Charleston SC Inside and Out | SC Property Pros by scpropertypros

Charleston SC Inside and Out Resource Curated by SC Property Pros

Contents 1

Charleston, South Carolina

1.1

Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.3

Metropolitan Statistical Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1

Colonial era (1670–1786) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.2

American Revolution (1776–1783) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.3

Antebellum era (1785–1861) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.4

Civil War (1861–1865) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.5

Postbellum era (1865–1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.6

Contemporary era (1944–present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

Annual cultural events and fairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.4

Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.5

Live theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.6

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.7

Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.8

Creative works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

Emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.1

Fire department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.2

Police department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.3

EMS and medical centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.4

Coast Guard Station Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.9

Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

1.3

CONTENTS 1.10.1 Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.2 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.3 Interstates and highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.4 Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.5 Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11 Nearby cities and towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11.1 Other outlying areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.12 Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.13 Schools, colleges, and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.14 Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.14.1 Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.14.2 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.15 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.15.1 Broadcast television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.15.2 Radio stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.16 Sister cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.17 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.18 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.19 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.19.2 Art, architecture, literature, science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.19.3 Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.20 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Charleston

2.1

Geography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Naval history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Amtrak stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

Other uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

North Charleston, South Carolina

3.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.1

1680–1901: Plantations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.2

1901–1972: Incorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.3

1972–1982: First decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.4

1982–1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.5

1996–present: redevelopment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.1

3.2

Tri County Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

iii

3.2.2

Nearby cities and towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.3

Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.1

Mayor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.2

Council members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.3

Emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.4

ZIP codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5

Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.6

Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.1

Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.2

Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.3

Motor freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.4

Port facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.5

Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7.6

Bus transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.8

Hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9

Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9.1

Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9.2

Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9.3

Film Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9.4

In ďŹ ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10.1 County parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 Schools, colleges, and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12.1 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12.2 Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12.3 Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12.4 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12.5 Federal Complex (former Charleston Naval Base), North Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.13 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.13.1 Broadcast television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. state

4.1

US Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2

Federal power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3

Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS 4.3.1

Constitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4.1

Among states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4.2

With the federal government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Admission into the Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5.1

Possible new states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5.2

Unrecognized entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6

Secession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7

Commonwealths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.8

Origins of statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9

Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.1

Regional grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.2

Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.3

Statistical areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

South Carolina

5.1

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2

Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.1

Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.2

Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2.3

Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.1

Discovery and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.2

British colony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.3

The American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.4

Federal period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.5

Antebellum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.6

American Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.7

Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.8

Populist and agrarian movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3.9

20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4

4.5

5.3

5.3.10 21st century

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4.1

Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4.2

Major cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.5

Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.6

The arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.7

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4

CONTENTS

5.7.1

Major highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.7.2

Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.7.3

Major and regional airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.8

Government and politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.9

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.9.1

Institutions of higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.9.2

Universities and colleges ranked by endowment [74] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.10 Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.11 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.12 Federal lands in South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Charleston Harbor

6.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ashley River (South Carolina)

7.1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cooper River (South Carolina)

8.1

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Berkeley County, South Carolina

9.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2

Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.1

Adjacent counties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.2

National protected areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.3

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.4

Public safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.4.1

Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.4.2

Emergency medical services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.4.3

Fire protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.5

Attractions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.6

Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS 9.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Charleston County, South Carolina

10.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.1 Adjacent counties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1.2 National protected areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.2 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4 Emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.1 Volunteer Rescue Squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.5 Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6.1 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6.2 Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6.3 Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7 Notable residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 Dorchester County, South Carolina

11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.2.1 Adjacent Counties

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4 Government and infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 West Ashley

12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.2 West Ashley neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3 Major shopping centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.4 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5 External links with photos of West Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 Johns Island, South Carolina

13.1 Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2.1 Colonial era (1670â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1776) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

vii

13.2.2 American Revolution (1776â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1785) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2.3 Civil War (1861â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1865) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4 Attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4.1 Johns Island Presbyterian Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4.2 Angel Oak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4.3 Mullet Hall Equestrian Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.4.4 Battle of Charleston reenactment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.5 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.6 Museums and Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.6.1 Johns Island Branch Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.7 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 James Island (South Carolina) 14.1 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 Daniel Island

87 87 88

15.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 Wando River

16.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Stono River

89 90

17.1 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.3 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18 Hurricane Hugo

18.1 Meteorological history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.2 Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.3 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.3.1 Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.3.2 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.3.3 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.4.1 Red Cross response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.4.2 Saint Croix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.4.3 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.4.4 Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

CONTENTS 18.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19 Mount Pleasant, South Carolina 19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99 99

19.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 19.3 Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 19.4 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 19.5 Broadcast television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.6 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.7 Public safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.7.1 Fire and emergency services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.7.2 Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.8 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.9 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.10Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.10.1 Elementary schools (public) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 19.10.2 Middle schools (public) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.10.3 High schools (public) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.10.4 Private schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.11County parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.12Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 20 Summerville, South Carolina

105

20.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 20.2 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 20.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 20.4 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 20.5 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 20.6 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 20.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 20.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 21 Moncks Corner, South Carolina

108

21.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 21.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 21.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 21.4 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 21.5 Points of interest

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

CONTENTS

21.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 21.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 22 Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina

110

22.1 Prior to 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 22.2 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 22.3 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 22.3.1 1800s–1850s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 22.3.2 1860s–1890s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 22.4 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 22.5 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 22.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 22.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 22.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 22.8.1 Published in the 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 22.8.2 Published in the 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 22.8.3 Published in the 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 22.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 23 History of Charleston, South Carolina 23.1 Colonial period: 1663–1776

117

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

23.1.1 Founding and initial growth

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

23.1.2 Ethnic and religious diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 23.1.3 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 23.1.4 Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 23.2 American Revolution: 1776–1785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 23.3 Antebellum: 1785–1861

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

23.3.1 Commerce and expansion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

23.3.2 Political changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 23.4 Civil War: 1861–1865

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

23.5 Postbellum: 1865–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 23.5.1 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 23.5.2 1886 earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 23.6 Modern-day: 1945 - present 23.6.1 Hurricane Hugo

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

23.6.2 Joe Riley era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 23.6.3 Charleston church shooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 23.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 23.8 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

23.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 23.9.1 Primary sources

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

23.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

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24 William Moultrie

126

24.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 24.2 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 24.2.1 The Moultrie Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 24.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 24.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 24.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 25 John Rutledge

129

25.1 Early life and family

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

25.2 Pre-Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 25.3 President of South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 25.4 Governor of South Carolina

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

25.4.1 Charleston occupied

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

25.5 Slavery

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

25.6 The Story of the Tavern Keeper 25.7 Constitutional Convention

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

25.8 Supreme Court Associate Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 25.9 Chief Justice of the United States of America 25.10Later years

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

25.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 25.12References 25.13Bibliography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

25.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 25.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 26 Fort Moultrie

136

26.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 26.1.1 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 26.1.2 Early federal period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 26.1.3 Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 26.1.4 Postbellum period and 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 26.1.5 Decommissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 26.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 26.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 26.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 26.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 27 Columbia, South Carolina

141

27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 27.1.1 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 27.1.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

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27.1.3 Twentieth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 27.1.4 Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 27.2 Geography and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 27.2.1 Metropolitan area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 27.2.2 Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 27.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 27.3.1 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 27.4 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 27.4.1 Downtown revitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 27.4.2 Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 27.5 Arts and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 27.5.1 Annual cultural events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 27.5.2 Venues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 27.6 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 27.7 Parks and recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 27.8 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 27.8.1 Military installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 27.9 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 27.9.1 Colleges and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 27.9.2 Private schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 27.9.3 Public school districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 27.10Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 27.11Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 27.11.1 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 27.11.2 Health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 27.12Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 27.13Accolades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 27.14Sister cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 27.15See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 27.16Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 27.17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 27.18Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 27.19External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 28 Piedmont (United States)

164

28.1 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 28.2 Soils and farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 28.3 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 28.4 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 28.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 28.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 28.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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CONTENTS 28.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

29 Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War

166

29.1 Early war years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 29.2 Later war years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 29.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 29.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 29.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 30 McClellanville, South Carolina

169

30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 30.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 30.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 30.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 30.4.1 Mayor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 30.4.2 Council members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 30.5 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 30.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 31 Spoleto Festival USA

171

31.1 History of the Charleston festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 31.1.1 Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 31.2 The Festivalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission and programming philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 31.2.1 Piccolo Spoleto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 31.3 Spoleto Festival USA Orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 31.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 31.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 32 Cooper River Bridge Run

174

32.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 32.2 Course and event changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 32.3 Competitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 32.4 Past winners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 32.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 32.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 33 Music in Charleston

178

33.1 Jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 33.2 The Jenkins Orphanage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 33.3 Notable Musicians in Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 33.4 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 33.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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33.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 34 Gullah

180

34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 34.1.1 African roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 34.1.2 Origin of Gullah culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 34.1.3 Customs and traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 34.1.4 Civil War period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 34.1.5 Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 34.1.6 Celebrating Gullah culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 34.1.7 Cultural survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2 Representation in art, entertainment, and media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2.1 Exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2.2 Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2.3 Historical landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2.4 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 34.2.5 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 34.2.6 Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 34.2.7 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 34.3 Cultural topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 34.4 Historical topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 34.5 Notable Americans with Gullah roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 35 Charleston Historic District

188

35.1 Description and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 35.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 35.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 35.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 35.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 36 Patriots Point

190

36.1 Museum ships and exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 36.2 1975 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Present

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

36.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 36.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 36.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 37 Calhoun Mansion 37.1 History

192

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

37.2 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 37.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 37.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

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38 Charleston Museum

193

38.1 Collection strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 38.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 38.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 39 Warren Lasch Conservation Center

194

39.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 40 Exchange and Provost

195

40.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 40.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 40.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 40.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 40.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 41 George Washington

197

41.1 Early life (1732–1753) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 41.2 French and Indian War (or 'Seven Years’ War', 1754–1758) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 41.2.1 Braddock disaster 1755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.2.2 Commander of Virginia Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.2.3 Lessons learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.3 Between the wars: Mount Vernon (1759–1774) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 41.4 American Revolution (1775–1783) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 41.4.1 Commander in chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 41.4.2 Victory at Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 41.4.3 Defeat at New York City and Fabian tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 41.4.4 1777 campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 41.4.5 Valley Forge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 41.4.6 Sullivan Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 41.4.7 Hudson River and Southern battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 41.4.8 Treachery and mutiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 41.4.9 Victory at Yorktown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 41.4.10 Demobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 41.5 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 41.6 Presidency (1789–1797) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 41.6.1 Domestic issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 41.6.2 Foreign aﬀairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 41.6.3 Farewell Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 41.7 Retirement (1797–1799) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 41.7.1 Comparisons with Cincinnatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 41.8 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 41.9 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

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41.9.1 Cherry tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 41.9.2 Monuments and memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 41.9.3 Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 41.10Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 41.10.1 Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 41.10.2 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 41.10.3 Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 41.11Postage and currency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 41.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 41.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 41.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 41.15Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 41.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 42 Gibbes Museum of Art

229

42.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 42.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 43 Fireproof Building

231

43.1 Description and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 43.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 43.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 43.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 44 Nathaniel Russell House

233

44.1 Mansion and grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 44.1.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 44.1.2 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 44.1.3 Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 44.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 44.3 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 44.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 44.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 44.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 45 Gov. William Aiken House

236

45.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 45.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 45.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 46 Heyward-Washington House

237

46.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 46.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

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47 Joseph Manigault House

238

47.1 Description and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 47.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 47.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 47.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 48 City Market (Charleston, South Carolina)

239

48.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 48.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 48.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 48.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 48.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 49 South Carolina Aquarium

243

49.1 Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 49.2 Sea Turtle Rescue Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 49.3 StaďŹ&#x192;ng and Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 49.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 49.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 49.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 50 Fort Sumter

245

50.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 50.2 Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 50.2.1 First Battle of Fort Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 50.2.2 Union siege of Fort Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 50.3 After the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 50.4 Fort Sumter National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 50.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 50.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 50.6.1 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 50.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 51 The Battery (Charleston)

252

51.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 51.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 52 Rainbow Row

254

52.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 52.2 Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 52.2.1 79-81 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

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52.2.2 83 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.3 85 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.4 87 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.5 89 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.6 91 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.7 93 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.8 95 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 52.2.9 97 and 99-101 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 52.2.10 103 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 52.2.11 105 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 52.2.12 107 East Bay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 52.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 53 Charleston Battery

258

53.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 53.2 Colors and badge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.3 Stadiums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.4 Club culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.5 Players and staﬀ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.5.1 Current roster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.5.2 Staﬀ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.5.3 Notable former players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.5.4 Head coaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.6 Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 53.7 Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 53.7.1 Year-by-year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 53.7.2 Record vs. International and MLS teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 53.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 53.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 53.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 54 Charleston Southern University

261

54.1 Academics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 54.2 Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 54.3 Student activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 54.3.1 Student life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 54.3.2 Athletics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 54.4 Notable alumni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 54.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 54.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 55 Charleston School of Law

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55.1 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

55.1.1 Inspiration and establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 55.1.2 ABA accreditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 55.1.3 School’s ﬁrst graduation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 55.1.4 Possible change of ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 55.2 Costs, post-graduation information and student debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.2.1 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.2.2 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.2.3 Average Debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.3 Admissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.4 South Carolina bar-exam passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.5 Student body

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

55.6 Other information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 55.7 Facilities

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

55.8 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 55.8.1 Charleston Law Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 55.8.2 Federal Courts Law Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 55.8.3 Maritime Law Bulletin

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

55.8.4 Resolved: Journal of Alternative Dispute Resolution

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

55.9 Notable Alumni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 55.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 55.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 56 Bed and breakfast

273

56.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 56.2 Regional diﬀerences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 56.2.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 56.2.2 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 56.2.3 Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 56.2.4 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.5 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.6 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.7 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.8 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.9 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.10 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.11 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 56.2.12 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 56.2.13 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 56.2.14 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 56.2.15 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 56.2.16 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

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56.3 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 56.4 Professional and trade associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5 Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.1 Tourism Queensland study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.2 Michigan State University study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.3 ComScore study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.4 Journal of Travel Research study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.5 Prince Edward Island study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.5.6 TIME magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 56.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 57 Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

279

57.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 57.2 Building the Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 57.2.1 Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 57.2.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 57.2.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 57.3 Bridge Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 57.4 Media appearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 57.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 57.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 58 John P. Grace Memorial Bridge

283

58.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 58.2 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 58.3 Demolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 58.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 58.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 58.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 59 Port of Charleston

285

59.1 Early History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 59.2 Ranking, Volume and Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 59.3 Terminals in the Port of Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 59.4 Cruise Terminal and Union Pier Redevelopment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 59.5 Shipyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 59.6 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 59.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 59.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 60 Awendaw, South Carolina 60.1 History

288

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

CONTENTS 60.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 60.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 60.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 60.5 Landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 60.6 Blue Crab Festival

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

60.7 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 60.8 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 60.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 60.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 61 Cottageville, South Carolina

290

61.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 61.2 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 61.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 61.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 62 Folly Beach, South Carolina

291

62.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 62.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 62.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 62.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.4.1 Mayor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.4.2 Council members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.4.3 Voting patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.4.4 County parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 62.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 63 Hanahan, South Carolina

293

63.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 63.2 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 63.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 63.4 Government and infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 63.5 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 63.6 Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 63.6.1 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 63.6.2 Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 63.6.3 Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 63.6.4 Coast Guard

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

63.6.5 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 63.6.6 Federal Complex (former Charleston Naval Base), North Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 63.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

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63.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 64 Goose Creek, South Carolina

298

64.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 64.2 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 64.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 64.4 Armed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 64.4.1 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 64.4.2 Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 64.4.3 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 64.5 Police force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 64.6 High schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 64.7 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 64.8 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 64.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 64.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 65 Harleyville, South Carolina

301

65.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 65.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 65.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 65.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 65.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 66 Hollywood, South Carolina

303

66.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.2 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.3 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.3.1 Council members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.4 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 66.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 67 Isle of Palms, South Carolina

305

67.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 67.2 Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 67.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 67.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.4.1 Mayor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.4.2 Council members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.5.1 County parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

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67.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 67.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 68 James Island, South Carolina

308

68.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 68.2 Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 68.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 68.4 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 68.5 Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 68.6 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

68.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 69 Meggett, South Carolina

310

69.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 69.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 69.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 69.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 69.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 69.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 70 Ridgeville, South Carolina

312

70.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 70.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 70.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 70.4 Government and infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 70.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 71 Rockville, South Carolina

314

71.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.4 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.4.1 Mayor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.4.2 Council Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 71.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 71.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 72 Sullivanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Island, South Carolina

316

72.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 72.1.1 Fort Moultrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 72.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 72.3 Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 72.4 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

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72.5 Literary references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 72.6 Other references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 72.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 72.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 72.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 72.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 73 Walterboro, South Carolina

320

73.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 73.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 73.3 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 73.3.1 Rice Festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.3.2 Great Swamp Sanctuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.3.3 Slave Relic Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.3.4 The South Carolina Artisan Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.3.5 Other attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.4 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.5 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.6 Notable residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 73.7 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 73.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 73.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 74 Cross, South Carolina

323

74.1 Notable residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 74.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 75 Dewees Island 75.1 History

324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

75.2 Transportation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

75.3 Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 75.4 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 75.5 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

75.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 76 Edisto Island, South Carolina

326

76.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 76.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 76.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 76.4 Notable residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 76.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 76.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

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77 Morris Island

328

77.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 77.2 Morris Island Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 77.3 Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 77.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 77.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 78 Wadmalaw Island 78.1 Geography

330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

78.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 78.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 78.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 78.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 79 List of schools in Charleston, South Carolina

332

79.1 Elementary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 79.2 Middle schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 79.3 High schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 79.4 Private schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 79.5 Higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 80 Charleston County School District

334

80.1 Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 80.2 Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 80.2.1 High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 80.2.2 Middle Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 80.2.3 Elementary and Primary Schools and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 80.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 80.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 80.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 81 Berkeley County School District

337

82 Media in Charleston, South Carolina

338

82.1 Major network television aďŹ&#x192;liates

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

82.2 Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 82.2.1 FM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 82.2.2 AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 82.2.3 High deďŹ nition digital radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 82.3 Print, online media and mobile apps

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

82.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 82.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 83 List of people from Charleston, South Carolina

340

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83.1 Athletes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 83.2 Entertainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 83.3 Military ﬁgures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 83.4 Political ﬁgures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 83.5 Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 83.6 Writers and artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 83.7 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 83.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 83.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 84 List of tallest buildings in Charleston, South Carolina

344

84.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 85 List of television shows and ﬁlms in Charleston, South Carolina

345

85.1 Television shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 85.2 Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 86 National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

347

86.1 Current listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 86.2 Former listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 86.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 86.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 87 1886 Charleston earthquake

349

87.1 Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 87.1.1 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 87.1.2 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 87.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 87.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 87.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 88 Riverland Terrace

351

88.1 The Riverland Terrace Neighborhood Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 88.2 Gallery

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

88.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 89 Old Slave Mart

352

89.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 89.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 89.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 89.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 89.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 89.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 89.6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

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CONTENTS 89.6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 89.6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Chapter 1

Charleston, South Carolina For other uses, see Charleston (disambiguation). Not to be confused with North Charleston, South Carolina.

Residential gardens such as this one at the Calhoun Mansion abound in Charleston.

The downtown Charleston waterfront on The Battery

Waterfront Park overlooks Charleston Harbor and oﬀers views of Fort Sumter and the Ravenel Bridge.

Cooper Rivers, or, as is locally expressed, “where the Cooper and Ashley Rivers come together to form the At[5] Charleston is the oldest and second-largest city in lantic Ocean.” the U.S. state of South Carolina, the county seat of Founded in 1670 as Charles Town in honor of King Charleston County,[3] and the principal city in the Charles II of England, Charleston adopted its present Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville Metropoli- name in 1783.[6] It moved to its present location on tan Statistical Area.[4] The city lies just south of the ge- Oyster Point in 1680 from a location on the west bank ographical midpoint of South Carolina’s coastline and of the Ashley River known as Albemarle Point. By is located on Charleston Harbor, an inlet of the At- 1690, Charles Town was the ﬁfth-largest city in North lantic Ocean formed by the conﬂuence of the Ashley and America,[7] and it remained among the 10 largest cities Charleston has scores of historic buildings and homes downtown.

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

in the United States through the 1840 census.[8] With a 2010 census population of 120,083 [9] (and a 2014 estimate of 130,113), current trends put Charleston as the fastest-growing municipality in South Carolina. The population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester Counties, was counted by the 2014 estimate at 727,689 – the thirdlargest in the state – and the 78th-largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States. Known for its rich history, well-preserved architecture, distinguished restaurants, and mannerly people, Charleston has received a large number of accolades, including “America’s Most Friendly [City]" by Travel + Leisure in 2011 and in 2013 and 2014 by Condé Nast Traveler,[10][11] and also “the most polite and hospitable city in America” by Southern Living magazine.[12]

and unusually high tides. The city limits have expanded across the Ashley River from the peninsula, encompassing the majority of West Ashley as well as James Island and some of Johns Island. The city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River. The tidal rivers (Wando, Cooper, Stono, and Ashley) are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline. There is a submerged river delta oﬀ the mouth of the harbor, and the Cooper River is deep, aﬀording a good location for a port.

1.1.2 Climate

1.1 Geography

Damage left from Hurricane Hugo in 1989

Charleston has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classiﬁcation Cfa), with mild winters, hot, humid summers, and signiﬁcant rainfall all year long. Summer is the wettest season; almost half of the annual rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November. Winter is short and mild, and is characterized Map showing the major rivers of Charleston and the Charleston by occasional rain. Measurable snow (≥0.1 in or 0.25 cm) Harbor watershed only occurs several times per decade at the most, with the last such event occurring December 26, 2010.[13] HowThe city proper consists of six distinct areas: the Penin- ever, 6.0 in (15 cm) fell at the airport on December 23, sula/Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, 1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula. to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in (20 cm) snowfall.[13]

1.1.1

Topography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 127.5 square miles (330.2 km2 ), of which 109.0 square miles (282.2 km2 ) is land and 18.5 square miles (47.9 km2 ) is covered by water.[9] The old city is located on a peninsula at the point where, as Charlestonians say, “The Ashley and the Cooper Rivers come together to form the Atlantic Ocean.” The entire peninsula is very low, some is landﬁll material, and as such, frequently ﬂoods during heavy rains, storm surges,

The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F (40 °C), on June 2, 1985, and June 24, 1944, and the lowest was 7 °F (−14 °C) on February 14, 1899, although at the airport, where oﬃcial records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F (41 °C) on August 1, 1999 down to 6 °F (−14 °C) on January 21, 1985.[13] Hurricanes are a major threat to the area during the summer and early fall, with several severe hurricanes hitting the area – most notably Hurricane Hugo on September 21, 1989 (a category 4 storm). Dewpoint in the summer ranges from 67.8 to 71.4 °F (20 to 22 °C).[13]

1.2. HISTORY

Charleston was hit by a large tornado in 1761, which tem- nor William Sayle, on the west bank of the Ashley River, porarily emptied the Ashley River, and sank five offshore a few miles northwest of the present-day city center. It warships.[14] was soon predicted by the Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the Lords Proprietors, to become a “great port towne”, a destiny the city quickly fulfilled. In 1680, the settlement was 1.1.3 Metropolitan Statistical Area moved east of the Ashley River to the peninsula between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. Not only was this locaCharleston-North Charleston-Summerville tion more defensible, but it also offered access to a fine The Metropolitan Statistical Area currently consists of natural harbor. three counties: Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester. In 1718, Charleston was besieged by the pirate Edward As of the 2013 U.S. Census, the metropolitan statistical Teach, commonly known as Blackbeard. This disrupted area had a total population of 712,239 people. North trade in Charleston for a time until Blackbeard and his Charleston is the second-largest city in the Charlestonallies abandoned the siege. North Charleston-Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state; As the capital of the Carolina colony, Charles Town was Mount Pleasant and Summerville are the next-largest a center for inland expansion, but remained the southerncities. These cities combined with other incorporated and most point of English settlement on the American mainunincorporated areas surrounding the city of Charleston land until the Georgia colony was established in 1732. form the Charleston-North Charleston Urban Area with a population of 548,404 as of 2010.[18] The metropolitan statistical area also includes a separate and much smaller urban area within Berkeley County, Moncks Corner (with a 2000 population of 9,123). The traditional parish system persisted until the Reconstruction Era, when counties were imposed. Nevertheless, traditional parishes still exist in various capacities, mainly as public service districts. The city of Charleston which was originally defined by the limits of the Parish of St. Philip and St. Michael, now also includes parts of St. James’ Parish, St. George’s Parish, St. Andrew’s Parish, and St. John’s Parish, although the last two are mostly still incorporated rural parishes.

1.2 History

A 1733 map of Charles Towne, published by Herman Moll, shows the city’s defensive walls

The early settlement was often subject to attack from Main articles: History of Charleston, South Carolina and sea and land, including periodic assaults from Spain and France (both of whom contested England’s claims to the Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina region), and pirates. These were combined with raids by Native Americans, who tried to protect themselves from so-called European “settlers,” who in turn wanted to ex1.2.1 Colonial era (1670–1786) pand the settlement. The heart of the city was fortified according to a 1704 plan by Governor Johnson. Except After Charles II of England (1630–1685) was restored to those fronting Cooper River, the walls were largely rethe English throne in 1660 following Oliver Cromwell's moved during the 1720s. Protectorate, he granted the chartered Province of Car- The first settlers primarily came from England, its olina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Pro- Caribbean colony of Barbados, and its Atlantic colony prietors, on March 24, 1663. It took seven years before of Bermuda. Among these were free people of color, the group arranged for settlement expeditions. The first born in the West Indies of alliances and marriages beof these founded Charles Town, in 1670. Governance, tween Africans and Englanders, when color lines were settlement, and development were to follow a visionary looser among the working class in the early colonial plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lords years, and some wealthy whites took black consorts or Proprietors by John Locke. concubines.[19] Charles Town attracted a mixture of ethThe community was established by several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda (which lies due east of South Carolina, although at 1,030 km or 640 mi, it is closest to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina), under the leadership of gover-

nic and religious groups. French, Scottish, Irish, and Germans migrated to the developing seacoast town, representing numerous Protestant denominations. Because of the battles between English “royalty” and the Roman

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA colony’s population was slaves, and the future state would continue to be a majority of African descent until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century.

Rainbow Row’s 13 houses along East Bay Street were—from the Colonial period until the early 20th century—a commercial center of the town.

Charles Town was a hub of the deerskin trade, the basis of its early economy. Trade alliances with the Cherokee and Creek nations insured a steady supply of deer hides. Between 1699 and 1715, colonists exported an average of 54,000 deer skins annually to Europe through Charles The Pink House, the oldest stone building in Charleston, was built Town. Between 1739 and 1761, the height of the deerof Bermudian limestone at 17 Chalmers Street, at some time be- skin trade era, an estimated 500,000 to 1,250,000 deer tween 1694 and 1712. were slaughtered. During the same period, Charles Town records show an export of 5,239,350 pounds of deer skins. Deer skins were used in the production of men’s Catholic Church, practicing Catholics were not allowed fashionable and practical buckskin pantaloons, gloves, to settle in South Carolina until after the American Rev- and book bindings. olution. Jews were allowed, and Sephardic Jews migrated Colonial Lowcountry landowners experimented with to the city in such numbers that by the beginning of the cash crops ranging from tea to silkworms. African slaves 19th century, the city was home to the largest and wealth- brought knowledge of rice cultivation, which plantation iest Jewish community in North America—a status it held owners cultivated and developed as a successful commoduntil about 1830.[20] ity crop by 1700.[23] With the coerced help of African Africans were brought to Charles Town on the Middle Passage, ﬁrst as “servants”, then as slaves. Ethnic groups transported here included especially Wolof, Yoruba, Fulani, Igbo, Malinke, and other people of the Windward Coast.[21] An estimated 40% of the total 400,000 Africans transported and sold as slaves into North America are estimated to have landed at Sullivan’s Island, just oﬀ the port of Charles Town; it is described as a “hellish Ellis Island of sorts .... Today nothing commemorates that ugly fact but a simple bench, established by the author Toni Morrison using private funds.”[22] By the mid-18th century, Charles Town had become a bustling trade center, the hub of the Atlantic trade for the southern colonies. Charles Towne was also the wealthiest and largest city south of Philadelphia, in part because of the lucrative slave trade. By 1770, it was the fourthlargest port in the colonies, after Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, with a population of 11,000—slightly more than half of them slaves. By 1708, the majority of the

slaves from the Caribbean, Eliza Lucas, daughter of plantation owner George Lucas, learned how to raise and use indigo in the Lowcountry in 1747. Supported with subsidies from Britain, indigo was a leading export by 1750.[24] Those and naval stores were exported in an extremely profitable shipping industry. As Charles Town grew, so did the community’s cultural and social opportunities, especially for the elite merchants and planters. The first theatre building in America was built in 1736 on the site of today’s Dock Street Theatre. Benevolent societies were formed by different ethnic groups, from French Huguenots to free people of color to Germans to Jews. The Charles Towne Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. This group also helped establish the College of Charles Towne in 1770, the oldest college in South Carolina. Until its transition to state ownership in 1970, this was the oldest

1.2. HISTORY municipally supported college in the United States.

1.2.2

American Revolution (1776–1783)

As the relationship between the colonists and Britain deteriorated, Charles Town became a focal point in the ensuing American Revolution. It was twice the target of British attacks. At every stage, the British strategy assumed the existence of a large base of Loyalist supporters who would rally to the king’s forces given some military support.[25] In late March 1776, South Carolina President and Commander in Chief John Rutledge learned that a large British naval force was moving toward Charles Town. To defend the city, he ordered the construction of Fort Sullivan (now Ft. Moultrie), on Sullivan’s Island overlooking the main shipping channel into Charleston Harbor. He placed Col. William Moultrie in charge of the construction and subsequently made him the fort’s commanding oﬃcer.

5 the addition of the palmetto tree, the logs of which had been used to make the fort so impenetrable. • The day of that battle, June 28, is now a state holiday known as Carolina Day. Clinton returned in 1780 with 14,000 soldiers. American General Benjamin Lincoln was trapped and surrendered his entire 5,400-man force after a long fight, and the Siege of Charles Towne was the greatest American defeat of the war. Several Americans who escaped the carnage joined other militias, including those of Francis Marion, the “Swamp Fox"; and Andrew Pickens. The British retained control of the city until December 1782. After the British left, the city’s name was officially changed to Charleston in 1783.[26] When the city was freed from the British, General Nathanael Greene presented its leaders with the Moultrie Flag, describing it as the first “American” flag flown in the South.

On June 28, 1776, General Sir Henry Clinton along with 2,000 men and a naval squadron tried to seize Charles 1.2.3 Towne, hoping for a simultaneous Loyalist uprising in South Carolina. When the fleet fired cannonballs, they failed to penetrate Fort Sullivan’s unfinished, yet thick, palmetto-log walls. No local Loyalists attacked the town from the mainland side, as the British had hoped they would do. Col. Moultrie’s men returned fire and inflicted heavy damage on several of the British ships. The British were forced to withdraw their forces, and the Americans renamed the defensive installation as Fort Moultrie in honor of its commander.

Antebellum era (1785–1861)

Former German Fire Co. Engine House and Old Slave Mart Museum, 8 & 6 Chalmers St., respectively

Fort Moultrie in 1861

This battle kept Charles Town safe from conquest for four years. It was considered so symbolic of the revolution that it inspired some key icons of South Carolina and the revolution: • During the battle, the flag Moultrie had flown in the battle (which he had designed) was shot down. It was hoisted into the air again by Sergeant William Jasper and kept aloft, rallying the troops, until it could be remounted. This Liberty Flag was seen as so important that it became the flag of South Carolina, with

Although the city lost the status of state capital to Columbia in 1786, Charleston became even more prosperous in the plantation-dominated economy of the postRevolutionary years. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 revolutionized the processing of this crop, making short-staple cotton proﬁtable. It was more easily grown in the upland areas, and cotton quickly became South Carolina’s major export commodity. The Piedmont region was developed into cotton plantations, to which the sea islands and Lowcountry were already devoted. Slaves were also the primary labor force within the city, working as domestics, artisans, market workers, and laborers. The city also had a large class of free people of color. By 1860, 3,785 free people of color were in Charleston, nearly 18% of the city’s black population, and 8% of the total population. Free people of color were far more likely

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

to be of mixed racial background than slaves. Many were educated, practiced skilled crafts, and some even owned substantial property, including slaves.[19][27] In 1790, they established the Brown Fellowship Society for mutual aid, initially as a burial society. It continued until 1945. By 1820, Charleston’s population had grown to 23,000, maintaining its black (and mostly slave) majority. When a massive slave revolt planned by Denmark Vesey, a free black, was revealed in May 1822, whites reacted with intense fear, as they were well aware of the violent retribution of slaves against whites during the Haitian Revolution. Soon after, Vesey was tried and executed, hanged in early July with five slaves. Another 28 slaves were later Meeting Street and Queen, at the end of the Civil War. The Mill’s hanged. Later, the state legislature passed laws requiring House Hotel is center. The ruins in this image are of buildings individual legislative approval for manumission (the free- destroyed in the fire of 1861, unrelated to the war. (1865) ing of a slave) and regulating activities of free blacks and slaves.[28] As Charleston’s government, society, and industry grew, commercial institutions were established to support the community’s aspirations. The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798. Branches of the First and Second Bank of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817. In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon, federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston’s forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor “to take pos- Cannon on display at The Battery in downtown Charleston session of any vessel arriving from a foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with.” This federal action became known as the Charleston incident. The state’s politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs.[29] By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves bought and sold. The legal importation of African slaves had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant. However, the domestic trade was booming. More than one million slaves were transported from the Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cot- Daughters of the Confederacy monument (dedicated Oct. 1932) ton plantations were widely developed through what bein the White Point Garden section of The Battery honors the solcame known as the Black Belt. Many slaves were trans- diers of Fort Sumter. ported in the coastwise slave trade, with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston. Abraham Lincoln, the South Carolina General Assembly voted to secede from the Union. On January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on the Union ship Star of the 1.2.4 Civil War (1861–1865) West entering Charleston’s harbor. On April 12, 1861, Main article: Charleston, South Carolina in the Ameri- shore batteries under the command of General Pierre G. can Civil War T. Beauregard opened fire on Union-held Fort Sumter in On December 20, 1860, following the election of the harbor, thus starting the war. After a 34-hour bom-

1.2. HISTORY

bardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort.

a university-preparatory school, Porter-Gaud School.

On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of the city. Union forces repeatedly bombarded the city, causing vast damage, and kept up a blockade that shut down most commercial traffic, although some blockade runners got through.[30] In a failed effort to break the blockade on February 17, 1864, an early submarine, the H.L. Hunley, made a night attack on the USS Housatonic.[31]

In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city’s population, and 73% of Charleston County.[35] With leadership by members of the antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as “unique” in being able to defend themselves without provoking “massive white retaliation”, as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction.[35] In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as a violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting.[35]

In 1865, Union troops moved into the city and took control of many sites, including the United States Arsenal, which the Confederate Army had seized at the outbreak of the war. The War Department also conﬁscated the grounds and buildings of the Citadel Military Academy, and used them as a federal garrison for over 17 years. The facilities were ﬁnally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak.

1.2.5

Postbellum era (1865–1945)

After the defeat of the Confederacy, federal forces remained in Charleston during the city’s reconstruction. The war had shattered the prosperity of the antebellum city. Freed slaves were faced with poverty and discrimination, but a large community of free people of color had been well-established in the city before the war and became the leaders of the postwar Republican Party and its legislators. Men who had been free people of color before the war comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876.[32][33] In Charleston, the African American population increased as freedmen moved from rural areas to the major city: from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880.[34] Historian Eric Foner noted that blacks were glad to be relieved of the many regulations of slavery and to operate outside of white surveillance. Among other changes, most blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church, setting up their own black Baptist congregations or joining new African Methodist Episcopal Church and AME Zion churches, both independent black denominations first established in the North. Freedmen “acquired dogs, guns, and liquor (all barred to them under slavery), and refused to yield the sidewalks to whites”.[34] Industries slowly brought the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality and jobs attracted new residents. As the city’s commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions. In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston’s African American population. General William T. Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now

Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to maintain white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and granting of citizenship to freedmen by federal constitutional amendments. After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by white Democratic paramilitary groups, known as the Red Shirts. Violent incidents took place in Charleston on King Street in September 6 and in nearby Cainhoy on October 15, both in association with political meetings before the 1876 election. The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks.[36] The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of the state legislature. Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election, when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed.[35] On August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda. It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($133 million in 2006 dollars), at a time when all the city’s buildings were valued around $24 million ($531 million in 2006 dollars). Investment in the city continued. The William Enston Home, a planned community for the city’s aged and infirm, was built in 1889. An elaborate public building, the United States Post Office and Courthouse, was completed by the federal government in 1896 in the heart of the city. The Democrat-dominated state legislature passed a new constitution in 1895 that disfranchised blacks, effectively excluding them entirely from the political process, a second-class status that was maintained for more than six decades in a state that was majority black until about 1930.

1.2.6

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Contemporary era (1944–present)

Singleton, 45; and Tywanza Sanders, 26.[39] The attack garnered national attention, and sparked a debate on historical racism, Confederate symbolism in Southern states, and gun violence. On July 10, 2015, the Confederate battle flag was removed from the South Carolina State House. A memorial service on the campus of the College of Charleston was attended by President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and Speaker of the House John Boehner. On the weekend of October 3–5, 2015, a massive low pressure front settled over Charleston. Simultaneously, Hurricane Joaquin was passing off shore. This combination of low pressure and tropical moisture caused extensive rain, tidal flows and flooding in the Greater Charleston Area. Scientists reported that the tide in Charleston Harbor was higher than during Hurricane Hugo (1989). Damage was significant. Local tourism suffered, but only for the weekend.

A Charleston street

Charleston languished economically for several decades 1.3 Culture in the 20th century, though the large federal military presence in the region helped to shore up the city’s economy. Charleston is known for its unique culture, which blends The Charleston Hospital Strike of 1969, in which mostly traditional Southern U.S., English, French, and West black workers protested discrimination and low wages, African elements. The downtown peninsula has gained was one of the last major events of the civil rights move- a reputation for its art, music, local cuisine, and fashion. ment. It attracted Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Spoleto Festival USA, held annually in late spring, has Andrew Young, and other prominent figures to march become one of the world’s major performing arts festiwith the local leader, Mary Moultrie. Its story is re- vals. It was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Gian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counted in Tom Dent's book Southern Journey (1996). counterpart to the Festival dei Due Mondi (the Festival of Joseph P. Riley, Jr., was elected mayor in the 1970s, and Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy. helped advance several cultural aspects of the city. Riley worked to revive Charleston’s economic and cultural Charleston’s oldest community theater group, the Footheritage. The last 30 years of the 20th century had major light Players, has provided theatrical productions since new investments in the city, with a number of municipal 1931. A variety of performing arts venues includes the improvements and a commitment to historic preservation historic Dock Street Theatre. The annual Charleston Fashion Week held each spring in Marion Square brings to restore the city’s unique fabric. in designers, journalists, and clients from across the naThese commitments were not slowed down by Hurricane tion. Charleston is known for its local seafood, which Hugo and continue to this day. The eye of Hurricane plays a key role in the city’s renowned cuisine, comprisHugo came ashore at Charleston Harbor in 1989, and ing staple dishes such as gumbo, she-crab soup, fried oysthough the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, ters, Lowcountry boil, deviled crab cakes, red rice, and three-quarters of the homes in Charleston’s historic disshrimp and grits. Rice is the staple in many dishes, retrict sustained damage of varying degrees. The hurricane flecting the rice culture of the Low Country. The cuisine caused over $2.8 billion in damage. The city was able to in Charleston is also strongly influenced by British and rebound fairly quickly after the hurricane and has grown French elements. in population, reaching an estimated 124,593 residents in 2009.[37] On June 17, 2015, 21-year-old Dylann Roof entered the historic Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church during a Bible study and killed nine people.[38] Senior pastor Clementa Pinckney, who also served as a state senator, was among those killed during the attack. The deceased also included congregation members Susie Jackson, 87; Rev. Daniel Simmons Sr., 74; Ethel Lance, 70; Myra Thompson, 59; Cynthia Hurd, 54; Rev. Depayne Middleton-Doctor, 49; Rev. Sharonda Coleman-

1.3.1 Language The traditional Charleston accent has long been noted in the state and throughout the South. It is typically heard in wealthy white families who trace their families back generations in the city. It has ingliding or monophthongal long mid-vowels, raises ay and aw in certain environments, and is nonrhotic. Sylvester Primer of the College of Charleston wrote about aspects of the lo-

1.3. CULTURE cal dialect in his late 19th-century works: “Charleston Provincialisms” (1887) [40] and “The Huguenot Element in Charleston’s Provincialisms”, published in a German journal. He believed the accent was based on the English as it was spoken by the earliest settlers, therefore derived from Elizabethan England and preserved with modifications by Charleston speakers. The rapidly disappearing “Charleston accent” is still noted in the local pronunciation of the city’s name. Some elderly (and usually upper-class) Charleston natives ignore the 'r' and elongate the first vowel, pronouncing the name as “Chah-lston”. Some observers attribute these unique features of Charleston’s speech to its early settlement by French Huguenots and Sephardic Jews (who were primarily English speakers from London), both of whom played influential roles in Charleston’s early development and history. Given Charleston’s high concentration of African Americans who spoke the Gullah language, a creole language that developed on the Sea Islands and in the Low Country, the local speech patterns were also influenced by this community. Today, Gullah is still spoken by many African American residents. However, rapid development, especially on the surrounding Sea Islands, has attracted residents from outside the area and led to a decline in its prominence.

1.3.2

Religion

Charleston is known as “The Holy City”,[41] perhaps by virtue of the prominence of churches on the low-rise cityscape[42] and for the fact that South Carolina was among the few original colonies to tolerate all Protestant religions, though it was not open to Roman Catholics.[43] The Anglican church was prominent in the colonial era and the Cathedral of St. Luke and St. Paul is the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina. Many French Huguenot refugees settled in Charleston in the early 18th century.[44] South Carolina allowed Jews to practice their faith without restriction. Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim, founded in 1749 by Sephardic Jews from London, is the fourth-oldest Jewish congregation in the continental United States.[45] Brith Sholom Beth Israel is the oldest Orthodox synagogue in the South, founded by Ashkenazi German and a Central European Jew, by the name Sam Berlin, in the mid-19th century.[46] The city’s oldest Roman Catholic parish, Saint Mary of the Annunciation Roman Catholic Church, is the mother church of Roman Catholicism to North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In 1820, Charleston was established as the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which at the time comprised the Carolinas and Georgia and presently encompasses the state of South Carolina.

9 ern United States and houses the oldest black congregation south of Baltimore, Maryland.[47] • The French Protestant (Huguenot) Church • The St. Matthew’s Lutheran Church • The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. John the Baptist • The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church

1.3.3 Annual cultural events and fairs Charleston annually hosts Spoleto Festival USA founded by Gian Carlo Menotti, a 17-day art festival featuring over 100 performances by individual artists in a variety of disciplines. The Spoleto Festival is internationally recognized as America’s premier performing arts festival.[48] The annual Piccolo Spoleto festival takes place at the same time and features local performers and artists, with hundreds of performances throughout the city. Other festivals and events include Historic Charleston Foundation’s Festival of Houses and Gardens and Charleston Antiques Show, the Taste of Charleston, The Lowcountry Oyster Festival, the Cooper River Bridge Run, The Charleston Marathon, Southeastern Wildlife Exposition (SEWE), Charleston Food and Wine Festival, Charleston Fashion Week, the MOJA Arts Festival, and the Holiday Festival of Lights (at James Island County Park), and the Charleston International Film Festival.

1.3.4 Music Main article: Music in Charleston As it has on every aspect of Charleston culture, the Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music. In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country. The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake's “Charleston Rag” and later James P. Johnson's "The Charleston", as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s. "Ballin' the Jack", which was a popular dance in the years before “The Charleston”, was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith.[49]

The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by the Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins in Charleston. The orphanage accepted donations of musical instruments and Rev. Jenkins hired local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music. As a result, Charleston musicians became proﬁcient on a variety of instruments and were able to read music expertly.[50] The Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church is the These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land oldest African Methodist Episcopal church in the South- some of them positions in big bands with Duke Ellington

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

and Count Basie. William “Cat” Anderson, Jabbo Smith, and Freddie Green are but a few of the alumni from the Jenkins Orphanage band who became professional musicians in some of the best bands of the day. Orphanages around the country began to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins Orphanage Band’s success. At the Colored Waif’s Home Brass Band in New Orleans, for example, a young trumpeter named Louis Armstrong ﬁrst began to draw attention.[51]

• Theatre 99 is an improvisational theater company. • Pure Theatre is a small professional theater that produces contemporary plays. • Sottile Theater is on the campus of The College of Charleston. • The Black Fedora Comedy Mystery Theatre presents clean comedy whodunits with volunteer audience participation.[58]

As many as ﬁve bands were on tour during the 1920s. The Jenkins Orphanage Band played in the inaugural parades • Threshold Repertory Theatre of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft and • Creative Spark toured the USA and Europe.[52] The band also played on Broadway for the play “Porgy” by DuBose and Dorothy • 34 West Theatre Co. is a small theatre with bistro Heyward, a stage version of their novel of the same tiseating, performing shows people want to see in a tle. The story was based in Charleston and featured the diﬀerent way Gullah community. The Heywards insisted on hiring the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on • Old City Jail in Historic Downtown [59] stage.[51] Only a few years later, DuBose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel into the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess (so named so 1.3.6 Museums, historical sites, and other as to distinguish it from the play). George Gershwin and attractions Heyward spent the summer of 1934 at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing this “folk opera”, as Gershwin See also: Charleston Historic District called it. Porgy and Bess is considered the Great Ameri- Charleston has many historic buildings, art and historical can Opera and is widely performed.[53] To this day, Charleston is home to many musicians in all genres. A unique showcase of Charleston’s musical heritage is presented weekly. “The Sound of Charleston....from gospel to Gershwin”, is staged at the historic Circular Congregational Church.[54]

1.3.5

Live theatre

Charleston has a vibrant theater scene and is home to America’s first theater. In 2010, Charleston was listed as one of the country’s top 10 cities for theater, and one of the top two in the South.[55] Most of the theaters are part of the League of Charleston Theatres, better known as Theatre Charleston.[56] Some of the city’s theaters in- The Gibbes Art Gallery includes local art, including many works clude: from the early 20th-century Charleston Renaissance. • The Dock Street Theatre, opened in the 1930s on the museums, and other attractions, including: site of America’s first purpose-built theater building, is home of the Charleston Stage Company, South • Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum located Carolina’s largest professional theater company. in the nearby town of Mount Pleasant. It includes the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV-10), de• Midtown Productions is a multiple-award-winning stroyer USS Laffey (DD-724), submarine USS Clatheatre company established in 1989, and is run by magore (SS-343), Cold War Submarine Memorial native Charlestonians Sheri Grace Wenger and her (SSBN and SSN), Vietnam Support Base and Expeson, Ryan Ahlert. rience Exhibit, and Medal of Honor Museum. • The Woolfe Street Playhouse is a nationally recog• The Calhoun Mansion, a 24,000-square-foot, 1876 nized professional theater company and home to the Victorian home at 16 Meeting Street,is named for a Village Repertory Company. grandson of John C. Calhoun who lived there with • The Footlight Players perform in one of the leading his wife, the builder’s daughter. The private house community theaters in the South.[57] is periodically open for tours.

1.3. CULTURE

11 • The Gibbes Museum of Art, opened in 1905, houses a premier collection of principally American works with a Charleston or Southern connection. • The Fireproof Building houses the South Carolina Historical Society, a membership-based reference library open to the public. • The Nathaniel Russell House is an important federal-style house. It is owned by the Historic Charleston Foundation and open to the public as a house museum.

The Calhoun Mansion at 16 Meeting Street was built in 1876 by George Williams, but derives its name from a later occupant, his grandson-in-law Patrick Calhoun.

• The Gov. William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, is a home built in 1820 for William Aiken, Jr. • The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture. • The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. The house was designed by Gabriel Manigault and is signiﬁcant for its Adam style architecture. • The Market Hall and Sheds, also known as the City Market or simply the Market, stretch several blocks behind 188 Meeting Street. Market Hall was built in the 1841 and houses the Daughters of the Confederacy Museum. The sheds house some permanent stores, but are mainly occupied by open-air vendors.

Rainbow Row, Charleston

• The Charleston Museum, America’s first museum, was founded in 1773. Its mission is to preserve and interpret the cultural and natural history of Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country. • The Warren Lasch Conservation Center houses the very first successful submarine the CSS Hunley, which is on display while awaiting conservation. • The Exchange and Provost was built in 1767. The building, located on Broad Street, has served as a customhouse, mercantile exchange, and military prison and barracks. During the American Revolution, it was used as a prison by both the British and Continental armies; later, it hosted events for George Washington in 1791 and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788. It is operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution. • The Powder Magazine is a 1713 gunpowder magazine and museum. It is the oldest surviving public building in South Carolina.

• The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture was established to collect, preserve, and make public the unique historical and cultural heritage of African Americans in Charleston and the South Carolina Low Country. Avery’s archival collections, museum exhibitions, and public programming reflect these diverse populations, as well as the wider African Diaspora. • South Carolina Aquarium • Fort Sumter, site of the first shots fired in the Civil War, is located in Charleston Harbor. The National Park Service maintains a visitor center for Fort Sumter at Liberty Square (near the South Carolina Aquarium), and boat tours including the fort depart nearby. • The Battery is an historic defensive seawall and promenade located at the tip of the peninsula along with White Point Garden, a park featuring several memorials and Civil War-era artillery pieces. • Rainbow Row is an iconic strip of homes along the harbor that date back to the mid-18th century. Though the homes are not open to the public, they are one of the most photographed attractions in the city and are featured heavily in local art.[60]

1.3.7

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Sports

1.3.8 Creative works Many creative works have been set in Charleston. In addition, Charleston is a popular ﬁlming location for movies and television, both in its own right and as a stand-in for Southern and/or historic settings. Literature • Porgy (1925), by DuBose Heyward, adapted into a play in 1927. • Several books by Citadel alumnus and novelist Pat Conroy, such as The Lords of Discipline set from 1963-'67, and (based on Conroy’s experiences as a cadet at The Citadel) and South of Broad 2009. • Clive Barker's novel Galilee

MUSC Health Stadium, home of the Charleston Battery

Charleston is home to a number of professional, minor league, and amateur sports teams:

• Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series, an alternate history series about a Confederacy that won the Civil War • Rafael Sabatini's novel The Carolinian

• The Charleston Battery, a professional soccer team, plays in the USL Professional Division. The Charleston Battery plays on Daniel Island at MUSC Health Stadium.

• Grace Peixotto and her bordello, the Big Brick at 11 Beresford Street in Charleston, are said to have been the inspiration for Belle Watling and her brothel in Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind.[62]

• The Charleston RiverDogs, a Minor League Baseball team, play in the South Atlantic League and are an aﬃliate of the New York Yankees. The RiverDogs play at Joseph P. Riley, Jr. Park.

• The 1991 bestseller Scarlett, is the sequel to Gone with the Wind. In fact, Alexandra Ripley, the author of Scarlett, derived inspiration from the city for her novel Charleston and its sequel On Leaving Charleston.

• The Charleston Outlaws RFC is a rugby union club in the Palmetto Rugby Union, USA Rugby South, and USA Rugby. It competes in Men’s Division II against the Cape Fear, Columbia, Greenville, and Charlotte “B” clubs. The club also hosts a rugby sevens tournament during Memorial Day weekend.

• The novel Werewolf Smackdown by Mario Acevedo is set in Charleston.[63]

• The Charleston Gaelic Athletic Association is a Gaelic athletic club focusing on the sports of hurling and Gaelic football. The club competes in the Southeastern Division of the North American County Board of the GAA. The club hosts other division clubs in the Holy City Cup each spring.[61] • The Lowcountry Highrollers is a women’s ﬂat-track roller derby league in the Charleston area. The league is a local member of the Women’s Flat Track Derby Association. Other notable sports venues in Charleston include Johnson Hagood Stadium (home of The Citadel Bulldogs football team) and Toronto Dominion Bank Arena at the College of Charleston, which seats 5,700 people who view the school’s basketball and volleyball teams.

• The novels Dreams of Sleep, Rich in Love, and The Fireman’s Fair were written by Josephine Humphreys, a native of Charleston. All are set in Charleston and the Charleston area. Rich in Love was ﬁlmed on Mount Pleasant and in Charleston. • Virals and Seizure by Kathy Reichs. The book’s venue is Charleston. • Celia Garth, a Revolutionary era novel by Gwen Bristow • Rick Riordan's hit teen book Mark of Athena has several scenes set in Charleston. • Sue Monk Kidd's 2014 novel The Invention of Wings. The book’s story is partially situated in Charleston, the birthplace of Sarah Grimké, who also inspired the main characters of the novel.[64] • North and South series of books by John Jakes, was partially set in Charleston. • Charleston by Alexandra Ripley was set in the town.

1.4. DEMOGRAPHICS Film and television For a full list of appearances of Charleston in ﬁlm and television, see here.

13 • Gullah Gullah Island (1994–98, children’s TV series) was on Nickelodeon. • North and South miniseries was partially set and ﬁlmed in Charleston. The wedding between George Hazard and Constance Flynn was held in Stella Maris Catholic Church, on Sullivans Island.

• In the Netflix series House of Cards, the main character Congressman Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey) is an alumnus of The Sentinel, a fictional school based on the local Citadel, and returns to its Opera campus in one episode upon the occasion of a new • George Gershwin's controversial folk opera Porgy library building there being named for him. 2013– and Bess (1935), based on the novel Porgy, is set in present Charleston and was partially written at Folly Beach, • The Notebook, 2004, starring Rachel McAdams, near Charleston. A film version was released in Ryan Gosling, and James Garner, was filmed in 1959. Charleston. The American Theatre on King Street was Allie and Noah’s first date spot. (It is set in 1940-'46 on Seabrook Island; based on the novel by 1.4 Demographics Nicholas Sparks.) • The 2010 film, Dear John, starring Amanda Seyfried and Channing Tatum, was filmed on Sullivans Island; set in early 2000s, it was the #1 film in U.S. • The College of Charleston’s Randolph Hall is featured in the 2000 Mel Gibson and Heath Ledger movie The Patriot. It serves as the meeting house where the South Carolinians decide to join the fight against the British. (set in 1776-1781) • The 1989 film Glory starring Matthew Broderick, Denzel Washington, and Morgan Freeman, is about the 1863 Second Battle of Fort Wagner on Morris Island. • The TNT television show Falling Skies is set predominately in postapocalyptic Charleston from the second season onwards. • The Lifetime television show Army Wives (20072013) is set at a fictional Army post in Charleston and mostly filmed on location in the City of Charleston and in the City of North Charleston. A sound stage was built near the intersection of Dorchester Rd and Montague Ave in North Charleston and a small town at the old Naval Base in North Charleston and shot many scenes at the U.S. Air Force Base in North Charleston. • The Bravo reality series titled Southern Charm (2014–present)follows the lives of a group of wealthy friends and socialites around Charleston, although only Thomas Ravenel is an actual Charlestonian.

In 2010, the racial makeup of Charleston was 70.2% White, 25.4% African American, 1.6% Asian, and 1.5% of two or more races; in addition, 2.9% of the population was Hispanic or Latino, of any race.[67]

1.5 Notable people • Robert F. Furchgott, The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998 http: //www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/ laureates/1998/furchgott-facts.html • Stephen Colbert, comedian and host of The Late Show • Thomas Gibson, actor and star of Criminal Minds • Charlie Green, ("Angry Grandpa"), Internet and YouTube personality • Alexandra Ripley, American writer and author of Scarlett • Darius Rucker, lead singer of Hootie and the Blowﬁsh

1.6 Government

Charleston has a strong mayor-council government, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive officer of the municipality. The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as other council members. The current mayor, since 2016, is John Tecklenburg The council has 12 members who • The CBS television show Reckless (2014–15) was are elected from one of 12 districts. filmed and set in Charleston. In 2006, Charleston’s residents voted against Amendment • The WE Network television show South of Hell is 1, which sought to ban same-sex marriage in South Carfilmed and takes place in Charleston. olina. Statewide, the measure passed by 78% to 22%,

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

but the voters of Charleston rejected it by 3,563 (52%) 1.7.3 EMS and medical centers to 3,353 votes (48%).[68] Emergency medical services (EMS) for the city are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services (CCEMS) & Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (BCEMS). The city is served by the EMS and 911 1.7 Emergency services services of both Charleston and Berkeley counties since the city is part of both counties.

1.7.1

Fire department

Fire Department station houses for Engines 2 and 3 of the Charleston Fire Department

The City of Charleston Fire Department consists over 300 full-time firefighters. These firefighters operate out of 19 companies located throughout the city: 16 engine companies, two tower companies, and one ladder company. Training, Fire Marshall, Operations, and Administration are the divisions of the department.[69] The department operates on a 24/48 schedule and had a Class 1 ISO rating until late 2008, when ISO officially lowered it to Class 3.[70] Russell (Rusty) Thomas served as Fire Chief until June 2008, and was succeeded by Chief Thomas Carr in November 2008.

1.7.2

Police department

Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state. The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital. MUSC is the state’s ﬁrst school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth-oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States. The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals. Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at another major hospital located in the West Ashley portion of the city: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital. The Trident Regional Medical Center located in the City of North Charleston and East Cooper Regional Medical Center located in Mount Pleasant also serve the needs of residents of the city of Charleston.

1.7.4 Coast Guard Station Charleston Coast Guard Station Charleston responds to search and rescue emergencies, conducts maritime law enforcement activities, and Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security (PWCS) missions. Personnel from Station Charleston are highly trained professionals, composed of federal law enforcement oﬃcers, boat crewmen, and coxswains who are capable of completing a wide range of missions.

1.8 Crime

The City of Charleston Police Department, with a total of 452 sworn officers, 137 civilians, and 27 reserve police officers, is South Carolina’s largest police department.[71] Their procedures on cracking down on drug use and gang violence in the city are used as models to other cities to do the same. According to the final 2005 FBI Crime Reports, Charleston crime level is worse than the national average in almost every major category.[72] Greg Mullen, the former Deputy Chief of the Virginia Beach, Virginia Police Department, serves as the current Chief of the Charleston Police Department. The former Charleston police chief was Reuben Greenberg, who resigned August 12, 2005. Greenberg was credited with creating a polite police force that kept police brutality well in check, even as it developed a visible presence in community policing Charleston Police Department police transporter and a significant reduction in crime rates.[73]

1.10. TRANSPORTATION The following table shows Charleston’s crime rate for six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses to calculate the ranking of “America’s most dangerous cities”, in comparison to the national average. The statistics shown are not for the actual number of crimes committed, but for the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people.[74] Since 1999, the overall crime rate of Charleston has begun to decline. The total crime index rate for Charleston in 1999 was 597.1 crimes committed per 100,000 people, while in 2011, the total crime index rate was 236.4 per 100,000. (The United States average is 320.9 per 100,000.)

1.9 Economy

15 Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John’s Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority.

1.10.2 Rail Charleston is served by two daily Amtrak trains: The Palmetto and Silver Meteor at the Amtrak station located at 4565 Gaynor Avenue in the City of North Charleston located around 7.5 miles from downtown Charleston .

1.10.3 Interstates and highways

Charleston is a major tourist destination, with a considerable number of luxury hotels, hotel chains, inns, and bed and breakfasts, and a large number of award-winning restaurants and quality shopping. The city has two shipping terminals, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, which are part of the fourth-largest container seaport on the East Coast and the thirteenth largest container seaport in North America.[75] Charleston is becoming a prime location for information technology jobs and corporations, and has experienced the highest growth in this sector between 2011 and 2012 due in large part to the Charleston Digital Corridor. In 2013, the Milken Institute ranked the Charleston region the ninth-best performing economy in the US due in large part to the growing IT sector. Notable companies include Blackbaud, SPARC, BoomTown, CSS, and Beneﬁtfocus. Higher education is also an important sector in the local economy, with institutions such as the Medical University of South Carolina, College of Charleston, The Citadel, and Charleston School of Law. In addition, Charleston Southern University is located in nearby North Charleston. Charleston is also an important art destination, named a top-25 arts destination by AmericanStyle magazine.[76] Charleston also has some of the higher home prices in the country with an average home price of $420,000.[77]

1.10 Transportation 1.10.1

Near the exit from I-26 onto Meeting Street in Charleston, South Carolina, the intersection of Meeting Street and Line Street is visible in photo.

Interstate 26 begins in downtown Charleston, with exits to the Septima Clark Expressway, the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge and Meeting Street. Heading northwest, it connects the city to North Charleston, the Charleston International Airport, Interstate 95, and Columbia. The Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge and Septima Clark Expressway are part of U.S. Highway 17, which travels east-west through the cities of Charleston and Mount Pleasant. The Mark Clark Expressway, or Interstate 526, is the bypass around the city and begins and ends at U.S. Highway 17. U.S. Highway 52 is Meeting Street and its spur is East Bay Street, which becomes Morrison Drive after leaving the east side. This highway merges with King Street in the city’s Neck area (industrial district). U.S. Highway 78 is King Street in the downtown area, eventually merging with Meeting Street.

Airport

The City of Charleston is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of downtown Charleston. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air

Major highways • I‑26 (eastern terminus is in Charleston) • I‑526 • I‑526 Bus.

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

• US 17 • US 52 (eastern terminus is in Charleston) •

US 52 Spur

Rural parts of the city and metropolitan area are served by a diﬀerent bus system, operated by Berkeley-CharlestonDorchester Rural Transportation Management Association. The system is also commonly called the TriCounty Link.[78]

• US 78 (Eastern terminus is in Charleston) • SC 7 (Sam Rittenberg Boulevard)

1.10.5 Port

• SC 30 (James Island Expressway) • SC 61 (St. Andrews Boulevard/Ashley River Road) • SC 171 (Old Towne Road/Folly Road) • SC 461 (Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway) • SC 700 (Maybank Highway) Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge across the Cooper River opened on July 16, 2005, and was the second-longest cable-stayed bridge in the Americas at the time of its construction. The bridge links Mount Pleasant with downtown Charleston, and has eight lanes plus a 12-foot lane shared by pedestrians and bicycles. It replaced the Grace Memorial Bridge (built in 1929) and the Silas N. Pearman Bridge (built in 1966). They were considered two of the more dangerous bridges in America and were demolished after the Ravenel Bridge opened.

Columbus Street Terminal viewed from the southwest

The Port of Charleston, owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority, is one of the largest ports in the U.S. The Port of Charleston consists of ﬁve terminals, and a sixth terminal was to open in 2018. Despite occasional labor disputes, the port is ranked number one in customer satisfaction across North America by supply chain executives.[79] Port activity at the two terminals located in the city of Charleston is one of the city’s leading sources of revenue, behind tourism.

Today, the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal. A next-generation The new Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge, constructed in 2005 and harbor-deepening project is currently underway to take named for former U.S. Representative Arthur Ravenel, Jr., who the Port of Charleston’s entrance channel to 54 feet and pushed the project to fruition, was at the time of its construc- harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide. With an avertion the second longest cable-stayed bridge in the Western Hemi- age high tide of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and 58 feet, respectively. sphere.

1.10.4

Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority

Union Pier, in the city of Charleston, is a cruise ship passenger terminal which hosts numerous cruise departures annually. In May 2010, the Carnival Fantasy was permanently stationed in Charleston, oﬀering weekly cruises to the Bahamas and Key West, eventually to include Bermuda. With the addition of the weekly Carnival Fantasy sailings, Union Terminal hosted 67 embarkations and ports of call in 2010.

The city is also served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA). Most of the urban area is served by regional fixed route buses, which are equipped with bike racks as part of the system’s Rack and Ride program. CARTA offers connectivity to historic downtown attractions and Terminals accommodations with the Downtown Area Shuttle trolley • Wando Welch Terminal – used for container cargo, buses, and it offers curbside pickup for disabled passenis located in the town of Mount Pleasant. gers with its Tel-A-Ride buses.

1.14. ARMED FORCES

• Columbus Street Terminal – used for project cargo, Because most of the city of Charleston is located in breakbulk and roll-on/roll-off cargo, is located in the Charleston County, it is served by the Charleston County city of Charleston. School District. Part of the city, however, is served by the Berkeley County School District in northern portions of • Union Pier Terminal – used for cruise ship opera- the city, such as the Cainhoy Industrial District, Cainhoy tions, is located in Charleston. Historical District and Daniel Island. • North Charleston Terminal – used for container Charleston is also served by a large number of incargo, is located in the City of North Charleston. dependent schools, including Porter-Gaud School (K12), Charleston Collegiate School (K-12), Ashley Hall • Veterans Terminal – used for project cargo, break- (Pre K-12), Charleston Day School (1-8), First Bapbulk and roll-on/roll-off cargo, is located in the City tist Church School (K-12), Palmetto Christian Academy of North Charleston. (K-12), Coastal Christian Preparatory School (K-12), • Hugh K. Leatherman Sr. Terminal - a 280-acre fa- Mason Preparatory School (K-8), and Addlestone Hecility opening in 2018, is to be used for container brew Academy (K-8). cargo. The facility will increase port capacity by The Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston Office of Ed50%, and is located in the City of North Charleston. ucation also operates out of the city and oversees several K-8 parochial schools, such as Blessed Sacrament School, Christ Our King School, Charleston Catholic School, NaShipyard tivity School, and Divine Redeemer School, all of which are “feeder” schools into Bishop England High School, With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston a diocesan high school within the city. Bishop England, Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long term Porter-Gaud School, and Ashley Hall are the city’s oldest lease. With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six and most prominent private schools, and are a significant piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc. is the largest commercial part of Charleston history, dating back some 150 years. facility on the East Coast. Projects include military, comPublic institutions of higher education in Charleston inmercial, and cruise ships. clude the College of Charleston (the nation’s 13th-oldest university), The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, and the Medical University of South Carolina. 1.11 Nearby cities and towns The city is also home to private universities, including the Charleston School of Law . Charleston is also home 1.11.1 Other outlying areas to the Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing, and the city has a downtown satellite campus for the region’s • Cross technical school, Trident Technical College. Charleston is also the location for the only college in the country that • Dewees Island offers bachelor’s degrees in the building arts, The American College of the Building Arts. The Art Institute of • Edisto Island Charleston, located downtown on North Market Street, • James Island opened in 2007. • Johns Island • Ladson • Morris Island • Wadmalaw Island • Yonges Island

1.12 Parks 1.13 Schools, colleges, and universities See also: List of schools in Charleston, South Carolina

1.14 Armed Forces Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, and Hanahan are home to branches of the United States military. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902-1996) became the third-largest U.S. home port, serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the Charleston Naval Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, submarine tenders, and submarines. Also during this period, the shipyard conducted refueling of nuclear submarines. During this period, the Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet’s loadout base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN “Boomer” squadrons and a submarine tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a submarine tender were homeported at the Naval

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Base. At the 1996 closure of the station’s Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM-27 Polaris, UGM-73 Poseidon, and UGM-96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and maintained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps security force company. In 2010, the Air Force base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (>17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, supporting 53 military commands and federal agencies, provides service to over 79,000 airmen, sailors, soldiers, marines, guardsmen, Department of Defense civilians, dependents, and retirees. In supporting Joint Base Charleston, 231 acres (93 ha) of the former Charleston Naval Base have been transformed into a multiuse Federal complex, with 17 Government and Military tenants, as well as homeport for six RO-RO Military Sealift Command ships, two Coast Guard National Security cutters, two NOAA research ships, Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy, and the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers.

1.14.1

Coast Guard

• Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7) • Coast Guard Station Charleston (Search and Rescue, Maritime Law Enforcement, Ports, Waterways, and Coastal Security) • Coast Guard Air Facility, Johns Island • Coast Guard Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin, Johns Island • USCGC Yellowﬁn, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat • USCGC Anvil, Charleston (Aids to Navigation) • USCGC Hamilton (WMSL-753) National Security Cutter, (NSC) • USCGC James (WMSL-754) National Security Cutter, (NSC)

1.14.2

Army

• United States Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District

1.15 Media Main article: Media in Charleston, South Carolina

1.15.1 Broadcast television Charleston is the nation’s 98th-largest Designated market area (DMA), with 312,770 households and 0.27% of the U.S. TV population.[81] These stations are licensed in Charleston and have signiﬁcant operations or viewers in the city:[82] • WCBD-TV (2, NBC) and (14, CW): licensed in Charleston, owned by Media General, broadcast studios are located in Mount Pleasant • WCIV-TV (4, ABC, Me TV): licensed in Charleston, formerly owned by Allbritton Communications, currently owned by Howard Stirk Holdings, broadcast studios are located in Mount Pleasant • WCSC-TV (5, CBS, Ind., Bounce TV): licensed in Charleston, owned by Raycom, broadcast studios are located in Charleston • WITV-TV (7, PBS): licensed in Charleston, owned by South Carolina Educational Television, transmitter in Mount Pleasant • WLCN-CD (18, RTV) licensed in Charleston, owned by Faith Assembly of God, broadcast studios are located in Summerville, South Carolina • WTAT-TV (24, Fox): licensed in Charleston, owned by Cunningham Broadcasting Company, broadcast studios are located in North Charleston • WAZS-CD (29, Azteca America Independent) licensed in Charleston, owned by Jabar Communications, broadcast studios are located in North Charleston • WJNI-CD (31, America One Independent) licensed in Charleston, owned by Jabar Communications, broadcast studios are located in North Charleston, South Carolina • WMMP-TV (36, My Network Television, TheCoolTV): licensed in Charleston, owned by Sinclair Broadcasting Company, broadcast studios are located in North Charleston

1.15.2 Radio stations Main article: Media in Charleston, South Carolina

1.16 Sister cities Charleston has one oﬃcial sister city, Spoleto, Umbria, Italy.[83] The relationship between the two cities began when Pulitzer Prize-winning Italian composer Gian Carlo

1.18. REFERENCES Menotti selected Charleston as the city to host the American version of Spoleto’s annual Festival of Two Worlds. “Looking for a city that would provide the charm of Spoleto, as well as its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces, they selected Charleston, South Carolina, as the ideal location. The historic city provided a perfect ﬁt: intimate enough that the Festival would captivate the entire city, yet cosmopolitan enough to provide an enthusiastic audience and robust infrastructure.”[48]

[6] “SC Counties - South Carolina Information - LibGuides at South Carolina State Library”. libguides.com. Retrieved September 4, 2015. [7] “Charleston Time Line”. Retrieved 2007-07-09. [8] “Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1840”. [9] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Charleston city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 4, 2014.

Charleston is also twinned with Speightstown, St. Peter, Barbados.[84] The original parts of Charlestown [10] “Which are the world’s friendliest and unfriendliest cities?". CNN. Retrieved 2013-08-07. were based on the plans of Barbados’s capital city [85] Bridgetown. Many indigo, tobacco, and cotton [11] “What are the world’s friendliest/unfriendliest cities?". planters relocated their slaves and plantation operations CNN. from Speightstown to Charleston after the sugarcane industry came to dominate agricultural production in [12] “Another Ladies’ Night”. google.al. Retrieved September 4, 2015. Barbados.[86]

1.17 See also • 1886 Charleston earthquake • Charleston Sofa Super Store ﬁre • French Quarter (Charleston, South Carolina) • Hampton Park Terrace • John Henry Devereux • List of people from Charleston, South Carolina • List of tallest buildings in Charleston, South Carolina • List of television shows and ﬁlms in Charleston, South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina • Old Slave Mart • Riverland Terrace

1.18 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-02-17. [2] “Population Estimates”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-11-09. [3] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [4] As deﬁned by the U.S. Oﬃce of Management and Budget, for use by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes only. [5] “sc state aquarium public document” (PDF).

[13] “NowData - NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2012-02-27. [14] Lane, F.W. The Elements Rage (David & Charles 1966), p. 49 [15] “Station Name: SC CHARLESTON INTL AP”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-05-09. [16] “WMO Climate Normals for CHARLESTON/MUNICIPAL, SC 1961–1990”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-03-10. [17] “Station Name: SC CHARLESTON CITY”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-05-09. [18] “List of Populations of Urbanized Areas”. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2012-06-13. Retrieved 2012-06-13. [19] Michael P. Johnson, James L. Roark. Black Masters: A Free Family of Color in the Old South (Google eBook). Books.google.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [20] “A “portion of the People"". Harvardmagazine.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [21] Joseph A. Opala ; The Gullah People and Their African Heritage by William S. Pollizer, pp. 32–33 [22] Douglas Egerton, Opinion: “Abolitionist or Terrorist?", New York Times, 25 February 2014, accessed 5 November 2014 [23] “Joseph A. Opala”. Yale.edu. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [24] The Gullah People and Their African Heritage, by William S. Pollitzer; pp. 91–92. [25] Mark Urban. Fusiliers. [26] “Proﬁle for Charleston, South Carolina”. ePodunk. Retrieved 2010-05-20.

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

[27] Kroger, Larry Black Slaveowners: Free Black Slave Masters in South Carolina, 1790-1860. University of South Carolina Press 1995. [28] “Bernews: “Row Over Statue to Bermudian’s Slave"". Bernews.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [29] Willoughby, Malcolm F. (1957). The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. p. 4. [30] Between August 1863 and March 1864, not a single blockade runner made it in or out of the harbor. Craig L. Symonds, The Civil War at Sea (2009) p. 57 [31] “H. L. Hunley, Confederate Submarine”. tory.navy.mil. Retrieved September 17, 2014.

His-

[43] Rosen, Robert N. (1992) [1982]. A Short History of Charleston (Google books) (Second ed.). charleston, SC: Peninsula Press. p. 92. ISBN 1-57003-197-5. Retrieved 2012-01-25. [44] “History of the Huguenot Society”. Huguenotsociety.org. Retrieved 2014-09-17. [45] “Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim”. 2014-09-17.

Kkbe.org.

Retrieved

[46] “Brith Sholom Beth Israel”. Bsbisynagogue.com. Retrieved 2014-09-17. [47] Weisman, Jonathan (June 18, 2015). “Killings Add a Painful Chapter to Storied History of Charleston Church”. The New York Times. Retrieved June 18, 2015.

[32] E. Horace Fitchett, “The Traditions of the Free Negro in Charleston, South Carolina”, Journal of Negro History, XXV (April 1940), p. 139

[48] Archived March 14, 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[33] Thomas Holt, Black Over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina During Reconstruction, University of Illinois Press, 1979, p.43

[50] Jack McCray (June 6, 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5.

[34] Jeﬀrey G. Strickland, Ethnicity And Race In The Urban South: German Immigrants And African-Americans In Charleston, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 2003, p. 11, Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 1541 [35] Melinda Meeks Hennessy, “Racial Violence During Reconstruction: The 1876 Riots in Charleston and Cainhoy”, South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 86, No. 2, (April 1985), 104-106 (subscription required)

[49] Jack McCray (June 6, 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. pp. 11, 12. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5.

[51] Hubbert, Julie. “Jenkins Orphanage”. Retrieved 201302-18. [52] Edgar, Walter. South Carolina Encyclopedia (2006) pp. 590-591, ISBN 1-57003-598-9 [53] Erb, Jane. “Porgy and Bess (1934)". Retrieved 2013-0219. [54] “Welcome - The Sound Of Charleston”. ofcharleston. Retrieved September 17, 2014.

sound-

[36] Reconstruction as Armed Insurgency: Cainhoy, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 2010-2012, accessed 27 October 2014

[55] “America’s Favorite Cities 2010 - Culture - Theater/performance art - Travel + Leisure”. Travel + Leisure. Retrieved September 17, 2014.

[37] “Century V City of Charleston Population 2010 Estimates” (PDF).

[56] “Theatre Charleston”. theatrecharleston.com. Retrieved September 4, 2015.

[38] Bever, Lindsey; Costa, Robert (June 17, 2015). “9 dead in shooting at historic Charleston African American church. Police chief calls it 'hate crime.'". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2015. [39] Johnson, M. Alex (June 17, 2015). "'This Was a Hate Crime': Nine People Killed at Historic South Carolina Church”. NBC News. Retrieved June 18, 2015. [40] “Charleston Provincialisms” (1887), Pub. Modern Language Association of America, Vol. iii, Internet Archive and Early Journal Content on JSTOR, accessed 5 November 2014 [41] “Charleston Harbor Tours of Historic Charleston, SC, Boat Tours”. Charlestonharbortours.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [42] Perry, Lee Davis; McLaughlin, J. Michael (2007) [1999]. Insiders Guide to Charleston (google books) (Eleventh ed.). Guilford, CT: Morris Book Publishing. p. 374. ISBN 978-0-7627-4403-9. Retrieved 2012-01-25.

