of the c r u s h i n g s . Most of the w o r k i n g s are carried on by means of sluices, but h y d r a u l i c i n g and d r e d g i n g are fairly successful. T h e returns are necessarily precarious, being m u c h reduced by the cost of the l o n g journeys to and fro and the freight of tools and provisions. Sometimes fine n u g g e t s are found ; the largest f r o m British G u i a n a , g o t in the B a r i m a , w e i g h e d 3 3 0 o u n c e s . T h e g o l d is v e r y pure, but g e n e r a l l y contains a little silver.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

271

O n a c c o u n t of the difficulties of l o n g journeys and the necessity of h a v i n g supplies for months, men without capital cannot c a r r y on the w o r k . T h e g o l d d i g g e r with his s w a g , w h o tramps his w e a r y w a y in other countries, is u n k n o w n in G u i a n a . A good sound boat must be b o u g h t o r hired, expert b o w men a n d steersmen be employed, a n d n e g r o labourers e n g a g e d . T h e load of provisions a n d tools necessary costs a g o o d sum, then every labourer g e t s an advance on his prospective w a g e s . In the e a r l y years of the industry there was m u c h trouble with t h e labourers, but n o w this has been m u c h lessened. A. m a n would sign an a g r e e m e n t a n d t a k e a n advance, but when the time of e m b a r k i n g c a m e he could not be found. M a n y persons have suffered from â&#x20AC;&#x153; g o l d fever,â&#x20AC;? as they h a v e in other countries, but there is n o doubt that g o l d is to be g o t , for already the exports have totalled about eight million pounds sterling from British G u i a n a , and fully as much more from the other colonies. A l t h o u g h s o m e of the placer w o r k i n g s have been a b a n d o n e d as worked out, there are still l a r g e areas untouched, and it m a y be noted that this y e a r ( 1 9 1 1 ) n e w d i s coveries have been m a d e on the W e n a m u R i v e r , in British G u i a n a on one side and Venezuela on t h e other. P r o b a b l y expert miners will ultimately find some quartz reefs and m a k e the industry of m o r e Permanent value than it is at present. P l a c e r m i n i n g is carried on in British G u i a n a on the Rivers B a r i m a , B a r a m a , C u y u n i , M a s a r u n i , and E s s e q u e b o ; in S u r i n a m on the C o p p e n a m e , S a r a macca, Suriname, M a r o w y n e , a n d L a w a ; and in C a y e n n e on the M a n a , Sinamari, M a h u r i , A p p r o u a g e , and O y a p o k . T h e g o l d - b e a r i n g strata also e x t e n d into the C o u n a n i , w h i c h n o w b e l o n g s to B r a z i l .

272

GUIANA

A l t h o u g h the output from British G u i a n a has fallen off to half the amount of the best years, there is no reason for thinking that the supply is exhausted. Most of the auriferous tracts have been discovered by accident ; a n y d a y there m a y be a n e w find that will bring the industry a g a i n to the front. The forest region is so wild and vast that prospecting is very difficult ; it m a y therefore b e safely stated that only a small area has been yet explored. Diamonds have been found in considerable numbers in British Guiana, on the M a s a r u n i a n d C u y u n i R i v e r s . The matrix is a c o n g l o m e r a t e or g r a v e l , m a d e up of w a t e r worn quartz and other pebbles with pipe-clay. They are usually small, ten or fifteen to the carat, but t w o of over twelve carats e a c h were lately discovered ; the colour is all that c a n be desired. The gravel is thrown on an iron screen, puddled with water, and afterwards picked carefully on a table. Sapphires are also collected. T h e output of diamonds in 1 9 0 9 - 1 0 was 7,180 c a r a t s . T h e British G u i a n a census of 1 9 1 1 shows that about 6,000 people were e n g a g e d in and about the g o l d and diamond d i g g i n g s . T h e rivers of G u i a n a will p r o b a b l y in the future become sources of power almost without limit. E v e r y one of a n y importance has potentialities in its falls and rapids that should render electric energy easily available and c h e a p . T h e K a i e t u r F a l l rivals N i a g a r a , a n d could supply e n e r g y for c r u s h i n g m a c h i n e r y in the goldfields, timber-hauling in the forest, and electric r a i l w a y s . T h i s , however, is only one of the sources of water power, for throughout the whole interior of the country magnificent streams can be utilised in a thousand w a y s .

A STRE.ET-CORNER,

GEORGETOWN.

To face p. 273.

CHAPTER

TRAVEL

NOTES

Communication — Waterways — Local steamers — Georgetown — Races and nationalities—Sugar estates—The Tadja festival— Humours of the people—Indians in town—Airy buildings— Other towns—Picturesque scenery in the interior — Kaietur Fall — Roraima — A botanical El Dorado — Grand cliffs — Difficult to reach — River travelling — Beauty of the forest—Creek scenes—Obstructions—Indian settlements—Reports of dangerous animals—No real dangers—Pleasure of camping out—A few pests—Some inconveniences—Sickness— Unexplored region—Climate—Bugbears—Bad name no longer deserved—A rainy country—No fogs, earthquakes, or hurricanes.

ALTHOUGH

Guiana

outside

the

usual

lines

steamer communication, it is c o n n e c t e d with the W e s t Indian M a i l services of the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , H o l l a n d , ^ d France. O t h e r steamship lines run r e g u l a r l y from L o n d o n , L i v e r p o o l , and G l a s g o w , a n d there is rnail service with C a n a d a , as w e l l a s frequent steamers f r o m N e w Y o r k . B y m e a n s of these B a r b a d o s and other W e s t Indian islands m a y be e a c h e d , from w h e n c e travellers c a n g o to S o u t h A m e r i c a n ports, a n d , by w a y of the Isthmus of Manama, t o a n y part of the w o r l d . Fine sailing e s s e l s , k n o w n once as W e s t I n d i a m e n , a r e n o w g o n e , besides the steamers only a few schooners a

2 7 3

274

GUIANA

f r o m A m e r i c a n ports a n d local traders c o m e into the rivers. G u i a n a is specially c h a r a c t e r i s e d by its rivers, which, t h o u g h h a r d l y c o m p a r a b l e with the g r a n d w a t e r w a y s in other parts of S o u t h A m e r i c a , would be considered in E u r o p e of g r e a t importance. The E s s e q u e b o is about 600 miles l o n g , a n d the C o r e n tyne a n d M a r o w y n e n e a r l y the s a m e l e n g t h ; all of these f o r m broad estuaries as they enter the sea, where there a r e m a n y picturesque islands. Were it not for the rapids, river n a v i g a t i o n would be easy, but at present these c h e c k s m u c h h a m p e r those w h o work in the hinterland. R i v e r n a v i g a t i o n within these limits is, however, easy, a n d has no doubt prevented the l a y i n g down of proper roads in S u r i n a m and C a y e n n e . C o m m u n i c a t i o n in British G u i a n a is m u c h better ; coast and river steamers ply r e g u l a r l y from the B e r b i c e to the B a r i m a , there are railways from G e o r g e t o w n to N e w A m s t e r d a m a n d from opposite the capital for fifteen miles on the west c o a s t . T h e r e is also a r a i l w a y nineteen miles l o n g about sixty miles up the D e m e r a r a R i v e r w h i c h connects with the steamer service on that river, and enables the g o l d - d i g g e r s a n d b a l a t a - b l e e d e r s to avoid the rapids of the E s s e q u e b o , on the right bank of which is its terminus. T h e coast roads are complete almost from the P o m e r o o n to the C o r e n t y n e , with extensions up the D e m e r a r a a n d B e r b i c e R i v e r s for a f e w miles ; they are well kept, a n d are traversed by all kinds of wheeled c a r r i a g e s and m o t o r s . In G e o r g e t o w n is an electric t r a m w a y which extends into* the suburbs a n d a short distance u p the east bank ; c a b s are a l w a y s a v a i l a b l e , and m o r e stylish c a r r i a g e s m a y be hired f r o m the livery s t a b l e s . 1

G e o r g e t o w n is a tropical g a r d e n city, and is well

S T R E E T

G E O R G E T O W N .

ENTRANCE TO CEMETERY, GEORGETOWN. To face p. 275.

T R A V E L NOTES

275

worth s e e i n g . F r o m one of its towers it is seen t o be e m b o s o m e d in p a l m s . T h e streets are broad, and in some cases have l o n g canals extending their whole length, in which g r o w the Victoria a n d N e l u m b i u m water-lilies. A t the east stand the B o t a n i c G a r d e n s , an ideal p l a c e in which to spend a couple of hours morning or e v e n i n g . T h e r e is a club and r e a d i n g room where visitors m a y be introduced by m e m b e r s , and a. museum in which can be seen the fauna of the colony and its natural productions. H e r e , also, a s t r a n g e r will note a m o n g the numerous visitors types of the v a r i e d population, especially the E a s t Indians in their picturesque dresses, w i t h their wives and families. T h e r e is n o lack of interest in the streets, for here are types of the various races a n d nationalities. Off some of the stellings or wharves can sometimes be seen a timber punt, on which is erected a thatched shelter for the Indians who have b r o u g h t it d o w n the river and are living here in m u c h the same w a y as they do in the forest. T h e m a r k e t m a y also be visited by the curious, but they must not be too fastidious, for the n e g r o w o m e n w h o c r o w d h e r e are by no means choice in their l a n g u a g e . In L o m b a r d Street are Chinese shops, where interesting curios can be picked up, and there are elsewhere shops of the E a s t Indians where also can be o b t a i n e d Indian brass and n e e d l e w o r k , some of which will interest the c o l l e c t o r . T h e stores kept by E u r o p e a n s are full of e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y for comfort a n d c o n venience, and well up to d a t e . O n the streets m a y sometimes be found pedlars with collections of native Indian curios, f r o m which can be b o u g h t such things as feather crowns, b e a d aprons, b a s k e t - w o r k , b l o w pipes, & c .

