Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
From the Editor tech
Sciencegate is back just in time for Highgate School’s Science and Engineering Week 2009, and both are better than ever before. Science Week features talks, workshops, seminars and experiments from both outside speakers and Highgate’s very own teachers and students. Don’t miss the timetable opposite. Once again, this issue is full of interesting science. From particle physics at CERN to the science of Superman to President Obama’s texting habits, this selection shows how ubiquitous science is in society. The status of science still hangs in the balance, however. Far from science teaching in schools and the science-religion clash
(which has recently been particularly bitter in Spain), science risks being forgotten in the economic crisis.
promised at Oxford Univeristy to devote government spending to science for the next ten years:
Why spend money on researching Superman (p.15) when economies are collapsing, many would ask? Why look for supersymmetric particles (p.16) when more are looking for jobs than ever before? John Ellis gives us the answer in his interview (p.18): science isn’t just about curiosity. The pursuit of scientific goals develops an analytical mindset, one which encourages rigorous thought - the sort of approach which could have prevented Britain’s current financial difficulties.
“We will invest more than at any time in our country’s history to make the next decade a decade where British scientific genius can create the low-carbon, high-skill, digital economy that we need.”
And Gordon Brown finally agrees, it would seem. F At the end of February, he
These could be empty words but, just like President Obama who promised to “restore science to its rightful place”, Brown has taken the important first steps. Now is a better time than ever before to rebuild British industry, and a perfect opportunity to do so on a reliable foundation: science.
In this Issue
Articles
In part one of Does spinach just a CERN double not cut it? On p.15, phys whammy, Hugh find out from Stepan Lindsey asks Stepanenko about a what the future holds Serbian discovery that may do the trick. in store on p.16.
On p.5, Max Davidson asks whether regenerative medicine could be the future, and what the ethical implications would be if it were.
Dyslexia is often Who wants a misunderstood. Ferrari when bio Charlotte Pele- tech they can have kanou clears things up a futuristic armchair? on p.11. Nick Hooton reviews the JapanCar exhibiAre you an aspiring tion on p.6. On p.14, David photographer? DiscovJoseph reviews a talk by award-winning er the thrill of capturing It seems that Obama’s physicist Sir Roger the moment on p.12 passion for his Blackwith Terence Ma. Berry is unlimited. On Penrose. p.7 our resident tech Oh dear! Which Arnold Schwarzeneg- expert, Ed Steele, anniversary have ger has met his match questions the effect of chem we forgotten this in the latest prosthetic this on the US. Robbie year? On p.8, let Dr A technology. Bremner introduces Z Szydlo tell you, genyou to the Blade tlemen! Runner on p.10. To answer some of these questions, we interviewed Professor John Ellis OC. Read the highlights on p.18.
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The editor would like to thank in particular David Joseph and Dr Edwards for their help in producing this magazine, and is most grateful to all contributors without whom there would be no Sciencegate. Thanks to Zack Wellin for his cover design. Sciencegate is printed on recycled paper! Please feel free to speak to the editor or send an email to sciencegate@gmail.com with any contributions. We are in the process of developing a Sciencegate website, so keep an eye out for posters. Enjoy the magazine and make the most of Science Week, Max Jamilly
Regulars Goodbye, PS3 - now you can entertain yourself by doing science experiments at home! Find Do try this at Home on p.7. We all know what the internet is really for - Sciencegate’s Websites of the Issue on p.17! One of them is even banned (in Turkey). Finally, the legendary Last Call returns on the back cover to tell you about this season’s must-haves and satisfy your science needs.
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
Highate Science Week 2009 Your guide to everything Science Week has to offer!
Monday 9 March
‘The Most Humane Way to Murder’ – ‘A Matter of Life and Death’ – 1.10pm, M3, yr 12 & 13. Mr Pearce. 1.05pm, B3. All welcome. Dilek Taze.
Economics Society ‘Carbon trading’ 1.30pm, Undercroft. All welcome. Mr. Richard Edwards.
‘The Enlightenment’ – 1.30pm, rm 11. ‘Neurolinguistics: The Study of the Art of Communication’ – 1.05pm, B1. All welcome. Bethea Hanson Jones. All welcome. Lillie Rosenblatt.
Wednesday 11 March
‘Heavens Above! Modern Language Society – ‘Esperanto – can a scientist The Life and Work of create a language?’ 1.05pm, rm 12. All Galileo Galilei’ – to all welcome. Jogendra Hardy and Alesha of Y9 in p5 and Y10 in p 6 in BS. Mr Smith. White. ‘Forensics’ - 1.05pm, B1, All welcome. ‘Why does Toast fall Butter side down?’ – p3+4, yr 7 & 8, BS. Science Hugh Lindsey. author, Mr Richard Robinson. ‘Gene Genie’ – using PCR to unravel ‘Brilliant Bleach’ – Analysis of which your DNA. 4.05pm, bleach is brilliant in yr 13 chemistry B3, yr 11-13. Dr lessons. Whiteford, University Junior Biology of Copenhagen. Society: ‘Bird Continues on Tuesday Migration’ – with Dr Weston. 1.05pm, B1. All welcome. Mr ‘Make your own DNA Necklace’ – in yr Bennett. 11 biology lessons. ‘The Game of Life’ Science Fiction Short Story Competition – submission deadline. – 1.30pm, MC, yr 7-11. Mr Abramson. See Mrs Heindl. Junior Science Club – ‘Crash, Bang, Wallop’ 4.05pm, B3, yr 7 & 8. Dr Weston Tuesday 10 March and Miss Ward. ‘Chemical Detectives’ in yr 9 lessons.
Thursday 12 March
Highgate Film Society – Science and Studies Cinema: ‘Utopia or Dystopia, Visions of General – ‘The the Future’. 1.10pm, AV room, MC. Yr 7 lecture Evolution of the & 8. Mr Bovey. Nervous System’ Dr Three Wise Scientists and Darwin Simon Butt, Imperial poetry – p.1, yr 7, BS. Agnès Arnold- College, London will Forster, Julius Grower and David Joseph give the lecture to yr explain why they are passionate about 12 students. Science followed by reading of poetry by ‘Bilan Carbone’ – yr 12 students yr 7 finalists. presenting carbon footprint of Highgate School in French to yr 11 students in Illustrated talk on lessons. the Caspian Sea Monster – p.1, English Seminar: ‘Fin de Siècle – rm. 5. All Russian Frankenstein, Jekyll and Hyde and the speakers welcome. threat of Science’. 1.15pm, E42. All Max Jamilly. welcome. Dr Kramer. ‘Cosmic Rays and Special Relativity’ – p4, MC. David Globetrotters: ‘Savage Earth: Volcanoes and Disaster Science’ – Joseph. 1.05pm, Gg1, yr 7-9. Miss Chapman. English Seminar: ‘Let us Praise the Gasworks – Science in the Poetry of Philosophy Society: ‘The Challenge of W.H. Auden’ 1.15pm, E43. All welcome. Darwinism to Philosophical Thought’ – 1.10pm, rm 16. All welcome. Ms Mr Catherwood. Gosney. Reptile Society – ‘Cryptozoology’ ‘Making Liquid Nitrogen Ice Cream 1.05pm, B1, yr 7-11. Mr Atkins. and Other Demonstrations’ – 1.05pm, C1. Mr Bains.
Biology Society: ‘Pentadactyl Talks’ – Members of the sixth form will be giving five short talks inspired by evolution. 4.05pm, B1. All welcome.