[57] “Footlight Players – Community Theater at its Best. Charleston, SC”. Footlightplayers.net. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [58] “Welcome - The Black Fedora”. The Black Fedora. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [59] Nelson, David Lee. “Jail Break founder Andrew Walker talks creativity, burn out, and walking away”. Charleston City Paper. Retrieved 2015-10-09. [60] Jinkins, Shirley (February 23, 1997). “Charleston S.C. has had a long and turbulent history, but a remarkable number of its buildings have survived”. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2012-05-30. [61] “Charleston Hurling Club”. Charleston Hurling Club. Retrieved March 2015. [62] Jones, Mark R (2006). Wicked Charleston: Prostitutes, Politics and Prohibition (illustrated ed.). The History Press. pp. 19–23. ISBN 9781596291348. Retrieved 13 May 2015.

1.19. FURTHER READING

[63] “Richard Marcus. Book Review: Werewolf Smackdown by Mario Acevedo. Seattle PI. Posted: March 23, 2010”. seattlepi.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [64] “The Invention of Wings: Sue Monk Kidd: 9780670024780: Amazon.com: Books”. amazon.com. Retrieved September 4, 2015. [65] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [66] “U.S. Decennial Census”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 5, 2013. [67] “Quick Facts: Charleston, SC”, US Census Bureau, 2010 [68] “Charleston County election results by precinct: 2006 general election”. [69] “Investigation examining Charleston firefighters’ handling of deadly blaze,”. Ksla.com. June 19, 2007. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [70] Archived March 27, 2012 at the Wayback Machine [71] Archived February 7, 2012 at the Wayback Machine [72] “2005 FBI Crime Reports”. Charlestonsc.areaconnect.com. Retrieved 2009-0225. [73] Michael Ledeen, “Hail to the Chief”, National Review Online, August 18, 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-18. [74] “Charleston, South Carolina (SC) Detailed Profile – relocation, real estate, travel, jobs, hospitals, schools, crime, move, moving, houses news, sex offenders”. Citydata.com. Retrieved 2009-02-25. [75] Archived July 17, 2014 at the Wayback Machine [76] Archived January 29, 2010 at the Wayback Machine [77] Archived November 10, 2015 at the Wayback Machine [78] “TriCounty Link rural bus service with flagstop system serving Berkeley, Charleston and Dorchester counties of South Carolina”. Ridetricountylink.com. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [79] Archived September 29, 2011 at the Wayback Machine [80] “Charles Towne Landing”. Charlestowne.org. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [81] “Charleston drops in TV market pecking order”. [82] “Television station listings in Charleston, South Carolina – Total station FCC filings found”. [83] Archived August 1, 2015 at the Wayback Machine [84] “Cultural Heritage Programme – The Barbados Carolina Connection”. Tourism.gov.bb. Retrieved September 17, 2014. [85] Archived June 12, 2015 at the Wayback Machine [86] “Barbados: South Carolina’s Mother Colony”. way.net. Retrieved September 17, 2014.

Sci-

1.19 Further reading 1.19.1 General • Borick, Carl P. A Gallant Defense: The Siege of Charleston, 1780. U. of South Carolina Press, 2003. 332 pp. • Bull, Kinloch, Jr. The Oligarchs in Colonial and Revolutionary Charleston: Lieutenant Governor William Bull II and His Family. U. of South Carolina Press, 1991. 415 pp. • Clarke, Peter. A Free Church in a Free Society. The Ecclesiology of John England, Bishop of Charleston, 1820–1842, a Nineteenth Century Missionary Bishop in the Southern United States. Charleston, South Carolina: Bagpipe, 1982. 561 pp. • Coker, P. C., III. Charleston’s Maritime Heritage, 1670–1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, South Carolina: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp. • Doyle, Don H. New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910. U. of North Carolina Press, 1990. 369 pp. • Fraser, Walter J., Jr. Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City. U. of South Carolina, 1990. 542 pp. the standard scholarly history • Gillespie, Joanna Bowen. The Life and Times of Martha Laurens Ramsay, 1759–1811. U. of South Carolina Press, 2001. 315 pp. • Hagy, James William. This Happy Land: The Jews of Colonial and Antebellum Charleston. U. of Alabama Press, 1993. 450 pp. • Jaher, Frederic Cople. The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles. U. of Illinois Press, 1982. 777 pp. • McInnis, Maurie D. The Politics of Taste in Antebellum Charleston. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 395 pp. • Pease, William H. and Pease, Jane H. The Web of Progress: Private Values and Public Styles in Boston Oxford U. Press, and Charleston, 1828–1843. 1985. 352 pp. • Pease, Jane H. and Pease, William H. A Family of Women: The Carolina Petigrus in Peace and War. U. of North Carolina Press, 1999. 328 pp. • Pease, Jane H. and Pease, William H. Ladies, Women, and Wenches: Choice and Constraint in Antebellum Charleston and Boston. U. of North Carolina Press, 1990. 218 pp.

CHAPTER 1. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

• Phelps, W. Chris. The Bombardment of Charleston, 1863–1865. Gretna, La.: Pelican, 2002. 175 pp. • Rosen, Robert N. Confederate Charleston: An Illustrated History of the City and the People during the Civil War. U. of South Carolina Press, 1994. 181 pp. • Rosen, Robert. A Short History of Charleston. University of South Carolina Press, (1997). ISBN 157003-197-5, scholarly survey • Spence, E. Lee. Spence’s Guide to South Carolina: diving, 639 shipwrecks (1520–1813), saltwater sport ﬁshing, recreational shrimping, crabbing, oystering, clamming, saltwater aquarium, 136 campgrounds, 281 boat landings (Nelson Southern Printing, Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina: Spence, ©1976) OCLC: 2846435 • Spence, E. Lee. Treasures of the Confederate Coast: the “real Rhett Butler” & Other Revelations (Narwhal Press, Charleston/Miami, ©1995) ISBN 1-88639101-7 ISBN 1-886391-00-9, OCLC 32431590

1.19.2

Art, architecture, literature, science

• Coles, John R.; Tiedj, Mark C. (June 4, 2009). Movie Theaters of Charleston (Paperback). p. 97. ISBN 1-4414-9355-7. • Cothran, James R. Gardens of Historic Charleston. U. of South Carolina Press, 1995. 177 pp. • Gadsden Cultural Center; Macmurphy, Make; Williams, Sullivan (October 4, 2004). Sullivan’s Island/Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 978-07385-1678-3. • Greene, Harlan. Mr. Skylark: John Bennett and the Charleston Renaissance. U. of Georgia Press, 2001. 372 pp. • Hudgins; Carter L., ed (1994). The Vernacular Architecture of Charleston and the Lowcountry, 1670 – 1990. Charleston, South Carolina: Historic Charleston Foundation. • Hutchisson, James M. and Greene, Harlan, ed. Renaissance in Charleston: Art and Life in the Carolina Low Country, 1900–1940. U. of Georgia Press, 2003. 259 pp. • Hutchisson, James M. DuBose Heyward: A Charleston Gentleman and the World of Porgy and Bess. U. Press of Mississippi, 2000. 225 pp. • Jacoby, Mary Moore, ed (1994). The Churches of Charleston and the Lowcountry (hardback). Columbia South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-888-3. ISBN 978-087249-888-4.

• McNeil, Jim. Charleston’s Navy Yard: A Picture History. Charleston, South Carolina: Coker Craft, 1985. 217 pp. • Moore, Margaret H (1997). Complete Charleston: A Guide to the Architecture, History, and Gardens of Charleston. Charleston, South Carolina: TM Photography. ISBN 0-9660144-0-5. • O'Brien, Michael and Moltke-Hansen, David, ed. Intellectual Life in Antebellum Charleston. U. of Tennessee Press, 1986. 468 pp. • Poston, Jonathan H. The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture. U. of South Carolina Press, 1997. 717 pp. • Severens, Kenneth (1988). Charleston Antebellum Architecture and Civic Destiny (hardback). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. p. 315. ISBN 0-87049-555-0. ISBN 978-0-87049-555-7 • Smith, Alice R. Huger; Smith, D.E. Huger (1917). Dwelling Houses of Charleston, South Carolina. New York: Diadem Books. • Stephens, Lester D. Science, Race, and Religion in the American South: John Bachman and the Charleston Circle of Naturalists, 1815–1895. U. of North Carolina Press, 2000. 338 pp. • Stockton, Robert, et. al (1985). Information for Guides of Historic Charleston, South Carolina. Charleston, South Carolina: City of Charleston Tourism Commission. • Waddell, Gene (2003). Charleston Architecture, 1670–1860 (hardback) 2. Charleston: Wyrick & Company. p. 992. ISBN 978-0-941711-68-5. ISBN 0-941711-68-4 • Weyeneth, Robert R. (2000). Historic Preservation for a Living City: Historic Charleston Foundation, 1947–1997. Historic Charleston Foundation Studies in History and Culture series (University of South Carolina Press). p. 256. ISBN 1-57003-353-6. ISBN 978-1-57003-353-7. • Yuhl, Stephanie E. A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 285 pp. • Zola, Gary Phillip. Isaac Harby of Charleston, 1788–1828: Jewish Reformer and Intellectual. U. of Alabama Press, 1994. 284 pp. • Susan Harbage Page and Juan Logan. “Prop Master at Charleston’s Gibbes Museum of Art”, Southern Spaces, September 21, 2009. • Nelson, Emily The Locket, 2010, 207 pp. The Angel Oak tree at Johns Island near Charleston is featured prominently in the book, The Locket by Emily Nelson.

1.20. EXTERNAL LINKS

1.19.3

Race

• Bellows, Barbara L. Benevolence among Slaveholders: Assisting the Poor in Charleston, 1670–1860. Louisiana State U. Press, 1993. 217 pp. • Drago, Edmund L. Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute. U. of Georgia Press, 1990. 402 pp. • Egerton, Douglas R. He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey. Madison House, 1999. 248 pp. online review • Greene, Harlan; Hutchins, Harry S., Jr.; and Hutchins, Brian E. Slave Badges and the Slave-Hire System in Charleston, South Carolina, 1783–1865. McFarland, 2004. 194 pp. • Jenkins, Wilbert L. Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston. Indiana U. Press, 1998. 256 pp. • Johnson, Michael P. and Roark, James L. No Chariot Let Down: Charleston’s Free People of Color on the Eve of the Civil War. U. of North Carolina Press, 1984. 174 pp. • Kennedy, Cynthia M. Braided Relations, Entwined Lives: The Women of Charleston’s Urban Slave Society. Indiana U. Press, 2005. 311 pp. • Powers, Bernard E., Jr. Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885. U. of Arkansas Press, 1994. 377 pp.

1.20 External links • City of Charleston oﬃcial website • Charleston Tourism Guide • Geographic data related to Charleston, South Carolina at OpenStreetMap • Charleston Corporate Limit Map 2006, archived from the original on July 6, 2012 • Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan area • Joint Base Charleston • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum • Congressional Medal of Honor Museum • USS Yorktown CV10 Association

Chapter 2

Charleston • Charleston, Arkansas

Charleston most commonly refers to: • Charleston, South Carolina, the largest US city named Charleston • Charleston, West Virginia, the state’s capital and largest city • Charleston (dance)

• Charleston, California (disambiguation) • Charleston, Merced County, California • Charleston, Yolo County, California • Charleston, Illinois, home of Eastern Illinois University (EIU) • Charleston, Iowa

Charleston may also refer to:

• Charleston, Kansas • Charleston, Kentucky

2.1 Geography

• Charleston, Maine

In Australia:

• Charleston, Mississippi • Charleston, Missouri

• Charleston, South Australia

• Charlestown, Nebraska

In Canada:

• Charleston, Nevada

• Charleston, Newfoundland and Labrador

• Charleston, New Jersey

• Charleston, Nova Scotia

• Charleston, New York, in upstate New York • Charleston, North Carolina

In New Zealand:

• Charleston, Staten Island, in New York City, in New York State

• Charleston, New Zealand

• Charleston, Oklahoma

In the United Kingdom:

• Charleston, Oregon • Charleston Farmhouse, Sussex, a house where the Bloomsbury painters Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell lived and worked

• Charleston, Tennessee

• Charleston, Angus, near Dundee, Scotland

• Charleston, Vermont

• Charleston, Dundee, an area of Dundee, Scotland

• Charleston County, South Carolina

• Charleston, Paisley, Scotland

• Charleston Township, Coles County, Illinois

• Charleston, Utah

• Charleston Township, Kalamazoo County, Michigan

In the United States: • Charleston, Arizona

• Charleston Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania 24

2.6. OTHER USES • Mount Charleston, Nevada, a mountain town in Clark County, Nevada • Mount Charleston, Nevada, the highest mountain in the Spring Mountain Range

2.6 Other uses • “Charleston” (song), 1923 song • Charleston (novel), by Alexandra Ripley

• North Charleston, South Carolina

• Charleston (ﬁlm), 1977 (Italy)

• South Charleston, Ohio

• Charleston (ﬁlm), 1979 (TV)

• South Charleston, West Virginia

• “Charleston”, part three of Platinum (Mike Oldﬁeld album)

• West Charleston, Ohio

2.2 Naval history • USS Charleston, the name of several ships of the United States Navy • Charleston, the original name of the Texan schooner Zavala, the ﬁrst steamship-of-war and part of the Texas Navy

2.3 Amtrak stations • Charleston, South Carolina (Amtrak station) • Charleston, West Virginia (Amtrak station)

• Volvo Cars Open, a major tennis tournament held in Charleston, South Carolina • Charleston, a procedure in mahjong involving a special passing of tiles before playing begins, used in American variants of mahjong • Charleston, a bold two-tone colour scheme of black and Bordeaux red for an iconic car Citroën 2CV • The Citroën C3 Pluriel Charleston special edition, with the same colour scheme and pattern

2.7 See also • Charlestown (disambiguation) • Charlton (disambiguation) • Charlottetown (disambiguation)

2.4 Education • Charleston Collegiate School, private collegepreparatory school in South Carolina • Charleston High School (disambiguation) • College of Charleston, in South Carolina • College of Charleston Cougars, the athletic program of the above school, frequently called “Charleston” by U.S. sports media • University of Charleston, in West Virginia • Charleston Golden Eagles, the athletic program of the above school • Charleston Academy, an academy in Inverness, Scotland

2.5 People • David Charleston (1848–1934) South Australian politician

Chapter 3

North Charleston, South Carolina Not to be confused with Charleston, South Carolina or Charleston, North Carolina. Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter “area_land_sqmi” (this message is shown only in preview). Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter “area_total_sqmi” (this message is shown only in preview). Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter “area_water_sqmi” (this message is shown only in preview). North Charleston is the third-largest city in the U.S. French Botanical Garden historical marker, located off Aviation state of South Carolina, with incorporated areas in Avenue Berkeley, Charleston, and Dorchester counties.[1] On June 12, 1972, the city of North Charleston incorpothe longest family-owned plantation in South Carrated and was the ninth-largest city in South Carolina. olina. It has since been redeveloped into the ArchAs of the 2010 Census, North Charleston had a popudale subdivision. (Archdale subdivision is not in [4] lation of 97,471, growing to an estimated population corporate city limits of, but is surrounded by North of 104,054 in 2013, and with a current area of more than Charleston) 2 [5][6] 76.6 square miles (198.5 km ). As defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, for use by the • Camp Plantation – dating from 1705, Camp PlantaU.S. Census Bureau and other U.S. Government agencies tion covered around 1,000 acres (4.0 km2 ). for statistical purposes only, North Charleston is included within the Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville • Elms Plantation – dating from 1682, Elms Plantametropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston tion was founded by Ralph Izard. Its principal crop urban area.[7] North Charleston is one of the state’s mawas rice. It covered nearly 4,350 acres (17.6 km2 ), jor industrial centers and is the state’s top city in gross stretching across parts of what are now the cities retail sales.[8][9] of Goose Creek and North Charleston. Charleston Southern University is located on part of the original plantation lands.

3.1 History 3.1.1

1680–1901: Plantations

From the 17th century until the Civil War, plantations cultivated commodity crops, such as rice and indigo. Some of the plantations located in what is now North Charleston were: • Archdale Hall Plantation – dating from 1680, Archdale Hall was located on the Ashley River. By 1783, it had grown to almost 3,000 acres (12 km2 ). Its primary crops were indigo and rice. The plantation was 26

• French Botanical Garden – established between 1786 and 1796, this small plantation/garden area of 111 acres (0.45 km2 ) was owned and maintained by the French botanist André Michaux. It was closed by Michaux’s son in 1803. The garden was located near what is today the Charleston International Airport, and the parkway connecting Dorchester Road with International Boulevard is named in his honor. • Marshlands, Mons Repos and Retreat plantations – the Retreat Plantation dates from 1672 and the Marshlands Plantation dates from 1682. Mons Repos was developed around 1798. The land from all

3.1. HISTORY three plantations was acquired by the federal government for development of the Charleston Naval Base and Charleston Naval Shipyard. The Marshlands Plantation’s main house has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, To preserve the house, it was moved to Fort Sumter Drive on James Island. • Oak Grove Plantation – dating from 1680, Oak Grove originally covered 960 acres (3.9 km2 ) along the Cooper River. By 1750, its owners had expanded the plantation to about 1,127 acres (4.56 km2 ). • Tranquil Hill Plantation – started in 1683, Tranquil Hill was originally known as White Hall Plantation, a name it would keep until 1773. Its principal crop was rice. It encompassed about 526 acres (2.13 km2 ). Since the late 20th century, it was redeveloped as the Whitehall residential subdivision.[10]

27 In 1912, a group of businessmen from the city of Charleston formed a development company that bought the E.P. Burton Lumber Company tract and began to lay out an area for further development. The Park Circle area was one of the ﬁrst to be designed and developed, allocating sections for industrial, commercial, and residential usage. Park Circle was planned as one of only two English Garden Style communities in the US, and most of the original planning concept remains today. Some of the streets in the area still bear the names of these original developers: Durant, Buist, Mixon, Hyde, and O'Hear. During World War II, substantial development occurred as the military bases and industries expanded, increasing the personnel assigned there. New residents moved to the region to be closer to their work.

From World War II through the 1960s, many whites who lived in this region (referred to by Charlestonians as the North Area) were unhappy about the way parts of their community were being developed. They wanted the cit• Windsor Hill Plantation – established in 1701, izens in the area to have direct control over future deWindsor Hill was an inland rice plantation that cov- velopment. African Americans were still excluded from ered nearly 1,348 acres (5.46 km2 ); parts of the the political system due to the state’s 1895 disfranchising cities of Goose Creek and North Charleston now oc- constitution. Many of the white Democratic Party atcupy some of this area.[11] General William Moul- tempts to create an independent city were defeated via trie, victor at the Battle of Sullivan’s Island in 1776 court rulings. and governor from 1785–87 and 1792–94, was orig- The Voting Rights Act of 1965 gave the federal governinally buried here. His remains were exhumed and ment the means to enforce citizens’ constitutional rights, reburied at Fort Moultrie on Sullivan’s Island in and African Americans in South Carolina gradually re1977.[12] The Windsor Hill Plantation subdivision claimed their franchise. As a means of bringing governwas developed on a portion of the eponymous plan- ment closer to the people, an incorporation referendum tation’s property. was held on April 27, 1971. On June 12, 1972, after a series of legal battles, the South Carolina Supreme Court The large plantations were subdivided into smaller farms upheld the referendum results. North Charleston became in the late 19th century as the urban population began a city and elected John E. Bourne Jr. as its first mayor. moving northward. Due to the large labor forces of enslaved African Americans who worked these properties, the population of Charleston County in 1870 was 73 per- 3.1.3 1972–1982: First decade cent black; they were mostly freedmen. After the Civil War, phosphate fertilizer plants were developed, with ex- When North Charleston incorporated on June 12, 1972, tensive strip mining occurring between the Ashley River it consisted of several areas including the Russelldale, and Broad Path (Meeting Street Road). The main route Ferndale, Morningside, Liberty Park, Palmetto Heights, for transportation of these phosphates eventually became Singing Pines, Dewey Hill, Liberty Homes and John C. Calhoun Homes neighborhoods. Within the first week known as Ashley Phosphate Road. of operation, the city passed a 61-page Code and signed a five-year lease for 308 Montague Avenue for $300.00 per month. Also during the month of June, the city hired 3.1.2 1901–1972: Incorporation a police chief, treasurer and annexed its first industry, Since the early 20th century, the section of unincor- which was Textone Incorporated Plywood, Westvaco. On porated Charleston County that later became the city June 21, a ribbon was cut on the first city park on Virginia of North Charleston had been designated by Charleston Avenue. At the end of the first month, the city officials business and community leaders as a place for develop- reached an agreement for garbage collection and fire proment of industry, military and other business sites. The tection by the local public service district. The month first industry started in this area was the E.P. Burton Lum- concluded with the city’s first big annexation, south of ber Company. In 1901, the Charleston Naval Shipyard Bexley Street between Spruill Avenue and the Charleston was established with agreements between the federal gov- Naval Shipyard. By December, North Charleston had beernment and local Charleston city leaders. Shortly there- come the fourth-largest city in the state after annexing the after, the General Asbestos and Rubber Company built Naval Base, the Air Force Base and the Charleston International Airport.[8] the world’s largest asbestos mill under one roof.

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

In February 1973, North Charleston doubled its area opened, and the South Carolina Stingrays of the ECHL through annexation, and in March expanded into Berke- began play later that year. ley County. In May 1973, the city launched its new police department, which included 21 oﬃcers and six cars. By the end of North Charleston’s ﬁrst year, the popula- 3.1.5 1996–present: redevelopment tion had increased from 22,000 to 53,000, largely through annexation. Through continued growth and the development of 20 churches, a 62-store shopping mall and other large tracts of residential neighborhoods, the city was ranked as the third-largest city in South Carolina on July 3, 1976. On June 12, 1982, North Charleston had a population of 65,000 in a 30.5-square-mile (79 km2 ) area. In ten years, the city’s growth rate was 250 percent. It had made $15 million in capital investments; $1.95 million invested in parks and recreation facilities, and $2.28 million in economic development.

3.1.4

1982–1996

In 1983, North Charleston became the first city in South Carolina to implement a computer-aided dispatch system. Baker Hospital opened a new facility on the banks of the Ashley River. The following year, Wal-Mart announced plans to open one of the nation’s first Sam’s Clubs in North Charleston. Plans were revealed in 1985 for the 400-acre (1.6 km2 ) Centre Pointe retail development, which included Sam’s Club, Wal-mart and Tanger Outlet Mall as anchors. By 1986, North Charleston’s population had reached 78,000 residents spanning 47 square miles (120 km2 ). A monument to honor Vietnam veterans was erected and dedicated in front of City Hall, where it stood for over 20 years before being moved to Patriots Point in 2008. The city celebrated its 15th anniversary the next year, marked by such events as the opening of the Northwoods Center shopping complex and the development of a beach in the middle of the city with the opening of Treasure Lake. In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo produced devastation to the area, causing a total of over $2.8 billion in damage to the South Carolina Lowcountry. In 1991, John E. Bourne, Jr., lost his bid for a sixth term as mayor to Bobby Kinard, who became the city’s second mayor. Kinard’s tenure as mayor was tumultuous and was marked by repeated conflict with the City Council; its members stripped Kinard of his mayoral powers during a council meeting. Kinard resigned in 1994 on the grounds that his relationship with the council was damaged irreparably.[13] Following Bobby Kinard’s resignation in 1994, R. Keith Summey was elected the city’s third mayor to fill the vacant seat. Kinard returned to his law practice.

Montague Avenue

The Charleston Naval Base ranked as the largest employer of civilians in South Carolina into the 1990s. The influence of Lowcountry legislators and the threat of nuclear attack played an important role in keeping North Charleston’s bases open in the face of periodic attempts at closure. In the early 1990s, with the resolution of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet Union, plus impending defense budget cuts, the Charleston Navy Base was proposed for closure. In 1993, the Charleston Naval Base was given a closure date of April 1, 1996. Given its annual expenditures of approximately 1.4 billion dollars in the region, the base’s closing represented a major loss of jobs and a blow to the entire Tri-County economy. Over the years, billions of dollars had flowed into the region’s economy and hundreds of thousands of jobs were filled by military and civilian personnel,[14] the vast majority being civilians. Many military personnel who worked at or passed through the base returned to the city to retire. Following the closure of the Charleston Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard, parts of the base and drydocks were leased out to various government and private businesses. Community parks for North Charleston were established on old base grounds, to include Riverfront Park.

After years of development, community input and revisions, the Noisette Community Master Plan for the old naval base was ﬁnalized in a contractual agreement in early 2004. The plan sought to preserve historic architectural styles, neighborhood diversity, and the area’s unique social fabric. It also intended to restore environmental stability and beauty, attract jobs, improve services such as education and health care, reduce dependence on In 1993 a squadron of C-17 Globemaster III aircraft car travel, promote recreation, eliminate the foundations was established at Charleston Air Force Base, bringing of crime and poverty, and strengthen residents’ sense of more residents and jobs. The North Charleston Coliseum pride.

3.2. GEOGRAPHY Since then, the city has had difficulty realizing its goals in the plan. In 2005, city officials discovered that Noisette had borrowed $3 million against land on the former base without their knowledge. The next year, Noisette borrowed $23.7 million from Capmark Investing Group, using the majority of its remaining land on the base as collateral. Noisette failed to make timely repayment to Capmark, and the property went into foreclosure. Representatives of Noisette insisted at the time that they would be able to repay Capmark and make good on their vision for redeveloping the old Navy base.[15] In July 2014, the City of North Charleston and Chicora Garden Holdings, LLC announced the planned redevelopment of the old Naval Hospital property, to be known as the Chicora Life Center.[16] As part of that announcement, Chicora Garden Holdings announced an initial $3 million investment in the project. The City of North Charleston announced that the Chicora Life Center “will feature myriad social, government, non-profit and care facilities – all in one building conveniently located in the heart of Charleston County.”

29 plan violated the city’s agreement with the State Ports Authority that no rail be run through the north end of the former base.[21] On April 4, 2015, in a shooting incident that was broadcast nationally, Walter L. Scott, who was driving a car in North Charleston, was fatally shot after being stopped by Oﬃcer Michael T. Slager for a broken taillight.[22][23]

3.2 Geography North Charleston is located near the Atlantic Ocean in the coastal plain just north of Charleston in South Carolina. According to the 2010 United States Census, the city has a total area of 76.6 square miles (198.5 km2 ), of which 73.2 square miles (189.6 km2 ) is land and 3.5 square miles (9.0 km2 ), or 4.52%, is water.[4] The city is bordered by Charleston to the south and east, the city of Hanahan to the north and east, the city of Goose Creek to the northeast, the unincorporated suburb of Ladson to the north, and the town of Summerville to the northwest. The Ashley River forms a large part of the southwest border of the city, and the Cooper River forms the southeastern border.

On October 7, 2014, Palmetto Business Daily reported that UC Funds was funding $13.9 in loans to the Chicora Life Center for the completion of the project.[17] That newspaper also reported that Bennett Hofford Construction Company also completed Phase 1 of a new Heating, Ventilation and Air Condition (HVAC) for the portion of 3.2.1 the building leased by the County of Charleston.[18] Discussion between city and state officials regarding the industrial development of remaining portions of the former base stalled in 2009 primarily due to a dispute over rail access to a proposed intermodal terminal to occupy the central portion of the area. Representatives of the state government sought to have rail access from both the north and south. This notion was contradicted by Mayor Summey, who insisted that the northern rail access be abandoned to avoid heavy rail traffic through the slowly revitalizing Park Circle neighborhood.[15]

Tri County Region

The Tri County region consists of Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester counties. As of 2012, it was estimated that the area had a total population of about 697,439 people. Charleston is the largest city in the Tri County area and ranks as the second-largest city in the state. North Charleston is the second-largest city in the Tri County area and ranks as the third-largest city in the state.

3.2.2 Nearby cities and towns

In October 2009, Boeing announced the selection of North Charleston for its new 787 Dreamliner aircraft as- Other unincorporated areas sembly and delivery prep center. This positioned North Charleston as one of the major aircraft centers of the • Dewees Island world, with the potential for thousands of new jobs to provide quality work for residents of the city and the en• Edisto Island tire Tri-County area.[19] • Johns Island In December 2010, a Delaware corporation with ties to former state Commerce Secretary Bob Faith bought the • Ladson largest parcel (approximately 240 acres (0.97 km2 ) at the north end of the former base) of Noisette land.[20] The • Wadmalaw Island corporation transferred the deed for that land to the state’s Commerce Department’s Public Railways Division, giv• Yonges Island ing them the impetus to move forward with their proposed rail yard with northern and southern access despite Mayor Summey’s objections. The North Charleston 3.2.3 Climate mayor announced his intent to ﬁle a lawsuit against the state Commerce Department on the grounds that their

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

3.3 Demographics

• Previous mayors

• John E. Bourne Jr. As of the census of 2010, there were 97,471 people, • W. Robert Kinard (1946-2010), served as sec35,316 households, and 23,271 families residing in the ond mayor, 1991 into 1994[13] city. The population density was 1,360.6 people per • Kenneth McClure (Interim Mayor) square mile (525.3/km2 ). There were 42,219 housing units at an average density of 574.5 per square mile (221.8/km2 ). The racial makeup of the city was 37.90% Non-Hispanic White, 46.69% Non-Hispanic 3.4.2 Council members African American, 0.34% Native American, 1.92% • District 1 – Mike A. Brown Asian, 0.12% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.23% from other races, 1.90% from two or more races, and 10.89% Hispanic or • District 2 – Rhonda Jerome Latino of any race. • District 3 – Virginia Jamison There were 34,012 households out of which 37.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.0% • District 4 – Ron Brinson were married couples living together, 22.8% had a female • District 5 – Todd Olds householder with no husband present, and 36.3% were non-families. 28.6% of all households were made up of • District 6 – Dorothy Williams individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was • District 7 – Sam Hart 2.51 and the average family size was 3.10. • District 8 – Robert King In the city, the population was spread out with 27.9% un• District 9 – Kenny Skipper der the age of 18, 13.4% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 17.7% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years • District 10 – Michael Brown of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males. 3.4.3 Emergency services The median income for a household in the city was $36,719, and the median income for a family was $34,621. Males had a median income of $30,620 versus $28,248 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,361. About 19.9% of families and 23.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.8% of those under age 18 and 13.0% of those age 65 or over.

3.4 Government The city is run by an elected Mayor-council government system, with the mayor acting as the chief administrator and the executive oﬃcer of the municipality. The mayor also presides over city council meetings and has a vote, the same as the other ten council members. The mayor is elected at-large and the council members from ten singlemember districts.[28]

Police department The North Charleston Police Department was formed in 1972 with 19 officers and five support personnel. In 2015, the department has approximately 416 employees. Fire department The first fire department founded in the area to become North Charleston was the St. Phillip’s and St. Michael’s Fire Department in 1935, made up of volunteers. They had one station and one engine. The North Charleston Fire Department, also a volunteer group, was formed in 1937 with one station and one engine. In 1959, the departments merged to become the North Charleston Consolidated Fire Department. NCFD became a paid service in 1962, at which time all the volunteers were released. They formed the organization today known as the Charleston County Volunteer Rescue Squad.

City government offices moved into a new, more centrally located city hall in 2009, centralizing activities that had The two departments were merged in 1996 as the North Charleston Fire Department. It had a total of 10 fire stabeen split among numerous locations across the city. tions, 10 engines, 3 ladder trucks and 2 squads at that time. In the past 13 years, the department has grown to include new technology and new training. They have 3.4.1 Mayor thermal imagers in each station, a confined-space rescue team, a hazardous materials team, a marine firefighting • Current mayor team, and each firefighter in the department is trained to • R. Keith Summey - reelected on 11/3/2015 a minimum of IFSAC Firefighter One.

3.5. ECONOMY EMS The Emergency Medical Services for North Charleston are provided by Charleston County Emergency Medical Services and Dorchester County Emergency Medical Services. The city is served by both Charleston and Dorchester counties EMS and 911 services since the city is part of both counties.

3.4.4

ZIP codes

North Charleston is served by these ZIP codes:[29] • 29404 • 29405 • 29406 – This ZIP code is incorrectly listed by U.S.P.S. as serving the city of Charleston. It only serves the city of North Charleston.[30] • 29418 • 29419 • 29420 • 29456 • 29485

3.5 Economy With the arrival of Boeing Aircraft, the city has gained international importance and stature as one of only three places in the world for the manufacture and assembly of wide-body long range commercial aircraft; the other two places are in and around Everett, Washington (Boeing); Toulouse, France (Airbus). North Charleston has been the state’s leader in retail sales since 1989. In calendar year 2012, gross retail sales exceeded $6.15 billion and surpassed its nearest competition, Columbia, South Carolina, by over $2 billion. The city continues to expand its inventory of 4-star hotel accommodations. By the end of 2009, North Charleston had 7,246 rooms available for visitors to this region of South Carolina. North Charleston is the home to the Global Financial Services – Charleston (a section of the U.S. State Department), located at the old Naval Station. Global Financial Services – Charleston is responsible overall for more than 200 bank accounts in over 160 countries and 169 diﬀerent currencies. In 2005, it disbursed over $10 billion and purchased over $3 billion in foreign currency. As part of an initiative by the Department of Veterans Aﬀairs to provide mail order prescriptions to veterans using computerization, at strategic locations, North Charleston is also the location of a Consolidated Mail Outpatient Pharmacy (CMOP).

31 Since the construction of Palmetto Commerce Parkway, many businesses (including Venture Aerobearings, Daimler Vans Manufacturing, Cummins Turbo, and the VTL Group) have located and invested hundreds of millions of dollars in North Charleston’s economy. Industrial hubs continue to provide high-paying jobs in the area. Major businesses in the area include: • Boeing – Located adjacent to the Charleston International Airport, Boeing has set up an East Coast facility in The City of North Charleston for manufacturing fuselage components, assembling, and flight testing Boeing 787 aircraft, ready for delivery to airlines.[19] • Computer Sciences Corporation – Branch offices – IT/business services company. • Cummins Turbo Technologies – Corporate center and manufacturing plant (truck engine parts). Located on Palmetto Commerce Parkway.[31] • Daimler Vans Manufacturing LLC – Plant for manufacturing Daimler Vans, employing 200 people. Located on Palmetto Commerce Parkway.[32] • Hess Gasoline Distribution Center – port facilities for tanker ships, serving the entire Tri-County Metro area Hess gas stations. Located off Virginia Avenue. • InterContinental Hotels Group – Call center of parent company for Holiday Inn hotels, employing more than 400 people. Located on Ashley Phosphate Road.[33] • iQor – Call center providing outsourced customer service, retention, and revenue recovery services to large and mid-sized companies. Employs 360 workers. Located on Dorchester Road.[34] • Kapstone Paper and Packaging – Kraft paper mills employing 1,100 workers. Located on the Cooper River.[35] • Robert Bosch Corporation – Manufacturer of automotive drive train components, to include gasoline and diesel fuel injectors and electronic stability control systems. Located on Dorchester Road. (note: Robert Bosch is not in corporate city limits of, but is surrounded by North Charleston)[36] • Verizon Wireless – Call center of parent company for Verizon, employing 700 workers. Located on Mall Drive.[34] • Venture Aerobearings – Plant manufactures bearings for jet engines. Located on Palmetto Commerce Parkway.[37]

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

3.6 Crime

3.7.4 Port facilities

The South Carolina State Ports Authority has four intermodal facilities, one of which is located in North Charleston. A new intermodal facility is being built on the former Charleston Naval Base. Each facility handles container, bulk, and break bulk cargo. With more than 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m2 ) of warehouse and storage space, the port terminals can accommodate more Since 1999, the overall crime rate of North Charleston than 17 vessels at a time. Veterans Terminal is designed has begun to decline. The total violent crime index rate mainly for bulk/break bulk cargo. for North Charleston for 1999 was 1043.5 crimes committed per 100,000 people, with the United States aver- Today the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in age at 729.6 per 100,000. North Charleston had a to- the southeast region and regularly handles ships too big tal violent crime index rate of 489.4 per 100,000 for to transit through the Panama Canal. A next-generation the year of 2012, versus a national average of 296.0 per harbor deepening project is currently underway to dredge the Port of Charleston’s entrance channel to 54 feet and 100,000.[38] harbor channel to 52 feet at mean low tide. According to the Congressional Quarterly Press 2012 City Crime Rankings: Crime in Metropolitan America, North Charleston ranked as the 126th most dangerous Ameri- Terminals can city larger than 75,000 inhabitants.[39][40] However, the entire Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville • North Charleston Terminal – Used for container Metropolitan Statistical Area had a lower overall crime cargo, located in the City of North Charleston. rate ranking at #35.[41] • Veterans Terminal – Used for project cargo, breakThe 2010 Congressional Quarterly Press list of America’s bulk and roll-on/roll-off cargo, located in the City of 400 most dangerous cities placed North Charleston at No. North Charleston. 63, a significant drop from the previous year. The homicide rate alone decreased by 61%, and the lower crime • Hugh K. Leatherman Sr. Terminal - 280 acre facilrate removed North Charleston from the company of such ity opening in 2018 to be used for container cargo. cities as Detroit and St. Louis, placing it more in line with The new facility will increase port capacity by 50%, average, medium-sized Southern cities like Columbia and located in the City of North Charleston. Chattanooga. City officials attributed the drop to the hard work of the North Charleston Police Department and the • Wando Welch Terminal – Used for container cargo, cooperation of city residents.[42] located in the town of Mount Pleasant. The following table shows North Charleston’s crime rate for calendar year 2012 in six crimes that Morgan Quitno uses for their calculation for “America’s most dangerous cities” ranking, in comparison to the national average. The statistics provided are for a crime rate based on the number of crimes committed per 100,000 people.[38]

3.7 Transportation 3.7.1

Roads

3.7.2

Airlines

Charleston International Airport and the Charleston Air Force Base, both located within the City of North Charleston, provide commercial and military air service for the region. The airport currently serves more than 2.9 million passengers annually. Commercial airlines include American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, JetBlue Airways, Southwest Airlines, United Express, and US Airways.

3.7.3

Motor freight

• Columbus Street Terminal – Used for project cargo, break-bulk and roll-on/roll-oﬀ cargo, located in the City of Charleston. • Union Pier Terminal – Used for cruise ship operations, located in the City of Charleston. Shipyard With the closure of the Naval Base and the Charleston Naval Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long term lease. With three dry docks, one ﬂoating dock, and six piers, Detyens Shipyard, Inc. is the largest commercial facility on the East Coast. Projects include military, commercial, and cruise ships.

3.7.5 Railroads

Amtrak, Norfolk Southern, the CSX System and the North Charleston is home to many motor carriers, with South Carolina Railroad Commission provide passenger routes throughout the US. and freight rail service in North Charleston.

3.9. CULTURE

3.7.6

Bus transportation

North Charleston is served by a bus system, operated by the Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA). The majority of the city is served by regional ﬁxed route buses which are also equipped with bike racks as part of the system’s Rack & Ride program. The North Charleston Intermodal Transportation Center will consolidate a new train station, long haul, and CARTA at one location. Rural parts of North Charleston and the Tri-County metropolitan area are served by a diﬀerent bus system, operated by Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Rural Transportation Management Association (BCD-RTMA).

3.8 Hospitals

33 bears the distinction of being the first successful combat submarine in the world. • The Greater Charleston Naval Memorial is located at Riverfront Park on the old Navy Yard. It features sculptures of the different types of ships built and serviced at the Charleston Naval Shipyard, and also features full-size replicas of the Lone Sailor and Homecoming sculptures. • The North Charleston and American LaFrance Fire Museum and Educational Center is located between Tanger Outlet Mall and the North Charleston Coliseum. The museum is filled with one-of-a-kind and antique vehicles and fire equipment (some from as early as the mid 18th century) and utilizes multiple interactive displays. • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum located in the nearby Town of Mount Pleasant. The Museum includes the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV-10), destroyer USS Laffey (DD-724), submarine USS Clamagore (SS-343), Cold War Submarine Memorial (SSBN and SSN), Vietnam Support Base and Experience Exhibit, and Medal of Honor Museum.

From its establishment in August 1999, the Convention Center has attracted millions of guests and visitors to North Charleston and contributed signiﬁcantly to the local and regional economy. The complex includes exhibition halls, ballrooms and meeting rooms.[43] The Performing Arts Center, the North Charleston Coliseum, Trident Regional Medical Center, main building, 2010 and the Charleston Area Convention Center are owned by the City of North Charleston and managed by SMG. The Trident Regional Medical Center is the major hosTogether with the co-located Embassy Suites hotel, they pital located in North Charleston. There are several help create an entertainment and cultural complex that other hospitals located throughout the area serving city serves the City of North Charleston and the entire region: residents, including the Medical University of South Carolina, Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Bon • The North Charleston Coliseum is located near the Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital and Roper Hospital, Charleston International Airport. The coliseum is located in Charleston. The East Cooper Regional Medone of the largest venues in South Carolina, with ical Center, located in Mount Pleasant, is another local 13,295 seats. The coliseum also hosts many spehospital serving North Charleston residents. cial events, concerts, and local graduations. The coliseum is home to the South Carolina Stingrays hockey team of the ECHL.[44]

3.9 Culture 3.9.1

Sites

Museums, historical sites, and other attractions include: • The H.L. Hunley Museum is located at the old Naval Base in North Charleston. The Civil War-era submarine, recovered from the ocean ﬂoor August 8, 2000, is undergoing restoration and examination. There are scores of artifacts that have been recovered from the submarine on display. The Hunley

• The North Charleston Performing Arts Center seats up to 2,341 and hosts major Broadway shows as well as national and world-renowned musical and theatrical performers.[45] The Jenkins Orphanage (now Jenkins Institute For Children) left the city of Charleston in 1937 and moved to 3923 Azalea Drive in what is now the city of North Charleston. The institute is renowned for its contributions to the welfare of its charges and the Jenkins Orphanage Band.

3.9.2

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Sports

• James Island County Park, Charleston

The South Carolina Stingrays are the first professional ice • Mullet Hall Equestrian Center, Johns Island hockey team established in South Carolina. They have been a member franchise of the ECHL since their incep• Wannamaker County Park, North Charleston tion in 1993 and have been affiliated with the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League since 2012, following • Palmetto Islands County Park, Mt. Pleasant the end of an eight-year affiliation with the Washington Capitals. The Stingrays play their home games at the Water parks: North Charleston Coliseum.

3.9.3

Film Society

• Splash Island at Palmetto Islands County Park

• Splash Zone at James Island County Park The Park Circle Film Society[46] is a nonprofit art house theater that holds over 70 screenings of independent and • Whirlin' Waters at Wannamaker County Park documentary films each year. It holds the annual Lowcountry Indie Shorts Festival, South Carolina’s festival Off-leash dog parks are offered at James Island, Palmetto dedicated to short film. Islands, and Wannamaker County Parks.

3.9.4

In ﬁction

• John Rutledge Smith’s series The Streams of Space, (Book 1) - Amazon Kindle - is set partly in North Charleston.

3.11 Schools, colleges, and universities

3.10 Parks 3.10.1

County parks

The Charleston County Park and Recreation Commission (CCPRC) operates numerous facilities within Charleston County. Beach parks: • Folly Beach County Park, Folly Beach • Isle of Palms County Park, Isle of Palms • Kiawah Beachwalker County Park, Kiawah Island Fishing piers:

Outer wall and name plate for Charleston Southern University, 2010

See also: List of schools in North Charleston, South Carolina

North Charleston is served by the Charleston County School District and Dorchester School District II. North • Mt. Pleasant Pier, Mt. Pleasant Charleston is home to Charleston Southern University and Trident Technical College, Main Campus. Near the airport, in North Charleston, the Lowcountry Marinas and boat landings: Graduate Center oﬀers satellite campus access to some of South Carolinas’ most prestigious universities. • Cooper River Marina Clemson, University of South Carolina, Medical Univer• Multiple county-wide boat landings sity of South Carolina, The Citadel and the College of Charleston all working together to provide lowcountry Day parks: residents with access to graduate degree programs together in one convenient location. Webster University • Caw Caw Nature and History Interpretive Center, maintains two locations, one at the Charleston AFB and Ravenel another just oﬀ of Leeds Avenue. • Folly Beach Fishing Pier, Folly Beach

3.12. ARMED FORCES

3.12 Armed Forces

35 • MV Cape Edmont (T-AKR-5069), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex

The City of Charleston, The City of North Charleston, The City of Goose Creek, and The City of Hanahan are home to branches of the United States Military. During 3.12.2 Air Force the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902-1996) became the third largest U.S. homeport serving over 80 ships and sub• Charleston Air Force Base, Joint Base Charleston marines. In addition, the Charleston Naval Shipyard re(3,877 acres, 6.06 square miles), North Charleston paired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, sub tenders, and sub• Charleston Air Force Auxiliary Base, North, SC marines. The Shipyard was also equipped for the refuel(2,393 acres, 3.74 square miles) ing of nuclear subs. During this period, the Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet’s load out base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN “Boomer” squadrons and a sub tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a sub tender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 closure of the Station’s Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM-27 Polaris, UGM-73 Poseidon, and UGM-96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and maintained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps Security Force Company.

• Charleston Defense Fuel Storage and Distribution Facility, Hanahan

In 2010, the Air Force Base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (>17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, encompassing over 20,877 acres in Charleston and Berkeley counties; supports 53 Military Commands and Federal Agencies, providing service to over 79,000 Airmen, Sailors, Soldiers, Marines, Coast Guardsmen, DOD civilians, dependents, and retirees.

• 1st Combat Camera Squadron

3.12.1

Navy

• 628th Air Base Wing • 628th Mission Support Group • 628th Medical Group • 315th Airlift Wing • 437th Airlift Wing • 373rd Training Squadron, Detachment 5

• 412th Logistics Support Squadron OL-AC • Air Force ROTC Det 772 • Civil Air Patrol – Charleston Composite Squadron

3.12.3 Coast Guard • Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy, Federal Complex

• Naval Criminal Investigative Service Training, Federal Complex

• USCGC Hamilton (WMSL-753) National Security Cutter, Federal Complex

• Lay berth for roll-on/roll-oﬀ vehicle cargo naval ships, Military Sealift Command, Federal Complex, including Cape Ducato-class ships:

• USCGC Joshua James (WMSL-754) National Security Cutter, Federal Complex

• MV Cape Ducato (T-AKR-5051), Military 3.12.4 Army Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex • South Carolina Army National Guard • MV Cape Douglas (T-AKR-5052), Military • Army Reserve Training Center, Naval Weapons StaSealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, tion Federal Complex • 841st Army Transportation Battalion, Naval • MV Cape Domingo (T-AKR-5053), Military Weapons Station Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex • 1182nd Army Deployment & Distribution Support • MV Cape Decision (T-AKR-5054), Military Battalion, Naval Weapons Station Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, • 1189th Army Transportation Brigade, Reserve SupFederal Complex port Command, Naval Weapons Station • MV Cape Diamond (T-AKR-5055), Military • Army Strategic Logistics Activity, Naval Weapons Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Station Federal Complex

3.12.5

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

Federal Complex (former 3.13.1 Broadcast television Charleston Naval Base), North These TV stations have studios in and broadcast from Charleston North Charleston:

• Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC), Department of Homeland Security

• WJNI-LD (31 Digital, America One, independent) owned by Jabar Communications

• Moored FLETC Training Ship, SS Cape Chalmers (T-AK-5036)

• WAZS-LD (29 Digital, Azteca America, independent) owned by Jabar Communications

• Sea Hawk Interagency Operations Center

• WTAT-TV (24, Fox) owned by Cunningham Broadcasting Company

• Customs and Border Protection Satellite Academy • Immigration and Customs Enforcement Satellite Academy • U.S. Courts, Federal Probation and Pretrial Services Academy • Food and Drug Administration Training Academy • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) • NOAAS Nancy Foster (R 352) Ship • NOAAS Ronald H. Brown (R 104) Ship • U.S. Department of State • Global Financial Services Center, U.S. Department of State • Passport Service Center, U.S. Department of State • United States Maritime Administration • Joint Base Charleston • United States Marine Corps • SPAWAR Systems Center Atlantic • The 437 Airlift Wing • The 315 Airlift Wing • The 1st Combat Camera Squadron • The 412 Flight Test Squadron

3.13 Media Main article: Media in North Charleston, South Carolina

• WMMP-TV (36, My Network Television) owned by Sinclair Broadcasting Company

3.14 See also • Charleston Naval Shipyard

3.15 References Notes [1] City Planning Department (2008-07). City of North Charleston boundary map. City of North Charleston. Retrieved January 21, 2011. [2] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-02-17. [3] “Population Estimates”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2015-02-17. [4] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): North Charleston city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 4, 2014. [5] Quickfacts: North Charleston, South Carolina [6] Behre, Robert; David Slade (March 24, 2011). “2010 Census:Who we are”. Post and Courier. Retrieved June 13, 2011. [7] “Update of Statistical Area Definitions and Guidance on Their Uses (OMB Bulletin 08 - 01)" (CSV). Office of Management and Budget, Executive Office of the President. November 20, 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-19. [8] Wise, Warren (March 22, 2008). N. Charleston assessed by its founding mayor. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 14, 2011. [9] “South Carolina Department of Revenue 2011 - 2012 Annual Report” (PDF). South Carolina Department of Revenue. 2012. Retrieved November 21, 2013. [10] Trinkley, Michael and Debi Hacker (February 2008). Tranquil Hill Plantation: the most charming inland place. Chicora Foundation, Inc. Retrieved January 14, 2011.

3.15. REFERENCES

[11] South Carolina Historical Society (1918). Mabel Louise Webber, ed. The South Carolina historical and genealogical magazine 19. South Carolina Historical Society. pp. 29–31. Retrieved October 13, 2011.

[30] Map showing boundaries of City of Charleston

[12] Marshall, Edward (October 1, 1984). “Hibben House ﬁgured in events of Revolutionary War”. The News and Courier. pp. 2–B. Retrieved October 13, 2011.

[32] Maze, Jonathan (December 6, 2002). Daimler subsidiary to bring area 200 jobs. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011.

[13] Smith, Glenn (June 19, 2010). Ex-N. Charleston mayor dead. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 14, 2011. [14] Joyce, Terry (March 16, 1996). “Charleston, Navy part company”, Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [15] Bartelme, Tony and Doug Perdue (November 22, 2009). “Noisette: The future of the old Charleston Navy Base and a look at the deal that never happened”, Post and Courier. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [16] “Chicora Life Center announced”. City of North Charleston. July 7, 2014. Retrieved October 10, 2015. [17] “UC Funds announces $13.9 million loan for Chicora Life Center project”. Palmetto Business Daily. October 7, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2015. [18] “Bennett Hofford completes Phase I HVAC work on Chicora Life Center”. Palmetto Business Daily. October 7, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2015. [19] McDermott, John P. and Yvonne Wenger (October 29, 2009). Boeing Lands Here. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [20] Stech, Katy (December 8, 2010). “Noisette parcel gets new owner”, Post and Courier. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [21] Bird, Allyson and Schuyler Kropf (December 23, 2010). “Summey promises fight over rail plan”, Post and Courier. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [22] Schmidt, Michael. “South Carolina Officer Is Charged With Murder of Walter Scott”. nytimes.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 9 April 2015. [23] “Walter Scott Didn't Grab Taser, Man Who Recorded South Carolina Police Shooting Video Says”. Los Angeles, California: KTLA 5. Retrieved April 9, 2015. [24] “Climatography of the United States No. 20 (1971– 2000)" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2004. Retrieved June 9, 2010. [25] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010. [26] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [27] “U.S. Decennial Census”. Census.gov. Retrieved May 28, 2013.

[31] Stech, Katy (March 31, 2009). Cummins to combine operations. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011.

[33] Stock, Kyle (June 11, 2005). Expanding call center brings jobs. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [34] Stock, Kyle (July 18, 2007). Call center comes calling. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [35] Smith, Bruce (April 7, 2008). KapStone Paper buying 6 MeadWestvaco mills for ,85 million. Times and Democrat. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [36] Williams, Charles (February 28, 2000). Bosch plant a leader in Lowcountry. Post and Courier. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [37] Press release (July 11, 2008). Jet engine supplier opens in North Charleston. SCBIZ Daily. Retrieved September 11, 2010. [38] City-Data editors (2015). “North Charleston, South Carolina (SC) Detailed Profile — relocation, real estate, travel, jobs, hospitals, schools, crime, move, moving, houses news, sex offenders”. City-Data.com. Illinois: Advameg, Inc. Archived from the original on 2015-03-24. Retrieved 2015-04-09. City-data.com crime rate counts serious crimes more heavily. It adjusts for the number of visitors and daily workers commuting into cities. [39] 2012 City Crime Rate Rankings. CQ Press. Retrieved May 28, 2013. [40] CQ Press: City Crime Rankings 2009. CQ Press. Retrieved January 12, 2011. [41] 2012 Metropolitan Crime Rate Rankings. CQ Press. Retrieved May 28, 2013. [42] Hicks, Brian (November 26, 2010). City finally off crime naughty list. Post and Courier. Retrieved April 8, 2015. [43] Charleston Area Convention Center facility information. SMG. Retrieved January 16, 2011. [44] North Charleston Coliseum facility information. SMG. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [45] North Charleston Performing Arts Center facility information. SMG. Retrieved January 15, 2011. [46] http://parkcirclefilms.org

Further reading

[28] “Government”, City of North Charleston oﬃcial website [29] Zip Code boundaries provided to this site by United States Postal Service.

• North Charleston Recreation Department 2010 Information Guide. Retrieved January 14, 2011.

CHAPTER 3. NORTH CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

3.16 External links • City of North Charleston oﬃcial website • Dorchester County GIS showing City of North Charleston in Dorchester County • Online – City of North Charleston, South Carolina, interactive zoning and boundary map. • North Charleston at DMOZ • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum • Congressional Medal of Honor Museum • USS Yorktown CV10 Association

Chapter 4

U.S. state For other uses of “state”, see state (disambiguation). A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, American are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside.[3] State citizenship and residency are flexible and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody). States range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California). Four—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia—use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.[4] States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of law enforcement, public education, public health, transportation, and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states’ rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states’ powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government as well as the rights of individual persons.

All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census.[5] Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.[6] Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.[7] The most recent state added was Hawaii, on August 21, 1959. While over half a century has passed since, the possibility exists that additional states could be added in the future. The Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to leave, or secede from, the Union. However, shortly after the Civil War, the Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so.[8][9]

4.1 US Map 4.2 Federal power Since the early 20th century, the Supreme Court of the United States has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, “On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.”[10] In Wickard v. Filburn 317 U.S. 111 (1942), the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality eﬀect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern.[11]

CHAPTER 4. U.S. STATE

For example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still has an impact on interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.

them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.

Legislative See also: State legislature (United States)

Another example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and dis- The legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two tribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Represenconditions set by Congress).[12] tatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of A classic example of this is the system of federal-aid high- Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the ways, which includes the Interstate Highway System. The Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legsystem is mandated and largely funded by the federal gov- islature, which is composed of only a single chamber. ernment, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example of this is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states’ rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution’s Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole 483 U.S. 203 (1987).

4.3 Governments See also: Comparison of U.S. state governments

Most states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida.[14] In Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to aﬀord each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one.

States are free to organize their individual governments any way they like, so long as they conform to the Consti- If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds tution of the United States. majority. In 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually were variIn practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There [15] ous per diem and mileage compensation. of government (with legislative, executive, and judiciary branches) generally along the same lines as that of the federal government—though this is not a requirement. Judicial

4.3.1

Constitutions

Executive In all of the U.S. states, the chief executive is called the Governor, who serves as both the ceremonial head of state and administrative head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power.[13] Most states have a “plural executive” in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected oﬃcials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss

See also: State court (United States) and state supreme court States can also organize their judicial systems diﬀerently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a ﬁrst-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. New York State has its own terminology, in that the trial court is called the Supreme Court. Appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, and from there

4.5. ADMISSION INTO THE UNION to the Court of Appeals. Most states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law. Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state’s courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, such as ﬁve years, eligible for reelection or reappointment if their performance is judged to be satisfactory.

41 tinction, and the U.S. Constitution uniformly refers to all of these subnational jurisdictions as “States” (Article One, Section 2, Clause 1 of the Constitution, concerning the U.S. House of Representatives, in which Representatives are to be elected by the people of the “States"; Article One, Section 3, Clause 1, concerning the U.S. Senate, allocates to each “State” two Senators). For all of these purposes, each of the four above-mentioned “Commonwealths” counts as a State. This is not to be confused with the two commonwealths of Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands, which are both territories of the United States.

4.5 Admission into the Union 4.4 Relationships 4.4.1

Among states

Under Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, the United States Congress has the power to admit new states to the Union. The states are required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other’s legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states.[16] Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized stateto-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of “treason, felony, or other crimes” in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state.[17] With the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights.[18]

4.4.2

Main article: Admission to the Union Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the

With the federal government

The states are guaranteed military and civil defense by the federal government, which is also required to ensure that the government of each state remains a republic. Four states use the oﬃcial name of Commonwealth, rather than State.[19] However, this is merely a paper dis-

U.S. states by date of statehood. 1776–1790 1791–1799 1800–1819 1820–1839 1840–1859 1860–1879 1880–1899 1900–1912 1959

number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. The U.S. Constitution provides that “New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union” and forbidding a new state to be created out of the territory of an existing state, or the merging of two or more states into one, without the consent of both Congress and all the state legislatures involved.” In practice, most of the states admitted to the union after the original 13 have been formed from Territories of the United States (that is, land under the sovereignty of the federal government but not part of any state) that were organized (given a measure of self-rule by the Congress subject to the Congress’ plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution).[20]

CHAPTER 4. U.S. STATE Congress is also under no obligation to admit states even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. For instance, the Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conﬂict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years.[22]

The order in which the original 13 states ratiﬁed the constitution, then the order in which the others were admitted to the union. (Click to see animation)

Once established, most state borders have been generally stable, with exceptions including the formation of the Northwest Territory in 1787 and the Southwest Territory in 1790 from various portions of the original states, the cession by Maryland and Virginia of land to create the District of Columbia in 1791 (Virginia’s portion was returned in 1847), and the creation of states from other states, including the creation of Kentucky and West Virginia from Virginia, and Maine from Massachusetts. However, there have been numerous minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes.[21] One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998.[23]

Generally speaking, the organized government of a territory made known the sentiment of its population in favor of statehood, usually by referendums. Congress then directed that government to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution. Upon acceptance of that Constitution, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state. The broad outlines in this process were established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which 4.5.1 Possible new states predated the ratiﬁcation of the Constitution. See also: 51st state and List of U.S. state partition However, Congress has ultimate authority over the adproposals mission of new states, and is not bound to follow this procedure. A few U.S. states (outside of the original 13) that were never organized territories of the federal gov- There are several U.S. territories that might become new states. ernment have been admitted: • Vermont, an unrecognized but de facto independent Puerto Rico republic until its admission in 1791[21] • Kentucky, a part of Virginia until its admission in See also: Political status of Puerto Rico and Proposed political status for Puerto Rico 1792[21]

• Maine, a part of Massachusetts until its admission Puerto Rico referred to itself as the “Commonwealth of in 1820[21] following the Missouri Compromise Puerto Rico” in the English version of its constitution, and as “Estado Libre Asociado” (literally, Associated Free • Texas, a recognized independent republic until its State) in the Spanish version. admission in 1845[21] As with any non-state territory of the United States, its • California, created as a state (as part of the residents do not have voting representation in the fedCompromise of 1850) out of the unorganized ter- eral government. Puerto Rico has limited representation ritory of the Mexican Cession in 1850 without ever in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Comhaving been a separate organized territory itself[21] missioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, • West Virginia: During the Civil War Virginia had and no voting rights otherwise.[24] two state governments, a Unionist one and a Confederate one, both claiming to be the legitimate A non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, state government of Virginia. West Virginia was or a new option for an associated territory (diﬀerent from created in 1863 by the Unionist state government the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty from areas of western Virginia, after the Confed- one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, [25][26] erate state government’s 1861 secession of Virginia while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of to the Confederate States of America.

4.5. ADMISSION INTO THE UNION Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State.[27] Washington, D.C. See also: District of Columbia voting rights The intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress). Some residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.

4.5.2

Unrecognized entities

See also: Historical regions of the United States § Unrecognized or self-declared entities • The State of Franklin existed for four years not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the union, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. A majority of the states were willing to recognize Franklin, but the number of states in favor fell short of the two-thirds majority required to admit a territory to statehood under the Articles of Confederation. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the state of Tennessee. • The State of Superior was a proposed state formed out of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Several prominent legislators including local politician Dominic Jacobetti formally attempted this legislation in the 1970s, with no success. As a state, it would have had, by far, the smallest population, and remaining so through the present day. Its 320,000 residents would equal only 60% of Wyoming’s population, and less than 50% of Alaska’s population. • The State of Deseret was a provisional state of the United States, proposed in 1849 by the Mormon settlers in Salt Lake City. The provisional state existed for slightly over two years and was never accepted by the United States Congress. Its name was derived from the word for “honeybee” in the Book of

43 Mormon. Its territory included most of what is now Utah and Nevada. • The State of Sequoyah began in the early 1900s during a meeting of the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole Native American nations. At the time, the eastern part of what would later become Oklahoma encompassed the Indian Territory. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress, which balked at adding two new western states. Instead, the Indian Territory was incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907, yet many of Sequoyah’s principles lived on. • The State of Absaroka, aka “state that never was,” grew out of the political discontent of the Great Depression. Frustrated with the U.S. government, a group of politicians and businessmen, led by former minor league baseball player A.R. Swickard, planned to create a new state called Absaroka. Their statehood movement began in 1939. The proposed state included large swaths of Wyoming, Montana and South Dakota, and encompassed famous landmarks such as the Grand Tetons and Yellowstone National Park. Despite its initial popularity, the statehood movement’s novelty quickly wore off, and an official proposal for secession was never drafted. The movement was unsuccessful and fairly shortlived.[28] • The States of Jefferson • On July 24, 1859, voters defeated the formation of the proposed State of Jefferson in the Southern Rocky Mountains. On October 24, 1859, voters instead approved the formation of the Jefferson Territory, which was superseded by the Territory of Colorado on February 28, 1861. • In 1915, a second State of Jefferson was proposed for the northern third of Texas but failed to obtain majority approval by the Texas Senate. • In 1941, a third State of Jefferson was proposed in the mostly rural area of southern Oregon and northern California, but was cancelled as a result of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. This proposal has been raised several times since. • The States of Lincoln • Lincoln is another state that has been proposed multiple times. It generally consists of the eastern portion of Washington state and the panhandle of the northern portion of Idaho. It was originally proposed by Idaho in 1864 to include just the panhandle of Idaho, and again in 1901 to include eastern Washington. Proposals have come up in 1996, 1999, and 2005.

CHAPTER 4. U.S. STATE • Lincoln is also the name of a failed state proposal after the U.S. Civil War in 1869. It consisted of the area south and west of Texas' Colorado River.

4.6 Secession A map showing the source languages of state names.

The Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States “shall be perpetual.” The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a diﬃcult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states.[8][29] Following the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to “form a more perfect union” and speaks of the people of the United States in eﬀect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court’s reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring “through revolution, or through consent of the States,” essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.[8][29]

4.7 Commonwealths Main article: Commonwealth (U.S. state)

4.8 Origins of states’ names Main article: List of U.S. state name etymologies Twenty-four of the states’ names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from UtoAztecan languages and ﬁve others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language. Of the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed.

4.9 Geography 4.9.1 Regional grouping States may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings, as most states are not deﬁned by obvious geographic or cultural borders. For further discussion of regions of the U.S., see the list of regions of the United States.

4.9.2 Borders

The northern and southern borders of the Thirteen Colonies on the East Coast were largely determined by colonial charters and anchoring coastal settlements. The western boundaries were determined by the limits of transportation, the infeasibility of settling areas domiSomewhat confusingly, the U.S. territories of the nated by Native Americans and foreign powers, and the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred decision to create new states out of western territories. to as commonwealths, and that designation does have a River borders between states are common. At varilegal status diﬀerent from that of the 50 states. Both of ous times, national borders with territories formerly conthese commonwealths are unincorporated territories of trolled by other countries (namely the British colonies the United States. of Canada, New France, New Spain including Spanish Four of the states bear the formal title of commonwealth: Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. This is merely a legacy of all four states’ history, and their formal name has no eﬀect on their legal status as states.

4.11. REFERENCES

45 • List of regions of the United States • Organized incorporated territories of the United States • Political divisions of the United States • States’ rights • United States territorial acquisitions • Territorial evolution of the United States

U.S. Census Bureau regions: The West, The Midwest, The South and The Northeast.

• Territories of the United States • Territories of the United States on stamps • United States territory

Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. Alaska was formerly the colony of Russian America. Most borders beyond the Thirteen Colonies were created by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and turned them into states as they became more populated. Territorial and new state lines followed various geographic features, economic units, and the pattern of settlement. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River. Faster transportation also meant that larger states were more feasible to govern from a single capital. Vermont, California, and Texas were each brieﬂy independent nations, as was Hawaii for a more extensive period of time. Some states were previously part of other states, including Maine, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes.

4.9.3

Statistical areas

• Statistical area • List of Primary Statistical Areas • List of Combined Statistical Areas • List of Core Based Statistical Areas • List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas • List of Micropolitan Statistical Areas

4.10 See also • Admission to the Union • List of states and territories of the United States • Lists of U.S. state topics

4.11 References [1] “Table 1: Annual Estimates for the Resident Populations of the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico”. Retrieved July 1, 2015. [2] “United States Summary: 2000” (PDF). U.S. Census 2000. U. S. Census Bureau. April 2004. Retrieved September 15, 2013. [3] Erler, Edward. “Essays on Amendment XIV: Citizenship”. The Heritage Foundation. [4] “Frequently Asked Questions About the Minnesota Legislature”. Minnesota State Legislature. [5] Kristin D. Burnett. “Congressional Apportionment (2010 Census Briefs C2010BR-08)" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. [6] Elhauge, Einer R. “Essays on Article II: Presidential Electors”. The Heritage Foundation. [7] “Doctrine of the Equality of States”. Justia.com. [8] Aleksandar Pavković, Peter Radan, Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession, p. 222, Ashgate Publishing, 2007. [9] “Texas v. White 74 U.S. 700 (1868)". Justia.com. [10] Stanley Lewis Engerman (2000). The Cambridge economic history of the United States: the colonial era. Cambridge University Press. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-521-553070. [11] David Shultz (2005). Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court. Infobase Publishing. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-8160-5086-4. [12] “Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 8”. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 17 October 2015.

• List of U.S. state abbreviations

[13] “Gubernatorial Veto Authority with Respect to Major Budget Bill(s)". National Conference of State Legislatures.

• Comparison of U.S. state governments

[14] http://www.reformcal.com/citleg_historical.pdf

CHAPTER 4. U.S. STATE

[15] Wilson, Reid (August 23, 2013). "GovBeat:For legislators, salaries start at zero”. Washington Post (Washington, DC). pp. A2. Retrieved August 26, 2013. [16] Adam Liptak (March 17, 2004). “Bans on Interracial Unions Offer Perspective on Gay Ones”. New York Times. [17] “Hot Pursuit Law & Legal Definition”. USLegal, Inc. Retrieved October 8, 2014. [18] deGolian, Crady. “Interstate Compacts: Background and History”. Council on State Governments. Retrieved September 25, 2013. [19] a. Third Constitution of Kentucky (1850), Article 2, Section 1 ff. Other portions of the same Constitution refer to the “State of Kentucky” b. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Preamble. c. Constitution of Pennsylvania, Preamble. d. Constitution of Virginia (1971), Article IV, Section 1. [20] U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 (“The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States...”). [21] Stein, Mark (2008). How the States Got Their Shapes. New York: Collins (HarperCollinsPublishers) [Smithsonian Books]. pp. xvi + 334. ISBN 9780061431395. [22] Richard Bruce Winders (2002). Crisis in the Southwest: the United States, Mexico, and the struggle over Texas. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 82, 92. ISBN 978-0-84202801-1. [23] “THE ELLIS ISLAND VERDICT: THE RULING; High Court Gives New Jersey Most of Ellis Island”. New York Times. Retrieved August 2, 2012. [24] “Rules of the House of Representatives” (PDF). Retrieved July 25, 2010. [25] "Puerto Ricans favor statehood for first time". November 7, 2012. Retrieved October 8, 2014.

CNN.

[26] "Puerto Ricans opt for statehood". Fox News. Retrieved October 8, 2014. [27] The Senate and the House of Representative of Puerto Rico Concurrent Resolution [28] Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Wyoming. Wyoming: A Guide to Its History, Highways, and People. Oxford University Press. 1941. [29] Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868) at Cornell University Law School Supreme Court collection.

4.12 Further reading • Stein, Mark, How the States Got Their Shapes, New York : Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143138-8

4.13 External links • Information about All States from UCB Libraries GovPubs • State Resource Guides, from the Library of Congress • Tables with areas, populations, densities and more (in order of population) • Tables with areas, populations, densities and more (alphabetical) • State and Territorial Governments on USA.gov • StateMaster – statistical database for U.S. states • U.S. States: Comparisons, rankings, demographics

Chapter 5

South Carolina This article is about the U.S. state of South Carolina. For other uses, see South Carolina (disambiguation). South Carolina i /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern United States, bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. The Province of South Carolina became a slave society after rice and indigo became established as commodity crops. From 1708, a majority of the population were slaves, many born in Africa. South Carolina was the ﬁrst state to ratify the Articles of Table Rock State Park in the mountains of South Carolina Confederation and the eighth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution on May 23, 1788. South Carolina became the ﬁrst state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20, 1860. After the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25, 1868.[note 1] South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 24th most populous U.S. state. Its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3.13%.[11] South Carolina comprises 46 counties. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358; the Greenville-Anderson-Mauldin metropolitan area had a 2013 population of 850,965.

5.1 Etymology Francis Marion National Forest in Berkeley County

The name Carolina dates back to October 30, 1629, when King Charles I granted a patent to Sir Robert Heath for the lands south of 36 degrees and north of 31 degrees, Grand Strand, the Santee River Delta, and the Sea Is“under the name, in honor of that king, of Carolina.”[12] lands. Further inland are the Sandhills, ancient dunes Carolus is Latin for 'Charles’. from what used to be South Carolina’s coast millions of years ago. The Fall Line, which marks the limit of navigable rivers, runs along the boundary of the Sandhills and the Piedmont, which has rolling hills and clay soils. In the 5.2 Geography northwest corner of the state are the Blue Ridge MounSouth Carolina is composed of ﬁve geographic areas, or tains, the smallest geographical region in the state. physiographic provinces, whose boundaries roughly parallel the Atlantic coastline. In the southeast part of the state is the Atlantic Coastal Plain, which can be divided into the Outer and Inner Coastal Plains. From north to south the coast is divided into three separate areas, the

The state’s coastline contains many salt marshes and estuaries, as well as natural ports such as Georgetown and Charleston. An unusual feature of the coastal plain is a large number of Carolina bays, the origins of which are uncertain. The bays tend to be oval, lining up in a

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA the land was sunken or the oceans were higher.

Beachcombers at Myrtle Beach photographed from the ninth ﬂoor of a resort hotel

The Upstate region contains the roots of an ancient, eroded mountain chain. It is generally hilly, with thin, stony clay soils, and contains few areas suitable for farming. Much of the Piedmont was once farmed. Due to the changing economics of farming, much of the land is now reforested in Loblolly pine for the lumber industry. These forests are part of the Southeastern mixed forests ecoregion.[13] At the southeastern edge of the Piedmont is the fall line, where rivers drop to the coastal plain. The fall line was an important early source of water power. Mills built to harness this resource encouraged the growth of several cities, including the capital, Columbia. The larger rivers are navigable up to the fall line, providing a trade route for mill towns. The northwestern part of the Piedmont is also known as the Foothills. The Cherokee Parkway is a scenic driving route through this area. This is where Table Rock State Park is located. Highest in elevation is the Blue Ridge Region, containing an escarpment of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which continue into North Carolina and Georgia, as part of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Sassafras Mountain, South Carolina’s highest point at 3,560 feet (1,090 m), is located in this area.[14] Also located in this area is Caesars Head State Park. The environment here is that of the Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests ecoregion.[13] The Chattooga River, located on the border between South Carolina and Georgia, is a favorite whitewater rafting destination.

Waterfall on Carrick Creek Nature Trail, in Table Rock State Park

5.2.1 Lakes South Carolina has several major lakes covering over 683 square miles (1,770 km2 ). The following are the lakes listed by size.[15] • Lake Marion 110,000 acres (450 km2 ) • Lake Strom Thurmond (also known as Clarks Hill Lake) 71,100 acres (290 km2 ) • Lake Moultrie 60,000 acres (240 km2 ) • Lake Hartwell 56,000 acres (230 km2 )

Lake Marion – Indian Bluﬀ Park – Eutawville, South Carolina

northwest to southeast orientation. The terrain is ﬂat and the soil is composed entirely of recent sediments such as sand, silt, and clay. Areas with better drainage make excellent farmland, though some land is swampy. The natural areas of the coastal plain are part of the Middle Atlantic coastal forests ecoregion.[13] Just west of the coastal plain is the Sandhills region. The Sandhills are remnants of coastal dunes from a time when

• Lake Murray 50,000 acres (200 km2 ) • Russell Lake 26,650 acres (110 km2 ) • Lake Keowee 18,372 acres (70 km2 ) • Lake Wylie 13,400 acres (50 km2 ) • Lake Wateree 13,250 acres (50 km2 ) • Lake Greenwood 11,400 acres (50 km2 ) • Lake Jocassee 7,500 acres (30 km2 ) • Lake Bowen

5.2. GEOGRAPHY

5.2.2

Earthquakes

Main article: South Carolina earthquakes Earthquakes do occur in South Carolina. The greatest frequency is along the central coastline of the state, in the Charleston area. South Carolina averages 10– 15 earthquakes a year below magnitude 3 (FEMA). The Charleston Earthquake of 1886 was the largest quake ever to hit the Southeastern United States. This 7.2 magnitude earthquake killed 60 people and destroyed much of the city.[16] Faults in this region are diﬃcult to study at the surface due to thick sedimentation on top of them. Many Midlands Mountain trail during winter, in Harbison State Forest of the ancient faults are within plates rather than along plate boundaries. Carolina is hot and humid, with daytime temperatures averaging between 86–93 °F (30–34 °C) in most of the state and overnight lows averaging 70–75 °F (21–24 °C) on the 5.2.3 Climate coast and from 66–73 °F (19–23 °C) inland. Winter temperatures are much less uniform in South Carolina. Main article: Climate of South Carolina South Carolina has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Coastal areas of the state have very mild winters, with high temperatures approaching an average of 60 °F (16 °C) and overnight lows in the 40s°F (5–8 °C). Inland, the average January overnight low is around 32 °F (0 °C) in Columbia and temperatures well below freezing in the Upstate. While precipitation is abundant the entire year in almost the entire state, the coast tends to have a slightly wetter summer, while inland, March tends to be the wettest month and winter the driest season, with November being the driest month. The highest recorded temperature is 113 °F (45 °C) in Johnston and Columbia on June 29, 2012, and the lowest recorded temperature is −19 °F (−28 °C) at Caesars Head on January 21, 1985. A map of the average annual precipitation in South Carolina

Snowfall in South Carolina is somewhat uncommon in most of the state, while coastal areas receive less than an inch (2.5 cm) annually on average. It is not uncommon for areas along the coast (especially the southern coast) to receive no recordable snowfall in a given year. The interior receives a little more snow, although nowhere in the state averages more than 12 inches (30 cm) of snow annually. The mountains of extreme northwestern South Carolina tend to have the most substantial snow accumulation. Freezing rain and ice tend to be more common than snow in many areas of the state. Road bridges in South Carolina are commonly marked, “Bridge ices before road.” South Carolina is also prone to tropical cyclones and tornadoes. Two of the strongest hurricanes to strike South Carolina in recent history were Hurricane Hazel (1954) and Hurricane Hugo (1989).

Lake Wylie in autumn

Hurricanes and tropical cyclones

climate classiﬁcation Cfa), although high-elevation areas The state is occasionally aﬀected by tropical cyclones. in the Upstate area have fewer subtropical characteristics This is an annual concern during hurricane season, which than areas on the Atlantic coastline. In the summer, South lasts from June 1 to November 30. The peak time of vul-

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA The region would later be claimed by both the Spanish and the French. The French made several attempts at colonization which failed because of the hostility of Indian tribes and a lack of provisions. England claimed the current South Carolina at the beginning of seventeenth century. In 1629, King Charles I gave the southern colonies to Robert Heath. This colony included the regions that now constitute North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. Heath named this colony Carolana, a Latin word which means 'Land of Charles’.