276

GUIANA

A b o u t seven miles from G e o r g e t o w n is the finest sugar estate in the colony, Plantation D i a m o n d , w h i c h n o w reckons its cultivation by square miles. Here the coolie system c a n be seen in w o r k i n g order, with model d w e l l i n g s , hospitals, a n d other conveniences. B y consent of the m a n a g e r the factory m a y be inspected, and in about an hour the whole process of s u g a r - m a k i n g followed from the field to the loft, in which the finished product is put into b a g s for shipment. If the visitor c o m e s at the right time, he m a y see the T a d j a festival of the M o h a m m e d a n s , which g e n e r a l l y takes place early in the year, and is fixed a c c o r d i n g to a lunar c a l e n d a r . It is the M o h u r r a m , and is supposed to c o m m e m o r a t e the sad deaths of the last m e m b e r s of the Prophet's family, H a s s a n and H o s e i n . A m o d e l mosque o r t o m b , m a d e of b a m b o o , most g o r g e o u s l y trimmed with c o l o u r e d papers and tinsel, is then carried in procession with drummers in front and wailing w o m e n behind. There is g e n e r a l l y an almost n a k e d man striped to represent a tiger, who is held by a c o r d a n d a l l o w e d to s p r i n g at the c r o w d , thus turning what should be a solemn p e r f o r m a n c e into something like h o r s e - p l a y . A t the m a n a g e r â&#x20AC;&#x2122; s house there a r e exercises in fencing with cloth cylinders, and other sports. F i n a l l y the g r e a t tadj which is sometimes sixty feet h i g h , and has cost s e v e r a l hundred dollars, is thrown into the river. T o study the humours of the people he m a y visit the racecourse when there is a m e e t i n g , or see an inter-colonial cricket m a t c h . T h e n e g r o is prominent, but the E a s t Indian tends to a d d a n element of the picturesque from his g r a c e f u l d r e s s . T h e n e g r o is d e c i d e d l y blatant ; he bawls, jumps, lifts up his hands, offers to bet, and shows that he is here in his true

T R A V E L NOTES

277

element. W h e t h e r he ever has the deeper feelings of humanity is doubtful ; his mind is superficial, and thinking is done a l o u d . W e often see a n e g r e s s w a l k i n g a l o n g the road t a l k i n g and g e s t i c u l a t i n g with no one near to listen ; she is airing some grievance. T h e n e g r o , and even the E a s t Indian creole, has adopted the E n g l i s h g a m e of cricket with enthusiasm. It is interesting to note that this g a m e is s p r e a d i n g in such a w a y that clubs are everywhere, and days, are often spent in matches between t h e m . T h e n e g r o is also a rabid dancer, a n d his nocturnal orgies are often a nuisance to his n e i g h b o u r s . H e is supposed to be musical, but h a r m o n y and m e l o d y are b e y o n d his comprehension. H e c a n strum on a g u i t a r or play a kind of j i g on the violin, but his music is g e n e r a l l y all time and n o tune. A n old tin c a n will do almost as well as a drum, the tum-tum of which is sometimes heard the whole n i g h t . His chanties on the boats when p a d d l i n g are not v e r y different from white sailors' songs at the windlass ; in fact, they are g e n e r a l l y adapted f r o m them. He can improvise in a way, but he has no real idea of poetry or r h y m e . A striking example of his want of appreciation of pathos was once seen at a P e n n y R e a d i n g , w h e r e the whole audience burst out l a u g h ing when D i c k e n s ' s account of the death of Little D o m b e y was read. T h e n e g r o will l a u g h at an animal, or even a child, when it is hurt and cries out. T a k e n altogether, his c h a r a c t e r is not attractive. T h e E a s t Indian, on the other hand, is e x c e e d i n g l y interesting in every respect. H i s love for animals is hardly e x c e e d e d by that for his wife and c h i l d r e n . A c o w - m i n d e r is almost universally a coolie, and we may see him c a r r y i n g a y o u n g g o a t in his a r m s as

278

GUIANA

a shepherd does his l a m b . H e also takes a n interest in sports, but is not so boisterous as the n e g r o . U n l i k e the b l a c k man also, he takes his wife a n d family w h e r e v e r he g o e s . T h e C h i n a m a n also attends entertainments of various kinds, g e n e r a l l y alone. H e sits or stands up and g a z e s on the spectacle without the least indication that he a p p r o v e s . N o w and then you see him n u d g e a friend, but he n e v e r joins in the applause. T h e native Indian is evidently out of p l a c e in a town. H e seems bewildered, and it looks as if he has lost his w a y . W a n t i n g to buy something, he enters a store, looks round, and if he sees the article, points it out and slowly offers one coin after another until the price is settled to his satisfaction. If, h o w ever, he cannot see what he wants, he stalks out without attempting to c o n v e y his wishes. Indian file is a familiar expression, but we never understood it v e r y w e l l until one d a y a party of eight men, w o m e n , and children was seen crossing a street in Georgetown. E v e r y one c a m e at an e v e n distance from the next as if stepping into his footprints, a n d when they wound in and out a m o n g foot passengers they still kept the line. T h e buildings are neither ancient, g r a n d , or p a r ticularly interesting from an architectural standpoint. G e o r g e t o w n has a fine R o m a n C a t h o l i c cathedral, an attempt in w o o d of an imitation Gothic style, by n o means paltry. O t h e r churches and public b u i l d ings are f a i r l y g o o d , one of the best b e i n g the town hall. B u t it is not in beauty or g r a n d e u r where the tropical building is notable ; comfort o n l y c o n sists with coolness, and this means that the n e a r e r we g e t to an open shed the more pleasant it is.

CEMETERY,

GEORGETOWN.

T R A V E L NOTES

279

O p e n galleries a n d jalousie shutters a r e n e c e s s a r y everywhere, and on all sides ; walls g i v e w a y t o screens, a l l o w i n g the g r a t e f u l breezes to blow t h r o u g h the whole flat. T h e inhabitants b e c o m e so a c c u s tomed to open houses that they c a n hardly endure the p o k y rooms of the o l d home w h e n they pay it a visit. In such a house in G e o r g e t o w n or on the coast it is a l w a y s pleasant to face the breeze, especially where there is a g a r d e n to rest the eyes with its verdant luxuriance. A s might be expected, G e o r g e t o w n is ahead of the other towns in G u i a n a . N e w A m s t e r d a m is a miniature copy, P a r a m a r i b o less distinctly tropical with a suggestion of H o l l a n d , C a y e n n e dominated b y its penitentiaries, which m a k e the colonist think with horror of what he should feel if â&#x20AC;&#x153; cabin'd, cribb'd, confinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d â&#x20AC;? in such a c l i m a t e . A n d yet C a y e n n e is more picturesque than the other towns, for it stands on a hill, while G e o r g e t o w n is on the mud-flat below h i g h - w a t e r m a r k and P a r a m a r i b o on a sandy flat only a little h i g h e r . T h e inhabited portion of G u i a n a is only relieved by its rampant v e g e t a t i o n ; w e r e it not for the beautiful palms and other tropical plants it w o u l d be almost u g l y . H o w e v e r , even a field of s u g a r canes, especially when in flower, is worth s e e i n g . T h e visitor to G u i a n a will be interested in its forests and rivers. S c e n e s of g r a n d e u r and beauty will be found e v e r y w h e r e in the interior, for e v e r y great river has its rapids a n d falls, in most cases set in b a c k g r o u n d s of g r a n d forest, with r o c k s a n d boulders d e c k e d with lovely ferns. The grandest fall is the K a i e t u r , which, t h o u g h not c o m p a r a b l e in breadth with the m i g h t y N i a g a r a , is five times the height, b e i n g 741 feet in one g r e a t leap, with a

280

GUIANA

series of small cataracts below, m a k i n g a further 8 1 feet. T h e w e a t h e r e d sandstone r o c k s in its n e i g h bourhood, d e c k e d with ferns, mosses, a n d other v e g e tation, g i v e the scene a g r a n d e u r a n d b e a u t y Worthy the n a m e of a fairyland. O t h e r falls on the s a m e R i v e r P o t a r o , t h o u g h not so g r a n d , are quite a s lovely, notably the P a k a t u k . Arrangements have lately been m a d e b y which these falls c a n be visited in about ten days from G e o r g e t o w n , a n d on this trip a fair idea of the forest a n d river scenery c a n be g a i n e d , i n c l u d i n g a p o r t a g e at the T u m a t a m a r i rapids. A n o t h e r g r a n d natural object in the sandstone region is the m i g h t y castellated r o c k R o r a i m a , situated on the b o u n d a r y between British Guiana, Venezuela, and B r a z i l , a n d the source of streams flowing into the O r i n o c o , A m a z o n , a n d E s s e q u e b o . T o w e r i n g up from a slope 6 , 0 0 0 feet above sea-level rises a n immense red sandstone rock about eight miles l o n g b y four wide. T h e top, which was first g a i n e d in 1 8 8 4 , after m a n y failures to find the way, is a g i a n t ' s p l a y g r o u n d with enormous w e a t h e r e d boulders, cheesewrings, a n d balanced r o c k s . O n account of the rain a n d mist there are water-courses everywhere, which at the e d g e s pour over a n d fall down to the slopes as misty veils. O t h e r g r e a t r o c k s of a similar c h a r a c t e r are seen in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , including K u k e n a a m , which is nearly as l a r g e as R o r a i m a , but which h a s not yet b e e n a s c e n d e d . D r . Richard Schomburgk, the w e l l - k n o w n traveller, described the slope of the mountain as picturesque in the e x t r e m e . Spread before him lay a small m a r s h y plain, on which F l o r a h a d assembled her most beautiful c h i l d r e n â&#x20AC;&#x201D; w h e r e the c h a r m of flowers h a d culminated. T h e whole plain was covered with the d a r k blue Utricularia

RORAIMA.