Friday 13 March ‘Walking with Robots’ – a practical session led by Bernie Holloway from the Science and Technology Regional Organisation and the DT department. p3 + 4, BS, yr 9. Mr Thomson. ‘Green Chemistry’ – p1+2, MC, yr 12 chemists. Dr Ed Marshall from Imperial College, London. E n g l i s h seminar: ‘The Romantic Imagination v. Science’ – 1.15pm, E43. All welcome. Mrs Hyam. ‘Bees’ – 1.05pm, B3. All welcome. Raoul Edward-Rechnitz. ‘Vampyroteuthis Infernalis’: The Vampire Squid from Hell – 1.05pm, B1. All welcome. Ale Sanchez. ‘Robotics’ – 1.05pm, P3. All welcome. Constance Mantle. G e n e t i c Engineering: ‘Making Bacteria Glow in the Dark’ – 4.05pm, B2, yr 12 & 13. Dr Welch.
See the board in Central Hall for more information on all Science Week events.
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Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
News
Science news which didn’t quite make it worldwide © NASA
NASA DOES IT AGAIN - The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO), designed to shed some light on the causes of global warming, has crash-landed into the sea near Antarctica. On 23rd February, the satellite, weighing half a tonne, was launched on a Taurus XL rocket from California. Once deployed (shown right an artist’s impression), its sensors were designed to measure absorbtion by CO2 of sunlight reflected from the Earth, and thereby to locate sources and sinks for the greenhouse gas. But, according to NASA, the rocket lacked propulsion and so the vehicle never even cleared the Earth’s atmosphere. Perhaps NASA should have spent less time thinking up a clever name, and more doing the maths.
© NEW SCIENTIST
FEELING PECKISH? - Where many would opt for a more conventional snack, members of Sword Swallowers’ Association International (SSAI) have developed a rather more unusual appetite. Two weeks ago at London’s Wellcome Institute, SSAI president, Dan Meyers, swallowed three swords at once in front of an audience. Most would attribute the feat to illusion, but X-rays of swordswallowers in action have shown otherwise. Meyers has now released a paper in the British Medical Journal, entitled Sword Swallowing and its side Effects. Presumably, these ‘side effects’ include death. If you aren’t yet convinced that sword-swallowing indicates insanity, go to YouTube for a video of Meyers swallowing two swords underwater in a tank full of sharks - lovely!
THE ORIGIN OF THE PLACEBO EFFECT - A study recently published in the Journal of Neuroscience by a Swedish research team claims to have identified a gene linked to the placebo effect. The effect, where patients’ conditions improve in response to medical care even when the care has no proven benefits, has long been known to doctors (and charlatans). Some see it as the secret behind homeopathy and spiritual healing. Now, however, the researchers’ trials have shown that people respond best to placebo treatments - like being given pills containing nothing but sugar - if they have have a particular variant of a certain gene. So, next time you take Calpol, don’t be too surprised if it really does make you feel better. BRAIN TRAINING IS NOT ALL IT’S MADE OUT TO BE - Thousands in Britain alone have fallen under Dr Kawashima’s spell and bought ‘brain training’ games for consoles like the Nintendo DS. A panel of three neurologists employed by the consumer group Which? has concluded that the games offer no significant improvement in short- or long-term memory or cognitive ability. The brain responds identically, they say, to the games as to playing Tetris, doing a crossword, or surfing the internet. Presumably, people would be better advised - in place of paying £100 for Brain Training on the DS - to play games on the internet, chat to friends, or watch TV. Or read Sciencegate. 4
on
1 billi
the number of frogs eaten worldwide each year
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
The Future of Medicine?
bio Max Davidson Over the last century, medicine has made huge leaps with the help of modern technology and research. The development of antibiotics, antiviral drugs and vaccines, alongside improvements in anaesthesia and surgery, has saved the lives of millions of people worldwide. However, there are still areas of medicine that are relatively undiscovered – treatments involving the restoration of adult body parts.
This type of treatment is known as regenerative medicine. Its main aspect is the use of stem cells to grow replacement tissues and organs. Stem cells are cells that can both divide almost without limit and differentiate into many different types of cell (e.g. muscle, nerve, red blood cell). The stem cells found in early human embryos (called ‘blastocysts’ at this stage, four to five days after conception) are described as pluripotent – they can generate any cell type in the body. These seem to be more useful than adult stem cells, which are restricted to dividing into the types of cell that make up the tissue they came from. That said, there is promising research on ‘plasticity’, where stem cells from one tissue give rise to
cells from completely different tissue types. Inducing pluripotency in adult differentiated cells could deliver all the advantages of embryonic stem cells without the risk of rejection from the immune system and the ethical issues associated with embryonic experimentation. Regenerative medicine would act not as a treatment, but as a cure for many currently incurable diseases such as
diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, spinal cord injuries and neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis and motor neurone disease. There are two branches being currently researched: regeneration ‘in vivo’ (in the living body) and ‘in vitro’ (in the laboratory). Through the exploitation of stem cells, it may be possible to stimulate previously damaged organs into repairing themselves, or if the body does not respond, to grow tissues and organs in a laboratory and implant them into the body. One of the barriers so far is that, in the US, there has been no federal funding strategy for regenerative medicine, and so few links between research groups have been
established. Collaborative work between biologists, clinicians, tissue engineers and biochemists is vital in order to produce safe, effective tissues and organs that can safely be transplanted into humans. Before any breakthroughs can be made, we need a fundamental understanding of how tissues and cells interact and of how embryonic stem cells remain unspecialised and self-renewing for many years whilst adult stem cells do not. Scientists need to identify the signals causing stem cells to differentiate, and which specific signals turn certain genes on and off, generating specific tissue types. Under George Bush, this area of research was limited due to the lack of US government support. Bush called for a limit on funding of stem cell research, principally for religious and ethical reasons. President Obama promised during his election campaign to scrap all bans on research and open up federal funding for embryonic stem cell research. Although he has yet to act, this is an exciting prospect for the future of regenerative medicine. In the long term, although we cannot predict exactly how long it will take, there are many hopes for regenerative medicine. There is an increasing disparity between the number of organ donors and the number of patients with organ failure who require transplants – but supply could increase with in vivo / in vitro therapy. As well as improving healthcare, the economic savings could be vast. As just one
Instant
Expert The ethical debate around embryonic stem cell research is fierce. Is it morally permissible to destroy potential life in experiments, and is it our place to decide? Some people believe that life begins at conception, and that therefore research on embryos is a violation of human rights since the ‘person’ is not given the choice about being sacrificed. But is it not acceptable to use unwanted embryos created in vitro that would only be destroyed anyway? And where do we draw the line – if we are allowed to destroy living blastocysts, what is to prevent us from killing other entities such as embryos and foetuses that fall short of ‘complete’ life?
example, it costs billions of pounds every year to keep people with diabetes and kidney failure alive. This spending will not be needed if permanent cures become available. If a co-ordinated and well-funded research programme were to start, complex skin, cartilage, bone and blood vessel products may be available in five years. In ten years, organ patches that repair damaged tissue in vivo may be available, and it is likely that within 20 years, scientists will have developed a method to regenerate whole organs. With the ever-growing world population, healthcare costs are set to rise. Regenerative medicine could be one of the solutions, providing long-term cures rather than treatments for many currently incurable diseases.