Category 4 Hurricane Hugo in 1989

5.3.2 British colony

nerability for the southeast Atlantic coast is from early August to early October, during the Cape Verde hurricane season. Memorable hurricanes to hit South Carolina include Hazel (1954) and Hugo (1989), both Category 4 hurricanes.[20] South Carolina averages around 50 days of thunderstorm activity a year. This is less than some of the states further south, and it is slightly less vulnerable to tornadoes than the states which border on the Gulf of Mexico. Some notable tornadoes have struck South Carolina, and the state averages around 14 tornadoes annually. Hail is common with many of the thunderstorms in the state, as there is often a marked contrast in temperature of warmer ground conditions compared to the cold air aloft.[20] Arcadia Plantation, circa 1893, Georgetown County

5.3 History

The colony of Carolina was settled by wealthy English aristocrats, mostly migrating from Barbados, where they had already set up sugar plantations.[21] King Charles gave Main article: History of South Carolina eight aristocrats a royal charter to settle Carolina (Carolina is Latin for “Charles land”) because earlier they had helped him regain his throne. Parts of Carolina (mostly the coastal areas) had been colonized earlier by Spain 5.3.1 Discovery and exploration (see Fort Caroline), but battles between the Spanish and the Native Americans resulted in the Spanish people reAbout 30 Native American Tribes lived in what is now treating to Florida, Cuba, Mexico, and Central and South South Carolina at the time the first Europeans arrived in the region. The most important were the Catawba (who America. spoke a Siouan language), Cherokee (who spoke an Iro- Carolina was settled to make profit from trade and also by quoian language), and Yamasee (Muskhogean language). selling land. John Locke, an English philosopher, wrote a It is believed that the first humans settled in the current constitution for the colony that covered topics such as land South Carolina about 15,000 years ago. However, the divisions and social rankings. In the early years, not many Topper Site has been tentatively dated to about 30,000 people bought land there, so the proprietors lowered the years ago. price on some portions. The first European to land was Francisco Gordillo in 1521, from Spain. Five years later, in 1526, another Spaniard, Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon, founded the first European settlement in the territory that now constitutes the United States. This settlement was named San Miguel de Gualdape and was founded with 600 settlers, including African slaves, but was abandoned three months later.

Carolina did not develop as planned. It split into northern and southern Carolina, creating two diﬀerent colonies. It separated because of political reasons as the settlers wanted political power. In 1719 settlers in southern Carolina seized control from its proprietors. Then, in 1729, Carolina became two royal colonies- North Carolina and South Carolina. Farmers from inland Virginia settled

5.3. HISTORY

northern Carolina. They grew tobacco, and sold timber and tar, both categories of naval stores needed by England. The northern Carolina coast lacked a good harbor, so many of the farmers used Virginia’s ports to conduct their trade. Southern Carolina prospered from the fertility of the Low Country and the harbors, such as that at Charles Town (later Charleston). It allowed religious toleration, encouraging settlement by merchants from the successful French Huguenot and Sephardic Jewish communities of London.[22] Settlements spread, and trade in deerskin, lumber, and beef thrived. Rice cultivation was developed on a large scale with the help of skills and techniques of slaves imported from rice-growing regions of Africa. They created the large earthworks of dams and A historic home on “The Battery”, a neighborhood/park area at the Downtown historic district of Charleston, SC. canals required to irrigate the rice fields. In addition, indigo became a commodity crop, also developed with the skills of African slaves. The American Revolution caused a shock to slavery in the The cultivation and processing of Indigo plant, a plant South. Many thousands of slaves fled to British authorsource of blue dye, was developed here by a young En- ities to obtain freedom; and many of those left with the glish woman, Eliza Lucas, a planter’s daughter who had British in the last days of the war. Others secured their come with her father, also a military officer, from the freedom by escaping to perceived friendlier locations durCaribbean. She took over managing the plantation when ing the turmoil. Estimates are that 25,000 slaves (30% of he was assigned elsewhere. Indigo became an important those in South Carolina) fled, migrated or died during the commodity crop for the dyeing of textiles. Slave labor disruption of the war.[24] was integral to the economic success of rice and indigo The current United States Constitution was proposed for as commodity crops. In South Carolina, slaves made adoption by the States on September 17, 1787, and South up a majority of the population after 1708, and the deCarolina was the 8th state to ratify it, on May 23, 1788. mand for labor was so high that many were imported from Africa. After the Stono Rebellion of 1739, the colony prohibited importing African slaves through Charleston for ten years, having observed they were more likely to cause rebellions than slaves from the Caribbean, who were already “seasoned” or those born in the colony. Slaves and their descendants comprised a majority of the population of the state through the American Civil War and to the turn of the 20th century.

5.3.4 Federal period

South Carolina politics between 1783 and 1795 were marred by rivalry between a Federalist elite supporting Alexander Hamilton and the central government in Philadelphia and a large proportion of common people. The latter were often members of 'Republican Societies’, and they supported the Republican-Democrats, headed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. This party wanted more democracy in the US, especially in South 5.3.3 The American Revolution Carolina. Sephardic Jews had prospered in contributing On March 26, 1776, the colony adopted the Constitution to the state and by 1800, South Carolina had the largest of South Carolina becoming the first republic in population of Jews in the United States.[22] America.[23] John Rutledge was elected as the state’s first Most people supported the French Revolution (1789– president. He was succeeded by Rawlins Lowndes who 1795), as the French had been allies and they were proud served March 6, 1778 – January 9, 1779. On February 5, of their own revolution. In addition, due to substantial 1778, South Carolina became the first state to ratify the French Huguenot immigration during the colonial years, Articles of Confederation, the initial governing document Charleston was one of the most French-influenced cities of the United States. in the USA. Leading South Carolina figures, such as govIn 1780, South Carolinian loyalists to the British crown helped British troops recapture South Carolina from the previously successful rebels. On January 17, 1781, the Battle of Cowpens won by the American forces, marked the beginning of the decline in British fortunes. In 1782 they decided to evacuate their troops by the end of the year. Thousands of Loyalists and slaves left with them.

ernors Charles Pinckney and William Moultrie, backed with money and actions the French plans to further their political, strategic, and commercial goals in North America. This pro-French stance and attitude of South Carolina ended soon because of the XYZ Aﬀair, a diplomatic aﬀair that resulted in quasi-war between France and the US.

5.3.5

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA

Antebellum

elected.

5.3.6 American Civil War Main article: American Civil War On December 20, 1860, when it became clear that

Millford Plantation (1839–41), one of the best examples of Greek Revival architecture in the United States.

Antebellum South Carolina did more to advance nullification and secession than any other Southern state. Its first attempt at nullification was in 1822, following discovery of a conspiracy for a slave rebellion led by Denmark Vesey, a freed slave. As part of its response, the state passed a Negro Seamen Act, requiring foreign and northern black sailors to be prohibited from interacting with people in South Carolina ports. As it violated international treaties, this law was declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court Justice William Johnson. His ruling was not enforced.

Coastal towns and cities often have hurricane-resistant Live oaks overarching the streets in historic neighborhoods, such as these on East Bay Street, Georgetown.

Abraham Lincoln, an opponent of the expansion of slavery into new territories, would become the next U.S. president, South Carolina became the first U.S. state to declare its secession from the Union. On April 12, 1861, Confederate batteries began shelling Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, and the American Civil War began. The U.S. Navy effectively blockaded Charleston and In 1832, a South Carolina state convention passed the seized the Sea Islands. Planters had taken their families Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the Federal tariff (and sometimes slaves) to points inland for refuge. laws of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional, null and not to The Union Army set up an experiment in freedom for be enforced in the state of South Carolina after February the ex-slaves, in which they started education and farmed 1, 1833. land for themselves. South Carolinian troops participated This led to the Nullification Crisis, in which U.S. Pres- in major Confederate campaigns, but no major battles ident Andrew Jackson (as of 2015, the only president were fought inland. General William Tecumseh Sherto have been born in South Carolina) was authorized man marched through the state in early 1865, destroythrough the Force Bill to use whatever military force nec- ing numerous plantations, and captured the state capital essary to enforce Federal law in the state. This was the of Columbia on February 17. Fires began that night and first U.S. legislation denying individual states the right to by next morning, most of the central city was destroyed. secede. As a result of Jackson’s threat of force, the South South Carolina suffered 18,666 military deaths during one-third of Carolina state convention was re-convened and repealed the American Civil War, which was nearly [25] the white male population of fighting age. the Ordinance of Nullification in March. Anti-abolitionist feelings ran strong in South Carolina, where the economy depended on slave labor and which had a majority-slave population. In 1856, Democrat South Carolina congressman Preston Brooks entered the United States Senate chamber and, with a metal-tipped cane, beat Massachusetts Republican Senator Charles Sumner. He drew blood and injured Sumner badly enough that the latter was unable to serve for several months. Brooks was retaliating for a speech Sumner had given in which he attacked slavery and insulted South Carolinians. Brooks resigned his seat but received a hero’s welcome on returning home and was promptly re-

5.3.7 Reconstruction After the war, South Carolina was restored to the United States during Reconstruction. Under presidential Reconstruction (1865–66), freedmen (former slaves) were given limited rights. Under Radical reconstruction (1867–1877), a Republican coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers and scalawags was in control, supported by Union Army forces. They established public education, welfare institutions, and home rule for counties, expanding democracy.

5.3. HISTORY Until the 1868 presidential election, South Carolina’s legislature, not the voters, chose the state’s electors for the presidential election. South Carolina was the last state to choose its electors in this manner. On October 19, 1871 President Ulysses S. Grant suspended habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties under the authority of the Ku Klux Klan Act.[26] Led by Grant’s Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, hundreds of Klansmen were arrested while 2000 Klansmen ﬂed the state.[26] This was done in order to suppress Klan violence against African-American and white voters in the South.[26] In the mid to late 1870s, white Democrats used paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts to intimidate and terrorize black voters. They regained political control of the state under conservative white "Redeemers" and pro-business Bourbon Democrats. In 1877, the federal government withdrew its troops as part of the Compromise of 1877 that ended Reconstruction.

5.3.8

Populist and agrarian movements

Children in Port Royal, South Carolina, ca 1912. Some of the children went to school half a day, and worked before school, and several hours after school, and eight or nine hours on Saturday

The state became a hotbed of racial and economic tensions during the Populist and Agrarian movements of the 1890s. A Republican-Populist biracial coalition took power away from White Democrats temporarily. To prevent that from happening again, Democrats gained passage of a new constitution in 1895 that eﬀectively disfranchised almost all blacks and many poor whites by new requirements for poll taxes, residency, and literacy tests that dramatically reduced the voter rolls. By 1896, only 5,500 black voters remained on the voter registration rolls, although they constituted a majority of the state’s population.[27] The 1900 census demonstrated the extent of disenfranchisement: the 782,509 African American citizens comprised more than 58% of the state’s population, but they were essentially without any political representation in the Jim Crow society.[28]

53 The 1895 constitution overturned local representative government, reducing the role of the counties to agents of state government, effectively ruled by the General Assembly, through the legislative delegations for each county. As each county had one state senator, that person had considerable power. The counties lacked representative government until home rule was passed in 1975.[29] Governor “Pitchfork Ben Tillman”, a Populist, led the effort to disenfranchise the blacks and poor whites, although he controlled Democratic state politics from the 1890s to 1910 with a base among poor white farmers. During the constitutional convention in 1895, he supported another man’s proposal that the state adopt a onedrop rule, as well as prohibit marriage between whites and anyone with any known African ancestry. Some members of the convention realized that prominent white families with some African ancestry could be affected by such legislation. In terms similar to a debate in Virginia in 1853 on a similar proposal (which was dropped), George Dionysius Tillman said the following in opposition: If the law is made as it now stands respectable families in Aiken, Barnwell, Colleton, and Orangeburg will be denied the right to intermarry among people with whom they are now associated and identified. At least one hundred families would be affected to my knowledge. They have sent good soldiers to the Confederate Army, and are now landowners and taxpayers. Those men served creditably, and it would be unjust and disgraceful to embarrass them in this way. It is a scientific fact that there is not one full-blooded Caucasian on the floor of this convention. Every member has in him a certain mixture of… colored blood. The pure-blooded white has needed and received a certain infusion of darker blood to give him readiness and purpose. It would be a cruel injustice and the source of endless litigation, of scandal, horror, feud, and bloodshed to undertake to annul or forbid marriage for a remote, perhaps obsolete trace of Negro blood. The doors would be open to scandal, malice and greed; to statements on the witness stand that the father or grandfather or grandmother had said that A or B had Negro blood in their veins. Any man who is half a man would be ready to blow up half the world with dynamite to prevent or avenge attacks upon the honor of his mother in the legitimacy or purity of the blood of his father.[30][31][32][33] The state postponed such a one-drop law for years. Virginian legislators adopted a one-drop law in 1924, forgetting that their state had many people of mixed ancestry among those who identified as white.

5.3.9

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA

20th century

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of South Carolina was 4,896,146 on July 1, 2015, Early in the 20th century, South Carolina developed a a 5.85% increase since the 2010 United States Census.[2] thriving textile industry. The state also converted its agriAs of the 2013 census estimate, the racial make up of cultural base from cotton to more profitable crops; atthe state is 68.3% White (63.9% non-Hispanic white), tracted large military bases through its powerful Demo27.9% Black or African American, 0.5% American Incratic congressional delegation, part of the one-party dian and Alaska Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Native HawaiSouth following disfranchisement of blacks at the turn ian and other Pacific Islander, 1.7% from two or more of the century; and created tourism industries. During races. 5.3% of the total population was of Hispanic or the early part of the 20th century, thousands of African Latino origin (they may be of any race).[41] Americans left South Carolina and other southern states for jobs and better opportunities in northern, Midwestern and western cities. In total from 1910 to 1970, 6.5 million blacks left the South in the Great Migration. By 1930 South Carolina had a white majority[34] for the first time since 1708. The struggle of the African-American Civil Rights Movement took place in South Carolina as well as other places in the South. South Carolina was one of several states that initially rejected the Nineteenth Amendment (1920) giving women the right to vote. The South Carolina legislature later ratified the amendment on July 1, 1969.

5.3.10

21st century

As of 2015, South Carolina had one of the lowest percentages among all states of women in state legislature, at 13.5% (only Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Wyoming had a lower percentage; the national average is 24.3%; with the highest percentage being in Colorado at 41%).[35] In 2011, South Carolina ranked first in the country in the rate of women killed by men.[36] As the 21st century progresses, South Carolina attracts new business by having a 5% corporate income tax rate, no state property tax, no local income tax, no inventory tax, no sales tax on manufacturing equipment, industrial power or materials for finished products; no wholesale tax, no unitary tax on worldwide profits.[37] Starting January 1, 2013, South Carolina was one of the first states that no longer pays for 'early elective' deliveries of babies, under either Medicaid and private insurance. The term early elective is defined as a labor induction or Cesarean section between 37–39 weeks that is not medically based. This change is intended to result in healthier babies and fewer unnecessary costs for South Carolina.[38]

Population density of South Carolina.

According to the United States Census Bureau, as of 2014, South Carolina had an estimated population of 4,896,146, which is an increase of 63,664 from the prior year and an increase of 270,782, or 5.85%, since the year 2010. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 36,401 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 115,084 people. According to the University of South Carolina's Arnold School of Public Health, Consortium for Latino Immigration Studies, South Carolina’s foreign-born population grew faster than any other state between 2000 and 2005.[46][47]

An August 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 21% of South Carolina voters thought that same-sex marriage should be legal, while 69% thought it should be illegal and 10% were not sure. A separate question on the same survey found that 48% of South Carolina voters supported the legal recognition of same-sex couples, On November 20, 2014, South Carolina became the 35th with 19% supporting same-sex marriage, 29% support[39] state to legalize same-sex marriages. ing civil unions but not marriage, 51% favoring no legal recognition and 2% not sure.[48]

5.4 Demographics 5.4.1 Religion Main article: Demographics of South Carolina In 2010:

5.5. ECONOMY • Evangelical Protestant 1,410,988 adherents • Mainline Protestant 482,103 adherents • Black Protestant 256,178 adherents • Catholic 181,743 adherents

55 that represents 85% of the $31,619 per-capita real GDP for the United States overall in 1997, and 76% of the $38,020 for the U.S. in 2007. The state debt in 2012 was calculated by one source to be $22.9bn, or $7,800 per taxpayer.[53]

Major agricultural outputs of the state are: tobacco, poultry, cattle, dairy products, soybeans, hay, rice, and swine. • Other 76,874 adherents Industrial outputs include: textile goods, chemical prod• Judaism 6,511 adherents ucts, paper products, machinery, automobiles and automotive products and tourism.[54][55] According to the Bu• Muslim 5,792 adherents reau of Labor Statistics, as of March 2012, South Car• Orthodox 5,557 adherents olina has 1,852,700 nonfarm jobs of which 12% are in manufacturing, 11.5% are in leisure and hospitality, 19% [49] • Unclaimed 2,211,921 are in trade, transportation and utilities, and 11.8% are in education and health services. The service sector acAccording to the Association of Religion Data counts for 83.7% of the South Carolina economy.[56] Archives(ARDA), in 2010 the largest denominations were the Southern Baptist Convention with 913,763 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 274,111 adherents, and the Roman Catholic Church with 181,743 adherents. Fourth largest is the African Methodist Episcopal Church with 564 congregations and 121,000 members and ﬁfth largest is the Presbyterian Church (USA) with 320 congregations and almost 100,000 members.[49] As of 2010, South Carolina is the American state with the highest per capita Baha'i population with 17,559 adherents.[50]

5.4.2

Major cities

In 2014, the US Census Bureau released 2013 population estimates for South Carolina’s most populous cities. It is worth noting that South Carolina’s laws makes annexation diﬃcult, so central city populations represent a smaller percentage of metropolitan area population than in most states. Thus, Greenville, ranking sixth in city size, is the largest urban area.[51]

5.5 Economy See also: South Carolina locations by per capita income The Pink House, the oldest stone building in Charleston, was built According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis,

of Bermudian limestone at 17 Chalmers Street, at some time between 1694 and 1712.

The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge from Charleston Harbor.

South Carolina’s gross state product (GSP) in current dollars was $97 billion in 1997, and $153 billion in 2007. Its per-capita real gross domestic product (GDP) in chained 2000 dollars was $26,772 in 1997, and $28,894 in 2007;

During the economic downturn in the Late 2000s Recession, South Carolina’s Unemployment Rate peaked at 12.0% for November and December 2009. It is continuing a steady decline with an unemployment rate of 8.9% as of March 2012.[57] Many large corporations have moved their locations to South Carolina. Boeing opened an aircraft manufacturing facility in Charleston in 2011, which serves as one of two ﬁnal assembly sites for the 787 Dreamliner. South Carolina is a right-to-work state[58] and many businesses

56 utilize staffing agencies to temporarily fill positions. This labor force is appealing to companies because of lower wages and no responsibility of maintaining healthcare benefits for its temporary employees. Domtar, located in Rock Hill, is the only Fortune 500 company headquartered in South Carolina.[59] The Fortune 1000 list includes SCANA, Sonoco Products and ScanSource. South Carolina also benefits from foreign investment. There are 1,950 foreign-owned firms operating in South Carolina employing almost 135,000 people.[60] Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) brought 1.06 billion dollars to the state economy in 2010.[61] Since 1994, BMW has had a production facility in Spartanburg.

5.6 The arts South Carolina has many venues for visual and performing arts. The Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, the Greenville County Museum of Art, the Columbia Museum of Art, Spartanburg Art Museum, and the South Carolina State Museum in Columbia among others provide access to visual arts to the state. There are also numerous historic sites and museums scattered throughout the state paying homage to many events and periods in the state’s history from Native American inhabitation to the present day. South Carolina also has performing art venues including the Peace Center in Greenville, the Koger Center for the Arts in Columbia, and the Newberry Opera House, among others to bring local, national, and international talent to the stages of South Carolina. There are several large venues in the state that can house major events, such as Colonial Life Arena in Columbia, Bon Secours Wellness Arena in Greenville, and North Charleston Coliseum.

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA

5.7.1 Major highways Main article: List of numbered highways in South Carolina Major interstate highways passing through include: I-20 which runs from Florence in the east through Columbia to the southwestern border near Aiken; I-26 which runs from Charleston in the southeast through Columbia to Spartanburg and the northern border in Spartanburg County; I-77 which runs from York County in the north to Columbia; I-85 which runs from Cherokee County in the north through Spartanburg and Greenville to the southwestern border in Oconee County; I-385 which runs from Greenville and intersects with I-26 near Clinton; and I-95 which runs from the northeastern border in Dillon County to Florence and on to the southern border in Jasper County.

5.7.2 Rail Passenger Amtrak operates four passenger routes in South Carolina: the Crescent, the Palmetto, the Silver Meteor, and the Silver Star. The Crescent route serves the Upstate cities, the Silver Star serves the Midlands cities, and the Palmetto and Silver Meteor routes serve the Low country cities. Station stops Freight CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern are the only Class I railroad companies in South Carolina, as other freight companies in the state are short lines.

One of the nation’s major performing arts festivals, Spoleto Festival USA, is held annually in Charleston. 5.7.3 Major and regional airports There are also countless local festivals throughout the state highlighting many cultural traditions, historical Main article: List of airports in South Carolina events, and folklore. According to the South Carolina Arts Commission, creative industries generate $9.2 billion annually and support over 78,000 jobs in the state.[62] A 2009 statewide poll by the University of South Carolina Institute for Public Service and Policy Research found that 67% of residents had participated in the arts in some form during the past year and on average citizens had participated in the arts 14 times in the previous year.

5.7 Transportation See also: South Carolina Department of Transportation

There are seven signiﬁcant airports in South Carolina, all of which act as regional airport hubs. The busiest by passenger volume is Charleston International Airport.[63] Just across the border in North Carolina is Charlotte/Douglas International Airport, the 30th busiest airport in the world, in terms of passengers.[64] • Columbia Metropolitan Airport – Columbia • Charleston International Airport – North Charleston • Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport – Greenville/Spartanburg • Florence Regional Airport – Florence

5.9. EDUCATION

• Myrtle Beach International Airport – Myrtle Beach

representation at the state level. Legislators were now supposed to represent more or less equal numbers of • Hilton Head Airport – Hilton Head Island/Beaufort people.”[65] Residents of urban areas had been found to be markedly underrepresented in the legislature under the • Rock Hill/York County Airport – Rock Hill county-based system. Reapportionment made obvious the need for other changes to county structure, leading to the legislature passing the constitutional amendment. 5.8 Government and politics The Home Rule Act of 1975 implemented the amendment giving more power to the counties. With urbanization their governments have become increasingly imporMain article: South Carolina government and politics [65] South Carolina’s state government consists of the Execu- tant in the state. Several changes to the state constitution have aﬀected the oﬃce of the governor and the cabinet. In 1926 the governor’s term was extended from two to four years; in 1982 the governor was allowed to run for a second succeeding term. In 1993, the state passed an amendment requiring a limited cabinet (all of whom must be popularly elected).

5.9 Education As of 2010, South Carolina is one of three states that has not agreed to use competitive international math and language standards.[66] South Carolina has 1,144 K-12 schools in 85 school districts, with an enrollment of 712,244 as of fall 2009.[67][68] As of the 2008–2009 school year, South tive, Legislative, and Judicial branches. Also relevant are Carolina spent $9,450 per student which places it 31st the state constitution, law enforcement agencies, federal in the country for per student spending.[69] In 2011, the representation, state ﬁnances, and state taxes. average SAT score for South Carolina was 1360.[70] South Carolina State House

South Carolina has historically had a weak executive branch and a strong legislature. Before 1865, governors in South Carolina were appointed by the General Assembly, and held the title “President of State.” The 1865 Constitution changed this process, requiring a popular election. Local governments were also weak. But, the 1867 Constitution, passed during the Reconstruction era, extended democratization by establishing home rule for counties, which were established from the former designated districts of the state. The 1895 state constitution overturned this, reducing the role of counties and strengthening the relative role of the state legislature; essentially the counties were agents of the state and ruled by the General Assembly through the legislative delegation for each county.[29] They are geographically comprehensive; all areas of the state are included in counties. As each county had one state senator, that position was particularly powerful. This status continued until 1973, when the state constitution was amended to provide for home rule for the counties. During this time the state had changed, with increasing urbanization, but rural counties retained proportionally more power as the legislature was based in representatives elected from counties rather than population districts.[65] The federal court case, Reynolds v. Sims (1964), “established the one-man, one-vote concept for electoral

5.9.1 Institutions of higher education See also: List of colleges and universities in South Carolina South Carolina has a diverse group of institutions of higher education, from large state-funded research universities to small colleges that cultivate a liberal arts, religious or military tradition, including the following: Listed in order of date of founding • The College of Charleston, founded in 1770 and chartered in 1785, is the oldest institution of higher learning in South Carolina, the 13th oldest in the United States, and the ﬁrst municipal college in the country. The College is in company with the Colonial Colleges as one the original and foundational institutions of higher education in the United States. Its founders include three signers of the United States Declaration of Independence and three signers of the United States Constitution. The College’s historic campus, which is listed on the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Register of Historic Places, forms an integral part of

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA Charleston’s colonial-era urban center. The Graduate School of the College of Charleston, oﬀers a number of degree programs and coordinates support for its nationally recognized faculty research eﬀorts.

• The University of South Carolina is a ﬂagship, public, co-educational, research university, with seven satellite campuses, located in Columbia. The institution was founded in 1801 as South Carolina College, and its original campus, The Horseshoe, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The University’s main campus covers over 359 acres (1.5 km2 ) in the urban core less than one city block from the South Carolina State House. The University of South Carolina maintains an enrollment of over 32,800 students on the Columbia campus.

which maintains a theological seminary on the campus. • The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina is a state-supported, comprehensive college located in Charleston. Founded in 1842, the college is best known for its undergraduate Corps of Cadets military program for men and women, which combines academics, physical challenges and military discipline. In addition to the cadet program, civilian programs are offered through The Citadel Graduate College with its evening certificate, undergraduate and graduate programs. The Citadel enrolls 2,200 undergraduate cadets in its residential military program and 1,200 civilian students in the evening programs. • Wofford College is a small liberal arts college located in Spartanburg. Wofford was founded in 1854 with a bequest of $100,000 from the Rev. Benjamin Wofford (1780–1850), a Methodist minister and Spartanburg native who sought to create a college for “literary, classical, and scientific education in my native district of Spartanburg.” Wofford is one of the few four-year institutions in the southeastern United States founded before the American Civil War and still operating on its original campus. • Claflin University, founded in 1869 by the American Missionary Association, is the oldest historically black college in the state. After the Democraticdominated legislature closed the University in 1877, prior to passing a law to restrict admission to whites, it designated Claflin as the only state college for blacks.

Furman University bell tower near Greenville.

• Furman University is a private, coeducational, non-sectarian, liberal arts university in Greenville. Founded in 1826, Furman enrolls approximately 2,600 undergraduate and 500 graduate students. Furman is the largest private institution in South Carolina. The university is primarily focused on undergraduate education (only two departments, education and chemistry, oﬀer graduate degrees). • Erskine College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college located in Due West, South Carolina. The college was founded in 1839 and is aﬃliated with the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church,

• Lander University is a public liberal arts university located in Greenwood. Lander was founded in 1872 as Willamston Female College.[71] The school relocated to Greenwood in 1904 and was renamed Lander College in honor of its founder, Samuel Lander. In 1973 Lander became part of the state’s higher education system and is now a co-educational institution. The university is focused on undergraduate education and currently enrolls approximately 2,800 undergraduates. • Presbyterian College (PC) is a private liberal arts college founded in 1880 in Clinton. Presbyterian College is aﬃliated with the Presbyterian Church USA, and enrolls around 1300 undergraduate students. In 2007, Washington Monthly ranked PC as the No. 1 Liberal Arts College in the nation.[72] • Winthrop University, founded in 1886 as an allfemale teaching school in Rock Hill, became a co-ed

5.10. HEALTH CARE institution in 1974. Winthrop is now a public university that has an enrollment of just over 6,000 students. It is one of the fastest growing universities in the state, with several new academic and recreational buildings being added to the main campus in the past ﬁve years, as well as several more planned for the near future. The Richard W. Riley College of Education is still the school’s most well-known area of study. • Clemson University, founded in 1889, is a public, coeducational, land-grant research university located in Clemson. The school currently enrolls more than 18,000 students from all 50 states and from more than 70 countries. Clemson is also the home to the South Carolina Botanical Garden.

59 along with graduate programs in education, business administration (MBA) and coastal marine and wetland studies. • Charleston Southern University, founded in 1969, is a liberal arts university, and is aﬃliated with the South Carolina Baptist Convention. Charleston Southern (CSU) is located on 300 acres, formerly the site of a rice and indigo plantation, in the City of North Charleston one of South Carolina’s largest accredited, independent universities, enrolling approximately 3,200 students. • Francis Marion University,(formerly Francis Marion College), is a state-supported liberal arts university located near Florence, South Carolina. It was founded in 1970. It achieved its university status in 1992.

• North Greenville University, founded in 1891, is a comprehensive university located in Tigerville. It is aﬃliated with South Carolina Baptist Convention and the Southern Baptist Convention, and is accred- 5.9.2 ited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It has a current enrollment of around 2260 undergraduates.

Universities and colleges ranked by endowment [74]

5.10 Health care

• South Carolina State University, founded in 1896, is a historically black university located in Orangeburg. SCSU has a current enrollment of nearly 5,000, and oﬀers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate degrees. SCSU boasts the only Doctor of Education program in the state. •

•

For overall health care, South Carolina is ranked 33rd out of the 50 states, according to the Commonwealth Fund, a private health foundation working to improve the health care system.[75] The state’s teen birth rate was 53 births per 1000 teens, compared to the average of 41.9 births for the US, according to the Kaiser Family Foundation.[76] The state’s infant mortality rate was 9.4 deaths per 1000 Anderson University, founded in 1911, is a selec- births compared to the US average of 6.9 deaths.[77] tive comprehensive university located in Anderson, offering bachelor’s and master’s degrees in approxi- There were 2.6 physicians per 1000 people compared to [78] There was $5114 mately 50 areas of study. Anderson University cur- the US average of 3.2 physicians. spent on health expenses per capita in the state, compared rently enrolls around 2,300 students. to the US average of $5283.[79] There were 26 percent of children and 13 percent of elderly living in poverty in Webster University, founded in 1915 in St. Louis, the state, compared to 23 percent and 13 percent, respecMO, with 5 extended campuses in SC, offers undertively, doing so in the US.[80] And, 34 percent of children graduate and graduate degrees. were overweight or obese, compared to the US average of 32 percent.[81] Bob Jones University, founded in 1927, is a nondenominational University founded on fundamentalist Christian beliefs (e.g., inspiration and inerrancy 5.11 Sports of the Scriptures, the creation of man by the direct act of God, the fall of man, the “young earth” and flood geology, and man’s need for personal faith in Main article: Sports in South Carolina the finished work of the Lord Jesus Christ). BJU also offers over 60 undergraduate majors and has Although no major league professional sports teams are over 70 graduate programs.[73] based in South Carolina, the Carolina Panthers do have training facilities in the state. The state is also home to nuCoastal Carolina University, founded in 1954, merous minor league professional teams. College teams Coastal became an independent university in 1993. represent their particular South Carolina institutions, and The University enrolls approximately 8,300 students are the primary options for football, basketball and baseon its 307-acre (1.24 km2) campus. Baccalaureate ball attendance in the state. South Carolina is also a top programs are offered in 51 major fields of study, destination for golf and water sports.

60 South Carolina is also home to one of NASCAR’s ﬁrst tracks and its ﬁrst paved speedway, Darlington Raceway just northwest of Florence.

5.12 Federal lands in South Carolina

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA • Kings Mountain National Military Park at Blacksburg • Ninety Six National Historic Site in Ninety Six • Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail • Fort Jackson near Columbia • Joint Base Charleston near Charleston • Shaw Air Force Base near Sumter

5.13 See also • Outline of South Carolina – organized list of topics about South Carolina • Index of South Carolina-related articles • List of cities in South Carolina • LGBT rights in South Carolina Congaree National Park, Hopkins

5.14 Notes [1] In Texas vs. White (1869), the Supreme Court ruled that the ordinances of secession (including that of South Carolina) were invalid, and thus those states had never left the Union. However, South Carolina did not regain representation in Congress until that date.

5.15 References [1] “United States Summary: 2000” (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 2000. p. Table 17. Retrieved January 20, 2012. Access to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, where the American Civil War began in 1861, requires a half-hour ferry ride each way.

Main article: List of federal lands in South Carolina

[2] “Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014” (CSV). U.S. Census Bureau. December 31, 2014. Retrieved December 31, 2014. [3] “Elevations and Distances in the United States”. United States Geological Survey. 2001. Retrieved October 24, 2011.

• Charles Pinckney National Historic Site at Mt. Pleasant

[4] Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.

• Congaree National Park in Hopkins

[5] “S.C. Code of Laws Title 1 Chapter 1 General Provisions”. Retrieved November 15, 2009.

• Cowpens National Battleﬁeld near Chesnee • Fort Moultrie National Monument at Sullivan’s Island • Fort Sumter National Monument in Charleston Harbor

[6] South Carolina, State of (1984). “S.C. Code of Laws, SECTION 1-1-690. Oﬃcial State beverage.”. Retrieved July 15, 2007. [7] South Carolina, State of (1995). “S.C. Code of Laws, SECTION 1-1-692. Oﬃcial State hospitality beverage.”. Retrieved July 15, 2007.

5.15. REFERENCES

[8] South Carolina, State of (1984). “S.C. Code of Laws, SECTION 1-1-680. Official State fruit.”. Retrieved July 15, 2007. [9] South Carolina General Assembly. “AN ACT TO AMEND THE CODE OF LAWS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 1976, BY ADDING SECTION 1-1-681 SO AS TO DESIGNATE COLLARD GREENS AS THE OFFICIAL STATE VEGETABLE”. Retrieved January 1, 2012. [10] South Carolina, State of (2006). “S.C. Code of Laws, SECTION 1-1-682. Official state snack food.”. Retrieved July 15, 2007. [11] “Widespread Economic Growth in 2013”. Bureau of Economic Analysis. 2013. Retrieved May 30, 2014. [12] N. C. Board of Agriculture (1902). A sketch of North Carolina. Charleston: Lucas-Richardson Co. p. 4. Retrieved 26 May 2014. [13] Olson, D. M, E. Dinerstein; et al. (2001). “Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth”. BioScience 51 (11): 933–938. doi:10.1641/00063568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2. [14] “Elevations and Distances in the United States”. U.S Geological Survey. April 29, 2005. Retrieved November 7, 2006. [15] “South Carolina SC – Lakes”. Sciway.net. Retrieved July 31, 2010. [16] Abridged from Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (Revised), by Carl W. Stover and Jerry L. Coffman, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527, United States Government Printing Office, Washington: 1993. [17] “Climatography of the United States No. 20 (1971–2000) - Grnvl Spart AP Greer, SC” (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2004. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2011. [18] “Climatography of the United States No. 20 (1971–2000) - Columbia Metro AP, SC” (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2004. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2011. [19] “Climatography of the United States No. 20 (1971–2000) - Charleston City, SC” (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2004. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2011. [20] NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006. [21] “Historical Facts on George Washington visit to Barbados in 1751”. Retrieved April 6, 2010. [22] Nell Porter Brown, “A 'portion of the People'", Harvard Magazine, January–February 2003 [23] “The Avalon Project : Constitution of South Carolina – March 26, 1776”. Avalon.law.yale.edu. June 30, 1906. Retrieved December 19, 2012.

[24] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p.73 [25] Edgar, Walter B. (1998). South Carolina: A History. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. p. 375. [26] McFeely (1981), Grant: A Biography, pp. 367–374 [27] Richard H. Pildes, “Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon”, Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, p.12. Retrieved March 10, 2008. [28] Historical Census Browser, 1900 US Census, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 15, 2008. [29] Charlie B. Tyler, “The South Carolina Governance Project”, University of South Carolina, 1998, pp. 221– 222 [30] “All Niggers, More or Less!,” The News and Courier, Oct. 17 1895, 5 [31] Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (New York, 1980) 93 [32] Lerone Bennett Jr., Before the Mayﬂower: A History of Black America, 6th rev. ed. (New York, 1993) 319 [33] Theodore D. Jervey, The Slave Trade: Slavery and Color (Columbia: The State Company, 1925), p. 199 [34] “South Carolina: The Decline of Agriculture and the Rise of Jim Crowism”, infoplease (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia), 2012 [35] “Women in state legislatures for 2015”. ncsl.org. Retrieved 2015-04-09. [36] “South Carolina worst in country”. The State newspaper. 25 September 2013. Retrieved 2014-08-23. [37] Pro Business Environment SC Department of Commerce, Accessed on May 10, 2012 [38] “Non Payment Policy for Deliveries Prior to 39 weeks: Birth Outcomes Initiative | SC DHHS”. Retrieved December 20, 2012. [39] WCNC Same-sex marriage begins in South Carolina 2014/11/19 [40] Resident Population Data. “Resident Population Data – 2010 Census”. 2010.census.gov. Retrieved December 31, 2014. [41] “South Carolina QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau”. Quickfacts.census.gov. Retrieved December 19, 2012. [42] “Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 9, 2014. [43] Population of South Carolina: Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts [44] “2010 Census Data”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 9, 2014.

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA

[45] “South Carolina”. Census Bureau. Census Bureau. Retrieved October 15, 2014. [46] “The Economic and Social Implications of the Growing Latino Population in South Carolina,” A Study for the South Carolina Commission for Minority Aﬀairs prepared by The Consortium for Latino Immigration Studies, University of South Carolina, August 2007. Retrieved June 4, 2008. [47] ""Mexican Immigrants: The New Face of the South Carolina Labor Force,” Moore School of Business, Division of Research, IMBA Globilization Project, University of South Carolina, March 2006. [48] Public Policy Polling: “SC against gay marriage, Tea Party; Dems want Hillary in '16,” September 9, 2011, Retrieved September 9, 2011 [49] “The Association of Religion Data Archives | State Membership Report”. www.thearda.com. Retrieved December 5, 2013. [50] “Religious Congregations & Membership Rcms2010.org. Retrieved 2014-08-23. [51] “American FactFinder”. trieved March 21, 2014.

Study”.

Factﬁnder2.census.gov.

Re-

[52] “South Carolina (USA): State, Major Cities, Towns & Places”. City Population. February 19, 2011. Retrieved July 13, 2015. [53] statedatalab.org: “The 24th worst state” Truth in Accounting [54] Gross Domestic Product by State, June 5, 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2009. [55] Bls.gov Retrieved May 10, 2012 [56] Economy at a Glance South Carolina, Accessed on May 10, 2012 [57] Databases, Tables & Calculators by Subject, May 5, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2012 [58] “List of Right To Work States | Right to Work States Meaning”. Righttoworkstates.org. Retrieved December 19, 2012. [59] Exxon Mobil Corporation, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [60] South Carolina Tennessee, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [61] FDI in south Carolina a ﬁve year report, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [62] “The South Carolina Arts Commission - Economic Impact”. southcarolinaarts.com. [63] 2007 PRELIMl passenger ranking [64] “Airports Council International”. Aci.aero. Retrieved January 27, 2011. [65] Tyler (1998), “The South Carolina Governance Project”, p. 222

[66] Hunt, Albert R. (August 23, 2009). “A $5 billion bet on better education”. New York Times. Retrieved May 23, 2010. [67] South Carolina – Fast Facts Retrieved May 10, 2012 [68] NEA Rankings and Estimates Page 11, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [69] NEA Rankings and Estimates Page 54, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [70] SAT 2011 Districts, Retrieved May 10, 2012 [71] “About Lander University”. Retrieved May 19, 2013. [72] “Our Third Annual College Rankings”. monthly.com. Retrieved July 31, 2010.

Washington-

[73] Fast Facts - Bob Jones University Archived January 31, 2009 at the Wayback Machine [74] As of June 30, 2010. “U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2010 Endowment Market Value and Percentage Change in Endowment Market Value from FY 2009 to FY 2010” (PDF). 2010 NACUBO-Commonfund Study of Endowments. National Association of College and University Business Oﬃcers. Retrieved February 17, 2010. [75] Commonwealth Fund, State Scorecard Archived June 10, 2015 at the Wayback Machine [76] “Kaiser State Health Facts, 2006”. Statehealthfacts.org. Retrieved July 31, 2010. [77] US Census, US National Center for Health Statistics, 2005 Archived July 10, 2009 at the Wayback Machine [78] “Kaiser State Health Facts, based on Amer. Medical Association data, 2008”. Statehealthfactsonline.org. July 1, 2008. Retrieved July 31, 2010. [79] “Kaiser State Health Facts, based on Center for Medicare and Medicaid Statistics, 2007”. Statehealthfactsonline.org. Retrieved July 31, 2010. [80] “Kaiser State Health Facts, 2008–2008”. Statehealthfactsonline.org. Retrieved July 31, 2010. [81] “Kaiser State Health Facts, based on Nat Survey of Children’s Health, 2009”. Statehealthfactsonline.org. Retrieved July 31, 2010.

5.16 Further reading Textbooks and surveys • Bass, Jack (1970). Porgy Comes Home: South Carolina After 300 Years. Sandlapper. OCLC 724061. ISBN 9999555071. • Coker, P. C., III (1987). Charleston’s Maritime Heritage, 1670–1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, SC: Coker-Craft. ISBN 978-0-91443203-6.

5.16. FURTHER READING

• Edgar, Walter (1998). South Carolina: A History. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003255-6.

• Jordan, Jr., Frank E. The Primary State – A History of the Democratic Party in South Carolina, 1876– 1962, Columbia, SC, 1967

• Edgar, Walter, ed. (2006). The South Carolina Encyclopedia. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-598-9.

• Keyserling, Harriet. Against the Tide: One Woman’s Political Struggle. University of South Carolina Press, 1998. ISBN 978-1-57003-271-4.

• Rogers, George C., Jr. & Taylor, C. James (1994). A South Carolina Chronology, 1497–1992 (2nd ed.). Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-971-5.

• Kantrowitz, Stephen. Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (2002)ISBN 978-0-80784839-5.

• Wallace, David Duncan (1951). South Carolina: A Short History, 1520–1948. ISBN 0-87249-079-3. • WPA (1941). South Carolina: A Guide to the Palmetto State. ISBN 0-87249-603-1. • Wright, Louis B. (1977). South Carolina: A Bicentennial History. ISBN 0-393-05560-4. Scholarly secondary studies • Bass, Jack and Marilyn W. Thompson. Ol' Strom: An Unauthorized Biography of Strom Thurmond,. Longstreet Press, 1998. ISBN 1-56352-523-2. • Busick, Sean R. A Sober Desire for History: William Gilmore Simms as Historian., 2005. ISBN 1-57003565-2. • Clarke, Erskine. Our Southern Zion: A History of Calvinism in the South Carolina Low Country, 1690– 1990 (1996)ISBN 978-0-8173-0757-8.

• Lau, Peter F. Democracy Rising: South Carolina And the Fight for Black Equality Since 1865 (2006)ISBN 978-0813123936. • Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States; (1974)ISBN 9780393054965. • Rogers, George C. Evolution of a Federalist: William Loughton Smith of Charleston (1758–1812) (1962) • Rosengarten, Dale and Ted. (2003) A Portion of the People: Three Hundred Years of Southern Jewish Life. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press • Schultz Harold S. Nationalism and Sectionalism in South Carolina, 1852–1860 (1950) • Simon, Bryant. A Fabric of Defeat: The Politics of South Carolina Millhands, 1910–1948 (1998)ISBN 0-8078-4704-6. • Simkins, Francis Butler. The Tillman Movement in South Carolina (1926)

• Channing, Steven. Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (1970)

• Simkins, Francis Butler. Pitchfork Ben Tillman: South Carolinian (1944)

• Cohodas, Nadine. Strom Thurmond and the Politics of Southern Change,. Simon & Schuster, 1993. ISBN 978-0-671-68935-3.

• Simkins, Francis Butler, and Robert Hilliard Woody. South Carolina during Reconstruction (1932).

• Coit, Margaret L. John C. Calhoun: American Portrait (1950)ISBN 9780872497757.

• Sinha, Manisha. The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (2000)

• Crane, Verner W. The Southern Frontier, 1670– 1732 (1956)ISBN 9780817350826. • Ford Jr., Lacy K. Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800–1860 (1991) ISBN 978-0-19-506961-7. • Hindus, Michael S. Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767–1878 (1980)ISBN 9780807814178. • Johnson Jr., George Lloyd. The Frontier in the Colonial South: South Carolina Backcountry, 1736–1800 (1997)ISBN 978-0313301797.

• Smith, Samuel C. A Cautious Enthusiasm: Mystical Piety and Evangelicalism in Colonial South Carolina. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2013. • Smith, Warren B. White Servitude in Colonial South Carolina (1961)ISBN 9780872490789. • Tullos, Allen Habits of Industry: White Culture and the Transformation of the Carolina Piedmont (1989)ISBN 9780807842478. • Williamson Joel R. After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (1965)

CHAPTER 5. SOUTH CAROLINA

• Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial Primary documents South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion (1996)ISBN 978-0393314823. • Salley, Alexander S. ed. Narratives of Early Carolina, 1650–1708 (1911) ISBN 0-7812-6298-4 Local studies • Woodmason, Charles. The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution Edited by Richard J. • Bass, Jack and Jack Nelson.The Orangeburg MasHooker. (1953), a missionary reports ISBN 0-8078sacre,. Mercer University Press, 1992. 4035-1 • Burton, Orville Vernon. In My Father’s House Are Many Mansions: Family and Community in Edgeﬁeld, South Carolina (1985), social history 5.17 External links • Carlton, David L. Mill and Town in South Carolina, 1880–1920 (1982) • Clarke, Erskine. Dwelling Place: A Plantation Epic (2005) • Danielson, Michael N. Proﬁts and Politics in Paradise: The Development of Hilton Head Island,. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

• State of South Carolina government website • South Carolina State Guide, from the Library of Congress • South Carolina Department of Parks & Tourism • "South Carolina". 1921.

Collier’s New Encyclopedia.

• Doyle, Don H. New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910 (1990)

• South Carolina at DMOZ

• Huﬀ, Jr., Archie Vernon. Greenville: The History of the City and County in the South Carolina Piedmont, University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

• USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientiﬁc resources of South Carolina

• Energy & Environmental Data for South Carolina

• US Census Bureau

• Moore, John Hammond. Columbia and Richland County: A South Carolina Community, 1740–1990, University of South Carolina Press, 1993.

• South Carolina Visitor & Travel Information

• Moredock, Will. Banana Republic: A Year in the Heart of Myrtle Beach,. Frontline Press, 2003.

• Geographic data related to South Carolina at OpenStreetMap

• South Carolina State Facts from USDA

• Pease, William H. and Jane H. Pease. The Web of Progress: Private Values and Public Styles in Boston Coordinates: 34°N 81°W / 34°N 81°W and Charleston, 1828–1843 (1985), • Robertson, Ben. Red Hills and Cotton,. USC Press (reprint), 1991. • Rose, Willie Lee. Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (1964) Political science • Carter, Luther F. and David Mann, eds. Government in the Palmetto State: Toward the 21st century,. University of South Carolina, 1993.ISBN 0917069-01-3 • Graham, Cole Blease and William V. Moore. South Carolina Politics and Government. Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8032-7043-7 • Tyer, Charlie. ed. South Carolina Government: An Introduction,. USC Institute for Public Aﬀairs, 2002. ISBN 0-917069-12-9

Chapter 6

Charleston Harbor government to dredge the channels of the harbor to a depth of 17 feet. This deepening work was interrupted by the Civil War, and was not completed until 1860.[3] The jetties at the entrance to the harbor were constructed between 1878 and 1886.[4]

6.2 Transportation The harbor includes public terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina State Ports Authority, as well as private terminals. Existing federal channels are dredged to an authorized depth of 45 feet below mean lower low water. This depth is too shallow for Post-Panamax ships. The largest ships must carry less cargo, wait for favorable tide conditions, or combine these two approaches to reach port in Charleston. As of 2015, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began to design a deepening of the channels to 52 feet.[5]

Map of the Charleston Harbor watershed.

The Charleston Harbor is an inlet (8 sq mi/20.7 km²) of the Atlantic Ocean at Charleston, South Carolina. The inlet is formed by the junction of Ashley and Cooper rivers at 32°49′7.10″N 79°55′40.41″W / 32.8186389°N 79.9278917°W. Morris and Sullivan’s Islands shelter the entrance. Charleston Harbor is part of the Intracoastal Waterway.[1]

6.3 See also • Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War • Waterways forming and crossings of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway

Like most river mouths in the Southeast, the inlet is evidence of a drowned coastline, created by a rise in sea level in recent geologic time.

6.4 References 6.1 History

[1] Charleston Harbor. Columbia University Press at Bartleby.com. Accessed 2 November 2006.

The harbor is home to Fort Sumter, site of the ﬁrst shots of the American Civil War. Charleston Harobor was also the site of the ﬁrst successful submarine attack in history on February 17, 1864, when the H.L. Hunley made a daring night attack on the USS Housatonic, during the American Civil War.[2] The 12-foot natural depth of the harbor was a major reason for the establishment and growth of Charleston. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1852 authorized the federal 65

[2] U.S. Navy history website [3] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston Harbor Post 45: Final Integrated Feasibility Report and Environmental Impact Statement, Page 1-6. [4] Sargent, Francis E. Case Histories of Corps Breakwater and Jetty Structures, Department of the Army, Vicksburg Mississippi. September 1988. Page 34. Accessed September 25, 2015.

[5] Landers, Jay (September 2015). “Corps to Begin Design Phase of Charleston Harbor Deepening Project”. Civil Engineering (Reston, Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers) 85 (9): 24–26.

6.5 External links • Charleston Harbor Post 45, Oﬃcial project website • South Carolina State Ports Authority

CHAPTER 6. CHARLESTON HARBOR

Chapter 7

Ashley River (South Carolina)

The Ashley River, as seen from Brittlebank Park.

Map of the Charleston Harbor watershed showing Ashley River.

Colony. In 1675 Cooper was granted 12,000 acres of land along the river after a permanent settlement was made at Albemarle Point in 1670. This settlement was the “ﬁrst permanent European settlement” in South Carolina and today Albemarle Point is known as Charles Towne Landing. The settlement would be moved to its current peninsular location across the river ten years later and is well known as Charleston.

The Ashley River, as seen from Drayton Hall.

The Ashley River is a blackwater / tidal river in South Carolina, rising from the Wassamassaw and Great Cypress Swamps in western Berkeley County. It consolidates its main channel about five miles west of Summerville, widening into a tidal estuary just south of Fort Dorchester. The river then flows for approximately 17 miles along the historical banks of the City of North Charleston before reaching peninsular Charleston. The much wider Ashley joins the Cooper River off the Battery in Charleston to form Charleston Harbor before discharging into the Atlantic Ocean. At the present time the land around the Ashley River or in Ashley Barony, as the original land grant was called, is mostly undeveloped.[1]

The land closest to the river was developed by plantation owners throughout the eighteenth century. During the Revolutionary War the British occupied the plantations from 1780 to 1782. The major crops grown along the Ashley River included rice, indigo, and cotton. After the Civil War much of the region began to be used predominately for hunting and tourism. [2]

The Ashley River area contains 26 separate sites listed in the National Register of Historic Places with 22 miles being designated a State Scenic River, extending from Sland’s Bridge (US Highway 17-A) near Summerville to the Mark Clark expressway (I-526) bridge in Charleston. Within this segment, a visitor can experience a blackwaThe river was named for Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl ter swamp, the tides of the Atlantic, and the history of of Shaftesbury and chief Lord Proprietor of the Carolina South Carolina. Some of the sites include Drayton Hall, 67

68 Middleton Place, Magnolia Plantation, and the Colonial Dorchester State Historic Site.

7.1 References [1] “South Carolina Department of Natural Resources - Ashley Scenic River”. Retrieved May 8, 2012. [2] “The History of the Ashley River Corridor”. Retrieved Oct 10, 2014.

7.2 External links U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Ashley River Coordinates: 32°45′46″N 79°55′44″W / 32.76278°N 79.92889°W

CHAPTER 7. ASHLEY RIVER (SOUTH CAROLINA)

Chapter 8

Cooper River (South Carolina) Colony. Charleston was founded on the western bank of the Ashley River in 1670 (at Charles Towne Landing), before moving across to its current peninsular location ten years later. Motorists have been able to cross the Cooper River under their own power for approximately eight decades, when it was ﬁrst spanned by the John P. Grace Memorial Bridge. As the Grace Bridge quickly became both functionally and structurally deﬁcient, the State of South Carolina built a parallel span, the Silas N. Pearman Bridge, a few meters to the south in 1966. These highly overstressed spans were, for over a quarter of a century, the only connection between Charleston and the rapidly growing suburb of Mt. Pleasant until the Don Holt Bridge, built a few miles upriver as part of the I-526 corridor, became the third bridge to span the river in 1992.

Map of the Charleston Harbor watershed showing Cooper River.

In service since August 8, 1929, the Grace Memorial Bridge was the oldest of the three. Named for the commissioner who inspired the state’s highway system, the Pearman Bridge opened on April 29, 1966. Their replacement span, the cable-stayed Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge (or New Cooper River Bridge) opened to traﬃc on July 16, 2005. Demolition of the Grace and Pearman bridges began shortly afterwards and was completed in late 2007. Though both are modern in every respect, there are currently only two bridges left to carry vehicular traﬃc across the river: the Holt and Ravenel bridges.

The Cooper River is a mainly tidal river in the U.S. state of South Carolina. The South Carolina cities of Mt. Pleasant, Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, Moncks Corner, and Hanahan are located along the river. Short and wide, it is joined first by the blackwater East Branch, then farther downstream, the tidal Wando River. Almost immediately thereafter, the river widens into its estuary, uniting with the Ashley River to form the A very popular 10k run over the river occurs each spring, the Cooper River Bridge Run and Walk. Charleston Harbor. Long used as an important commercial waterway, the Daniel Island and Drum Island (uninhabited) are adjaWest Branch of the Cooper River was initially connected cent to the river. Cargo terminals, a paper mill, and the to the Santee River near its navigation head by a canal former Charleston Navy Base line its shore. Rice and built in the late 18th century. Though the West Branch indigo were heavily cultivated on plantations surrounding still rises as a blackwater swamp in central Berkeley the brackish marshland of the lower Cooper River from County, its main headwaters have been seamlessly shifted the early Colonial through the end of the Civil War perito Lake Moultrie by the 1940s vintage Tail Race Canal. ods. The Patriot’s Point naval & maritime museum sits at Lake Moultrie is, in turn, fed from Lake Marion by a di- the mouth of the river. Berthed at Patriot’s Point are four version canal built around the same time period. This museum ships, most notably the USS Yorktown, a World artificial rerouting of the Cooper River basin has essen- War II aircraft carrier. tially unified the Santee and Cooper River systems into a “Goose Creek” A tributary of the Cooper River was the single hydrological drainage entity. site of a U.S. Navy submarine base through the late 90’s The river was named for Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl and functioned as a nuclear weapons handling facility serof Shaftesbury and chief Lord Proprietor of the Carolina vicing FBM (Fleet Ballistic Submarines) until the advent 69

70 of the larger Trident Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile which drove the Ohio-class submarine to require a deeper draft.

8.1 External links • Cooper River Bridge • Cooper River Bridge Run and Walk • U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Cooper River Coordinates: 32°45′43″N 79°54′14″W / 32.76194°N 79.90389°W

CHAPTER 8. COOPER RIVER (SOUTH CAROLINA)

Chapter 9

Berkeley County, South Carolina Berkeley County is a county in the U.S. state of South 9.2.2 National protected areas Carolina. As of the 2010 census, its population was 177,843.[1] Its county seat is Moncks Corner.[2] After • Francis Marion National Forest (part) two previous incarnations of Berkeley County, the cur[3] rent county was created in 1882. Berkeley County is included in the Charleston-North Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area.

9.1 History Berkeley County was established in 1682. It was named after John and William Berkeley, co-owners of the Province of Carolina. It became part of the Charleston District in 1769. It did not exist as a District during most of the 19th century and generally was part of the Low Country culture. In 1882, following white Democrats regaining control of the state legislature after the Reconstruction era, they established this as a county in 1882, with its seat at Mount Pleasant. The county seat was moved in 1895 to Moncks Corner.[3]

9.3 Demographics As of the census[11] of 2000, there were 142,651 people, 49,922 households, and 37,691 families residing in the county. The population density was 130 people per square mile (50/km²). There were 54,717 housing units at an average density of 50 per square mile (19/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 68.00% White, 26.63% Black or African American, 0.52% Native American, 1.87% Asian, 0.08% Paciﬁc Islander, 1.20% from other races, and 1.70% from two or more races. 2.76% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16.4% were of American, 10.0% German, 8.4% Irish and 7.7% English ancestry according to Census 2000.

The Old Berkeley County Courthouse was listed on the There were 49,922 households out of which 39.20% had National Register of Historic Places in 1971.[4] children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.70% were married couples living together, 14.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.50% were non-families. 19.40% of all households were made 9.2 Geography up of individuals and 5.60% had someone living alone According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a who was 65 years of age or older. The average household total area of 1,229 square miles (3,180 km2 ), of which size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.15. 1,099 square miles (2,850 km2 ) is land and 130 square In the county, the population was spread out with 28.00% miles (340 km2 ) (11%) is water.[5] under the age of 18, 11.70% from 18 to 24, 31.20% from 25 to 44, 21.20% from 45 to 64, and 7.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For 9.2.1 Adjacent counties every 100 females there were 103.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.20 males. • Georgetown County - northeast The median income for a household in the county was • Williamsburg County - northeast $39,908, and the median income for a family was $44,242. Males had a median income of $31,583 ver• Charleston County - south sus $22,420 for females. The per capita income for • Dorchester County - west the county was $16,879. About 9.70% of families and 11.80% of the population were below the poverty line, • Orangeburg County - northwest including 15.60% of those under age 18 and 12.90% of • Clarendon County - northwest those age 65 or over. 71

CHAPTER 9. BERKELEY COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA

9.4 Public safety 9.4.1

Law enforcement

one (1) EMT. This conﬁguration is backed up with additional Paramedics in Quick Response Vehicles, or second ambulances. Local Fire Departments have a good working relationship with EMS and assist on most every EMS call for service.

In addition to local municipal Police Departments, the entire county is protected by the Berkeley County Sher- The trained staff of Berkeley County’s Emergency Mediff’s Office. Headquartered in Moncks Corner, the Sher- ical Services respond to about 14,000 medical emergencies each year. This volume is reviewed each year for iff’s Office is divided into many divisions: future planning. A long range plan is in place, and the The Uniformed Patrol Division consists of four squads agency will grow with the county. of deputies who alternately patrol the entire county in twelve-hour shifts. They respond to all calls dispatched by 911 operators. 9.4.3 Fire protection The Criminal Investigations Division is a division of highly trained detectives who investigate both violent and property crimes. Normal office hours are 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, however, the designated detective on duty is available to respond in the evening and on weekends. The Narcotics Division investigates drug activity and is available to receive information 24 hours a day. They have a dedicated tip line available to receive anonymous tips.

Each municipality which is incorporated has organized ﬁre protection. The City of Summerville, which is primairly in the County of Dorchester, as well as the City of Goose Creek, Town of Moncks Corner and the US Naval Weapons Station have municipal departments. However, the rural areas of the county are protected by contract or rural ﬁre protection districts. Some such districts are the Caromi Volunteer Fire District, Cross Fire Department, Goose Creek Rural Fire Protection District, Whitesville Rural Fire Department, Santee Circle Rural Fire Department and the Pimlico Rural Volunteer Fire Department.

The Special Response Team (SRT) consists of highly trained deputies who respond to crisis situations such as manhunts, armed robberies, hostage situations. They are • Cross Rural: activated by the Command Staff when the need arises. The team members are trained in special weapons use and The Cross Fire Department is one of the larger fire disin hostage negotiations. tricts in the county, covering 90 square miles (230 km2 ) Each patrol squad has a canine officer and trained canine. of Berkeley County. They proudly serve the Cross area They are available to search for contraband, guns, evi- which is historic because of the creation of Lake Marion dence and missing persons. and Lake Moultrie as part of the Santee Cooper project The Records Office is located in the Sheriff’s Office and of the 1940s. Cross Fire Department consists of 16 volwill provide copies of incident reports when requested in unteer members, 3 stations, 7 apparatus, and respond to nearly 500 calls a year. person. The Training Office is located at the Berkeley County Sheriff’s Office. These facilities are used for training Berkeley County law enforcement officers, reserve deputies, and handling Citizen Academies to inform the public of what the job entails of all deputies at the department. Deputies receive training from in-house certified instructors as well as Academy training via satellite. This training is required in order to meet State certification requirements.

9.4.2

Emergency medical services

Berkeley County Emergency Medical Services (EMS) are designed to meet the needs of the citizenry in times of medical crisis. Berkeley County EMS responds 24 hours a day no matter what the nature of the emergency. Berkeley County EMS is dedicated to providing the highest quality of Emergency Medical Pre-Hospital Care. The EMS department operates Advanced Life Support (ALS) ambulances with a minimum of one (1) Paramedic and

• Goose Creek Rural: The GCRFPD district encompasses all of the unincorporated areas of Goose Creek from the North Charleston city limits to the area just south of Strawberry Shortstop on Highway 52, the entire industrial area only Bushy Park Road, and many areas along or oﬀ Highway 176 up to the rear entrance of the Alcoa (formerly Alumax) facility. GCRFPD encompasses over 600 residences, ﬁve shopping center/strip malls, Goose Creek High School, a middle school, an intermediate school, two elementary schools, and 11 apartment/condominium complexes. GCRFPD also provides coverage to the following industrial facilities: Bayer, Allstate, Crane Linton Mechanical, Alcoa, Dupont GCRFPD presently serve a full-time population of 16,500 residents on a budget of $500,000. This population does not include the Naval Weapons Station complex that borders our primary response area.

9.8. REFERENCES • Pimlico Rural Volunteer Fire Department:

9.8 References

The Pimlico Volunteer Fire Department is made up of dedicated members of the community. The district encompasses areas bordering the rail tracks oﬀ of Highway 52, and the length of Old Highway 52. The Pimlico Fire District includes residential neighborhoods, commercial and manufacturing facilities, farmland, wetlands, and forest. Operating out of one station with approximately 15 members, the department responds to approximately 150 calls for service per year. The Pimlico Volunteer Fire Department cooperates on calls with the ﬁre departments of surrounding communities, and remains one of the most dedicated volunteer departments in Berkeley County.

[1] “State & County QuickFacts”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 22, 2013.

9.5 Attractions

[6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

• Cypress Gardens, SC • Mepkin Abbey

9.6 Communities • Bonneau • Charleston • Cross • Goose Creek • Gumville • Hanahan • Huger • Jamestown • Ladson • Moncks Corner (county seat) • North Charleston • Pinopolis • St. Stephen • Summerville

9.7 See also • Lake Marion • National Register of Historic Places listings in Berkeley County, South Carolina

[2] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [3] “South Carolina: Individual County Chronologies”. South Carolina Atlas of Historical County Boundaries. The Newberry Library. 2009. Retrieved March 20, 2015. [4] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “2010 Census Gazetteer Files”. United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2015.

[7] “U.S. Decennial Census”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [8] “Historical Census Browser”. University of Virginia Library. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [9] Forstall, Richard L., ed. (March 27, 1995). “Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [10] “Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000” (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 2, 2001. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [11] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-05-14.

9.9 External links • Oﬃcial website • Geographic data related to Berkeley County, South Carolina at OpenStreetMap Coordinates: 33°12′N 79°57′W / 33.20°N 79.95°W

Chapter 10

Charleston County, South Carolina Charleston County is a county located in the U.S. state 10.2 Demographics of South Carolina. As of the 2010 census, its population was 350,209,[1] making it the third-most populous county in South Carolina (behind Greenville and Richland Coun[9] ties). Its county seat is Charleston.[2] The county was cre- As of the census of 2000, there were 309,969 people, 143,326 households, and 97,448 families residing ated in 1901 by an act of the South Carolina State Legisin the county. The population density was 338 people lature. per square mile (130/km²). There were 141,031 housCharleston County is included in the Charleston-North ing units at an average density of 154 per square mile Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area. (59/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 61.9% White, 34.5% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 1.12% Asian, 0.06% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.99% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races. 10.1 Geography 2.40% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 9.6% were of American, 9.5% English, 9.1% According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a to- German and 7.6% Irish ancestry according to Census tal area of 1,358 square miles (3,520 km2 ), of which 916 2000. square miles (2,370 km2 ) is land and 442 square miles (1,140 km2 ) (33%) is water.[3] It is the largest county in There were 123,326 households out of which 28.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.20% South Carolina by total land and water area. were married couples living together, 15.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.20% were non-families. 28.30% of all households were made 10.1.1 Adjacent counties up of individuals and 8.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household • Berkeley County - north size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.01. • Georgetown County - northeast In the county, the age distribution of the population shows • Colleton County - west • Dorchester County - northwest

10.1.2

National protected areas

23.70% under the age of 18, 12.00% from 18 to 24, 30.30% from 25 to 44, 22.00% from 45 to 64, and 11.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.50 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $37,810, and the median income for a family was $47,139. Males had a median income of $32,681 verCharles Pinckney National Historic Site sus $25,530 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,393. About 12.40% of families and Ernest F. Hollings ACE Basin National Wildlife 16.40% of the population were below the poverty line, Refuge (part) including 22.90% of those under age 18 and 12.70% of those age 65 or over. Fort Moultrie National Monument In the 2000 census, the county population was classiﬁed as about 86% urban. The Charleston-North Charleston Fort Sumter National Monument Metropolitan Statistical Area includes the populations of Francis Marion National Forest (part) Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester counties.

• Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge • • • • •

10.3. GOVERNMENT

10.3 Government From 1895 to 1973, when the state constitution was amended to provide for home rule in the counties, the counties had limited powers, under what was called “county purpose doctrine.”[10] Essentially they were governed by the General Assembly through their state legislative delegation and, with one state senator per county, the state senator was particularly powerful. In the 1940s, Charleston County adopted a council-manager form of county government to better handle its needs.[11] In 1975 the state’s Home Rule Act established a larger role for the county governments. Charleston County has a large geographic area represented by a nine-member county council. Into the 1960s, most African Americans were excluded from voting by the state’s disenfranchising constitution and practices. This gradually changed after passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965. Since 1969, members of the county commission were elected in a modified at-large system for nine seats, with elections every two years for staggered four-year terms, from four residency districts. Three Council seats are reserved for residents of the City of Charleston, three for residents of North Charleston, two for residents of West Ashley, and one for a resident of East Cooper.[12][13] The council elects a chairman from its members for a limited term of two years, but chairs can be re-elected. Charleston County was “one of only three counties in South Carolina to elect its entire county council at-large. It was “the only county with a majority white population to do so.”[12] In 1989 county residents proposed a referendum to change representation on the county council to election from single-member districts, which would have provided more opportunity for the sizable minority to elect candidates of their choice. This proposal was narrowly defeated in what both the county and the US government later defined as a racially polarized election. It was supported by 98% of the African-American minority voters; 75% of the white-majority voters rejected the referendum.[13] In practice, the at-large system resulted in the dilution of votes of the significant minority of African-American voters, who comprise more than onethird of the electorate. In practice, the minority voters were unable to elect a candidate of their choice in all but a few elections in the three decades since the system was established.[13]

75 bined the cases. Justice officials noted that the at-large seats dilute the voting strength of the African-American minority in the county, who in 2000 comprised 34.5% of the population. In all but a few cases over three decades, they have been unable to elect candidates of their choice to the county commission. Whites (European Americans) comprise 61.9 percent of the population in the county.[9] Since the late 20th century, the white majority has elected Republican Party candidates. The DOJ officials noted that the voting preference issue is not just a question of ethnicity; voters in black precincts in the county had rejected a Republican African American as a candidate for the council; they supported the Democratic at-large candidate. The suit noted that historically, black and white precincts in Charleston County have consistently supported different candidates for the Council. It noted that, because of the white majority and the large geographic area, which increases costs for campaigning, “white bloc voting usually results in the defeat of candidates who are preferred by black voters.”[14] DOJ noted that blacks lived in compact areas of the county, were cohesive in voting, and could comprise the majority in three districts if the county seats were apportioned as nine single-member districts. They could vote and gain representation proportional to their part of the citizenry.[14] In United States v. Charleston County, SC (March 2003), the District Court ruled that Charleston County improperly diluted the voting strength of African-American voters “by maintaining an at-large voting system in a manner which violated Section 2.” It enjoined the county from using that system, noting that the “Order is radically not a condemnation of the citizenry of Charleston County but rather a recognition that the specific bulwark of an at-large system, in twisted concert with the particular geographic and historical realities of this County, unlawfully and institutionally inhibit a community of voters in Charleston County from equal access to the electoral process.”[15]

The county appealed. In July 2003, the 4th Circuit Appeals Court found that historic voting in the county was racially polarized and that minority candidates had mostly not been successful in seeking office, two conditions that related to satisfying the law.[13] As of July of that year, the 4th Circuit Court affirmed the District Court’s ruling,[16] and on 29 April 2004 issued its written decision affirming the District Court.[12] Based on historical and economic analysis, the courts found that race was a more important issue than partisanship in influencing the outcome of [12] In January 2001, the US Department of Justice filed suit the elections. The county appealed to the US Supreme [17] against the county government for racial discrimination Court, and a certiorari was denied in November 2004. based on the at-large system, which the suit contended The County Council system was changed in 2004 to elect violates Sec.2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 by di- individuals from nine single-member districts, with memluting voting power.[14] The Department had tried to ne- bers serving four-year staggered terms. As of January gotiate with the county over changes in November 2000. 2015, elected members of the council include six white Four voters independently filed suit as plaintiffs against Republicans and three African-American Democrats.[18] the County on the same basis, and the District Court com-

CHAPTER 10. CHARLESTON COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA

Republican Elliott Summey was elected by council members as chairman, replacing Democrat Teddie Pryor, who had served for six years. Summey had served as his vicechair for five years. Pryor was first elected to the council in 2004. Summey was first elected in 2008.[19]

10.4 Emergency services

• North Charleston Wannamaker County Park, North Charleston, South Carolina • Mullet Hall Equestrian Center, Johns Island, South Carolina • James Island County Park, Charleston, South Carolina Water parks:

10.4.1

Volunteer Rescue Squad

• Splash Island at Palmetto Islands County Park The Volunteer Rescue Squad is a volunteer organiza• Splash Zone at James Island County Park tion consisting of over 50 members and a medical control physician. Members are certified in a variety of • Whirlin' Waters at North Charleston Wannamaker emergency skills, including auto extrication, fire fighting, County Park structural collapse/urban search and rescue, diving, large animal rescue, rural search and rescue, and high angle/ technical rescue. In addition, many squad members are Off-leash dog parks are offered at James Island, Palmetto Islands, and North Charleston Wannamaker County Park. First Responders, EMT’s and Paramedics. James Island County Park, approximately 11 minutes by car from downtown Charleston, features a 50-foot 10.5 Recreation climbing wall and bouldering cave; cabin, RV, and tent camping facilities; rental facilities, fishing dock, chalThe Charleston County Park and Recreation Commis- lenge course, kayaking programs, summer camps, paved sion (CCPRC)[20] operates numerous facilities within trails, and many special events such as the Lowcountry Cajun Festival (usually the first weekend in April), East Charleston County.[21] Coast Canoe and Kayak Festival (3rd weekend in April), Beach parks: Holiday Festival of Lights (mid-November through the first of the year), and the summer outdoor reggae con• Kiawah Beachwalker County Park, Kiawah Island, certs. South Carolina • Isle of Palms County Park, Isle of Palms, South Carolina

10.6 Communities

• Folly Beach County Park, Folly Beach, South Carolina

10.6.1 Cities

Fishing piers: • Folly Beach Fishing Pier, Folly Beach, South Carolina • Mt. Pleasant Pier, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina Marinas and boat landings:

• Charleston (county seat) • Folly Beach • Isle of Palms • North Charleston

10.6.2 Towns

• Cooper River Marina

• Awendaw

• Multiple county-wide boat landings

• Hollywood

Day parks: • Palmetto Islands County Park, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina • Caw Caw Nature and History Interpretive Center, Ravenel, South Carolina

• James Island • Johns Island • Kiawah Island • Lincolnville • McClellanville

10.9. REFERENCES • Meggett • Mount Pleasant • Ravenel • Rockville • Seabrook Island • Sullivan’s Island • West Ashley

10.6.3

Districts

• Awendaw-McClellanville Consolidated Fire District - Made up of unincorporated parts of Northern Charleston County, the Town of Awendaw, and the Town of McClellanville. • James Island Public Service District - Made up of unincorporated parts of the island. • North Charleston Public Service District - Responsible for sewer lines and treatment in the City of North Charleston. • St. John’s Fire District - Serving Kiawah Island, Seabrook Island, unincorporated John’s Island, and Wadmalaw Island • Saint Andrews Public Service District - Made up of unincorporated parts of West Ashley. • St. Pauls Fire District - Made up of all of the Towns of Hollywood, Ravenel, Meggett and unincorporated parts of the southern end of Charleston County.

10.7 Notable residents

10.9 References [1] “State & County QuickFacts”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 22, 2013. [2] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [3] “2010 Census Gazetteer Files”. United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [4] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [5] “U.S. Decennial Census”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [6] “Historical Census Browser”. University of Virginia Library. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [7] Forstall, Richard L., ed. (March 27, 1995). “Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [8] “Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000” (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 2, 2001. Retrieved March 16, 2015. [9] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-05-14. [10] Charlie B. Tyler, “The South Carolina Governance Project”, University of South Carolina, 1998, p. 221 [11] Tyler (1998), “The South Carolina Governance Project"], p. 222 [12] UNITED STATES v. CHARLESTON COUNTY SOUTH CAROLINA (Decided: 29 April 2004), US Court of Appeals, 4th Circuit, accessed 22 January 2015 [13] United States v. Charleston County, SC, Nos. 03-2111; 03-2112, Dept. of Justice, Appeals for the 4th Circuit Court [14] DAVID FIRESTONE (19 January 2001). “U.S. Sues Charleston County, S.C., Alleging Violation of Black Voting Rights”. New York Times. Retrieved December 23, 2012.

• Pernessa C. Seele (1954- ), immunologist, founder and CEO of the Balm in Gilead, Inc., an international organization based in Harlem, New York, to promote religious communities’ role in education and prevention of HIV/AIDS, and support of families.[22]

[15] {http://www.leagle.com/decision/ 2003584316FSupp2d268_1559.xml/U.S.%20v. %20CHARLESTON%20COUNTY U.S. v. CHARLESTON COUNTY, Nos. 2:01-0155-23, 2:01-56223, 316 F.Supp.2d 268 (2003), Leagle website

• Also see List of people from Charleston, South Carolina for many more notable residents

[16] “CIVIL RIGHTS ACCOMPLISHMENTS: ACTIVELY ENFORCING THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF 1965”, Press Release, Department of Justice, 23 July 2003, accessed 22 January 2015

10.8 See also • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston County, South Carolina

[17] Cases Raising Claims Under Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act: United States v. Charleston County (D. S.C. 2001), Civil Rights Division, US Dept. of Justice, 2005 [18] “Charleston County Council”, Charleston County, SC, accessed 22 January 2015

CHAPTER 10. CHARLESTON COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA

[19] Prentiss Findlay, “Elliott Summey becomes new Charleston County Council chairman”, The Post and Courier, 6 January 2015 [20] [21] www.charlestoncountyparks.com [22] Dorie J. Gilbert and Ednita M. Wright, African American Women and HIV/AIDS, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Company, 2003, p. 154, accessed 23 January 2009

10.10 External links • Charleston County Oﬃcial Website • Geographic data related to Charleston County, South Carolina at OpenStreetMap Coordinates: 32°49′N 79°54′W / 32.82°N 79.90°W

Chapter 11

Dorchester County, South Carolina Dorchester County is a county located in the U.S. state the county. The population density was 168 people per of South Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population square mile (65/km²). There were 37,237 housing units was 136,555.[1] Its county seat is St. George.[2] at an average density of 65 per square mile (25/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 71.05% White, 25.08% Dorchester County is included in the Charleston-North Black or African American, 0.73% Native American, Charleston, SC Metropolitan Statistical Area. 1.13% Asian, 0.07% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.59% from other races, and 1.36% from two or more races. 1.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

11.1 History

Dorchester County is named for its ﬁrst settlement area, which was established by Congregationalists in 1696. These settlers applied the name “Dorchester” after their last residence in Dorchester, Massachusetts.[3]

There were 34,709 households out of which 40.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.20% were married couples living together, 14.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.20% were non-families. 20.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.13.