T R A V E L NOTES

281

humboldtii, the most beautiful species of this genus, with red-tinted flower-stalks three or four feet h i g h , from which three or four of the curious flowers w e r e suspended. W h i l e the a m a z e d e y e w a s l o o k i n g upon this c h a r m i n g carpet of flowers, it was especially attracted by the interesting pitcher plant, Heliamphora nutans, with l i g h t - g r e e n a n d r e d - r i b b e d leaves on a h o l l o w u r n - s h a p e d petiole, open at the top, the lamina forming a s m a l l c o n c a v e lid, s o m e t h i n g like a N e p e n t h e s , the tender flower-stalk b e a r i n g white or red-tinged flowers. H i g h a b o v e these rose the flowers of the magnificent Cypripedium lindleyanum, the c h a r m i n g Cleistes, and the y e l l o w flowers of kapateas. H i s e y e s w e r e dazzled b y the splendour of the fresh g r e e n and the brilliantly-coloured flowers on this plain, while the air w a s i m pregnated with delightful f r a g r a n c e . H e fancied himself in a m a g i c g a r d e n ; such a display of colours, such a variety in so small a space, w a s up to that day u n k n o w n t o h i m . T h e b o r d e r of forest e n c l o s ing this botanic E l D o r a d o w a s of e l e g a n t trees c o v e r e d with flowers a n d tree-ferns in fantastic confusion, entwined with creepers to f o r m a dense enclosure. L o o k i n g up at the g i g a n t i c sandstone Wall and the waterfalls rushing from its platform, he felt small a n d insignificant. T h e r e w e r e so m a n y new objects that he was unable to g i v e attention to one for even a single minute. H i s heart w a s jubilant with d e l i g h t â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a l l the troubles he h a d g o n e through w e r e f o r g o t t e n . W i t h o u t g a t h e r i n g a single flower he hurried off to the p l a c e where his tent was pitched between l a r g e rocks c o v e r e d with mosses and ferns. D r . S c h o m b u r g k also described his feelings in c a m p during the n i g h t . H a v i n g pitched the tents, the poor

282

GUIANA

n a k e d Indians built small huts from fern-fronds between the r o c k s , and lighted l a r g e fires in which, with their feet almost in the flames, they c o w e r e d shivering with the d a m p cold, the lowest temperature being 5 2 Â° . A b o u t seven in the e v e n i n g the mist c h a n g e d to rain, which came d o w n in torrents, a c c o m panied by thunder a n d lightning. It was a terrible c h a n g e ; the rain beat t h r o u g h the canvas, until e v e r y t h i n g was saturated, the fire was almost put out, and he sat shivering and with his teeth c h a t t e r i n g until the storm ceased. T h e m o o n and stars then shone upon a scene of indescribable g r a n d e u r ; b y the silver light the swollen masses of water w e r e seen rushing down from the h i g h g i g a n t i c walls with a bewildering noise as if hundreds of engines were at w o r k . F r o m K u k e n a a m it thundered as if the sea h a d b r o k e n its shores a n d w a s r o l l i n g on to bury them a l l . His a m a z e m e n t was yet to b e increased, for suddenly a lunar rainbow a p p e a r e d . S l e e p w a s impossible, and he was thankful when the m u c h coveted d a y l i g h t appeared, e n a b l i n g him to take a brisk w a l k . T h e noise of the torrents hacl ceased, the falls w e r e of their usual size, a n d all that had happened seemed almost a d r e a m . The y o u n g d a y unfolded new charms ; R o r a i m a a n d K u k e n a a m were perfectly bright and cloudless, but d e e p below the country was spread by white mist like a g r e a t carpet of snow, or a northern l a n d s c a p e illuminated by the rising sun, with the most e x t r a ordinary c h a n g e s of light and refraction. The contrast between the luxuriant v e g e t a t i o n of the g i g a n t i c colossus with its shining waterfallsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;its d a r k - r e d w a l l s â&#x20AC;&#x201D; w a s most surprising, and recalled the tales of the A r a b i a n N i g h t s . T h i s c h a r m i n g scene did not last l o n g , for the mist b e g a n to rise, and the

SUMMIT OF RORAIMA.

T ofacep.283.

T R A V E L NOTES

283

rocks w e r e soon w r a p p e d in a cold, d a m p , impenetrable v e i l . F o r a g e s the walls of R o r a i m a have been s c a l i n g from the influence of sun and rain. T h e result is a pitting which, in the b e a m s of the g l o r i o u s s u n shine which alternates with the c l o u d veil, g l o w with prismatic c o l o u r s . T h e misty tablecloth, however, g e n e r a l l y makes the walls d a r k like those of some giant's castle. A p p u n , the traveller, wanted to m a k e a s k e t c h of the sunlit effect, but a m a s s of clouds hung like a g r e a t pall over everything, c o v e r i n g up all below and leaving only the strange forks a n d pinnacles of the cliff to be illuminated b y the rising sun, which, a c c o r d i n g to the refraction, g l o w e d with splendid purples and y e l l o w s . W h e n the sun rose higher the wind blew and c o m m e n c e d to tear asunder the veil of clouds ; the fragments floated t o w a r d s the cliff a n d reunited to f o r m a screen, until t h e wind also reached them and chased them swiftly along the g r e a t w a l l . A p p u n , a l t h o u g h a skilful artist, admitted the utter impossibility of p o r t r a y i n g these lovely effects of sunshine and c l o u d . A t present the difficulties of r e a c h i n g R o r a i m a are too g r e a t for the ordinary visitor, but it is e x p e c t e d that some of these will shortly be reduced, especially when visitors show a s t r o n g desire to see â&#x20AC;&#x153; R o r a i m a , the red rock, never-failing source of streams.â&#x20AC;? T h e real difficulty is the w a l k of two or three w e e k s in g o i n g and returning to the river, w h e r e supplies are left in the b o a t . It follows that, as n o provision supply can be g o t on the way, e v e r y t h i n g must be carried, and therefore the time is limited by the amount of food, about 50 l b . for e a c h m a n . R i v e r t r a v e l l i n g is necessarily slow and m o n o t onous, especially when pulling a g a i n s t the s t r e a m

284

GUIANA

a n d a s c e n d i n g rapids. A boat journey m a y last a month in g o i n g up and only a w e e k c o m i n g d o w n . T h e r e is certainly a spice of d a n g e r in shooting the falls, but the number of accidents is not l a r g e , h a v i n g been m u c h reduced by prohibiting boats l e a v i n g without properly certified b o w m e n and steersmen. T e n t s are used on l a r g e boats, b y which passengers are protected from sun and rain ; the paddlers, like the Indians, often strip and p a c k up their g a r m e n t s until a shower is over, when they can put on d r y c l o t h i n g instead of w o r k i n g with water p o u r i n g down upon the thwart and at the risk of a c h i l l . T o see the beauty of the forest, however, we must adventure in s m a l l b a t e a u x d r a w i n g only a few inches ; for the creeks, the only paths, are often shallows and littered at the bottom with l o g s , the remains of trees which have fallen in years g o n e by and left only their h a r d a n d almost stony hearts to block the p a s s a g e . Where possible it is well to proceed to the mouth of a creek at night, or in the early m o r n i n g , to avoid exposure to the burning rays of the sun, which will blister the face and n e c k on the open river in the d a y . H a v i n g provided a suitable craft, we m a y enter the creek at h i g h water, if within tidal influence. T h e d a r k waters are d a m m e d back, as it were, and the force of the stream much lessened for some distance, a l l o w i n g our little craft to g l i d e softly round one bend after another, every one a scene of loveliness impossible to picture. C l u m p s of palms, t r e e ferns, and marantas alternate with tall trees festooned with a host of epiphytes, including m a n y species of lovely orchids. T h e sun m a y be shining with all his intensity, but only a few b r o k e n rays come through the c a n o p y o v e r h e a d . E v e n a light shower

T R A V E L NOTES

285

may rattle on the tree-tops a n d o n l y a few d r o p s come down upon us. N o noxious insects, e x c e p t a few ants that are brushed off the h a n g i n g creepers, disturb us, for mosquitoes do not live in the forest. A snake m a y be seen coiled round a branch, but is probably a harmless species, a n d even if poisonous will not interfere with us if left a l o n e . N o w and again a flock of bats will fly out f r o m under a tangle of creepers a n d g i v e us a m o m e n t a r y thrill. M o r e startling is the r e v e r b e r a t i n g roar of the h o w l i n g monkey, whose voice is so penetrating a n d weird. A t early morning, and a g a i n near dusk, there will be s c r e e c h i n g of parrots and m a c a w s a b o v e our heads, or the puppy-like b a r k of the toucan is heard, but rarely can a bird be distinguished in the c a n o p y above. T h e only living thing which appears in sight is the beautiful blue M o r p h o butterfly which moves gracefully across the c r e e k . Presently we c o m e upon a n obstruction ; a tree has fallen a c r o s s the c r e e k a n d stops the w a y . It may be s u b m e r g e d , and then we find the a d v a n t a g e of a light craft, for the boatmen g e t upon the trunk and branches and pull us over. In another c a s e it may be a foot or two a b o v e , a n d then we all g e t out, push the boat under, and r e - e m b a r k on the other side. W i t h a l a r g e bateau a d e l a y of an hour m i g h t be necessary to cut a p a s s a g e . N o w the full force of the current is felt, our paddlers pull h a r d against the stream. B u t the craft is light and their arms are strong, so w e put o n speed as the men strike u p one of the w e l l - k n o w n river chanties. In front is a tunnel of v e g e t a t i o n , at the end of which a strong light a p p e a r s . S u d d e n l y w e a r e out of the forest a n d in the midst of a g r a s s y s a v a n n a h â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a g l a d e surrounded by

286

GUIANA

eta p a l m s . T h r o u g h this winds the creek, n o w almost c h o k e d with water-lilies, which h a m p e r the paddlers. H o w e v e r , we g e t through these, a n d a g a i n enter the forest, which is here what is c a l l e d W a l l a b a s w a m p . T h e trees rise from pools of ruddy brown water, e a c h with its bole l o a d e d with mats of filmy ferns a n d with other ferns a n d mosses g r o w ing up their t r u n k s . A t last our destination is r e a c h e d . H e r e is evidently a landing-place, for there is a d u g - o u t canoe a n d a woodskin, indicating that Indians are not far off. W e land a n d pass up a t r a c k little more conspicuous than the run of some a n i m a l . On the top of this sand-hill stand two benabs or Indian sheds, which we enter, to find only one o l d w o m a n , who k n o w s n o t h i n g of E n g l i s h . T h e men are out h u n t i n g a n d the w o m e n p l a n t i n g c a s s a v a . H o w e v e r , her instinctive k n o w l e d g e of our wants comes to the rescue, for she soon g e t s a l e g of l a b b a and some thick c a k e s of c a s s a v a bread, w h i c h w e eat with a relish h a r d l y k n o w n at our o r d i n a r y dinner-tables. A s we h a v e eaten l a b b a a n d drunk creek water, we shall die in the colony if we believe the old s a y i n g . T h e Indians will take us into the forest, show us h o w they hunt a n d fish, a n d , for a consideration, act as guides to the sportsman. B u t they evidently dislike to have a white m a n with them when hunting for themselves, for he is too noisy. N o one c a n safely t a k e a w a l k alone, even where there is a path, for sometimes there m a y be f o r k i n g s that c a n only be recognised by the expert. E v e n the Indian is sometimes lost when hunting in a strange locality. A g r e a t d e a l has been written about the d a n g e r s of the forest, but these h a v e been highly e x a g g e r a t e d .