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Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
Japan Car: the Cars of the Future
tech Nick Hooton Until now, car designers have strived for speed and elegance in their creations. But as budgets are tightening, environmental concerns increase, congestion grows and lifestyles become more urbanised, the automobile industry is being forced to adjust. Japan is leading the way.
Japanese design is founded on the intrinsic ideals of size and sensibility, embodied in the famous bonsai trees. From these ideals come two main aims for the new era of auto design. Micro Cars address the first of the two aims. These vehicles are designed for the typical urban environment, designed to reduce traffic and emissions. The vehicles see the adoption of a new approach to design. Unlike conventionally, where a car’s exterior is considered above all else, here the design has been approached from the inside out, in an attempt to provide a more pleasurable driving experience. The interior therefore leaves its occupants with ample room to do, well, whatever it is that they do in Japan. Some companies have tak6
ota © Toy
It seems likely that Japan’s role at the forefront of the car industry can be explained by the extreme population density in its cities. What’s more, Japan’s fuel reserves are dwindling. And, of course, Japan has its legacy of innovative design.
en this concept a few steps further - towards a multi-functional vehicle which enables the owner to ‘live, work and play’ within the confines of the car. Some have up to 11 ‘mood adjustable’ speakers. The second of the two main objectives - sustainability - is where Ja-
The Toyota i-real pan really is laying down the gauntlet, leaving the rest of the world to follow in its footsteps. The three approaches to the sustainability problem have shown themselves to be electricity, hybrid systems and hydrogenpowered fuel cells. Run off fuel cells, the Honda FCX Clarity (as featured in Top Gear!), represents, in the opinion of many, the very real future of motoring. Running purely on hydrogen, the Clarity emits nothing but water. All the same, what is most unexpected about
the Clarity is how normal it is. Many imagine the ‘cars of the future’ as wildly different from those of today. Some of them are, but most seem surprisingly familiar. The Clarity’s surprisingly sleek design is complemented by impressive performance, reaching a top speed of 180 km/h while managing 620km per tank. Honda predicts that the Clarity will be in mass production by 2018. Some other hybrid systems have yet to make a dent in the automobile industry. But they are receiving the biggest of revamps from new, enthusiastic Japanese designers. New models focus on fuel consumption, boasting cleverly engineered aerodynamics. A third, more futuristic ideal in Japanese car design is the idea of a car as a ‘mobile cell’. Designers envisage their mobile cells as moving information terminals, which, enhanced by increased incorporation of GPS systems, will allow full interaction between drivers. These moving ‘urban cells’ are designed to provide the utmost freedom to the driver both outdoors and even indoors. The first of the type is the i-real from Toyota. The i-real travels at both high and low speeds thanks to a height-adjustable third wheel. This moves the driver towards the road surface for improved
aerodynamics and the lowered centre of gravity necessary for high speeds. The mobile cell promotes a shift in development from drive-train technology to information technology, with the transfer of information between cells being at the heart of the principle. In other words, focus in the automotive industry is shifting towards integrated systems as opposed to individual drivers. The automobile industry is even creating a new philosophy: the cars are described by some as ‘blood corpuscles flowing through capillaries’! Nonetheless, the i-real is not perfect. Many are concerned about an invention which promotes even more sedentary living. However, the potential of these modernised wheelchairs to cut emissions and their obviously enhanced manoeuvrability make them a very attractive option for the future. The i-real merges upand-coming technology of shared information with the Clarity’s clean operating system. As a result this ‘car’ of the future could become the ‘car’ of tomorrow. ‘Japan Car’ is currently showing at the Science Museum in London until Sunday 19th April.
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
tech
Obama’s BlackBerry
Ed Steele As America’s first family settled into its new life at the Whitehouse in January, a technological battle was being waged. President Barack Obama was hailed by many as the saviour of the USA, but tech-fans worldwide had their eyes glued to one thing: Obama’s BlackBerry. During his campaigns, Obama’s self-confessed obsession with his BlackBerry was constantly clear. On many occasions, he promised that his smartphone would accompany him to the Whitehouse: eventually, it did. But Obama’s campaign to keep his BlackBerry was almost as bitter as his campaign for office - and for a good reason. It may seem incredible, but Obama’s BlackBerry represents a national security risk to the USA. What’s more, Obama will be the first sitting president to use mobile email. The use of his everpresent handheld device will be limited to keeping in touch with senior staff and personal friends, say White House correspondents, but many are surprised by the decision
to allow Obama to carry on texting. Recently there have been growing concerns over the safety of the President’s personal information. Specially-designed super-encrypting security software has been used in his unique PDA, but infamous hacker Kevin Mitnick told the press that this only makes challenge of cracking Obama’s BlackBerry more exciting – “You’d probably need to be pretty sophisticated, but there’s people out there who are,” he says. Mitnick served nearly five years in prison after pleading guilty to charges of wire and computer fraud for hacking into computer systems at some of the country’s largest cell-phone and computer companies during the 1990s. “If I was the attacker, I would look to Obama’s close circle of friends, family and associates and try to compromise their machines at home. The objective would be to get Obama’s e-mail address on the BlackBerry,” Mitnick said. Once Obama’s e-mail address © LA TIMES
“C u in Ovl offce, Clntn”
was captured, hackers would probably send him an email tempting him to a website that had been compromised with malicious code. If transferred to his BlackBerry or any other device he is using, that code could be used to steal his messages and other data. The White House says only a small circle of associates and senior aides are allowed to exchange e-mails with the president. As well as hackers wanting to target the president for the fame, there are fears that foreign governments wanting US trade secrets could become involved. The risk is enormous, especially considering the angry public response in Britain to the government’s repeated failure to protect our personal data. “By and large, the people who get into Obama’s BlackBerry for reputation aren’t going to have the skills,” says Chris Soghoian, a student fellow at Harvard University’s Berkman Center for Internet and Society. “The real threat is not some dude in an Internet café in Russia; it’s a team of 60 hackers working for the Chinese government. The threat is statesponsored espionage.” In that case, perhaps Obama should give up BlackBerry Messenger for the next five years. Although good for his image, the decision for Obama to keep his BlackBerry begs a pressing question about the first e-mailing President: “Is it really worth it?”
Do try this at Home! Do you long to do science but lack a particle accelerator in your back garden? No electron microscope in the basement? SCIENCEGATE makes experimental science easy. Last issue, we promised you dairy; now, we deliver. #161 - ‘Utterly Butterly’ Make spreadable butter from cream in three to four hours. Breakfast just became much more exciting. How? Your starting ingredient is double cream or heavy whipping cream - the more fattening, the better. Then, all you will need is a plastic drinks bottle and a jam-jar. Salt is an optional extra. 1. Pour the cream into the plastic bottle. 2. With the cap off, leave the bottle at room temperature for about five hours. 3. Then transfer the cream to your jam-jar and screw the lid on very tightly. 4. Holding the jar in your hands, shake it slowly for about two minutes, until the contents becomes solid. Don’t throw the jar across your kitchen! 5. Open the jar, using a knife to scrape the solids into the bottom. Pour out the liquids. Then add water to the jar. 6. Do not shake again but pour out the added water before adding salt to taste. Refrigerate. 7. Delicious! Why? Cream contains an emulsified suspension of microscopic fat molecules surrounded by a thin membrane. Naturally-occurring bacteria in the cream produce lactic acid. This, combined with the action of shaking the butter, causes the emulsified droplets to clot together and separate from the liquid, giving solid butter. SCIENCEGATE tests every experiment thoroughly but is not responsible for their outcomes. Be careful!