Dorchester was not established as a separate county until 1897. However, when it was separately established, it came from parts of the neighboring Colleton and In the county, the population was spread out with 28.90% Berkeley counties.[4] under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 31.60% from 25 to 44, 22.60% from 45 to 64, and 9.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For 11.2 Geography every 100 females there were 95.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.70 males. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a The median income for a household in the county was total area of 576 square miles (1,490 km2 ), of which 573 $43,316, and the median income for a family was square miles (1,480 km2 ) is land and 2.6 square miles $50,177. Males had a median income of $35,423 ver(6.7 km2 ) (0.4%) is water.[5] sus $24,405 for females. The per capita income for the

11.2.1

Adjacent Counties

• Bamberg County - west

county was $18,840. About 7.10% of families and 9.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.40% of those under age 18 and 13.30% of those age 65 or over.

• Berkeley County - east • Charleston County - southeast • Colleton County - southwest • Orangeburg County - northwest

11.4 Government and infrastructure

11.3 Demographics

The South Carolina Department of Corrections operates the Lieber Correctional Institution in Ridgeville in As of the census[11] of 2000, there were 96,413 peo- Dorchester County.[12] The prison houses the state’s male ple, 34,709 households, and 26,309 families residing in death row.[13] 79

CHAPTER 11. DORCHESTER COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA

11.5 Communities

11.8 External links

• Grover

• Dorchester County website

• Harleyville

• US Census Bureau Data

• North Charleston (partly in Charleston County)

• Geographic data related to Dorchester County, South Carolina at OpenStreetMap

• Reevesville • Ridgeville • St. George (county seat) • Summerville (partly in Berkeley County and Charleston County) • Ladson (partly in Berkeley County and Charleston County)

11.6 See also • National Register of Historic Places listings in Dorchester County, South Carolina

11.7 References [1] “State & County QuickFacts”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 23, 2013. [2] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [3] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Oﬀ. p. 108. [4] Dorchester County Online [5] “2010 Census Gazetteer Files”. United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Retrieved March 17, 2015. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “U.S. Decennial Census”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 17, 2015. [8] “Historical Census Browser”. University of Virginia Library. Retrieved March 17, 2015. [9] Forstall, Richard L., ed. (March 27, 1995). “Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 17, 2015. [10] “Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000” (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 2, 2001. Retrieved March 17, 2015. [11] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-05-14. [12] "Lieber Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [13] "Death Row/Capital Punishment.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010.

Coordinates: 33°05′N 80°24′W / 33.08°N 80.40°W

Chapter 12

West Ashley Ashley River Road (SC Hwy. 61) corridor, the area saw explosive residential and commercial growth. Major retailers located in the community as land needed for “big box” stores was not available on the historic downtown Charleston peninsula. West Ashley’s original neighborhoods line Savannah Highway (US Hwy. 17) in an area closest to the historic Charleston peninsula. Its ﬁrst retail district, built in the 1950s, is seeing a revitalization with many art and design oriented businesses having located there in recent years. West Ashley is the area where Darius Rucker, lead singer of the band Hootie and the Blowﬁsh grew up. He graduated from Middleton High School. Stephen Colbert host of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on CBS is also a graduate of Porter-Gaud School located in West Ashley.

Citadel Mall in West Ashley.

The community formerly served by two public high schools is now served by one, West Ashley High School with 2017 students and 135 full-time teachers. West Ashley High School was created by the merging of Middleton and St. Andrews High School. There are also ﬁve public elementary schools, three public middle schools and numerous private schools in the West Ashley area including Porter-Gaud School, a K-12 grade college preparatory school founded in 1867.

Movie theater at Citadel Mall.

West Ashley or as it’s more formally known, west of the Ashley is one of the six distinct areas of the city proper of Charleston, South Carolina, with an estimated 2010 population of 57,403.[1] Its name is derived from the fact that the land is west of the Ashley River.

The community’s major arteries include Sam Rittenberg Boulevard (SC Hwy. 7), Ashley River Road (SC Hwy. 61), Savannah Highway (US Hwy. 17), Paul Cantrell Boulevard/Glenn McConnell Parkway (SC Hwy. 461) and Interstate 526. It is also served by the West Ashley Greenway, a popular rail trail that parallels Savannah Highway. West Ashley is home to the region’s largest indoor shopping mall, Citadel Mall and the city’s newest hospital, Bon Secours St. Francis Hospital which along with the mall is also one its largest employers. WCSCTV Channel 5, the area’s CBS aﬃliate and ﬁrst television station to sign on the air in Charleston in 1953 moved to a newly constructed broadcast facility in West Ashley in 1997. West Ashley also has an independent community newspaper called West Of, which publishes news pertaining to the area on a weekly basis.

Flanked by the scenic waterfront vistas and marshes of the Ashley and Stono Rivers and ancient moss draped oak trees, initial neighborhoods west of the Ashley were developed in the 1950s with its largest growth occurring West Ashley is not a self-governed city or town. The mathroughout the 1970s and 80s. As Interstate 526 was built jority of the area west of the Ashley is located within the in the early 1980s and the Glenn McConnell Parkway was city limits of Charleston with a few remaining pockets built in the 1990s to help alleviate traﬃc on the historic 81

82 in unincorporated Charleston County that are served by the Saint Andrews Public Service District who provides municipal services for those outside the city limits.

CHAPTER 12. WEST ASHLEY • Orange Grove Plaza • Outback Plaza (formerly Citadel Plaza) • Quadrangle Shopping Center

12.1 History West Ashley is noted as the birthplace of Charleston as English colonists established the first permanent settlement in the Carolina colony there in 1670. Local Native Americans, particularly the Kiawah Indians, led the colonists from the Carolina ship to a suitable settling ground. It is thought they were especially welcomed by the Indians because the local Natives feared constant raids by the slaving Westo Indians from Georgia (originally known as the Erie Indians), and sought protection. The 663-acre (2.68 km2 ) area where the settlers first stepped ashore along the banks of the Ashley River has been preserved as a state historic site known as Charles Towne Landing which features Charleston’s only zoo, beautiful gardens and a reproduction seventeenth century sailing vessel among other historical and educational amenities. A few skirmishes took place there in the American Revolution, specifically at Rantowles Creek, where William Washington defeated cavalry forces under Banastre Tarleton, and at Old St. Andrew’s Presbyterian Church during the 1780 Siege of Charleston. Some military activity took place here during the Civil War, and the area had several batteries, including those at Fort Bull (near present day Bees Ferry Road), but no major battles occurred. Sherman’s forces did burn down Middleton Place Plantation in the 1865 march to the sea. The Charleston and Savannah Railroad ran from downtown to West Ashley during the nineteenth century, and the Union had attempted to cut it off in 1864, but were beaten back at the Battle of Burden’s Causeway on nearby John’s Island. Ashley Hall Plantation and Magnolia Plantation and Gardens are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[2]

• South Windermere Center • St. Andrews Center • Village Square • West Ashley Shoppes • Westwood Plaza (formerly Grant City West)

12.4 References [1] “Century V 2010 Population Estimates” (PDF). Retrieved 2010-09-01. [2] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

12.5 External links with photos of West Ashley • WestOf Newspaper • Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site • Ashley River Road Links • Historic Drayton Hall • Historic Magnolia Plantation & Gardens • The Oﬃcial Website of the City of Charleston • Byrnes Downs Garden Club Scrapbook • west of the Ashley - Charleston, SC — forum for community events and issues

12.2 West Ashley neighborhoods 12.3 Major shopping centers • Ashley Crossing • Ashley Landing (formerly Ashley Plaza Mall) • Citadel Mall • Crossroads Centre • Harrell Square • Indigo Village • Northbridge Shopping Center

Coordinates: 32°48′26″N 80°03′53″W / 32.8071282°N 80.0646682°W

Chapter 13

Johns Island, South Carolina

A small community church Map of the Sea Islands, showing location of Johns Island

Johnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Island in May 1973

A boy and his bike

Picking beans 83

CHAPTER 13. JOHNS ISLAND, SOUTH CAROLINA killed some of the European’s livestock, the whites murdered several Indians in retaliation.[2] Johns Island had scattered settlements that were situated near the water by the 1670s. Maps dated from 1695 and 1711 show plantations established on the banks of the Stono River.[2] During the colonial period, the main crop that was produced was indigo, prized for its rich blue dye. The plantations that grew crops, including indigo, relied on slave labor.

Another church Johns Island, also spelled John’s Island, is an island in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States, and is the largest island in the state of South Carolina. Johns Island is bordered by the Wadmalaw, Seabrook, Kiawah, Edisto, Folly, and James islands; the Stono and Kiawah rivers separate Johns Island from its border islands. It is the fourth largest island on the US east coast, surpassed only by Long Island, Mount Desert Island, and Martha’s Vineyard. Johns Island is 84 square miles (220 km2 ) in area, with a population of 14,000 people.

The Stono Rebellion, which occurred on Johns Island in 1739, began as an attempt by a group of slaves to escape to Spanish Florida, where they were promised freedom.[2] Beginning in the early morning hours of September 9, 1739, a group of about twenty slaves met near the Stono River, led by a slave named Jemmy. The group then proceeded to the Stono Bridge and raided Hutchinson’s Store. They took food, ammunition, and supplies. The group of slaves then killed the two shopkeepers, leaving their heads on the front steps of the store.[2] The slaves then crossed the Stono River and gathered more followers as they began to walk to Spanish Florida. The runaways met with Lieutenant Governor William Bull and four of his comrades also traveling on the road. Seeing the situation at hand, Lieutenant Governor Bull and his companies rallied other plantation owners to help put down the opposition. The plantation owners attacked and put down the resistance and executed all who could not prove that they were forced to join the march.[2]

Johns Island was named after Saint John Parish in 13.2.2 American Revolution (1776–1785) Barbados by the first settlers to the island.[1] The American Revolutionary War arrived on Johns Island in May of 1779 as a body of British troops under the command of General Augustine Prevost.[2] General 13.1 Wildlife Prevost established a small force to remain on the island, headed by Lieutenant Colonel John Maitland. Under the The island is home to scores of wildlife species, includ- command of Sir Henry Clinton, more troops landed on ing deer, alligators, raccoons, coyotes, bobcats, otters and Seabrook Island, beginning February 11, 1780.[2] Clinwild hogs. The rivers and marshes abound with fish and ton’s goal was to cross Johns Island and James Island and shellfish, especially oysters, and dolphins. The number lay siege to Charleston. Clinton’s army crossed the Stono of bird species is in the hundreds. They include bald ea- River and set up temporary headquarters at Fenwick Hall. gles, osprey, wild turkeys, owls, hawks, herons, egrets and Moving to James Island, marching up the west bank of the ducks. The flora is also abundant with many native and Ashley River to Old Town Landing then marching south to Charleston, Clinton besieged the city. Charleston surimported species as well as agricultural crops. rendered to British forces on May 12, 1780; the occupation lasted until December 1782.

13.2 History 13.2.1

Colonial era (1670–1776)

Johns Island was originally inhabited by nomadic tribes of Native Americans such as the Kiawah, who survived by hunting.[2] By the time Europeans arrived in the area, these tribes were already settled and farming oﬀ the land.[2] The Native America tribes in this area included the Stono and the Bohicket. Initially, the Stono and European settlers had good relations. However, after the Stono

13.2.3 Civil War (1861–1865) The Battle of Bloody Bridge, also known as Burden’s Causeway, occurred on Johns Island in July 1864. The site of the battle is oﬀ River Road, just north of the Charleston Executive Airport. On July 2, 1864, Brigadier General John Hatch’s troops landed in the Legareville section of Johns Island.[3] Hatch wanted to cross Johns Island, then cross the Stono River and lay siege to James Island. The Union troops met the Confederate troops

13.5. EDUCATION where the creek turns into swamp. Around 2,000 South Carolina soldiers held oﬀ a Union force of roughly 8,000 men.[3] After three days of ﬁghting, Hatch’s troops left the island.

13.3 Background Johns Island is located to the west of James Island and to the east of Wadmalaw Island and inshore of Seabrook Island and Kiawah Island. It is separated from the mainland by the tidal Stono River, which forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. Roughly one-third of the island is within the city limits of Charleston. The island is home to the Angel Oak, a Southern live oak tree estimated to be 400–1500 years old and named for Justus Angel, nineteenth century owner of the land on which it stands.[4][5][6] It is also known for its farms, producing tomatoes and numerous other agricultural products.

85 of the popular belief that the Angel Oak is the oldest tree east of the Mississippi River, there are many baldcypress trees throughout the south which are many hundreds of years older.[11] The Angel Oak stands on part of the land given to Jacob Waight in 1717 as part of a land grant. The Angel Oak was acquired by the City of Charleston in 1991.[12] Today, Angel Oak Park provides visitors a close look at the tree. The park area is complete with a gift shop and picnic tables.

13.4.3 Mullet Hall Equestrian Center Mullet Hall Equestrian Center is located on Mullet Hall Road on Johns Island.[13] With 738 acres and 20 miles of trails, it is home to equestrian competitions, festivals, and events. Planning for the Mullet Hall Equestrian Center began in 2000[14] The center includes four show rings, 1 Grand Prix ring, 40 acres of grass ﬁelds, 196 horse stalls and both jumping and lunging areas.

The population of Johns Island is growing. Between 2000 and 2010 the islands population grew by 50%, the largest increase in the history of the island. This trend is ex- 13.4.4 Battle of Charleston reenactment pected to continue but numerous conservation organizaAn annual Battle of Charleston reenactment is held at tions are striving for ecologically friendly growth. Legare Farms, located oﬀ of River Road, on Johns Island. The island’s proximity to downtown Charleston and its The event includes battle reenactments, food, music, and scenic property have made it an active location for de- culture of the 19th century, began in 2004.[15] One of the velopment. Numerous high density developments have battles reenacted during the event includes the Johns Isbeen created in parts of the island zoned into the City of land 1864 “Battle of Bloody Bridge”. As of 2013 this Charleston. Most of the island still rests within the juris- event is now a “timeline” reenactment of all Americandiction of Charleston County. Wars. Several movies have been ﬁlmed on the island, including In addition to the John’s Island Presbyterian Church, the The Notebook (2004). Moving Star Hall and The Progressive Club are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[16]

13.4 Attractions 13.4.1

Johns Island Presbyterian Church

Johns Island Presbyterian Church on Bohicket Road was first built in 1719.[7] The church began as part of Reverend Archibald Stobo’s plan to create five Presbyterian churches in the rural areas of South Carolina.[8] Notably, it is one of the oldest churches in the United States built from a wood frame. Johns Island Presbyterian underwent expansions in 1792 and 1823. The church is open to the public and offers tours and part of the National Register of Historic Places. As of 2012, the church was under the direction of Reverend Jon Van Deventer.[9]

13.4.2

Angel Oak

The Angel Oak is a live Southern live oak tree located on Johns Island.[5] Estimates of the tree’s age range from 400 to 1500 years old.[5][6] The oak is 65 ft (20 m) tall, with a trunk circumference of 25.5 ft (7.8 m).[10] In spite

13.5 Education • Angel Oak Elementary School[17] • Capers Preparatory Christian Academy • Charleston Collegiate School is a college preparatory school on the island; it serves students in the Charleston area in grades K4-12.[18] • Haut Gap Middle School[19] • Montessori School of Johns Island is a Montessori school on the island, serving the children of Charleston area. It is located oﬀ of Main Road, near West Ashley. Children from 12 weeks to 12 years are prepared for a lifetime of learning through a Montessori method of education.[20] • Mount Zion Elementary School • St. John’s High School[21]

CHAPTER 13. JOHNS ISLAND, SOUTH CAROLINA

13.6 Museums and Library 13.6.1

Johns Island Branch Library

[9] Parker, Adam (23 March 2012). “Johns Island Presbyterian: Unmovable”. Post and Courier. Retrieved 18 October 2012. [10] Zepke, Terrance (2006). Coastal South Carolina: Wel-

come to the Lowcountry. Sarasota: Pineapple Press. p. The Johns Island Branch Library, located oﬀ of Maybank 143. ISBN 9781561643486. Highway, is part of the Charleston County Public Library system. The $4.3 million library, which opened on Octo- [11] “Visiting Ancient Baldcypress on the Black River”. The ber 24, 2004, is the largest of the Charleston County PubNature Conservancy. Retrieved 23 September 2013. lic Library branches.[22] At 16,000 square feet, the library is more than twice the size of the county’s normal library [12] “The Angel Oak Tree”. The City of Charleston. Retrieved 23 October 2012. branches.[22] The library was built to serve Johns Island, Wadamalaw Island, Kiawah Island and Seabrook Island. [13] Porter, Arlie (29 March 2000). “Limehouse: John’s Is. Planning of the library took ﬁve years, with the groundHorse Center Too Remote”. Post and Courier. Retrieved breaking of the project occurring in December 2003. 18 October 2012.

13.7 Bridges • John F. Limehouse Memorial Bridge • Paul J. Gelegotis Memorial Bridge

13.8 References General references • U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Johns Island (island) • U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Johns Island (populated place) Speciﬁc citations [1] Haynie, Connie Walpole (2007). Johns Island. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9780738543468. [2] Preservation Consultants Inc. (1989). James Island and Johns Island Historical and Architectural Inventory (PDF). pp. 4, 5, 6, 11, 14, 23, 25, 29. [3] Peterson, Bo (10 July 2010). “Obscure Civil War battle fought on Johns Island”. Post and Courier. Retrieved 24 October 2012. [4] Angel Oak photos [5] Angel Oak Tree at AngelOakTree.com [6] Angel Oak Tree at AngelOakTree.org [7] Haynie, Connie Walpole (2007). John’s Island. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. p. 11. ISBN 9780738543468. [8] Kornwolf, James D. (2002). Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America, Volume 2. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 901. ISBN 9780801859861.

[14] Shumake, Janice (8 June 2000). “Plans Oﬀered for Equestrian Park”. Post and Courier. Retrieved 18 October 2012. [15] “Battle of Charleston re-enactment at Legare Farms”. Post and Courier. 18 March 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2012. [16] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [17] “CCSD Angel Oak Elementary School”. Charleston County School District. Retrieved 23 October 2012. [18] “Charleston Collegiate”. Charleston Collegiate. trieved 23 October 2012.

Re-

[19] “CCSD Haut Gap Middle School”. Charleston County School District. Retrieved 23 October 2012. [20] “Montessori School of Johns Island”. Montessori School of Johns Island. Retrieved 21 October 2014. [21] “CCSD St. Johns High School”. Charleston County School District. Retrieved 23 October 2012. [22] Fennell, Edward (26 October 2004). "$4.3M Johns Island Branch Library opens today”. Post and Courier. Retrieved 18 October 2012.

13.9 External links • The Johns Island Conservancy • Charleston Chamber of Commerce Coordinates: 32°42′09″N 80°02′53″W / 32.70250°N 80.04806°W

Chapter 14

James Island (South Carolina) James Island is one of South Carolina's most urban Sea Islands. The island is separated from peninsular downtown Charleston by the Ashley River, from the mainland by Wappoo Creek and the Wappoo Cut, and from Johns Island by the Stono River. It lies inshore of Morris Island and Folly Beach.

As deﬁned by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of James Island is included within the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area and the larger CharlestonNorth Charleston Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Samuel Smalls, the man upon whom the novel Porgy and subsequent opera Porgy and Bess are based, is buried in Fort Sumter is located on an island just off the east- the cemetery beside James Island Presbyterian Church. ern tip of James Island and is the site of the first bat- Comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert, along tle of the Civil War. Bombardment of Fort Sumter was with his 10 brothers and sisters, lived on James Island started from Fort Johnson which is located on the east- for part of his boyhood. ern portion of James Island. Several significant military engagements took place on island including the battles Mary Clark, Author, farmer, politician Football players of Secessionville (1862), Grimball’s Landing (1863) and Langston Moore of the Detroit Lions and Pro Bowler Grimball’s Causeway (1865). All of these battles were Roddy White of the Atlanta Falcons and Bo Patterson of Dartmouth College both attended James Island High alternately known as the “Battle of James Island”. School and played football while at school there. MLB For much of the period before and after the formation of player Gorman Thomas grew up up James Island and the United States, James Island land was largely agricul- played baseball for the original James Island High School tural with Sea Island cotton plantations covering much of (mascot Rams). University of Hawai'i assistant Track and the island. Growth accelerated after World War II and Field Coach, Joshua Aydlette, played football, threw for James Island became a suburban bedroom community to the track team, and wrestled at James Island High School. Charleston. Fort Johnson High (mascot Trojans) was the other high As of the 2000 census, the United States Census Bureau school on the island. The two schools merged in 1982 on reported that 33,781 people lived on the island. Approxi- the Fort Johnson campus. mately one-half of the island lies within the city limits of The public schools on James Island are part of the Charleston, and the remainder of the island is made up Charleston County School District and include Harof the Town of James Island and some unincorporated borview, Stiles Point, James Island and Murray-LaSaine, areas.[1] and Apple Charter Elementary Schools; James Island and There has been political discord concerning the incorpo- Fort Johnson Middle Schools, and James Island Charter ration of portions of the island into the City of Charleston. High School. The high school interscholastic teams are The town of James Island has been founded on three sep- the Trojans and wear blue and orange uniforms. arate occasions. Three incorporations were overturned as a result of legal suits filed by Charleston. The third incorporation attempt was in contention in another legal 14.1 References suit by the city, and on November 7, 2008, the town’s incorporation was upheld by a Circuit Court judge. The [1] “thesunnews.com”. city of Charleston filed an appeal of the decision to the South Carolina Supreme Court.[2] Ultimately, this ruling [2] “Judge sides with the town of James Island”. was overturned by the Supreme Court. • http://www.sciway.net/city/jamesisland.html A fourth attempt at incorporation was successful, upheld by the courts and uncontested by the city of Charleston. There is now a legally formed Town of James Island. Coordinates: 32°43′40″N 79°57′20″W / 32.72778°N 79.95556°W

Chapter 15

Daniel Island For other uses of “Daniel Island”, see Daniel Island There are three schools located on Daniel Island: the (disambiguation). DI Academy (pre-K), Daniel Island School (K–8) and Bishop England High School (9–12), a private Roman Catholic high school that has an estimated student body of Daniel Island is a 4,000-acre (16 km2 ) island located in 900 students. The Daniel Island School was constructed the city of Charleston, South Carolina. Named after its in 2006. former inhabitant, the colonial governor of the Carolinas, Robert Daniell. The island is located in Berkeley County and situated between the Cooper and Wando Rivers . As of July 2012 it is currently being developed as a masterplanned community complete with residential neighborhoods, parks, trails, recreational amenities and a downtown that is home to shops, restaurants, schools, churches and offices for businesses. Formerly owned by the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation and used primarily for farming, cattle ranching, and as a private hunting retreat, the island remained undeveloped until the early 1990s when the newly constructed I-526 expressway was completed. At that time, the Guggenheim Foundation sponsored the development of a master plan that would guide the island’s development as a natural extension of this affluent suburb of Charleston. Development of the first residential properties began in 1996, and in 1997 the island was purchased by the Daniel Island Company, a developer of master-planned communities. Hundreds of acres of parks have been created. Two professional sports facilities – the Family Circle Tennis Center and Blackbaud Stadium – are located on the island, along with a private country club, the Daniel Island Club, with golf courses by Tom Fazio and Rees Jones.[1] The club hosts the Nationwide Tour Championship, the final event of the Nationwide Tour. There are also two churches and three schools on the island. The community and its developers have been nationally recognized for responsible planning and "smart growth" practices with numerous awards and accolades.[2] It was a 2007 recipient of an “Award for Excellence” from the Urban Land Institute.[3]

15.1 References [1] “Daniel Island named among the country’s Top 50 Master Planned Communities”. Moultrie News. July 10, 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013. [2] “Daniel Island hauls back some heavy metal from Florida”. The Post and Courier. 12 February 2005. Retrieved 24 July 2013. [3] “Urband Land Institute Names Daniel Island Among Ten 2007 “Awards for Excellence” Winners”. Retrieved 24 July 2013.

• Daniel Island Fact Sheet • Sciway Fact Sheet •

15.2 External links

Daniel Island is home to eight main parks, with each neighborhood on the island having its own park. The eight parks are Barﬁeld Park, Center Park, Cochran Park, Codner’s Ferry Park, Daniel Island Park, Etiwan Park, Pierce Park and Smythe Park. Daniel Island also has a downtown area where many businesses, restaurants, doctors’ oﬃces, shops and condominiums are located. 88

• Daniel Island Oﬃcial • Family Circle Cup • Charleston Battery • Real Estate Statistics

Chapter 16

Wando River Not to be confused with Wando River (Victoria). The Wando River is a tidewater river in the coastal area

Map of the Charleston Harbor watershed showing Wando River.

of South Carolina. It begins in the town of Awendaw and empties into the Cooper River at Charleston Harbor. Its drainage area is 73,061 acres (295.67 km2 ). in PHF

16.1 External links U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Wando River Coordinates: 32°48′58″N 79°54′40″W / 32.81611°N 79.91111°W

Chapter 17

Stono River tracoastal Waterway

17.3 References [1] Columbia University Press. “Stono River”. Bartleby.com. Retrieved 2 November 2006. External link in |publisher= (help)

Coordinates: 32°38′13″N 80°00′54″W / 32.6368472°N 80.0150926°W

Map of the Charleston Harbor watershed showing Stono River.

The Stono River is a tidal channel in southeast South Carolina, located southwest of Charleston. The channel runs southwest to northeast between the mainland and Wadmalaw Island and Johns Island, from north Edisto River between Johns (West) and James (East) Islands. The Intracoastal Waterway runs through southwest-northeast section of the channel.[1] The Stono River is noted for the Stono Rebellion which started on September 9, 1739. Started by slaves from West Africa, likely from the Kingdom of Kongo, it became the largest slave uprising in the British mainland colonies prior to the American Revolution.

17.1 Bridges • John F. Limehouse Memorial Bridge • Paul J. Gelegotis Memorial Bridge

17.2 See also • Waterways forming and crossings of the Atlantic In90

Chapter 18

Hurricane Hugo Hurricane Hugo was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that caused widespread damage and loss of life in the Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Southeast United States. It formed over the eastern Atlantic near the Cape Verde Islands on September 9, 1989. Hugo moved thousands of miles across the Atlantic, rapidly strengthening to brieﬂy attain category 5 hurricane strength on its journey. It later crossed over Guadeloupe and St. Croix on September 17 and 18 as a category 4 hurricane. Weakening slightly more, it passed over Puerto Rico as a strong category 3 hurricane. Further weakening occurred several hours after re-emerging into the Atlantic, becoming downgraded to a category 2 hurricane. However, it restrengthened into a category 4 hurricane before making landfall at McClellanville, a small shrimping town up the coast from Charleston, South Carolina on September 21. It had devolved to a remnant low near Lake Erie by the next day.[1] Hurricane Hugo caused 34 fatalities (most by electrocution or drowning) in the Caribbean and 27 in South Carolina,[2] left nearly 100,000 homeless, and resulted in $10 billion (1989 USD) in damage overall, making it the most damaging hurricane ever recorded at the time.[3] Of this total, $7 billion was from the United States and Puerto Rico, ranking it as the costliest storm to impact the country at the time. Since 1989, however, it has been surpassed by multiple storms and now ranks as the eleventh costliest in the United States.[4]

18.1 Meteorological history Hurricane Hugo originated as a tropical wave (which also spawned Hurricane Raymond), which moved off the west coast of Africa on September 9. Soon after moving off the African coast, it was classified as Tropical Depression Eleven southeast of the Cape Verde Islands. Winds were initially 30 mph (48 km/h) but they reached 35 mph (56 km/h) soon after. Moving on a steady westward track at 18 knots (21 mph, 33 k/h), Tropical Depression Eleven steadily intensified, becoming Tropical Storm Hugo on September 11 at 1800 UTC. On September 13, Hugo rapidly intensified, and reached hurricane strength 1265 miles (2035 km) east of the Leeward Is-

Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm according to the Saﬃr–Simpson hurricane wind scale

lands. A low-pressure area to the south caused Hugo to gradually turn to the west-northwest, while the storm was slowly strengthening. Shortly after, Hurricane Hugo began to rapidly intensify; 24 hours after it was classified as a hurricane, it had become a category 2 hurricane. After this bout of rapid strengthening, Hugo began to rapidly deepen, becoming a major hurricane early the next morning.[1] After becoming a major hurricane, Hugo reached Category 4 strength, while moving slowly west-northwest. The hurricane briefly reached category 5 intensity on September 15 at 1800 UTC. Its maximum sustained winds had increased to 160 mph (260 km/h) and the minimum central pressure had dropped to 918 millibars (27.1 inHg). After peaking in intensity as a category 5 hurricane, Hugo weakened slightly to a category 4 hurricane. In the early hours of September 17, Hugo crossed in between Guadeloupe and Montserrat while its winds were near 140 mph (230 km/h), when hurricane-force winds extended only 45 mi (72 km) from the center. Less than 24 hours later, it made another landfall on the island of St. Croix, with the same intensity. That day, Hurricane Hugo also made landfalls in Puerto Rico, in Vieques and Fajardo, though it was slightly weaker.[1] Hugo began to accelerate to the northwest soon after exiting eastern Puerto Rico. On September 18, the hurricane was located a couple of hundred miles east of Florida when it began a more northward track, in response to a steering flow associated with an upper-level

92 low pressure area that was moving across the southeastern United States. Hugo then began to strengthen again, and it reached a secondary peak at 1800 UTC on September 21 as a Category 4 hurricane. The maximum sustained winds were 140 mph (230 km/h), while the minimum central pressure was 944 millibars (27.9 inHg). On September 22 at 0400 UTC, Hugo made landfall on Isle of Palms, South Carolina, at his secondary peak as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saﬃr–Simpson Hurricane Scale. The storm continued inland, and weakened to a Category 1 hurricane as the cloudy eye passed over Charlotte, North Carolina. Hugo continued on the weakening trend weakened to a tropical storm later on the same day over central North Carolina. The storm continued weakening as it moved inland, and on September 23, the storm weakened to a remnant low. Its remnant low continued to accelerate north, and they reached the far northern Atlantic before dissipating on September 25.[1]

18.2 Preparations

CHAPTER 18. HURRICANE HUGO damages in the Caribbean (including $1.8 billion in the USVI).[3] The storm also took USVI television station WBNB-TV off the air by destroying their transmitter. Guadeloupe At 1 am AST on September 17, 1989, Hurricane Hugo made a direct landfall on Grande-Terre in Guadeloupe, pounding the island with incredibly ferocious Category 4 sustained winds of 140 mph (220 km/h). A storm surge of up to eight ft (2.5 m) topped by high battering waves smashed ashore. Hugo wreaked massive devastation on the island, especially in Desirade and Grande-Terre. The hurricane damaged 30% of the buildings on the island and completely destroyed 10,000 homes (most of which were archaic houses), leaving a total of at least 90,000 or nearly 30% of the island’s 340,000 people seriously affected, with 35,000 rendered homeless. 70% of the businesses sustained damages, including hotels, schools and churches. Five people died and 107 were injured. An additional seven people were killed three days after the storm, when a medical helicopter crashed while evacuating victims in Desirade. The storm almost completely destroyed (80%) the towns of le Moule and St. François, on the island’s eastern end. Debris blocked at least 30% of the island’s roads. Agriculture suffered massive losses that took years to recover from, as Hugo flattened 100% of the banana crop, 50% of the sugar cane crop and destroyed nearly all of the island’s coconut palms. In addition, most of Guadeloupe’s fishing fleet was wiped out. Total damage to the island from Hugo amounted to 4 billions francs or $880 million (1989 USD).

Late on September 15, the National Weather Service Office in San Juan, Puerto Rico issued a hurricane watch. On the following day, it was upgraded to a hurricane warning. In addition, the Civil Defense Office of Puerto Rico activated its Disaster Interagency Committee and began to evacuate coastal residents. Savannah was evacuated in anticipation of Hugo, but saw no effects of the storm other than isolated and light showers. Had Hugo hit Savannah, it would have been the first major hurricane to make landfall in Georgia since Hurricane Seven of the 1898 season. Governor Carroll Campbell of South Carolina ordered an evacuation of the South Carolina coast Hugo’s winds knocked the airport control tower out of commission; Raizet Airport anenometer experienced 90 in advance of the storm.[5] mph (144 km/h) sustained winds as well as a 117 mph (187 km/h) sustained gust before failing. Minimal pressure fell to 943 mb (27.79 inHg) as the eye passed after 18.3 Impact midnight.[1] In a French navy marine vessel in Pointe-àPitre bay, gusts reported to reach 184 mph (296 km/h). Hugo caused nearly $7 billion (1989 US$) in damage in Hugo was the strongest storm to impact Guadeloupe the mainland United States and Puerto Rico. At the time since Hurricane Cleo (1964), and the worst storm since it was the costliest hurricane in U.S. history, but was exHurricane Inez (1966). In addition it was the strongest ceeded in 1992 by Hurricane Andrew, and by three other hurricane to hit the island since the legendary 1899, the storms since then. It remains the sixth costliest hurrilongest-lived Atlantic hurricane of all time and the 1928 cane in U.S. history. An additional $3 billion of damages storm. was reported throughout the Caribbean. Therefore, total damages from the storm were near $10 billion (1989 US$).[3] Montserrat Sources differ on the number of people killed by Hugo, with some citing the American Meteorological Society's Strong winds from Hugo pounded the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. Nearly every home on the isfigure of 49, and others claiming 56 deaths.[7] land was damaged to some degree, leaving 11,000 out of 12,000 people, over 90% of the islands residents, homeless. Numerous schools, churches, the hospital, the police 18.3.1 Caribbean department, the government headquarters, and the main Severe damage was reported throughout the islands of the power station, disrupting electrical, water, and telephone Caribbean. The storm caused an estimated $3 billion in service for weeks. A 180 feet (55 m) stone jetty was de-

18.3. IMPACT

stroyed at Plymouth due to a storm surge of 20 feet (6.1 m). Inland, rainfall up to 7 inches (180 mm) created mudslides at the foot of Chances Peak, destroying 21 homes. Ten people were killed, 89 were injured, and damage reached at least $260 million, making it the most expensive hurricane in the history of Montserrat. Tourism and agriculture also suﬀered signiﬁcantly.[8] Additionally, the local bat population was devastated, with an estimated 90 percent decrease in numbers after Hugo’s passage.[9][10] The species Chiroderma improvisum has not been seen on Montserrat since, and it is feared that it may be extinct on the island.[11] Rainfall totals from Hugo in Puerto Rico

United States Virgin Islands The slower speed allowed Hugo to punish the island of St. Croix with the worst beating of any location along the hurricane’s destructive path. At 2 am local time on September 18, Hugo’s eyewall struck St. Croix, bringing Category 4 winds, sustained at 140 mph (230 km/h). The hurricane’s gusts were remarkably violent, and many residents witnessed tornado-like vortices barreling across the island as the hurricane raged about them. A storm surge of 2–3 ft (0.61–0.91 m), topped by battering waves 20–23 ft (6.1–7.0 m) high, assaulted the coast, adding to the destruction. Two people were killed on St. Croix, 80 injured, and 90% of the buildings were damaged or destroyed. Damage estimates for St. Croix were astronomical, over $1 billion, and the island’s entire infrastructure was virtually wiped out. Six weeks after the hurricane, only 25% of the public roads had been cleared, and only 25% of the island had power.”[12] On the island of St. Thomas, the damage was bad but not nearly as extensive. Television station WBNB-TV channel 10 (the local CBS affiliate) had its transmitter completely destroyed by Hurricane Hugo. The station would not return to the air, because of the damages, and the owners’ inability to afford repairs. Many business were destroyed. West Indies Transport had operated several businesses in Krum Bay, St. Thomas, including a dry dock, a ship repair facility, and a barge towing company. In UNITED STATES v. WEST INDIES TRANSPORT INC 96 7063 WIT 96 7064 96 7065 it was written that “Hurricane Hugo seriously damaged some of the barges, shifting them from their permitted positions. West Indies Transport did not attempt to repair, reposition, or salvage these barges after the storm. Instead, it used these barges as docks, repair facilities, and housing for employees in their new unauthorized locations.” [13] The company officers were charged and convicted of environmental and other crimes and ordered to pay restitution in excess of a million dollars to the U.S. in 1997.

astated, with the banana and coﬀee crops being almost completely wiped out. Heavy rains caused severe ﬂooding in the vicinity of San Juan; in addition, several roads and bridges were washed away.[10] In all, 12 deaths in Puerto Rico are attributed to Hugo,[6] six of which occurred in the southern city of Guayama where some residents were electrocuted by downed power lines. Nearly 28,000 people were left homeless by the storm as damages exceeded $1 billion.[10]

18.3.2 United States The storm caused $7 billion in damage in the United States, surpassing Hurricane Frederic of 1979 as the costliest tropical cyclone in that country. Hugo itself was surpassed by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and several others over the next few decades.[14] South Carolina suffered the worst impact, where Hugo made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane. In that state alone, 3,307 single family homes were destroyed, 18,171 were inflicted major damage, and 56,580 sustained minor impact, while more than 12,600 mobile homes and 18,000 multi–family houses were either damaged or destroyed.[15] Losses reached at least $5.9 billion and there were thirty-five fatalities reported in South Carolina.[16][17] There was also significant impact in North Carolina, where 205 structures were destroyed, 1,149 were severely damaged, and 2,638 suffered minor losses.[17] One fatality occurred and damage in North Carolina reached about $1 billion.[18] Florida and Georgia

Impact in Florida was very minimal. The highest sustained winds in the state reached only 21 mph (34 km/h) in Jacksonville. At the same location, a trace of rainfall was also reported. Conditions were even lesser in St. Augustine, though wind gusts were slightly higher than in Jacksonville. To the north in Georgia, minor storm surge was reported, with the highest measured as 1.4 feet Puerto Rico (0.43 m) above normal in Fort Pulaski. Sustained winds Damage in Puerto Rico was severe, especially in the east- of 58 mph (93 km/h) was reported at The Tybee Island ern part of the island. The agricultural sector was dev- Light House, and this was the only record of tropical

CHAPTER 18. HURRICANE HUGO

storm force winds in Georgia. Near tropical storm force winds were measured at the Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport, along with 6.1 inches (150 mm) of rain. High winds in Brunswick downed ﬁve trees, one of which struck a house. Additionally, winds felled at least 50 trees in the Savannah area, and two homes were struck. Scattered downed tree limbs were also reported in Hinesville and Bryan County, though no damage occurred.[17]

South Carolina Hugo proved to be devastating to beachfront property

storm surge. On Sullivan’s Island, water destroyed two or three rows of beach houses in some areas. At Isle of Palms, boats harbored at the marina were washed ashore and piled into a large heap. Losses at Sullivan’s Island and Isle of Palms reached nearly $270 million.[17]

Mobile homes destroyed by Hugo’s storm surge

Because it was a Category 4 hurricane at landfall, the storm brought strong winds to many areas of South Carolina. In Downtown Charleston, sustained winds of 87 mph (140 km/h) were reported, along with gusts of 108 mph (174 km/h). The local National Weather Service oﬃce at Charleston International Airport recorded sustained winds of 78 mph (126 km/h) and gusts up to 97 mph (156 km/h). In Folly Beach, sustained winds of 85 mph (137 km/h) and a gust of 107 mph (172 km/h) were reported. The strongest wind gust of 120 mph (190 km/h) was recorded by the Snow Goose, which was anchored along the Sampit River near Georgetown. Extensive property damage was reported in several counties, especially in the South Carolina Lowcountry and the Grand Strand. More than 227,800 residences experienced power outages, and 85% of Bamberg and Orangeburg Counties were left without electricity, while Marion County became completely void of electrical services.[17] Extensive losses reaching $1 billion were reported at Francis Marion National Forest, with about 8,800 square miles (23,000 km2 ) of trees were downed, enough timber to build 660,000 homes.[19]

Rainfall was moderate, due to the storm’s fast motion, peaking at 10.28 in (261 mm) at Edisto Island.[20] No widespread flooding was reported, though a combination of rain and strong winds resulted in significant agriculture losses. The Red Cross estimates that 3,307 single family homes were destroyed, 18,171 were inflicted major damage, and 56,580 sustained minor impact. Additionally, more than 12,600 mobile homes and 18,000 multi-family houses were either damaged or destroyed.[15] Damage from Hurricane Hugo in South Carolina was estimated at $5.9 billion.[16] Hugo remains the strongest and costliest hurricane in the history of the state.[21] There were 35 deaths, two from asphyxiation, four from collapsing houses, two from falling trees, nine from fire and smoke inhalation, six from drowning, four from electrocutions, six from heart attacks, one fatal accidental self–injury during clean–up, and one from unknown cause.[17] North Carolina North Carolina’s coastline suffered significant damage along its southward-facing beaches, including Brunswick County and the Outer Banks. The storm reached Charlotte only six hours after landfall, not having slowed down when reaching land. By this time, it was still a fairly strong tropical storm with sustained winds of 54 mph (87 km/h) and gusts of 87 mph (140 km/h).[22] This was enough to topple trees across roads and houses, leaving many without power, closing schools for as long as two weeks, and spawning several tornadoes. The storm took many in the area by surprise. Charlotte is roughly 150 miles (240 km) inland, and many coastal residents from both Carolinas went there to wait out the storm.

Storm surge and rough tides also caused extensive damage, especially in Charleston County. The highest storm surge observation was 20.2 feet (6.2 m) at Seewee Bay near McClellanville. Prior to the storm, residents of McClellanville took shelter in the cafeteria at Lincoln High School. However, storm surge ﬂooded the room, with some people climbing up to the rafters for safety. A portion of the Ben Sawyer Bridge – linking Mount Pleasant By 7:00 am, it was still strong enough to cause heavy rain to Sullivan’s Island – collapsed due to strong winds and and tear down hundreds of trees in Conover.[23]

18.4. AFTERMATH

95 winds caused minor property damage, while falling trees and tree limbs brieﬂy left up to 30,000 customers without electricity. Gusty winds in Massachusetts left several thousand people without power, while also toppling trees and tree limbs, which caused minor damage to houses and cars. Additionally, apple orchards were impacted, with some losing up to their 30% of their crops. Strong winds throughout the state of Vermont downed power lines, trees, and tree limbs. Some boats on Lake Champlain were torn from their moorings due to swells up to several feet in height. In Rhode Island, the outer fringes of the remnants of Hugo produced wind gusts between 40 and 50 mph (64 and 80 km/h), causing minor property damage and scattered power outages.

Rainfall totals from Hugo in the continental United States

18.3.3 Canada

Damages in that state alone estimated at $1 billion (1989 After becoming extratropical, the remnants of Hugo enUSD, $1.91 billion 2016 USD).[18] tered Canada into the province of Ontario. In the Niagara Falls area, winds between 37 and 43 mph (60 and 70 km/h) were reported. Winds near 47 mph (75 km/h) Mid-Atlantic were also reported in Toronto. Heavy rainfall also occurred in Ontario, with precipitation in Ontario peakThe ocean liner Queen Elizabeth 2 which had sailed from ing at 4.5 in (110 mm), while a maximum amount of Southampton on September 17 encountered the hurri- 1.85 in (47 mm) was reported in Toronto. As a result cane and was delayed for two extra days at sea, having of the storm, blackouts and car accidents were reported initially attempted to sail at full speed south to outrun the in Toronto. Furthermore, heavy rains and high winds also storm and cross the Atlantic, behind it, to New York. The occurred across the southern portions of Ontario.[26] ship had much damage to the public parts of the vessel, including the shops and the bridge; the swimming The remnants of Hugo tracked northeastward and entered pools were all emptied to prevent large amounts of wa- the Canadian province of Quebec. In Montreal, rainter shifting precariously as the ship pitched and tossed. fall reached only 0.43 in (11 mm), while precipitation Hugo moved quickly through western Virginia, West Vir- amounts in the province peaked at 3.73 in (95 mm). In ginia, and eastern Ohio to Erie, Pennsylvania. By the addition to light rain, high winds were reported in the evening of September 22, it became an extratropical cy- province. Winds in Montreal gusted up to 59 mph (95 clone. Hugo caused schools in southwest Virginia to be km/h), leaving 13,400 homes without electricity. 7,400 closed for more than two weeks because of the wind and residence in Verdun and West Island also lost electricity flooding damage. Winds peaked at 37 mph (60 km/h) at when tree fell on power lines; it was restored about 12 hours later. While in Brossard and Chambly power was Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.[24] lost to 5,000 homes and 1,000 homes in Valleyfield. In In New York, downed power lines due to strong winds addition, high winds and heavy rainfall also occurred in left nearly 85,000 homes and businesses on Long Island the St. Lawrence River Valley.[26] without electricity. In the central portions of the state, winds downed several trees. The last death in relation to Similar effects were reported in New Brunswick, though Hurricane Hugo occurred near Buffalo when the winds little rainfall occurred in the province. Winds gusting to toppled a tree onto a motorist. The storm then moved 77 mph (124 km/h) was reported in Moncton. As a renortheastward across eastern Canada into the far North sult of high winds, power poles were toppled and tree branches fell, which caused most of New Brunswick’s Atlantic Ocean.[25] 15,000 power failures. In addition, several tree and signs were blown over in Saint John and Moncton. New England The storm also significantly affected the apple crop in New Brunswick. Strong winds were also reported in In Connecticut, wind gusts associated with the remnants Newfoundland, with gusts recorded up to 43 mph (69 of Hugo peaked at 49 mph (79 km/h) in Bridgeport. The km/h).[26]

CHAPTER 18. HURRICANE HUGO from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and picked up by NBC and aired as part of the nightly news. This was credited as the first “official” eye witness footage shown on U.S. national television. About 20 years later, Weather Underground member Jeff Masters wrote and described his experience on Saint Croix during the hurricane, noting that “in some respects, after 20 years, there and many aspects of the society that have yet to recover”.

18.4.3 United States Damage in Charleston, South Carolina

18.4 Aftermath 18.4.1

Red Cross response

Extensive relief aid was provided throughout by the Salvation Army, the Red Cross, and various churches.

18.4.2

Saint Croix

After the storm, Governor Carroll Campbell said that the storm destroyed enough timber in South Carolina to “frame a home for every family in the state of West Virginia". An immense salvage effort was undertaken to harvest downed pine trees for pulpwood before they deteriorated to the point where they could not be used. Still standing timber that appeared usable for lumber and plywood frequently had annular separations of the rings that made them dangerous to saw and nearly impossible to cut into plies, so they were also downgraded into pulpwood, leading to such a drop in pulpwood prices that eventually much of the salvage effort ceased.[30] In South Carolina, which bore the brunt of the storm, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was slow in responding. United States Senator from South Carolina Fritz Hollings referred to the agency as “a bunch of bureaucratic jackasses” during a speech on the floor of the United States Senate. An investigation was launched, which led to some reforms in FEMA procedures that helped the agency do a somewhat better job during Hurricane Andrew, the next catastrophic hurricane to strike the United States. However, FEMA was criticized severely in 2005 for its similarly insufficient response to Hurricane Katrina.[31]

On the island of Saint Croix, looting and lawlessness reigned in the aftermath of Hugo. In Operation Hawkeye, then-President of the United States George H. W. Bush ordered federal forces to Saint Croix to suppress the violence, protect property, and restore law and order. Elements of the Army, Navy and the Coast Guard, along with a contingent from the U.S. Marshals Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), formed Joint Task Force (JTF) 40 for Operation Hawkeye.[27] It also resulted in the ﬁrst operational deployment of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), when the New Mexico-1 Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) was deployed to assist in medical care needs of the stricken island.[28] Three days after the storm hit, the 18.4.4 Retirement Governor of the United States Virgin Islands Alexander Farrelly asked President Bush for federal assistance in See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricane names restoring order to the island.[27] National Basketball Association player Tim Duncan, born in Christiansted and a two-time NBA MVP, of the San Antonio Spurs attributed his basketball career to Hurricane Hugo’s destruction. When Tim was 13 years old he was a competitive swimmer who was considered one of the top United States competitors for the 400meter freestyle. However, in the aftermath of Hugo, every swimming pool on Saint Croix was destroyed, including the Olympic-size swimming pool. With no pool to practice in, Duncan turned to basketball. Tim Duncan said, “I'm very fortunate to be where I am today. Without Hugo, I might still be swimming.”[29] A resident of St. Croix recorded the hurricane and aftermath on a VHS video camera. After being evacuated from the island days later, the video footage was aired on WGAL channel 8

Due to the extensive damage, the name Hugo was retired following this storm, and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane.[32] It was replaced with Humberto in the 1995 season.[33]

18.5 See also • List of retired Atlantic hurricane names • List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes • List of North Carolina hurricanes (1980–)

18.6. REFERENCES

18.6 References [1] Lawrence, Miles (November 15, 1989). Preliminary Report: Hurricane Hugo (PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. pp. 1–2, 7. Retrieved August 26, 2012. [2] Committee on Natural Disasters, Board on Natural Disasters, National Research Council (1994). Hurricane Hugo, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Charleston, South Carolina, September 17–22, 1989. The National Academies Press. pp. 3, 166. ISBN 978-0-309-07680-7. [3] Landsea, Christopher (2004). “Costliest U.S. Hurricanes 1900–2004 (unadjusted)". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved January 26, 2010. [4] Blake, Eric; Landsea, Christopher; Gibney, Ethan (August 2011). The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts) (PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. p. 11. Retrieved August 26, 2012. [5] Smith, Bruce (September 23, 1989). “Ravenel one who ignored the warning, staying home” (PDF). The Times and Democrat. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 3, 2010. Retrieved January 26, 2010. [6] Grammatico, Michael (April 2006). “Hurricane Hugo – September 22, 1989”. Archived from the original on October 26, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2010.

[15] Claire B. Rubin and Roy Popkin (January 1990). Disaster Recovery After Hurricane Hugo In South Carolina (PDF). George Washington University (Report) (Boulder, Colorado: University of Colorado). pp. 3–4. Retrieved March 22, 2013. [16] J.M. Watson (September 15, 1997). Coastal Conflicts (Report). Reston, Virginia: United States Geological Survey. Retrieved March 25, 2013. [17] Jay Hollifield and S.C. Lackey. Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena: September 1989 (PDF). National Climatic Data Center (Report) (Asheville, North Carolina: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). pp. 46–49. Retrieved March 22, 2013. [18] “Hurricane Hugo”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 30, 2009. Retrieved December 19, 2010. [19] J. M. Saveland and D. D. Wade (1991). Fire Management Ramifications Of Hurricane Hugo (PDF) (Report). Branch, Georgia: United States Forest Service. p. 1. Retrieved March 22, 2013. [20] David M. Roth (July 28, 2008). Hurricane Hugo – September 17–24, 1989 (Report). College Park, Maryland: Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved March 22, 2013. [21] South Carolina Hurricane Climatology (Report). Columbia, South Carolina: South Carolina State Climatology Office. Retrieved March 22, 2013.

[7] Beven, Jack (April 22, 1997). “The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996”. National Hurricane Center. Retrieved January 26, 2010.

[22] McClain, Kathleen (September 23, 1989). “For City, a Turn for the Worse”. The Charlotte Observer.

[8] Montserrat Hurricane – Sept 1989 (Report). International Rescue Corps. May 16, 2012. Retrieved March 23, 2013.

[23] “Hurricane Hugo”. Michigan Technological University. Archived from the original on June 11, 2010. Retrieved December 19, 2010.

[9] United Kingdom – Montserrat (Report). Commonwealth Secretariat. 2009. Retrieved March 23, 2013. [10] Michael York (September 19, 1989). “Deadly Hugo Slams Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands”. Washington Post. Retrieved May 3, 2010. [11] Scott Pedersen (2000). Blown in, Blown oﬀ, and Blown up: the Bats of Montserrat, BWI (Report). University of Washington. Retrieved May 3, 2010. [12] Masters, Jeﬀery. “Remembering Hurricane Hugo (Day 10)". Weather Underground. Retrieved December 19, 2010.

[24] David M. Roth (March 1, 2007). “Virginia Hurricane History: Late Twentieth Century”. Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved March 18, 2010. [25] Masters, Jeﬀery. “Remembering Hurricane Hugo (Day 14)". Weather Underground. Retrieved March 25, 2011. [26] “1989-Hugo”. Environment Canada. 2009. Retrieved August 16, 2011.

September 14,

[27] “Operation Hawkeye”. GlobalSecurity.org. [28] “Disaster deployments by the NM1-DMAT”. University of New Mexico. Retrieved December 19, 2010.

[13] http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-3rd-circuit/1233261. html

[29] “Tim Duncan biography”. JockBios. Retrieved December 19, 2010.

[14] Eric S. Blake and Ethan Gibney (August 2011). The Deadliest, Costliest, And Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones From 1851 To 2010 (And Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts) (PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report) (Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). p. 9. Retrieved March 22, 2013.

[30] Noah, Mickey (August 26, 2009). “Hugo, 20 years ago, was disaster relief catalyst”. Baptist Press. Retrieved August 23, 2011. [31] Washburn, Gary. "Daley 'shocked' at federal snub of offers to help.” Chicago Tribune. September 2, 2005. Retrieved on July 15, 2006.

[32] National Hurricane Center (2011). “Retired Hurricane Names Since 1954”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 27, 2011. [33] The Daily Gleaner (June 1, 1991). “The changing faces of a cyclone”. Retrieved January 3, 2009.

18.7 Further reading • Scatena, F. N.; Larsen, M. C. (1991). “Physical Aspects of Hurricane Hugo in Puerto Rico”. Biotropica 23 (4): 317–323. doi:10.2307/2388247. JSTOR 2388247.

18.8 External links • 1989 NHC Hugo Report • 1994 NAS/NRC Hugo Report • Hunting Hugo • Operation Hawkeye • NOAA Hugo history • Another NOAA Hugo history • NWS Service Assessment 1990 NDS Report • HPC Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Climatology

CHAPTER 18. HURRICANE HUGO

Chapter 19

Mount Pleasant, South Carolina For other uses, see Mount Pleasant (disambiguation). Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter “incorporated” (this message is shown only in preview).

and abundance of good timber made it ideal for a prosperous shipbuilding enterprise. Lands adjacent to Hobcaw Point were owned at diﬀerent times by several diﬀerent families, many of which maintained ferries which served Mount Pleasant.

Mount Pleasant is a large suburban town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. It is the fourthlargest municipality in South Carolina, and for several years it was one of the state’s fastest-growing areas, doubling in population between 1990 and 2000. The population was 67,843 at the 2010 census,[1] and the estimated population in 2014 was 77,796.[2] It is the third-largest municipality in the Charleston – North Charleston – Summerville metropolitan area, behind Charleston and North Charleston. At the foot of the Arthur Ravenel Bridge is Patriots Point, a naval and maritime museum, home to the World War II aircraft carrier USS Yorktown, which is now a museum ship. The Ravenel Bridge, an eight-lane highway that was completed in 2005, spans the Cooper River and links Exploring the marshes Mount Pleasant with the city of Charleston.[5] On September 24, 1860, a public meeting was held in Mount Pleasant that produced the first secession resolution of the state. The secession convention met in 19.1 History Charleston on December 20, 1860. With the advent of the Civil War, Battery Guerry and an adjacent floatThe site of Mount Pleasant was originally occupied ing battery between Mount Pleasant and Sullivan’s Island by the Sewee people, an Algonquian language-speaking were instrumental in defense of the town, as well as attribe. The first white settlers arrived from England on tacks on Fort Sumter. The town was also defended by a July 6, 1680, under the leadership of Captain Florentia line of fortifications from Elliot’s Creek at Boone Hall to O'Sullivan. Captain O'Sullivan had been granted 2,340 Copahee Sound. Mount Pleasant was the secret training acres (950 ha), which included not only the island that ground for the nine-man crew of the Confederate submabears his name, but also the land that was to become rine H. L. Hunley. It was from Breach Inlet in 1864 that Mount Pleasant. On the earliest map of the time this area this small vessel was launched to attack and sink the USS was called “North Point”.[6] Housatonic. In 1696, 51 new settlers arrived. Each family was allotted The original plank-and-barrel constructed footbidge, several hundred acres in the area that became known as later known as the Pitt Street Bridge at the foot of the Christ Church parish. In 1706 the Province of Carolina Old Village area in Mount Pleasant, is the point where the withstood several attacks by the Spanish and the French crew of the H.L. Hunley crossed en route to Breach Infrom their settlements to the south and were victorious in let to test-pilot the famous submarine. The original plank defeating French invaders in an area known as “Abcaw”. bridge was replaced by a trolley bridge in 1899, before The area of “Abcaw” was Hobcaw Plantation, located be- a steel drawbridge was built for vehicle access between tween Shem Creek and the Wando River. Later, it was Sullivan’s Island and Mount Pleasant in 1929. The Pitt also known as Shipyard Plantation because its deep water Street bridge was dismantled in 1945, and the remains 99

100

View from the old Pitt Street Bridge in Old Village

CHAPTER 19. MOUNT PLEASANT, SOUTH CAROLINA

Fishing boats on Shem Creek

can still be seen in the Intracostal Waterway. The area has to see musical legends like Duke Ellington, Count Basie, been maintained since then as the Pickett Bridge Recre- Louis Armstrong, B.B. King, and Ivory Joe Hunter. Muation Area,[7] named after the town’s doctor Otis Pickett. sic performances at the Pavilion spawned juke joints, or The “Old Village” is Mount Pleasant’s oldest neighbor- night clubs, in Scanlonville and eventually a hotel called hood; the oldest home, 111 Hibben Street (the Hibben White’s Paradise – where James Brown was known to House) was constructed in 1755 by Jacob Motte.[8] The have frequented. After the original park owner died in Old Village is centered on the Pitt Street Shops at the 1975, operations of the Riverside property were taken northwestern end of Pitt Street, home to the Pitt Street over by Charleston County. It eventually sold the propPharmacy which was featured on the Food Network[9] erty to a real estate company that developed the land as a [11] and has been in business at this location for more than private gated community. 60 years. On September 21, 1989, Mount Pleasant was hit by As a result of the Civil War, slaves were freed Hurricane Hugo, a Category Four hurricane. While the who had worked the area plantations; in 1875 in town was spared from the worst of the storm (Category Charleston County, 73% of the population was African 4 conditions were suffered by areas further north of the American.[10] Some developed Scanlonville, one of the town), the town and its neighboring barrier islands were first African-American communities to be formed in the still hard-hit. Children who lived through the storm were Charleston area after the Civil War, and which still exists featured in an early episode of Nickelodeon's Nick News, today within Mount Pleasant. Robert Scanlon, a former along with children from Hurricane Andrew. The town slave and freedman carpenter, purchased the 614-acre experienced its largest growth spurt a year after the storm (248 ha) property known as Remley’s Plantation, border- as more people moved to the area, increasing in a decade ing Charleston harbor along the Wando River in Mount from a population of roughly 23,000 in 1990 to one of Pleasant. Robert Scanlon was the president and founder roughly 47,000 in 2000. of the Charleston Land Company, formed by 100 poor Mount Pleasant is separated from Charleston by the African-American men of Charleston who pooled their Cooper River. For many years, the town was primarresources and paid $10 per share to purchase large tracts ily populated seasonally by Charleston residents wealthy of land in the area. The Charleston Land Company di- enough to afford summer homes across the river from the vided it into lots for freedmen seeking to own their own Charleston peninsula. The population of Mount Pleasant land. Remley’s Plantation was divided into farm lots and was centered in an area of the town now known as the town lots (which were smaller) to form the community of “Old Village”.[6] Scanlonville. The Charleston Land Company and Scanlonville are one of four known cooperative real estate de- The county seat for Berkeley County was located in velopment ventures among African-American freedmen Mount Pleasant from 1882 until 1895, when it was moved to Moncks Corner. after the Civil War. West of Scanlonville is Riverside, formerly the largest In 1928, a bridge from the Charleston Peninsula to Mount and oldest of five black beaches in Charleston County, Pleasant was built. Spanning Town Creek and the Cooper established when public facilities were segregated under River and crossing the uninhabited Drum Island, the twostate law. Riverside officially opened in 1930 and fea- lane Grace Memorial Bridge was opened as a toll bridge. tured a dance pavilion, athletics field, bathhouse, play- A second and larger bridge, the Silas N. Pearman Bridge, ground and a boardwalk along the Wando River. River- opened in 1966. side Pavilion was the only venue for black Charlestonians On July 16, 2005, the eight-lane Arthur Ravenel Bridge

19.3. AIRPORT

101 According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 52.6 square miles (136.2 km2 ), of which 45.1 square miles (116.8 km2 ) is land and 7.5 square miles (19.5 km2 ), or 14.30%, is water.[1]

19.3 Airport The town of Mount Pleasant is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of Mount Pleasant. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Shem Creek Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John’s Island section of the city opened for automotive traffic, replacing the two aging of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. bridges. A week before the new bridge, one of the Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston longest cable-stayed bridges in the Western Hemisphere, County Aviation Authority. officially opened, pedestrians were allowed to cross the bridge, and commemorative coins were distributed. Also, a fireworks display was a part of the ceremonies leading up to the actual opening of the bridge. Several cars 19.4 Demographics from the same time period as the Grace Memorial Bridge, including several restored Model A Fords, made a final As of the census of 2010,[3] there were 67,843 peocrossing of the old bridges.[6] The remaining portions of ple, 19,025 households, and 12,860 families residing in the old bridges were demolished. Local residents watched the town. The population density was 1,136.5 people as the bridges were explosively demolished over several per square mile (438.8/km²). There were 20,197 housweeks, through the summer of 2006. ing units at an average density of 482.1 per square mile In 2004, Mount Pleasant became one of the first cities (186.2/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 90.17% in the United States to pass a “pay-before-you-pump” gas White, 7.25% African American, 0.17% Native Amerordinance.[12] ican, 1.18% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.39% from The Auld Mound, Buzzard’s Island Site, Christ Church, other races, and 0.82% from two or more races. Hispanic Cook’s Old Field Cemetery, Long Point Plantation or Latino of any race were 1.33% of the population. (38CH321), Lucas Family Cemetery, Mount Pleasant Historic District, Oakland Plantation House, Old Berkeley County Courthouse, Paul Pritchard Shipyard, Remley Point Cemetery, Slave Street, Smokehouse, and Allee, Boone Hall Plantation, Charles Pinckney National Historic Site, USS Clamagore (SS-343), USS Laffey (DD724), and USS Yorktown (CV-10) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[13]

There were 19,025 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.9% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% were non-families. 24.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.99.

In the town the age distribution of the population shows 25.1% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 35.3% from 25 to 44, 22.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 19.2 Geography 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. Mount Pleasant is located in central Charleston County For every 100 females there were 92.0 males. For every at 32°49′23″N 79°50′44″W / 32.82306°N 79.84556°W 100 adult females, there were 88.3 adult males. (32.823189, −79.845477), on the east side of Charleston The median income for a household in the town was Harbor and the tidal Wando River. It is bordered to the $61,054, and the median income for a family was south by the town of Sullivan’s Island and to the west $71,165. Males had a median income of $50,673 versus and northwest, across the harbor and river, by the city $31,640 for females. The per capita income for the town of Charleston. Over time, the town limits have pushed was $30,823. About 3.2% of families and 5.0% of the northeastward from the Old Village area 24 miles (39 km) population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over. along U.S. Route 17, nearly as far as Awendaw.

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CHAPTER 19. MOUNT PLEASANT, SOUTH CAROLINA

19.5 Broadcast television These TV stations have studios in and broadcast from Mount Pleasant: • WCBD-TV (2, NBC, CW): owned by Media General • WCIV-TV (4, ABC, MeTV): owned by (Allbritton Communications)

19.6 Government The town is run by an elected mayor–council government. The town council is composed of the mayor (Linda Page) and eight at-large council members (Bob Brimmer, Joe Bustos, Elton Carrier, Paul Gawrych, Will Haynie, Jim Owens, Gary Santos, Mark Smith).[16] The appointed town administrator is Eric DeMoura.[17]

population. The police department, which is a nationally accredited agency, sanctioned by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, has adopted the problem-oriented policing philosophy of service delivery, which requires officers to work together with citizens to identify community problems, determine the underlying cause, and develop solutions which address these causes in order to resolve the problem. Led by Chief Carl Ritchie, the police response time to the majority of the calls for service beats the national average. The department has divided the town of Mount Pleasant, which encompasses 52 square miles (135 km2 ), into seven patrol neighborhoods. Each patrol neighborhood is assigned to a specific officer on each shift, who is responsible for maintaining protection and problem resolution on a continuing basis. The Mount Pleasant Police Department was featured in the November 1996 issue of Good Housekeeping as one of the Top Eight Suburban Police Departments in the nation.

19.8 Climate 19.7 Public safety 19.7.1

Fire and emergency services

19.9 Notable people • Ben Bridwell, lead singer of Band of Horses

The Mount Pleasant Fire Department has provided fire • Travis Jervey, former NFL player with the Green suppression and emergency services since 1837, initially Bay Packers, San Francisco 49ers, and Atlanta Falas a volunteer agency, and today as a full-time fire departcons, Super Bowl Champion 1996, Pro Bowl 1997 ment. Today, the fire department has 118 paid personnel augmented by 15 volunteers. It is internationally accred• Ronald Motley, trial lawyer ited by the Commission on Fire Accreditation Interna• Darius Rucker, country singer/songwriter tional (CFAI). The Mt. Pleasant Fire Department was originally accredited in 2001 becoming the first accred• Melanie Thornton, American/German R&B, pop, ited fire department in the state of South Carolina. Firedance singer fighters work twenty-four hour rotating shifts. The corporate area and its surroundings are served by seven strate• D. J. Trahan, PGA Tour golfer gically located fire stations. The fire department administrative office is located within the Town Municipal Com• Abraham J. Turner, major general of the United plex. Mount Pleasant fire stations are staffed daily by 33 States Army personnel. In 2007, under the supervision of Chief Herb • Steve Wood, Anglican bishop Williams and Captain Robert Wronski, the Mount Pleasant Fire Department established a “Paramedic Engine” program, in which firefighters trained as Paramedics will carry the same equipment on the fire engines as in the 19.10 Schools ambulances. Currently, all engines in Mt Pleasant are now operating as “Paramedic Engines”. This means in Mount Pleasant’s public schools are part of the Charleston the event Charleston County EMS is delayed, the Mount County School District.[21] Pleasant Fire Department will be able to provide lifesaving procedures until the ambulance arrives.

19.10.1 Elementary schools (public) 19.7.2

Police

The Mount Pleasant Police Department, a 2006 CALEA Flagship Award recipient,[18] employs 132 sworn oﬃcers and 43 civilian personnel, serving the entire municipal

• Belle Hall Elementary School • Charles Pinckney Elementary School • East Cooper Montessori Charter School

19.11. COUNTY PARKS

103

• James B. Edwards Elementary School • Jennie Moore Elementary School • Laurel Hill Primary School • Mount Pleasant Academy • Whitesides Elementary School

19.10.2

Middle schools (public)

• East Cooper Montessori Charter School • Laing Middle School

Boardwalk at Palmetto Islands County Park

19.11 County parks

• Moultrie Middle School • Thomas Cario Middle School Both Laing Middle School and Moultrie Middle School served as the town’s high schools before Wando High School was built in 1973.

The Charleston County Park and Recreation Commission (CCPRC) operates numerous facilities within Charleston County. The following are in Mount Pleasant.[22] • Mt. Pleasant Pier- Cooper River • Palmetto Islands County Park

19.10.3

High schools (public)

• Wando High School

• Splash Island at Palmetto Islands County Park • Laurel Hill County Park • Future Park—oﬀ of Riﬂe Range Road

19.10.4

Private schools

• Christ Our King-Stella Maris Catholic School (Catholic Diocese of Charleston)

• Shem Creek Pier- Shem Creek

19.12 Shopping

• Grades K-8 Mount Pleasant is growing in commercial retail stores, • Coastal Christian Preparatory School (formerly boutiques, including: First Baptist Church School of Mt. Pleasant) • Grades K-12

• Mount Pleasant Towne Centre

•

• Belle Hall Shopping Center

•

• The Market at Oakland

• Palmetto Christian Academy (operated by East Cooper Baptist Church) • Preschool-12th grade • Crown Leadership Academy • Preschool-12th grade • Palmetto Christian Academy (operated by East Cooper Baptist Church) • Preschool-12th grade • Trident Academy • University School of the Lowcountry

19.13 References [1] “Geographic Identiﬁers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Mount Pleasant town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factﬁnder. Retrieved June 29, 2015. [2] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014 (PEPANNRES): South Carolina Incorporated Places”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved June 29, 2015. [3] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-05-14.

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[4] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [5] “The Pulse Real Estate Charleston, SC » Mt. Pleasant”. thepulsecharleston.com. [6] “Mt. Pleasant”. Charleston Private Boat Tours. [7] “Crisp, Adam. Otis Picket Bridge Recreation Area (Pitt Street Bridge)"". mountpleasant-sc.patch.com. Retrieved 8 February 2013. [8] “Eddleman, Joe. A Survey of Historic Homes & Building in the Old Village of Mt. Pleasant, SC". mountpleasantsc.patch.com. Retrieved 8 February 2013. [9] “Brown, Alton. The South Shall Fry Again, Episode AB0101”. foodnetwork.com. Retrieved 29 July 2006. [10] Melinda Meeks Hennessy, “Racial Violence During Reconstruction: The 1876 Riots in Charleston and Cainhoy”, South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 86, No. 2, (April 1985), 104-106 (subscription required) [11] “Mount Pleasant, SC - Official Website - Scanlonville”. tompsc.com. [12] “Rising gas prices mean more thievery at pumps”. Rutland Herald. June 5, 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-17. [13] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [14] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [15] “U.S. Decennial Census”. Census.gov. Retrieved February 17, 2015. [16] “Town Council”. Town of Mount Pleasant. Retrieved January 2, 2015. [17] “Town Administrator”. Town of Mount Pleasant. Retrieved January 2, 2015. [18] “Calea Flagship Agency Program”. calea.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. [19] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2012. [20] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010. [21] “Schools directory”. Charleston County School District. Archived from the original on 2007-08-29. Retrieved 2008-01-17. [22] “Charleston County Parks and Recreation - Official Website”. ccprc.com.

• See section 5 for deﬁnition and proper use of Metropolitan Statistical Area

CHAPTER 19. MOUNT PLEASANT, SOUTH CAROLINA

19.14 External links • Oﬃcial website • Real Estate Market • The Post and Courier, Charleston Metro Area newspaper • Patriot’s Point Naval and Maritime Museum • Mount Pleasant at DMOZ [1] “South Carolina (USA): State, Major Cities, Towns & Places”. City Population. February 19, 2011. Retrieved Oct 29, 2014.

Chapter 20

Summerville, South Carolina Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or unknown parameter “slogan” (this message is shown only Latino of any race were 5.0% of the population. in preview). There were 16,181 households out of which 38.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% Summerville is a town in the U.S. state of South Carolina were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female situated mostly in Dorchester County with small portions householder with no husband present, and 31.0% were in Berkeley and Charleston counties. It is part of the non-families. 25.3% of all households were made up of Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville Metropolitan individuals and 8.8% had someone living alone who was Statistical Area. The population of Summerville at the 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2010 census was 43,392,[3] and the estimated population 2.55. was 44,719 as of July 1, 2013. In the town, 27.0% of the population was under the age of 18, and 10.5% was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.7 years.

20.1 Geography

The median income for a household in the town was $54,677. About 11.2% of the population was below the The center of Summerville is in southeastern Dorchester poverty line. The median value of an owner-occupied County; the town extends northeast into Berkeley and home was $182,000. Charleston counties. It is bordered to the east by the town of Lincolnville and to the southeast by the city of North The town has an abundance of affordable houses and Charleston. The Summerville town limits extend south as lower taxes than cities such as Charleston and North far as the Ashley River next to Old Fort Dorchester State Charleston, and has thus experienced rapid population growth. In 2007, it was designated a principal Historical Park. city of the Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville U.S. Route 78 passes near the center of Summerville, Metropolitan Statistical Area[5] Summerville is also inleading southeast 24 miles (39 km) to downtown cluded as part of the Charleston-North Charleston UrbanCharleston and northwest 29 miles (47 km) to Interstate ized area. Dorchester School District Two is the school 95 at St. George. Interstate 26 leads through the north- district for Summerville and the wider area, and is based east corner of Summerville with access from Exit 199, in the town. leading southeast to Charleston and northwest 90 miles (140 km) to Columbia. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 18.1 square miles (47.0 km2 ), of which 20.3 History 18.0 square miles (46.7 km2 ) is land and 0.12 square miles (0.3 km2 ), or 0.62%, is water.[3] The first settlement in Summerville began following the American Revolutionary War; it was referred to as Pineland Village in 1785. Development in the area resulted from plantation owners who resided in the 20.2 Demographics Charleston area, and who came to Summerville to escape [6] [1] As of the census of 2010, there were 43,392 people re- seasonal insects and swamp fever. siding in 16,181 households in the town. The population density of Summerville is 2,404.7 inhabitants per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 72.1% White, 21.4% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.6% from other

Summerville became an official town in 1847. In that year, the town passed a law against cutting down trees of particular sizes, the first of such laws in the United States, and a $25 fine was issued upon any who did so without permission. Today, the motto upon the town’s official seal

105

106

CHAPTER 20. SUMMERVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA • Chuck Eidson, professional basketball player • Brett Gardner, baseball player for the New York Yankees • A. J. Green, 3-time NFL Pro Bowl wide receiver for the Cincinnati Bengals • Milton Jennings, professional basketball player • John McKissick, high school football coach, winningest football coach at any level

Historic downtown Summerville

reads “Sacra Pinus Esto (The Pine is Sacred).” [7] In 1899, the International Congress of Physicians (or “Tuberculosis Congress”[6] ) listed Summerville to be one of the two best areas in the world for treatment and recovery of lung and throat disorders. It received such notation due to its dry and sandy location, and the many pine trees in the area that release turpentine derivatives into the air. This notation is credited with aiding the commercial and residential development of Summerville.[7] The Ashley River Road, Middleton Place, Colonial Dorchester State Historic Site, Old White Meeting House Ruins and Cemetery, and the Summerville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[8]

20.4 Tourism Starting in 1973, the town of Summerville has hosted the annual Flowertown Festival. It is the largest arts and crafts festival in South Carolina. It is held the ﬁrst weekend of April in the Summerville Azalea Park. In 1925, these ﬂowers led Summerville’s Chamber of Commerce to adopt the slogan “Flower Town in the Pines.”

20.5 Climate 20.6 Notable people • Angry Grandpa, YouTube personality • Rick Brewer, former administrator at Charleston Southern University in North Charleston, South Carolina, and current president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana, former resident of Summerville[11][12] • Janet Cone, college athletic director (UNC Asheville Bulldogs) and former basketball coach

• Fern Michaels, author

20.7 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Summerville town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 7, 2014. [4] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [5] “Update of Statistical Area Definitions and Guidance on Their Uses (OMB Bulletin 08 - 01)" (CSV). Office of Management and Budget, Executive Office of the President. November 20, 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-19. [6] Historic Facts About Summerville & Dorchester County [7] Summerville’s Book of History [8] Staff (2009-03-13). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [9] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2012-02-12. [10] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved 2010-06-09. [11] Leigh Guidry (March 25, 2015). “LC board names South Carolina VP as ninth president”. The Alexandria Town Talk. Retrieved July 23, 2015. [12] “Richard B. Brewer”. intelius.com. Retrieved July 23, 2015.

20.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

20.8 External links • Town of Summerville oﬃcial website • Summerville D.R.E.A.M. (Downtown Restoration, Enhancement and Management) • Summerville & Dorchester County’s Oﬃcial Tourism Site • Azalea Magazine (Modern Living in the Old South, Summerville’s magazine)

107

Chapter 21

Moncks Corner, South Carolina Moncks Corner is a town in and the county seat of Berkeley County, South Carolina, United States.[4] The population was 7,885 at the 2010 census.[5] As deﬁned by the U.S. Census Bureau, Moncks Corner is included within the Charleston–North Charleston–Summerville Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Thomas Monck,[9] dates back to 1728. It began as a trading post with a few taverns and stores. The Northeastern Railroad, which ran between Charleston, South Carolina, and Siler City, North Carolina, laid its tracks in 1856, and the train depot became the center of the new town of Moncks Corner. The town of Moncks Corner was chartered on December 26, 1885, and incorporated December 15, 1909. Moncks Corner was granted the trademark “Capital of Santee Cooper Country” by the South Carolina Secretary of State September 9, 1999, and again October 21, 2004. The trademark is a symbol of its abundant outdoor activities, such as horseback riding, hiking, water sports, boating and the best freshwater fishing in the South. Moncks Corner is also the home of Santee Cooper's corporate office complex. The Biggin Church Ruins, Cooper River Historic District, Lewisfield Plantation, Mulberry Plantation, Santee Canal, and Strawberry Chapel and Childsbury Town Site are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[10]

Street view of Moncks Corner, 1904

21.1 History Settled by indigenous peoples for thousands of years, the area of Monck’s Corner was occupied by the historic Edistow people, a sub-tribe of the Cusabo. Its various bands shared a language distinct from that of the major language families in the present-day state: Algonquian, Siouan, and Iroquoian, including Cherokee. Although now extinct as a tribe, Edistow and Catawba descendants make up the eight families of the Wassamasaw Tribe of Varnertown Indians, a community located between Moncks Corner and Summerville. The 1,500-member tribe were recognized by the state as an Indian group in 2005.[6][7]

21.2 Geography Moncks Corner is located near the center of Berkeley County at 33°12′N 80°0′W / 33.200°N 80.000°W (33.1966, −80.0067).[11] Its boundary extends east to the West Branch of the Cooper River, 3 miles (5 km) south of the outlet of Lake Moultrie. U.S. Route 52 is the main highway through the town, leading south 32 miles (51 km) to Charleston and north 80 miles (130 km) to Florence. U.S. Route 17 Alternate also passes through the town, leading east 49 miles (79 km) to Georgetown and southwest 16 miles (26 km) to Summerville. South Carolina Highway 6 leads northwest from Moncks Corner along the south and west sides of Lakes Moultrie and Marion 39 miles (63 km) to Interstate 95 at Santee.