T R A V E L NOTES

287

T o a r e a d e r of B r e t t ' s â&#x20AC;&#x153; Mission L i f e in G u i a n a â&#x20AC;? it might appear that j a g u a r s , a l l i g a t o r s , a n d poisonous snakes are e v e r y w h e r e . S u c h is not, however, the case, for the traveller rarely encounters any dangerous a n i m a l . E v e n the naturalist w h o wishes to study them c a n only do so by the most cautious examination of their haunts. A s most of the c a r nivora are n o c t u r n a l in their habits, it m i g h t n a t u r a l l y be e x p e c t e d that they would be d a n g e r o u s to us when c a m p i n g out in the forest, but we never h e a r of an a t t a c k . T h e gold-digger and balata-bleeder never think that there is any d a n g e r , and t h e experience of thousands prove that travelling in Guiana is perfectly s a f e . T h e writer has passed many a pleasant n i g h t in the forest, l y i n g in his h a m m o c k a n d protected f r o m rain by a tarpaulin, the camp-fire b e i n g quite e n o u g h to prevent wild animals from c o m i n g n e a r . E v e n if the fire g o e s out there is n o real d a n g e r ; in fact, n o one fears anything. In some places, n o doubt, insects are troublesome, but here a g a i n there is m u c h e x a g g e r a t i o n . The bush scorpions, centipedes, a n d m y g a l e spiders c a n be found when hunted for in dense clusters of d r y twigs and heaps of leaves, but rarely, indeed, is one of them seen except by the collector. W h e n t h e y are reported to be deadly w e m a y s a f e l y t a k e such reports with m u c h hesitation, for, a l t h o u g h painful, their bites a n d stings are h a r d l y worse than t h e stinging of a bee or hornet. T h e wasps, or m a r a buntas, often sting severely, a n d some ants are quite as venomous, yet a m a n m a y live for y e a r s in the forest without suffering f r o m a n y one of them. S t i n g ing ants of the less virulent species are, h o w e v e r , so c o m m o n that they are treated with contempt.

288

GUIANA

Mosquitoes a n d sand-flies are, undoubtedly, g r e a t pests in some districts, but in the real forest they are u n k n o w n ; in fact, it is a c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e to find them absent where the waters are d a r k b r o w n . T h e j i g g e r flea is troublesome on the sand-reefs, especially in Indian benabs, but it is extracted so easily that it m a y be c o m p a r e d to a thorn, w h i c h also requires a little skill to extract without b r e a k ing. T h e r e is a fly w h i c h deposits its e g g s under the skin of m a n , as well as animals, where they develop into what is c a l l e d the “ mosquito w o r m ” ; this can be quickly destroyed b y p l a c i n g a lump of pitch or a piece of plaster o n the o p e n i n g through which it breathes. T i c k s are troublesome in p l a c e s , as they are brushed into our clothes as w e push t h r o u g h the bushes ; n o c l e a n l y person, h o w e v e r , lets them remain l o n g e n o u g h to t a k e h o l d . N o doubt this enumeration is sufficiently a l a r m ing to the nervous person, and especially to women, but we have k n o w n ladies to c a m p out in the forest without suffering f r o m a n y one of them. T h e real inconveniences of this t r a v e l l i n g a r e the want of what are g e n e r a l l y considered necessaries, but w h i c h a r e quite u n k n o w n either to the Indian or the river people. E v e r y t h i n g likely to be w a n t e d must be carried, for neglect or forgetfulness—often misplaced confidence in others—produces w o r r y a n d trouble d u r i n g the whole trip. T h e simplest thing, such as the w a n t of a proper case for your matches, m a y cause m o r e difficulty than a l l the insect pests and wild a n i m a l s . F o r , if the matches a r e d a m p , n o fire, candle, or lamp can be lit, a n d you m a y perhaps h a v e to fix up a c o v e r i n g for the n i g h t in pitch darkness. E v e n when we e x p e c t to l o d g e with Indians or B o v i a n d e r s it w i l l never do to r e c k o n

T R A V E L NOTES

289

upon a n y t h i n g from them. N o t that they are inhospitable—on the contrary, you are w e l c o m e to e v e r y thing they h a v e . B u t their all is so little ; on one occasion I found the only food supply in a small settlement to be a few plantains. T h e r e will be a natural prejudice a g a i n s t some of the meats eaten b y the Indians, a l t h o u g h most people enjoy berbecued g a m e a n d fish, with c a s s a v a b r e a d . T h e pepper-pot, however, m a y disclose the hand of a monkey, which s u g g e s t s too closely the cannibalism of their a n c e s t o r s . S i c k n e s s is a b u g b e a r t o m a n y p e o p l e w h o wish to visit the tropics. M a l a r i a l fever is undoubtedly common, but in most cases it is little m o r e t r o u b l e some than the influenza of other climes. Where E n g l i s h people speak of a cold, the G u i a n a n e g r o frightens the n e w - c o m e r with the w o r d “ fever.” E v e r y little ailment is fever, even “ hot coppers ” after a night’s s p r e e . It m a y be safely stated that a h e a l t h y person c o m i n g here on a three-months trip will have hardly time e n o u g h to contract a n y serious illness. A little later, however, if he remains six months or more, he is p r a c t i c a l l y certain to g o through a few months’ s e a s o n i n g . T h i s comes after the profuse s w e a t i n g of the first c h a n g e to such a hot climate is c h e c k e d ; the w h o l e system is a c c o m modating itself to the n e w conditions. T h e symptoms are h e a d a c h e , lassitude, a n d w e a k n e s s of the knees, with m o r e or less pronounced “ c o l o n y fever,” which, as we said, m a y be c o m p a r e d to a c o m m o n c o l d . This seasoning is often the cause of future trouble ; the sufferer is advised to t a k e b r a n d y or whisky, with a c o m m o n result that he takes to habitual d r i n k ing. T h o s e w h o k n o w the tropics also k n o w that stimulants are even more injurious here than in 19

290

GUIANA

temperate climes. T h e bad n a m e of G u i a n a has been l a r g e l y due to this evil, for n o doubt stimulants h a v e killed more white men than the c l i m a t e . The depopulation of the coast, where o n c e lived thousands of native families, is a l s o , where not t h e result of introduced diseases s u c h as s m a l l p o x a n d measles, due to spirits, the c u r s e of the I n d i a n . F o r the explorer there is a tract of c o u n t r y t o the east of the R i v e r C o r e n t y n e , in S u r i n a m , w h e r e possibly u n k n o w n tribes of Indians m a y be found ; there are also the T u m a c - H u m a c Mountains on the borders of B r a z i l to be studied. F o r the naturalist there is an immense a m o u n t of w o r k in e v e r y class ; even m a m m a l s such a s rats a n d bats w i l l be found rich in new species ; a s for insects, p r o b a b l y half are u n k n o w n to science. G u i a n a is within easy r e a c h of E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a ; it is the ideal place in which to spend a winter. N o w h e r e , perhaps, can tropical nature be so easily studied, for there a r e f e w real difficulties. T h e w e a t h e r is often rainy, the forests s t e a m i n g , a n d the sun hot, but these are matters of little c o n s e q u e n c e to the real traveller or naturalist. With ordinary c a r e it is not unhealthy, but it must not be e x p e c t e d that a n e w - c o m e r will become naturalised at o n c e . T h e writer has been through s o m e of the worst swamps where mosquitoes were rampant, has w a d e d into the water to cut d o w n palms, has pushed his bateau through mud and slush, been e x p o s e d to rains that necessitated baling, sat u p on a river j o u r n e y for e i g h t e e n hours at a time, and never contracted m o r e than a slight h e a d a c h e . H e is of opinion that elderly persons would be far m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e in a tropical climate than they g e n e r a l l y are when winter comes in E n g l a n d or the U n i t e d S t a t e s . He

T R A V E L NOTES

291

anticipates that in the future this will be better understood and the b u g b e a r s of m a l a r i a a n d yellow-fever vanish, as some other bogies h a v e done, before the m a r c h of sanitation. G u i a n a has a b a d name, partly from the fact that C a y e n n e deserves e v e r y t h i n g that has been said against it. T h i s is, however, not the fault of the climate, but the treatment of poor F r e n c h m e n sent out to die, as so m a n y really w e r e . T o lock up a man in close quarters in hot weather a n y w h e r e is but a f o r m of torture ; to do so in a tropical climate is m u r d e r . Y e l l o w - f e v e r is n o w u n k n o w n ; in D e m e r a r a the last slight outbreak happened thirty years a g o . M a l a r i a l fever is c o m m o n in some places, but n o doubt this will g o when mosquitoes are properly kept off. N o doubt the climate is r e l a x i n g to one w h o lives in it for a l o n g time, but that docs not affect the visitor w h o c o m e s to a v o i d ice and snow. T h e m a n who has lived in the open air knows that a p o k y home is d i s a g r e e a b l e , and he who has enjoyed the ideal life in G u i a n a will hardly care to e x c h a n g e it for a fireside, however pleasant that m a y be. E v e n where, as in P a r a m a r i b o , the heat m a k e s you d r o w s y in the middle of the day, there is still the pleasant coolness of the m o r n i n g and e v e n i n g . B u t there is n e v e r a n y g r e a t c h a n g e , for the difference of temperature at night does not amount to more than about five d e g r e e s . G u i a n a is undoubtedly a rainy country, for which it has reason to be thankful. T h e a v e r a g e is a hundred inches a year, and sometimes four to six inches will fall in a d a y . T h e r e are, however, n o fogs, and even when the sun is obscured for an hour or two at one part of the d a y it shines a g a i n between or after the d o w n p o u r s . T h e temperature rarely g o e s

292

GUIANA

a b o v e 8o째 in the shade or falls below 74 at n i g h t . T h e winds on the coast a r e c o o l a n d refreshing, but there a r e n o g a l e s . T h e r e has never been a serious e a r t h q u a k e , for the m u d of the settled districts acts as a non-conductor to the s h o c k s , which a r e v e r y r a r e . F l o o d s are p r o v i d e d a g a i n s t by the system of dams and ditches, a n d the building of d w e l l i n g houses on pillars prevents d a m a g e , even should a d a m be b r o k e n a w a y . U n l i k e the W e s t Indies, G u i a n a is entirely free f r o m h u r r i c a n e s . 0

CHAPTER

XVI

TRADE Value of exports—Amounts at different periods—Sugar—Gold— Balata — Timber — Diamonds — Coconuts — Coffee — Cacao — Isinglass—Rice—Rubber—Collecting of forest products—A larger population required—Labourers in the towns—Imports —Salt provisions—Wages—Banks—Exports, 1910-11.