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Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
The Centenary of the pH Scale
chem A Z Szydlo It’s all right celebrating the anniversaries of famous scientists like Galileo and Darwin, because they made discoveries in a vast number of fields which significantly added to our knowledge and understanding of the natural world (mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, thermometry, and optics
term pH. To my amazement, they told me that it was something to do with acids and alkalis – a splendid answer which reflects just how well our understanding of this difficult topic has been accepted in our society. But when I asked them what the letters pH stood for, or why the pH of water was 7, or when
concentration. This formal definition is part of the chemistry A-level syllabus. Learn it off by heart! Even if you are not studying chemistry at A-level, think of the huge interest that you would generate, by asking someone whom you have just met, to define pH. They would be so impressed if you could
on that in a minute. So where does the value of pH = 7 for water originate? Surprisingly, it is related to a physical property of water. In its pure state, water normally exists in the form of molecules of H2O, in which atoms of hydrogen and oxygen are held together by © AZS
What do YOU know about pH? in the case of Galileo). Did you know, however, that this year marks the 100th anniversary of the discovery of one of the most important and widely-known facts of science: the pH of water is 7.
pH was invented and by whom – I was met with blank expressions. Not surprising, of course, since these most important facts are not usually taught – not even at Highgate School! So I am going to tell you.
Recently I asked some rowdy youngsters who were eating their hamburgers in MacDonalds in Camden Town, what they understood by the
For any liquid (usually an aqueous solution), pH is defined as: the logarithm to base 10 of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
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rattle off the answer without batting an eyelid. Practise saying it in front of the mirror every morning, and you will be surprised at how quickly your circle of friends will grow. Once you have gained someone’s attention with the definition of pH, you can proceed to more sophisticated means of dazzling them with your knowledge of science – this time with a red cabbage, but more
covalent bonds. Scientists have discovered that one molecule in 10 million is split into 2 unequal electrically charged particles called ions – the hydroxide ion OH- , and the hydrogen ion H+ . In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions exactly equals the concentration of hydroxide ions – this has been found to be 10-7 moles/dm3 at 25oC: that is, 6x1016 ions/dm3!
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
In Sørensen’s definition, 10-7 thus became 7. If a solution contains a higher concentration of hydrogen ions, say 10-3 moles/dm3, its pH will be 3. The lower the pH, the stronger the acid. And vice-versa with alkalis – the higher the pH, the stronger the alkali. How high or how low can a pH value be? In practical terms, we can get acids
© www.biokemi.org
Although Sørensen could measure the level of acidity using conductometric methods (that is another fascinating topic in itself!), he found it highly inconvenient to talk about such tiny concentrations, and expressing them in such a clumsy manner. So in 1909 he published a paper in which he announced a simple mathematical tool for expressing the concentration of hydrogen ions – it was called pH. The “p” stands for potenz (German), puissance (French) or power (English), so whatever language you choose, it will always be a “p”. pH is thus the power of hydrogen - it is an exact measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
© www.biokemi.org
Now, Søren Sørensen, a brilliant Danish chemist working at the Carlsberg laboratories at the turn of the 20th century, was particularly interested in chemical reactions involving enzymes - these are very important in fermenting beer. Sørensen recognised that the level of acidity in the solution played a key role in determining the effectiveness of the reactions.
Søren Sorensen with a pH of just below -1, and alkalis with a pH of slightly over 15. How do we get these values? That again is another topic for another day! Did you know that pH changes with temperature? At the boiling point of water, its pH is 6.5. And it is still exactly neutral, of course. Why is this? Yet another topic for yet another day! Since many other scientists also found that levels of acidity/alkalinity were crucial to the progress of chemical reactions, Sørensen’s scale became rapidly
accepted by them and today it constitutes the bread and butter of scientific language throughout the world. It is extraordinary to think that Nature has provided us with such a simple number to express such an important characteristic of such a vital substance! But it was the genius of Sørensen the Dane who brought it to our notice. On this, the centenary of your great invention – we salute you, sir!
Challenge Red cabbage is a stunning natural indicator. It is more spectacular than universal indicator, because you can get 5 colours with it: red, green, bright blue, mauve, and a brilliant yellow. It’s easy to make three of them, difficult to make four, and almost impossible to get all five. But I’ve done it. There will be a fiver going to the first person who can, during a chemistry club session, get all five colours. To take on the challenge, you will get one red cabbage, and any chemicals of your choice. Go for it! 9
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
The gentle Touch
It would probably be best first of all to familiarise you with general amputation, which is the normal precursor for a prosthesis. Amputations can be through bone or across joints. Bilateral amputation is of two arms or legs, while quadruple amputation is of four limbs at any level. Upper limb amputations are most frequently caused by loss of circulation, which was the reason for 70% of prostheses fitted in 2004. This loss of circulation, known as disvascularity, occurs mostly in people aged over 75. So what can science do for amputees? Any basic prosthetic limb is effectively designed to balance the body, making activity easier on two legs or enabling better use of remaining limbs. Most prosthetics in developed countries are custom-made – like Oscar Pistorius’ Cheetah 10
Flex-Foot legs – so that, where amputation has occurred, the prosthetic moulds perfectly to the remaining ‘stump’. Meet Oscar Pistorius, blade runner
In January 2008, Pistorius was banned from the 2008 Beijing Olympics by the International Association of Athletics Federations, which said that his artificial limbs gave him an unfair advantage over able-bodied athletes. His personal best 100m time is 10.91 seconds, in comparison to the world record of 9.69 seconds, set by Usain Bolt in 2008. Pistorius is just the beginning. The US military is using revolutionary techniques to treat soldiers injured by roadside bombs, shrapnel and bullet wounds in Iraq and Afghanistan. Current
prosthetics are not linked to muscles or connected to the nerves that would have led to the amputated area. Only single motions can be carried out at a time – operating an elbow, wrist or hand has to be done sequentially, and movements can be slow and awkward. They provide little sensory feedback and have no sense of touch,
©G ett yI ma ge s
bio Robbie Bremner The word ‘prosthetics’ conjures up images of artificial arms and legs. For some, even Long John Silver and his wooden leg spring to mind. In reality, artificial limbs are increasingly technologically advanced, having moved far beyond being merely aesthetic. Diseased or missing eyes, hands, teeth and legs are commonly replaced by prosthetic devices. In particular, Oscar Pistorius – or, rather, his carbon-fibre customdesigned artificial legs – shot to fame last Summer, over the question of whether or not he had an advantage over normal runners.
operated solely by visual feedback. But science is on the way to equipping limbs with reliable senses, fed directly back into the central nervous system.
M a n y prosthetic limbs are controlled partly by a microprocessor, which allows for weight adjustment. Indeed, one of the military’s main interests is in the development of an exoskeleton that could be
used to enhance a soldier’s stamina, strength, or weight-bearing capacity without hindering his movement. A new technique, known as targeted muscle reinnervation, improves control of a motorised prosthetic arm. Reinnervation uses the residual nerves from an amputated limb and transfers them onto alternative muscle groups not functional because they are no longer attached to the missing arm. Impulses received by these ‘dummy muscles’, often in the chest, are detected by surface electrodes and used to control the prosthetic limb. Taking this idea further, researchers are working to develop a wireless device which would be attached onto the muscle and then transmit the activity signals to the prosthesis. This could lead to sensory technology, placed in the fingers of a prosthetic arm or hand, which wirelessly transmits signals to the chest muscles to enable sensory feedback from the prosthetic hand. With this technology – so-called ‘haptics’ – an amputee can moderate the force applied by his prosthesis. Haptics promises to create the ultimate in bionic arms. The same limb could pick up a foam coffee cup and a ceramic mug. It seems that even the Terminator could now be gentle – and hold someone’s arm, rather than breaking it.