During the colonial era, Moncks Corner became a major settlement area of French Protestant Huguenots, who came to South Carolina between 1684 and 1688 as refugees due to religious persecution in France.[8] Many family surnames in Berkeley and adjacent counties are of According to the United States Census Bureau, Moncks French origin. The Huguenots soon began to intermarry Corner has a total area of 7.4 square miles (19.2 km2 ), with the English colonists. of which 7.3 square miles (18.9 km2 ) is land and 0.12 The town of Moncks Corner, named for landowner square miles (0.3 km2 ), or 1.81%, is water.[5] 108

21.6. REFERENCES

21.3 Demographics As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 5,952 people, 2,103 households, and 1,491 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,333.1 people per square mile (515.3/km²). There were 2,334 housing units at an average density of 522.8 per square mile (202.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 57.33% White, 36.59% African American, 0.64% Native American, 0.55% Asian, 0.05% Paciﬁc Islander, 2.97% from other races, and 1.86% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.20% of the population. There were 2,103 households out of which 40.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 23.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.1% were non-families. 25.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.09. In the town the population was spread out with 28.9% under the age of 18, 10.5% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 87.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.8 males.

109 • Mepkin Abbey • Mepkin Abbey Botanical Garden

21.6 References [1] “Town officials”. Town of Moncks Corner. Retrieved February 19, 2013. [2] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [4] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [5] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Moncks Corner town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 4, 2014. [6] Bo Petersen, “Researchers explore local tribe’s ties to legendary temple”, The Post and Courier, 17 April 2005, accessed 14 December 2011 [7] Bo Petersen, “Local tribe reclaims its roots, heritage”, 17 April 2005, accessed 14 December 2011

The median income for a household in the town was [8] “Huguenots” in Walter Edgar, ed., The South Carolina Encyclopedia (Columbia: USC Press, 2006) $31,711, and the median income for a family was $37,335. Males had a median income of $30,634 ver- [9] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place sus $21,796 for females. The per capita income for the Names in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Oftown was $15,202. About 16.5% of families and 17.6% ﬁce. p. 212. of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.6% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 [10] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park or over.. Service.

21.4 Notable people • Omar Brown (defensive back, born 1988), National Football League player

[11] “US Gazetteer ﬁles: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [12] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

• Charlamagne Tha God (Lenard McKelvey), radio and television personality. [13] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Re• Andre Ellington, National Football League player • Bruce Ellington, National Football League player • Steven Furtick, pastor of Elevation Church • Ryan Stewart, football player, 2 Live Stews radio personality with brother Doug • Chad Wolf, of Carolina Liar

21.5 Points of interest • Cypress Gardens

trieved June 4, 2015.

21.7 External links • Town of Moncks Corner oﬃcial website • Old Santee Canal Park • Berkeley County School District

Chapter 22

Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina The following is a timeline of the history of Charleston, South Carolina, USA. This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

• 1748 – Charleston Library Society organized.[12][13] • 1750 – Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim founded. • 1752 – September: Hurricane.[10] • 1761 – St. Michael’s church built.[3] • 1765 • Resistance to British Stamp Act 1765.[1]

22.1 Prior to 18th century

• John Bartlam pottery in operation near Charleston.[14]

• 1680 - Settlement of English immigrants, mostly from Barbados, relocates from Albemarle Point to site of future Charles Town.[1]

• 1766 • St. Cecilia Society formed. • German Friendly Society founded.

• 1681 – St. Philip’s Episcopal Church founded.

[2]

• 1769 - Town becomes part of Charleston District.[15]

22.2 18th century

• 1770 – Population: 11,000.

• 1708 - African slaves comprise majority of population in the colony; blacks make up majority of population in the city and state until the early 20th century • 1719 – Town renamed “Charlestown” (approximate date).[3] • 1729 – St. Andrew’s Society founded. • 1732 – South Carolina Gazette newspaper begins publication.[4] • 1734 – South Carolina Jockey Club constituted.[5][6] • 1736 – Dock Street Theatre opens.[7]

• 1771 - Royal Exchange built.[11] • 1773 – Museum founded by the Charleston Library Society.[16][13] • 1774 – Charleston Tea Party protest. • 1780 – Siege of Charleston. • 1782 – December 14: British occupation ends.[3] • 1783 • Town renamed “Charleston.”[17] • Charter received.[3] • Richard Hutson becomes mayor.

• 1737 – South-Carolina Society founded.[8]

• City Guard organized.

• 1739 - Stono Rebellion of slaves occurs near Charleston.[1][9]

• 1784 – Scotch Presbyterian church incorporated.[18] • 1786

• 1740 – Fire.[10] • 1743 - Armory built.[11]

• March: State capital moves from Charleston to Columbia.[1]

• 1745 - Town gate rebuilt.[11]

• South Carolina Golf Club founded.[19] 110

22.3. 19TH CENTURY

111

• 1788 - Charleston becomes part of the new US state of South Carolina.[17]

• Charleston Mercury newspaper begins publication.

• 1789 – Medical Society of South Carolina founded.[20]

• New England organized.[27]

Society

Charleston

• Siegling Music House founded.[28]

• 1790

• 1820

• College of Charleston opens.[3] • Population: 16,359.[21] • 1791 – Roman Catholic Church of Charleston incorporated.

• Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston established.[29] • Population: 24,780.[21] • 1822 – Denmark Vesey's alleged rebellion of slaves thwarted.[1][9]

• 1792 • Charleston Orphan Asylum founded.[3] • Washington Race Course opens.[5] • 1794 – Charleston Mechanic Society[22] and Brown Benevolent Society[23][24] founded. • 1797 - South Carolina Weekly Museum (magazine) begins publication.[1] • 1798 – Bank of South Carolina established.

• 1823 • Charleston Port Society founded.[30] • Medical College of South Carolina incorporated. • 1824 • Apprentices’ Library Society incorporated.[31] • Charleston Museum opens.

• 1799 – Yellow fever outbreak.[25]

• 1830 - Population: 30,289.[21]

22.3 19th century

• 1833 - Charleston-Hamburg operating.[17]

22.3.1

• 1839

1800s–1850s

begins

• Charleston Hotel built.[32][33][34]

• 1800 • Santee Canal (Columbia-Charleston) built.[17]

• St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church built.

• Population: 18,824.[21]

• 1840 - Population: 29,261.[21]

• Charleston has largest Jewish population of any city in the US.[1]

• 1841

• 1801 – Hibernian Society founded. • 1803 – Courier newspaper begins publication.[3] • 1806 – Franklin Library Society founded.

[26]

• 1807 – Washington Light Infantry founded. • 1810 • Castle Pinckney built. • Population: 24,711.[21]

• Market Hall built. • Charleston Arsenal built. • 1843 – South Carolina Military Academy opens.[3] • 1847 - Shearith Israel synagoguge built.[35] • 1849 – South Carolina Institute for the Promotion of Art, Mechanical Ingenuity, and Industry organized; annual Fair begins.[36][37] • 1850

• 1813 – Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina founded.[16]

• Magnolia Cemetery built.

• 1815 – Religious Tract Society of Charleston organized.

• Population: 42,985.[21]

• 1816 - Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church founded. • 1819

railroad

• Roper Hospital established.[38] • 1852 – Museum founded by the College of Charleston.[16] • 1853 – Elliott Society of Natural History established.[16]

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CHAPTER 22. TIMELINE OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

• 1854 • Young Men’s Christian Association of Charleston[39] and B’rith Shalom congregation[35] established. • Old Bethel United Methodist Church rebuilt. • Cathedral of Saint John and Saint Finbar consecrated.

• 1864 – February 17: Sinking of USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor.[43] • 1865 • Union troops occupy city. • Daily News begins publication.[3] • St. Mark’s Episcopal Church[23] and Avery Normal Institute established.

• 1855 – South Carolina Historical Society founded.

• Shaw School opens.[23]

• 1856 – Ryan’s Mart slave market established.

• State Colored People’s Convention held in city.[44]

• 1858 – Carolina Art Association established.[40]

• 1866 - Colored YMCA established.[45]

• 1859 – Charleston Marine School opens.[30]

• 1867 – Porter Military Academy formed.

22.3.2

1860s–1890s

See also: Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War

• 1868 - January 14: State constitutional convention held in Charleston.[17] • 1869 – Carolina Riﬂe Club organized.[34] • 1870 • Charleston Female Seminary established.

• 1860 • April: Democratic National Convention held in city.[1]

• Savannah and Charleston Railroad reopened. • Magnolia Gardens opens.[46] • Population: 48,956.[21]

• December: Popular outcry for secession from the Union.

• 1872 – St. Matthew’s German Evangelical Lutheran Church built.

• Population: 40,522.[21]

• 1879 - United States Custom House built.[11]

• 1861 • January 2: State troops occupy Fort Johnson on James Island.[17] • January 9 – Citadel cadets ﬁre on Union ship Star of the West. • April: Battle of Fort Sumter. • Population: 48,409.[41] • Floating Battery of Charleston Harbor built. • Confederate Naval Sailor and Marines’ Cemetery built.[42] • 1862 • May 13: Robert Smalls commandeers Confederate ship CSS Planter in Charleston Harbour.[9] • June 16: Battle of James Island. • 1863 • July–September 7: Siege of Charleston Harbor. • July 11: First Battle of Fort Wagner. • July 18: Second Battle of Fort Wagner. • September 8: Second Battle of Fort Sumter.

• 1880 - Population: 49,984.[21] • 1882 – City of Charleston Fire Department and Mount Zion African Methodist Episcopal Church[23] established. • 1883 - Samuel Dibble becomes U.S. representative for South Carolina’s 1st congressional district.[47] • 1884 - Robert Smalls becomes U.S. representative for South Carolina’s 7th congressional district.[47] • 1886 – August 31: Earthquake.[17] • 1889 – William Enston Homes built. • 1890 • East Shore Terminal Company formed. • Population: 54,955.[21] • 1891 – Central Baptist Church built. • 1893 - August: 1893 Charleston Hurricane.[48] • 1895 – Century Club for women organized.[49] • 1896 – United States Post Oﬃce and Courthouse built. • 1899 – Charleston City Federation of Women’s Clubs organized.[49]

22.4. 20TH CENTURY

113

22.4 20th century

• 1951 - The Links Charleston chapter founded.[23] • 1957 - Fraser Elementary School opens.[23]

• 1900 - Population: 55,807.[21] • 1901 – South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition opens.[17]

• 1959 – J. Palmer Gaillard, Jr. becomes mayor. • 1964 – Porter-Gaud School formed.

• 1903 – Charleston Terminal Company created.

• 1966 – New Cooper River Bridge opens.

• 1906 – Hampton Park created.

• 1968 - Pinehaven Cinema and Gateway Drive-In cinema open.[51]

• 1907 • Union Station built. • Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist opens.

• 1969 – March 20: begins.[52]

Charleston Hospital Strike

• 1970

• 1908 – Gaud School established.

• Port Drive-In cinema opens.[51]

• 1909- Ashley Hall established

• Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site established.[13]

• 1910 - Population: 58,833.[21] • 1911 – People’s Oﬃce Building constructed. • 1912

• 1972 - City of North Charleston incorporated, adjacent to City of Charleston.

• Carolina Arts and Crafts incorporated.[40]

• 1973 – Trident Technical College established.

• Read Brothers store established.[7]

• 1975 – Joseph P. Riley, Jr. becomes mayor.[53]

• 1913 – Charleston Library Society building constructed.[50] • 1917 - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Charleston branch established.[23]

• 1977 – Spoleto Festival USA begins. • 1980 • Charleston Royals baseball team founded. • Population: 69,510.[54]

• 1918 - Garden Theatre built.[51]

• 1981 – Citadel Mall in business.

• 1920 • Society for the Preservation of Old Dwellings founded.[19]

• 1983 - Lowcountry Food Bank[55] and sister city relationship with Spoleto, Italy[56] established.

• Lincoln Theatre opens.[51]

• 1985 - College of Charleston’s Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture established.[13]

• 1927 – Gloria Theatre opens. • 1929 – John P. Grace Memorial Bridge opens. • 1930 – Charleston County Library established. • 1931 – Footlight Players theatre group formed. • 1937 - Dock Street Theatre opens.

[51]

• 1938 - September 20: Tornado.

[17]

• 1940 - August: 1940 South Carolina hurricane.[17] • 1942 - American Theater opens.[51]

• 1989 – Hurricane Hugo. • 1990 – Waterfront Park created. • 1991 - Melvin’s BBQ in business.[57] • 1992 - Charleston Grill in business.[58] • 1993 • North Charleston Coliseum opens. • Charleston Battery soccer team founded.

• 1945 - Cigar Factory labor strike; singing of We Shall Overcome.

• 1994 – Charleston Tibetan Society founded.[59]

• 1947 – Historic Charleston Foundation established.

• 1995

• 1949 – Johnson Hagood Stadium opens. • 1950 - Ashley Theatre opens.[51]

• Mark Sanford becomes U.S. representative for South Carolina’s 1st congressional district.[60][61]

114

CHAPTER 22. TIMELINE OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA • Sunken civil war-era submarine Hunley rediscovered oﬀshore.[1]

• List of museums in Charleston, South Carolina

• 1996 - 100 Black Men of Charleston established.[23]

• Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War

• 1997

• Timeline of South Carolina[17][67]

• Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority formed.

• Timeline of Columbia, South Carolina

• Charleston City Paper begins publication. • Joseph P. Riley, Jr. Park stadium opens.

22.5 21st century • 2000 – South Carolina Aquarium opens.[62] • 2003 – Charleston School of Law established. • 2004 – Charleston Comedy Festival begins. • 2005 – Cooper River Bridge opens.[1] • 2006 – Central founded.[59][63]

Mosque

Charleston

• 2007 • Old Slave Mart museum opens.[7] • Sofa Super Store ﬁre.

22.7 References [1] Eric Dabney; Mike Coker (2006). “Timeline”. Historic South Carolina: an Illustrated History. South Carolina Historical Society and Historical Publishing Network. p. 56+. ISBN 978-1-893619-52-4. [2] Edward McCrady (1901), An historic church, the Westminster Abbey of South Carolina, Charleston, S.C: Walker, Evans & Cogswell Co., printers [3] “Charleston”, Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed.), New York, 1910, OCLC 14782424 [4] “US Newspaper Directory”. Chronicling America. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Retrieved September 2, 2012. [5] “Halsey Map”. Preservation Society of Charleston. Retrieved September 2, 2012.

• 2008 – TD Arena and Meeting Street Academy[38] open.

[6] John Beaufain Irving (1857), The South Carolina Jockey Club, Charleston, S.C: Russell & Jones, OCLC 4512292

• 2010

[7] S. Dewan (Sep 9, 2010). “36 Hours in Charleston, S.C.”. New York Times.

• Husk restaurant in business.[64] • The Charleston Promise Neighborhood incorporated. • Population: 120,083.[65] • 2015

[8] Joshua W. Toomer (1837), An oration, delivered at the celebration of the ﬁrst centennial anniversary of the SouthCarolina Society, Charleston: Printed by A. E. Miller, OCLC 6225496 [9] Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, ed. (2005), “Charleston, South Carolina”, Africana: the Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press

• June 17: Nine people are killed, including the senior pastor and state senator Clementa C. Pinckney, at the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church, allegedly by Dylann Roof, [10] Carl Bridenbaugh (1971), Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America, 1743-1776, London: Oxford University Press, in the Charleston church shooting. • June 26: Funeral of Clementa Pinckney; U.S. President Barack Obama delivers eulogy.[66]

22.6 See also • History of Charleston, South Carolina • List of mayors of Charleston, South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina • Media in Charleston, South Carolina

OL 16383796M

[11] Nicholas Butler (ed.). “Time Line”. Rediscovering Charleston’s Colonial Fortiﬁcations. South Carolina: Mayor’s Walled City Task Force. Retrieved June 2015. [12] Sholes’ directory of the city of Charleston. 1882. [13] American Association for State and Local History (2002). “South Carolina”. Directory of Historical Organizations in the United States and Canada (15th ed.). ISBN 0759100020. [14] Cinda K. Baldwin (1993). Great & Noble Jar: Traditional Stoneware of South Carolina. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-1371-9.

22.7. REFERENCES

115

[15] Scholl Center for American History and Culture. “South Carolina: Individual County Chronologies”. Atlas of Historical County Boundaries. Chicago: Newberry Library. Retrieved June 2015.

[33] The News and Courier – Feb 16, 1981

[16] Lester D. Stephens (2003). “The Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina: A Forum for Intellectual Progress in Antebellum Charleston”. South Carolina Historical Magazine (South Carolina Historical Society) 104.

[35] “Charleston, South Carolina”. Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities. Jackson, Mississippi: Goldring / Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life. Retrieved June 2015.

[17] Federal Writers’ Project (1941), “Chronology”, South Carolina: a Guide to the Palmetto State, American Guide Series, Boston: Houghton Miﬄin – via Open Library [18] Historic points of interest in and around Charleston, S. C. (Confederate re-union ed.), Charleston, South Carolina: Walker, Evans & Cogswell Co., 1896, OCLC 5733616 [19] Lee Davis Perry; J. Michael Mclaughlin (2011). It Happened in South Carolina: remarkable events that shaped history (2nd ed.). Globe Pequot Press. ISBN 978-0-76276928-5. [20] “Medical Society of South Carolina”. Retrieved September 2, 2012.

[34] “Guidebook”. Charleston Multimedia Project. Charleston County Public Library. Retrieved September 2, 2012.

[36] Constitution of the South-Carolina Institute. Charleston: Printed by Walker & James. 1849. [37] South Carolina Institute (1870). Premium list: Fair of 1870. Charleston, South Carolina: Walker, Evans & Cogswell. [38] Mike Tigas and Sisi Wei (ed.). “Charleston, South Carolina”. Nonproﬁt Explorer. New York: ProPublica. Retrieved June 2015. [39] Young Men’s Christian Association of Charleston (1857), 3rd Annual Report, Charleston: Walker & Evans, East Bay [40] American Art Annual. NY. 1916.

[21] Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990, US Census Bureau, 1998

[41] Charleston (S.C.). City Council (1861), Census of the city of Charleston, South Carolina, Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, OCLC 002441766

[22] Bradford L. Rauschenberg (2003). “Evidence for the Apprenticeship System in Charleston, South Carolina”. Journal of early southern decorative arts 29.

[42] William D. Stevens and Jonathan M. Leader (2006). “Skeletal Remains from the Confederate Naval Sailor and Marines’ Cemetery, Charleston, SC”. Historical Archaeology 40. JSTOR 25617374.

[23] “Archival Collections”. College of Charleston, Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture. Retrieved June 2015.

[43] U.S. Navy history website

[24] Robert L. Harris, Jr., “Charleston’s Free Afro-American Elite: The Brown Fellowship Society and the Humane Brotherhood,” South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 82 no. 4 (1981) [25] David Brewster, ed. (1830). “Carolina, South”. Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. [26] Davies Project. “American Libraries before 1876”. Princeton University. Retrieved September 2, 2012. [27] William Way (1920), History of the New England Society of Charleston, South Carolina, for one hundred years, 1819-1919, Charleston: The Society, OCLC 1743246 [28] The News and Courier – August 15, 1970 [29] “Chronology of Catholic Dioceses: USA”. Norway: Oslo katolske bispedømme (Oslo Catholic Diocese). Retrieved June 2015. [30] James David Altman (1987). “The Charleston Marine School”. South Carolina Historical Magazine (South Carolina Historical Society) 88. [31] Statutes at Large of South Carolina: Acts relating to corporations and the militia. 1840 [32] Southern Patriot; Date: 10-26-1839

[44] “Conventions by Year”. Colored Conventions. P. Gabrielle Foreman, director. University of Delaware, Library. Retrieved June 2015. [45] Nina Mjagkij (1994). Light in the Darkness: African Americans and the YMCA, 1852-1946. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2801-3. [46] “Garden Search: United States of America: South Carolina”. London: Botanic Gardens Conservation International. Retrieved June 2015. [47] “South Carolina”. Congressional Directory: 48th Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Oﬃce. 1884. [48] Walter Edgar (1992). “A South Carolina Chronology, 1890-1991”. South Carolina in the Modern Age. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-61117-126-6. [49] The News and Courier – January 17, 1939 [50] American Library Annual, 1917-1918. New York: R.R. Bowker Co. 1918. [51] “Movie Theaters in Charleston, SC”. CinemaTreasures.org. Los Angeles: Cinema Treasures LLC. Retrieved June 2015. [52] Philip G. Grose (2006). “Chronology”. South Carolina at the Brink: Robert McNair and the Politics of Civil Rights. Univ of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-624-8.

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CHAPTER 22. TIMELINE OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

[53] “Meet the Mayors”. Washington, D.C.: United States Conference of Mayors. Retrieved March 30, 2013. [54] United States Census Bureau (1984), County and City Data Book, 1983, Statistical Abstract, Washington, D.C., OL 14997563M [55] “South Carolina Food Banks”. Food Bank Locator. Chicago: Feeding America. Retrieved June 2015. [56] “Charleston-Spoleto Sister City Initiative”. from the original on November 5, 2010.

Archived

[57] “South Carolina BBQ”. University of Mississippi, Southern Foodways Alliance. Retrieved October 2014. [58] “A Taste of Charleston, Old-School and New”, New York Times, June 2014 [59] Pluralism Project. “Charleston, South Carolina”. Directory of Religious Centers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. Retrieved October 15, 2013. [60] Civic Impulse, LLC. “Members of Congress”. GovTrack. Washington, D.C. Retrieved June 2015. [61] “South Carolina”. 1995–1996 Oﬃcial Congressional Directory: 104th Congress. Washington DC: Government Printing Oﬃce. 1995 – via Hathi Trust. [62] Vernon N. Kisling, ed. (2000). “Zoological Gardens of the United States (chronological list)". Zoo and Aquarium History. USA: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-3924-5. [63] Jack Bass; W. Scott Poole (2009), The Palmetto State: the making of modern South Carolina, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, OCLC 290459602 [64] “A Southern Chef Doesn’t Stray Far”, New York Times, February 2011 [65] “Charleston (city), South Carolina”. State & County QuickFacts. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved June 2015. [66] Michiko Kakutani (July 4, 2015), “Obama’s Eulogy, Which Found Its Place in History”, New York Times [67] Benson John Lossing, ed. (1905). “United States: South Carolina”. Harper’s Encyclopedia of United States History 9. Harper & Bros. – via Hathi Trust. (chronology)

22.8 Further reading 22.8.1

Published in the 19th century

• Census of the city of Charleston, South Carolina, for the year 1848. • City Directory. 1852; 1882; 1888 • City government annual report. 1870. • Joseph Sabin, ed. (1870). “Charleston”. Bibliotheca Americana 3. New York. OCLC 13972268. • Arthur Mazÿck (1875), Guide to Charleston illustrated, Charleston, S. C: Walker, Evans & Cogswell, OCLC 6033164

22.8.2 Published in the 20th century • City of Charleston. Year Book. 1903; 1907; 1910 • South Carolina. Dept. of Agriculture (1908), “Charleston”, Handbook of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, OCLC 407046 • Edward Hungerford (1913), “Where Romance and Courtesy Do Not Forget”, The Personality of American Cities, New York: McBride, Nast & Company • Federal Writers’ Project (1941), “Charleston”, South Carolina: a Guide to the Palmetto State, American Guide Series, Boston: Houghton Miﬄin • George Thomas Kurian (1994), “Charleston, South Carolina”, World Encyclopedia of Cities, 1: North America, ABC-CLIO (fulltext via Open Library) • “The South: South Carolina: Charleston”, USA, Let’s Go, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999, OL 24937240M

22.8.3 Published in the 21st century • David F. Marley (2005), “United States: Charleston”, Historic Cities of the Americas 2, Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, p. 531+, ISBN 1576070271

22.9 External links • “Timeline”. Charleston Multimedia Project. Charleston, South Carolina: Charleston County Public Library. • Boston Public Library. Maps of Charleston, S.C., various dates 18th-19th century • Digital Public Library of America. Items related to Charleston, S.C., various dates. Coordinates: 32°47′00″N 79°56′00″W / 32.783333°N 79.933333°W

Chapter 23

History of Charleston, South Carolina

A 1733 map of Charleston published by Herman Moll

The history of Charleston, South Carolina, is one of the longest and most diverse of any community in the United States, spanning hundreds of years of physical settlement beginning in 1663 through modern times. Charleston was the leading city in the South from the colonial era down to the Civil War. It grew wealthy through the export of rice and, later, sea island cotton, and it was the base for many wealthy merchants and landowners. The devastation of the war, and the ruin of the Charleston’s hinterland, lost the city its regional dominance. However it remained the center of the South Carolina economy, while in politics the upstate politicians The hanging of pirate Stede Bonnet in Charleston, 1718 routinely attacked its aristocratic and undemocratic tone. Starting in World War II, it became a major naval base. In recent decades, tourism and service industries have led community was established in 1670 by English colonists the economy to a new level of prosperity. from Bermuda, under the first Governor of South Carolina, William Sayle, on the west bank of the Ashley River a few miles northwest of the present city. It was 23.1 Colonial period: 1663–1776 soon designated by Anthony Ashley Cooper, leader of the Lords Proprietor, to become a “great port towne”, a destiny which the city fulfilled. By 1680, the settlement had 23.1.1 Founding and initial growth grown, joined by settlers from England, Barbados, and Restored to the throne following Oliver Cromwell's Virginia; and it was moved to the current peninsular locaProtectorate, King Charles II granted the chartered Car- tion. As the capital of the Carolina colony, Charles Town olina territory to eight of his loyal friends, known as the was a base for colonial expansion and was the southernLords Proprietors, in 1663. It took seven years before the most point of English settlement during the late 17th cenLords could arrange for settlement, the first being that tury. of “Charles Town,” the original name for the city. The The settlement was often subject to attack from sea and 117

118

CHAPTER 23. HISTORY OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

from land. Periodic assaults from Spain and France (like the 1706 failed expedition during Queen Anne’s War), who still contested England's claims to the region, were combined with resistance from Native Americans, as well as pirate raids. Charleston’s colonists erected a fortification wall around the small settlement to aid in its defense. Two buildings remain from the Walled City, the Powder Magazine, where the city’s supply of gunpowder was stored, and the Pink House, believed to have been an old colonial tavern.[1] A 1680 plan for the new settlement, the Grand Modell, laid out “the model of an exact regular town,” and the future for the growing community. Land surrounding the intersection of Meeting and Broad Streets was set aside for a Civic Square. Over time it became known as the Four Corners of the Law, referring to the various arms of governmental and religious law presiding over the square and the growing city. St. Michael’s Episcopal Church, Charleston’s oldest and most noted church, was built on the southeast corner in 1752. The following year the capitol of the colony was erected across the square. Because of its prominent position within the city and its elegant architecture, the building signaled to Charleston’s citizens and visitors its importance within the British colonies. Provincial court met on the ground floor, the Commons House of Assembly and the Royal Governor’s Council St. Philip’s Episcopal Church Chamber met on the second floor. By 1750 Charleston had become a bustling trade center, the hub of the Atlantic trade for the southern colonies, and the wealthiest and largest city south of Philadelphia. By 1770 it was the fourth largest port in the colonies, after only Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, with a population of 11,000, slightly more than half of that slaves. Cotton, rice and indigo were successfully cultivated by Gullah people who survived the Middle Passage as enslaved planters. They were captured from rice-producing regions of West Africa, like the “Rice Coast,” the “Windward Coast,” the “Gambia,” and “Sierra-Leon”, and forced to work in the surrounding coastal low-country.[2] The South Carolina and Georgia colonists ultimately adopted a system of rice cultivation that drew heavily on the labor patterns and technical knowledge of their African slaves. Cotton, rice, indigo and naval stores were exported in an extremely profitable shipping industry. It was the cultural and economic center of the South.[3] As time went on, they developed a creolized Gullah language and culture, retaining many elements from West Africa.

23.1.2

Ethnic and religious diversity

While the earliest settlers primarily came from England, colonial Charleston was also home to a mixture of ethnic and religious groups. In colonial times, Boston, Massachusetts, and Charleston were sister cities, and people of means spent summers in Boston and winters in Charleston. There was a great deal of trade with Bermuda and the Caribbean, and some people came to

live in Charleston from these areas. French, Scots-Irish, Scottish, Irish, and Germans migrated to the developing seacoast town, representing numerous Protestant denominations, as well as Roman Catholicism and Judaism. Sephardic Jews migrated to the city in such numbers that Charleston eventually was home to, by the beginning of the 19th century and until about 1830, the largest and wealthiest Jewish community in North America[4][5] The Jewish Coming Street Cemetery, first established in 1762, attests to their long-standing presence in the community. The first Anglican church, St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, was built in 1682, although later destroyed by fire and relocated to its current location. Slaves also comprised a major portion of the population, and were active in the city’s religious community. Free black Charlestonians and slaves helped establish the Old Bethel United Methodist Church in 1797, and the congregation of the Emanuel A.M.E. Church stems from a religious group organized solely by African Americans, free and slave, in 1791. It is the oldest A.M.E. church in the south, and the second oldest A.M.E. church in the country. The first American museum opened to the public on January 12, 1773 in Charleston. From the mid-18th century a large amount of immigration was taking place in the upcountry of the Carolinas, some of it coming from abroad through Charleston, but also much of it a southward movement from Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, until the upcountry population was larger than the coastal population. The upcountry people were viewed by Charlestonians as being unpolished in many ways, and had different inter-

23.2. AMERICAN REVOLUTION: 1776–1785

119

ests, setting the stage for several generations of conﬂicts between the upcountry and the Charleston elite.

23.1.3

Culture

As Charleston grew, so did the community’s cultural and social opportunities, especially for the elite merchants and planters. The first theater building in America was built in Charleston in 1736, but was later replaced by the 19th-century Planter’s Hotel where wealthy planters stayed during Charleston’s horse-racing season (now the Dock Street Theatre, known as one of the oldest active theaters built for stage performance in the United States).[6] Benevolent societies were formed by several different ethnic groups: the South Carolina Society, founded by French Huguenots in 1737; the German Friendly Society, founded in 1766; and the Hibernian Society, founded by Irish immigrants in 1801. The Charleston Library Society was established in 1748 by some wealthy Charlestonians who wished to keep up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. This group also helped establish the College of Charleston in 1770, the oldest college in South Carolina, the oldest municipal college in the United States, and the 13th oldest William Moultrie college in the United States.

23.1.4

Slavery

During the early 17th Century, it was diﬃcult to acquire enslaved Africans north of the Caribbean. To meet labor needs, European colonists had practiced Indian slavery for some time. The Carolinians transformed the Indian slave trade during the late 17th and early 18th centuries by treating slaves as a trade commodity to be exported, mainly to the West Indies. Alan Gallay estimates that between 1670 and 1715, between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans were captured and sold, from South Carolina — many more than the number of African slaves imported into the colonies of the future United States during the same period.[7] A major establishment of African slavery in the North American colonies occurred with the founding of Charles Town and South Carolina, beginning in 1670. The colony was settled mainly by planters from the overpopulated sugar island colony of Barbados, who brought relatively large numbers of African slaves from that island.[8]

23.2 American Revolution: 1776– 1785

representation, Charlestonians confiscated tea and stored it in the Exchange and Custom House. Representatives from all over the colony came to the Exchange in 1774 to elect delegates to the Continental Congress, the group responsible for drafting the Declaration of Independence; and South Carolina declared its independence from the crown on the steps of the Exchange. Soon, the church steeples of Charleston, especially St. Michael’s, became targets for British warships causing rebel forces to paint the steeples black to blend with the night sky. It was twice the target of British attacks. At every stage the British strategy assumed a large base of Loyalist supporters who would rally to the King given some military support. On June 28, 1776, General Henry Clinton with 2000 men and a naval squadron tried to seize Charleston, hoping for a simultaneous Loyalist uprising in South Carolina. It seemed a cheap way of waging the war but it failed as the naval force was defeated by the Continental Army, specifically the 2nd South Carolina Regiment at Fort Moultrie under the command of William Moultrie. When the fleet fired cannonballs, the explosives failed to penetrate the fort’s unfinished, yet thick palmetto log walls. Additionally, no local Loyalists attacked the town from behind as the British had hoped. The loyalists were too poorly organized to be effective, but as late as 1780 senior officials in London, misled by Loyalist exiles, placed their confidence in their rising.

As the relationship between the colonists and England deteriorated, Charleston became a focal point in the ensu- Clinton returned in 1780 with 14,000 soldiers. Ameriing American Revolution. In protest of the Tea Act of can General Benjamin Lincoln was trapped and surren1773, which embodied the concept of taxation without dered his entire 5400 men force after a long ﬁght, and

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the Siege of Charleston was the greatest American defeat of the war (see Henry Clinton “Commander in Chief” section for more). Several Americans escaped the carnage, and joined up with several militias, including those of Francis Marion, the 'Swampfox,' and Andrew Pickens. These militias used hit-and-run tactics, and targeted solitary Loyalists. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis with 8000 men to rally Loyalists, build forts across the state, and demand oaths of allegiance to the King. Many of these forts were taken over by the Patriot militias. The occupation forces exaggerated the power of the Loyalists And the willingness of the people to obey Royal authority. British rule was undermined by its inconsistent and arbitrary policies, together with disputes between military and civilian oﬃcials, authorities and the unwillingness of British oﬃcials to restore full civil government. As a result, South Carolinians lost faith in Charleston’s restored royal administration long before British defeat at Yorktown and the departure of the British in late 1782.[9]

antebellum South. The grandeur and number of buildings erected in the following century reﬂect the optimism, pride, and civic destiny that many Charlestonians felt for their community. Charleston became more prosperous in the plantationdominated economy of the post-Revolutionary years. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 revolutionized this crop’s production, and it quickly became South Carolina’s major export. Cotton plantations relied heavily on slave labor. Slaves were also the primary labor force within the city, working as domestics, artisans, market workers or laborers. Many black Charlestonians spoke Gullah, a language based on African American structures which combined African, French, German, Jamaican, English, Bahamian and Dutch words. In 1807 the Charleston Market was founded. It soon became a hub for the African-American community, with many slaves and free people of color staﬃng stalls.

With the British and Loyalist leaders gone, the city oﬃcially changed its name in 1783 to Charleston, thus removing any reference to King Charles.

23.3 Antebellum: 1785–1861 23.3.1

Commerce and expansion

List of exports to Europe from Charleston, 1787

City Market, now occupied by the Daughters of the Confederacy.

By 1820 Charleston’s population had grown to 23,000, with a black majority. When a massive slave revolt planned by Denmark Vesey, a free black, was discovered in 1822, such hysteria ensued amidst white Charlestonians and Carolinians that the activities of free blacks and slaves were severely restricted. Hundreds of blacks, free and slave, and some white supporters involved in the planned uprising were held in the Old Jail. It also was the impetus for the construction of a new State Arsenal in Charleston. Recently, research published by historian Michael P. Johnson of Johns Hopkins University has cast doubt on the veracity of the accounts detailing Vesey’s aborted slave revolt.

By 1788, Carolinians were meeting at the Capitol building for the Constitutional Ratiﬁcation Convention, and while there was support for the Federal Government, division arose over the location of the new State Capital. A suspicious ﬁre broke out in the Capitol building during the Convention, after which the delegates removed to the Exchange and decreed Columbia the new state capital. By 1792, the Capitol had been rebuilt and became the Charleston County Courthouse. Upon its completion, the city possessed all the public buildings necessary to be transformed from a colonial capital to the center of the As Charleston’s government, society and industry grew,

23.4. CIVIL WAR: 1861–1865 commercial institutions were established to support the community’s aspirations. The Bank of South Carolina, the second oldest building constructed as a bank in the nation, was established here in 1798. Branches of the First and Second Bank of the United States were also located in Charleston in 1800 and 1817. While the First Bank was converted to City Hall by 1818, the Second Bank proved to be a vital part of the community as it was the only bank in the city equipped to handle the international transactions so crucial to the export trade. By 1840, the Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became the commercial hub of the city. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and the slaves sold at markets. Contrary to popular belief, slaves were never traded at the Market Hall areas.

Homes along The Battery.

23.3.2

Political changes

In the first half of the 19th century, South Carolinians became more devoted to the idea that state’s rights were superior to the Federal government’s authority. Buildings such as the Marine Hospital ignited controversy over the degree in which the Federal government should be involved in South Carolina’s government, society, and commerce. During this period over 90 percent of Federal funding was generated from import duties, collected by custom houses such as the one in Charleston. In 1832 South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure in which a state could in effect repeal a Federal law, directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon Federal soldiers were dispensed to Charleston’s forts and began to collect tariffs by force. A compromise was reached by which the tariffs would be gradually reduced, but the underlying argument over state’s rights would continue to escalate in the coming decades. Charleston remained one of the busiest port cities in the country, and the construction of a new, larger United States Custom House began in 1849, but its construction was interrupted by the events of the Civil War.

121 vention convened in Charleston. Hibernian Hall served as the headquarters for the delegates supporting Stephen A. Douglas, who it was hoped would bridge the gap between the northern and southern delegates on the issue of extending slavery to the territories. The convention disintegrated when delegates were unable to summon a two-thirds majority for any candidate. This divisiveness resulted in a split in the Democratic Party, and the election of Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate.

23.4 Civil War: 1861–1865 Main article: Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War On December 24, 1860, the South Carolina General As-

The ruins of Mills House and nearby buildings in Charleston, with a shell-damaged carriage and the remains of a brick chimney in the foreground. 1865.

sembly made the state the first to ever secede from the Union. On January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets fired the first shots of the American Civil War when they opened fire on the Union ship Star of the West entering Charleston’s harbor. On April 12, 1861, shore batteries under the command of General Pierre G. T. Beauregard opened fire on the Union-held Fort Sumter in the harbor. After a 34hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. Officers and cadets from The Citadel were assigned to various Confederate batteries during the bombardment of Fort Sumter. Although The Citadel continued to operate as an academy during the Civil War, cadets were made a part of the South Carolina military department along with the cadets from the Arsenal Academy in Columbia, to form the Battalion of State Cadets. Cadets from both institutions continued to aid the Confederate army by helping drill recruits, manufacture ammunition, protect arms depots, and guard Union prisoners.

On December 11, 1861 a massive fire burned 164 acres of Charleston, including the Cathedral of St John and St Finbar, South Carolina Institute Hall, the Circular Congregational Church, and many of the city’s finest homes.[10] This fire was responsible for much of the destruction visPrior to the 1860 election, the National Democratic Con- ible in Charleston at the end of the war.

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In December 1864 Citadel and Arsenal cadets were ordered to join Confederate forces at Tulliﬁnny Creek, South Carolina where they engaged in pitched battles with advancing units of General W. T. Sherman's army, suffering eight casualties.

Ruins seen from the Circular Church, Charleston, South Carolina, 1865.

In all, The Citadel Corps of Cadets earned eight battle streamers and one service streamer for its service to South Carolina during the War. The city under siege took Confederate Memorial at White Point Gardens. control of Fort Sumter, became the center for blockade running, and was the site of the ﬁrst successful submarine warfare on February 17, 1864 when the H.L. Hunley made a daring night attack on the USS Housatonic.[11] In 1865, Union troops moved into the city, and took control of many sites, such as the United States Arsenal, which the Confederate army had seized at the outbreak of the war. The War department also conﬁscated the grounds and buildings of the Citadel Military Academy, which was used as a federal garrison for over 17 years, until its return to the state and reopening as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak.

23.5 Postbellum: 1865–1945 23.5.1

Reconstruction

After the defeat of the Confederacy, Federal forces remained in Charleston during the city’s reconstruction. The war had shattered the prosperity of the antebellum city. Freed slaves were faced with poverty and discrimination. Industries slowly brought the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality and growth in population. As the city’s commerce improved, Charlestonians also worked to restore their community institutions. In 1867 Charleston’s ﬁrst free secondary school for blacks was established, the Avery Institute. General William T. Sherman lent his support to the conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later

King Street circa 1910-1920

joined with Gaud School and is now a K-12 prep school, Porter-Gaud School. The William Enston Homes, a planned community for the city’s aged and inﬁrmed, was built in 1889. J. Taylor Pearson, a freed slave, designed the Homes, and passed peacefully in them after years as the maintenance manager post-reconstruction. An elaborate public building, the United States Post Oﬃce and Courthouse, was completed in 1896 and signaled renewed life in the heart of the city (this was called the bottleneck of society).

23.6. MODERN-DAY: 1945 - PRESENT

23.5.2

123

1886 earthquake

On August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The shock was estimated to have a moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). Major damage was reported as far away as Tybee Island, Georgia (over 60 miles away) and structural damage was reported several hundred miles from Charleston (including central Alabama, central Ohio, eastern Kentucky, southern Virginia, and western West Virginia). It was felt as far away as Boston to the north, Chicago and Milwaukee to the northwest, as far west as New Orleans, as far south as Cuba, and as far east as Bermuda. It damaged 2,000 buildings in Charleston and caused $6 million worth of damage ($133 Rainbow Row million(2006 USD)), while in the whole city the buildings were only valued at approximately $24 million ($531 milbed and breakfasts and a large number of award-winning lion(2006 USD). restaurants and quality shopping. The city is well known for its streets lined with grand live oaks draped with Spanish moss, and the ubiquity of the Cabbage Palmetto, 23.6 Modern-day: 1945 - present which is the state tree of South Carolina. Along the waterfront in an area known as Rainbow Row are many beautiful and historic pastel-colored homes. The city is 23.6.1 Hurricane Hugo also an important port, boasting the second largest container seaport on the East Coast and the fourth largest container seaport in North America.[12] Charleston is becoming a prime location for information technology jobs and corporations, most notably Blackbaud, Modulant, CSS and Beneﬁtfocus. Charleston is also an important art destination, named a top 25 arts destination by AmericanStyle magazine.[13]

Much of Charleston was devastated by Hurricane Hugo

Hurricane Hugo hit Charleston in 1989, and though the worst damage was in nearby McClellanville, the storm damaged three-quarters of the homes in Charleston’s historic district. The hurricane caused over $2.8 billion in damage.

23.6.2

Joe Riley era

Since his election as mayor in 1975, Joe Riley has been the major proponent of reviving Charleston’s economic and cultural heritage. The last thirty years of the 20th century saw major new reinvestment in the city, with a number of municipal improvements and a commitment to historic preservation. These commitments were not slowed down by Hurricane Hugo and continue to this day.

Charleston is the primary medical center for the eastern portion of the state. The city has several major hospitals located in the downtown area alone: Medical University of South Carolina Medical Center (MUSC), Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, and Roper Hospital. MUSC is the state’s ﬁrst school of medicine, the largest medical university in the state, and the sixth oldest continually operating school of medicine in the United States. The downtown medical district is experiencing rapid growth of biotechnology and medical research industries coupled with substantial expansions of all the major hospitals. Additionally, more expansions are planned or underway at several other major hospitals located in other portions of the city and the metropolitan area: Bon Secours-St Francis Xavier Hospital, Trident Medical Center, and East Cooper Regional Medical Center.

23.6.3 Charleston church shooting Main article: Charleston church shooting

A mass shooting took place at Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in downtown Charleston on Charleston is a major tourist destination, with a consid- the evening of June 17, 2015.[14] The senior pastor, the erable number of luxury hotels, hotel chains, inns, and Rev. Clementa C. Pinckney, a state senator, was among

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the nine people killed.[15] The suspect, a white male iden- [12] North American Container Traffic (2005), Port Ranking by TEUs as reported by the American Association of Port tified as Dylann Roof, was captured the morning after Authorities. the attack in Shelby, North Carolina.[16] The shooting is being investigated as a hate crime by local and federal [13] http://www.americanstyle.com/ME2/dirmod. officials.[17] asp?sid=&type=gen&mod=Core+Pages&gid= D4BC7638393C45F5B69956570EB94649

23.7 See also • American urban history • Charleston, South Carolina - main article • Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina • Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War • History of the Jews in Charleston, South Carolina • List of newspapers in South Carolina in the 18th century: Charleston

23.8 References [1] “Chalmers Street,” Charleston County Public Library. Retrieved June 11, 2007. [2] http://www.yale.edu/glc/gullah/02.htm [3] http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/ arts-culture/geechee-and-gullah-culture [4] “A 'portion of the People',” Harvard Magazine, January — February 2003. Retrieved June 11, Charleston also possesses a large and influential Greek community, most of whom are Greek Orthodox. The Charlestonian Greek community has its origins in immigration from Greece to the area to find work in local industry. Charleston has an annual Greek Festival hosted by this community. 2007. [5] “The Jews of South Carolina,” NPR.org, March 25, 2002. Retrieved June 11, 2007. [6] Mould, David R., and Missy Loewe. Historic Gravestone Art of Charleston, South Carolina, 1695-1802. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2006., p251) [7] Gallay, Alan. (2002) The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670–1717. Yale University Press: New York. ISBN 0-300-10193-7, pg. 299 [8] Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), pp. 64–65. [9] Donald F. Johnson, “The Failure of Restored British Rule in Revolutionary Charleston, South Carolina.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (2014) 42#1 pp: 2240.

[14] Kaplan, Sarah (June 18, 2015). “For Charleston’s Emanuel AME Church, shooting is another painful chapter in rich history”. The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2015. [15] Payne, Ed (June 18, 2015). “Charleston church shooting: Multiple fatalities in South Carolina, source says”. CNN. Retrieved June 18, 2015. [16] “Charleston church shooting suspect Dylann Roof in custody in NC”. WIS (WorldNow and WISTV). June 18, 2015. [17] Bever, Lindsey; Costa, Robert (June 17, 2015). “9 dead in shooting at historic Charleston African American church. Police chief calls it ‘hate crime.’". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2015.

23.9 Further reading • Bostick, Douglas W. The Union is Dissolved!: Charleston and Fort Sumter in the Civil War (The History Press, 2009) • Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in the Wilderness-The First Century of Urban Life in America 1625-1742 (1938) online edition • Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America, 1743-1776 (1955) • Burton, E. Milby. The siege of Charleston, 18611865 (University of South Carolina Press, 1970) • Datel, Robin Elisabeth. “Southern regionalism and historic preservation in Charleston, South Carolina, 1920–1940.” Journal of Historical Geography (1990) 16#2 pp: 197-215. • Estes, Steve. Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South after the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 2015). 222 pp. • Fitchett, E. Horace. “The traditions of the free Negro in Charleston, South Carolina.” Journal of Negro History (1940): 139-152. in JSTOR

[10] http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20110130/ PC1602/301309938

• Fraser, Walter J. Charleston! Charleston!: The History of a Southern City (1991) excerpt

[11] "H. L. Hunley, Confederate Submarine,” Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center. Retrieved June 13, 2007.

• Gestler, Diana Hollingsworth. Very Charleston: A Celebration of History, Culture, and Lowcountry Charm (2013)

23.10. EXTERNAL LINKS • Jaher, Frederic. The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles (1982) • Johnson, Donald F. “The Failure of Restored British Rule in Revolutionary Charleston, South Carolina.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (2014) 42#1 pp: 22-40. • Nash, R. C. “Urbanization in the Colonial South Charleston, South Carolina, as a Case Study.” Journal of Urban History 19.1 (1992): 3-29. • Pease, William Henry, and Jane H. Pease. The web of progress: private values and public styles in Boston and Charleston, 1828-1843 (1985) • Pease, Jane H. and William Henry Pease. Ladies, Women, and Wenches: Choice and Constraint in Antebellum Charleston and Boston (Haworth Press, 1990) • Rosen, Robert N. A Short History of Charleston (1997), Popular history • Sellers, Leila. Charleston Business on the Eve of the American Revolution (Arno Press, 1970) • Simkins, Francis Butler, and Robert Henley Woody. South Carolina During Reconstruction (1932) • White, Laura Amanda. Robert Barnwell Rhett: Father of Secession (1965)

23.9.1

Primary sources

• City Directory. 1852; 1882; 1888 • City government annual report. 1870.

23.10 External links • Census of the city of Charleston, South Carolina, for the year 1848: exhibiting the condition and prospects of the city, illustrated by many statistical details

125

Chapter 24

William Moultrie William Moultrie (/ˈmuːltriː/; November 23, 1730 – September 27, 1805) was a planter and politician who became a general from South Carolina in the American Revolutionary War. As colonel leading a state militia, in 1776 he prevented the British from taking Charleston, and Fort Moultrie was named in his honor. After independence, he advanced as a politician; Moultrie was elected by the legislature twice over a period of years as Governor of South Carolina (1785–87, 1792– 94), serving two terms. (The state constitution kept power in the hands of the legislature and prohibited governors’ serving two terms in succession.)

24.1 Life Moultrie was born in Charleston, South Carolina. His parents were Dr. John and Lucretia (Cooper) Moultrie, and he was educated as a planter. He fought in the Anglo-Cherokee War (1761). He was elected to the colonial assembly representing St. Helena Parish before the advent of the American Revolution.[1] In 1775 Moultrie was commissioned colonel of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, in the state militia. In December of that year he led a raid on an encampment of runaway slaves on Sullivan’s Island, killing 50 and capturing the rest. The island served as the main landing point for African slaves imported to Charleston; an estimated 40% of the total estimated 400,000 Africans brought to the United States as slaves landed here. In 1776 Moultrie’s defense of a small fort on Sullivan’s Island (later named Fort Moultrie in his honor) preThe William Moultrie Monument stands in White Point Garden vented Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker from takin Charleston, South Carolina. ing Charleston. The Continental Congress passed a resolution thanking Moultrie. He was promoted to brigadier general and his regiment was taken into the Continental Army. where, as the Crown had promised them freedom if they Moultrie’s skill failed to prevent the fall of Savannah, left rebels. When the British evacuated from Charleston, Georgia to the British in 1778, and they occupied it for they also took many freedmen, resettling them in their the remainder of the war. He was captured in the fall of colonies in the Caribbean and Nova Scotia, where they Charleston to the British in 1780, and they occupied the were known as Black Loyalists. city until the end of the war. Thousands of slaves in the Moultrie was exchanged for British prisoners. In the last South escaped to join British lines in the city and else- year of the war, he was promoted to major general in 126

24.3. REFERENCES 1782, the last man appointed by Congress to that rank. After the war he was elected by the new state legislature as 35th Governor of South Carolina (1785–87). The state constitution prohibited men from serving two successive terms as governor, an eﬀort to keep power in the hands of the legislature. Moultrie was re-elected by the legislature in 1792, serving into 1794.

127 a white crescent with the word LIBERTY on it. The flag was shot down during the fight. Sergeant William Jasper held it up to rally the troops, and the story became widely known. The flag became an icon of the Revolution in the South. It was called the Moultrie, or the Liberty Flag. The new state of South Carolina incorporated its design into its state flag.

In his later years, he returned to manage his plantation. He wrote Memoirs of the Revolution as far as it Related to the States of North and South Carolina (1802).

The Moultrie Flag

Grave of William Moultrie.

24.3 References [1] Fort Moultrie Centennial, Part I. Charleston, SC: Walker, Evans & Cogswell. 1876. p. 8. Retrieved 25 September 2014.

Fort Moultrie, in 2006

24.2 Legacy After the war, the fort he had defended was renamed Fort Moultrie in his honor. It operated as a pivotal defense point until supplanted by Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie was used as an active post of the United States Army from 1798 until the end of World War Two.

24.2.1

The Moultrie Flag

During his notable defense of the fort in 1776, a flag of Moultrie’s own design was flown: a field of blue bearing

24.4 Further reading • Bragg, C.L. Crescent Moon Over Carolina: William Moultrie and American Liberty (University of South Carolina Press; 2013) 336 pages

24.5 External links • SCIway Biography of William Moultrie • http://www.nga.org/cms/home/governors/ past-governors-bios/page_south_carolina/ col2-content/main-content-list/title_moultrie_ william.html

128 • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Moultrie, William". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 24. WILLIAM MOULTRIE

Chapter 25

John Rutledge For other people named John Rutledge, see John Rutledge (disambiguation).

were in high demand.[5]

With his successful legal career, he was able to build on his mother’s fortune. On May 1, 1763, Rutledge married John Rutledge (September 17, 1739 – July 23, 1800) Elizabeth Grimké (born 1742).[6] Rutledge was very dewas the second Chief Justice[1] of the Supreme Court of voted to his wife, and Elizabeth’s death on July 6, 1792, the United States. was a major cause of the illness that aﬀected Rutledge in [7] A lawyer and a judge, Rutledge was a delegate to the his later years. Stamp Act Congress and the Continental Congress, Pres- John and Elizabeth had 10 children: Martha Henriident and then Governor of South Carolina during the etta (1764–1816), Sarah (born and died 1765), John American Revolution, a delegate to the Constitutional (1766–1819), Edward James (1767–1811), Frederick Convention of 1787, and an Associate Justice of the U.S. Wilkes (1769–1821), William Spencer (1771–1821), Supreme Court. He was the elder brother of Edward Rut- Charles Wilson (1773–1821), Thomas (born 1774 and ledge, a signatory of the Declaration of Independence. died young), Elizabeth (1776–1842), and States Whitcomb (1783–1829).

25.1 Early life and family Rutledge was the eldest child in a large family in Charleston, South Carolina. His father was Scots-Irish immigrant John Rutledge (Sr.) (1713–1750), the physician. His mother, South Carolina–born Sarah (née Hext; born September 18, 1724), was of English descent. John had six younger siblings: Andrew (1740–1772), Thomas (1741–1783), Sarah (1742–1819), Hugh (1745–1811), Mary (1747–1832), and Edward (1749–1800). John’s early education was provided by his father until the latter’s death. The rest of Rutledge’s primary education was provided by an Anglican priest.[2]

25.2 Pre-Revolutionary War In mid-1765 Rutledge was an important ﬁgure in the Stamp Act Congress. This congress produced a resolution that stated that it was “the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives.” Rutledge chaired a committee that drew up a petition to the House of Lords attempting to persuade them to reject the Stamp Act. They were ultimately unsuccessful.[8]

When the delegates returned to South Carolina after the Congress adjourned, they found the state in turmoil. The people had destroyed all the revenue stamps they could find; they broke into the houses of suspected Loyalists’ to search for stamps. When the Stamp Act went into effect on November 1, 1765, there were no stamps in the entire colony. Dougal Campbell, the Charleston court clerk, refused to issue any papers without the stamps. Because After finishing his studies, Rutledge returned to of this, all legal processes in the entire state came to a repealed Charleston to begin a fruitful legal career. At the standstill until news that the Stamp Act had been [9] reached South Carolina in early May 1766. time, many lawyers came out of law school and barely scraped together enough business to earn their livings. After the Stamp Act conflict ended, Rutledge went back Most new lawyers could only hope that they would win into private life, and to his law practice. Besides servwell-known cases to ensure their success.[4] Rutledge, ing in the colonial legislature, he did not involve himself however, emerged almost immediately as one of the in politics. His law practice continued to expand and he most prominent lawyers in Charleston, and his services became fairly wealthy as a result.[10] John took an early interest in law and often “played lawyer” with his brothers and sisters. When he was 17 years old, Rutledge began to read law under a man named James Parsons. Two years later, Rutledge sailed to England to further his studies at London’s Middle Temple. In the course of his studies, he won several cases in English courts.[3]

129

130

CHAPTER 25. JOHN RUTLEDGE

In 1774, Rutledge was elected to the First Continental Congress. It is not known for certain exactly what John Rutledge did in the Congress. The records of the Congress refer only to “Rutledge”, though both John and his brother Edward Rutledge were present. The most important contribution made by “Rutledge” to the Congress was during the debate on how to apportion votes in the Congress. Some wanted votes to be apportioned by the population of the colonies. Others wanted to give each colony one vote. “Rutledge” observed that as the Congress had no legal authority to force the colonies to accept its decisions, it would make the most sense to give each colony one vote. The other delegates ultimately agreed to this proposal.[11]

til 1778. That year, the South Carolina legislature proposed a new constitution. Rutledge vetoed it, stating that it moved the state dangerously close to a direct democracy, which Rutledge believed was only a step away from total anarchy. When the legislature overrode his veto, Rutledge resigned.[16]

25.3 President of South Carolina

The new state constitution was revised, and in 1779, Rutledge was elected governor. Rutledge sent troops under General Benjamin Lincoln into Georgia to harass the British. The new British commander in the south, General Jacques Prevost, responded by marching on Charleston with 2,500 troops. When Rutledge heard about this threat, he hurried to Charleston and worked furiously to build up defenses. In spite of Rutledge’s eﬀorts, when General Prevost arrived outside Charleston, the British force had been greatly increased by the addition of Loyalists, and the Americans were vastly outnumbered.[17]

John Rutledge served in the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress until 1776. That year, he was elected President of South Carolina under a constitution drawn up on March 26, 1776. Upon taking office, he worked quickly to organize the new government and to prepare defenses against British attack.[12] In early 1776, Rutledge learned that British forces would attempt to take Charleston. In response, he ordered the construction of Fort Sullivan (now Fort Moultrie) on Sullivan’s Island in Charleston Harbor. When the British arrived, the fort was only half completed. General Charles Lee of the Continental Army, who had arrived a few days earlier with reinforcements from North Carolina, told Rutledge the fort should be evacuated, as Lee considered it indefensible. Lee said that the fort would fall in under a half an hour, and all the men would be killed.[12] In a note to the fort’s commanding officer, Colonel William Moultrie, Rutledge wrote “General Lee [...] wishes you to evacuate the fort. You will not, without [an] order from me. I would sooner cut off my hand than write one.”[13] Rutledge, noticed the Lee was arrogant and uncouth and unfit to control the militia. Rutledge, by virtue of being elected by the state gained control of the militia. Rutledge let it be known that only he could order the militia to defend Charleston. During this time, Rutledge garnered the nickname “Dictator John” by virtue of getting his way with things.[14]

25.4 Governor of South Carolina A few months after Rutledge’s resignation, the British, having suﬀered several defeats in the North, decided to try to retake the South. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell landed in Georgia with 3,000 men and quickly took control of the entire state.[17]

Rutledge privately asked Prevost for surrender terms. Prevost made an oﬀer, but when Rutledge submitted it to the council of war, the council instructed Rutledge to ask if the British would accept a declaration of South Carolina’s neutrality in the Revolution. They forbade Rutledge from surrendering mainly because William Moultrie, who was now a general, believed that the Americans had at least as many troops as the British force, which consisted largely of untrained civilians.

Prevost replied that as he was faced with such a large military force, he would have to take some of them prisoner before he could accept. Moultrie advised the council that he would never stand by and allow the British to take Americans prisoner without ﬁghting, so the council decided to ﬁght it out. The city braced itself for an attack, but the next morning, the British had disappeared. Prevost had intercepted a letter from General Lincoln to Moultrie saying that he was marching to the aid of On June 28, 1776, the British attacked the fort, expecting Charleston, and Prevost decided that he could not hold it to fall quickly. However, the fort’s walls were made out out if the Americans got reinforcements.[18] of palmetto logs packed with sand, and the British cannonballs were absorbed into the soft core of the logs without doing much damage, and the British were repulsed, 25.4.1 Charleston occupied saving Charleston. The battle anniversary is still celebrated as “Carolina Day”, on June 28 each year. South In early 1780, Sir Henry Clinton attacked South Carolina, Carolina’s current “Palmetto Flag”, adopted in 1861, fea- and Charleston was thrown into a panic. The legislature tures the crescent symbol on the defending soldiers’ caps adjourned upon learning of the British. Their last action along with the Palmetto tree.[15] was to give Rutledge power to do anything short of exeRutledge continued as President of South Carolina un- cution without trial. Rutledge did his best to raise militia

25.6. THE STORY OF THE TAVERN KEEPER

131

25.6 The Story of the Tavern Keeper

A map showing the battle lines during the British siege in 1780.

forces, but Charleston was in the midst of a smallpox epidemic, and few dared to enter the city. In February, Clinton landed near Charleston with 5,000 troops. By May he had 9,000 troops to less than 2,500 Americans in the area. On May 10, Charleston surrendered.[19] Rutledge had left the city. He remained Governor of the unconquered part of South Carolina.[20]

In 1784, the South Carolina legislature threatened to exile a tavern keeper by the name of William Thompson, for insulting “Dictator” John Rutledge, now the former governor and a prominent figure in the state. Rutledge had sent a female servant to Thompson’s tavern to watch a fireworks display from the roof. Thompson denied the servant admittance and sent her back to Rutledge. Rutledge was furious and demanded that Thompson come to his house and apologize. Thompson refused and, believing that his honor had been affronted by Rutledge’s arrogant request, challenged Rutledge to a duel. Since people like Rutledge did not associate with tavern keepers, Rutledge went to the South Carolina House of Representatives and insisted that it pass a bill banishing Thompson from the state for insulting a government official.[24] Thompson claimed that, Rutledge and others who were wealthy composed “the grand hierarchy of the State.” Thompson argued that independent people required leaders who were “good, able, useful and friends to social equality.” This altercation changed the hierarchy of state legislatures for years to come.[25]

Though the Americans defeated the British at the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781, they could not drive the British back to Charleston until June 1781, when General Nathanael Greene arrived with more troops.[21] The British held Charleston until December 14, 1782. John 25.7 Constitutional Convention Rutledge’s term of oﬃce had already ended, and he did Further information: Constitutional Convention not run again, because of term limits.[22] In 1787, Rutledge was selected to represent South CarA few weeks after leaving the governorship, Rutledge was again elected to the Continental Congress, where he served until 1783. In 1784, he was appointed to the South Carolina Court of Chancery, where he served until 1791.

25.5 Slavery Like many prominent European-American men in South Carolina at the time, he owned African American people as slaves. According to the state library of South Carolina: “Although Rutledge claimed that he disliked slavery, as an attorney he twice defended individuals who abused slaves. Before the American Revolution, Rutledge owned sixty slaves; afterward, he possessed twenty-eight. His wife Elizabeth manumitted her own slaves, and his nieces were abolitionists Sarah and Angelina Grimké. Despite this, Rutledge convinced the Constitutional Convention not to abolish slavery. When Rutledge died in 1800, he only owned one slave due to ﬁnancial diﬃculties.” [23]

Rutledge around the time of the Convention.

olina in the Philadelphia Convention which was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, but instead pro-

132 duced the United States Constitution.[26] He attended all the sessions and served on five committees.[27] At the Convention, Rutledge maintained a moderate nationalist stance and chaired the Committee of Detail. After the Convention had debated the Virginia Plan and settled some major points of controversy, the Committee of Detail, which Rutledge chaired, assembled during the convention’s July 4 recess.[1] Though the committee did not record its minutes, it is known that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, to produce the first full draft. Much of what was included in this draft consisted of details, such as powers given to Congress, hadn't been debated by the Convention. Most of these were uncontroversial and unchallenged, and as such much of what Rutledge’s committee included in this first draft made it into the final version of the Constitution without debate.[1] Rutledge recommended that the executive power should consist of a single person, rather than several, because he felt that one person would feel the responsibility of the office more acutely. Because the president would not be able to defer a decision to another “co-president”, Rutledge concluded that a single person would be more likely to make a good choice.[26] Rutledge was largely responsible for denying the Supreme Court the right to give advisory opinions. Being a judge himself, he strongly believed that a judge’s sole purpose was to resolve legal conflicts; he held that a judge should hand down an opinion only when ruling on an actual case. He also thought that the legal community was the higher tier of society.[28]

CHAPTER 25. JOHN RUTLEDGE

25.8 Supreme Court Associate Justice George Washington nominated Rutledge to the Supreme Court of the United States as an Associate Justice on September 24, 1789. The United States Senate conﬁrmed his appointment on September 26, 1789, and Washington signed both the commissions of Chief Justice John Jay and Rutledge that same day. On March 4, 1791, Rutledge resigned from the Supreme Court, without having ever heard a case, in order to become Chief Justice of the South Carolina Court of Common Pleas and Sessions.[32][33]

25.9 Chief Justice of the United States of America

Rutledge also argued that if either house of the legislature was to have the sole authority to introduce appropriation bills, it should be the Senate. He noted that the Senate, by nature of its lengthier terms of oﬃce, would tend to be more leisurely in its actions. Because of this, Rutledge felt that the Senate would be better able to think clearly about what the consequences of a bill would be. Also, since the bills could not become law without the consent of the House of Representatives, he concluded that there would be no danger of the Senate ruling the country.[29] When the proposal was made that only landowners should have the right to vote, Rutledge opposed it perhaps more strongly than any other motion in the entire convention. He stated that making such a rule would divide the people into “haves” and “have nots”, would create an undying resentment against landowners, and could do nothing but cause discord. He was supported by Benjamin Franklin, and the rule was not adopted.[30] In the debate on slavery in the new country, Rutledge took the side of the slave-owners; he was a Southerner and he owned several slaves. Rutledge said that if the Constitution forbade slavery, the Southern states would never agree to the Constitution.[31] A bust of John Rutledge located in the United States Supreme Court.

25.10. LATER YEARS On June 28, 1795, Chief Justice John Jay resigned, having been elected Governor of New York. President Washington selected Rutledge to succeed Jay as Chief Justice. As the Senate was not in session at the time, Rutledge’s recess appointment took eﬀect immediately. He was commissioned as the second Chief Justice of the United States on June 30, 1795.[34]

133

25.10 Later years

On July 16, 1795, Rutledge gave a highly controversial speech denouncing the Jay Treaty with Great Britain. He reportedly said in the speech “that he had rather the President should die than sign that puerile instrument"– and that he “preferred war to an adoption of it.”[35] Rutledge’s speech against the Jay Treaty cost him the support of many in the Washington Administration, which supported the treaty, and in the Senate, which subsequently ratiﬁed it by a two-thirds majority and which would soon be debating and voting on his nomination to the Supreme “Jurist, Patriot, Statesman": The gravestone of John Rutledge at Court. St. Michael’s Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina

Two cases were decided while Rutledge held his recess appointment (before his formal nomination). In United States v. Peters, the Court ruled that federal district courts had no jurisdiction over crimes committed against Americans in international waters. In Talbot v. Janson, the Court held that a citizen of the United States did not waive all claims to U.S. citizenship by either renouncing citizenship of an individual state, or by becoming a citizen of another country. The Rutledge Court thus established an important precedent for multiple citizenship in the United States.

The Senate’s rejection of his nomination left Rutledge mentally ruined. He returned to Charleston and withdrew from public life. On December 26, 1795, he attempted suicide by jumping oﬀ a wharf into Charleston Harbor.[34][37] Though the Senate remained in session through June 1, 1796, Rutledge resigned from the Court two days later, on December 28, 1795.[38]

John Rutledge died on June 21, 1800, at the age of sixty.[39] He was interred at St. Michael’s Episcopal Church in Charleston.[40][41] One of his houses, said to By the time of his formal nomination to the Court on have been built in 1763 and definitely sold in 1790, was December 10, 1795, Rutledge’s reputation was in tatters renovated in 1989 and opened to the public as the John and support for his nomination had faded. Rumors of Rutledge House Inn.[42] mental illness and alcohol abuse swirled around him, concocted largely by the Federalist press. His words and actions in response to the Jay Treaty were used as evidence 25.11 See also of his continued mental decline.[33] The Senate rejected his appointment on December 15, 1795 by a vote of 14– 10. This was the first time that the Senate had rejected 25.12 References a presidential recess appointment. Of the 15 recess appointments to the Supreme Court, it remains the only one [1] Stewart, David. The Summer of 1787. p168 to be rejected,[33] and as of 2015 Rutledge remains the only person ever removed involuntarily from the Supreme [2] Flanders, Henry (1874). The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States Court. Regarding the Senate’s rejection of Rutledge’s nomination, then Vice President John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail that it “gave me pain for an old friend, though I could not but think he deserved it. Chief Justices must not go to illegal Meetings and become popular orators in favor of Sedition, nor inflame the popular discontents which are ill founded, nor propagate Disunion, Division, Contention and delusion among the people.”[36] The comments of Adams, a Federalist, foreshadowed his administration’s Sedition Act, which attempted to suppress public criticism of Federalist policies.

1. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. pp. 432–433. Retrieved 2008-04-29. [3] Flanders 438–439 [4] Flanders 447–448 [5] Fradin, Dennis Brindell (2005). The Founders: The 39 Stories behind the U.S. Constitution. New York City: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. p. 90. [6] She was a cousin once removed of the abolitionist Grimké sisters. [7] Flanders 451 [8] Flanders 460

134

[9] Flanders 463–464 [10] Hartley, Cecil B. (1860). Heroes and Patriots of the South. Philadelphia: G. G. Evans. p. 294. Retrieved 2008-0430. [11] Flanders 481–482 [12] Hartley 296–297 [13] Fradin 91 [14] Horton 142 [15] Fradin 91–92 [16] Flanders 551 [17] Flanders 561

CHAPTER 25. JOHN RUTLEDGE

[37] Haw, James. John and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina (University of Georgia Press 1997). [38] Flanders 642 [39] “Sheriﬀ’s spokesman: Supreme Court Historical Society: John Rutledge”. 2009-12-05. Retrieved 2009-12-05. [40] Christensen, George A. (1983) Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices, Yearbook at the Wayback Machine (archived September 3, 2005) Supreme Court Historical Society at Internet Archive which erroneously lists the gravesite as being in Colorado. [41] See also Christensen, George A., “Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited”, Journal of Supreme Court History, Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 – 41 (Feb 19, 2008), University of Alabama.

[18] Flanders 561–564 [19] Flanders 568–569 [20] Flanders 573

[42] “John Rutledge House Inn History”. John Rutledge House Inn. Archived from the original on 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-05-12.

[21] Flanders 576–577 [22] Flanders 588–589 [23] “Slavery at South Carolina College, 1801–1865: The Foundations of the University of South Carolina - Intellectual Founders

25.13 Bibliography • Barry, Richard, (1942) Mr. Rutledge of South Carolina, Salem, N.H.: Ayer, 1993. ISBN 0-80278972-2; ISBN 978-0-8027-8972-3.

[24] Wood [25] Cooper 100-101, [26] Flanders 602 [27] Madison, James (1893). E. H. Scott, ed. Journal of the Federal Convention. Chicago: Albert, Scott, and Co. Various locations throughout the book. Retrieved 2008-0511. [28] Flanders 604 [29] Flanders 606 [30] Flanders 607 [31] Flanders 609–610

• Cooper, William J. Jr., and Thomas E. Terrill. “The American South: A History”. Rowman & Littleﬁeld Publishers, 23 Oct. 2008. • Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books. • Fradin, Dennis Brindell. The Founders: The 39 Stories behind the U.S. Constitution. New York: Walker Publishing Company, Inc., 2005. • Hartley, Cecil B. Heroes and Patriots of the South. Philadelphia: G. G. Evans, 1860.

[32] Flanders 622 [33] “1787-1800 – December 15, 1795 Chief Justice Nomination Rejected”. United States Senate Historical Oﬃce. Retrieved October 21, 2012.

• Haw, James. Founding brothers: John and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, Athens: University of Georgia, 1997. ISBN 0-8203-1859-0; ISBN 978-08203-1859-2.

[34] Fisher, Louis (2001-09-05). “Recess Appointments of Federal Judges” (PDF). Congressional Research Service. pp. 14–15. Retrieved October 20, 2012.

• Horton, Tom. “History’s Lost Moments Volume III.” Traﬀord Publishing, 25 Apr. 2012.

[35] Independent Chronicle (Boston). 1795-08-13, reprinted in Marcus, Maeva, and Perry, James Russell. The Documentary History of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1789–1800 p 780

• Madison, James. in E. H. Scott: Journal of the Federal Convention. Chicago: Albert, Scott, and Co., 1893.

[36] Maltese, John. The Selling of Supreme Court Nominees (Johns Hopkins University Press 1998), pp. 30–31.

• Wood, Gordon S. “The Idea of America.” Penguin, 12 May 2011.

25.15. EXTERNAL LINKS

25.14 Further reading • • John Rutledge at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7. • Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4. • Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6. • Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3. • McCrady, Edward. History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1897–1902) • Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-11761. • Wallace, David D. History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1934–1935; rev. ed., 1 vol., 1951) • Warren, Charles. (1928) The Supreme Court in United States History, 2 vols. at Google books. • Warren, Charles. The Supreme Court in United States History (3 vols., 1923; 2 vols., rev. ed. 1935)

25.15 External links • Ireland, Robert M. John Rutledge at Answers.com. • NGA Biography of John Rutledge • John Rutledge memorial at Find a Grave • Oyez Project, Supreme Court of the United States Media, John Rutledge. • SCIway Biography of John Rutledge

135

Chapter 26

Fort Moultrie For the Florida Second Seminole War fort originally named Fort Moultrie, see Fort Peyton. Fort Moultrie is a series of fortiﬁcations on

Entrance to Fort Moultrie

Confederate Fort Moultrie on Sullivan’s Island looking east into Charleston Harbor

Cannon displayed at Fort Moultrie

palmetto logs, inspired the ﬂag and nickname of South Carolina, “The Palmetto State”. It is named for the commander in the Battle of Sullivan’s Island, General William Moultrie. Fort Moultrie is the only area of the National Park System where the entire 171-year history of American seacoast defense (1776–1947) can be traced. Fort Moultrie Visitor Center

Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina, built to protect the city of Charleston, South Carolina. The ﬁrst fort, built of

26.1 History

136

26.1. HISTORY

26.1.1

American Revolution

South Carolina patriots began to build a fort to guard Charleston, South Carolina, harbor in 1776. British Admiral Sir Peter Parker with nine British warships attacked the fort—named Fort Sullivan and incomplete—on June 28, 1776, near the beginning of the American Revolutionary War.[1] The soft palmetto logs did not crack under bombardment but rather absorbed the shot; cannonballs reportedly even bounced oﬀ the walls of the structure. William Moultrie, commander of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, and his four hundred men fought a day-long battle that ended with the heavily damaged British ships being driven from the area. This victory galvanized the Patriots’ cause for independence.[2] The fort hence took its name Fort Moultrie in his honor. Charleston locals celebrate "Carolina Day" to commemorate the bravery of the defenders of the fort.

137 Fort Sumter, Fort Johnson, and Castle Pinckney surrounded and defended Charleston. Fort Moultrie began to record meteorological observations in the early 1820s. For ﬁfty years the Army detained Seminole Indian ﬁghter Osceola and some fellow Seminole prisoners at Fort Moultrie late 1837. Osceola died of malaria in January 1838; the Army buried his corpse at the front gate of Fort Moultrie and thereafter maintained his grave.