D E M E R A R A a n d S u r i n a m have a l w a y s been noted for the v a l u e of their t r a d e with the mother countries. T h e exports per h e a d are still considerable, but a century a g o they were, on account of the h i g h prices, very m u c h l a r g e r . W i t h a population of one hundred thousand, D e m e r a r a and E s s e q u e b o exported produce to the annual v a l u e of about two millions s t e r l i n g — i.e., £ 2 0 per h e a d . T h e present a v e r a g e total is a little more, with three times the n u m b e r of people, but even n o w the value is a b o u t £6 for e a c h individual. In c a l l i n g attention to the value of these colonies to the M o t h e r Country, stress w a s laid on the amount of shipping employed, the m a c h i n e r y imported, a n d the home duties levied. G r e a t c h a n g e s have taken place d u r i n g the century, but there can be no question that British G u i a n a is still v a l u a b l e to the U n i t e d Kingdom. B u t whereas forty or fifty years a g o its sugars were a l w a y s exported to G r e a t Britain, n o w 293

294

GUIANA

they mainly g o to C a n a d a , which has, in recent years, taken the place until lately occupied by the U n i t e d States. In the year 1801 the exports from w h a t is n o w B r i t i s h G u i a n a were, in tons : s u g a r 4 , 7 5 0 , coffee 7 , 1 4 0 , cotton 3 , 8 1 1 , besides 1 3 9 , 7 8 1 g a l l o n s of rum, and some m o l a s s e s . S u g a r c a m e to the front and soon b e g a n to e x c e l when the slave trade was abolished, so that in 1 8 1 6 the amounts w e r e : s u g a r 2 9 , 2 5 0 , coffee 6,000, and cotton 3 , 2 5 0 tons ; with rum 2,000,000 a n d molasses 1,000,000 g a l l o n s . T h e largest export of s u g a r before the emancipation w a s about 50,000 tons in 1 8 2 7 , after which there was a decrease to about 45,000 in 1 8 3 5 , which m a y be considered the last g r o w n b y slave labour. Cotton w a s then recorded as 5 , 3 1 9 bales, coffee 1,640 tons, rum 2 7 , 0 1 4 puncheons, and molasses 2 7 , 1 6 0 c a s k s . T h i s was the last of the prosperous years for quite a long period ; there w a s a g r a d u a l decrease to the lowest point in 1 8 4 6 , when cotton had g o n e entirely and coffee was reduced to 51 tons, to entirely d i s a p p e a r the f o l l o w i n g year, and s u g a r to only 19,000 tons, with 8,384 puncheons rum and 1 4 , 6 0 5 c a s k s molasses. H e r e , however, the d o w n w a r d tendency w a s c h e c k e d by immigration, and the exports of sugar and its by-products, rum a n d molasses, b e g a n to rise, until in 1 8 6 1 they reached the same point they had occupied thirty-four years previous. B u t coffee and cotton were entirely g o n e , and it is only within the last few years that the former has a p p e a r e d in a v e r y small w a y on the export returns. S u g a r has n o w reached t o over a hundred thousand tons, but there is n o l o n g e r any sign of an increase, for, although some l a r g e estates h a v e extended their cultivation, others h a v e been entirely a b a n d o n e d .

TRADE

295

T h e r e are, however, signs of improvement in other directions, for several items h a v e been a d d e d to the export list since s u g a r w a s c h e c k e d in its u p w a r d course. T h e most important of these is g o l d , w h i c h started in 1 8 8 2 w i t h 40 o z . a n d r e a c h e d its highest point in the financial y e a r e n d i n g M a r c h 3 1 s t , 1 9 0 4 , with 1 3 7 , 6 2 9 oz. T h e e n c o u r a g i n g s t e a d y increase which led up to this substantial result has not, h o w ever, been continuous, for the y e a r 1 9 0 9 - 1 0 recorded only 6 4 , 8 3 0 oz., and that e n d i n g M a r c h , 1911, 5 5 , 5 4 3 oz. T h e r e is r o o m for further development here, as in other exports, a n d possibly this is o n l y a temporary check. B a l a t a has lately c o m e to the front in Surinam, as well as British G u i a n a . It has shared in the rubber boom, and is n o w fetching a g o o d price. The first sample w a s sent from British G u i a n a in 1 8 5 9 , and at the L o n d o n E x h i b i t i o n of 1862 it was brought into notice, with the result that in 1 8 6 5 o v e r 20,000 l b . were e x p o r t e d . A f t e r that it fell off, only to revive a g a i n , until in 1 8 8 9 the export reached 3 6 3 , 4 8 0 l b . , after which it a g a i n declined for a few y e a r s , to r e a c h over 500,000 l b . in 1 9 0 2 - 3 a n d beyond the million in 1 9 0 8 - 9 . B e i n g a natural forest product, it has to be collected in the s a m e w a y as rubber, a n d the industry n o w e m p l o y s a l a r g e number of n e g r o bleeders. It is a means of opening up the country, and a source of revenue both f r o m the licences a n d export d u t y . T i m b e r is b e c o m i n g of some importance, but nothing to what it m i g h t b e . T h e export was p r o hibited in early times, a n d it w a s not until 1 8 5 1 that it a p p e a r e d in the list of exports f r o m B r i t i s h G u i a n a with 1 7 7 , 7 8 0 cubic feet, p r o b a b l y all g r e e n heart. T h e highest point w a s reached in 1 8 9 6 - 7 ,

296

GUIANA

when 4 0 4 , 2 3 4 cubic feet were r e c o r d e d . Charcoal is exported to the W e s t Indian islands, especially B a r b a d o s , where a l s o there is a market for w a l l a b a shingles for roofing, a n d firewood. D i a m o n d s are receiving attention, but the stones are g e n e r a l l y small, running from ten to fifteen to the c a r a t . T h e exports started in 1 9 0 0 - 1 with 9 9 6 carats a n d reached 1 0 , 9 4 9 in 1 9 0 2 - 3 a n d 7 , 1 8 0 in 1 9 0 9 - 1 0 . T h e stones are similar to those of B r a z i l , a n d of g o o d quality. C o c o n u t s figure in the exports in some years to the n u m b e r of half a million ; c o p r a is receiving attention, a n d fibre c a n be obtained in l a r g e quantities. Coffee is g r o w n mainly for l o c a l consumption in British G u i a n a , but in S u r i n a m there is a small export, which in 1910 a m o u n t e d to 1 5 9 t o n s . C a c a o is most prominent in S u r i n a m with 2,022 tons in 1 9 1 0 , while British G u i a n a h a s had only about 60 tons in its best years, besides the local m a r k e t s u p p l y . T h i s product can be increased to a n y extent, a n d compares in quality with that of T r i n i d a d . A m o n g other products isinglass, or fish-glue, figures at its highest to about 16,000 l b . in the British c o l o n y . T h e latest addition to the exports is rice, which until a few years a g o was imported in immense quantities. O v e r e i g h t i illion pounds w e r e exported in 1 9 0 8 - 9 , and it is m-easing, while the imports h a v e fallen from near inc 12,000 tons to 3 5 4 tons in 1909. R u b b e r is b e i n g collected from the forest a n d planted. It first appeare ecte in the exports in 1 9 0 4 - 5 with 9 5 1 l b . , a n d in 1909 in to it r e a c h e d 6,369 l b . A s G u i a n a is similar to 9-1 A m a z o n region, there the

LANDING FIREWOOD, GEORGETOWN.

To face p. 297.

TRADE

297

is n o reason w h y it should not become a v e r y important source for the future supply of the world, for it is b e i n g l a r g e l y planted. B a l a t a a n d rubber c o l l e c t i n g requires n e g r o e s , for E a s t Indians are hardly suited to the exposure of a life in the forest. A g a i n , the immigration authorities will not permit of their e m p l o y m e n t b e y o n d the possibility of p r o p e r superintendence. It follows, therefore, that n e g r o e s f r o m B a r b a d o s o r some of t h e W e s t Indian Islands will soon h a v e to be i m p o r t e d . W e have shown in another chapter h o w n e c e s s a r y to the development of the country is free i m m i g r a t i o n . W h a t w e mean by free is that the immigrant should not be bound to a plantation and be under G o v e r n ment control. A s a free m a n he should b e a b l e to e n g a g e himself in a n y work, r e g a r d l e s s of the existence of a hospital, doctor, and immigration agent. T h e r e are, however, the B r i t i s h a n d I n d i a n Governments to be r e c k o n e d with, and they naturally object to a n y c h a n c e of a system w h e r e there is no responsibility. U n d e r that now l e g a l n o one c a n e n g a g e coolies unless he has complied with the r e g u lat ions and satisfied the authorities, w h i c h only the proprietors of a p a y i n g s u g a r estate can d o . W h e n the coolie is free he can hire himself to a n y one, but even then there is an a m o u n t of supervision that s o m e w h a t interferes with his actions ; in fact, there is something like a paternal c a r e e x e r c i s e d which does not consist with complete f r e e d o m . It is not a l w a y s possible to g e t labour for n e w industries, therefore they are nipped in the b u d . P a l g r a v e thus speaks of this difficulty in S u r i n a m :â&#x20AC;&#x201D; A n d so that a colony m a y flourish, be w e a l t h y , prosperous, successful, what first? Population. What second? Population. W h a t third, thirtieth, 11

298

GUIANA

three-hundredth if you w i l l ? Population. B u t let not the w o r d be misconstrued. B y ‘ population ’ I do not mean the sufficient merely ; that is, a p o p u l a tion just a d e q u a t e to the w o r k i n g of l a r g e estates, with n o t h i n g o v e r — e n o u g h for a monopoly of labour and strength, whatever its direction ; this is not the ‘ population ’ I m e a n . O r rather, it is this, a n d something more ; this, a n d a surplus population into the b a r g a i n — ‘ over-population,’ in fact, with an ample m a r g i n , after the l a r g e properties of the land have d r a w n from it their n e c e s s a r y labour-supply, to create, enclose, a n d cultivate those small f r e e holds, that varied minor produce, without which staple products are only an unbuttressed w a l l ; vast exports, a vast risk ; a n d g i a n t estates, a g i a n t instability. N o cup is truly full till it runs over ; n o m a n rich till he has not e n o u g h only, but to spare ; n o territory flourishing till it has a n over-supply of labour a n d life, sufficient not for g r e a t uses only, but for small — f o r waste at times.” T h e labouring population in the towns mainly c o n sists of wharf n e g r o e s , who get a precarious living by l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g the s t e a m e r s . T h e y are v e r y rough, a n d cause trouble at times. In 1 9 0 5 they rioted in G e o r g e t o w n , and a few were shot by the police before the trouble could be b r o u g h t to an end. A s a rule, however, they w o r k very well, for they are strong, and will g o on steadily for m a n y hours ; in fact, it is in j o b b i n g like this where the n e g r o excels. H e does not like to work continuously as a plantation hand, but when he can earn in a few hours e n o u g h to k e e p him for several d a y s , he is g e n e r a l l y satisfied. T h e imports are less than the exports by about half a million sterling per a n n u m . T h e y consist

STABROEK MARKET, GEORGETOWN.