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
bio
i before e, except after c
Charlotte Pelekanou People associate dyslexia with bad spelling and reading words backwards. The Greek origin of the term (difficulty with words) leads us to the same conclusion, but do you know the full extent of this learning difficulty? Dyslexia is defined as a learning disability in which the brain has an altered way of processing written material. This affects the development of literacy- and language-related skills, varying in severity from person to person. Dyslexia can be characterised by difficulties with phonological processing and with the development of certain language-based skills. These may therefore not be as developed as an individual’s other cognitive abilities. Dyslexia is known to be an inherited condition common in families with a history of spelling problems or even lefthandedness. Scientists have found that the ‘dyslexic gene’ corresponds, in fact, to the deletion of a specific gene in chromosome six. Neurological differences have been found in the brains of dyslexic individuals. Dyslexics have different ‘wiring’ of the neurons in their brains, which are found in unusual places and less neatly ordered than in normal brains. This means that dyslexics use different parts of their brain for reading at different times, whilst normal readers use the same part consistently. Research
has also shown that non-dyslexic children use the left side of their brain for language work, in comparison to dyslexic children who have to use the right side of their brain as well. This is a problem as the right side of the brain is not adapted in the same way for language work; as a result, the brains of dyslexic children have to work six times harder than non-dyslexic brains. This means that dyslexic people get easily tired by dealing with language work and text. Symptoms can be apparent from a young age. Some dyslexic children develop the ability to crawl only very shortly before they begin to walk, or never crawl at all - this could be due to abnormalities in motor control. Other non-language based indicators are the confusion of left and right, as well as difficulty tying shoe laces or dressing. Compared to their fluent speech, dyslexic people find it hard to express themselves in writing. This manifests itself in confused sentence structure and the poor organisation of ideas. Incorrect grammar, mixed tenses, word omission and erratic punctuation are also related. Common problems like these may be seen as laziness by teachers, especially alongside bad handwriting and presentation. Reduced phonological processing abilities cause problems in connecting correct sounds with certain letter sequences. This is a result of the time taken
for auditory information to be processed in relation to the recognition of letter patterns which makes reading slower and more difficult, especially with longer words. Although dyslexic people can hear and see normally, some find it difficult remembering what they see and hear due to short-term memory problems. This can make it hard when doing tasks like mental arithmetic and can show up at primary school age if there is difficulty in remembering the alphabet or using fingers to make simple calculations. This short term memory issue can cause problems in day-to-day life, such as finding it hard to remember multiple tasks without writing them down or even finding it hard to pass on telephone messages accurately. Although dyslexic people may have slight disadvantages to ‘normal’ people, this doesn’t mean a lack of intelligence - the two are unconnected. Apparently, dyslexia affects people with a wide range of IQs. Remember: Albert Einstein and Leonardo da Vinci were both dyslexic but that didn’t stop them! So, there is more to dyslexia than ‘bad spelling’. As scientists haven’t fully discovered the extent of this learning difficulty or its causes, there is no cure. It seems likely, what’s more, that there never will be. So for now, we shall have to depend on i before e, except after c.
HAPPY 200th BIRTHDAY, DARWIN! 11
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
A Guide to Animal Photography
bio Terence Ma All my life I have been intrigued by animals. It all started when my dad let me take a picture using his camera. Looking back at the photo of an animal, I noticed some differences which bewildered me. The animal in my photo was completely different from the original. Some of the features were more detailed and some which were invisible to the eye stood out in the camera. From that day, the thrill of capturing the moment has never left me. I knew I was destined to take photographs.
I soon realised that what I really wanted to do was to photograph animals, but anything that catches my eye is worth a picture. ‘Subject is everywhere...the smallest thing can be a great subject.’ Photographs of animals posing or eating work especially well. Some people that being a photographer is easy. After all, you just have to click the shutter, don’t you? But true photography needs passion, creativity, and technical knowledge. I will try to show you where to start. A photographer needs to be patient and wait for the so-called ‘perfect’ shot. You need inspiration to encourage you to get a better photo. For creativity, you need the right timing - it is easy to miss the winning shot. Composition, the organisation of subjects in an 12
image, is vital. Whether in photography or art, it is vital that the intended subject is the first thing to attract attention when you look at a photo.
numbers and letters mean? DO, standing for diffractive optical, is a Canon-exclusive lens design which improves size, weight,
lenses are the best as they give the best of both worlds: close-ups and overviews of the same animal.
The perfect example of an eye-to-eye shot. Lens: 70-300mm at 205 mm Exposure: 1/400Sec at f/6.3, ISO 400
Pin-sharp focus gives the subject definition, whilst the background needs to contain few distractions. Wherever I go, I bring my camera bag with me. You can take excellent snaps with simple equipment, but technical photographs need careful thought. Inside my case is a trustworthy Canon EOS 40D with 70-300mm f4.5-5.6 DO IS USM lens attached and 24-70mm f2.8L for a wide-angle option. What do all these
and performance. Image Stabilisation (IS) is extraordinary: it detects and compensates for unwanted movement, making it possible for photographers to hold their cameras (instead of mounting them) but still use slow shutter speeds. 70-300mm is called the zoom range and refers to the lens’s focal length. The lower the number, the wider the angle of view. Finally, f/4.5-5.6 indicates the aperture (opening size) of the lens. With wildlife photography, I think telephoto (zoom)
When you take photos, always know what you are doing before you click the shutter. Visualise the finished picture and keep thinking about it until you know that you have it. Taking photos of instantaneous events is quite easy but imagining them beforehand is much more difficult. I usually shoot from the animal’s eye level to capture the detailed expression of the animal but, especially with smaller animals, it can be good to shoot from above to show their small size.
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
Even though I take photos in the zoo, it’s a learning experience. Zoos are useful places to practise key elements of technique before going into the field. You soon discover that predicting an animal’s movement is often the key to getting a winning shot and therefore you need to know your animal’s habits and understand its reactions to the surroundings. People automatically think that photos taken in zoos aren’t really wildlife photography but they are wrong. You can mimic photography in the wild easily: the pictures here show no signs of cages or members of the public. Some winning shots are taken in the zoo but the photographers who take them are very good at mimicking the wild. My favourite zoo is Longleat where the whole estate is situated on 9000 acres of Wiltshire countryside – I recommend it for practice. It’s always hard to pick your favourite pictures from a shoot, but the second I took the picture of a wallaby (shown right), I knew it would be a winner. The contrast is great and take a look at his claws – how they grip the lettuce strongly. The detail is amazing. In terms of its contrast and sharpness, this photo has to rate among my top five. The light is warm, the lettuce adds a dash of colour, and the claws stand out well.
A wallaby. Simple but beautiful, with excellent contrast and immediate focus on the claws and lettuce. Lens: 70-300mm at 90 mm Exposure: : 1/250Sec at f/6.3, ISO 400ISO 400
Therefore, in the future after more practise in zoos, I would like to go to South Africa and actually be in the field. At that point I can get the true experience of wildlife photography but until then, I still have lots
more to learn. Finally, I have created an animal photography book full of pictures like these above – please contact me to learn more at ternencemaphotography@gmail.com.