26.1.3 Civil War

In the months leading up to the Civil War John L. Gardner was in command at Fort Moultrie. With secession growing more imminent, Gardner had made several requests to Secretary of War John B. Floyd for more troops to garrison and defend the undermanned fortress. Each time During this battle, Moultrie flew a flag of his own design, his requests were ignored, as Floyd (who joined the Conauthorized by the colonial government. It was later called federacy) was planning to hand the forts in Charleston the Moultrie flag or Liberty flag and became iconic to the Harbor over to the secessionists. Revolution in the South. South Carolina seceded from the Union on December The British eventually captured Fort Moultrie as part 20, 1860. Around this time a Federal garrison from the of the Siege of Charleston in spring 1780 and renamed 1st US Artillery was sent to Fort Moultrie. Unlike the it Fort Arbuthnot.[1] Nevertheless, the colonists won state militia at the other forts, the Regular Army defendthe war, and British troops departed in 1782, at which ers of Fort Moultrie chose not to surrender to the South time the flag was presented in Charleston, by General Carolina forces. On December 26, 1860, Union Major Nathanael Greene, commander of the southern Regulars. Robert Anderson moved his garrison from Fort Moultrie to the stronger Fort Sumter. On February 8, 1861, South Carolina joined other seceded Deep Southern states to 26.1.2 Early federal period form the Confederate States of America. In April 1861, Confederate troops shelled Fort Sumter into submission Great Britain and France began another war in 1793, and the American Civil War began. heightening tensions. The United States of America thence embarked on a significant fortification program In April 1863, Federal ironclads and shore batteries befor important harbors, later called the First System of gan a bombardment of Fort Moultrie and the other forts fortifications. Atop the decayed original Fort Moultrie, around Charleston harbor. Over the ensuing twenty the Army completed a new fort in 1798; the Army also months, Union bombardment reduced Fort Sumter to a built nineteen other new forts along the Atlantic coast.[3] rubble pile and pounded Fort Moultrie below a sand hill, The fort was garrisoned by Captain Jonathan Robeson’s which protected it against further bombardment. The company in 1802. However, after years of neglect the Rifled cannon proved its superiority to brickwork forAntigua–Charleston hurricane destroyed Fort Moultrie in tifications but not to the endurance of the Confederate artillerymen who continued to man Fort Moultrie. In 1804.[4] February 1865, the Confederate Army finally abandoned Fort Moultrie was rebuilt as part of the Second System the rubble of Fort Moultrie and evacuated the city of of fortifications in 1808–09 under the direction of Army Charleston. engineer Alexander Macomb.[5] A report by the Secretary of War on fortifications in December 1811 describes Fort Moultrie as “an irregular form, built of brick, presenting 26.1.4 Postbellum period and 20th century a battery of three sides on the sea front, and the whole is enclosed with ramparts, parapets, &c. mounting 40 The Army modernized Fort Moultrie in the 1870s with guns. … The barracks are of brick … for five hundred new weapons and deep concrete bunkers. Weapons of this period included 15-inch and 10-inch Rodman guns, (soldiers)".[6][2] Fort Moultrie’s main design did not change much over which were smoothbores, and 8-inch converted rifles, the next five decades. The Army altered the parapet lined down from 10-inch Rodmans. and modernized the armament, but defense of Charleston Beginning in 1897, Fort Moultrie’s armament was modcentered increasingly around newly created Fort Sumter. ernized under the large-scale Endicott Program of coast By the time of the American Civil War, Fort Moultrie, defenses. Eight new reinforced-concrete batteries were

138 completed by 1906, and part of the Second System fort was demolished to make room for batteries Bingham, McCorkle, and Lord.[7][8] The fort also had a mine casemate to control a naval mineﬁeld.[9] In 1901 Coast Artillery units were designated from heavy artillery units, and in 1907 the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps was formed to garrison the new coast defenses.[10]

CHAPTER 26. FORT MOULTRIE of 12-inch guns at Fort Sumter. Forts Moultrie and Sumter constituted the Coast Defenses of Charleston, as the Charleston Coast Artillery District was designated in 1913.[8][12][13][14]

Battery Capron was named for Captain Allyn K. Capron of the 1st US Volunteer Cavalry, the famous "Rough Riders", who was the first US Army officer killed in The Endicott Program batteries at Fort Moultrie the Spanish-American War. Battery Butler was named were:[8][7] for Colonel Pierce M. Butler of the Palmetto Regiment, killed in the Battle of Churubusco in the 1847 Mexican– American War. Battery Jasper was named for Sergeant William Jasper of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, a hero of the 1776 attack on the fort. Battery Thompson was named for Colonel William Thompson of the 3rd South Carolina Regiment, commended for defending Charleston in June 1776. Battery Gadsden was named for Brigadier General Christopher Gadsden, a South Carolina officer of the Revolutionary War. Battery Logan was named for Captain William Logan, killed fighting the Nez Perce in 1877. Battery Bingham was named for 2nd Lieutenant Horatio Bingham, killed fighting the Sioux in 1866. Battery McCorkle was named for 1st Lieutenant Henry McCorkle of the 25th US Infantry Reg12-inch mortars in a pit; Battery Capron had four pits of this type iment, killed in the Battle of El Caney in the Spanish– American War. Battery Lord was named for Assistant Surgeon George Edwin Lord, killed at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, also called “Custer’s Last Stand”, in 1876.[7] In 1904 Battery Logan’s 6-inch Armstrong gun was removed and most likely transferred to Fort Adams.[7][8]

10-inch disappearing gun at Fort Casey, Washington state, similar to those at Fort Moultrie.

After the US entered World War I, Battery Gadsden’s four 6-inch guns were removed for service on ﬁeld carriages on the Western Front in 1917 and were never returned to the fort.[7] Records show the guns arrived in France, but a history of the Coast Artillery in World War I states that none of the regiments in France equipped with 6-inch guns completed training in time to see action before the Armistice.[15]

Two of Battery Jasper’s four 10-inch guns were similarly removed in 1918 for potential use as railway guns; they Battery Capron, with sixteen 12-inch mortars, was the were never returned to the fort but were replaced with largest component of the new defenses. In 1906 it guns from Fort Washington in 1919.[7] was organizationally split into two batteries, Capron and Butler, each with eight mortars. Batteries Jasper and Following World War I there were several changes at Fort Thompson provided longer-range weapons with a to- Moultrie as part of a forcewide partial disarmament of tal of six 10-inch disappearing guns.[7][8] In April 1898 the coast defense system. Battery Bingham’s two 4.7the Spanish–American War broke out, with Fort Moul- inch Armstrong guns and Battery McCorkle’s three 3trie’s smaller, rapid-fire batteries still years from com- inch M1898 guns were removed in 1919–20 as part of pletion. Batteries Logan and Bingham were added to a general removal from service of some gun types. Eight the fort, mostly equipped with weapons purchased from of Battery Capron-Butler’s mortars were removed and the the United Kingdom.[11] In 1901 Battery McCorkle was remaining eight replaced with M1890 mortars on M1896 added to defend the minefield against minesweepers with carriages in 1920. The removal of half the mortars was a three 3-inch guns on retractable masking parapet car- forcewide measure to increase the rate of fire by reducing riages. In 1905 Battery Lord was added with two 3-inch overcrowding of mortar pits during reloading.[7][8] guns, and in 1906 Battery Gadsden provided four 6-inch With the outbreak of World War II in 1939 and the Fall of rapid-fire disappearing guns.[7][8] France in 1940, a comprehensive upgrade of US coastal These batteries were supplemented in 1899 by a pair fortifications was implemented. In the early part of the

26.2. SEE ALSO war the Harbor Defenses of Charleston were garrisoned by the 13th Coast Artillery Regiment of the Regular Army and the 263rd Coast Artillery Regiment of the South Carolina National Guard.[16] The Marshall Military Reservation, a sub-post of Fort Moultrie, was established in the northeast part of Sullivan’s Island to accommodate the new batteries. The batteries built during World War II at and near Fort Moultrie were:[8][7]

139 submarines and nuclear weapons, seacoast defense of the United States ceased to be a viable strategy.

26.1.5 Decommissioning

In 1960, the Department of Defense transferred Fort Moultrie to the National Park Service. NPS manages the historic fort as a unit of Fort Sumter National Monument.[19] NPS has interpreted the fort as a tour backward • BCN = Battery Construction Number in time from its defenses from World War II to the orig• AMTB = Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat Battery inal palmetto log fort constructed by William Moultrie. The preserved Harbor Entrance Control Post and BCN Additionally, a battery of two 16-inch guns designated 520 (now a private residence) are the main relics of the BCN 125 was proposed for James Island, south of World War II era. Charleston Harbor, but was never built.[8] The National Register of Historic Places listed Fort The unnamed battery of four 155 mm M1918 towed guns Moultrie Quartermaster and Support Facilities Hison concrete Panama mounts was established in 1941 to toric District on September 6, 2007.[20][21] In 2016, quickly augment Charleston’s harbor defenses.[17] the “America the Beautiful” quarter for South Carolina will feature “Fort Moultrie (Fort Sumter National Monument).” Moultrie is honored with his statue in The Battery section of downtown Charleston.

26.2 See also • 13th Coast Artillery (United States)

26.3 Bibliography • Berhow, Mark A., Ed. (2015). American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide, Third Edition. McLean, Virginia: CDSG Press. ISBN 978-09748167-3-9.

12-inch casemated gun, similar to those of BCN 520

The construction of the long-range BCN 520 with 12inch guns rendered all previous gun defenses in the Charleston area obsolete. BCN 520 was armed with guns removed from Battery Kimble at Fort Travis, Galveston, Texas.[17] Almost all of Fort Moultrie’s previous armament was scrapped in 1942, except Battery Thompson’s pair of 10-inch guns and Battery Lord’s pair of 3-inch guns. The two ﬁxed emplacements of AMTB 2A were built on the former 10-inch Battery Jasper. A Harbor Entrance Control Post (HECP) to coordinate Army and Navy harbor defenses was established at the old fort and has been refurbished as an exhibit.[7][8] On August 15, 1947, the Army lowered Fort Moultrie’s ﬂag for the last time and ended 171 years of service. After the war, due to changes in military technology, including

• Detzer, David (2002). Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War. Houghton Miﬄin Harcourt. p. 400. ISBN 9780156007412., Book (par view) • Doubleday, Abner (1998). Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61. Charleston, SC: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company. ISBN 1877853-40-2. • Lewis, Emanuel Raymond (1979). Seacoast Fortiﬁcations of the United States. Annapolis: Leeward Publications. ISBN 978-0-929521-11-4. • Lossing, Benson John (1874). The Pictorial Field Book of the Civil War in the United States of America, Volume 1. Hartford: Thomas Belknap. p. 640., E'book

140 • Moore, Frank (1889). The Civil War in Song and Story, 1860–1865. New York: P. F. Collier. p. 560., E'book • Rinaldi, Richard A. (2004). The U. S. Army in World War I: Orders of Battle. General Data LLC. ISBN 0-9720296-4-8. • Wade, Arthur P. (2011). Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortiﬁcations, 1794-1815. McLean, Virginia: CDSG Press. ISBN 978-0-9748167-2-2. • Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John (1888). Appleton’s Cyclopaedia of American Biography, Volume 2. D. Appleton and Company, New York., E'book

CHAPTER 26. FORT MOULTRIE

[19] National Park Service. “Fort Sumter National Monument Draft GMP/EA” (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-25. “The National Park Service accepted jurisdiction of Fort Moultrie in 1960 under authority of the Historic Sites Act of 1935 Pub.L. 74–292.”, p.9. [20] Schneider, David B. (March 6, 2007). “Fort Moultrie Quartermaster and Support Facilities Historic District” (pdf). National Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. Retrieved 10 June 2012. [21] “Fort Moultrie Quartermaster and Support Facilities Historic District, Charleston County (Sullivan’s Island)". National Register Properties in South Carolina. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 10 June 2012.

26.5 External links • Fort Moultrie

26.4 References [1] Fort Moultrie at NorthAmericanForts.com [2] Fort Moultrie brochure, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service [3] Wade, pp. 59–60 [4] Wade, pp. 88, 106 [5] Wade, p. 154 [6] Wade, p. 245 [7] Fort Moultrie article at FortWiki [8] Berhow, p. 213 [9] Fort Moultrie at NorthAmericanForts.com [10] Berhow, pp. 423-427 [11] Congressional serial set, 1900, Report of the Commission on the Conduct of the War with Spain, Vol. 7, pp. 3778– 3780, Washington: Government Printing Oﬃce [12] Fort Sumter article at FortWiki [13] Coast Artillery Organization: A Brief Overview at the Coast Defense Study Group website [14] Rinaldi, pp. 165-166 [15] History of the Coast Artillery Corps in WWI [16] Stanton, Shelby L. (1991). World War II Order of Battle. Galahad Books. pp. 456, 472, 478. ISBN 0-88365-7759. [17] Marshall Military Reservation article at FortWiki.com [18] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

• Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary • Fort Moultrie at USForting.com

Chapter 27

Columbia, South Carolina This article is about the city in the U.S. state of South the regional Cofitachequi chiefdom.[7] Carolina. For other uses, see Columbia. From the creation of Columbia by the South Carolina General Assembly in 1786, the site of Columbia was imColumbia is the capital of and largest city in the U.S. portant to the overall development of the state. The Constate of South Carolina, with a population of 129,272 as garees, a frontier fort on the west bank of the Congaree of the 2010 United States Census. As of July 1, 2013, River, was the head of navigation in the Santee River systhe city’s population was estimated to be 133,358 (U.S. tem. A ferry was established by the colonial government Census Bureau, July 2014 release). The city serves as the in 1754 to connect the fort with the growing settlements county seat of Richland County, and a portion of the city on the higher ground on the east bank. extends into neighboring Lexington County. It is the cen- Like many other significant early settlements in colonial ter of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area, which America, Columbia is on the fall line from the Piedmont had a population of 767,598 as of the 2010 United States region. The fall line is the spot where a river becomes unCensus, growing to 800,495 by July 1, 2013, according navigable when sailing upstream and where falling water to 2014 U.S. Census estimates. The name Columbia was downstream cannot power a mill. a poetic term used for the United States, originating from State Senator John Lewis Gervais of the town of Ninety the name of Christopher Columbus. Six introduced a bill that was approved by the legislaThe city is located approximately 13 miles (21 km) northture on March 22, 1786, to create a new state capital. west of the geographic center of South Carolina, and is There was considerable argument over the name for the the primary city of the Midlands region of the state. It new city. According to published accounts, Senator Gerlies at the confluence of the Saluda River and the Broad vais said he hoped that “in this town we should find refuge River, which merge at Columbia to form the Congaree under the wings of COLUMBIA", for that was the name River. Columbia is home to the University of South Car- which he wished it to be called. One legislator insisted on olina, the state’s flagship and largest university, and is also the name “Washington”, but “Columbia” won by a vote of the site of Fort Jackson, the largest United States Army 11–7 in the state senate. installation for Basic Combat Training. In 1860, the city was the location of the South Carolina Secession Convention, which marked the departure of the first state from the Union in the events leading up to the Civil War.

27.1 History See also: Timeline of Columbia, South Carolina

27.1.1

Early history

At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Columbia were a people called the Congaree.[6] In May 1540, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto traversed what is now Columbia while moving northward. The expedition produced the earliest written historical records of the area, which was part of

The Seibels House, c. 1796, is the oldest in Columbia.

The site was chosen as the new state capital in 1786, due to its central location in the state. The State Legislature ﬁrst met there in 1790. After remaining under the direct

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government of the legislature for the first two decades of its existence, Columbia was incorporated as a village in 1805 and then as a city in 1854. Columbia received a large stimulus to development when it was connected in a direct water route to Charleston by the Santee Canal. This canal connected the Santee and Cooper rivers in a 22-mile-long (35 km) section. It was first chartered in 1786 and completed in 1800, making it one of the earliest canals in the United States. With increased railroad traffic, it ceased operation around 1850. The commissioners designed a town of 400 blocks in a 2-mile (3 km) square along the river. The blocks were Ruins, as seen from the State House, 1865 divided into lots of 0.5 acres (2,000 m2 ) and sold to speculators and prospective residents. Buyers had to build a house at least 30 feet (9.1 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide within three years or face an annual 5% penalty. The perimeter streets and two through streets were 150 feet (46 m) wide. The remaining squares were divided by thoroughfares 100 feet (30 m) wide. The width was determined by the belief that dangerous and pesky mosquitoes could not fly more than 60 feet (18 m) without dying of starvation along the way. Columbians still enjoy most of the magnificent network of wide streets.

Monument marking site of original South Carolina State House, designed and built from 1786 to 1790 by James Hoban and burned by the Union Army in 1865

institution in part to unite the citizens of the Upcountry and the Lowcountry and to discourage the youth from migrating to England for their higher education. At the time, South Carolina sent more young men to England than did any other state. The leaders of South Carolina wished to monitor the progress and development of the school; South Carolina State House from the 15th floor of the Main and for many years after the founding of the university, comGervais Tower mencement exercises were held in December while the The commissioners comprised the local government un- state legislature was in session. til 1797 when a Commission of Streets and Markets was Columbia received its first charter as a town in 1805. created by the General Assembly. Three main issues oc- An intendant and six wardens would govern the town. cupied most of their time: public drunkenness, gambling, John Taylor, the first elected intendant, later served in and poor sanitation. both houses of the General Assembly, both houses of As one of the first planned cities in the United States, Congress, and eventually as governor. By 1816, there Columbia began to grow rapidly. Its population was near- were 250 homes in the town and a population of more than one thousand. Columbia became chartered as a city ing 1,000 shortly after the start of the 19th century. in 1854, with an elected mayor and six aldermen. Two years later, Columbia had a police force consisting of a full-time chief and nine patrolmen. The city continued 27.1.2 19th century to grow at a rapid pace, and throughout the 1850s and Main article: Columbia, South Carolina, in the American 1860s Columbia was the largest inland city in the CaroliCivil War nas. Railroad transportation served as a significant cause In 1801, South Carolina College (now the University of of population expansion in Columbia during this time. South Carolina) was founded in Columbia. The original Rail lines that reached the city in the 1840s primarily building survives. The city was chosen as the site of the transported cotton bales, not passengers. Cotton was the

27.1. HISTORY

143

lifeblood of the Columbia community; in 1850 virtually served his employment at the cost of another.[10] all of the city’s commercial and economic activity was related to cotton. “In 1830, approximately 1,500 slaves lived and worked in Columbia; this population grew to 3,300 by 1860. Some members of this large enslaved population worked in their masters’ households. Masters also frequently hired out slaves to Columbia residents and institutions, including South Carolina College. Hired-out slaves sometimes returned to their owner’s home daily; others boarded with their temporary masters.”[8] During this period, “legislators developed state and local statutes to restrict the movement of urban slaves in hopes of preventing rebellion. Although various decrees established curfews and prohibited slaves from meeting and from learning to read and write, such rulings were diﬃcult to enforce.”[8] Indeed, “several prewar accounts note that many Columbia slaves were literate; some slaves even conducted classes to teach others to read and write.” As well, “many slaves attended services at local Baptist, Presbyterian, and Methodist churches, yet some struggled to obtain membership in these institutions.”[8]

Equestrian statue in Columbia of General and later Governor Wade Hampton, III, known for his opposition to Reconstruction

Controversy surrounding the burning of the city started soon after the war ended. General Sherman blamed the high winds and retreating Confederate soldiers for firing bales of cotton, which had been stacked in the Columbia’s First Baptist Church hosted the South Car- streets. General Sherman denied ordering the burning, olina Secession Convention on December 17, 1860. The though he did order militarily significant structures, such delegates drafted a resolution in favor of secession, 159– as the Confederate Printing Plant, destroyed. Firsthand 0. Columbia’s location made it an ideal location for other accounts by local residents, Union soldiers, and a newsconventions and meetings within the Confederacy. paper reporter offer a tale of revenge by Union troops for Columbia’s and South Carolina’s pivotal role in leading Southern states to secede from the Union. Still other accounts portray it as mostly the fault of the Confederacy. Today, tourists can follow the path General Sherman’s army took to enter the city and see structures or remnants of structures that survived the fire. During Reconstruction, Columbia became the focus of considerable attention. Reporters, journalists, travelers, and tourists flocked to South Carolina’s capital city to witness a Southern state legislature whose members included former slaves. The city also made somewhat of a rebound following the devastating fire of 1865; a mild construction boom took place within the first few years of Reconstruction, and repair of railroad tracks in outlying The burning of Columbia during Sherman's occupation, from areas created jobs for area citizens. Harper’s Weekly

On February 17, 1865, in the last months of the Civil War, much of Columbia was destroyed by fire while being occupied by Union troops under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman.[9] Jeff Goodwyn, mayor of Columbia, sent William B. Stanley and Thomas W. Radcliffe to surrender the city to Sherman’s troops. According to legend, Columbia’s First Baptist Church barely missed being torched by Sherman’s troops. The soldiers marched up to the church and asked the sexton if he could direct them to the First Baptist Church. The sexton directed the men to the nearby Washington Street Methodist Church; thus, the historic landmark was saved from destruction by Union soldiers, and the sexton pre-

Following Reconstruction, the Columbia Music Festival Association (CMFA) was established in 1897,[11] by Mayor William McB. Sloan and the aldermen of the city of Columbia. It was headquartered in the Opera House on Main Street, which was also City Hall. Its role was to book and manage concerts and events in the opera house for the city.

27.1.3 Twentieth century The ﬁrst few years of the 20th century saw Columbia emerge as a regional textile manufacturing center. In 1907, Columbia had six mills in operation: Richland, Granby, Olympia, Capital City, Columbia, and Palmetto.

144 Combined, they employed over 3,400 workers with an annual payroll of $819,000, giving the Midlands an economic boost of over $4.8 million. Columbia had no paved streets until 1908, when 17 blocks of Main Street were surfaced. There were, however, 115 publicly maintained street crossings at intersections to keep pedestrians from having to wade through a sea of mud between wooden sidewalks. As an experiment, Washington Street was once paved with wooden blocks. This proved to be the source of much local amusement when they buckled and ﬂoated away during heavy rains. The blocks were replaced with asphalt paving in 1925.

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA plane that now rests at Columbia’s Owens Field in the Curtiss-Wright hangar. [13] The area’s population continued to grow during the 1950s, having experienced a 40 percent increase from 186,844 to 260,828, with 97,433 people residing within the city limits of Columbia.

The years 1911 and 1912 were something of a construction boom for Columbia, with $2.5 million worth of construction occurring in the city. These projects included the Union Bank Building at Main and Gervais, the Palmetto National Bank, a shopping arcade, and large hotels at Main and Laurel (the Jefferson) and at Main and Wheat (the Gresham). In 1917, the city was selected as the site of Camp Jackson, a U.S. military installation Robert Mills House which was officially classified as a “Field Artillery Replacement Depot”. The first recruits arrived at the camp The 1940s saw the beginning of efforts to reverse Jim on September 1, 1917. Crow laws and racial discrimination in Columbia. In In 1930, Columbia was the hub of a trading area with ap- 1945, a federal judge ruled that the city’s black teachers proximately 500,000 potential customers. It had 803 re- were entitled to equal pay to that of their white countertail establishments, 280 of them being food stores. There parts. However, in years following, the state attempted were also 58 clothing and apparel outlets, 57 restaurants to strip many blacks of their teaching credentials. Other and lunch rooms, 55 filling stations, 38 pharmacies, 20 issues in which the blacks of the city sought equality confurniture stores, 19 auto dealers, 11 shoe stores, nine cigar cerned voting rights and segregation (particularly regardstands, five department stores and one book store. Whole- ing public schools). On August 21, 1962, eight downsale distributors located within the city numbered 119, town chain stores served blacks at their lunch counters for the first time. The University of South Carolina admitwith one-third of them dealing in food. ted its first black students in 1963; around the same time, In 1934, the federal courthouse at the corner of Main many vestiges of segregation began to disappear from the and Laurel streets was purchased by the city for use city, blacks attained membership on various municipal as City Hall. Built of granite from nearby Winnsboro, boards and commissions, and a non-discriminatory hirColumbia City Hall is listed on the National Register of ing policy was adopted by the city. These and other such Historic Places. Designed by Alfred Built Millet, Presisigns of racial progress helped earn the city the 1964 Alldent Ulysses S. Grant's federal architect, the building was America City Award for the second time (the first becompleted in 1876. Millet, best known for his design of ing in 1951), and a 1965 article in Newsweek magazine the Executive Office Building in Washington, D.C., had lauded Columbia as a city that had “liberated itself from originally designed the building with a clock tower. Large the plague of doctrinal apartheid.” cost overruns probably caused it to be left out. Copies of Mullet’s original drawings can be seen on the walls of City Historic preservation has played a significant part in shapHall alongside historic photos of Columbia’s beginnings. ing Columbia into the city that it is today. The historic Federal offices were moved to the J. Bratton Davis United Robert Mills House was restored in 1967, which inspired the renovation and restoration of other historic structures States Bankruptcy Courthouse. such as the Hampton-Preston House and homes assoReactivated Camp Jackson became Fort Jackson in 1940, ciated with President Woodrow Wilson, Maxcy Gregg, giving the military installation the permanence desired by Mary Boykin Chesnut, and noted free black Celia Mann. city leaders at the time. The fort was annexed into the city In the early 1970s, the University of South Carolina iniin the fall of 1968, with approval from the Pentagon. In tiated the refurbishment of its “Horseshoe”. Several area the early 1940s, shortly after the attacks on Pearl Harbor museums also benefited from the increased historical inwhich began America’s involvement in World War II, Lt. terest of that time, among them the Fort Jackson MuColonel Jimmy Doolittle and his group of now-famous seum, the McKissick Museum on the campus of the Unipilots began training for the Doolittle Raid over Tokyo versity of South Carolina, and most notably the South [12] at what is now Columbia Metropolitan Airport. They Carolina State Museum, which opened in 1988. trained in B-25 Mitchell bombers, the same model as the Mayor Kirkman Finlay, Jr., was the driving force be-

27.2. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

145

hind the refurbishment of Seaboard Park, now known as Finlay Park, in the historic Congaree Vista district, as well as the compilation of the $60 million Palmetto Center package, which gave Columbia an oﬃce tower, parking garage, and the Columbia Marriott, which opened in 1983. The year 1980 saw the Columbia metropolitan population reach 410,088, and in 1990 this ﬁgure had hit approximately 470,000.

27.1.4

Recent history Photograph of Columbia taken from the International Space Station

Soils in Columbia are well drained in most cases, with grayish brown loamy sand topsoil. The subsoil may be yellowish red sandy clay loam (Orangeburg series), yellowish brown sandy clay loam (Norfolk series), or strong brown sandy clay (Marlboro series). All belong to the Ultisol soil order.[14][15][16][17] A view up the Main Street corridor from the SC Statehouse steps

The 1990s and early 2000s saw revitalization in the downtown area. The Congaree Vista district along Gervais Street, once known as a warehouse district, became a thriving district of art galleries, shops, and restaurants. The Colonial Life Arena (formerly known as the Carolina Center) opened in 2002, and brought several bignamed concerts and shows to Columbia. The Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center opened in 2004, and a new convention center hotel opened in September 2007. A public-private City Center Partnership has been formed to implement the downtown revitalization and boost downtown growth.

27.2 Geography and climate One of Columbia’s more prominent geographical features is its fall line, the boundary between the upland Piedmont region and the Atlantic Coastal Plain, across which rivers drop as falls or rapids. Columbia grew up at the fall line of the Congaree River, which is formed by the convergence of the Broad River and the Saluda River. The Congaree was the farthest inland point of river navigation. The energy of falling water also powered Columbia’s early mills. The city has capitalized on this location which includes three rivers by christening itself “The Columbia Riverbanks Region”. Columbia is located roughly halfway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Blue Ridge Mountains and sits at an elevation of around 292 ft (89 m).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 134.9 square miles (349.5 km2 ), of which 132.2 square miles (342.4 km2 ) is land and 2.7 square miles (7.0 km2 ) is water (2.01%). Approximately 2/3 of Columbia’s land area, 81.2 square miles (210 km2 ), is contained within the Fort Jackson Military Installation, much of which consists of uninhabited training grounds. The actual inhabited area for the city is slightly more than 50 square miles (130 km2 ). Columbia has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with mild winters, early springs, warm autumns, and very hot and humid summers. The area averages 53 nights below freezing, but extended cold or days where the temperature fails to rise above freezing are both rare.[18] With an annual average of 5.4 days with 100 °F (38 °C)+ and 77 days with 90 °F (32 °C)+ temperatures,[18] the city’s current promotional slogan describes Columbia as “Famously Hot”.[19] Precipitation, at 44.6 inches (1,130 mm) annually, peaks in the summer months, and is the least during spring and fall.[18] Snowfall averages 1.5 inches (3.8 cm), but many years receive no snowfall.[18] Like much of the southeastern U.S., the city is prone to inversions, which trap ozone and other pollutants over the area. Oﬃcial extremes in temperature have ranged from 109 °F (43 °C) on June 29 and 30, 2012 down to −2 °F (−19 °C), set on February 14, 1899, although a close second of −1 °F (−18 °C) was recorded on January 21, 1985 and the University of South Carolina campus reached 113 °F (45 °C) on June 29, 2012, establishing a new state record high.[18][20]

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27.2.1

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA

Metropolitan area

27.2.2 Neighborhoods

Main article: Columbia, South Carolina metropolitan area The metropolitan statistical area of Columbia is the second-largest in South Carolina; it has a population of 800,495 according to the 2014 Census estimates. Columbia is also combined with the Orangeburg and Newberry micropolitan areas to form the Columbia– Orangeburg-Newberry Combined Statistical Area, which has 928,368 people according to the 2013 Census estimates and is the second-largest CSA in South Carolina. Columbia’s metropolitan counties include: Historic Hampton neighborhood

• Richland County • Lexington County • Fairﬁeld County • Calhoun County • Kershaw County • Saluda County Columbia’s suburbs and environs include: • St. Andrews, Richland County: Pop. 20,493 (unin- Elmwood Park neighborhood corporated) • Seven Oaks, Lexington County: Pop. 15,144 (unincorporated) • Lexington: Pop. 17,870 • Dentsville, Richland County: Pop. 14,062 (unincorporated)

• Allen Benedict Court • Arsenal Hill • Ashley Hall • Ashley Place

• West Columbia: Pop. 14,988

• Belvedere

• Cayce, Lexington County: Pop. 12,528

• Bluﬀ Estates

• Irmo: Pop. 11,097

• Booker Washington Heights

• Forest Acres: Pop. 10,361

• Brookstone

• Woodﬁeld, Richland County: Pop. 9,303 (unincorporated)

• Brandon Hall

• Red Bank, Lexington County: Pop. 9,617 (unincorporated) • Oak Grove, Lexington County: Pop.10,291 (unincorporated) • Camden: Pop. 6,838 • Lugoﬀ, Kershaw County: Pop. 7,434 (unincorporated)

• Colonial Heights • Colonial Park • Colony • Congaree Vista • Cottontown/Bellevue Historic District • Crane Forest

• Ballentine: Pop. 2,500

• Earlewood

• Chapin: Pop. 1,445

• Eau Claire

27.3. DEMOGRAPHICS

147

• Elmwood Park

• Spring Valley

• Five Points

• University Hill

• Forest Acres

• Wales Garden

• Forest Hills

• Historic Waverly

• Gable Oaks • Granby Mill Village • Greenview • Gregg Park • Gonzales Gardens • Hastings Pointe

• Villages at Longtown • Wheeler Hill • WildeWood • Winchester • Winslow • Winterwood • Woodcreek Farms

• Harbison

• Woodlake

• Heathwood

• The Woodlands

• Heritage Woods

• Yorkshire

• Hollywood-Rose Hill • Hollywood Hills • Keenan Terrace • Killian • King’s Grant • Lake Carolina • Lake Katherine • Lincolnshire • Long Creek Plantation • Magnolia Hall • Martin Luther King (Valley Park) • Melrose Heights • Old Shandon • Old Woodlands • Olympia Mill Village • Pinehurst • Robert Mills Historic Neighborhood • Rockgate • Rosewood • Sherwood Forest • Shandon • The Summit • Summerhill

27.3 Demographics As of the census of 2010, there were 129,272 people, 52,471 total households, and 22,638 families residing in the city. The population density was 928.6 people per square mile (358.5/km²). There were 46,142 housing units at an average density of 368.5 per square mile (142.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 51.27% White, 42.20% Black, 2.20% Asian, 0.25% Native American, 0.30% Paciﬁc Islander, 1.50% from other races, and 2.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.30% of the population. There were 45,666 households out of which 22.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.7% were married couples living together, 17.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were nonfamilies. 38.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.94. In the city the population was spread out with 20.1% under the age of 18, 22.9% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 16.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $31,141, and the median income for a family was $39,589. Males had a median income of $30,925 versus $24,679 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,853. About 17.0% of families and 22.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.7% of those under the age of 18 and 16.9% ages 65 or older.

148

27.3.1

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA

Religion

Evangelical-Protestantism has a large following in the Columbia Metro area. The Southern Baptist Convention has 241 congregations and 115,000 members. The United Methodist Church has 122 congregations and 51,000 members. The Evangelical Lutheran Church has 71 congregations and 25,400 members. The PC (USA) has 34 congregations and 15,000 members; the Presbyterian Church in America has 22 congregations and 8,000 members.

stal, Solectron, and Bose Technology have facilities in the Columbia area. There are over 70 foreign aﬃliated companies and fourteen Fortune 500 companies in the region. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Columbia metropolitan statistical area as of 2010 was $31.97 billion, the highest among MSAs in the state.[26]

Several companies have their global, continental, or national headquarters in Columbia, including Colonial Life & Accident Insurance Company, the second-largest supplemental insurance company in the nation; the Ritedose Corporation, a pharmaceutical industry services comThe Catholic Church has 14 congregations. There are 3 pany; AgFirst Farm Credit Bank, the largest bank headquartered in the state with over $30 billion in assets (the synagogues. non-commercial bank is part of the Farm Credit System, the largest agricultural lending organization in the United States which was established by Congress in 1916); South 27.4 Economy State Bank, the largest commercial bank headquartered in South Carolina; Nexsen Pruet, LLC, a multi-specialty business law firm in the Carolinas; Spectrum Medical, an international medical software company; Wilbur Smith Associates, a full-service transportation and infrastructure consulting firm; and Nelson Mullins, a major national law firm. CSC’s Financial Services Group, a major provider of software and outsourcing services to the insurance industry, is headquartered in the Columbia suburb of Blythewood.

27.4.1 Downtown revitalization

First Citizens Bank building at the corner of Main and Lady streets

Lady Street in the historic Congaree Vista district downtown

Columbia enjoys a diversiﬁed economy, with the major employers in the area being South Carolina state government, the Palmetto Health hospital system, Blue Cross Blue Shield of South Carolina, Palmetto GBA, and the University of South Carolina. The corporate headquarters of Fortune 1000 energy company, SCANA, are located in the Columbia suburb of Cayce. Other major employers in the Columbia area include Computer Sciences Corporation, Fort Jackson, the U.S. Army's largest and most active initial entry training installation,[25] Richland School District One, Humana/TriCare, and the United Parcel Service, which operates its Southeastern Regional Hub at the Columbia Metropolitan Airport. Major manufacturers such as Square D, CMC Steel, Spirax Sarco, Michelin, International Paper, Pirelli Cables, Honeywell, Westinghouse Electric, Harsco Track Tech, Trane, Intertape Polymer Group, Union Switch & Signal, FN Her-

The city of Columbia has recently accomplished a number of urban redevelopment projects and has several more planned.[27] The historic Congaree Vista, a 1,200-acre (5 km2 ) district running from the central business district toward the Congaree river, features a number of historic buildings that have been rehabilitated since its revitalization begun in the late 1980s. Of note is the adaptive reuse of the Confederate Printing Plant on Gervais and Huger, used to print Confederate bills during the American Civil War. The city cooperated with Publix grocery stores to preserve the look. This won Columbia an award from the International Downtown Association.[28] The Vista district is also where the region’s convention center and anchor Hilton hotel with a Ruth’s Chris Steakhouse restaurant are located. Other notable developments under construction and recently completed include high-end condos and townhomes, hotels, and mixed-use structures.

27.5. ARTS AND CULTURE

149 historic Eﬁrd’s building, and the relocation of the Nickelodeon theater. A facade improvement program for the downtown business district, implemented in 2011, has resulted in the restoration and improvement of the facades of several historic Main Street shopfronts. One of the most ambitious development projects in the city’s history is currently underway which involves old state mental health campus downtown on Bull Street. Known formally as Columbia Common, this project will consist of rehabbing several historic buildings on the campus for residential, hospitality, and retail use.[30] A new minor league baseball stadium is slated to be built on the campus as well.[31]

27.4.2 Shopping Major regional shopping centers in the Columbia area include Columbiana Centre, Columbia Place and the Village at Sandhill, along with a handful of other smaller shopping centers in the region. The Five Points neighborhood, home to many locally owned businesses, is known as Columbia’s eclectic village shopping area. The Devine Street corridor offers A downtown lightpost banner heralds Columbia’s “New Main a variety of specialty shopping, including art and anStreet” as part of an effort to reinfuse life and vitality into Main tiques, eclectic home furnishings, and men’s, women’s, Street. and children’s clothing. The historic Congaree Vista district downtown provides shoppers with a collection of shops filled with antiques, oriental rugs, jewelry, original The older buildings lining the Vista’s main drag, Ger- artwork, hand-made furniture, and collectibles. vais, now house art galleries, restaurants, unique shops, and professional office space. Near the end of Gervais is the South Carolina State Museum and the EdVenture 27.5 Arts and culture Children’s Museum. Private student housing and some residential projects are going up nearby; the CanalSide development[29] at the site of the old Central Correctional Institution, is the most high profile. At full buildout, the development will have 750 residential units and provides access to Columbia’s waterfront. Lady Street between Huger and Assembly streets in the Vista and the Five Points neighborhood have undergone beautification projects, which mainly consisted of replacing curbs and gutters, and adding brick-paved sidewalks and angled parking. Special revitalization efforts are being aimed at Main Street, which began seeing an exodus of department and specialty stores in the 1990s. The goal is to re- Columbia Museum of Art establish Main Street as a vibrant commercial and residential corridor, and the stretch of Main Street home to most businesses—-from Gervais to Blanding streets—• Town Theatre is the country’s oldest community has been streetscaped in recent years. Notable developtheatre in continuous use. Located a block from the ments completed in recent years along Main Street inUniversity of South Carolina campus, its playhouse clude an 18-story, $60 million tower at the high-profile is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. corner of Main and Gervais streets, the renovation of the Since 1917, the theatre has produced plays and mu1441 Main Street office building as the new Midlands sicals of wide general appeal. headquarters for Wells Fargo Bank (formerly Wachovia Bank), a new sanctuary for the Holy Trinity Greek Or• Trustus Theatre is Columbia’s professional thethodox Church, the location of Mast General store in the atre company. Founded more than 20 years ago,

150

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA • McKissick Museum is located on the University of South Carolina campus. The museum features changing exhibitions of art, science, regional history, and folk art. • The Confederate Relic Room and Military Museum showcases an artifact collection from the Colonial period to the space age. The museum houses a diverse collection of artifacts from the South Carolina confederate period.

EdVenture

Trustus brought a new dimension to theatre in South Carolina’s capital city. Patrons have the opportunity to watch new shows directly from the stages of New York as well as classic shows rarely seen in Columbia. • The Nickelodeon Theater is a 99-seat store front theater located on Main Street between Taylor and Blanding Streets. In operation since 1979, “the Nick”, run by the Columbia Film Society, is home to two film screenings each evening and an additional matinee three days a week. The Nick is the only non-profit art house film theater in South Carolina and is the home for 25,000 filmgoers each year. • Columbia Marionette Theatre has the distinction of being the only free standing theatre in the nation devoted entirely to marionette arts. • The South Carolina Shakespeare Company performs the plays of Shakespeare and other classical works throughout the state. • Workshop Theatre of South Carolina opened in 1967 as a place where area directors could practice their craft. The theatre produces musicals and Broadway fare and also brings new theatrical material to Columbia. • The South Carolina State Museum is a comprehensive museum with exhibits in science, technology, history, and the arts. It is the state’s largest museum and one of the largest museums in the Southeast. • The Columbia Museum of Art features changing exhibits throughout the year. Located at the corner of Hampton and Main Streets, the museum offers art, lectures, films, and guided tours. • EdVenture is one of the South’s largest children’s museums and the second largest in South Carolina. It is located next to the South Carolina State Museum on Gervais Street. The museum allows children to explore and learn while having fun.

• The Richland County Public Library, named the 2001 National Library of the Year, serves area citizens through its main library and nine branches. The 242,000-square-foot (22,500 m2 ) main library has a large book collection, provides reference services, utilizes the latest technology, houses a children’s collection, and displays artwork. • The South Carolina State Library provides library services to all citizens of South Carolina through the interlibrary loan service utilized by the public libraries located in each county. • The Columbia City Ballet is Columbia’s ballet company, oﬀering more than 80 major performances annually. Artistic director William Starrett, formerly of the Joﬀrey Ballet and American Ballet Theatre, runs the company.[32] • The South Carolina Philharmonic Orchestra is Columbia’s resident orchestra. The Philharmonic produces a full season of orchestral performances each year. Renowned musicians come to Columbia to perform as guest artists with the orchestra.[33] In April 2008 Morihiko Nakahara was named the new Music Director of the Philharmonic. • The Columbia City Jazz Dance Company, formed in 1990 by artistic director Dale Lam, was named one of the “Top 50 Dance Companies in the USA” by Dance Spirit magazine. Columbia City Jazz specializes in modern, lyrical, and percussive jazz dance styles and has performed locally, regionally, and nationally in exhibitions, competitions, community functions, and international tours in Singapore, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, and Austria.[34] • The Palmetto Opera debuted in 2003 with a performance of “Love, Murder & Revenge,” a mixture of scenes from famous operas. The organization’s mission is to present professional opera to the Midlands and South Carolina.[35] • The Columbia Choral Society has been performing throughout the community since 1930. Under the direction of Dr. William Carswell, the group strives to stimulate and broaden interest in musical activities and to actively engage in the rehearsal and rendition of choral music.

27.5. ARTS AND CULTURE • Alternacirque is a professional circus that produces variety shows and full-scale themed productions. Formed in 2007, Alternacirque is directed by Natalie Brown.[36][37] • Pocket Productions is an arts organization devoted to inspiring and expanding the arts community in Columbia, SC, through ArtRageous,[38] Playing After Dark[39] and other community-based collaborative events.[40] Movies ﬁlmed in the Columbia area include The Program, Renaissance Man, Chasers, Death Sentence, A Guy Named Joe, and Accidental Love/Nailed.

27.5.1

Annual cultural events

• The South Carolina State Fair is held annually in Columbia in the month of October. Rides, concerts, food, and games attract local and widespread attendants. Exhibits featuring art, crafts, flowers, and livestock cover the fairgrounds. • The St. Patrick’s Day Festival in Five Points is a Columbia favorite. Held each March, this event features live bands, arts and crafts, and food. • Indie Grits Festival, established in 2007, began as an independent film festival for filmmakers in the Southeast but now also features music, art, food, performing art, and technology. It is hosted annually by the Nickelodeon Theater. • Riverfest Celebration is an annual festival held in early spring. The celebration includes a 5K River Run, musical entertainment, arts and crafts, and food vendors. • The Columbia International Festival (early spring, since 1995) showcases the music, culture, food and performing arts of the various cultures, nationalities, races and language groups represented in South Carolina. The event brings all of the area’s international communities together to build better community / race relations between various ethnic / cultural / language groups and with the South Carolina community at large.[41] • Earth Day at Finlay Park is held each spring. This event brings together environmental booths and vendors as well as traditional festival favorites. • South Carolina Gay & Lesbian Pride is held each fall, with the 2015 event to be held the weekend of October 24. “SC Pride” is held to celebrate the state’s Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered community and educate the general public regarding the GLBT community and the need for basic civil rights. SC Pride is a weeklong event that includes a film festival, pride pageant, and banquet leading up to the Pride Parade and Festival.[42][43]

151 • Artista Vista has grown from a minor studio showcase in the early 1990s into a draw for artists and collectors alike. While local artists make up the lion’s share of the exhibits, Artista Vista has presented works from as far aﬁeld as Japan, Romania, and Poland. • Viva La Vista is a food festival in the heart of the Congaree Vista in downtown Columbia. Covering nearly four city blocks, the festival spans Lincoln Street from Lady to Senate and parts of Gervais Street. The event celebrates the fall with live music, beverages, and a taste of the Vista’s most popular restaurants. • The Greek Festival is held annually in September at the Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church in Downtown Columbia. Traditional Greek dances, ceremonies, music, theatre, food, and beverages are all part of this four-day festival. • The Irmo Okra Strut is a two-day festival held during the last weekend in September. The festival features a street dance, 10 K road race, golf tournament, arts and crafts, rides, food, and South Carolina’s largest festival parade. • FamilyFest, formerly known as GospelFest, is a one-day open-air concert held in Finlay Park in late spring (usually late May or early June). Attracting tens of thousands of attendees, the concert is sponsored by local Gospel music radio station WFMV and features local and nationally known Gospel artists. • Eau Claire Renaissance Faire has become the signature event for the North Columbia neighborhood of Eau Claire since its establishment in 1998. Events during the festival include the Renaissance Parade and an outdoor concert. • Vista Lights is held each year in mid-November. Open house walking tours and receptions, entertainment by local musicians, and carriage rides through Columbia’s antique district are all highlights of this festival. • Jubilee: Festival of Heritage is a one-day event held at the historic Mann-Sims Cottage to recognize African-American heritage. The festival includes arts and crafts, storytelling, and music and dance performances. • Urban Tour, founded in 2007, is a one-day free event held on Main Street designed to help the corridor sustain activity after business hours. The selfguided walking tour includes live entertainment such as street performers and musicians, local artists, a glimpse into downtown living, and stories behind some of Main Street’s historic buildings.

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• The Southeastern Piano Festival features aspiring young pianists from throughout the country and around the world who perform in recitals and compete in an international competition.

m2 ), modern, state-of-the-art facility designed to host a variety of meetings and conventions. Located in the historic Congaree Vista district, this facility is close to restaurants, antique and specialty shops, art galleries, and various popular nightlife venues. The main exhibit hall • The Finlay Park Summer Concert Series is a se- contains almost 25,000 square feet (2,300 m2 ) of space; ries of free concerts during the summer in Finlay the Columbia Ballroom over 18,000 square feet (1,700 Park that features performances by artists across a m2 ); and the ﬁve meeting rooms ranging in size from variety of musical genres. 1500 to 4,000 square feet (400 m2 ) add another 15,000 square feet (1,400 m2 ) of space. The facility is located next to the Colonial Life Arena.

27.5.2

Venues

Colonial Life Arena

Colonial Life Arena, opened in 2002, is Columbia’s premiere arena and entertainment facility. Seating 18,000 for college basketball, it is the largest arena in the state of South Carolina and the tenth largest on-campus basketball facility in the nation, serving as the home of the men’s and women’s USC Gamecocks basketball teams. Located on the University of South Carolina campus, this facility features 41 suites, four entertainment suites, and the Frank McGuire Club, a full-service hospitality room with a capacity of 300. The facility has padded seating, a technologically advanced sound system, and a four-sided video scoreboard.[44]

Williams-Brice Stadium Williams-Brice Stadium is the home of the USC Gamecocks’ football team and is the 24th largest college football stadium in the nation.[46] It seats 80,250 people and is located just south of downtown Columbia. The stadium was built in 1934 with the help of federal Works Progress Administration funds, and initially seated 17,600. The original name was Carolina Stadium, but on September 9, 1972, it was renamed to honor the Williams and Brice families. Mrs. Martha Williams-Brice had left much of her estate to the university for stadium renovations and expansions. Her late husband, Thomas H. Brice, played football for the university from 1922 to 1924. Koger Center for the Arts Koger Center for the Arts provides Columbia with theatre, music, and dance performances that range from local acts to global acts.[47] The facility seats 2,256 persons. The center is named for philanthropists Ira and Nancy Koger, who made a substantial donation from personal and corporate funds for construction of the $15 million center. The ﬁrst performance at the Koger Center was given by the London Philharmonic Orchestra and took place on Saturday, January 14, 1989. The facility is known for hosting diverse events, from the State of the State Address to the South Carolina Body Building Championship and the South Carolina Science Fair. Carolina Coliseum

Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center

Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center The Carolina Coliseum facing Assembly St.

The Columbia Metropolitan Convention, which opened in September 2004 as South Carolina’s only downtown Carolina Coliseum, which opened in 1968, is a 12,401convention center,[45] is a 142,500-square-foot (13,240 seat facility which initially served as the home of the USC

27.6. SPORTS Gamecocks’ basketball teams. The arena could be easily adapted to serve other entertainment purposes, including concerts, car shows, circuses, ice shows, and other popular events. The versatility and quality of the Coliseum at one time allowed the University to use the facility for performing arts events such as the Boston Pops, Chicago Symphony, Feld Ballet, and other performances by important artists. An acoustical shell and a state-of-the-art lighting system assisted the Coliseum in presenting such activities. The Coliseum was the home of the Columbia Inferno, an ECHL team. However, since the construction of the Colonial Life Arena in 2002, the Coliseum is no longer used for basketball, but is still used as classroom space for the Schools of Journalism and Hospitality, Retail, and Sport Management.

153 Bombers relocated to Greenville, South Carolina, in 2004. Architectural ﬁrm Populous is building the stadium, with an estimated 8,500 capacity, on a budget of $37 million. It is expected to be ready for the 2016 season.[50]

27.6 Sports In addition to sports programs at the University of South Carolina, Columbia has also hosted the women’s U.S. Olympic Marathon Trials in 1996 and 2000[55] and the 2007 Junior Wildwater World Championships, which featured many European canoe and kayak racers.[56] The Colonial Life Arena has also hosted NBA exhibition games.[57]

Township Auditorium Township Auditorium seats 3,099 capacity and is located in downtown Columbia. The Georgian Revival building was designed by the Columbia architectural ﬁrm of Lafaye and Lafaye and constructed in 1930. The Township has hosted thousands of events from concerts to conventions to wrestling matches. The auditorium was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on September 28, 2005, and has recently undergone a $12 million extensive interior and exterior renovation.[48]

27.7 Parks and recreation

Charlie W. Johnson Stadium The $13 million Charlie W. Johnson Stadium is the home of Benedict College football and soccer. The structure was completed and dedicated in 2006 and seats 11,000 with a maximum capacity of 16,000. Finlay Park

Carolina Stadium The Carolina Stadium opened in February 2009. It seats 8,400 permanently for college baseball and an additional 1,000 for standing room only, it is the largest baseball stadium in the state of South Carolina and serves as the home of the USC Gamecocks’ baseball team. Located near the Granby Park in downtown Columbia, this facility features four entertainment suites, a picnic terrace down the left ﬁeld line, and a dining deck that will hold approximately 120 fans. The state-of-the-art facility also features a technologically advanced sound system and a 47 feet (14 m) high × 44 feet (13 m) wide scoreboard.[49] The video portion is 16 feet (4.9 m) high × 28 feet (8.5 m) wide. Spirit Communications Park On January 6, 2015, developers broke ground on Spirit Communications Park, a stadium intended to house a Minor League Baseball team. Columbia has been without minor league baseball since the Capital City

The region’s most popular park, Finlay Park has hosted just about everything from festivals and political rallies to road races and Easter Sunrise services. This 18-acre (73,000 m2 ) park has had two lives; ﬁrst dedicated in 1859 as Sidney Park, named in honor of Algernon Sidney Johnson, a Columbia City Councilman, the park experienced an illustrious but short tenure. The park fell into disrepair after the Civil War and served as a site for commercial ventures until the late 20th century. In 1990, the park was reopened. It serves as the site for such events as Kids Day, The Summer Concert Series, plus many more activities. In 1992, the park was renamed Finlay Park, in honor of Kirkman Finlay, a past mayor of Columbia who had a vision to reenergize the historic Congaree Vista district, between Main Street and the river, and recreate the site that was formerly known as Sidney Park. Memorial Park is a 4-acre (16,000 m2 ) tract of land in the Congaree Vista between Main Street and the river. The property is bordered by Hampton, Gadsden, Washington, and Wayne Streets and is one block south of Fin-

154

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA tions of the problems of the world.” One of Columbia’s greatest assets is Riverbanks Zoo & Garden. Riverbanks Zoo is a sanctuary for more than 2,000 animals housed in natural habitat exhibits along the Saluda River. Just across the river, the 70-acre (280,000 m2 ) botanical garden is devoted to gardens, woodlands, plant collections, and historic ruins. Riverbanks has been named one of America’s best zoos[58] and the No. 1 travel attraction in the Southeast.[59] It attracted over one million visitors in 2009.[60]

Memorial Park

lay Park. This park was created to serve as a memorial to those who served their country and presently has monuments honoring the USS Columbia warship and those that served with her during World War II, the ChinaBurma-India Theater Veterans of WWII, casualties of the Pearl Harbor attack of December 7, 1941, who were from South Carolina, Holocaust survivors who live in South Carolina as well as concentration camp liberators from South Carolina, and the State Vietnam War Veterans. The park was dedicated in November 1986 along with the unveiling of the South Carolina Vietnam Monument. In June 2000, the Korean War Memorial was dedicated at Memorial Park. In November 2014, Columbia native and resident of Boston, Henry Crede, gave a bronze statue and plaza in the park dedicated to his WWII comrades who served in the Navy from South Carolina. Granby Park opened in November 1998 as a gateway to the rivers of Columbia, adding another access to the many river activities available to residents. Granby is part of the Three Rivers Greenway, a system of green spaces along the banks of the rivers in Columbia, adding another piece to the long-range plan and eventually connecting to the existing Riverfront Park. Granby is a 24-acre (97,000 m2 ) linear park with canoe access points, ﬁshing spots, bridges, and ½ mile of nature trail along the banks of the Congaree River.

Situated along the meandering Congaree River in central South Carolina, Congaree National Park is home to champion trees, primeval forest landscapes, and diverse plant and animal life. This 22,200-acre (90 km2 ) park protects the largest contiguous tract of old-growth bottomland hardwood forest remaining in the United States. The park is an international biosphere reserve. Known for its giant hardwoods and towering pines, the park’s ﬂoodplain forest includes one of the highest canopies in the world and some of the tallest trees in the eastern United States. Congaree National Park provides a sanctuary for plants and animals, a research site for scientists, and a place to walk and relax in a tranquil wilderness setting. Sesquicentennial State Park is a 1,419-acre (6 km2 ) park, featuring a beautiful 30-acre (120,000 m2 ) lake surrounded by trails and picnic areas. The park’s proximity to downtown Columbia and three major interstate highways attracts both local residents and travelers. Sesquicentennial is often the site of family reunions and group campouts. Interpretive nature programs are a major attraction to the park. The park also contains a two-story log house, dating back to the mid 18th century, which was relocated to the park in 1969. This house is believed to be the oldest building still standing in Richland County. The park was originally built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. Evidence of their craftsmanship is still present today.

In November 1996, the River Alliance proposed that a 12-mile (19 km) linear park system be created to link people to their rivers. This was named the Three Rivers Greenway, and the $18 million estimated cost was agreed to by member governments (the cities of In the Five Points district of downtown Columbia is the Cayce, Columbia, and West Columbia) with the proviso park dedicated to the legacy and memory of the most cel- that the Alliance recommend an acceptable funding stratebrated civil rights leader in America, Martin Luther egy. King Jr. Park. Formerly known as Valley Park, it was While the funding process was underway, an existing city historically known to be largely restricted to Whites. Reof Columbia site located on the Congaree River oﬀered naming the park after Martin Luther King Jr. in the late an opportunity to be a pilot project for the Three Rivers 1980s was seen as a progressive and unifying event on Greenway. The Alliance was asked to design and permit behalf of the city, civic groups, and local citizens. The for construction by a general contractor this component. park features a beautiful water sculpture and a commuThis approximately one-half-mile segment of the system nity center. An integral element of the park is the Stone was opened in November 1998. It is complete with 8-foot of Hope monument, unveiled in January 1996. Upon the (2.4 m) wide concrete pathways, vandal-proof lighting, monument is inscribed a portion of King’s 1964 Nobel trash receptacles, water fountains, picnic benches, overPeace Prize acceptance speech: “History is cluttered with looks, bank ﬁshing access, canoe/kayak access, a public the wreckage of nations and individuals that pursued that restroom and parking. These set the standards for the self-defeating path of hate. Love is the key to the solu-

27.8. GOVERNMENT

155

common elements in the rest of the system. Eventually, pathways will run from Granby to the Riverbanks Zoo. Boaters, sportspeople, and ﬁsherpeople will have access to the area, and additional recreational uses are being planned along the miles of riverfront.

Columbia City Hall Esplanade at Columbia Canal

K. Benjamin, who succeeded longtime mayor and fellow Democrat Bob Coble in 2010. Teresa Wilson is the curRunning beside the historic Columbia Canal, Riverfront rent city manager. Park hosts a two and a half-mile trail. Spanning the canal The city council consists of six members, four from disis an old railway bridge that now is a pedestrian walkway. tricts and two elected at-large. The city council is responThe park is popular for walking, running, bicycling, and sible for making policies and enacting laws, rules, and ﬁshing. Picnic tables and benches dot the walking trail. regulations in order to provide for future community and Markers are located along the trail so that visitors can economic growth, in addition to providing the necessary measure distance. The park is part of the Palmetto Trail, support for the orderly and eﬃcient operation of city sera hiking and biking trail that stretches the entire length of vices. the state, from Greenville to Charleston. At-Large Other parks in the Columbia area include: • W. Gordon Belser Arboretum • Maxcy Gregg Park • Hyatt Park

• Tameika Isaac Devine • Cameron A. Runyan Districts

• Earlewood Park

• 1: Sam Davis

• Granby Park

• 2: Brian DeQuincey Newman

• Owens Field Park

• 3: Moe Baddourah

• Guignard Park

• 4: Leona Plaugh

• Southeast Park • Harbison State Forest

27.8 Government The city of Columbia has a council-manager form of government. The mayor and city council are elected every four years, with no term limits. Elections are held in the spring of even numbered years. Unlike other mayors in council-manager systems, the Columbia mayor has the power to veto ordinances passed by the council; vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds majority of the council, which appoints a city manager to serve as chief administrative oﬃcer. The current mayor is Democrat Stephen

See related article Past mayors of Columbia, South Carolina The city’s police force is the Columbia Police Department. The chief of police answers to the city manager. Presently, the chief of police is W.H. “Skip” Holbrook; Holbrook was sworn in on April 11, 2014.[61] The South Carolina Department of Corrections, headquartered in Columbia,[62] operates several correctional facilities in Columbia. They include the Broad River Correctional Institution,[63] the Goodman Correctional Institution,[64] the Camille Griﬃn Graham Correctional Institution,[65] the Stevenson Correctional Institution,[66] and the Campbell Pre-Release Center.[67] Graham houses the state’s female death row.[68] The state of South Carolina’s execution chamber is located at Broad River.

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CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA

From 1990 to 1997, Broad River housed the state’s male death row.[69]

27.8.1

Military installations

• Fort Jackson is the U.S. Army’s largest training post. • McEntire Joint National Guard Station is under command of the South Carolina Air National Guard.

27.9 Education 27.9.1

Colleges and universities

Columbia is home to the main campus of the University of South Carolina, which was chartered in 1801 as South Carolina College and in 1906 as the University of South Carolina.[70] The university has 350 degree programs and enrolls 31,964 students throughout ﬁfteen degreegranting colleges and schools.[71] It is an urban university, located in downtown Columbia.

The Horseshoe at USC

Columbia is also home to: • Allen University – Allen University was founded in 1870 by the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Allen University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) to award baccalaureate degrees.[72] • Benedict College – Founded in 1870, Benedict is an independent coeducational college. Benedict is one of the fastest growing of the 39 United Negro College Fund schools. In addition to an increase in enrollment, Benedict has also seen an increase in average SAT scores, Honors College enrollee rates, capital giving dollars, and the number of research grants awarded. Recently, Benedict has been subject to a series of recent controversies, including basing up to

60 percent of grades solely on effort,[73] which have nearly resulted in its losing its accreditation. However, in recent months the college has improved its financial standing and is seeking to boost its enrollment. • Columbia College – Founded in 1854, Columbia College is a private, four-year, liberal arts college for women with a coeducational Evening College and Graduate School. The College has been ranked since 1994 by U.S. News & World Report as one of the top ten regional liberal arts colleges in the South. • Columbia International University is a biblically based, private Christian institution committed to “preparing men and women to know Christ and to make Him known.” • ECPI University has specialized in student-centered technology, business, criminal justice, and health science for 47 years – A leading private university offering Master’s, Bachelor’s, and Associate’s degree and diploma programs. Continuing Education certification programs are also available. ECPI University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award associate, baccalaureate, and master’s degrees and diploma programs. ECPI University Columbia campus also has programmatic accreditation for Medical Assisting with the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. • Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary – This institution, founded in 1830, is a seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. One of the oldest Lutheran seminaries in North America, Southern is a fully accredited graduate school of theology preparing women and men for the ordained and lay ministries of the church. The wooded 17acre (69,000 m2 ) campus is situated atop Seminary Ridge in Columbia, the highest point in the Midlands area, near the geographic center of the city. • Midlands Technical College – Midlands Tech is part of the South Carolina Technical College System. It is a two-year, comprehensive, public, community college, offering a wide variety of programs in career education, four-year college-transfer options, and continuing education. Small classes, individualized instruction, and student support services are provided. Most of the college’s teaching faculty holds master’s or doctoral degrees. • Fortis College[74] – Fortis College is part of the Educational Affiliates Inc, and offers many different career-based degrees. • South Carolina School of Leadership – Established in 2006, South Carolina School of Leadership (SCSL) is a post-secondary "gap year" school with

27.10. MEDIA

157

an intense focus on Christian discipleship and lead- 27.9.3 ership development.[75] SCSL uses curriculum from Valley Forge Christian College.

Public school districts

27.10 Media

• Virginia College[76] – Virginia College received senior college recognition from the Accrediting Coundaily newspapers include The State[77] and cil for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS) Columbia’s [78] and its alternative newspapers include which now accredits all programs at the school’s Cola Daily, [79] The Free Times, The Columbia Star,[80] Carolina campuses Panorama Newspaper,[81] and SC Black News.[82] [83] Columbia is also the site of several extension campuses, Columbia Metropolitan Magazine is a bi-monthly publication about news and events in the metropolitan area. including those for Erskine Theological Seminary, South [84] Greater Columbia Business Monthly highlights ecoUniversity, and the University of Phoenix. nomic development, business, education, and the arts. QNotes,[85] a bi-weekly newspaper serving the LGBT community and published in Charlotte, is distributed to loca27.9.2 Private schools tions in Columbia and via home delivery. • Ben Lippen School Columbia is home to the headquarters and production

• Bethel Learning Centers • Cardinal Newman • Central Carolina Christian Academy • Columbia Jewish Day School

facilities of South Carolina Educational Television and ETV Radio, the state’s public television and public radio networks.[86] Columbia has the 78th largest television market in the United States.[87] Network aﬃliates include WIS (NBC), WLTX (CBS), WACH (FOX) and WOLO (ABC).

• Colonial Christian Academy • Covenant Classical Christian School • Glenforest School • Grace Christian School • Hammond School • Harmony School • Heathwood Hall • Heritage Christian Academy • Islamic Academy of Columbia • Montessori School of Columbia • Northside Christian Academy • Palmetto Baptist Academy • Sandhills School • Saint John Neumann Catholic School • Saint Joseph Catholic School • Saint Martin de Porres Catholic School • Saint Peter’s Catholic School • Timmerman School • V.V. Reid Elementary

27.11 Infrastructure 27.11.1 Transportation Mass transit The Central Midlands Regional Transit Authority (CMRTA), is the agency responsible for operating mass transit in the greater Columbia area including Cayce, West Columbia, Forest Acres, Arcadia Lakes, Springdale, Lexington [88] and the St. Andrews area. CMRTA operates express shuttles, as well as bus service serving Columbia and its immediate suburbs. The authority was established in October 2002 after SCANA released ownership of public transportation back to the city of Columbia. Since 2003, CMRTA provides transportation for more than 2 million passengers, has expanded route services, and introduced 43 new ADA accessible buses oﬀering a safer, more comfortable means of transportation. CMRTA has also added 10 natural gas powered buses to the ﬂeet. The Central Midlands Council of Governments is in the process of investigating the potential for rail transit in the region. Routes into downtown Columbia originating from Camden, Newberry, and Batesburg-Leesville are in consideration, as is a potential line between Columbia and Charlotte connecting the two mainlines of the future Southeastern High Speed Rail Corridor.[89][90][91][92]

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Roads and highways Columbia’s central location between the population centers of South Carolina has made it a transportation focal point with three interstate highways and one interstate spur.

Interstates •

•

I-26 Interstate 26 travels from northwest to southeast and connects Columbia to the other two major population centers of South Carolina: the Greenville-Spartanburg area in the northwestern part of the state and North Charleston – Charleston area in the southeastern part of the state. It also serves the nearby towns and suburbs of Chapin, Irmo, Harbison, Gaston, and Swansea. I-20 Interstate 20 travels from west to east and connects Columbia to Atlanta and Augusta in the west and Florence in the east. It serves the nearby towns and suburbs of Pelion, Lexington, West Columbia, Sandhill, Pontiac, and Elgin. Interstate 20 is also used by travelers heading to Myrtle Beach, although the interstate’s eastern terminus is in Florence.

State highways •

SC 12

•

SC 16

•

SC 48

•

SC 215

•

SC 262

•

SC 277

•

SC 555

•

SC 760

•

SC 768

Air

The city and its surroundings are served by Columbia Metropolitan Airport (IATA:CAE; ICAO:KCAE). The airport itself is serviced by American Eagle, Delta, United Express, and US Airways Express airlines. In addition, the city is also served by the much smaller Jim Hamilton–L.B. Owens Airport located in the Rosewood • I-77 Interstate 77 begins at a junction with In- neighborhood. It serves as the county airport for Richland terstate 26 south of Columbia and travels north to County and oﬀers general aviation. Rock Hill and Charlotte. This interstate also provides direct access to Fort Jackson, the U.S. Army’s largest training base and one of Columbia’s largest Intercity rail employers. It serves the nearby towns and suburbs The city is served daily by Amtrak station, with the of Forest Acres, Gadsden, and Blythewood. Silver Star trains connecting Columbia with New York City, Washington, DC, Savannah, Jacksonville, Orlando, • I-126 Interstate 126 begins downtown at ElmTampa, and Miami. The station is located at 850 Pulaski wood Avenue and travels west towards Interstate 26 St. and Interstate 20. It provides access to Riverbanks Zoo. Intercity bus US routes •

U.S. 1

Greyhound Lines operates a station on Gervais Street, in the eastern part of downtown, providing Columbia with intercity bus transportation.

•

U.S. 21

27.11.2 Health care

•

U.S. 76

The Sisters of Charity Providence Hospitals is sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Augustine (CSA) Health System. The non-proﬁt organization is licensed for 304 beds and comprises four entities: Providence Hospital, Providence Heart Institute, Providence Hospital Northeast, and Providence Orthopaedic & NeuroSpine Institute. Providence Hospital, located in downtown Columbia, was founded by the Sisters of Charity

•

U.S. 176

•

U.S. 321

•

U.S. 378

27.12. NOTABLE PEOPLE of Saint Augustine in 1938. The facility oﬀers cardiac care through Providence Heart Institute, which is considered a quality cardiac center in South Carolina. Providence Hospital Northeast is a 46-bed community hospital established in 1999 that oﬀers a range of medical services in surgery, emergency care, women’s and children’s services, and rehabilitation. Providence Northeast is home to Providence Orthopaedic & NeuroSpine Institute, which provides medical and surgical treatment of diseases and injuries of the bones, joints, and spine.

159 The Wm. Jennings Bryan Dorn VA Medical Center is a 216-bed facility, encompassing acute medical, surgical, psychiatric, and long-term care. The hospital provides primary, secondary, and some tertiary care.[93] An aﬃliation is held with the University of South Carolina School of Medicine, located on the hospital grounds. A sharing agreement is in place with Moncrief Army Community Hospital at Fort Jackson and the 20th Medical Group at Shaw AFB in Sumter.

27.12 Notable people • Clarissa Minnie Thompson Allen, educator[94]

writer &

• Aziz Ansari, Golden Globe nominated actor. Was in Parks and Recreation. • Charles W. Bagnal, United States military oﬃcer and lawyer • Band of Horses, alternative rock band Palmetto Health Baptist Hospital

Palmetto Health is a South Carolina nonprofit public benefit corporation consisting of Palmetto Health Richland and Palmetto Health Baptist hospitals (2locations; 1 downtown and 1 in the Harbison area) in Columbia. Palmetto Health provides health care for nearly 70 percent of the residents of Richland County and almost 55 percent of the health care for both Richland and Lexington counties. Palmetto Health Richland is the primary teaching hospital for the University of South Carolina School of Medicine. Palmetto Health Baptist recently underwent a $40 million multi-phase modernization which included 37,000 square feet (3,400 m2 ) of new construction and 81,000 square feet (7,500 m2 ) of renovations. The extensive health system also operates Palmetto Health Children’s Hospital and Palmetto Health Heart Hospital, the state’s first freestanding hospital dedicated solely to heart care, which opened in January 2006. The Palmetto Health South Carolina Cancer Center offers patient services at the Palmetto Health Baptist and Palmetto Health Richland campuses; both are recognized by the American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer as a Network Cancer Program. Lexington Medical Center is a network of hospitals— urgent care centers that are all located throughout Lexington County, South Carolina. There are currently six urgent care centers located in Lexington, Irmo, Batesburg-Leesville, Swansea, and Gilbert. The main hospital is in West Columbia. LMC opened in 1971 but quickly grew into a large center that has been growing every year since its opening. Currently, the main center offers an array of services from emergency treatments to the upcoming heart center.

• Samuel Beam, musician and songwriter of Iron & Wine • Zinn Beck, MLB player, managed the now-defunct Columbia Comers from 1920 to 1922 • Paul Benjamin, actor • Joseph Bernardin, Catholic cardinal • Ryan Bethea, football player • Chris Bickel, musician • Blue Sky, artist • Charles F. Bolden, Jr., astronaut • Bored Suburban Youth, hardcore punk band • Michael Boulware, NFL safety • Peter Boulware, NFL linebacker • Bob Bowman, coach (swimming, Olympic champion Michael Phelps) • Phillip Bush, pianist • Preston Callison, lawyer and politician • Mark Cerney, founder of the Next of Kin Registry (NOKR) • Bruce Chen, Major League Baseball • Kelsey Chow, actress • Mike Colter, actor • Angell Conwell, actress

160

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA

• Tyrone Corbin, NBA small forward, former head coach of the Utah Jazz and Sacramento Kings • Crossfade, alternative metal/hard rock band

• Brooklyn Mack, ballet dancer Washington Ballet • Ed Madden, poet, professor, and editor

• Danny!, musician

• B.J. McKie, American/international basketball player

• Arthur C. Davis, United States Navy admiral

• The Movement, reggae band

• Kristin Davis, Emmy and Golden Globe nominated actress for Sex and the City

• Kary Mullis, scientist (Nobel Prize winner/graduate of Dreher High School)

• James Dickey, poet. author of Deliverance (novel)

• Allison Munn, actress

• Stanley Donen, ﬁlm director and choreographer. Oscar winner.

• Nile, death metal band

• Brad Edwards, member of Washington Redskins Super Bowl XXVI winning team • Alex English, NBA forward • The Fabulous Moolah, Women’s Champion

WWE/WWF former

• Sarah Mae Flemming, civil rights activist • Michael Flessas, actor in Palme d'Or • William Price Fox, novelist • Samkon Gado, NFL running back • Ed Grady, actor[95] • Maxcy Gregg, Civil War veteran • Alexander Cheves Haskell, Civil War veteran • Kirby Higbe, outﬁelder, two-time MLB All-Star • Robert H. Hodges, Jr., federal judge • Scott Holroyd, actor • Hootie & the Blowﬁsh, roots rock band • Danielle Howle, musician and songwriter • LaMarr Hoyt, pitcher, Cy Young Award winner • Rob Huebel, actor • Fiona Hutchison, soap opera actress, One Life to Live and "Guiding Light" • Alexis Jordan, singer (R&B) • Dustin Johnson, professional golfer • Alicia Leeke, artist • Guy Lipscomb, artist • Xavier McDaniel, NBA small forward/power forward • Andie MacDowell, actress

• Jermaine O'Neal, National Basketball Association forward-center • Mary-Louise Parker, actress. 2-time Golden Globe winner. Won for Weeds (TV series). • Steve Pettit, ﬁfth president of Bob Jones University • Tom Poland, author Sapelo: Forbidden Island • Chris Potter, jazz saxophonist • Zach Prince, USL Second Division • Lil Ru, rap singer • Dylann Roof, perpetrator of the Charleston shooting • Gloria Saunders actress • Richard Seymour, National Football League • Steve Spurrier, college football coach • Duce Staley, NFL running back • Josh Stolberg, screenwriter noted for Good Luck Chuck, Sorority Row and Piranha 3D • Angie Stone, singer (R&B) • Freddie Summers, American football player • Robin Swicord, screenwriter noted for Memoirs of a Geisha and Little Women • Stretch Arm Strong, hardcore punk band • Rob Thomas, lead singer of band Matchbox Twenty • Toro Y Moi, musician and songwriter • Tom Turnipseed, activist, former member of the South Carolina State Senate • Ashley Tuttle, ballet dancer American Ballet Theatre, Principal • Washed Out, musician and songwriter • Ron Westray, Jazz trombonist

27.16. NOTES • Del Wilkes, pro wrestler (called “The Patriot” – WWF/WCW, Former Tag Team Champion) • Bill Workman, economic development consultant and former mayor of Greenville, South Carolina; former Columbia resident • W. D. Workman, Jr., resided in Columbia while editor of The State • Lee Thompson Young, actor • John H. Yardley, pathologist

27.13 Accolades Columbia has been the recipient of several awards and achievements in various sectors of note. In October 2009, Columbia was listed in U.S. News & World Report as one of the best places to retire citing location and median housing price as key contributors.[96] As of July 2013 Columbia was named one of “10 Great Cities to Live In” by nationally prominent Kiplinger Magazine, a personal ﬁnance publication. Most recently, the city has been named a top mid-sized market in the nation for relocating families [97] as well as one of 30 communities named “America’s Most Livable Communities,” an award given by the Washington -based non-proﬁt Partners for Livable Communities that honors communities that are developing themselves in the creative economy.

161 • Columbia South Carolina Temple, an operating temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints • Columbia Theological Seminary, formerly in Columbia, South Carolina, now in Decatur, Georgia • George Stinney, youngest person to be executed in the United States

27.16 Notes [1] Oﬃcial records for Columbia were kept at downtown from June 1887 to December 1947, and at Columbia Airport since January 1948. For more information, see Threadex

27.17 References [1] “US Gazetteer ﬁles: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011. [2] “A Brief History of Columbia.” City of Columbia Oﬃcial Web Site. www.columbiasc.net. Retrieved 2015-02-20. [3] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [4] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.

27.14 Sister cities

[5] “Population Estimates”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2014-10-24.

The city of Columbia has ﬁve sister cities:[98]

[6] Swanton, John R. (1952), The Indian Tribes of North America, Smithsonian Institution, p. 93, ISBN 0-80631730-2, OCLC 52230544

•

Kaiserslautern, Germany

•

Cluj-Napoca, Romania

•

Plovdiv, Bulgaria

•

Chelyabinsk, Russia

•

Accra, Ghana

27.15 See also • Columbia High School (Columbia, South Carolina) • Columbia, Newberry and Laurens Railroad, historic railroad • Columbia Record, former afternoon daily newspaper • Columbia Speedway

[7] Charles Hudson (September 1998). Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South’s Ancient Chiefdoms. University of Georgia Press. pp. 234– 238. ISBN 978-0-8203-2062-5. Retrieved February 16, 2012. [8] “Urban Slavery in Columbia”. Slavery at South Carolina College, 1801-1865: The Foundations of the University of South Carolina. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [9] Sherman, William Tecumse (2009). Burning of Columbia, South Carolina. Great Neck Publishing. p. 384. [10] “Washington Street Methodist Church - Our History”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [11] “Mission”. Columbia Music Festival Association. Retrieved August 23, 2012. [12] “Columbia Metropolitan Airport – Columbia, SC – Columbia’s airport”. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

162

CHAPTER 27. COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA

[13] South Columbia Development Corporation [14] Archived February 2, 2015 at the Wayback Machine [15] Official Series Description - ORANGEBURG Series. Soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-24. [16] Official Series Description - NORFOLK Series. Soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-24. [17] Official Series Description - MARLBORO Series. Soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-24. [18] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2012-02-10. [19] “Columbia SC Official Website”. Retrieved 2013-03-09. [20] “National Overview - Annual 2012 - 2012 By The Numbers - State of the Climate - National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)". Retrieved September 14, 2014. [21] “Station Name: SC COLUMBIA”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-04-25. [22] “WMO Climate Normals for COLUMBIA/METRO ARPT SC 1961–1990”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2014-03-10. [23] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [24] United States Census Bureau. “Census of Population and Housing”. Retrieved June 13, 2013. [25] Fort Jackson South Carolina. Jackson.army.mil. Retrieved on 2010-09-29. [26] ECONOMIC GROWTH WIDESPREAD ACROSS METROPOLITAN AREAS IN 2010 [27] “Archives – Selling the North Columbia TIF, City Council Members Push On”. Free Times. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [28] HSD, Inc. Holmessmith.com (2005-09-12). Retrieved on 2010-09-29. [29] “CanalSide development”. Canalside Lofts - Apartment Homes in Downtown Columbia, SC. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[35] “Love. Jealousy. Rage. Murder. And that’s just Act One”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [36] “Alternacirque web site”. Retrieved 19 February 2013. [37] “Alternacirque’s Festival of Doom”. Free Times. Resorts Media, LLC. Retrieved 19 February 2013. [38] “Jasper Magazine on ArtRageous”. [39] “Playing After Dark, Digital & Analog”. Free Times. [40] “Pocket Productions site”. [41] http://cifonline.org/. Missing or empty |title= (help) [42] “SC PRIDE PARADE & FESTIVAL”. Retrieved 18 February 2013. [43] “South Carolina Pride”. Retrieved 19 February 2013. [44] Welcome to The Colonial Life Arena: About : General Information. Coloniallifearena.com. Retrieved on 201009-29. [45] “Columbia Convention Center”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [46] List of American football stadiums by capacity [47] “History of the Koger Center”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [48] Taylor, Otis R.. (2010-06-06) The Township auditorium’s $12 million facelift – Life & Style. TheState.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-29. [49] Carolina Gamecocks Baseball [50] http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd= 20150106&content_id=105656276&fext=.jsp& vkey=news_milb&sid=milb [51] . Retrieved on 2010-10-12. [52] Miller, Andrew. “Southern fried hockey: the rise, fall and rise again of minor league hockey in the South”, The Post and Courier, March 2, 2014. (accessed 26 June 2014) [53] “Annual ECHL Board of Governors Meeting concludes”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [54] “Future Markets”. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[30] Jack Kuenzie (June 24, 2013). “City oﬃcials announce plans for old Bull Street hospital - wistv.com - Columbia, South Carolina -". Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[55] Macinnis, Roberta. (2010-03-02) Marathoners making a run for 2012 Games to start here | Houston & Texas News | Chron.com – Houston Chronicle. Chron.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.