To face p. 299.

TRADE

299

mainly of food substances, the highest in value b e i n g flour, after w h i c h comes c u r e d fish. Clothing materials a r e important items, as are a l s o m a c h i n e r y and tools. It is a n interesting fact that cured fish has a l w a y s been imported ; formerly it was salt herrings for the slaves, n o w cod is the most important. W h e n the old trading factories existed ship's rations were r e g u l a r l y issued ; on the plantations a l l o w a n c e s to slaves were issued on similar lines to supplement the g r o u n d provisions, and the staple of cod-fish and plantains remains yet the food of the n e g r o , with the addition of b r e a d . G o l d - d i g g e r s a n d b a l a t a bleeders cannot c a r r y fresh meat or v e g e t a b l e s , ship's rations are therefore as n e c e s s a r y in their case as in that of the trading factories. F o r t y years a g o e v e r y b o d y lived on such poor nutriment ; with the g e n e r a l use of c a n n e d food of a l l kinds, this has u n d e r g o n e a g r e a t c h a n g e , which is undoubtedly for the better. T h e coolies on the plantations work by the task ; this was introduced long a g o to suit the seven a n d a half hours of the “ apprentices’ ” d a y . It is g e n e r a l l y understood that an a b l e - b o d i e d man c a n do two such tasks in twelve hours. T h e price varies a c c o r d i n g to the labour supply, but m a y be r e c k o n e d at a shilling a task. H o w e v e r , the E a s t Indian rarely earns more than a shilling a d a y — i . e . , he does no more than his legal amount of w o r k . This may seem small w a g e s , but as he c a n live in comfort on half there is no real w a n t . T h e n e g r o will s o m e times work at cane-cutting, for which higher w a g e s are paid, but he cannot be reckoned upon for the ordinary routine tasks. H e does not, however, earn as m u c h for any length of time, for a n y t h i n g like continuous labour is abhorrent to h i m .

GUIANA

300

W h e n e m p l o y e d at g o l d - d i g g i n g and b a l a t a - b l e e d i n g the labourer is paid a b o u t t w o shillings a d a y , with rations ; without rations the pay w o u l d be about 2s. 8d. S t o r e porters g e t a b o u t ten dollars a month, and shopmen of the lower g r a d e s f r o m twenty to thirty d o l l a r s . E u r o p e a n s necessarily d e m a n d a n d g e t what a p p e a r to be h i g h salaries, but as the cost of living for t h e m is very m u c h m o r e than for the Creoles, this is n e c e s s a r y . Business is carried on as in other countries. O p e n shops with p l a t e - g l a s s fronts have taken the place of the close stores of fifty years a g o , when a stranger would remark that G e o r g e t o w n was half a century behind. T h e r e are two banks in G e o r g e t o w n , the British Guiana, a l o c a l c o m p a n y , a n d a b r a n c h of the C o l o n i a l B a n k . T h e c u r r e n c y is E n g l i s h silver and the money of account, the dollar of 100 halfpence. T h e banks issue notes of five dollars and u p w a r d s , which are redeemable in silver. T h e exports of British G u i a n a for the financial y e a r e n d i n g M a r c h 3 1 s t , 1 9 1 1 , w e r e :â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. Value,

Sugar Rum Molasses Molascuit Rice Rice meal Coconuts Copra Coffee Cacao Citrate of

100,954 tons 2,996,600 glns. (proof)

I79,463 glns.

9,230 tons 8,474,214 lb.

1,288 tons 1,023,631

lime

4,994,23I

457,035 36,198 105,267 242,895 11,99O

80,447 lb.

23,387 2,646

108,378 lb.

10,149

46,347 lb. 7,928 lb.

5,020 948

301

TRADE NATURAL AND F O R E S T PRODUCTS.

Gold Silver Diamonds Balata Rubber Timber Lumber Wallaba posts... Railway sleepers Shingles Firewood Gum anime Isinglass

55,543 oz. 285 oz. 3,009 carats 1,162,588 lb. 1,156 lb. 256,845 c. ft. 335,108

946,777 157 29,573 650,192 899 94.275 32,578 2,704 3,980 12,949 20,063 468 5,752

ft.

5,946 12,694 2,996,600 9,912 tons 3,124 lb. I7.833

T h e exports f r o m D u t c h G u i a n a in 1 9 1 0 were as follows :â&#x20AC;&#x201D; AGRICULTURAL

Sugar Rum Cacao Coffee

...

NATURAL

Gold Timber Letterwood Balata

...

PRODUCTS.

...

9,720 129,793 2,022 159

tons glns. tons tons

PRODUCTS.

31,045 oz. 59,400 c. ft. 245 tons 1,983,613 lb.

BIBLIOGRAPHY A p p u n , C . F . , U n t e r den T r o p e n , Jena, 1 8 7 1 , 2 v o l s . Argosy Handbook and Directory, Georgetown, 1909-10. B a n c r o f t , E . , E s s a y on the N a t u r a l H i s t o r y of G u i a n a , London, 1 7 6 9 . B e e b e , M . B . a n d C . W., O u r S e a r c h for a W i l d e r ness, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 1 0 . Bennett, E . G . , Illustrated H i s t o r y of B r i t i s h G u i a n a , Georgetown, 1866. B e r n a u , R e v . J . H . , Missionary L a b o u r s in B r i t i s h Guiana, London, 1847. Boddam-Whetham, J . W . , Roraima and British Guiana, London, 1 8 7 9 . B o l i n g b r o k e , H . , V o y a g e to the D e m e r a r y , L o n d o n , 1807. B o n a p a r t e , R., L e s H a b i t a n s d e S u r i n a m e , P a r i s , 1884. Bouyer, F., Guyane Francaise, Paris, 1867. Brett, R e v . W . H . , Indian Missions in G u i a n a , London, 1 8 5 1 . — — Indian T r i b e s of G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 8 . B r i e v e n over het bestuur d e Colonien E s s e q u e b o en D e m e r a r y , g e w i s s a l d tusschen d e H e e r A r i s t o d e m u s en S i n c e r u s , A m s t e r d a m , 1 7 8 8 , 1 2 v o l s . Bronkhurst, R e v . H . V . P . , A m o n g the H i n d u s a n d C r e o l e s of British G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 8 . — T h e C o l o n y of British G u i a n a a n d its L a b o u r i n g Population, 1 8 8 3 . 303

304

GUIANA

B r o u s s e a u , G . , L e s R i c h e s s e s de la G u y a n e F r a n ç a i s e , Paris, 1 9 0 1 . B r o w n , C . B . , C a n o e a n d C a m p Life in B r i t i s h Guiana, London, 1 8 7 6 . Brown, C. B., and J. G. Sawkins, Geological Survey of British G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 8 7 5 . B r y a n t , Joshua, A c c o u n t of the Insurrection of the N e g r o S l a v e s in D e m e r a r a , 1 8 2 3 , G e o r g e t o w n , 1824. Cerfberr, A . E . , L a G u y a n e , Civilisation et barbaric, Coutumes et p a y s a g e s , P a r i s , 1 8 5 4 . C o u d r e a u , H . A . , D i x ans d e G u y a n e , P a r i s , 1 8 9 2 . L a F r a n c e 6quinoxiale, P a r i s , 1 8 8 7 . C r e v a u x , J . , V o y a g e s dans l ' A m e r i q u e du S u d , P a r i s , 1883. D a l t o n , H . G . , H i s t o r y of British G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1855, 2 vols. D a n c e , R e v . C. D . , C h a p t e r s f r o m a G u i a n e s e L o g book, G e o r g e t o w n , 1 8 8 1 . D e n i s , F . , L a G u y a n e , ou histoire, &c, P a r i s , 1 8 2 3 , 2 vols. Duff, R e v . R., British G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 8 6 6 . F e r m i n , P . , D e s c r i p t i o n g é n é r a l e , historique, g e o graphique et physique de la. C o l o n i e de Surinam, Amsterdam, 1 7 6 9 , 2 vols. H a n c o c k , D r . , Observations on B r i t i s h Guiana, London, 1833. H a n d b o o k of British G u i a n a (official), G e o r g e t o w n , 1909. H a r c o u r t , R o b e r t , A R e l a t i o n of a V o y a g e to G u i a n a , London, 1 6 1 3 . H a r r i s , C . A . , a n d J . A . J. de Villiers, S t o r m v a n ’s G r a v e s a n d e : the R i s e of British G u i a n a ( H a k luyt S o c i e t y ) , 2 v o l s . , L o n d o n , 1 9 1 1 . H a r r i s o n , J . B . , T h e G e o l o g y of the Goldfields of British G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 3 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

305

H a r t s i n c k , J . J., B e s c h r i j v i n g van G u i a n a , A m s t e r d a m , 1770, 2 vols. Herlein, J . D . , B e s c h r y v i n g e van d e V o l k - p l a n t i n g e Zuriname, Leeuwarden, 1718. I m T h u r n , E . F . , A m o n g the Indians of British Guiana, London, 1883. Josa, R e v . F . P . L., T h e Apostle of the Indians, W. H . B r e t t , L o n d o n , 1887. K a p l e r , A . , S u r i n a m , S e i n L a n d , & c . , Stuttgart, 1887. K e y e n , O t t o , K u r t z e r E n t w u r f t von N i e u N e d e r l a n d und Guajana, Leipsig, 1672. K e y m i s , L., A R e l a t i o n of the S e c o n d V o y a g e t o G u i a n a , performed a n d written in the y e a r 1596, London, 1596. K i r k e , H . , T w e n t y - f i v e Y e a r s in British G u i a n a , London, 1898. K o r t Historisch V e r h a a l C o l o n i e B e r b i c e , A m s t e r d a m ,

1805.