In conclusion, no matter in which direction your interests lead you, I hope this article will give you the inspiration to take photos yourself and discover the enjoyment of photography. 13
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
Penrose ponders David Joseph I recently had the opportunity to attend a lecture at the Royal Institution in London by Sir Roger Penrose, a contemporary of physicist Stephen Hawking. In front of a diverse audience, he attempted to explain one of his most recent theories: that our universe is just one of many sequential universes. What follows is a series of brief expositions of the sections of his talk that I was able to follow sufficiently well to explain to others. Overall, the talk was incredibly fast-paced. No doubt, it would have been easier to follow with a degree in physics. What is the future and past of the universe? Richard Feynman originally proposed three models. All begin with a big bang; one ends with the Universe collapsing in a big crunch; another involves the universe expanding forever; the last involves the universe eventually reaching a steady state. Einstein, before him, had similar ideas and committed what he would later call “the greatest mistake of his life” in introducing the cosmological constant. This was an attempt to describe a static universe which he saw as perfect. He removed it when it became clear, following the work of Edwin Hubble, that the universe was expanding. However, some are now reintroducing Einstein’s constant to solve new problems. The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system must always increase with time. 14
Entropy is the amount of disorder in a system. This explains why Newtonian mechanics (the normal rules of physics we observe in everyday life) run in one direction; that is, why we see cups breaking when they fall to the floor and not cups repairing themselves and climbing back up to sit on the table, or why your bedroom grows messier, not tidier. This links into the cosmic microwave background (CMB), microwave radiation left over from after the big bang. The CMB has a uniform temperature of 2.7 kelvin. If you plot a graph of the frequency of the radiation against its intensity, you produce a smooth curve, which matches very closely the so-called black body curve. A black body is something that radiates energy at particular intensities at different frequencies. Max Planck (of planck constant fame) developed a mathematical explanation of the shape of this curve. Since the CMB roughly follows a black body spectrum it apparently implies that the early universe was in thermal equilibrium. This means that the universe’s properties were not changing and, in turn, that the amount of matter and energy were constant. However, thermal equilibrium is the maximum entropy state. This implies that since the beginning of the universe entropy must have decreased (since in order to increase now, it must be below the maximum), disobeying the second law of thermodynamics. After this I grew lost in a discussion of black
holes and mysterious things called tensors which are somehow related to electromagnetic fields. In turn this lead onto gravitational lenses. This is when objects with enormous mass warp space-time and hence the path of light rays through space. To an extent, this effect is like what happens in a pair of glasses - it is called lensing. However, the patterns formed are vastly different and the process is explained by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. I picked up the talk again towards its end, at a discussion of light cones. Light cones are designed to represent the possible paths light can travel. Time is along the y-axis and space is along the x-axis. A diagram can represent this. A cross in the centre represents the current position in space-time. Below this represents the past and above represents the future. A series of parabolae represent places where moving particles perceive the same time (like contours join places of equal height). These curves have the shape they do due to Einstein’s special theory of relativity and the resultant time dilation (come to the cosmic ray talk on Tuesday to learn more about this!). Penrose then went on to explain how this linked into mass representing a ticking clock. What follows is a rough outline; beware - this is difficult physics! He used Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2 and Planck’s E = hf (the latter explains
the photoeletric effect, described last issue). By eliminating E to combine the two equations, the following single equation is produced: f = m (c2/h). This means that frequency (time) is directly proportional to mass. So the more massive you are the faster time goes! Penrose then suggested that since the masses of particles tended to 0 near the big bang this implies time must have slowed down to a stop. In turn, this means that distances would have all been the same, since distance is speed x time. Penrose went on to couple this with a running theme of conformal geometry - the study of objects drawn not in Euclidean space, which is what you study in maths, but in a space expanded into infinity. He suggested that there were an infinite past and infinite future. Hence, he theorised that there would exist successive universes, which he calls Aeons. Lost in the physics (but in a different way to me!) and having run over his allocated time, Penrose explained that if he is right about Aeons, then the CMB will contain a characteristic signature of overlapping circles akin to a pond-surface when it is raining. He ended by saying that as yet, he has found no proof; gravitational lensing might make it very difficult to find. Understanding the physics of cosmology is one thing; actually testing predictions is another all together.
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
chem
The Return of Kryptonite
Stepan Stepanenko Supermen around the world were struck with fear in November 2006 when kryptonite, the rock which took away Superman’s powers, was discovered. The discovery was made when mining Group Rio Tinto, which owns a mine near Jadar, Serbia, came upon an unusual rock.
©
DC
Co mi cs
The specimen was sent for examination to Dr Chris Stanley, a mineralogist at London’s Natural History Museum. To find out if a mineral is indeed unique, scientists have to determine the chemical composition, or formula, of the substance. This also helps them determine various f a c t s about the
material, such as its elasticity and thermochemical properties. Identifying the mystery mineral’s atomic structure required sophisticated analytical facilities. The sampling was conducted at Canada’s National Research Council by two researchers, Dr
Pamela Whitfield and Dr Yvon Le Page. Now that he knew the mineral’s composition, Dr Chris Stanley did what any respectable scientist would do – he put it into Google. The results were more than surprising. The formula of the Serbian rock was v e r y close to that of the
mineral introduced in 1949 Superman comics kryptonite. S o d i u m l i t h i u m boron silicate h y d r o x i d e (NaLiB3SiO7(OH)) is an almost exact copy of the fictional mineral, only it does not contain fluorine. It is white, as opposed to the usual green kryptonite in the comics, and is absolutely harmless to all – even Superman, presumably. In a statement about the
powers (or lack thereof) of the new material, Dr Chris Stanley said: “I’m afraid it’s not green and it doesn’t glow either - although it will react to ultraviolet light by fluorescing a pinkishorange.” The mineral is relatively hard and small-grained, with each crystal being less than five microns (millionths of a metre) across. Sadly, the new discovery could not be named kryptonite as it has nothing to do with the element krypton, one of the noble g a s e s . Instead, it was presented to the European Journal of
Mineralogy as jadarite, after the region where it was found. If the mineral occurs in sufficient amounts it can have commercial value, as borosilicate is used to encapsulate nuclear waste. Lithium is widely used in batteries and the pharmaceutical industry. If you have a longing for super-powers, you can buy kryptonite from mineral retailers or see it at the Natural History Museum – just don’t tell Lex Luthor.
Websites of the Issue If you’re feeling tech-savvy, why not take a look at one of Sciencegate’s recommended websites? You may even learn something, too. w w w. r i c h a r d d a w k i n s . n e t This one’s subversive. Like kryptonite to creationists, the website of Darwin’s neo-bulldog has caused an incredible stir. If you aren’t averse to a ‘clear-thinking oasis’, then read about the latest atheist news, events and books. Don’t bother, though, if you live in Turkey: the site has been banned there for three years. www. min d h a c k s . c o m Why hack computers when you can hack your mind? For one, they’re cheaper. Second, it’s free. And thirdly, there’s the MindHacks blog. Delve into the fascinating world of neuroscience with the latest research on the most complicated machine known to man, the human brain. Blog postings explain mental illusions, the phenomenon of consciousness, and some frightening truths about the way all of our brains work. Start thinking about thinking. TED.COM Technology, Engineering, Design organises frequent conferences in locations from Oxford to Long Beach. Like YouTube but much cooler, this site has videos of every talk given at these conferences. From standard speakers to the scientists behind some of today’smost impressive technology and research, chances are that if you see it here, it’ll be on your desktop in a few years’ time. 15
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
phys
Whatever happened to CERN?