[31] “Capital City leaders green light contract to operate minor league baseball stadium : News : WACH.com”. WACH FOX. April 9, 2014. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[56] “Kayaking competition begins in Columbia – Building Our City: Quality of Life”. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[32] “Columbia City Ballet // Company”. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[57] BOBCATS: recap_pacers_061024. Nba.com (2006-1024). Retrieved on 2010-09-29.

[33] “History - South Carolina Philharmonic”. September 14, 2014.

Retrieved

[58] “Archives – America’s Best Zoos”. Metro Spirit. Retrieved September 14, 2014.

[34] The Columbia City Jazz Dance Company. Columbiacityjazz.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.

[59] “Annual Financial Report for the ﬁscal year ended June 30, 2002” (PDF). Retrieved September 14, 2014.

27.18. FURTHER READING

163

[60] Holleman, Joey. (2010-01-16) Zoo attracts more than a million visitors in '09 – Local / Metro. TheState.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.

[83] http://columbiametro.com

[61] Beam, Adam. (2010-07-15) Columbia council discusses uniﬁcation proposal – Local / Metro. TheState.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-29.

[85] http://goqnotes.com/about/

[62] "Institutions.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [63] "Broad River Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010.

[84] http://www.columbiabusinessmonthly.com

[86] http://scetv.org/about [87] http://www.tvb.org/media/file/2015-2016-dma-ranks. pdf [88] “CMRTA”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [89] Rail Transit Study

[64] "Goodman Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010.

[90] “CENTRAL MIDLANDS COMMUTER RAIL FEASIBILITY STUDY JULY 2006” (PDF). CMCOG. Retrieved 19 February 2013.

[65] "Graham (Camille Griﬃn) Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. “4450 Broad River Road Columbia, SC 29210-4096”

[91] “CENTRAL MIDLANDS COMMUTER RAIL FEASIBILITY STUDY (EXEC SUMMARY) MAY 2006” (PDF). CMCOG. Retrieved 19 February 2013.

[66] "Stevenson Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [67] "Campbell Pre-Release Center.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [68] "Graham (Camille Griﬃn) Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. “The institution also functions as a major special management unit with the ability to house female death row inmates and county safekeepers.” [69] "Death Row/Capital Punishment.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [70] Lesesne, Henry H, (2002). A History of the University of South Carolina, 1940-2000. University of South Carolina. [71] “Top Five International Business Schools”. Journal of Commerce (Special Report): 6A. April 1997. [72] “Accreditation - Allen University”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [73] The Academic Halls of Stupidity: Success Equals Eﬀort by Walter Williams – Capitalism Magazine [74] “Fortis College – Columbia”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [75] “South Carolina School of Leadership”. September 14, 2014.

Retrieved

[92] “Charlotte Visit Opens Eyes For Rail Future” (PDF). The Central View. CMCOG. Retrieved 19 February 2013. [93] “Wm. Jennings Bryan Dorn VA Medical Center”. US Dept. of Veterans’ Aﬀairs. Retrieved February 5, 2012. [94] Elizabeth Ann Beaulieu (April 2006). Writing African American Women. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 6– 7. ISBN 978-0-313-02462-7. Retrieved November 13, 2012. [95] “Edward Louis “Ed” Grady – obituary”. The Cherokee One Feather. December 13, 2012. Retrieved 2013-0105. [96] Wolgemuth, Liz. “Best Places to Retire”. U.S. News & World Report 146 (9): 38. [97] Worldwide ERC and Primacy Relocation, 2007 [98] “Columbia’s Sister Cities”. Retrieved 1 July 2014.

27.18 Further reading • Raj Chetty; Nathaniel Hendren (2015), City Rankings, Commuting Zones: Causal Eﬀects of the 100 Largest Commuting Zones on Household Income in Adulthood, Equality of Opportunity Project, Harvard University, Rank #96: Columbia, South Carolina

[76] “Virginia College – Columbia”. Retrieved September 14, 2014. [77] http://www.thestate.com/customer-service/about-us/

27.19 External links

[78] http://coladaily.com/about-us/

• Oﬃcial website

[79] http://www.free-times.com/site/contact [80] http://www.thecolumbiastar.com

• Columbia Metropolitan Convention & Visitors Bureau

[81] http://www.carolinapanorama.com/site/contact.html

• Columbia, South Carolina at DMOZ

[82] http://www.scblacknews.com

Chapter 28

Piedmont (United States) For other uses, see Piedmont (disambiguation). The Piedmont is a plateau region located in the east-

The James River winds its way among Piedmont hills in central Virginia. Most of the hills in the Piedmont region are smaller than these. Piedmont Plateau, looking east from Rocky Ridge in Maryland, c. 1898

larger Appalachian Highlands physiographic division.[1] The width of the Piedmont varies, being quite narrow above the Delaware River but nearly 300 miles (475 km) wide in North Carolina. The Piedmont’s area is approximately 80,000 square miles (210,000 km2 ).[2] The name “Piedmont” comes from the French term for the same physical region, literally meaning "foothill", ultimately from Latin “pedemontium”, meaning “the foot of the mountains”. The region is named after the Italian region of Piedmont, the lowlands which abut the Alps.

28.1 Geology Piedmont plateau region (shaded)

ern United States between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the main Appalachian Mountains, stretching from New Jersey in the north to central Alabama in the south. The Piedmont province is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division. The province consists of the Piedmont Upland and Piedmont Lowlands sections. The Atlantic Seaboard fall line marks its eastern boundary with the Coastal Plain. To the west, the Piedmont is mostly bounded by the Blue Ridge Mountains, the easternmost range of the main Appalachians. Physiographically, the Piedmont is considered a province of the

The surface relief of the Piedmont is characterized by relatively low, rolling hills with heights above sea level between 200 feet (50 m) and 800 feet to 1,000 feet (250 m to 300 m). Its geology is complex, with numerous rock formations of different materials and ages intermingled with one another. Essentially, the Piedmont is the remnant of several ancient mountain chains that have since been eroded away. Geologists have identified at least five separate events which have led to sediment deposition, including the Grenville orogeny (the collision of continents that created the supercontinent Rodinia) and the Appalachian orogeny during the formation of Pangaea. The last major event in the history of the Piedmont was the break-up of Pangaea, when North America

164

28.5. SEE ALSO and Africa began to separate. Large basins formed from the rifting and were subsequently ﬁlled by the sediments shed from the surrounding higher ground. The series of Mesozoic basins is almost entirely located inside the Piedmont region.

165

28.5 See also • Cecil (soil) • Piedmont Atlantic • Piedmont region of Virginia

28.2 Soils and farming Piedmont soils are generally clay-like and moderately fertile. In some areas they have suﬀered from erosion and over-cropping, particularly in the South where cotton was historically the chief crop. In the central Piedmont region of North Carolina and Virginia, corn is the main crop, while in the north there is more diversity, including orchards, dairying, and general farming.[2]

28.6 References [1] “Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U. S.”. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-12-06. [2] “Piedmont”. The Columbia Gazetteer of North America, 2000. Archived from the original on 2005-03-10. Retrieved 2007-12-09.

28.7 Further reading 28.3 Music The Piedmont region is closely associated with the Piedmont blues, a style of blues music that originated there in the late 19th century. Most Piedmont blues musicians came from Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. During the Great Migration, Black Americans migrated to the Piedmont. With the Appalachian Mountains to the west, those who might otherwise have spread into rural areas stayed in cities and were thus exposed to a broader mixture of music than those in, for example, the rural Mississippi delta. Thus, Piedmont blues was inﬂuenced by many types of music such as ragtime, country, and popular songs—styles that had comparatively less inﬂuence on blues music in other regions.

28.4 Cities Many major cities are located on the fall line, the eastern boundary of the Piedmont. (In Georgia and Alabama, where the Piedmont runs mostly east to west, the fall line is its southern boundary.) The fall line, where the land rises abruptly from the coastal plain, marks the limit of navigability on many major rivers, so inland ports sprang up along it. Within the Piedmont region itself, there are several areas of urban concentration, the largest being the Philadelphia metropolitan area in Pennsylvania. The Piedmont cuts Maryland in half, covering the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area. In Virginia, the Greater Richmond metropolitan area is the largest urban concentration. In North Carolina, the Piedmont Crescent includes several metropolitan clusters such as Metrolina, the Piedmont Triad, and the Research Triangle, in South Carolina, the Greenville-Spartanburg-Anderson, SC Combined Statistical Area, and in Georgia, the Atlanta metropolitan area.

• Michael A. Godfrey (1997). Field Guide to the Piedmont. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 524 pages. ISBN 0-8078-4671-6.

28.8 External links • Hilton Pond Center for Piedmont Natural History

Chapter 29

Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War

The ruins of Mills House and nearby buildings. A shell-damaged carriage and the remains of a brick chimney are in the foreground, 1865

Charleston, 1865

Army and Navy, Charleston did not fall to Federal forces until the last months of the war.

29.1 Early war years Charleston ranked as the 22nd largest city in the United States according to the 1860 Census, with a population of 40,522. As the 1814 burning of Washington had shown, America’s coastal cities were vulnerable to a hostile ﬂeet. Along the Atlantic seaboard the young Republic began building a series of substantial forts. Ft. Sumter is the most famous of these sited on a shoal in Charleston harbor. There were also a series of smaller and older forts and bastions to protect it from any enemy ships. Ruins from the ﬁre of 1861, seen from the Circular Church in Charleston, 1865

Charleston, South Carolina, was a hotbed of secession at the start of the American Civil War and an important Atlantic Ocean port city for the fledgling Confederate States of America. The first shots against the Federal government were those fired there by cadets of the Citadel to stop a ship from resupplying the Federally held Ft. Sumter. Three months later, the bombardment of Fort Sumter triggered a massive call for Federal troops to put down the rebellion. Although the city and its surrounding fortifications were repeatedly targeted by the Union

Following the election of Abraham Lincoln, South Carolina convoked a special convention in Charleston to debate her long dissatisfaction with the Federal government and many Northern citizens views on slavery. They believed that the avowed views of the new President-elect made abolition a likely goal of his administration. On December 20, 1860, the Secession Convention voted for South Carolina to secede from the Union. As the ﬁrst state to do so, they also issued a Declaration of the Immediate Causes which explained her decision to part company from her erstwhile sister states. Beginning with the Missouri Compromise in 1820, the defense of slavery, more than tariﬀs or states’ rights, was the main factor con-

166

29.2. LATER WAR YEARS

167

tributing to sectionalism in South Carolina.[1] The Seces- T. Beauregard would open fire. Anderson, who had been sion Convention declared: a professor of Artillery at West Point, aware of the consequences of this, was deeply moved by the declaration. As would happen many times again over the next four We affirm that these ends for which this years, the embattled leaders knew each other well. BeauGovernment was instituted have been defeated, regard, back at West Point, had been Anderson’s assisand the Government itself has been made detant. So he prepared to defend Fort Sumter for the Union, structive of them by the action of the nonthe, large garrison-sized Stars and Stripes flying above the slaveholding States. Those States have assume small group of 85 Federal men. After a 34-hour bomthe right of deciding upon the propriety of our bardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. domestic institutions; and have denied the right of property established in fifteen of the States and recognized by the Constitution; they have denounced as sinful the institution of slavery; they have permitted open establishment among them of societies, whose avowed object is to disturb the peace and to eloign the property of the citizens of other States. They have encouraged and assisted thousands of our slaves to leave their homes; and those who remain, have been incited by emissaries, books and pictures to servile insurrection.”[2] Across the South there was the continual dread of a slave revolt such as John Brown and Nat Turner had tried to bring on. All whites were aware of the nightmare of St. Domingo decades before. In 1804, on what is today’s Haiti, after defeating Napoleon’s armies militarily, the new regime of blacks and mixed race people ordered the destruction of all white residents. White males were killed first but then the slaughter continued, including white women and their children. In 1860, half of South Carolina’s population were black slaves.

Throughout much of the war, cadets from the Citadel, South Carolina’s military institute, continued to aid the Confederate Army by helping to drill recruits, manufacture ammunition, protect arms depots, and guard Union prisoners. On December 11th of 1861, a massive ﬁre burned 164 acres of the city, destroying the Cathedral of St. Finbar, the Circular Congregational Church and South Carolina Institute hall, and nearly 600 other buildings. Much of the damage remained un-repaired until the end of the war. [3] In June 1862, a small but important battle at Secessionville, modern-day James Island, resulted in Union forces being repulsed by a much smaller Confederate force. The victory provided the city with a propaganda coup and saved it from the threat of land invasion. Not until the latter stage of the war would the city be under such threat again.

29.2 Later war years

Following its Secession from the Union in December, South Carolina militia seized Castle Pinckney and the Charleston Arsenal and their supplies of arms and ammunition. On January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets fired upon the merchant ship Star of the West as it was entering Charleston’s harbor. Local pride makes some call these the first shots of the Civil War. The ship had been sent by the Buchanan administration with relief supplies of men and matérial for Ft. Sumter’s small garrison. As the new Confederate States of America came into being late that winter, old and abandoned forts were revamped around Charleston to focus upon the massive, though not completed, Federal fort. Just as Lincoln was being inaugurated, the new President of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis, appointed General Beauregard of Louisiana to take command of the virtual siege of the island fort. Informed by the new Lincoln government that a supply ship, with food but no men or munitions, was to restock the fortress, President Davis, after consulting with his cabinet, on April 9th ordered the fort to be reduced before it View of Post Office (Now “Old Exchange Building”), East Bay Street, Charleston, 1865, showing the last palmetto left in the city was resupplied. after the bombardment

On April 12, at 3:20 AM, after a final effort to have the Union garrison surrender, Col. Robert Chestnut, CSA, As many Southern port cities had been closed off by the notified Major Robert Anderson, USA that in one hour Union blockade, Charleston became an important center the batteries commanded by Brigadier General Pierre G. for blockade running. Repeated attempts by the Union

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CHAPTER 29. CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

Navy to take Charleston and/or batter its defenses into the ground proved fruitless, including the Stone Fleet. The city resisted military occupation for the majority of the war’s four years. In 1863, the Union began an offensive campaign against the defenses of Charleston Harbor, beginning with a combined sea-land engagement. The naval bombardment accomplished little however, and the land forces were never put ashore. By summer of 1863, the Union turned its attention to Battery Wagner on Morris Island, which guarded the harbor entrance from the southwest. In the First and Second battles of Fort Wagner, Union forces suffered heavy losses in a failed attempt to capture the fort. A siege however resulted in Confederate abandonment of Fort Wagner by September of that year. An attempt to recapture Fort Sumter by a naval raiding party also failed badly, but Ft. Sumter was gradually reduced St. Finebar’s Church, Broad Street, Charleston, William Aiken to rubble via bombardment from shore batteries, after the Walker, 1868. The ruins of the church of St. Finbar following the fire of 1861. capture of Morris Island. With the development of newer, longer-range artillery, and as Union forces were able to place batteries even closer to the city, a bombardment began in late 1863 that continued on and off for more than a year. The cumulative effects of this bombardment would destroy much of the city that had survived the fire. A coordinated series of attacks on the city were launched in early July 1864, including an amphibious assault on Fort Johnson and an invasion of Johns Island. These attacks failed, but they continued to wear down the city’s defenders. The defenders were finally beaten back and the Union was able to capture the city of Charleston, only a month and a half before the war ended. Charleston Harbor was also the site of the first successful submarine attack in history on February 17, 1864, when the H.L. Hunley made a daring night attack on the USS Housatonic.[4] Although the Hunley survived the attack, she foundered and sank while returning from her mission, thus ending the threat to the Union blockade. As Gen. Sherman marched through South Carolina, the situation for Charleston became ever more precarious. On February 15, 1865, Gen. Beauregard ordered the evacuation of remaining Confederate forces. On February 18, the mayor surrendered the city to General Alexander Schimmelfennig; and Union troops finally moved in, taking control of many sites, such as the U.S. Arsenal (which the C.S.A. had seized at the outbreak of the war). After the eventual surrender of the Confederate States of America, Federal forces remained in Charleston during the city’s reconstruction.

29.3 Notes [1] Cauthen (1950) p. 1

[2] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp [3] http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20110130/ PC1602/301309938 [4] U.S. Navy history website

29.4 See also • South Carolina in the American Civil War

29.5 References • Cauthen, Charles Edward. South Carolina Goes to War 1860-1865. (1950) ISBN 1-57003-560-1 • Rosen, Robert 1997. A Short History of Charleston. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003197-5.

Chapter 30

McClellanville, South Carolina McClellanville is a small ﬁshing town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 499 at the 2010 census.[3] It is situated on the Atlantic coast, on land surrounded by Francis Marion National Forest, and has traditionally derived its livelihood from the sea and coastal marshes by ﬁshing, shrimping and oystering. McClellanville part of the CharlestonNorth Charleston-Summerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area.

30.1 History McClellanville village began in the late 1860s when local plantation owners A.J. McClellan and R.T. Morrison sold lots in the vicinity of Jeremy Creek to planters of the Santee Delta, who sought relief from summer fevers. The ﬁrst store opened soon after the Civil War, and the village became the social and economic center for a wide area that produced timber, rice, cotton, naval stores, and seafoods. Incorporated in 1926, McClellanville became, and remains, best known for its shrimping ﬂeet and seafood industries.

30.2 Geography McClellanville is located in northeastern Charleston County at 33°5′20.23″N 79°28′2.23″W / 33.0889528°N 79.4672861°W (33.088953,−79.467287).[5] U.S. Route 17 passes along the northwestern edge of the town, leading northeast 23 miles (37 km) to Georgetown and southwest 38 miles (61 km) to Charleston. According to the United States Census Bureau, McClellanville has a total area of 2.4 square miles (6.1 km2 ), of which 2.2 square miles (5.8 km2 ) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km2 ), or 5.02%, is water.[3] Jeremy Creek, a tidal inlet, runs through the center of the town, and the town limits extend south to the Intracoastal Waterway, adjacent to Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge.

30.3 Demographics

As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 459 people, 206 households, and 138 families residing in the town. The population density was 220.9 people per square mile (85.2/km²). There were 254 housing units at an average density of 122.2 per square mile (47.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 92% White and 7.14% African American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.18% of In 1989 the town was devastated by the full brunt the population. of Hurricane Hugo which destroyed homes, downed There were 206 households out of which 20.4% had century-old oaks, deposited shrimp boats in front yards, and otherwise altered much of the picturesque character children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.7% of this historic ﬁshing village. The stronger north side of were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female the eyewall passed directly over the village while a Cat- householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were egory 4 hurricane. Residents taking refuge in the local non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of high school, a designated storm shelter, were surprised individuals and 12.1% had someone living alone who was by a storm surge which threatened to drown the refugees. 65 years of age or older. The average household size was Helping one another in complete darkness, they managed 2.23 and the average family size was 2.75. to crawl into a space above the false ceilings of the build- In the town the population was spread out with 16.3% ing and, fortunately, none were lost. under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 20.9% from The Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, Cape 25 to 44, 36.4% from 45 to 64, and 19.4% who were 65 Romain Lighthouses, Fairﬁeld Plantation, Hampton years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For Plantation, Harrietta Plantation, McClellanville Historic every 100 females there were 96.2 males. For every 100 District, Wedge Plantation, and Old Georgetown Road females age 18 and over, there were 92.0 males. are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[4]

The median income for a household in the town was 169

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CHAPTER 30. MCCLELLANVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA

$42,500, and the median income for a family was $50,000. Males had a median income of $36,750 versus $25,781 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,425. About 8.3% of families and 11.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.8% of those under age 18 and 8.6% of those age 65 or over.

30.4 Government The city is run by an elected mayor–council government system.

30.4.1

Mayor

Rutledge B. Leland III

30.4.2

Council members

Aaron Baldwin, Robert J. Gannon, Chris B Bates, James E. Scott IV.

30.5 Notable people • Duﬀ Holbrook, wildlife biologist and forestry expert, reintroduced wild turkey to much of South Carolina.[8]

30.6 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): McClellanville town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 29, 2015. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [8] “Herman Lindsay “Duff” Holbrook Obituary”. The Post and Courier. 2015-07-18. Retrieved 2015-08-12.

30.7 External links • Town of McClellanville oﬃcial website • Hampton Plantation State Park, 10 miles (16 km) to the north of town

Chapter 31

Spoleto Festival USA 31.1.1 Beginnings The festival experienced financial problems from its outset which produced a quick turnover in leadership. On September 27, 1976, Theodore “Ted” Stern, the president of the College of Charleston at that time, was named as the new chairman of the Charleston Coordinating Committee after the departure of Hugh Lane.[2] Personality disputes also arose involving Menotti. Menotti, who had served as the artistic director for the festival since its founding, claimed in 1991 that he was not interested in renewing his three-year contract when it ended in 1992 over artistic differences.[3] The board did not officially accept his resignation immediately, but Menotti The 2013 festival opened on May 24, 2013, with a ceremony at stood by his intentions, blaming artistic differences with Charleston’s City Hall. the board and lack of personal control: “I no longer feel it is my festival, and this has been my life for 15 years. I Spoleto Festival USA in Charleston, South Carolina, feel a bit lonely among them. I'm treated like a clerk.”[4] is one of America’s major performing arts festivals. It Most significantly, Menotti had a poor relationship with was founded in 1977 by Pulitzer Prize-winning composer the festival’s general manager, Nigel Redden, who chalGian Carlo Menotti, who sought to establish a counter- lenged programming decisions, expense accounts for part to the Festival dei Due Mondi (The Festival of Two Menotti, and administrative decisions by Menotti. Two Worlds) in Spoleto, Italy. camps developed on the board, splitting support between When Italian organizers planned an American festival, they searched for a city that would offer the charm of Spoleto, Italy, and also its wealth of theaters, churches, and other performance spaces. Charleston was selected as an ideal location, with Menotti saying of Charleston: It’s intimate, so you can walk from one theatre to the next. It has Old World charm in architecture and gardens. Yet it’s a community big enough to support the large number of visitors to the festival.[1]

those backing Redden and those who supported Menotti (including Charleston Mayor Joseph P. Riley, Jr.). Mayor Riley supported Menotti so strongly that he threatened to withdraw city support for the festival if Menotti were pushed out.[5] Eventually, in May 1991, Menotti issued an ultimatum that either Redden and his supporters resign or Menotti would. In August 1991, Redden resigned,[6] as did 19 of the 46 board members the next month.

The tumult aﬀected the scope of the festival the following year; the budget for 1992’s festival was $4.6 million, down about $1 million from 1991, and covering about 20 percent fewer presentations (103 in 1992 compared The annual 17-day late-spring event showcases both es- with over 120 in 1991).[7] In 1990 and 1991, the festival tablished and emerging artists in more than 150 perfor- had raised about 44% of its budget (about $2.4 million) mances of opera, dance, theater, classical music, and from private donations, but in 1992, the festival raised jazz. only $1.2 million from such donations, about 33% of its $3.6 million budget that year.[8]

31.1 History of the Charleston festival

By 1993, personal conﬂicts reached a breaking point, with Menotti and the board of the Charleston festival arguing over those in charge of the festival, its artistic direction, and ﬁnancing. Menotti, who had threatened the end

171

172 the festival in Charleston left the festival in 1993; the local board, however, owned the rights to the name of the festival and pledged to continue it without Menotti.[9] Milton Rhodes was appointed the general manager in November 1993, and he immediately set about righting the finances, including negotiating the cancellation of about $400,000 in debt and securing a loan from South Carolina to cover another $600,000 of debt.[10] Still, the financial difficulties continued, and the 1995 festival lost an additional $900,000.[11]

CHAPTER 31. SPOLETO FESTIVAL USA Each year, the Festival produces its own operas, which are often rarely performed masterpieces by well-known composers or traditional works presented in new ways. It also presents theater, dance and music programs ranging from classical to jazz, bluegrass, soul and blues. Since its inception, the Festival has presented over 200 international and U.S. premieres, notably Creve Coeur by Tennessee Williams and The American Clock by Arthur Miller. Other premieres have included Monkey: Journey to the West by Chen Shi-Zheng, Damon Albarn, and Jamie Hewlett; Peter and Wendy by Lee Breuer; The American Clock by Arthur Miller; The Mechanical Organ by the Nikolais Dance Theatre; Miracolo d’Amore by Martha Clarke; Empty Places by Laurie Anderson; Hydrogen Jukebox by Philip Glass and Allen Ginsberg; Praise House by Urban Bush Women; Three Tales by Steve Reich and Beryl Korot; and Tenebrae by Osvaldo Golijav.

In July 1995, Redden was recruited to return to the festival on an interim basis to help it overcome a debt of more than $1,000,000.[12] The 1995 festival went over budget by 20%, and its full-time staff was cut in half.[13] During his first tenure with the festival, Redden had been successful in repairing the festival’s flagging finances and left the festival having gone from a $500,000 deficit to a surplus of $1.4 million.[14] Upon his return in 1996, Redden was again successful in turning the finances of the festival around, quickly raising $1.6 million and cutting debt in half.[15] 31.2.1

31.2 The Festival’s mission and programming philosophy

The oﬃces of Spoleto Festival USA are located in the MiddletonMotte-Pinckney House at 14 George St., Charleston, South Carolina

The Festival’s mission is to present programs of the highest artistic caliber while maintaining a dedication to young artists, a commitment to all forms of the performing arts, a passion for contemporary innovation, and an enthusiasm for providing unusual performance opportunities for established artists. One of the Festival’s tenets is to provide young artists the opportunity to work with veteran directors, designers and performers. Worldrenowned artists who performed at Spoleto Festival USA early in their careers include Renée Fleming, Emanuel Ax, Joshua Bell, Jean-Yves Thibaudet and Yo-Yo Ma.

Piccolo Spoleto

The official companion festival to Spoleto Festival USA, is operated by the City of Charleston Office of Cultural Affairs.[16] After two years of mini-festivals, Piccolo Spoleto was created as an official part of the overall Spoleto program in 1979.[17] Whereas Spoleto Festival USA features artists and performers of national and international renown, Piccolo Spoleto highlights outstanding local and regional artists with several hundred performances throughout the city. Piccolo Spoleto is “the perfect complement to the international scope of its parent festival and its 700 events in 17 days transform Charleston into an exhilarating celebration of performing, literary and visual arts.”[18] Piccolo Spoleto concludes the day before the main festival with a free concert in Hampton Park.[19] Except for 2001 (when they were held on Daniel Island),[20] the closing ceremonies have been held at Hampton Park since 1984 when the event coincided with the reopening of the refurbished park.[21]

31.3 Spoleto Festival USA Orchestra Each year members of the Festival Orchestra are selected by nationwide auditions to form the Festival’s resident ensemble. The orchestra works with the Resident Conductor and Director of Orchestral Activities, John Kennedy, as well as with guest conductors in opera, symphonic, choral, chamber, and contemporary music performances. Over the years, the Festival Orchestra has proved to be an opportunities for young musicians to gain extensive performance experience. Alumni of the Spoleto orchestra can be found in almost every professional orchestra in the United States and many abroad.

31.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

31.4 References Notes

173

[17] Barbara S. Williams (Apr 30, 1980). “Piccolo Spoleto Will Encompass More Activities”. Charleston News & Courier. p. B5. Retrieved June 3, 2013. [18] Piccolo Spoleto Festival website

[1] Debbie Dalhouse (March 26, 1976). “World-Renowned Artists to Gather in Charleston”. Spartanburg Herald. p. C8. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

[19] Terry Joyce (June 10, 1984). “Piccolo wraps up festival with variety of act”. Charleston News & Courier. p. A4. Retrieved June 3, 2013.

[2] Jerry R. Sanders (Sep 28, 1976). “Stern to Head Spoleto”. Charleston News & Courier. p. 1A. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

[20] Dottie Ashley (June 9, 2001). “Piccolo Finales moves to diﬀerent location”. Charleston Post & Courier. p. A15. Retrieved June 3, 2013.

[3] Frank P. Jarrell (Oct 31, 1990). “Menotti to remain with Spoleto USA”. Charleston News & Courier. p. 1B. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

[21] “Hampton Park Beautiﬁcation”. Charleston News & Courier. May 22, 1984. p. A1. Retrieved June 3, 2013.

[4] Larry McShane (Oct 14, 1990). “Menotti aﬃrms decision to quit as Spoletto director”. Spartanburg Herald-Journal. p. B3. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

31.5 External links

[5] Barbara S. Williams (June 2, 1991). “Hopes hang on fragile Spoleto cease-ﬁre”. Charleston News & Courier. p. 16-A. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [6] “Redden quits as head of Spoleto Festival”. Spartanburg Herald-Journal. Aug 13, 1991. p. A2. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [7] Allan Kozinn (May 17, 1992). “The Calm After the Storm at Spoleto?". The New York TImes. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [8] “Debt-ridden Spoleto looking for a new chief executive”. Spartanburg Herald-Journal. Oct 22, 1993. p. C3. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [9] Jeﬀrey Day (Oct 25, 1993). “Board: Spoleto will survive without Menotti”. Spartanburg Herald-Journal. p. B3. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [10] James R. Oestreich (June 1, 1994). “The First Spoleto Without Menotti”. The New York Times. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [11] “Milton Rhodes: Spoleto Fest bids chief adieu”. Wilmington Morning Star. Sep 1, 1995. p. 2A. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [12] “Spoleto Manager Returns”. The New York Times. July 30, 1995. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [13] “Spoleto Festival USA tries to cover expenses”. The Spartanburg Herald-Journal. Aug 13, 1995. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [14] Bruce Smith (Oct 3, 1995). “Old general manager returning to Spoleto”. Spartanburg Herald-Journal. p. B4. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [15] “Spoleto USA back on track”. Wilmington Morning Star. May 20, 1996. p. 3B. Retrieved May 24, 2013. [16] Barbara S. Williams (Apr 18, 1979). “Piccolo Spoleto Plans Grow”. Charleston News & Courier. p. B1. Retrieved June 3, 2013.

• Spoleto Festival USA website • Piccolo Spoleto website • Charleston Convention and Visitors Bureau website • Festival dei Due Mondi, Spoleto, Italy, website

Chapter 32

Cooper River Bridge Run The Cooper River Bridge Run is an annual 10kilometer (6.2 mi) one-way road running event across the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge held in the cities of Mount Pleasant and Charleston in South Carolina, on the Saturday before Easter weekend. The Bridge Run is the only competition in South Carolina sanctioned by USA Track and Field as an elite event. Based on number of race ﬁnishers, the event is the third largest 10K and the ﬁfth largest road race in the United States.[1]

32.1 History In the mid-1970s, Medical University of South Carolina employee Dr. Marcus Newberry had visited his Ohio hometown and noticed Bonne Bell had built a running track around their offices to encourage employees’ physical fitness. Dr. Newberry wanted a way to encourage fitness in the Charleston Metropolitan region, and believed the best way was to feature an event running through the bridges crossing the Cooper River. The event organisers featured officials from the Charleston Running Club, The Citadel, the Medical University of South Carolina, and the College of Charleston. South Carolina state senator Dewey Wise introduced legislation to permit the event to be held over the reversible lane on the three-lane Silas Pearman Bridge. On April 2, 1978, the initial race began from Patriots Point in Mount Pleasant to the White Point Gardens in Charleston’s Battery region. Police shortened the initial event to 9,850 meters after the gun had sounded to start the initial Bridge Run. Officials expected 500 runners for the event (with 340 pre-registered), but on race day an additional 600 to 700 runners registered. 766 runners finished. Many dropped out of the race and some were hospitalized for effects from the heat, as there were no water stops on the course. In the tradition of historic Charleston’s Civil War and Revolutionary War heritage, a cannon is fired to start the event. The first Kenyan runners to participate were a pair of Baptist College teammates in 1978. Runners from that country have dominated the run since 1993.

area churches (While Charleston County has some Blue Laws exceptions in Charleston County in deference to the Jewish community, churches on the course complained about the Bridge Run taking place while church services took place), the 1979 event was moved to the Saturday in March, where it would be held until 1985. One water stop at the terminus of the bridge was added. (Four water stops were on the 2005 course.) The finish line moved to the campus of the College of Charleston. Over 1,350 were entered, with over 1,000 finishing. The 1979 event, the first at 10,000 meters, was the first South Carolina running event with over 1,000 participants. The 1980 finish ended in a tie. Two consecutive Bridge Runs (1986 and 1987) were marred by illegal runners. In 1986, between 300 and 500 runners did not make the start, which had been delayed 30 minutes because of a vehicular collision on the Pearman Bridge (the only access to the start line) between two shuttle buses carrying runners to the start and an automobile 70 minutes before the scheduled start. They ran down the Pearman, through the cut between the two bridges, and started their run midway through the course, on the Grace. In 1987, with unusually cold temperatures (start temperature was 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4c) with wind gusts from 20-35 MPH (32–55 km/h), runners kept their warmups instead of displaying their bibs. Officials estimated about 10% of the nearly 7,000 runners who crossed the finish lines were illegal, or “bandit”, runners. The bandits were allowed to cross the finish line because officials could not distinguish who was legitimate and who was not. In 1989, elite runners were warming up ahead of the start line on SC 703 when the cannon fired. Grete Waitz’s record time was disallowed, but she was allowed to keep the win, when she was caught ahead of the start line at the cannon. The 1995 event was the first time over 10,000 runners participated, and women made up over 3,000 of the runners, the first time in North or South Carolina where over 3,000 women finished in a running event.

Transponder timing was instituted in 1997. The 20052008 races featured a permanent transponder which the Following complaints from heat exhaustion and also from runner could keep was implemented. A D-Tag tim174

32.2. COURSE AND EVENT CHANGES

175

ing system was used from 2009–10, and from 2011, Island on Interstate 526, which had opened in 1992. A transponder tags were affixed to competitors’ bibs. new start line on SC 703 near Live Oak Street was posiThe total Bridge Run and Walk participants in 2004 was tioned with runners passing Coming, Line, King, Market, and Meeting at Marion Square. With congestion becom29,930. Females accounted for 45.1% of finishers. ing a concern, a year later officials moved back the finish In 2012, logistical problems (only one shuttle bus entry to the corner of Meeting and Calhoun in Marion Square, point) led to over 10,000 runners being stuck on the shut- resulting in a corresponding move back of the start on SC tle buses on the Ravenel’s northbound lanes (which the 703. course uses) where officials could not close the bridge until 7:45 AM, 15 minutes before the scheduled start. The In 2000, the Bridge Run course went through a complete wheelchair race started at 8:19 AM, but a mechanical fail- overhaul with the start further back on SC 703 near the ure and an attempt to clear the disabled athlete forced the shopping center, giving runners a 3,000 meter run on SC 703 before joining the walkers at the foot of the first span elite runners to wait until 8:58 AM for the start. of the Pearman, then crossing the Crosstown Overpass, The last run on the Pearman in 2005 had a 42,000 run- King Street, Calhoun Street, and finishing at Alexander. ner and walker cap (25,000 runners, 17,000 walkers) for The course eliminated the use of Meeting Street, which 2005, but many did not appear because of inclement had been used as the primary street in the past. This weather which marred the start. The current limit is course would be used until 2005, when the Pearman and 44,000. The 2012 race featured 36,652 finishers, women Grace bridges closed. dominated with 59.45% (21,789 F vs 14,917 M) of runIn 2003, a youth event was held on the Friday at Hampton ners. Park to expand the festivities.

32.2 Course and event changes The scheduled start time was 10 AM in 1978, 9 AM from 1979 until 1982, 8:30 AM in 1983 until 1986, and 8 AM since 1987. Two unusual start delays caused by the unfamiliar course moved the 1984 start to 9 AM. The John P. Grace Memorial Bridge had been declared unsafe for heavy trucks over ten tons in 1979, and the South Carolina Department of Transportation eliminated the reversible lane on the Silas N. Pearman Bridge which had been used for the Bridge Run course, as trucks on US Highway 17 South were now required to use that lane, instead of using the Grace. State Senator Wise was able to push for legislation to use the Grace bridge for the Bridge Run. In 1983, the Grace Bridge run added a second uphill climb on the Crosstown Overpass connecting the Grace Bridge to US Highway 17 and Interstate 26, and the race finished in front of the United States Federal Building in Marion Square at Meeting Street. With the number of entrants exceeding 2,000, the start moved from Patriots Point in 1984 to SC Highway 703 (Coleman Boulevard) at Shem Creek. This course became the first Bridge Run course to be certified by The Athletics Congress. Road construction near Market Street in Charleston forced a slight rerouting in 1986, when the Bridge Run was moved to its present date in April unless Easter fell on that weekend. With entrants exceeding 8,500 and a new 7,000 meter walk added, totaling over 10,000 participants, and tighter restrictions on weight on the Grace Bridge, in 1995 officials returned the Bridge Run to the Pearman bridge, with all three lanes being used, as traffic to Charleston could now be diverted to the Don N. Holt Bridge near Daniel

Major alterations to the course were necessary for 2006 as USA Track and Field had to measure a new course to reflect the opening of the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge and construction on the Ansonborough Fields complex resulted in the moving of the finish line away from Alexander Street, where it had been set since 2000, and a new finish line at George Street and Meeting Street, across from the Carolina First Arena in Charleston, was established. The finish festival was held at Marion Square, which is located a short walk as runners made the cooldown from the finish line. The start line was slightly moved but remains near the shopping center, and proceeds on SC 703 for 3,000 meters before approaching the northbound exit ramp to SC 703 (run southbound, towards Charleston, the opposite direction of normal vehicular traffic), with the runners proceeding on the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge southbound on the four northbound lanes (the four southbound lanes on the bridge are not used; furthermore, the bikepedestrian lane (which is aligned with the northbound lanes, but just off to East Bay Street and is not part of the course) is reserved for use by emergency staff) for 3,200 meters before exiting the bridge using the two-lane Meeting Street entrance ramp (runners are running the opposite direction of normal vehicular traffic), turning left on Meeting for 2,000 meters before, making a right at the Visitor’s Center at John Street, then a quick left at King Street, before turning left at Wentworth Street, before a final run up Meeting Street the other direction before the finish line. Two potential forms of cheating near the finish were dealt with using fencing at Marion Square at King Street (the finish festival site), and sponsor Bi-Lo parking a tractortrailer at the intersection of Meeting and John to force runners to make the turn back to King. Furthermore, the live bands which play at the finish festival will be heard

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CHAPTER 32. COOPER RIVER BRIDGE RUN

twice, as runners pass through Marion Square the first the 1994 race (3,839th with a time of 55:48 min). Actor time on King Street, and after crossing the finish line and Bill Murray fired the cannon for the 1997 Bridge Run and cooling down. ran the event. In 2011, then-NASCAR Nationwide Series Concerns over bottlenecking by walkers on course who driver Aric Almirola, his wife Janice, and two members entered the bridge walk at the 3,000 meter mark on of the JR Motorsports #88 team from the 2011 season Coleman Boulevard at Patriots Point (the original start participated during an off-week in that series, and former line) and the NBC 2 studios eliminated the 7,000 meter state Governor Mark Sanford and two of his children also walk, and required walkers to proceed through the entire participated. Irish Olympic runner Sean Dollman, who retired after taking a job at the College of Charleston, 10,000 meter run starting in 2006. However, the rule was not as enforced as some had thought. Some walkers (and came out of retirement at the Bridge Run and won the Dr. Marcus Newberry Award for best runner residing in lower-seeded runners too) lined up on the sidewalks on SC 703 from Shem Creek to that studio, which is at the the Charleston metropolitan region (Charleston, Berkeley, Dorchester counties) in 2002. In 2012, Zeddie Little foot of the exit ramp from the bridge, instead of lining behind all runners at the start line, which was the instruc- became an internet meme known as the “ridiculously photion given to participants in the 2006 event in order to togenic guy” after having a photo of him taken by Will King while running the race. prevent incidents. Another rule change in 2006 required runners to be seeded by time; elite and invited runners were ahead, then runners in the under 40 minute category, then 40-50, 5060, past one hour, and walkers. The main goal was to prevent certain bottlenecking, although some bottlenecking did take place at the start line because of the transponder timing system.

32.4 Past winners

The 2006 event also debuted the wheelchair category as a competitive event; twelve wheelchair and crankchair athletes competed the event, which started at 7:30 AM, although Manny Marshall attempted to complete the course in a wheelchair by entering at the Chanel 2 studios in 198?. For 2010 the turn from Meeting to King was changed from John Street to Wolfe Street, to avoid Piggly Wiggly #1 (a direct competitor to race sponsor Bi-Lo, although Bi-Lo later purchased this location in 2013), and to allow the bars to have bands perform. One notable performer was Dave Seitz and the King Street Band, fronted by the popular former South Carolina Stingrays player whose #14 is retired. Starting with the 2011 event, a wave start system is utilized to better handle crowding in the Mount Pleasant.

32.3 Competitors Initially, the race attracted national-level runners. Benji Durden, whose opportunity to make the Olympic team was denied by President Jimmy Carter in 1980, won the ﬁrst run. Frank Shorter and Ruth Wysocki ran in Kenya’s Catherine Ndereba had three straight wins from 2000 to the early 1980s and Olympians Mark Conover and Janis 2002. Klecker were participants in the early 1990s. The race has featured top level international competitors, includ- Key: Course record Short course ing Olympic medalists Grete Waitz, Catherine Ndereba, and Elana Meyer. Outside of elite runners, the run has also featured people prominent in other cultural spheres. Television personality Oprah Winfrey, running under a pseudonym, ﬁnished

32.5 References [1] http://results.xacte.com/?kw=crb#

32.6. EXTERNAL LINKS • Jaggers, Cedric. The History of the Cooper Bridge River Run. Cooper Bridge River Run. Retrieved on 2011-10-14. Winners list • Jaggers, Cedric (2011-04-04). Cooper River Bridge Run 10 km. Association of Road Racing Statisticians. Retrieved on 2011-10-14.

32.6 External links • Oﬃcial website • Charleston Running Club • Post and Courier Bridge Run Section

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Chapter 33

Music in Charleston As it has with every aspect of Charleston, South Carolina culture, the Gullah community has had a tremendous influence on Music in Charleston, especially when it comes to the early development of jazz music. In turn, the music of Charleston has had an influence on that of the rest of the country. The geechee dances that accompanied the music of the dock workers in Charleston followed a rhythm that inspired Eubie Blake’s “Charleston Rag” and soon later James P. Johnson’s “The Charleston”, as well as the dance craze that defined a nation in the 1920s. “Ballin' the Jack”, which was the popular dance in the years before “The Charleston”, was written by native Charlestonian Chris Smith.[1]

For Charleston, jazz is like the distinctive taste of okra soup, the plaintive cries of the early 20th-century street vendors, and the meticulous artistry of sweetgrass baskets.”[2]

33.2 The Jenkins Orphanage

The Jenkins Orphanage was established in 1891 by Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins in Charleston, South Carolina. Jenkins was a businessman and Baptist minister who encountered street children and decided to organize an orphanage for young African Americans.[3] The orphanage took in donations of musical instruments and Rev. Jenkins hired 33.1 Jazz local Charleston musicians and Avery Institute Graduates to tutor the boys in music. Upon its establishment, Charleston is a very important city when it comes to de- it became the only black instrumental group organized in ciphering the history of jazz music, America’s greatest South Carolina. Eventually the orphanage garnered such art form. Charleston, SC is one of the early “incubators” a reputation that some parents sent their children there to of jazz, along with other southern cities such as New Or- study music. As a result, Charleston musicians became proficient on a variety of instruments and were able to leans. Author and historian Jack McCray explains, read music expertly.[4] These traits set Jenkins musicians apart and helped land some of them positions in big bands ”The beginnings of jazz music on the southwith Duke Ellington and Count Basie. The children were eastern coast of the United States was cennot taught jazz, but often performed rags and ragtime tered in Charleston, South Carolina, one of versions of popular marches, introducing the distinctive only a handful of places in the Western Hemiswing to the music. Orphanages around the country besphere where Africa interacted with Europe gan to develop brass bands in the wake of the Jenkins in a seminal way to produce New World culOrphanage Band’s success. At the Colored Waif’s Home ture…. Charleston was the crown jewel of the Brass Band in New Orleans, Louisiana, for example, a British Empire before the American Revoluyoung trumpeter named Louis Armstrong first began to tion, and it was the North American cradle of draw attention.[5] the African slave trade, similar to other incubators on this side of the Atlantic Ocean, such as The Jenkins Orphanage Band, wearing discarded Citadel Havana, Cuba, and Salvador, Brazil…. From uniforms, performed throughout the United States and enslaved African drummers, to black drumeven toured England raising money for the support of the mers attached to white militias, to military orphanage. It played in the inaugural parades of Presibands, to community brass bands, has come dents Theodore Roosevelt and William Taft. It appeared Charleston jazz.” at the St. Louis Exposition and the Anglo-American Exposition in 1914. It toured the USA from coast to coast, ”No wonder Charleston musicians excelled at and played in Paris, Berlin, Rome, London, and Vienna. jazz. This port city is often referred to as the As many as five bands were on tour during the 1920s. Ellis Island for African Americans. Estimates The band ceased to exist in the 1980s.[6] William “Cat” Anderson, Jabbo Smith and Freddie Green are but a few say upward of 40 percent of Africans imported of the alumni from the Jenkins Orphanage band who beinto North America came through Charleston. 178

33.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

179

came professional musicians in some of the best bands of the day.

[3] Jack McCray (6 June 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5.

The Jenkins Orphanage Band also played on Broadway [4] for the play ‘’Porgy’’ by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, a stage version of the novel by Dubose Heyward of the same title. The story was based in Charleston, South [5] Carolina and featured the Gullah Community. The Heywards insisted on an African American cast for their [6] play and hired the real Jenkins Orphanage Band to portray themselves on stage.[7] Only a few years later, Du[7] Bose Heyward collaborated with George and Ira Gershwin to turn his novel in to the now famous opera, Porgy and Bess. George Gershwin spent the summer of 1934 [8] at Folly Beach outside of Charleston writing the “folk opera.” Porgy and Bess is considered the Great American Opera and is widely performed.[8] Charleston’s inﬂu- [9] ence on the music of Porgy and Bess and therefore the American opera tradition is undeniable. [10]

33.3 Notable Musicians Charleston

Jack McCray (6 June 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5. Hubbert, Julie. “Jenkins Orphanage”. Retrieved February 18, 2013. Edgar, Walter. South Carolina Encyclopedia (2006) pp. 590-591, ISBN 1-57003-598-9 Hubbert, Julie. “Jenkins Orphanage”. Retrieved February 18, 2013. Erb, Jane. “Porgy and Bess (1934)". Retrieved February 19, 2013. http://www.voxnovus.com/resources/American_ Composer_Timeline.htm American Composer Timeline http://www.allmusic.com/artist/ charles-theodore-pachelbel-mn0002162590| accessdate=February 19, 2013

Charles Theodore Pachelbel was a resident of Charleston in the Colonial Era. Charles, the son of the more famous Johann Pachelbel, composer of the popular Canon in D, was an important musical figure in early Charleston and was one of the first European composers to take up residence in the American colonies.[9] Pachelbel became the organist of St. Philip’s Church in 1740 and lived in Charleston for the rest of his life.[10] Another notable musician born in Charleston is country music and R&B star Darius Rucker, well known as the lead singer of Hootie & The Blowfish.

33.4 Today Today, organizations such as Jazz Artists of Charleston and the Charleston Jazz Initiative work to document, preserve and promote Charleston’s unique and largely unknown jazz history, as well as its legacy. The Charleston Jazz Orchestra is a big band that does just this by presenting concerts of standard South Carolina jazz as well as new works. To this day Charleston maintains a vibrant and diverse jazz scene and is home to many musicians in all genres. As it has always been, Charleston remains a melting pot of musical styles and inﬂuences.

33.5 References [1] Jack McCray (6 June 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. pp. 11, 12. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5. [2] Jack McCray (6 June 2007). Charleston Jazz. Arcadia Publishing. pp. 15, 16. ISBN 978-0-7385-4350-5.

33.6 External links • Jazz Artists of Charleston • Charleston Jazz Initiative

Chapter 34

Gullah This article is about the people. For the language, see ples brought into Charleston and South Carolina. Some Gullah language. scholars have suggested it may come from Gola, an ethnicity living in the border area between present-day Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa, where many of the The Gullah are the descendants of enslaved Africans who [2] lived in the Lowcountry regions of Georgia and South Gullah ancestors originated. This area was known as the “Grain Coast” or “Rice Coast” to British colonists in Carolina, which includes both the coastal plain and the the Caribbean and the Southern colonies of North AmerSea Islands. ica and most of the tribes there are of Mande or Manding Historically, the Gullah region extended from the Cape origins. The name “Geechee”, another common (emic) Fear area on North Carolina's coast south to the vicinity name for the Gullah people, may come from Kissi, an of Jacksonville on Florida's coast, but today the Gullah ethnicity living in the border area between Sierra Leone, area is confined to the Georgia and South Carolina Low- Guinea and Liberia.[3] country. The Gullah people and their language are also called Geechee, which some scholars speculate is related Some scholars have also suggested indigenous American to the Ogeechee River near Savannah, Georgia. “Gullah” origins for these words. The Spanish called the South is a term that was originally used to designate the vari- Carolina and Georgia coastal region Guale after a Naety of English spoken by Gullah and Geechee people, but tive American tribe. The name of the Ogeechee River, over time it has been used by its speakers to formally refer a prominent geographical feature in coastal Georgia, was to their creole language and distinctive ethnic identity as derived from a Creek Indian word. a people. The Georgia communities are distinguished by identifying as either “Freshwater Geechee” or “Saltwater 34.1.1 African roots Geechee”, depending on their proximity to the coast. Because of a period of relative isolation in rural areas, the Gullah developed a culture that has preserved much of the African linguistic and cultural heritage from various peoples, as well as absorbed new influences from the region. The Gullah people speak an English-based creole language containing many African loanwords and influenced by African languages in grammar and sentence structure. Properly referred to as “Sea Island Creole”, the Gullah language is related to Bahamian Dialect, Barbadian Dialect, Belizean Creole, Jamaican Patois, Trinidadian Creole, and the Krio language of Sierra Leone, in West Africa. Gullah crafts, farming and fishing traditions, folk beliefs, music, rice-based cuisine, and story-telling traditions all exhibit strong influences from Central and West African cultures.

According to Port of Charleston records, enslaved Africans shipped to the port came from the following areas: Angola (39%), Senegambia (20%), the Windward Coast (17%), the Gold Coast (13%), Sierra Leone (6%), and Madagascar, Mozambique, and the two Bights (5% combined) (Pollitzer, 1999:43).[4] It should be noted, however, that the term “Windward Coast” often referred to Sierra Leone,[5] so the ﬁgure for that region is higher than just 6%. Particularly along the western coast, the people had cultivated African rice for possibly up to 3,000 years. Once British colonial planters in the American South discovered that rice would grow in that region, they often sought enslaved Africans from rice-growing regions because of their skills and knowledge needed to develop and build irrigation, dams and earthworks.[6]

Two British trading companies based in England operated the slave castle at Bunce Island (formerly called Bance Island), located in the Sierra Leone River. Henry The name “Gullah” may derive from Angola,[1] where an- Laurens was their agent in Charleston and was a planter cestors of some Gullah people likely originated. They and slave trader. His counterpart in England was Richard created a new culture from the numerous African peo- Oswald.

34.1 History

180

34.1. HISTORY Many of the enslaved Africans taken in West Africa were processed through Bunce Island. It was a prime export site for slaves to South Carolina and Georgia. Slave castles in Ghana, for instance, shipped their people to sites in the Caribbean islands. After Freetown, Sierra Leone, was founded in the late 18th century by the British as a colony for poor blacks from London and black Loyalists from Nova Scotia, resettled after the American Revolutionary War, they did not allow slaves to be taken from Sierra Leone and tried to protect the people from kidnappers. In 1808 both Great Britain and the United States prohibited the African slave trade. The British, which patrolled to intercept slave ships oﬀ Africa, sometimes resettled Africans freed from slave trader ships after that date in Sierra Leone. Similarly, Americans sometimes settled freed slaves at Liberia, a similar colony established in the early 19th century by the American Colonization Society as a place for freed slaves and free blacks from the United States.

34.1.2

Origin of Gullah culture

181 from the “Rice Coast” brought the skills for cultivation and tidal irrigation that made rice farming one of the most successful industries in early America. The subtropical climate encouraged the spread of malaria and yellow fever, carried by mosquitoes. These tropical diseases were endemic in Africa and had been carried by slaves to the colonies.[7] Mosquitoes in the swamps and inundated rice ﬁelds of the Lowcountry picked up and spread the diseases to English and European settlers, as well. Malaria and yellow fever soon became endemic in the region. Because they had acquired some immunity in their homeland, Africans were more resistant to these tropical fevers than the Europeans were, and as the rice industry was developed, planters continued to import African slaves. By about 1708, South Carolina had a black majority.[8] Coastal Georgia later developed a black majority after rice cultivation expanded there in the mid-18th century. Malaria and yellow fever became endemic, and fearing disease, many white planters left the Lowcountry during the rainy spring and summer months when fevers ran rampant.[6] Others lived mostly in cities such as Charleston. The planters left their European or African “rice drivers”, or overseers, in charge of the plantations.[6] These had hundreds of laborers, with African traditions reinforced by new imports from the same regions. Over time, the Gullah people developed a creole culture in which elements of African languages, cultures, and community life were preserved to a high degree. Their culture developed in a distinct way, diﬀerent from that of the enslaved African-Americans in states such as North Carolina and Virginia, where the enslaved lived in smaller groups, and had more sustained and frequent interactions with whites and British American culture.

The Gullah region once extended from SE North Carolina to NE Florida.

34.1.3 Customs and traditions

The Gullah people have been able to preserve much of their African cultural heritage because of climate, geog- African influences are found in every aspect of the Gulraphy, and patterns of importation of enslaved Africans. lahs’ traditional way of life: Taken as slaves from the Western region of Africa in primarily the Krio and Mende populations of what is today • The Gullah word guber for peanut derives from the Sierra Leone, and transported to some areas of Brazil Kikongo and Kimbundu word N'guba. (including Bahia), the enlaved Gullah-Gheechee people • Gullah rice dishes called “red rice” and "okra soup” were traded in what was then Charlestowne, South Carare similar to West African "jollof rice" and “okra olina. According to British historian P.E.H. Hair, Gullah soup”. Jollof rice is a style of rice preparation culture was formed as a creole culture in the colonies and brought by the Wolof people of West Africa.[9] United States from elements of many different African cultures who came together there. These included the • The Gullah version of "gumbo" has its roots in Baga, Fula, Kissi, Kpelle, Limba, Mandinka, Mende, African cooking. “Gumbo” is derived from a word Susu, Temne, Vai, and Wolof of the Rice Coast, and in the Umbundu language of Angola, meaning okra, many from Angola, Calabar, Congo Republic, and the one of the dish’s main ingredients. Gold Coast. By the middle of the 18th century, thousands of acres in the Georgia and South Carolina Lowcountry, and the Sea Islands were developed as rice fields. African farmers

• Gullah rice farmers once made and used mortar and pestles and winnowing fanners similar in style to tools used by West African rice farmers.

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CHAPTER 34. GULLAH • The Gullah ring shout is similar to ecstatic religious rituals performed in West and Central Africa. • Gullah stories about "Bruh Rabbit" are similar to West and Central African trickster tales about the clever and conniving rabbit, spider, and tortoise. • Gullah spirituals, shouts, and other musical forms employ the "call and response" method commonly used in African music. • Gullah “sweetgrass baskets” are coil straw baskets made by the descendants of slaves in the South Carolina Lowcountry, and are almost identical to coil baskets made by the Wolof people in Senegal. • Gullah “strip quilts" mimic the design of cloth woven with the traditional strip loom used throughout West Africa. The famous kente cloth from Ghana and Akwete cloth from Nigeria are woven on the strip loom.

A gullah woman makes a sweetgrass basket in Charleston’s City Market

• A non-English song of unknown meaning, preserved by a Gullah family, was found in the 1990s to be a Mende funeral song, probably the longest text in an African language to survive enslavement to the present day USA. This research and the resulting reunion between Gullah and Mende communities was recounted in the documentary The Language You Cry In (1998). [10]

34.1.4 Civil War period When the U.S. Civil War began, the Union rushed to blockade Confederate shipping. White planters on the Sea Islands, fearing an invasion by the US naval forces, abandoned their plantations and fled to the mainland. When Union forces arrived on the Sea Islands in 1861, they found the Gullah people eager for their freedom, and eager as well to defend it. Many Gullahs served with distinction in the Union Army's First South Carolina VolunWooden mortar and pestle from the rice loft of a South Carolina teers. The Sea Islands were the first place in the South lowcountry plantation where slaves were freed. Long before the War ended, Unitarian missionaries from Pennsylvania came down to start schools for the newly freed slaves. Penn Center, now • Gullah beliefs about "hags" and “haunts” are sima Gullah community organization on Saint Helena Island, ilar to African beliefs about malevolent ancestors, South Carolina, began as the very first school for freed witches, and “devils” (forest spirits). slaves. • Gullah "root doctors" protect their clients against dangerous spiritual forces by using ritual objects similar to those employed by African traditional healers.

After the Civil War ended, the Gullahs’ isolation from the outside world actually increased in some respects. The rice planters on the mainland gradually abandoned their farms and moved away from the area because of labor issues and hurricane damage to crops. Free blacks were un• Gullah herbal medicines are similar to traditional willing to work in the dangerous and disease-ridden rice ﬁelds. A series of hurricanes devastated the crops in the African remedies. 1890s. Left alone in remote rural areas in the Lowcoun• The Gullah “seekin” ritual is similar to coming of try, the Gullahs continued to practice their traditional culage ceremonies in West African secret societies, ture with little inﬂuence from the outside world well into such as the Poro and Sande. the 20th Century.

34.1. HISTORY

34.1.5

Recent history

183 Leone in 1989, 1997, and 2005. Sierra Leone is at the heart of the traditional rice-growing region of West Africa where many of the Gullahs’ ancestors originated. Bunce Island, the British slave castle in Sierra Leone, sent many African captives to Charleston and Savannah during the mid- and late 18th century. These dramatic homecomings were the subject of three documentary ﬁlms— Family Across the Sea (1990), The Language You Cry In (1998), and Priscilla’s Homecoming (in production).

34.1.6 Celebrating Gullah culture

Gullah basket

In recent years the Gullah people—led by Penn Center and other determined community groups—have been fighting to keep control of their traditional lands. Since the 1960s, resort development on the Sea Islands has greatly increased property values threatening to push Gullahs off family lands they have owned since emancipation. They have fought back against uncontrolled development on the islands through community action, the courts and the political process.[11] The Gullahs have struggled to preserve their traditional culture. In 1979, a translation of the New Testament in the Gullah language began. The American Bible Society published De Nyew Testament in 2005. In November 2011, Healin fa de Soul, a five-CD collection of readings from the Gullah Bible was released. This collection includes Scipcha Wa De Bring Healing (“Scripture That Heals”) and the Gospel of John (De Good Nyews Bout Jedus Christ Wa John Write). This was also the most extensive collection of Gullah recordings, surpassing those of Lorenzo Dow Turner. The recordings help people develop an interest in the culture because people might not have known how to pronounce some words.[12]

VOA report about an exhibit about Gullah culture

Over the years, the Gullahs have attracted many historians, linguists, folklorists, and anthropologists interested in their rich cultural heritage. Many academic books on that subject have been published. The Gullah have also become a symbol of cultural pride for blacks throughout the United States and a subject of general interest in the media. This has given rise to countless newspaper and magazine articles, documentary ﬁlms, and children’s books on Gullah culture, and to a number of popular novels set in the Gullah region. Gullah people now organize cultural festivals every year in towns up and down the Lowcountry. Hilton Head Island, for instance, hosts a “Gullah Celebration” in February. It includes “De Aarts ob We People” show; the “Ol’ Fashioned Gullah Breakfast"; “National Freedom Day,” the “Gullah Film Fest”, “A Taste of Gullah” food and entertainment, a “Celebration of Lowcountry Authors and Books,” an “Arts, Crafts & Food Expo,” and “De Gullah Playhouse”. Beaufort hosts the oldest and the largest celebration, “The Original Gullah Festival” in May. The nearby Penn Center on St. Helena Island holds “Heritage Days” in November. Other Gullah festivals are celebrated on James Island, South Carolina and Sapelo Island, Georgia.

The Gullahs achieved another victory in 2006 when the U.S. Congress passed the "Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor Act" that provides $10 million over 10 years for the preservation and interpretation of historic sites relating to Gullah culture.[13] The Heritage Corridor will extend from southern North Carolina to northern Florida. The project will be administered by the US National Park Service with extensive consultation with But Gullah culture is also being celebrated elsewhere in the Gullah community. the United States. The Black Cultural Center at Purdue Gullahs have also reached out to West Africa. Gullah University in West Lafayette, Indiana conducted a regroups made three celebrated “homecomings” to Sierra search tour, cultural arts festival, and other related events

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to showcase the Gullah culture. The Black Cultural Center Library maintains a bibliography of Gullah books and materials, as well. Metro State College in Denver, Colorado recently hosted a conference on Gullah culture, called The Water Brought Us: Gullah History and Culture, which featured a panel of Gullah scholars and cultural activists. These events in Indiana and Colorado are typical of the attention Gullah culture regularly receives throughout the United States.

34.1.7

Cultural survival

Gullah culture has proven to be particularly resilient. Gullah traditions are strong in the rural areas of the Lowcountry mainland and on the Sea Islands, and among their people in urban areas such as Charleston and Savannah. Gullah people who have left the Lowcountry and moved far away have also preserved traditions; for instance, many Gullahs in New York, who went North in the Great Migration, have established their own neighborhood churches in Harlem, Brooklyn, and Queens. Typically they send their children back to rural communities in South Carolina and Georgia during the summer months to live with grandparents, uncles, and aunts. Gullah people living in New York also frequently return to the Lowcountry to retire. Second- and third-generation Gullah in New York often maintain many of their traditional customs and sometimes still speak the Gullah language.

34.2 Representation in art, entertainment, and media 34.2.1

Exhibitions

• Finding Priscilla’s Children: The Roots and Branches of Slavery [Multimedia cultural exhibition November 8 - March 1, 2006]. New York City: New York Historical Society. 2006.

34.2.2

Films

• Conrack (1974), film based on Pat Conroy's autobiographical book The Water is Wide (1972) • One of the Tales of the Unknown South (1984) short films is a Gullah ghost story • Gullah Tales (1988) • The Civil War film Glory (1989) features a short conversation between Union Gullah troops, and members of the 54th Massachusetts, including several Gullah words and phrases. • Family Across the Sea (1990) • When Rice Was King (1990)]

• Julie Dash’s ﬁlm, Daughters of the Dust (1991), portrays a Gullah family at the turn of the 20th century, as the younger generation moves oﬀ island • Home Across the Water (1992), a streaming video • God’s Gonna Trouble the Water (1997) • The Language You Cry In (1998) • Bin Yah: There’s No Place Like Home (2008)

34.2.3 Historical landmarks • “Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor”. National Park Service. 2006. “Designated by Congress in 2006, the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor extends from Wilmington, North Carolina in the north to Jacksonville, Florida in the south.”

34.2.4 Literature As mentioned above, the characters in Joel Chandler Harris' Uncle Remus stories speak in a Deep South Gullah dialect. Other books about or which feature Gullah characters and culture are listed below. Children’s books on the Gullah • Branch, Muriel (1995). The Water Brought Us: The Story of the Gullah-Speaking People. New York: Cobblehill Books. • Clary, Margie Willis (1995). A Sweet, Sweet Basket. Orangeburg, Sc: Sandlapper Publishing Company. • Geraty, Virginia (1998). Gullah Night Before Christmas. Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing Company. • Graham, Lorenz (2000). How God Fix Jonah. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mill Press. • Jaquith, Priscilla (1995). Bo Rabbit Smart for True: Tall Tales from the Gullah. New York: Philomel Books. • Krull, Kathleen (1995). Bridges to Change: How Kids Live on a South Carolina Sea Island. New York: Lodestar Books. • Seabrooke, Brenda (1994). The Bridges of Summer. New York: Puﬃn Books. • Raven, Margot Theis (2004). Circle Unbroken. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. • Siegelson, Kim L. (1999). In The Time of The Drums. New York: Jump At The Sun/ Hyperion Books for Children.

34.2. REPRESENTATION IN ART, ENTERTAINMENT, AND MEDIA • Siegelson, Kim L. (2003). Dancing The Ring Shout. New York: Jump At The Sun/ Hyperion Books for Children. Fictional works set in the Gullah region • Dash, Julie (1999). Daughters of the Dust. New York: Plume Books. • Gershwin, George (1935). Porgy and Bess. New York: Alfred Publishing. • Heyward, Dubose (1925). Porgy. Charleston, SC: Wyrick & Company. Critique. • Hurston, Zora Neale (1937). Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Harper Perennial. • Kidd, Sue Monk (2005). Viking Press.

The Mermaid Chair.

• Naylor, Gloria (1988). Mama Day. New York: Ticknor & Fields. • Satterthwait, Elisabeth Carpenter (1898). A Son of the Carolinas, A story of the Hurricane upon The Sea Islands. Philadelphia, PA: Henry Altemus. ISBN 08369-9062-5. • Siddons, Anne Rivers (1998). Low Country. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers. • Siegelson, Kim (1996). The Terrible, Wonderful Tellin' at Hog Hammock. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. • Straight, Susan (1993). I Been in Sorrow’s Kitchen and Licked Out All the Pots. New York: Hyperion.

185

• Joyner, Charles (1984). Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. • Kiser, Clyde Vernon (1969). Sea Island to City: A Study of St. Helena Islanders in Harlem and Other Urban Centers. New York: Atheneum. • McFeely, William (1994). Sapelo’s People: A Long Walk into Freedom. New York: W.W. Norton. • Parrish, Lydia (1992). Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Robinson, Sallie Ann (2003). Gullah Home Cooking the Daufuskie Way. Charlotte: University of North Carolina Press. • Robinson, Sallie Ann (2006). Cooking the Gullah Way Morning, Noon, and Night. Charlotte: University of North Carolina Press. • Rosenbaum, Art (1998). Shout Because You're Free: The African American Ring Shout Tradition in Coastal Georgia. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Rosengarten, Dale (1986). Sea Grass Baskets of the South Carolina Lowcountry. McKissick Museum, University of South Carolina. • Twining, Mary & Keigh Baird (1991). Sea Island Roots: The African Presence in the Carolinas and Georgia. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. • Young, Jason (2007). Rituals of Resistance: African Atlantic Religion in Kongo and the Lowcountry South in the Era of Slavery. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University.

Gullah culture • Campbell, Emory (2008). Gullah Cultural Legacies. Hilton Head South Carolina: Gullah Heritage Consulting Services. • Carawan, Guy and Candie (1989). Ain't You Got a Right to the Tree of Life: The People of Johns Island, South Carolina, their Faces, their Words, and their Songs. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Conroy, Pat (1972). The Water Is Wide. Boston: Houghton Miﬄin. • Creel, Margaret Washington (1988). A Peculiar People: Slave Religion and Community Culture among the Gullahs. New York: New York University Press. • Cross, Wilbur (2008). Gullah Culture in America. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Gullah history • Ball, Edward (1998). Slaves in the Family. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux. • Carney, Judith (2001). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. • Fields-Black, Edda (2008). Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. • Littleﬁeld, Daniel (1981). Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. • Miller, Edward (1995). Gullah Statesman: Robert Smalls from Slavery to Congress, 1839-1915. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

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• Pollitzer, William (1999). The Gullah People and 34.2.5 Music their African Heritage. Athens, GA: University of • “Gullah” is the third song on Cluch’s album Robot Georgia Press. Hive/Exodus (2005) • Smith, Julia Floyd (1985). Slavery and Rice Culture • "Kum Bah Yah" is a Gullah phrase, and as such, the in Low Country Georgia: 1750-1860. Knoxville: song is claimed to have originated in Gullah culture University of Tennessee Press. • The folk song "Michael Row the Boat Ashore" (or • Smith, Mark M. (2005). Stono: Documenting and “Michael Row Your Boat Ashore”) comes from the Interpreting a Southern Slave Revolt. Columbia, SC: Gullah culture University of South Carolina Press. • Wood, Peter (1974). Black Majority: Negroes 34.2.6 Photography in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Historical photos of the Gullah can be found in such Stono Rebellion. New York: Knopf. works as: Gullah language and storytelling • Bailey, Cornelia & Christena Bledsoe (2000). God, Dr. Buzzard, and the Bolito Man: A Saltwater Geechee Talks about Life on Sapelo Island. New York: Doubleday. • Geraty, Virginia Mixon (1997). Gulluh fuh Oonuh: A Guide to the Gullah Language. Orangeburg, SC: Sandlapper Publishing Company. • Jones, Charles Colcock (2000). Gullah Folktales from the Georgia Coast. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Jones-Jackson, Patricia (1987). When Roots Die: Endangered Traditions on the Sea Islands. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.

• Georgia Writer’s Project (1986). Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Johnson, Thomas L. & Nina J. Root (2002). Camera Man’s Journey: Julian Dimock’s South. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. • Millerton, Suzanna Krout. New York: Aperture, Inc. • Minor, Leigh Richmond & Edith Dabbs (2003). Face of an Island: Leigh Richmond Miner’s Photographs of Saint Helena Island. Charleston, South Carolina: Wyrick & Company. • Ulmann, Doris & Willis-Thomas, D. (1981). Photographs by Doris Ulmann: the Gullah people [exhibition June 1-July 31, 1981]. New York: Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library Astor Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

• Mills, Peterkin and McCollough (2008). Coming Through: Voices of a South Carolina Gullah Community from WPA Oral Histories collected by Genevieve W. Chandler. South Carolina: The Uni- 34.2.7 Television versity of South Carolina Press. • Gullah Gullah Island, children’s show on Nick• Montgomery, Michael (ed.) (1994). The Crucible elodeon Heritage Act of Carolina: Essays in the Development of Gullah • “There Is a River”. This Far by Faith (episode 1) Language and Culture. Athens, GA: University of (PBS). 2003. Georgia Press. • Sea Island Translation Team (2005). De Nyew Testament (The New Testament in Gullah). New York: American Bible Society. • Stoddard, Albert Henry (1995). Gullah Animal Tales from Daufuskie Island, South Carolina. Hilton Head Island, SC: Push Button Publishing Company. • Turner, Lorenzo Dow (1949). Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

• Vice News documentary on Gullah peoples’ plight in the face of exploitation of land for resorts and housing

34.3 Cultural topics • Boo Hag • Golden Isles of Georgia • Gullah Gullah Island

34.6. REFERENCES

34.4 Historical topics • Bilali Document • Black Seminoles • Bunce Island • Virginia Mixson Geraty • Ambrose E. Gonzales • Igbo Landing • Joseph Opala • Port Royal Experiment • Stono Rebellion • Lorenzo Dow Turner • Peter H. Wood

34.5 Notable Americans with Gullah roots • Emory Campbell • Charlamagne Tha God • Julie Dash • Sam Doyle • Joe Frazier • Candice Glover

187

34.6 References [1] “Geechee and Gullah Culture”, The New Georgia Encyclopedia [2] “Joseph A. Opala, “Bunce Island in Sierra Leone"". Retrieved 25 September 2014. [3] Africa Update, Summer 1997, Pan-African Language Patterns Revisited, Central Connecticut State University [4] Low Country Gullah Culture Special Resource Study and Final Environmental Impact Statement, National Park Service, Southeast Regional Oﬃce, p. 3 [5] Judith Ann Carney (30 June 2009). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Harvard University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-674-02921-7. [6] Joseph A. Opala, “The Gullah: Rice, Slavery and the Sierra Leone/American Connection,” University of South Florida, Africana Heritage [7] West, Jean M. “Rice and Slavery: A Fatal Gold Seede”. Slavery in America. [8] “South Carolina Slave Laws Summary and Record”. Slavery in America. [9] Slavery in America [10] Thomas-Houston, Marilyn M. (December 1999). “Review: The Language You Cry In: The Story of a Mende Song by Alvaro Toepke, Angel Serrano”. American Anthropologist (Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association) 101 (4): 826–828. [11] “Gov. Sanford to Sign Heirs Property Bill at Gullah Festival, US Fed News Service, May 26, 2006”. Retrieved 25 September 2014. [12] Smith, Bruce (2011-11-25). “Gullah-language Bible now on audio CDs”. The Sun News. Associated Press. Retrieved 2011-11-26.

• Marquetta Goodwine

[13] Bill Will Provide Millions for Gullah Community, National Public Radio, October 17, 2006

• Gullah Jack

[14] “Michelle Obama’s Family Tree has Roots in a Carolina Slave Plantation”. Chicago Tribune. December 1, 2008.

• Mary Jackson • Michelle Obama[14] • Joseph Rainey • Philip Reid • Chris Rock • Tony Rock • Vermelle “Bunny” Rodrigues[16] • Clarence Thomas[15] • Denmark Vesey

[15] “Supreme Court Justice Clarance Thomas a Gullah Speaker”. New York Times. December 14, 2000. [1]

[1] “Georgetown County mourns local Gullah legend Vermelle ‘Bunny’ Rodrigues”. South Strand News. Retrieved 2015-12-16.

Chapter 35

Charleston Historic District The Charleston Historic District, also known as Charleston Old and Historic District, is a National Historic Landmark District in Charleston, South Carolina.[3][4] The district, which covers most of the historic peninsular heart of the city, contains an unparalleled collection of 18th and 19th-century architecture, including a large number of distinctive Charleston “single houses”. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.[2]

When initially listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, the district was deﬁned as “An area roughly bounded by Broad, Bay, S. Battery and Ashley and an area along Church bounded by Cumberland and Chalmers”.[1] Signiﬁcant boundary enlargements of the National Register district in 1970 and 1978 have resulted in it now coinciding with the locally legislated district, extending in parts as far north as Calhoun Street. Minor enlargements have added single buildings in 1984, 1985, and 1986.[6]

35.1 Description and history 35.2 Images Main article: History of Charleston, South Carolina The city of Charleston was founded in 1670, with its main historic colonial heart laid out in 1680 on the peninsula at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. Since that time, the city has been a major commercial and trade center on the southeastern seaboard of North America. Its architecture reflects numerous significant periods of development, with high-quality examples of different architectural styles resulting from the city’s continued importance through more than 300 years of history. Significant among these are a large number of Charleston “single houses”, which are typically a single room in depth, and oriented with the short access toward the street, with the entrance area on a long side. These types of houses are built using all types of building materials, including wood, brick, and stucco. In Ansonborough, there are blocks of fine Greek Revival houses, built in the wake of an 1838 fire.[5]

• Charleston is home to “Charleston Style” homes in which you walk in the front door to a porch. • East Battery Street • King Street

35.3 See also • Charleston’s French Quarter District • Charleston Navy Yard Historic District

35.4 References

Broad Street, a major east-west thoroughfare since the early days, is home to a ﬁne collection of Federal period houses, many of which have been converted to commercial uses. It is also where a number of important early civic and institutional buildings are located, including the 1752 St. Michael’s Episcopal Church, the 1767 Exchange, and the 1792 Charleston County Courthouse.[5] The city of Charleston legislatively established the “Old and Historic District” as a local historic district. In 1960, a portion of this district was designated a National Historic Landmark District for its architectural signiﬁcance. 188

[1] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [2] “Charleston Historic District”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-03-18. [3] Stockton, Robert P.; Mrs. S. Henry Edmunds (November 4, 1977). “Old and Historic Charleston (Extended)" (pdf). National Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. National Park Service. Retrieved 25 May 2012. [4] “Charleston Historic District” (PDF). Photographs. National Park Service. Retrieved 25 May 2012.

35.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

[5] “1966 NRHP nomination for Charleston Historic District” (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2015-11-05. [6] “1988 Statement of Signiﬁcance for Charleston Historic District” (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 201511-05.