L a n s , W . H . , Mission de C a y e n n e , P a r i s , 1837. Malouet, V . P . , C o l l e c t i o n de M é m o i r e s et C o r r e s pondences Officielles sur l'administration des C o l o n i e s , et notamment sur l a G u i a n e française et hollandaise, P a r i s , A n x . (1803), 5 v o l s . Milliroux, M . F . , D e m e r a r y , transition de l ' e s c l a v a g e à la liberte, P a r i s , 1843. N a s s y , D . J . C , E s s a i Historique sur la C o l o n i e de Surinam, P a r a m a r i b o , 1788, 2 vols. N e t s c h e r , P . M . , Gescheidenis v a n de C o l o n i e s E s s e quebo, D e m e r a r y , a n d B e r b i c e , T h e H a g u e ,

1888.

N o u v i o n , V . d e , E x t r a i t s des A u t e u r s et V o y a g e u r s qui ont écrit sur la G u y a n e d e 1596 a 1844, Paris, 1844. Overseer’s Manual, Georgetown, 1887. P e n a r d , F . P . de M e n s c h e t e n d e A n b i d d e r s d e Zonneslang, Paramaribo, 1908. 20

306

GUIANA

P i n c k a r d , D r . G . , Letters from the W e s t Indies, London, 1806, 3 vols. Pistorius, T . , K o r t e en Z a k e l y k e B e s c h r i v i n g e v a n de Colonie v a n Z u r i n a m e , A m s t e r d a m , 1 7 6 3 . Pitou, L . A . , R e i z e n a c h C a y e n n e , L e i p s i g , 1 8 3 8 . P r a d t , M . de, T r o i s A g e s des C o l o n i e s , P a r i s , 1 8 0 1 . P r e m i u m , B a r t o n , E i g h t y e a r s in British G u i a n a , London, 1850. R a l e g h , S i r W a l t e r , T h e D i s c o v e r i e of the l a r g e , rich, a n d beautiful E m p i r e of G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 5 9 6 . R o d way, J a m e s , Handbook of British Guiana, Georgetown, 1893. H i s t o r y of B r i t i s h G u i a n a from 1 6 6 8 . G e o r g e town, 1 8 9 1 - 4 , 3 vols. In the G u i a n a F o r e s t , L o n d o n , 1 8 9 4 ; R e v i s e d Edition, 1 9 1 1 . a n d T h o s . W a t t , A n n a l s of G u i a n a : D i s c o v e r y a n d Settlement to 1 6 6 8 , G e o r g e t o w n , 1 8 8 8 . S a c k , A . v o n , N a r r a t i v e of a V o y a g e to S u r i n a m , London, 1 8 1 0 . S a n d e m a n , P . , M e t e o r o l o g i c a l E l e m e n t s of British Guiana, Greenock, 1 8 4 7 . Schomburghk, Otto, Robert H . Schomburghk Reisen in G u i a n a a n d a m O r i n o c o w a h r e n d de jahre, 1835-9 ; Leipsig, 1 8 4 1 . S c h o m b u r g h k , R i c h a r d , R e i s e n in Britisch G u i a n a in den jahren, 1 8 4 0 - 4 ; L e i p s i g , 1 8 4 8 , 4 v o l s . S c h o m b u r g h k , R o b e r t H . , R e p o r t s t o the R o y a l G e o g r a p h i c a l Society, R.G.S. Journal, 1 8 3 6 - 4 4 . A Description of British G u i a n a , G e o g r a p h i c a l and Statistical, L o n d o n , 1 8 4 0 . T h e F i s h e s of G u i a n a (Jardine's N a t u r a l i s t ' s Library), London, 1 8 4 1 , 2 vols. T w e l v e Views of the Interior of British G u i a n a , with descriptive letterpress, L o n d o n , 1 8 4 1 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

307

Sijpesteijn, J . C . A . van, B e s c h r i j v i n g van S u r i n a m e — H i s t o r i s c h — G e o g r a p h i s c h — e n Statistisch o v e r zight, T h e H a g u e , 1 8 5 4 . Stedman, John G a b r i e l , N a r r a t i v e of a F i v e Y e a r s ' E x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t the R e v o l t e d N e g r o e s of S u r i n a m , in G u i a n a or the W i l d C o a s t of S o u t h A m e r i c a , from 1 7 7 2 to 1 7 7 7 , with a history of that country and its productions, L o n d o n , 1 7 9 6 , 2 vols. Surinaamsche A l m a n a k , P a r a m a r i b o ( a n n u a l l y ) . Teenstra, M . D . , D e L a n d b o u w in de K o l o n i e S u r i name, G r o n i n g e n , 1 8 3 5 , 2 v o l s . T e r n a u x - C o m p a n s . , N o t i c e Historique sur la G u y a n e Française, Paris, 1 8 4 3 . N o t i c e Statistique sur la G u y a n e F r a n ç a i s e , avec un carte de la G u y a n e , P a r i s , 1 8 4 3 . T h o m p s o n , L., O v e r z i c h t d e r Gescheidinis van S u r i name, T h e H a g u e , 1 9 0 1 . Timehri, the J o u r n a l of the R o y a l A g r i c u l t u r a l and C o m m e r c i a l S o c i e t y of British Guiana, 1 8 8 2 - 9 9 , 17 v o l s . Veness, R e v . W . T . , E l D o r a d o , or British G u i a n a , London, 1866. — — T e n Y e a r s of Mission Life in British G u i a n a , London, n.d. W a l l b r i d g e , R e v . E . A . , T h e M a r t y r of D e m e r a r a , London, 1848. W a r r e n , G., A n Impartial D e s c r i p t i o n of S u r i n a m , upon the Continent of Guiana, in A m e r i c a , London, 1667. W a t e r t o n , C h a r l e s , W a n d e r i n g s in South A m e r i c a , the N o r t h - w e s t of the U n i t e d States, a n d the A n t i l l e s , in the y e a r s 1 8 1 2 , 1 8 1 6 , 1 8 2 0 , a n d 1824, London, 1828. W o l b e r s , Geschiedenis van S u r i n a m e , A m s t e r d a m , 1861.

GUIANA

308

NEWSPAPERS

British G u i a n a —

The

Dutch

Argosy and Daily Chronicle (dailies), the People and the Official Gazette (twice a w e e k ) , and the New Guiana—

Echo

(weekly).

Suriname, De Surinamer, De West, De Surinaamsche Bode, Onze West, Nieuwe Surinaamsche Courant (all twice a w e e k ) , The Weekly Echo, and the Official Gazette. French

Guiana—

Le Journal Official, Socialiste.

L’œil,

Le Sentinelle,

and Le

G.W. Bacon & Co., Ltd., 127 S t r a n d L o n d o n

112225

London : T. F i s h e r

Unwin

INDEX Ants, 287 Apprenticeship of ex-slaves, 121 Arawaks, an Indian tribe, 44 Arrowroot, 259 Artesian wells, 32, 38 Ataroipu or the Devil's rock 29

Abary river, boundary of Berbice, 83 Abbensetts, a planter in Berbice, 91 Acclimatisation, 199 Adoe, Captain of Bush negroes, 78 Adventurers, 21 Agricultural instructors, 158 Agricultural products, 249 Africans, 188, 201 Akarra, rebel negro chief, 96,

Atta, rebel negro chief, 97 B Bad name of Guiana, 136 Balata, 264, 295, 297 Balsam, copaiba, 266 Bamboos, 269 Bananas, 128, 257 Banks, 300 Bannister, Governor of Surinam, 69 Barbados, 51, 52, 58, 59 Barima, settlement in, 45 Barry, Governor of Surinam, 60 83 Bartica,

97 Akawois, a tribe of Indians, 211, 221 Akawois nutmeg, a spice, 266 Amazon Company, 49 Amelioration of slavery, 116 American War, 110 Anatto, 261 Animals, 237 Anime or locust gum, 265 Anti-slavery agitation, 20, 24, 112, 124, 201

Batavian Republic, 107, 109 309

310

INDEX

Beaujon, Anthony, Governor of Demerara, 107 Berberine, 268 Berbiceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Founded, 58 Colony, 62 Trade, 81 Move to coast, 112 Captured, 84 Charter, 87 Insurrection, 90 Berbice Association, 23, 86, 112 Bibliography, 303 Binkes, Admiral, 71 Birds, 240 Birth-rate, 234 Bitumen, 267 Bonni and Baron, two Bush negro chiefs, 79 Botanic Gardensâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Georgetown, 275 Cayenne, 151 Bovianders, 179 Brandwagt, Demerara, 89 Brazil nut, 267 Brazilian boundary, 134 Bread-fruit, 259 Bretigny, the mad Governor of Cayenne, 54 Brick-making clays, 270 British conquer Demerara, 101, 108, 109

British Guiana, union of Demerara with Berbice, 120 Buildings in Georgetown, 278 Bullet-tree, source of balata, 264 Bush negroes, 77, 188 Buxton, Fowell, 116 Byam, English Governor of Surinam, 64 C Cacao, 256 Canje river, 90 Cannibals, 196 Canning's resolutions in Parliament, 116 Cape North Company, 54 Carib Indians, 44, 196 Carmichael, Hugh Lyle, British Governor of Demerara, 111 Cassard, Jacques, French Corsair, 76, 84 Cassava, 213, 260 Cattle-farming, 36, 226, 260 Cavaliers and Roundheads in Surinam, 53 Cayenne, 53, 62, 112, 170 Captured by British, 67 A refuge for Corsairs, 76 A blot on Guiana, 139 Cayenne town, 151

311

INDEX Cedar, red, 263 Census returns, 232 Charcoal-burning, 268 Children, mortality of, 229 Chinese coolies, theircharacter, 193, 278 Churches, 157 Cleveland, President, and the Venezuelan boundary, 133 Climate, 291 Clothing for tropics, 224, 235 Coconuts, 258, 296 Coffee, 86, 109, 110, 256, 296 Coffy, rebel negro chief in Berbice, 96, 97 Colonial Council, Dutch, 105 Colonisation, 21, 140 Colony fever, 289 Coloured people, 191 Combined Court of Demerara, 154 Communication, 273 Cooliesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; East Indian, 124, 128, 165, 208, 297 Chinese, 126, 204 Copal resin, 265 Copra, 258 Corn, Indian, 258 Corsairs, 83, 84 Cotton, 109, 110, 225 Counani Republic, 145 Courida sea defences, 37