Hugh Lindsey It’s the world’s most expensive experiment, existing in the altercosmos that is CERN - a place where the breakfast bowl of Miel Pops may be conventionally accompanied by a discussion of gauge coupling unification. The café terrace is the daily meeting place for the inhabitants of this strange world. Here napkins are not only for wiping away morsels of a mid-morning pain au chocolat, but are used by the locals, just for fun, to scribble a proof of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation in 26 dimensions.
This introvert and withdrawn community found itself the focus of the world’s attention on 10th September 2008, the LHC was switched on for the first time. The successful completion of a full circuit of the 16
Yet just nine days later the switch was flicked again. Off. Just before the first protons were due to collide, a bit of dodgy wiring caused liquid helium to leak from the LHC’s cryogenic plumbing system, which is designed to keep the LHC’s super-
repair bill and an agonising twelve-month wait for the LHC to return to functionality. The scale of the challenge finally began to be realised. So what do we have for this vast sum of money and over fourteen years of hard work, apart from a non-functioning tube and some giga-embarrassment? The eerie subterranean metropolis at CERN consists of four main detectors – CMS, ALICE, LHCb and ATLAS. The set-up will (eventually, we hope) accelerate protons to over 99.9999991% of the speed of light, the
collisions per second at energies up to 14 teraelectronvolts (equivalent to a head-on collision between two cars, each with a velocity of 1,600 km/h). The products of these explosions, recreating the conditions of the Universe during its first microseconds of existence, are highenergy particles which decay within a trillionth of a second. The LHC represents the next generation of particle accelerator, increasing collision energies to still higher bounds; but still the theory remains the © www.jasonbradbury.com
And the focus of their efforts? Straddling the French-Swiss border, buried 100 metres beneath luscious fields of wheat and grapes, is the 27-kilometre tunnel housing the aptly-named Large Hadron Collider (LHC) – the jewel in CERN’s crown. The experiment – which hopes to open up a new window on the fundamental building blocks of matter, lying far beyond the smallest scale of our understanding – has, naturally, the world’s largest price-tag in science. Currently, the LHC has cost more than £5 billion (four times over budget) and spending is almost certain to rise further.
LHC ring by two beams of protons led to shortlived jubilation among the 10,000 scientists and engineers who collaborated on the project, but caused disappointment amongst the media when the black-hole failed to materialise and consume the earth.
The ATLAS detector at CERN just before completion conducting magnets at -273oC (colder than outer space). This rupture caused significant collateral damage to the infrastructure of the LHC, requiring 53 of its magnets – each weighing 35 tonnes – to be returned to the surface. From basking in the limelight, CERN was now footing an £1 billion
universe’s “speed limit”. At such speeds, 11,245 circuits of the LHC will be completed each second. Two beams orbiting in opposite directions - each consisting of 3,000 bunches of 100 billion protons – will then be directed towards one another using a magnetic field, resulting in 600 million
same. Through the late 1960s and early 1970s, theoretical physicists developed what is now known as the Standard Model of particle physics. Under this model, all matter in the Universe is made up of twelve basic building blocks (quarks and leptons) which are governed by three fundamental
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
The initial Standard Model was flawed – the experimental evidence was in direct contradiction with the mathematical model. Missing from the model was a theory to explain why particles have individual mass, in particular the forcecarrying particles. Then in 1964, British theoretical physicist Peter Higgs and two Belgian scientists realised, almost simultaneously, that if something called a scalar field permeated the Universe, then the acquisition of mass by particles could be explained by their interaction with this allpervading field. Higgs theorised that the field should be mediated by a particle, the Higgs’ boson; this particle remains, some 40 years later, the only particle in the Standard Model which has not been experimentally observed. Both the ATLAS and the CMS detectors will be searching for the existence of this so-called “God particle” and Higgs himself is “90% confident” that it will be observed by the LHC. Nonetheless, it will be a significant challenge to identify the Higgs’ (if it even exists) because its mass is unknown. Physicists will have to look for it by systematically
searching a range of masses within which the Higgs’ is predicted to exist. No doubt, this process will be painstaking even when the LHC is eventually working.
particles. This proposal predicts that each particle in the Standard Model has a corresponding supersymmetric partner which is much more massive, doubling the number of © FERMILAB / SLAC
forces (the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces). This model has successfully predicted and explained a wide host of experimental results and phenomena. However, questions still remain unanswered and gaps in our understanding persist.
What makes this potential discovery even more exciting is that a full understanding of mass may help us remove some of the more stubborn thorns from the side of the Standard Model. Why is gravity – the fourth fundamental force, omitted by the Standard Model - so different to the other forces? Why is the Universe made up entirely of matter and not anti-matter when both were created in equal quantities during the Big Bang? Is our Universe unique? Could additional dimensions exist? Such questions may well be answered in the near future by the LHC. An alternative theory will also be under the spotlight at CERN. The LHC will search for evidence of dark energy and dark matter, which account – respectively – for 73% and 23% of everything in the Universe. Although neither can be detected directly, their presence could be inferred at CERN. One theory is that dark matter is made up of supersymmetric
particles in the model. The LHC could discover the lightest of these super-partners – the neutralino, responsible for dark matter. Perhaps a much more fascinating outcome would be if the LHC were a flop. Yes! I am arguing that if particle physics’ brand new £5 billion toy fails, we should not complain! Perhaps it is the Standard Model which is at fault. The Standard Model may have held its own against experimental onslaught for decades, but that doesn’t mean physicists’ work is done. Failing to find the Higgs’ in the predicted mass range would lift the lid on a whole world of physics beyond the model. Our entire “understanding” of almost everything would require rewriting. How exciting that would be! Physicists at CERN are hedging their bets by searching for both the Higgs’ boson and supersymmetric particles. Even if the Higgs’ remains unfound, it will still be a great success
for the LHC if the neutralino is discovered, opening the flood-gates to a whole range of conjectures which have, at least until now, lacked any experimental evidence. With the world being thrown into a global recession and budgets rapidly tightening, the LHC may well be the last of its kind of particle accelerator - a machine which, as some see it, pursues the answers to over-expensive, esoteric questions. Funding for the nextgeneration accelerator – the International Linear Collider – is drying up quickly, with the USA cutting its support this year by 75%. Evidence for super-symmetry would certainly present a strong case for future particle colliders. However, the worst-case scenario for particle physics is that the LHC finds neither a Standard Model Higgs’ boson nor an indication of supersymmetry. There would be nothing to show for the billions of pounds invested. And – without doubt – the future of this sort of experimental science hangs very finely in the balance. Half of the Standard Model is shrouded in a haze of pure mathematical speculation; its predictions remain undemonstrated, if they are correct at all. In a science that progresses at breakneck speed, the LHC is now built on out-dated precepts. There is no telling what, if anything, awaits us at CERN! 17
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
phys
Someone rather particular
David Joseph and Max Jamilly John Ellis OC arrived for event there ever has a seminar at Highgate been” because “not wearing a sparkling many science experiwhite suit and a black ments get that kind of t–shirt. His t-shirt “sum- attention”. marises everything we know about the One theory Ellis’s structure of matter in supports is the universe”. Ellis is supersymmetry. “notorious” for wearing He calls it a “very t-shirts where he works, beautiful theory” at the site of the most and thinks it spectacular particle “wonderful” at physics laboratory ever constructed. We were lucky enough to interview him.
Ellis recognises how important his work is. He initially thought the UK science minster was unbelievable when he suggested prior to the event that the LHC switch-on was “comparable to landing on the moon in terms of grabbing people’s attention”. He was delighted that “one billion people” watched the start-up of the LHC and that it “caught more attention than any other scientific 18
However, Ellis believes it would be “much more fun it they don’t find [the Higg’s]”. This would indicate that our understanding and the standard model of particle physics - represented on his t-shirt - may be wrong. Unfortunately, it’s going to “take quite a long time” for the accelerator to be successful, particularly in light of the “electrical problem” that forced the LHC to shut down last year and the repairs which are taking longer “than imagined”. He “does not expect the Higgs to be found in the 2009-10 run” before the © Lil lie Ro senb latt
Professor John Ellis is a senior theoretical physicist at CERN. In 2004, he was the world’s second most cited theoretical physicist. Asked whether he was disappointed not to be first, Ellis jokingly replied that he wasn’t “in competition”. It’s not just the flowing white hair and the equations on his t-shirt which make him seem wise. He tells us that he believes one must do “the best one can in the stuff one does and if people like it, so much the better”. “One has to motivate oneself to do things well,” he adds.
He believes that supersymmetry is likely to be discovered, and probably before the emergence of the Higg’s Boson, an elusive particle that has grabbed the public’s attention because it may explain the origin of mass.
explaining some key tenets of cosmology, such as dark matter.
LHC is shut down for maintenance. What excites professor Ellis is the eureka moment, when they will be able to explain “the 80-90% of the universe that’s never been seen, never touched”. To explain dark matter would be truly “mind boggling”. Ellis is concerned by string theory, the current favourite explanation for the nature of the Universe. He is worried that string theory is in danger of not being science: “without experiment it rapidly becomes just mathematics”. Ellis firmly believes that “science is driven by the dialogue between theory and experiment”; he confirms, “Particle physics is still science because we’re still doing experiments.” All the same, Ellis accepts that “string theory is fantastically powerful at providing a structure unifying all the fundamental forces”. Outreach work is extremely important to Ellis. He has a “principle never to refuse an invitation to talk to the public” and delights in engaging in “dialogue with society as a whole”. Showing a refreshingly pragmatic outlook, he argues that since “they’re paying for what we do they have every right to understand what it is that we do and why we’re doing it - and how they might conceivably benefit from it”. We asked him which single piece of physics everyone should know;
Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
he stressed it was more important to be aware of a wide range of ideas than understand a single one, be this Newton’s laws of motion, the existence of quantum theory and the “intrinsic uncertainty of predications”, or relativity - that “there is a speed limit in the Universe - on which the satnav in your car depends”.
Many people believe that things are as they are because we exist; Ellis “dislikes intensely” this so-called anthropic principle. It is “intrinsically unscientific” to answer it just is, Ellis highlights. The anthropic principle, which is “in danger of throttling scientific endeavour”, encourages us “not to bother wondering why something is the way that it is”. One of Ellis’s jobs is to promote international collaboration at CERN, which he sees as a multicultural effort and a “good example for humanity” . CERN has
broader tensions.” Ellis believes that physics is fundamental not only to humanity, but to the Universe: “I’m going to get into real trouble here,” but “physics is the basis for all the sciences”. Indeed, “if you go back to the very early Universe when it as a fraction of a second old, there was no chemistry; © www.techimo.com
Not being content with probing the evolution of the Universe, Ellis is fascinated by “human origins”, by “evolution” and the “development of language”. In general, he wants to “understand as much as possible about origins”. He describes the role of physics as to “enable the human race to read the instruction manual of the Universe”, but claims that physicists bear “limited responsibility for the way in which discoveries are misused”.
an “open-door policy” – “everybody anywhere on the planet that wants to understand the intrinsic laws of physics”. Anyone is welcome, providing they “pay their own way – we don’t offer a free lunch”! He firmly trusts that “people from very different backgrounds can work together towards a common goal”. “We are
An artist’s interpretation of hyperdimensional string theory. Actually, who are we kidding? It’s just a pretty picture. very happy at CERN to have Indians working alongside Pakistanis, Taiwanese working with Chinese, Iranians with Americans and one of the things I’m particularly proud of is, in the last couple of years, Palestinian students working with Israelis. At the individual level people have absolutely no problems; it’s when you get to the institutional and governmental level that things become difficult. I like to think that, by establishing these individual contacts at the scientific and technical level, scientists could somehow act as mentors to the rest of society when some political opportunity comes to ease
there was no biology; there was only physics”. However, he does concede that “you can’t start with the equations on my t-shirt and derive the nature of biological life – at least not yet”. The boundaries between the sciences have shifted so that “much of what chemists do now used to be called physics – quantum physics and biologists are increasingly using very sophisticated physics equipment in order to do their experiments.” Nevertheless physics remains “a fantastic thing to study”. Finally, we jumped on the bandwagon and asked about
employment in science. Ellis “used to say that physics was also great if you wanted to go into the City of London” but admits there have been “one or two minor hiccups”. He values a scientific worldview above all else. People should “internalise the idea that you can analyse problems logically, that you can conduct experiments and then modify your hypothesis depending on the results”. “The previous American President is a wonderful example of what can happen if you don’t follow a knowledge-based approach to decision-making; let’s hope that the new President is an example of what happens when you do”. A “scientific background…is vital even if (you) don’t do science”. John doesn’t demand that everyone understand particle physics. What he sees as vital is for the “general public to understand the scientific process” so that they have a “framework to interpret science-based progress”. “The lesson I would learn from the economic crisis is not that you want less quantative analysis but you want more people capable of understanding that analysis. I would draw exactly the opposite conclusion to what many people would draw. We need more scientific and mathematical rigour, not less.”
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Sciencegate - Science Week ’09
Last Call If that wasn’t enough, then here’s some more.
The Knowledge
The fun doesn’t stop. Still want more from the worlds of technology and science? Here are Sciencegate’s most recent picks.
Technology This season, face-recognition tech-
nology is a must-have. Now, with programs like iLife ‘09, your computer can organise your photos according to who’s in them.
Event Not for the faint-of-heart. Hands down, Dr
Gunther von Hagens is today’s leading mad scientist. He even has a crazy hat - and his Bodyworlds exhibition is back in London at the O2. See the real, preserved cadavers of humans, horses, and even a giraffe. We highly recommend visiting before lunch. Ends August 23rd. www.theo2.co.uk
Mind-bender
Download Google is making the world better
again. The new Google internet browser, called Chrome, is serious competition for Internet Explorer and Firefox. Try it for free. If you’re still stuck on the dark side, there’s a new Microsft offering, IE 7, as well. www.google.co.uk/chrome
Gadget If you don’t like reading books, read e-
books instead: the Amazon Kindle is your best bet. This e-book reader, the size of a normal paperback and with an ‘electronic ink’ screen, has just been updated to carry 1500 books.
The second triangle is made using a rearrangement of the pieces used to make the first triangle. How can the second triangle have a missing square? Answers are available at www.highgate-online.org.uk
Interested in writing for Sciencegate? Speak to the editor or email
sciencegate@ gmail.com for ideas. All contributions are welcome! Luck has a way of vanishing whenever a problem becomes particularly interesting. – James Gleick 20