Court of Policy, British Guiana, 153 Crabwood timber, 263 Crabwood or crab oil, 266 Creeks, 28 Cricket, 277 Crime, 155 Crynnsen, Admiral, captures Surinam, 64, 69 Curare, 220 D Dageraad, a plantation in Berbice, 94, 96 Dalli oil, 266 Death-rate, 233 Decency, clothing for the tropics, 235 De Graaf, an early planter, 82 De la Barre, Governor of Cayenne, 57 De Lezy, Governor of C ayenne 66, 71 Demerara riverâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Opened, 88 Progress, 100 Captured, 101, 102, 108, 109 Diamond plantation, 127 Diamonds, 33, 272, 296 Dreyfus case, 20 Drunkenness, 156, 227, 289 Du Casse, the French Corsair, 76

312

INDEX

Dutch liking for tobacco, 19, 46 Dutch trading, 46, 58, 62 E East Coast, Demerara, insurrection, 117 East Indian coolies, 24, 124, 178, 192, 202, 277 Edict of Nantes, revocation of, 72 Education, 158 Emancipationâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; In British Guiana, 121, 201 In Surinam, 128 Empoldering, 252 Epiphytes, 245 Equinoctial Company, French, 57 Essequebo, 58, 62, 80, 87, 251 Eta fibre, 267 Exaggeration of travellers' tales, 287 Exports, 109, 294, 300 F Falls and rapids, 27, 279 Fauna, 237 Ferns, 248 Ferry, Anthony, French privateer, 83 Fevers, 289

Fibres, 258, 267 Fires and fire stations, 162 Fisheries, 261 Fishes, 241 Fish-glue or isinglass, 260 Flora, 243 Flowers on the Roraima slope, 281 Forest products, 261 Forest scenery, 279 Fort Island, Essequebo, 87 Fort Nassau, Berbice, 90 Fort Zeelandia, Surinam, 64 French conquer Demerara, 102 French Guiana. See Cayenne French war, 110 Fruits, 259 G Ganje, 228 Garden city (Georgetown), 161, 272 Gelskerke, Hermanus, Commander of Essequebo, 87 Georgetownâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Founded, 103 Named, 111 Government, 161 City, 274 Market, 275 Gladstone, John, and first coolies, 124, 203

313

INDEX Gold, 32, 129, 270, 271 Government— Of British Guiana, 153 Of Surinam, 168 Of Cayenne, 170 Governor of British Guiana, 167 Gravesande, Commander of Essequebo, 87, 97 Greenheart— Timber, 262 Seeds and bark, 268 Guiana— Description, 25 Name, 26 Coast of, 26 Forest, 26 Four zones, 30 Guinea-corn, 258

H Hackia timber, 263 Harcourt, Robert, his early settlement, 48 Harmon, Admiral, captures Cayenne and Surinam, 65, 66 Health, 227 Hevea rubber, 265 Hospitality of Indians, 289 Hububalli timber, 263 Huguenots, 72

Hughues, Victor, Governor of Cayenne, 112 Humiri balsam, 266 Hyawa resin, 265 I Immigration— African, 123 Coolie, 124,165 Agent, 165 Society, 124 Imports, 298 Indian corn, 258 India rubber, 265 Indians— Difficulties

with,

51,

83 Slaves, 83 Missions, 182 Huntsmen, 224 Character, 194, 211, 286 Indigo, 261 Insects, 237, 242, 287 Isinglass, 260 Islands, 27 Itabos, 26, 28

J Jams and jellies, 259 Javanese, 196, 210 Jews, 49, 60, 72, 197

53,

278,

314

INDEX

Jigger fleas, 288 Jute substitutes, 267

Lime fruit, 259 Locust gum, 265 Locust timber, 263

K Kaieteur Fall, 33, 272, 279 Kaolin, 270 Kersaint, Admiral, Count de, 102 Key mis, Capt. L., voyage to Guiana, 22, 46 Kijk-over-al, fort in Essequebo, 47, 58, 81, 87 Kingston, Governor, 102 Kinip fruit, 268 Kitchen-middens, 43 Kukenaam, 282 L Labour supply, 199, 297 Laing, a Dutch settler, 180 Land grants, 159 Laurel oil, 266 Laws, 154 Leigh, Captain Chas., first settler in Guiana, 22, 48 Letter-wood, 262 “ Liberty, equality, and fraternity ” in Demerara, 105, 106 Library in Georgetown, 158 Licences, 160

If Madeiran Portuguese, 124,126, 194 Magnificent province, a, 20 Maize, 258 Malarial fever, 289 Mango fruit, 259 Mangrove bark, 267 Marshall, Captain, settler in Surinam, 51 Masara timber, 263 Medical service, 164 Medicines, 268 Missionaries, 225 Mixed breeds, 186 Modesty of Indian women, 223 Monkey-pot baste, 267 Mora— Timber, 262 Seeds as food, 268 “ Mosquito worm,” 288 Mosquitoes, preventive measures against, 163, 288 Mouans, Baron, French privateer, 84 Mountains, 26, 28, 30 Municipalities, 161 Munster, Treaty of, 59

315

INDEX Museum, Georgetown, 158 Music, negro, 277 N Negro catechists, 182 Negro character, 187, 191, 276 New Amsterdam, 109, 163 New Netherlands, 20 “ New Slavery,” 203, 205 New York exchanged for Surinam, 66, 71 Newspapers, 308 North, Captain Roger, and his colony, 49 Nova Zeelandia, 60 Nuts, edible, 267 O Ochres, 270 Opium, 228 “ Orange ” colony, 21 Oranges, 259 Orchids, 245, 268 Orphan Asylum, 158 Orr, John Sayers, anti-popery agitator, 127 Oyapok River, 21, 47, 48, 49

Peereboom, Berbice, 92 Pegas, 269 Penal servitude in Cayenne, 144 Pepper-pot, 260, 289 Petroleum, 269 Piaimen, 219 Pilgrim fathers, 19 Pioneer work, 21 Pita hemp, 267 Piwarrie feasts, 222 Plan of redress, 105 Plantains, 181, 257 Polygamy, 219 Pomeroon colony, 60, 64, 71, 83 Population, 44, 230, 297 Post Office, 160 Pottery, ancient, 42 Prehistoric relics, 41 Privateers and pirates, 101 Purple-heart timber, 263 Q Quartz sand, 269 R

P Palms, 247 Paper stock, 269 Paramaribo, 72

21,

Railways, 36, 166, 274 Rainfall, 291 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 19, 46, 49

INDEX

316

Ramring, Predicant, in Berbice, 92 Rapids and falls, 29, 274 Refugees from Cayenne, 146 Revenue of British Guiana, 155 Revolutionary exiles in Cayenne, 142 Rice, 178, 256, 296 RiotsNegro, 127 Revolutionary, 106 River people, 179 River scenery, 279 Rivers, 27 Roads, 274 Rocks, curious, 29 Rodney, Admiral, 101 Rol, Hendrik, Commander of Essequebo, 80, 81 Roraima, 29, 280 Royalties, 160 Royville, M. de, Governor of Cayenne, 55

S St. Andries, a port in Berbice, 95 Samson, Captain of Bush negroes, 78 Sand for glass-making, 269 Sand reefs, 26

Sand-stones, 33 Sanitary conditions, 227 Sapium rubber, 265 Sapodilla fruit, 259 Sapphires, 272 Savannahs, 31, 36 Scharphuijsen, Governor

Surinam, 76 Schools, 157 Science and Agriculture Department, 158 Scott, Major John, 64 Sea defences, 37 Seasoning fever, 289 Sexual laxity, 228 Sickness, 289 Silverballi timber, 262 Simarubaâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Timber, 264 Bark, 268 Sisal, 267 Slavery, 23, 114, 198 Slavesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Imported, 108 Runaways, 125 Insurrections, 89, 90, 117 Emancipation, 121 Compensation for, 123 Smith, Rev. John, 117 Society of Surinam, 73 Soil, 35 Sommelsdijk, Governor of Surinam, 73, 251

INDEX Spanish raid, 46 Stabroek (Georgetown), 104, 111 Stadtholder's letter, 105 Steamers, local, 166 Sugar, 109, n o , 126, 137, 250, 294 Sugar-mills, 254 Surinam, 49, 51, 61, 64, 65, 68, 69, 125, 168, 200, 251 Swamps, 39 T Tadja festival, 276 Tanning barks, 267 Tapioca, 259 Tararica, English capital of Surinam, 52, 64 Telegraphic communication, 160 Temperature, 291 Tibiserie fibre, 267 Ticks, 288 Tierens, Governor of Berbice, 86 Timbers, 261, 264, 265 Timehri rocks, 43 Tobacco, 19, 46, 49, 261 Tonka beans, 266 Trade, 249,291 Tramway, 274 Travelling, 283, 288 Tropical labour, 198

317 V

Value of colonies, 291 Van Batenburg, Governor of Berbice, 112 Van Berkel, Factor of Berbice, 81 Van Groenwegen, founder of Essequebo, 58 Van Grovestius, Governor of Demerara, 106 Van Hoogenheim, Governor of Berbice, 90 Van Hoorn's Company, owners of Berbice, 85 Van Peeres, owners of Berbice, 58, 84 Vanilla, 266 Venezuela boundary dispute, 20, 130 Villages, 165, 171, 232 Virginia compared with Guiana, 19 W Wages, 299 Wallabaâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Timber, 262 Shingles and vat staves, 268 Wamara timber, 262, 263 Warow Indians, 44, 45 Warrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s account of Surinam, 53 Wars, 63, 70, 76, 101, 107, 110

318

INDEX

Water supply of Georgetown, 162 Waterways, 274 West India Company, 58, 86, 89, 104 West Indians in Essequebo, 88

Willoughby, Lord, Founder of Surinam, 51, 52 Willoughby Land (Surinam), 52 Y Yaruri timber, 263 Yellow fever, 124

The Cresbam Press, UNWIN

BROTHERS,

WOKING

AND

LIMITED, LONDON.