35.5 External links Media related to Charleston Old and Historic District at Wikimedia Commons • Charleston Historic District, Charleston County (Charleston), at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • map of the district

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Chapter 36

Patriots Point • Grumman F-14 Tomcat Exhibits ashore include: • Civil War-era cannon • Vietnam War-era: • • • •

USS Yorktown docked at Patriots Point, September 2006

US Navy Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopter USMC Bell AH-1 Sea Cobra helicopter PBR-105 river patrol boat Naval Support Camp

Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum is located in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, at the mouth of the Cooper River on the Charleston Harbor, across from Charleston.

36.2 1975 – Present

36.1 Museum ships and exhibits

Patriots Point has continued to grow; serving as an embarkation point for Fort Sumter tour boats, being home to several other vessels (including the submarine USS Clamagore), the Cold War Submarine Memorial, a replica of a Vietnam Support Base, and the museum of the Medal of Honor Society.

Patriots Point is home to three museum ships:

On 2 September 2003, Yorktown served as the backdrop for the formal announcement of Senator John Kerry's candidacy as he sought, and ultimately won, the Democratic nomination for President of the United States for the 2004 election.

• USS Yorktown, an aircraft carrier • USS Laﬀey, a destroyer • USS Clamagore, a submarine

Patriot’s Point also hosts celebrations on patriotic holiFormer ships include the Coast Guard cutters USCGC days, with military reenactments and weapons demonIngham, and USCGC Comanche,[1] The museum hosted strations. NS Savannah, America’s only nuclear merchant vessel, until 1994. Yorktown has many exhibits on board, including: • Medal of Honor museum, with biographies of all medal recipients • 25 naval aircraft, including:

Panoramic image of Yorktown at Patriots Point

• Douglas A-4 Skyhawk • Grumman A-6 Intruder • Ling-Temco-Vought A-7 Corsair II • McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II • Grumman F-9 Cougar

36.3 See also Media related to Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum at Wikimedia Commons 190

36.5. REFERENCES • List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy

36.4 External links • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum • Congressional Medal of Honor Museum • USS Yorktown CV10 Association Coordinates: 32°47′25″N 79°54′30″W / 32.790377°N 79.90821°W

36.5 References [1] North American Society for Oceanic History, Inc newsletter Vol.10 No.2 Fall 1984

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Chapter 37

Calhoun Mansion Mr. Howe put the house up for sale,[3] but it was still unsold by 2004, when he opted to advertise it for auction to occur on May 25, 2004.[4] Before the auction, however, a private sale was arranged.[5]

For John C. Calhoun’s home in Clemson, South Carolina, see: Fort Hill (Clemson, South Carolina). The Calhoun Mansion is Victorian house at 16 Meeting St., Charleston, South Carolina. The mansion is open for public tours.

37.2 In popular culture The house and grounds have appeared in ABC's miniseries North and South as the Hazard’s mansion. It also appears in Gunﬁght at Branson Creek movie.[6]

37.1 History It was built for George W. Williams, a businessman, according to plans drawn by W.P. Russell.

37.3 References [1] “The Calhoun Mansion”. News & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). December 12, 1914. p. 3. Retrieved April 28, 2014. [2] Leland, Jack (June 26, 1977). “New Generation Uses Old Skill on 16 Meeting St.”. Charleston News & Courier. pp. 13E. Retrieved November 15, 2013. [3] Lang, Bob (September 23, 2000). “Showplace Calhoun Mansion up for sale”. Charleston Post & Courier. pp. B1. Retrieved November 15, 2013. [4] McDermott, John P. (March 27, 2004). “Meeting Street mansion heads to auction block”. Charleston Post & Courier. pp. A1. Retrieved November 15, 2013. [5] McDermott, John P. (May 20, 2004). “Deal signed to sell Calhoun Mansion”. Charleston Post & Courier. pp. B1. Retrieved November 15, 2013.

George W. Williams’ new house appeared in an illustrated guide to Charleston in 1875.

[6] Internet Movie Database

The 24,000 square foot house has thirty main rooms and many more smaller rooms. The main hall is 50 feet long and 14 feet wide. The house has a ballroom with a 45 foot high ceiling.

37.4 External links

When Williams died, his house was inherited by his son• Calhoun Mansion - oﬃcial site in-law, Patrick Calhoun, a grandson of John C. Calhoun. It was from his ownership that the house derived it com- Coordinates: 32°46′18″N 79°55′48″W / 32.771532°N mon name, the Calhoun Mansion. It opened as a hotel 79.930034°W starting in 1914.[1] Attorney Gedney Howe and his wife, Patricia, bought the house in 1976 and undertook a restoration.[2] In 2000, 192

Chapter 38

Charleston Museum The Charleston Museum is recognized by the American Alliance of Museums as the ﬁrst museum in America;[1] it was founded in 1773 and opened to the public in 1824.[2] The museum’s present building was completed in 1980 at 360 Meeting Street, Charleston, South Carolina.

38.1 Collection strengths • Charleston furniture • Charleston silver • Lowcountry textiles, including costumes, quilts, and needlework

The museum’s exhibits include natural history and local history displays and decorative arts, including silver. The museum is also home to the only known fossil of the extinct Pelagornis sandersi, which is the largest ﬂying bird ever discovered.

• South Carolina ceramics • Egyptian artifacts

The museum also owns and operates two historic house museums:

• Archives - documentary and photographic resources • South Carolina ornithology

• Heyward-Washington House - late 18th-century house owned by Thomas Heyward, Jr., Revolutionary patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence. It is best known as the lodging of President George Washington during his 1792 visit to Charleston.

• Nineteenth-century ﬁrearms

38.2 References [1] http://www.aam-us.org/home

• Joseph Manigault House - Federal-style home decorated with American, English and French furnishing of the early 19th century In addition to the two houses, the museum also maintains The Dill Sanctuary. From the site: ... located on James Island contains assorted habitats for wildlife and numerous cultural features including three earthen Confederate batteries and prehistoric, colonial, antebellum, and postbellum archaeological sites. The Dill Sanctuary has been protected for purposes of preservation, wildlife enhancement, research and education, and is used only for Museumsponsored programs. Habitat has been enhanced by creation of a six-acre wildlife pond, with three nesting islands, which provides a reliable source of fresh water for animals and nesting sites for both migratory and resident birds. 2001 saw the construction of the Dill Education Center and bathroom facilities which hosts Museum education programs.[3]

[2] http://www.charlestonmuseum.org/about [3] http://www.charlestonmuseum.org/about-factsheet

38.3 External links • Charleston Museum - oﬃcial site Coordinates: 32°47′23″N 79°56′09″W / 32.7898°N 79.9359°W

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Chapter 39

Warren Lasch Conservation Center The Warren Lasch Conservation Center is a building located at 1250 Supply Street at the former Charleston Navy Yard, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It is being used to excavate, examine, and preserve the submarine H. L. Hunley. The namesake of the building is Warren F. Lasch, who was chairman of Friends of the Hunley during the Hunley's recovery. The Hunley is housed in a specially-designed tank of fresh water to await conservation.

39.1 External links • Friends of the Hunley Coordinates: 32°51′24″N 79°57′27″W / 32.85667°N 79.95750°W

194

Chapter 40

Exchange and Provost The Old Exchange & Provost Dungeon, also known as the Custom House, and The Exchange, is a historic building at East Bay and Broad Streets in Charleston, South Carolina, USA. Built in 1767-71, it has served a variety of civic institutional functions, including notably as a prisoner of war facility operated by British forces during the American Revolutionary War. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973.[2] It is now a museum operated by the Daughters of the American Revolution.

40.1 Description The Old Exchange is located on the east side of Charleston’s historic downtown area, at the northeast corner of East Bay and Broad Streets. It is a two story masonry building, capped by a hipped roof with cupola and set on a high brick basement. The main facade faces west, and has a projecting three-bay gabled section at its center with entrances recessed in three round-arch openings on the first floor, and sash windows set in bays articulated by Ionic pilasters on the second. The flanking walls each have a Palladian window set on a brick base with balustrade.[3]

many more whose identities could not be discovered.[3] The facility was not exclusively used for Colonial prisoners, and at least some British soldiers were held there too.[4] The building housed the South Carolina convention to ratify the United States Constitution in 1788, and was the site of many of the events in George Washington's weeklong stay in Charleston. The building continued as an Exchange until the 19th century, when it also became a post office. During the 19th century, the postmaster defended the Exchange’s shipment of abolitionist pamphlets from angry Charlestonian rioters. In the American Civil War, the building remained a Confederate post office, but was hit by several shells during the war, and thus abandoned. In 1913, the building was granted to the Daughters of the American Revolution, who have preserved it ever since. In World War I, the building served as the army headquarters of General Leonard Wood and the United States Lighthouse Service—the latter having been in the building since the late 1800s. In World War II, the building not only served as a USO facility and canteen for troops, but served as the Coastal Picket Station for the Sixth Naval District of the United States Coast Guard. In 1965, the Half-Moon Battery, a 1698 fortification, was discovered underneath the building.[5]

40.2 History The Exchange was built from 1767-1771 by South Carolina’s provincial government, and was used during the 18th century for a variety of civic functions, including as a custom house, public market, public meeting place, and jail. During the American Revolution, conﬁscated tea was stored here in 1774, and it is where South Carolina’s revolutionary leadership councils were held. After the British captured the city in 1780, it was used as a barracks, and its basement was used as a military prison. In 2012, a study was completed of the building’s use as a British prison during the Revolutionary War. Soon after taking control of Charleston in 1780, the British started housing prisoners in the Exchange, but not exclusively in the “dungeon”. The investigation was able to document at least 120 prisoners held in the Exchange, but there were

The Customs House, seen here in 2013, stands at the foot of Broad Street in Charleston, South Carolina.

The building’s ﬁrst cupola was damaged by a hurricane in the early 1800s, the second deteriorated before the Great

195

196 Earthquake of 1886, and the third was not placed until 1981 when the building opened as a museum.[6] The building is owned by the South Carolina Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, who operate guided costumed tours that include all three ﬂoors of the building. The Provost Dungeon once had animatronic ﬁgures that tell stories of pirates and colonial days, but these animatronics have been supplanted by personal dungeon tours by docents.

40.3 See also • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

40.4 References [1] Staﬀ (2007-01-23). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [2] “Exchange and Provost”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 200803-06. [3] Charles W. Snell (January 9, 1973). “National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: The Exchange and Provost / The Exchange” (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying two photos, exterior, from 1972 PDF (32 KB) [4] Hicks, Brian (August 20, 2012). “New history of the Provost Dungeon uncovered”. Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved August 20, 2012. [5] Andrus, Taylor. Charleston’s Old Exchange Building: A Witness to American History. The History Press. pp. 1– 100. ISBN 9781596290464. [6] “A Restoration”. Charleston News & Courier. Sep 11, 1884. p. 8. Retrieved Nov 14, 2012.

40.5 External links • Old Exchange and Provost Dungeon museum web site • Exchange and Provost, Charleston County (E. Bay & Broad Sts., Charleston), including 13 photos, at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary

CHAPTER 40. EXCHANGE AND PROVOST

Chapter 41

George Washington This article is about the first President of the United in 1781. Historians laud Washington for the selection States. For other uses, see George Washington (disam- and supervision of his generals, preservation and combiguation). mand of the army, coordination with the Congress, with state governors and their militia, and attention to supplies, logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February [lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] 11, 1731] – December 14, 1799) was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies. After victory had been finalized in 1783, was the first President of the United States (1789–97), the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army dur- Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and ing the American Revolutionary War, and one of the [8] Founding Fathers of the United States. He presided over his commitment to American republicanism. the convention that drafted the current United States Con- Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention stitution and during his lifetime was called the "father of in 1787, which devised a new form of federal governhis country".[4] ment for the United States. Following unanimous elecWidely admired for his strong leadership qualities, Wash- tion as President in 1789, he worked to unify rival facington was unanimously elected President in the first two tions in the fledgling nation. He supported Alexander national elections. He oversaw the creation of a strong, Hamilton's programs to satisfy all debts, federal and well-financed national government that maintained neu- state, established a permanent seat of government, iman effective tax system, and created a national trality in the French Revolutionary Wars, suppressed the plemented [9] bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed Whiskey Rebellion, and won acceptance among Ameria decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the [5] cans of all types. Washington’s incumbency established Jay Treaty in 1795, despite intense opposition from the many precedents, still in use today, such as the cabinet Jeffersonians. Although he remained nonpartisan, never system, the inaugural address, and the title Mr. Presijoining the Federalist Party, he largely supported its poli[6][7] dent. His retirement from office after two terms escies. Washington’s Farewell Address was an influential tablished a tradition that lasted until 1940, when Franklin primer on republican virtue, warning against partisanship, Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. He retired Born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia, his from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home and family were wealthy planters who owned tobacco planta- plantation at Mount Vernon. tions and slaves which he inherited. He owned hundreds of slaves throughout his lifetime, but his views on slav- While in power, his use of national authority pursued ery evolved. In his youth he became a senior British of- many ends, especially the preservation of liberty, reducand promotion of a spirit of ficer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the tion of regional tensions, [10] Upon his death, Washington American nationalism. French and Indian War. In 1775 the Second Continental eulogized as “first in war, first in peace, and first in the was Congress commissioned Washington as commander-inhearts of his countrymen” by Henry Lee.[11] Revered in chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution. In that command, Washington forced the British life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and nearly cap- ranks him among the top three presidents in American tured later that year when he lost New York City. Af- history; he has been depicted and remembered in monuter crossing the Delaware River in the middle of win- ments, currency, and other dedications to the present day. ter, he defeated the British in two battles (Trenton and Princeton), retook New Jersey and restored momentum to the Patriot cause. His strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown

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198

41.1 Early life (1732–1753) Further information: Ancestry of George Washington The ﬁrst child of Augustine Washington (1694–

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON came a surrogate father and role model. William Fairfax, Lawrence’s father-in-law and cousin of Virginia’s largest landowner, Thomas, Lord Fairfax, was also a formative influence. Washington spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County near Fredericksburg. Lawrence Washington inherited another family property from his father, a plantation on the Potomac River at Little Hunting Creek, which he named Mount Vernon, in honor of his commanding officer, Admiral Edward Vernon. George inherited Ferry Farm upon his father’s death and eventually acquired Mount Vernon after Lawrence’s death.[18]

Washington’s birthplace

1743) and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington (1708–1789), George Washington was born on their Pope’s Creek Estate near present-day Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. According to the Julian calendar and Annunciation Style of enumerating years (then in use in the British Empire), Washington was born on February 11, 1731; the Gregorian calendar, adopted later within the British Empire in 1752, renders a birth date of February 22, 1732.[12][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave, England. His great-grandfather, John Washington, emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, George’s father, Augustine. Augustine was a tobacco planter who also tried his hand in ironmining ventures.[13] In George’s youth, the Washingtons were moderately prosperous members of the Virginia gentry, of “middling rank” rather than one of the leading planter families.[14] At this time, Virginia and other southern colonies had become a slave society, in which slaveholders formed the ruling class and the economy was based upon slave labor.[15] Six of George’s siblings reached maturity, including two older half-brothers, Lawrence and Augustine, from his father’s ﬁrst marriage to Jane Butler Washington, and four full siblings, Samuel, Elizabeth (Betty), John Augustine and Charles. Three siblings died before adulthood: his full sister Mildred died when she was about one, his halfbrother Butler died in infancy,[16] and his half-sister Jane died aged of twelve, when George was about two.[17] His father died of a sudden illness in April 1743 when George was eleven years old, and his half-brother Lawrence be-

Arms of George Washington[19]

The death of his father prevented Washington from an education at England’s Appleby School, as his older brothers had received. He achieved the equivalent of an elementary school education from a variety of tutors, as well as from school run by an Anglican clergyman in or near Fredericksburg.[20][21] Talk of securing an appointment in the Royal Navy for him when he was 15 was dropped when his widowed mother objected.[22] At the age of 17, in 1749, Washington would receive his surveyor’s license from the College of William & Mary.[23] Thanks to Lawrence’s connection to the powerful Fairfax family, Washington was appointed oﬃcial surveyor for Culpeper County, a well-paid position which enabled him to purchase land in the Shenandoah Valley, the ﬁrst of his many land acquisitions in western Virginia. Thanks also to Lawrence’s involvement in the Ohio Company, a land investment company funded by Virginia investors, and Lawrence’s position as commander of the Virginia militia, Washington came to the notice of the new lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. Washington was hard to miss: At exactly six feet, he towered

41.2. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (OR 'SEVEN YEARS’ WAR', 1754–1758) over most of his contemporaries.[24] In 1751 Washington traveled to Barbados with Lawrence, who was suffering from tuberculosis, with the hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence’s health. Washington contracted smallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly scarred, but immunized him against future exposures to the dreaded disease.[25] However, Lawrence’s health failed to improve, and he returned to Mount Vernon, where he would die in the summer of 1752.[26] Lawrence’s position as Adjutant General (militia leader) of Virginia was divided into four district offices after his death. Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February 1753, with the rank of major in the Virginia militia.[27] During this period, Washington became a Freemason while in Fredericksburg, although his involvement was minimal.[28]

199

Valley, opening new settlements and trading posts for the Indian trade.[29] In 1753 the French themselves began expanding their military control into the Ohio Country, a territory already claimed by the British colonies of Virginia and Pennsylvania. These competing claims led to a war in the colonies called the French and Indian War (1754–62), and contributed to the start of the global Seven Years’ War (1756–63). By chance, Washington became involved in its beginning.

Robert Dinwiddie, lieutenant governor of colonial Virginia, was ordered by the British government to guard the British territorial claims including the Ohio River basin. In late 1753 Dinwiddie ordered Washington to deliver a letter asking the French to vacate the Ohio Valley;[29] he was eager to prove himself as the new adjutant general of the militia, appointed by the Lieutenant Governor himself only a year before. During his trip Washington met with Tanacharison (also called “Half-King”) and other Iroquois chiefs allied with England at Logstown to 41.2 French and Indian War (or secure their support in case of a military conﬂict with the French—indeed Washington and Tanacharison became 'Seven Years’ War', 1754– friends. He delivered the letter to the local French commander Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, who politely 1758) refused to leave.[30] Washington kept a diary during his expedition which was printed by William Hunter on DinMain article: George Washington in the French and Inwiddie’s order and which made Washington’s name recdian War ognizable in Virginia.[31] This increased notoriety helped See also: Military career of George Washington, Battle him to obtain a commission to raise a company of 100 of Jumonville Glen, Battle of Fort Necessity and Forbes men and start his military career.[32] Expedition The Ohio Company was an important vehicle through

An engraving depicting the evening council of George Washington at Fort Necessity

Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio Country to safeguard an Ohio Company’s construction of a fort at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. However, before he reached the area, a French force drove out colonial traders and began construction of Fort Duquesne. A small detachment of French troops led by Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, was discovered by Tanacharison and a few warriors east of present-day Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Washington’s map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio On May 28, 1754, Washington and some of his militia unit, aided by their Mingo allies, ambushed the French in (1753–1754) what has come to be called the Battle of Jumonville Glen. which British investors planned to expand into the Ohio Exactly what happened during and after the battle is a

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CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON

matter of contention, but several primary accounts agree that the battle lasted about 15 minutes, that Jumonville was killed, and that most of his party were either killed or taken prisoner. Whether Jumonville died at the hands of Tanacharison in cold blood or was somehow shot by an onlooker with a musket as he sat with Washington or by another means, is not completely clear.[33][34] He was given the epithet Town Destroyer by Tanacharison.[35] The French responded by attacking and capturing Washington at Fort Necessity in July 1754.[36] However, he was allowed to return with his troops to Virginia. Historian Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode demonstrated Washington’s bravery, initiative, inexperience and impetuosity.[37] These events had international consequences; the French accused Washington of assassinating Jumonville, who they claimed was on a diplomatic mission.[37] Both France and Great Britain were ready to ﬁght for control of the region and both sent troops to North America in 1755; war was formally declared in 1756.[38]

41.2.1

Braddock disaster 1755

Main article: Braddock Expedition In 1755 Washington became the senior American aide to British General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Braddock expedition. This was the largest British expedition to the colonies, and was intended to expel the French from the Ohio Country; the first objective was the capture of Fort Duquesne.[39] Washington initially sought an appointment as a major from Braddock, but upon advice that no rank above captain could be given except by London, he agreed to serve as a staff volunteer. During the passage of the expedition, Washington fell ill with severe headaches and fever; nevertheless, when the pace of the troops continued to slow, Washington recommended to Braddock that the army be split into two divisions – a primary and more lightly, but adequately equipped, “flying column” offensive which could move at a more rapid pace, to be followed by a more heavily armed reinforcing division. Braddock accepted the recommendation (likely made in a council of war including other officers) and took command of the lead division.[40][41] In the Battle of the Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock’s reduced forces and the general was mortally wounded. After suffering devastating casualties, the British panicked and retreated in disarray; however, Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnants of the British and Virginian forces into an organized retreat. In the process, despite his lingering illness, he demonstrated much bravery and stamina—he had two horses shot from underneath him, while his coat was pierced with four bullets. In his report, Washington chiefly blamed the disaster on the conduct of the redcoats while praising that of

the Virginia contingent. Whatever responsibility rested on him for the defeat as a result of his recommendation to Braddock, Washington was not included by the succeeding commander, Col. Thomas Dunbar, in planning subsequent force movements.[42]

41.2.2 Commander of Virginia Regiment Lt. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755 with a commission as “Colonel of the Virginia Regiment and Commander in Chief of all forces now raised in the defense of His Majesty’s Colony” and gave him the task of defending Virginia’s frontier. The Virginia Regiment was the first full-time American military unit in the colonies (as opposed to part-time militias and the British regular units). Washington was ordered to “act defensively or offensively” as he thought best.[43] While Washington happily accepted the commission, the coveted redcoat of a British officer as well as the accompanying pay continued to elude him. Dinwiddie as well pressed in vain for the British military to incorporate the Virginia regiment into its ranks.[44] In command of a thousand soldiers, Washington was a disciplinarian who emphasized training. He led his men in brutal campaigns against the Indians in the west; in 10 months his regiment fought 20 battles, and lost a third of its men. Washington’s strenuous efforts meant that Virginia’s frontier population suffered less than that of other colonies; Ellis concludes “it was his only unqualified success” in the war.[45][46] In 1758 Washington participated in the Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. He was embarrassed by a friendly fire episode in which his unit and another British unit thought the other was the French enemy and opened fire, with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the mishap. Washington was not involved in any other major fighting on the expedition, and the British scored a major strategic victory, gaining control of the Ohio Valley, when the French abandoned the fort. Following the expedition, he retired from his Virginia Regiment commission in December 1758. Washington did not return to military life until the outbreak of the revolution in 1775.[47]

41.2.3 Lessons learned Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for, in these years the young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills.[48][49] He closely observed British military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. Washington learned to organize, train, drill, and discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional oﬃcers, he learned the basics of battleﬁeld tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organiza-

41.3. BETWEEN THE WARS: MOUNT VERNON (1759–1774)

201

tion and logistics.[50] He gained an understanding of overall strategy, especially in locating strategic geographical points.[51] He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question.[52][53] However Washington’s fortitude in his early years was sometimes manifested in less constructive ways. Biographer John R. Alden contends Washington offered “fulsome and insincere flattery to British generals in vain attempts to win great favor” and on occasion showed youthful arrogance, as well as jealousy and ingratitude in the midst of impatience.[54] Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results;[48] other historians tend to ascribe Washington’s position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service.[lower-alpha 4] He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too shortterm compared to regulars.[55] On the other hand, his experience was limited to command of at most 1000 A mezzotint of Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that Wollaston were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and Philadelphia.[56]

41.3 Between the wars: Vernon (1759–1774)

Mount

On January 6, 1759, Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis, then 28 years old. Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax, the wife of a friend.[57] Neverthe- Washington expanded the estate at Mount Vernon after his marless, George and Martha made a compatible marriage, be- riage. cause Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter’s estate.[58] Together the two raised her two children from her previous marriage, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis; later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington’s grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together—his earlier bout with smallpox in 1751 may have made him sterile.[59][60] The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up the life of a planter and political ﬁgure. Washington’s marriage to Martha greatly increased his property holdings and social standing, and made him one of Virginia’s wealthiest men. He acquired one-third of the 18,000-acre (73 km2 ) Custis estate upon his mar-

riage, worth approximately $100,000, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha’s children, for whom he sincerely cared.[61] In 1754 Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised land bounties to the soldiers and officers who volunteered to serve during the French and Indian War.[62] Lord Botetourt, the new governor, finally fulfilled Dinwiddie’s promise in 1769–1770,[62][63] with Washington subsequently receiving title to 23,200 acres (94 km2 ) where the Kanawha River flows into the Ohio River, in what is now western West Virginia.[64] He also frequently bought additional land in his own name. By 1775 Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to

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6,500 acres (26 km2 ), and had increased its slave pop- he became more politically active, presenting the Virginia ulation to over 100. As a respected military hero and Assembly with legislation to ban the importation of goods large landowner, he held local oﬃce and was elected to from Great Britain.[72] the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years, beginning in 1758.[65][lower-alpha 5] 41.4 American Revolution (1775–

1783) Main articles: George Washington in the American Revolution and Military career of George Washington

Washington at age 40, 1772

Washington opposed the 1765 Stamp Act, the ﬁrst direct tax on the colonies imposed by the English Parliament which included no representatives from the colonies; he began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resistance when protests against the Townshend Acts (enacted in 1767) became widespread. In May 1769 Washington introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Mason, calling for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed.[73] Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as “an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges”.[74] Washington told friend Bryan Fairfax, “I think the Parliament of Great Britain has no more right to put their hands in my pocket without my consent than I have to put my hands into yours for money.” He also said that Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny “till custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway.”[75]

Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting was a favorite leisure activity.[66] He also enjoyed going to dances and parties, in addition to the theater, races, and cockﬁghts. Washington also was known to play cards, backgammon, and billiards.[67] Like most Virginia planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop.[68]

In July 1774 he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax Resolves" were adopted, which called for the convening of a Continental Congress, among other things. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.[76][77]

Washington began to pull himself out of debt in the mid1760s by diversifying his previously tobacco-centric business interests into other ventures[68] and paying more attention to his affairs.[69] In 1766 he started switching Mount Vernon’s primary cash crop away from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be processed and then sold in various forms in the colonies, and further diversified operations to include flour milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning, weaving and (in the 1790s) whiskey production.[68] Patsy Custis’s death in 1773 from epilepsy enabled Washington to pay off his British creditors, since half of her inheritance passed to him.[70]

41.4.1 Commander in chief

A successful planter, he was a leader in the social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those he considered “people of rank”. As for people not of high social status, his advice was to “treat them civilly” but “keep them at a proper distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in proportion as you sink in authority”.[71] In 1769

After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston in April 1775, the colonies went to war. Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war.[78] Washington had the prestige, military experience, charisma and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a strong patriot. Virginia, the largest colony, deserved recognition, and New England—where the ﬁghting began—realized it needed Southern support. Washington did not explicitly seek the oﬃce of commander and said that he was not equal to it,[79][80] but there was no serious competition.[81] Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775.[82] Nominated by John Adams of Massachusetts, Washington was then appointed as a full General and Commander-inchief.[79][83][84] The British then articulated the peril of Washington and his army—on August 23, 1775 Britain

41.4. AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)

203

Charles Willson Peale (American, 1741-1827). George Washington, 1776. Oil on canvas, Brooklyn Museum.

issued a Royal proclamation labeling American rebels as traitors; if they resorted to force, they faced confiscation General George Washington at Trenton by John Trumbull, Yale of their property. Their leaders were subject to execution University Art Gallery (1792) upon the scaffold.[85] General Washington essentially assumed three roles during the war. First, in 1775–77, and again in 1781 he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces. Although he lost many of his battles, he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war’s end. He plotted the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress.[86] Secondly, he was charged with organizing and training the army. He recruited regulars and assigned Baron von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train them. The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress,[87] but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials.[88] In June 1776 Congress’ first attempt at running the war effort was established with the committee known as “Board of War and Ordnance”, succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee which eventually included members of the military.[87] The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington’s input) with stateappointments filling the lower ranks and of all of the militia-officers. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites (like John Sullivan) never mastered the art of command.[86]

wagoner” that he had served with in The French and Indian War, Colonel Henry Knox - chief of artillery, and Colonel Alexander Hamilton - chief-of-staff. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and consequently they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes, at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781), came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops.[86] Daniel Morgan's annihilation of Banastre Tarleton's legion of dragoons at Cowpens in February 1781, came as a result of Morgan’s employment of superior line tactics against his British opponent, resulting in one of the very few double envelopments in military history, another being Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at Cannae in 216 b.c. The decisive defeat of Col. Patrick Ferguson's Tory Regiment at King’s Mountain demonstrated the superiority of the riflery of American “over mountain men” over British-trained troops armed with musket and bayonet. These “over-mountain men” were led by a variety of elected officers, including the 6'6” William Campbell who had become one of Washington’s officers by the time of Yorktown. Similarly, Morgan’s Virginia riflemen proved themselves superior to the British at Saratoga, a post-revolutionary war development being the creation of trained “rifle battalions” in the European armies.

Eventually, he found capable oﬃcers, such as General Nathanael Greene, General Daniel Morgan - “the old Washington’s third, and most important role in the war

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effort, was the embodiment of armed resistance to the 41.4.3 Defeat at New York City and Fabian Crown—the representative man of the Revolution. His tactics long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won (rather than declaring himself monarch), he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs. Yet his constant reiteration of the point that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic militias (clearly demonstrated in the rout at Camden, where only the Maryland and Delaware Continentals under Baron DeKalb held firm), helped overcome the ideo- Washington Crossing the Delaware, December 25, 1776, by Emanuel Leutze, 1851 logical distrust of a standing army.[89]

41.4.2

Victory at Boston

Washington taking Control of the Continental Army, 1775

Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in the ﬁeld at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in July 1775, during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realizing his army’s desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. American troops raided British arsenals, including some in the Caribbean, and some manufacturing was attempted. They obtained a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) by the end of 1776, mostly from France.[90] Washington reorganized the army during the long standoﬀ, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston in March 1776 and Washington moved his army to New York City.[91] Although highly disparaging toward most of the Patriots, British newspapers routinely praised Washington’s personal character and qualities as a military commander. These articles were bold, as Washington was an enemy general who commanded an army in a cause that many Britons believed would ruin the empire.[92]

In August 1776 British General William Howe launched a massive naval and land campaign designed to seize New York. The Continental Army under Washington engaged the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly independent United States at the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. The Americans were heavily outnumbered, many men deserted, and Washington was badly beaten. Subsequently, Washington was forced to retreat across the East River at night. He did so without loss of life or materiel.[93] Washington, heeding Greene’s recommendation to attempt a defense of Ft. Washington, belatedly retreated further across the Hudson to Ft. Lee, to avoid encirclement, but thereby enabled Howe to take the offensive and capture Fort Washington on November 16 with high Continental casualties. Biographer Alden opines that “although Washington was responsible for the decision to delay the patriots’ retreat, he tried to ascribe blame for the decision to defend Fort Washington to the wishes of Congress and the bad advice of Nathaniel Greene.”[94] Washington then continued his flight across New Jersey; the future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to expiring enlistments and the string of losses.[95] On the night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a comeback with a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in western New Jersey. He led his army across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up his victory at Trenton with another over British regulars at Princeton in early January. The British retreated to New York City and its environs, which they held until the peace treaty of 1783. Washington’s victories wrecked the British carrot-andstick strategy of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms. The Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence.[96] These victories alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot victory, however, since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted during the harsh winter. Washington and Congress reorganized the army with increased rewards for staying and punishment for desertion, which raised troop numbers ef-

41.4. AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783) fectively for subsequent battles.[97] In February 1777 while encamped at Morristown, New Jersey Washington became convinced that only smallpox inoculation would prevent the destruction of his Army, by using variolation. Washington ordered the inoculation of all troops and by some reports, death by smallpox in the ranks dropped from 17% of all deaths to 1% of all reported deaths.[98]:47

205 evitably waned. John Adams (never a fan of the southern delegation to the Continental Congress) wrote “Congress will appoint a thanksgiving; and one cause of it ought to be that the glory of turning the tide of arms is not immediately due to the commander-in-chief nor to southern troops. If it had been, idolatry and adulation would have been unbounded...Now we can allow a certain citizen to be wise, virtuous, and good, without thinking him a deity or a savior.”[102]

Historians debate whether or not Washington preferred a Fabian strategy[lower-alpha 6] to harass the British with quick, sharp attacks followed by a retreat so the larger 41.4.5 Valley Forge British army could not catch him, or whether he preferred to ﬁght major battles.[lower-alpha 7] While his southern com- Main article: Valley Forge mander Greene in 1780–81 did use Fabian tactics, Wash- Washington’s army of 11,000[103] went into winter quarington did so only in fall 1776 to spring 1777, after losing New York City and seeing much of his army melt away. Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples. By summer 1777, however, Washington had rebuilt his strength and his conﬁdence; he stopped using raids and went for large-scale confrontations, as at Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth and Yorktown.[99]

41.4.4

1777 campaigns

In late summer of 1777, British General John Burgoyne led a major invasion army south from Quebec, with the intention of splitting oﬀ rebellious New England; but General Howe in New York took his army south to Philadelphia instead of going up the Hudson River to join with Burgoyne near Albany—a major strategic mistake. Meanwhile, Washington rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe, while closely following the action in upstate New York, where the patriots were led by General Philip Schuyler and his successor Horatio Gates. The ensuing pitched battles at Philadelphia were too complex for Washington’s relatively inexperienced men and they were defeated. At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington, and marched into the American capital at Philadelphia unopposed on September 26. Washington’s army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile to the north, Burgoyne, beyond the reach of help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga.[100] This was a major turning point militarily and diplomatically—the French responded to Burgoyne’s defeat by entering the war, allying with America and expanding the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide aﬀair. Washington’s loss at Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command. This movement, termed the Conway Cabal, failed after Washington’s supporters rallied behind him.[101] Biographer Alden relates, “it was inevitable that the defeats of Washington’s forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared.” The zealous admiration of Washington indeed in-

General Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley Forge.

ters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. Over the next six months, the deaths in camp numbered in the thousands (the majority being from disease),[104] with historians’ death toll estimates ranging from 2000[104] to 2500,[105][106] to over 3000 men.[107] The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by General von Steuben.[108] The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in 1778,[109] shadowed by Washington. Washington attacked them at Monmouth, ﬁghting to an eﬀective draw in one of the war’s largest battles.[110] Afterwards, the British continued to head towards New York, and Washington moved his army outside of New York.[109]

41.4.6 Sullivan Expedition Main article: Sullivan Expedition In the summer of 1779 Washington and Congress decided to strike the Iroquois warriors of the “Six Nations” in a campaign to force Britain’s Indian allies out of New York, which they had used as a base to attack American settlements across New England.[111] In June 1779 the warriors

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had joined with Tory rangers led by Colonel William Butler, using barbarities normally shunned, slew over 200 frontiersmen and laid waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. Indeed, one British oﬃcer who witnessed the Tory brutality said the redcoats on return to England would “scalp every son of a bitch of them.”[112] In August of 1779 General John Sullivan led a military operation that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages, burned all available crops. Few people were killed as the Indians ﬂed to British protection in Canada. Sullivan later reported that “the immediate objects of this expedition are accomplished, viz: total ruin of the Indian settlements and the destruction of their crops, which were designed for the support of those inhuman barbarians.”[113]

41.4.7

British in a plan to seize the post he commanded at West Point. Washington just missed apprehending him, but did capture his conspirator, Major John Andre, a British intelligence officer under Clinton, who was later hanged by order of a court-martial called by Washington.[116] Washington’s army went into winter quarters at New Windsor in 1780 and suffered again for lack of supplies. There resulted a considerable mutiny by Pennsylvania troops; Washington prevailed upon Congress as well as state officials to come to their aid with provisions. He very much sympathized with their suffering, saying he hoped the army would not “continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured, which I cannot help remarking seem to reach the bounds of human patience”.[117]

Hudson River and Southern battles 41.4.9 Victory at Yorktown

Washington at this time moved his headquarters from Middlebrook to New Windsor on the Hudson, with an army of 10,000. The British, led by Howe’s successor, Sir Henry Clinton made a move up the Hudson against American posts at Verplanck’s Point and Stony Point and both places succumbed, but a counter-offensive by the patriots led by General Anthony Wayne was briefly successful. Clinton was in the end able to shut off Kings Ferry but it was a strategic loss - he could proceed no further up the river, due to American fortifications and Washington’s army. The skirmishes at Verplanck’s Point and at Stony Point demonstrated that the continental infantry had become quite formidable and were an enormous boost to morale.[114] The winter of 1779–1780, when Washington went into quarters at Morristown, represented the worst suffering for the army during the war. The temperatures fell to 16 below zero, the New York Harbor was frozen over, and snow and ice covered the ground for weeks, with the troops again lacking provisions for a time as at Valley Forge.[115] In late 1779 Clinton moved his forces south to Charleston for an offensive against the patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln. After his success there Clinton returned victorious to New York, leaving Cornwallis in the south. Congress replaced Lincoln with Gates, despite Washington’s recommendation of Greene. When Gates failed in South Carolina, he was then replaced by Greene. The British at the time seemed to have the South almost in their grasp. Despite this news, Washington was encouraged to learn in mid-1780 that Lafayette had returned from France with additional naval assets and forces.[115]

41.4.8

Treachery and mutiny

Washington was shocked to learn of the treason of Benedict Arnold, who had contributed significantly to the war effort. Embittered by his dealings with Congress over rank and finances, as well as the alliance with France, Arnold joined the British cause; he conspired with the

General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, Virginia, 1781

In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid in the war effort;[118] French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse. Though it was Washington’s hope initially to bring the allied fight to New York and to end the war there, de Grasse was advised by Rochambeau that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target. de Grasse followed Rochambeau’s advice and arrived off the Virginia Coast. Washington immediately saw the advantage created, made a feinting move with his force towards Clinton in New York and then headed south to Virginia.[119] Washington’s Continental Army, also newly funded by $20,000 in French gold, delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia, preventing reinforcement by Clinton from the North.[120] The surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental North America.[121] Cornwallis failed to appear at the official surrender ceremony, and sent General Charles Oharrow as his proxy; Washington then assigned his role to Benjamin Lincoln of equal rank.[122]

41.5. CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION

41.4.10

Demobilization

Though substantial combat had ended, the war had not, and a formal treaty of peace was months away, creating tension. The British still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782– 83. Money matters fed the anxiety—the treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny. At one point the mutineers forced an adjournment of the Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton. Washington dispelled unrest among officers by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783, and Congress came up with the promise of a fiveyear bonus.[123]

207 “the greatest character of the age” because of this.[129] Washington later submitted a formal account of the expenses he had personally advanced the army over the eight year conﬂict, of about $450,000. It is said to have been detailed regarding small items, vague concerning large ones and included the expenses incurred from Martha’s visits to his headquarters, as well as his compensation for service, none of which had been drawn during the war.[130] Historian John Shy says that by 1783 Washington was “a mediocre military strategist but had become a master political tactician with an almost perfect sense of timing and a developed capacity to exploit his charismatic reputation, using people who thought they were using him”.[131]

41.5 Constitutional Convention

General George Washington Resigning His Commission by John Trumbull, Capitol Rotunda (commissioned 1817)

With the initial peace treaty articles ratified in April, a recently formed Congressional committee under Hamilton was considering needs and plans for a peacetime army. On May 2, 1783, the Commander in Chief submitted his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment [124] to the Committee, essentially providing an official Continental Army position. The original proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes (May 1783, October 1783) with a truncated version also being rejected in April 1784.[125] By the Treaty of Paris (signed that September), Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers.[126] On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession. At Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, saying “I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping.”[127] Historian Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe.[128] King George III called Washington

Scene at the Signing of the U.S. Constitution by Howard Chandler Christy, 1940

Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States) Washington’s retirement to personal business at Mount Vernon was short-lived. Making an exploratory trip to the western frontier in 1784, he inspected his land holdings in Western Pennsylvania that had been earned decades earlier for his service in the French and Indian War.[79][132] There, he confronted squatters, including David Reed and the Covenanters, who vacated, but only after losing a court decision heard in Washington, Pennsylvania in 1786.[132] After much reluctance, he was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 as a delegate from Virginia, where he was elected in unanimity as president of the Convention.[133] He held considerable criticism of the Articles of Confederation of the thirteen colonies, for the weak central government it established, referring to the Articles as no more than “a rope of sand” to support the new nation.[134] His participation in the debates was minor, although he casted his vote when called upon; his prestige facilitated the collegiality and productivity of the

208 delegates. After a couple of months into the task, Washington told Alexander Hamilton, “I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business.” In the end agreements were hatched however, and Washington thought the achievement monumental.[135] Following the Convention, his support convinced many, but not all of his colleagues, to vote for ratification. He unsuccessfully lobbied Patrick Henry, saying that “the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the union is in my opinion desirable;" he declared that the only alternative would be anarchy. Nevertheless, he did not consider it appropriate to cast his vote in favor of adoption for Virginia, since he was expected to be nominated president thereunder.[136] The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by all thirteen states.[137] The delegates to the convention designed the presidency with Washington in mind, allowing him to define the office by establishing precedent once elected.[138]

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON Washington proved an able administrator, and established many precedents in the functions of the presidency, including messages to Congress and the cabinet form of government.[7] Despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, he set the standard for tolerance of opposition voices and conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor.[6] An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he talked regularly with department heads and listened to their advice before making a final decision.[146] In handling routine tasks, he was “systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others ... but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them.”[147] After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington refused to run for a third, establishing the tradition of a maximum of two terms for a president, which was solidified by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.[148]

41.6.1 Domestic issues

41.6 Presidency (1789–1797) Main article: Presidency of George Washington The Electoral College unanimously elected Washington as the first president in 1789,[lower-alpha 8] and again 1792;[140] He remains the only president to receive the totality of electoral votes.[lower-alpha 9] John Adams, who received the next highest vote total, was elected Vice President. On April 30, 1789, Washington was inaugurated, taking the first presidential oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City.[141] The oath, as follows, was administered by Chancellor Robert R. Livingston: “I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.” Historian John R. Alden indicates that Washington added the words “So help me God.”[142] The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789, valued at about $340,000 in 2015 dollars.[lower-alpha 10] Washington, despite facing financial troubles then, initially declined the salary, valuing his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary.[143] The President, aware that everything he did set a precedent, attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts.[lower-alpha 11][144] To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate.[145]

George Washington by Rembrandt Peale, De Young Museum (ca. 1850)

See also: Whiskey Rebellion Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they would not be formed, fearing conflict that would undermine republicanism.[149] His closest advisors formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of the State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republi-

41.6. PRESIDENCY (1789–1797) cans, strenuously opposed Hamilton’s agenda, but Washington typically favored Hamilton over Jefferson, and it was Hamilton’s agenda that went into effect. Jefferson’s political actions, his support of Philip Freneau's National Gazette,[150] and his attempt to undermine Hamilton, nearly led George Washington to dismiss Jefferson from his cabinet.[151] Though Jefferson left the cabinet voluntarily, Washington never forgave him, and never spoke to him again.[151]

209 government using military force to exert authority over the states and citizens[155] and is also the only time a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the ﬁeld.[156]

41.6.2 Foreign aﬀairs

In early 1790 Hamilton devised a plan with the approval of Washington, culminating in The Residence Act of 1790, that established the creditworthiness of the new government, as well as its permanent location. Congress had previously issued almost $22 million in certificates of debt during the war to suppliers; some of the states had incurred debt as well (more so in the north). In accordance with the plan, Congress authorized the “assumption” and payment of these debts, and provided funding through customs duties and excise taxes. The proposal was largely favored in the north and opposed in the south. Hamilton obtained the approval of the southern states in exchange for an agreement to place the new national capitol on the Potomac River. While the national debt increased as a result during Hamilton’s service as Secretary of the Treasury, the nation established its good credit. Many in the Congress and elsewhere in the government profited from trading in the debt paper which was assumed. Though many of Washington’s fellow Virginians, as well as others, were vexed by this, he considered they had adequate redress through their Congressional representatives.[152] The Revenue Act authorized the President to select the specific location of the seat of the government on the Potomac; the President was to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for this seat. Washington personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791 the commissioners named the permanent seat of government “The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia” to honor Washington. In 1800, the Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal government moved to the site according to the provisions of the Residence Act.[153] In 1791 partly as a result of the Copper Panic of 1789, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794 after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into fullscale defiance of federal authority known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon militias from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland and New Jersey.[154] The governors sent the troops, with Washington taking initial command. He subsequently named Henry “Lighthorse Harry” Lee as field commander to lead the troops into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting, as Washington’s forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. This represented the premier instance of the federal

Miniature Portrait of Washington by Robert Field (1800)

In February 1793 the French Revolutionary Wars broke out between Great Britain and its allies and revolutionary France, and engulfed Europe until 1815; Washington, with cabinet approval, proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called “Citizen Genêt”, to America. Genêt was welcomed with great enthusiasm, and began promoting the case for France using a network of new Democratic Societies in major cities. He even issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so they could capture British merchant ships. Washington denounced the societies and demanded the French government recall Genêt, which they did.[157] Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution;[158] John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington listened to both sides then announced his strong support, which mobilized public opinion and was pivotal in securing ratification in the Senate by the requisite two-thirds majority.[159] The British agreed to depart from their forts around the Great Lakes and the United States-Canadian boundary

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had to be re-adjusted; numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty delayed war with Great Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with the British. The treaty angered the French and became a central issue in many political debates.[160] Relations with France deteriorated after the treaty was signed, leaving the succeeding president, John Adams, with the prospect of war.[161][162] Map of the Mount Vernon plantation and lands

41.6.3

Farewell Address

41.7 Retirement (1797–1799)

Main article: George Washington’s Farewell Address After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, WashWashington’s Farewell Address (issued as a public let- ington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to his plantations and other business interests, including his distillery which produced its first batch of spirits in February 1797.[166] As Chernow (2010) explains, his plantation operations were only minimally profitable. The lands out west yielded little income because they were under attack by Indians and the squatters living there refused to pay him rent. Most Americans assumed he was rich because of the well-known “glorified façade of wealth and grandeur” at Mount Vernon.[167] Historians estimate his estate was worth about $1 million in 1799 dollars, equivalent to about $19.3 million in 2012 purchasing power.[168] Washington’s Farewell Address (September 19, 1796)

By 1798 relations with France had deteriorated to the point that war seemed imminent, and on July 4, 1798, President Adams oﬀered Washington a commission as lieutenant general and Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war. He accepted, and served as the senior oﬃcer of the United States Army from July 13, 1798 until his death seventeen months later. He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise, but avoided involvement in details as much as possible; he delegated most of the work, including leadership of the army, to Hamilton.[169][170]

ter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of republicanism. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties and the proper virtues of a republican people. He referred to morality as “a necessary spring of popular government", and said, “Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious 41.7.1 principle.”[163] The address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs, and as well against bitter partisanship in domestic politics; he also called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He cautioned against “permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world”,[164] saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term “entangling” alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding foreign affairs.[165]

Comparisons with Cincinnatus

During the Revolutionary and Early Republican periods of American history, many commentators compared Washington with the Roman aristocrat and statesman Cincinnatus. The comparison arose as Washington, like Cincinnatus, remained in command of the Continental Army only until the British had been defeated. Thereafter, instead of seeking great political power, he returned as quickly as possible to cultivating his lands.[171][172] Remarking on Washington’s resignation in December 1783, and his decision to retire to Mount Vernon, poet Philip Freneau wrote: Thus He, whom Rome’s proud legions sway'd/Return'd, and sought his sylvan shade.[173] Lord

41.8. DEATH

211

Byron's Ode to Napoleon also lionized Washington as “the of his total blood content was removed over the course of Cincinnatus of the West”.[174] just a few hours.[175][178][179] Recognizing that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing, Dr. Dick proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy, a procedure that few American physicians were familiar with at 41.8 Death the time, as a last-ditch effort to save Washington’s life, but the other two doctors disapproved.[175][180] Washington died at home around 10 p.m. on Saturday, December 14, 1799, aged 67. In his journal, Lear recorded Washington’s last words as being "'Tis well.”[181] The diagnosis of Washington’s final illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died.[175][179][182] In the days immediately following his death, Craik and Dick’s published account stated that they felt his symptoms had been consistent with "cynanche trachealis", a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the structures of the upper airway.[179][180][183] Even at that early date, there were accusations of medical malpractice, with some believing that Washington had been bled to death.[179][180] Various modern medical authors have speculated that Washington probably died from a severe case of epiglottitis which was complicated by the given treatments (all of which were accepted medical practice in Washington’s day)—most notably the massive deliberate blood loss, which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[lower-alpha 12] Throughout the world, men and women were saddened by Washington’s death. In France, First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte ordered ten days of mourning throughout the country; in the United States, memorial processions were held in major cities and thousands wore mourning clothes for months.[184][185] To protect their privacy, Washington’s tomb at Mount Vernon, Virginia Martha Washington burned the correspondence they had exchanged; only five letters between the couple are known On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington spent to have survived, two letters from Martha to George and several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback, in three from him to Martha.[186][187] snow, hail, and freezing rain; later that evening he ate his On December 18, 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Versupper without changing from his wet clothes.[175] That non, where his body was interred.[188] Congress passed a Friday he awoke with a severe sore throat and became joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the increasingly hoarse as the day progressed, yet still rode planned crypt below the rotunda of the center section of out in the heavy snow, marking trees on the estate that he the Capitol (then still under construction) for his body, a wanted cut. Sometime around 3 a.m. that Saturday, he plan supported by Martha. In December 1800, the House suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and alpassed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to build the [175] most completely unable to speak or swallow. A firm mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a 100-foot believer in bloodletting, a standard medical practice of (30 m) square base. Southern representatives and senathat era which he had used to treat various ailments of tors, in later opposition to the plan, defeated the measure slaves on his plantation, he ordered estate overseer Albin because they felt it was best to have Washington’s body Rawlins to remove half a pint of his blood. remain at Mount Vernon.[189] A total of three physicians were sent for, including WashIn 1831, for the centennial of his birth, a new tomb ington’s personal physician Dr. James Craik[176] along was constructed to receive his remains. That year, an with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick. Craik unsuccessful attempt was made to steal the body of and Brown thought that Washington had "quinsey" or Washington.[190] Despite this, a joint Congressional com“quincy”, while Dick, the younger man, thought the conmittee in early 1832, debated the removal of President dition was more serious or a “violent inflammation of the Washington’s body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the [177] By the time the three physicians finished throat”. Capitol, built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s their treatments and bloodletting of the President, there during the reconstruction of the burned-out structure afhad been a massive volume of blood loss—half or more

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CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON

The Constable-Hamilton Portrait by Gilbert Stuart, Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas (1797)

greatest in American history.[lower-alpha 13] Congressman Henry “Light-Horse Harry” Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington:[193] Published regulations for the funeral procession in honor of Washington (in New York City)

ter the British set it aﬁre in August 1814, during the "Burning of Washington". Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the fear of Southerners when he said, “Remove the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors, from Mount Vernon and from his native State, and deposit them in this capitol, and then let a severance of the Union occur, and behold the remains of Washington on a shore foreign to his native soil.”[189] His remains were moved on October 7, 1837 to the new tomb constructed at Mount Vernon, presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia.[191] After the ceremony, the inner vault’s door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac.[192]

41.9 Legacy

First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in the humble and enduring scenes of private life; pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding, his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting. To his equals he was condescending, to his inferiors kind, and to the dear object of his affections exemplarily tender; correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his fostering hand; the purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. His last scene comported with the whole tenor of his life—although in extreme pain, not a sigh, not a groan escaped him; and with undisturbed serenity he closed his wellspent life. Such was the man America has lost—such was the man for whom our nation mourns.

Lee’s words set the standard by which Washington’s overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the AmeriMain article: George Washington’s legacy can memory. Washington set many precedents for the As Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero national government, and the presidency in particular, of the revolution and the ﬁrst president of the United and was called the "Father of His Country" as early as States, George Washington’s legacy remains among the 1778.[lower-alpha 14][7][194][195] Washington’s Birthday, is a

41.9. LEGACY

213

federal holiday in the United States.[196] After Yorktown, his service as Commander in Chief brought him election as a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[197] The Federalists made him the symbol of their party but for many years, the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence and delayed building the Washington Monument. As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history, Washington became an international icon for liberation and nationalism.[198] During the United States Bicentennial year, George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.[79] This restored Washington’s position as the highest-ranking military officer in U.S. history.[lower-alpha 15] See also: Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States and Cultural depictions of George Washington

41.9.1

Cherry tree

Washington Monument

See also: Parson Weems § The cherry-tree anecdote Perhaps the best known story about Washington’s childhood is that he chopped down his father’s favorite cherry tree and admitted the deed when questioned: “I can't tell a lie, Pa.” The anecdote was first reported by biographer Parson Weems, who after Washington’s death interviewed people who knew him as a child over a half-century earlier. The Weems text was very widely reprinted throughout the 19th century, for example in McGuffey Readers. Adults wanted children to learn moral lessons from history, especially as taught by example from the lives of great national heroes like Washington. After 1890 however, historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every statement, and there was no documentation for this anecdote apart from Weems’ report that he learned it in an interview with an old person. Joseph Rodman in 1904 noted that Weems plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction set in England, but no one has found an alternative source for the cherry tree story.[199][200]

symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore, the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men.[201] Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial.[202] Predating the obelisk on the National Mall by several decades, the ﬁrst public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827.[203]

Today, Washington’s face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States.[204] He appears on contemporary currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter coin, and on U.S. postage stamps. Along with appearing on the first postage stamps issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1847,[205] Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington Monument, one of the best known American landmarks, was built in his honor. The George Washing41.9.2 Monuments and memorials ton Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia, Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with voluntary bodies of the proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his contributions from all 52 local governing [206][207] Freemasons in the United States. death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Re- Many places and entities have been named in honor of publicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Repub- Washington. Washington’s name became that of the nalicans were dismayed that Washington had become the tion’s capital, Washington, D.C., one of two national cap-

214 itals across the globe to be named after an American president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a United States President.[208] George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis were named for him, as was Washington and Lee University (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington’s large endowment in 1796. Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland (established by Maryland state charter in 1782) was supported by Washington during his lifetime with a 50 guineas pledge,[209] and with service on the college’s Board of Visitors and Governors until 1789 (when Washington was elected President).[210] According to the US Census Bureau’s 1993 geographic data, Washington is the 17th most common street name in the United States,[211] and the only person’s name so honored.[lower-alpha 16]

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON • Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the tallest mountain in the Northeastern United States at 6,288 ft (1,917 m) • The ﬂag of Washington state

41.9.3 Papers Main article: The Papers of George Washington

The serious collection and publication of Washington’s documentary record began with the pioneer work of Jared Sparks in the 1830s, Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799 (1931–44) is a 37 volume set edited by John There are many “Washington Monuments” in the United C. Fitzpatrick. It contains over 17,000 letters and docuStates, including two well-known equestrian statues, one ments and is available online from the University of Vir[218] in Manhattan and one in Richmond, Virginia. The first ginia. statue to show Washington on horseback was dedicated The definitive letterpress edition of his writings was bein 1856 and is located in Manhattan’s Union Square.[212] gun by the University of Virginia in 1968, and today The second statue is known as either the Virginia Wash- comprises 52 published volumes, with more to come. It ington Monument or as the George Washington Eques- contains everything written by Washington, or signed by trian Statue[213] and was unveiled in 1858.[213][214] It him, together with most of his incoming letters. Part of was the second American statue of Washington on the collection is available online from the University of horseback[214] but figures prominently in the official seal Virginia.[219] of the Confederate States of America.[213][215] A marble statue of Washington was made from life by sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, and now sits in the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia. A duplicate, one of 22 bronze exact replicas,[216] was given to the British in 1921 by the Commonwealth of Virginia and now stands in front of the National Gallery at Trafalgar Square.[217]

Personal property auction record

On June 22, 2012, George Washington’s personal annotated copy of the “Acts Passed at a Congress of the United States of America” from 1789, which includes the Constitution of the United States and a draft of the Bill of Rights, was sold at Christie’s for a record $9,826,500, In 1917 the 886 Washingtonia asteroid was named in his with fees the ﬁnal cost, to The Mount Vernon Ladies’ Ashonor. sociation. This was the record for a document sold at auction.[220] • Hover over each photo to view label detail • The ﬁrst Washington Monument, in Baltimore, Maryland

41.10 Personal life

Along with Martha’s biological family, George Washington had a close relationship with his nephew and heir, Bushrod Washington, son of George’s younger brother, • National Masonic Memorial in Alexandria, VirJohn Augustine Washington. The year before his unginia, the second-tallest memorial tower of Washcle’s death, Bushrod became an Associate Justice of the ington Supreme Court of the United States. George, however, apparently did not get along well with his mother, Mary • Jean-Antoine Houdon's statue at the State Capitol in Ball Washington (Augustine’s second wife), who was a Richmond, Virginia has been widely copied very demanding and diﬃcult person.[221] • Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.

• Lieutenant General George Washington, As a young man, Washington had red hair.[222] A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among Washington Circle, Washington, D.C. some at the time. However, Washington did not wear • George Washington’s likeness under construction on a wig; instead, he powdered his hair,[223] as is repreMount Rushmore sented in several portraits, including the well-known, un-

41.10. PERSONAL LIFE

215 the portraits painted while he was still in oﬃce,[231] including the one still used on the $1 bill.[224][lower-alpha 17]

41.10.1 Slavery Main article: George Washington and slavery Washington was the only prominent Founding Father to arrange in his will for the manumission of all his slaves following his death.[232] He privately opposed slavery as an institution which he viewed as economically unsound and morally indefensible. He also regarded the divisiveness of his countrymen’s feelings about slavery as a The Washington Family by Edward Savage, painted between potentially mortal threat to the unity of the nation.[233] 1789 and 1796, shows (from left to right): George Washington Yet, as general of the army, president of the ConstituParke Custis, George Washington, Eleanor Parke Custis, Martha tional Convention, and the first president of the United Washington, and an enslaved servant: probably William Lee or States, he never publicly challenged the institution of Christopher Sheels. slavery,[234][235] possibly because he wanted to avoid provoking a split in the new republic over so inflammatory [236] finished Gilbert Stuart depiction called the “Athenaeum an issue. Portrait.”[224] Washington had owned slaves since the death of his faWashington’s height was variously recorded as 6 ft (1.83 ther in 1743, when at the age of eleven, he inherited 10 m) to 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m),[223] and he had unusually great slaves. At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis physical strength that amazed younger men. Jefferson in 1759, he personally owned at least 36 slaves, which called Washington “the best horseman of his age”, and meant he had achieved the status of a major planter. both American and European observers praised his rid- The wealthy widow Martha brought at least 85 "dower ing; the horsemanship benefited his hunting, a favorite slaves” to Mount Vernon by inheriting a third of her late hobby. Washington was an excellent dancer and fre- husband’s estate. Using his wife’s great wealth, Washquently attended the theater, often referencing Shake- ington bought more land, tripling the size of the planspeare in letters.[225] He drank in moderation and pre- tation at Mount Vernon, and purchased the additional cisely recorded gambling wins and losses, but Washing- slaves needed to work it. By 1774 he paid taxes on 135 ton disliked the excessive drinking, gambling, smoking, slaves (this figure does not include the “dowers”). The and profanity that was common in colonial Virginia. Al- last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772, alhe later received some slaves in repayment of though he grew tobacco, he eventually stopped smoking, though[237] debts. Washington also used some hired staff[166] and and considered drunkenness a man’s worst vice; Washwhite indentured servants; in April 1775, he offered a reington was glad that post-Revolutionary Virginia society ward for the return of two runaway white servants.[238] was less likely to “force [guests] to drink and to make it an honor to send them home drunk.”[226]

Washington came to oppose slavery on both moral and economic grounds. Before the American Revolution, he had expressed no moral reservations about slavery. But by 1779 he would tell his manager at Mount Vernon that he wished to sell his slaves when the war ended, if the Americans were victorious.[239] He concluded that maintaining a large, and increasingly elderly, slave population at Mount Vernon was no longer economically proﬁtable, and that people who were compelled to work would never work hard.[240] Washington could not legally sell the “dower slaves”, and because they had long intermarried with his own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up families, which he wanted to avoid.[241] In 1786 Washington wrote to Robert Morris, saying, “There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery.”[242]

Washington suﬀered from problems with his teeth throughout his life. He lost his ﬁrst adult tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became President.[227] John Adams claims he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but modern historians suggest the mercury oxide, which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria, probably contributed to the loss. He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood.[227] Contrary to popular belief, none of the sets were made from wood. The set made when he became President was carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs.[228] Prior to these, he had a set made with real human teeth,[229] likely ones he purchased from “several unnamed 'Negroes,' presumably Mount Vernon slaves” in 1784.[230] Dental prob- As president, following the transfer of the national caplems left Washington in constant pain, for which he took ital to Pennsylvania in 1790, Washington brought eight laudanum.[231] This distress may be apparent in many of enslaved people to work for him in the President’s House

216 in Philadelphia, where state law would have automatically granted freedom to any slaves who had resided in the state for more than 6 months. He circumvented that provision of the law by maintaining that he was not a Pennsylvania resident and ensuring that neither he nor any of his slaves stayed in the state for more than six months at a time.[243] When one of the slaves, Oney Judge, a personal attendant to Martha, escaped, Washington complained that the slave had ﬂed “without the least provocation,” and he secretly sent agents to hunt her down. Washington could not legally free Judge, since she was Martha’s dower slave. Martha urged Washington to advertise a reward for her capture, and the ad was placed in the Pennsylvania Gazette on May 24, 1796. When the escaped former slave was spotted in New Hampshire, she said that she would agree to return out of aﬀection for the Washington family, but only if they would guarantee her freedom, a proposal the Washingtons refused. They were still trying, surreptitiously, to recapture her two years later.[244][245] Another slave, Hercules, who served as Washington’s chef in the Presidential House in Philadelphia, managed to escape from Mount Vernon despite Washington’s suspicions that he had been planning it.[246][247] Washington would eventually replace the slaves at the President’s House with immigrant German indentured servants.

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON

been debated by historians and biographers for over two hundred years. For his entire life he was affiliated with the Anglican Church, later called the Episcopal Church. He served as a vestryman and as church warden for both Fairfax Parish in Alexandria and Truro Parish,[252] administrative positions that, like all positions in Virginia while it had an official religion, required one to swear they would not speak or act in a way that did not conform to the tenets of the Church. Numerous historians have suggested that theologically, Washington agreed largely with the Deists. However, he never made a statement one way or the other. He often used words for the deity, such as “God” and “Providence,” while avoiding using the words “Jesus” and “Christ.” In his collected works, they appear in an official letter to Indians that might have been drafted by an aide. At the time, Deism was a theological outlook, not an organized denomination, and was compatible with being an Episcopalian. Historian Gregg Frazer argues that Washington was not a deist but a "theistic rationalist.” This theological position rejected core beliefs of Christianity, such as the divinity of Christ, the Trinity and original sin. However, unlike the deists, the theological rationalists believed in the efficacy of prayer to God.[253] Historian Peter A. Lillback argues that Washington was neither a deist nor a “theistic rationalist” but a Christian [2] By 1794, as he contemplated retirement, Washington be- who believed in the core beliefs of Christianity. gan organizing his affairs so that in his will he could free Washington, as commander of the army and as presiall the slaves he owned outright.[248] As historian Gordon dent, was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all reliS. Wood writes in his review of Joseph Ellis' biogra- gious denominations. He believed religion was an imphy of Washington, “He did this in the teeth of oppo- portant support for public order, morality and virtue. He sition from his relatives, his neighbors, and perhaps even often attended services of different denominations. He Martha. It was a courageous act, and one of his greatest suppressed anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army.[254] legacies.”[240] At the time of Washington’s death in 1799, Washington frequently accompanied his wife to church 317 slaves lived at Mount Vernon: 123 were owned by services. Although third-hand reports say he took Washington himself, 154 were held by his wife as “dower communion,[255] he is usually characterized as never or slaves”, and 40 others were rented from a neighbor.[249] rarely participating in the rite.[256][257] He would reguWashington’s will provided for all of his slaves to be larly leave services before communion with the other nonunconditionally freed upon the death of his widow, his communicants (as was the custom of the day), until, after heirs being expressly forbidden from selling or transport- being admonished by a rector, he ceased attending at all ing those slaves out of Virginia. Hercules, who had ear- on communion Sundays.[258] lier escaped Washington, was freed and no longer a fugitive slave. The will also provided for the training of the Chernow, in a 2010 podcast, summed up Washington’s younger former-slaves in useful skills and for the creation religious views: of an old-age pension fund for the older ones.[250] George and Martha emancipated no slaves of their own during There has been a huge controversy, to their lifetimes and when Martha died on May 22, 1802, put it mildly, about Washington’s religious beall of the slaves she was legally responsible for were not liefs. Before the Revolutionary War he was freed. Her human property Elisha went to her grandson Anglican—Church of England—which meant George Washington Custis,[251] the slaves from her first after the war, he was Episcopalian. So, he was husband’s estate—the dower slaves as well as the slaves clearly Christian ... He was quite intensely reshe held in trust—went to his inheritors.[235] ligious, because even though he uses the word Providence, he constantly sees Providence as an active force in life, particularly in Ameri41.10.2 Religion can life. I mean, every single victory in war he credits to Providence. The miracle of the Main article: George Washington and religion Constitutional Convention he credits to Providence. The creation of the federal governThe exact nature of Washington’s religious beliefs has ment and the prosperity of the early republic,

41.11. POSTAGE AND CURRENCY

217

he credits to Providence ... I was struck at how frequently in his letters he’s referring to Providence, and it’s Providence where there’s a sense of design and purpose, which sounds to me very much like religion ... Unfortunately, this particular issue has become very very politicized.[1] Michael Novak and Jana Novak suggest that it may have been “Washington’s intention to maintain a studied ambiguity (and personal privacy) regarding his own deepest religious convictions, so that all Americans, both in his own time and for all time to come, might feel free to approach him on their own terms—and might also feel like full members of the new republic, equal with every other”.[259] They conclude: “He was educated in the Episcopal Church, to which he always adhered; and my[sic] conviction is, that he believed in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity as usually taught in that Church, according to his understanding of them; but without a particle of intolerance, or disrespect for the faith and modes of worship adopted by Christians of other denominations.”[260]

Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason and fraternalism; the American lodges did not share the anticlerical perspective that made the European lodges so controversial.[262] In 1777 a convention of Virginia lodges recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia; however, Washington declined, due to his necessity to lead the Continental Army at a critical stage, and because he had never been installed as Master or Warden of a lodge, he did not consider it Masonically legal to serve as Grand Master.[263] In 1788 Washington, with his personal consent, was named Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22.[264]

41.11 Postage and currency See also: U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps and History of Virginia on stamps George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter). Washington, along with Benjamin Franklin, appeared on the nation’s first postage stamps in 1847. Since that time Washington has appeared on many postage issues, more than all other presidents combined.[205] Washington’s victory over Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown was commemorated with a two-cent stamp on the battle’s 150th anniversary on October 19, 1931.[265] The 150th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution with George Washington as presiding officer was celebrated with a three-cent issue on September 17, 1937, was adapted from the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns.[266] Washington’s presidential inauguration at Federal Hall in New York City was celebrated on its 150th anniversary on April 30, 1939.[267] • Hover over each photo to view label detail • Washington center, flanked by Gen. Rochambeau & Adm. DeGrasse Battle of Yorktown, 1781 1931 issue

The George Washington Alexandria, Virginia

41.10.3

Masonic

National

Memorial,

Freemasonry

Washington was initiated into Freemasonry in 1752.[261] He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and often praised it, but he seldom attended lodge meetings. He was attracted by the movement’s dedication to the

• Washington, president of the Constitutional Convention, 1787 1937 issue • Washington’s presidential oath, 1789 1939 issue • Washington, issue of 1862, 24c • Washington, issue of 1895, 2c

218

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON • Washington-Franklin Issues of 1908–1923, 5c • Washington at Prayer, Valley Forge, issue of 1928, 2c

• Washington Before Boston Medal voted for George Washington by Second Continental Congress, March 25, 1776. • Washington is on the front of all newly minted U.S. quarter dollars • Washington on the obverse of the ﬁrst Presidential $1 Coin • A 1928 United States one-dollar bill. Note it is identiﬁed as a "United States Note" rather than a Federal Reserve Note. • Washington depicted on a 1861 Confederate $50 banknote

41.12 See also • American gentry • Conotocaurious (Town Destroyer), a nickname given to Washington by Iroquois Native Americans • List of federal judges appointed by George Washington • List of notable Freemasons • List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience • List of slave owners • Where’s George?, a website that tracks the circulation of American paper money

41.13 Notes [1] March 4 is the official start of the first presidential term. April 6 is when Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College and certified a president. April 30 is when Washington was sworn in. [2] Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as February 11, 1731. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days, and for those between January 1 and March 25, an advance of one year. For a further explanation, see: Old Style and New Style dates.

[3] Engber, Daniel (January 18, 2006). “What’s Benjamin Franklin’s Birthday?". Slate. Retrieved May 21, 2011. (Both Franklin’s and Washington’s confusing birth dates are clearly explained.) [4] Ellis and Ferling, for example, do not discuss this stance in reference to Washington’s French and Indian War service, and cast it almost exclusively in terms of his negative experiences dealing with the Continental Congress during the Revolution. See Ellis (2004, p. 218); Ferling (2009, pp. 32–33, 200, 258–272, 316). Don Higginbotham places Washington’s first formal advocacy of a strong central government in 1783. Higginbotham (2002, p. 37). [5] Though largely absent from the election while serving on the Forbes Expedition, he plied the voters with 170 gallons of rice punch, beer, wine, hard cider and brandy. See Alden (1993, p. 71) [6] The term comes from the Roman strategy used by General Fabius against Hannibal’s invasion in the Second Punic War. [7] Ferling and Ellis argue that Washington favored Fabian tactics and Higginbotham denies it. Ferling (2010, pp. 212, 264); Ellis (2004, p. 11); Higginbotham (1971, p. 211). [8] Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress called its presiding officer “President of the United States in Congress Assembled”. The position had no executive powers, but the similarity of titles has confused some into thinking there were other presidents before Washington.[139] [9] The system in place at the time, dictated that each elector cast two votes, with the winner becoming president, and the runner-up vice president. All electors in the elections of 1789 and 1792 cast one of their votes for Washington; thus it may be said that he was elected president unanimously. James Monroe would be reelected, unopposed, in 1820, however, a faithless elector cast a single vote for John Quincy Adams, depriving Monroe of unanimous election. [10] The Coinage Act of 1792 sets the value of $1 USD equal to 24.1g of silver. With the price of silver at $15.95/oz as of June 13, 2015, the value of 25,000 in silver dollars in 1792 value (24.1g/$1) is $338,750. [11] Washington was aware that his actions would set precedents for later American presidents. He wrote to James Madison: ""As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.” Washington to James Madison, May 5, 1789, cited by Unger, 2013, p. 76. [12] At least three modern medical authors (Wallenborn (1997), Shapiro 1975, Scheidemandel 1976) concluded that Washington most probably died from acute bacterial epiglottitis complicated by the administered treatments. These treatments included multiple doses of calomel (a cathartic or purgative), and extensive bloodletting (with at least 2.365 total liters of blood being taken, which is slightly less than half of a normal adult’s blood volume).

41.14. REFERENCES • See Vadakan (2005, Footnotes) for Shapiro and Scheidemandel references. Vadakan’s article also directly quotes Doctors Craik and Dick’s account (as published in the Times of Alexandria newspaper) of their treatment of Washington during his fatal illness. [13] Historians Jay A. Parry and Andrew M. Allison declare that Washington “was the dominant personality in three of the most critical events in that founding: the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Convention, and the ﬁrst national administration. Had he not served as America’s leader in those three events, all three likely would have failed. And America as we know it today would not exist.” Parry, 1991, p. xi.

219

41.14 References [1] Chernow, Ron (October 18, 2010). Ron Chernow on George Washington (MP3). We The People Stories (Podcast) (Philadelphia: National Constitution Center). Retrieved December 29, 2011. [2] Lillback, Peter; Newcombe, Jerry (2006). George Washington’s Sacred Fire (1st ed.). Bryn Mawr, Pa.: Providence Forum Press. ISBN 978-0978605261. [3] Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson, Peter Hanns Reill, 2004 p. 148, retrieved April 26, 2012 [4] Grizzard (2002, pp. 105–107) [5] Chernow (2010)

[14] The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as the Father of (His/Our/the) Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language almanac. With calculations by David Rittenhouse and published by Francis Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania, Der Gantz Neue Nord-Americanishe Calendar has Fame appearing with an image of Washington, holding a trumpet to her lips from which the words "Der Landes Vater" (translated as “the father of the country” or “the father of the land”) comes forth. [15] In Bell (2005), William Gardner Bell states that when Washington was recalled back into military service from his retirement in 1798, “Congress passed legislation that would have made him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the field and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976, when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor.” How many U.S. Army five-star generals have there been and who were they? states that with Public Law 94-479, President Ford specified that Washington would “rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present. “General of the Armies of the United States” is associated with only two people...one being Washington and the other being John J. Pershing. [16] The rest of the Top 20 street names are all descriptive (Hill, View and so on), arboreal (Pine, Maple, etc.) or numeric (Second, Third, etc.). [17] The Smithsonian Institution states in “The Portrait— George Washington: A National Treasure” that: Stuart admired the sculpture of Washington by French artist Jean-Antoine Houdon, probably because it was based on a life mask and therefore extremely accurate. Stuart explained, “When I painted him, he had just had a set of false teeth inserted, which accounts for the constrained expression so noticeable about the mouth and lower part of the face. Houdon’s bust does not suffer from this defect. I wanted him as he looked at that time.” Stuart preferred the Athenaeum pose and, except for the gaze, used the same pose for the Lansdowne painting.[231]

[6] Michael Kazin, eds; et al. (2009). The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. (Two volume set). Princeton University Press. p. 589. ISBN 1400833566. [7] Unger (2013, pp. 236–237) [8] Unger (2013, p. 18) [9] Unger (2013, p. 236) [10] Cayton, Andrew (September 30, 2010). “Learning to Be Washington”. The New York Times. Retrieved September 30, 2010. [11] O'Brien (2009, p. 19) [12] “Bible Record for Washington Family”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 1, 2008. Retrieved January 26, 2008. [13] Alden (1993, pp. 3–4) [14] Dorothy Twohig, “The Making of George Washington” in Hofstra (1998) [15] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 28 [16] “Burials at George Washington Birthplace National Monument”. George Washington Birthplace National Monument. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 23, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2011. [17] “George Washington’s Family Chart”. Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. Retrieved November 12, 2011. [18] Freeman (1948, pp. 1:15–72) [19] Moncreiﬀe of that Ilk, Sir Iain; Pottinger, Don (1953). Simple Heraldry. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons. p. 32. ISBN 0171440145. [20] “Life Before the Presidency”. American President: George Washington (1732–1799). Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved November 12, 2011. [21] Ferling (2010, pp. 5–6) [22] Freeman (1948, p. 1:199)

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[23] “History & Traditions”. College of William & Mary, College of William & Mary. Retrieved January 16, 2016. [24] Chernow (2010, p. 53) [25] Flexner (1974, p. 8) [26] Freeman (1948, p. 1:264) [27] Freeman (1948, p. 1:268) [28] Alden (1993, p. 9) [29] Freeman (1948, pp. 1:274–327). [30] Lengel (2005, pp. 23–24) [31] Washington, George. The Journal of Major George Washington, Sent by the Hon. Robert Dinwiddie to the Commandment of the French Forces in Ohio. New York: Reprinted for J. Sabin, 1865. [32] Grizzard, Frank E. George Washington: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2002. [33] Lengel (2005, pp. 31–38)

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON

[55] Higginbotham (1985, pp. 22–25) [56] Freeman (1968, pp. 136–137) [57] Ferling (2000, p. 34) [58] Ferling (2000, pp. 33–34) [59] Chernow (2010, p. 103) Washington may not have been able to admit to his own sterility while privately he grieved over not having his own children. Bumgarner (1994, pp. 1–8) [60] Flexner (1974, pp. 42–43) [61] “Guide to American Presidents: George Washington 1732–99”. Burke’s Peerage and Gentry. Archived from the original on December 24, 2010. Retrieved September 14, 2010. [62] Rasmussen & Tilton (1999, p. 100) [63] “Washington As Land Speculator: Western Lands and the Bounty of War”. George Washington: Surveyor and Mapmaker. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Retrieved January 24, 2011.

[34] Anderson (2000, pp. 53–58) [64] Grizzard (2002, pp. 135–137) [35] Paul R. Misencik (2014). George Washington and the Half-King Chief Tanacharison: An Alliance That Began the French and Indian War. McFarland. p. 131. ISBN 9781476615400.

[65] Ellis (2004, pp. 41–42, 48) [66] Ferling (2000, p. 44)

[36] Grizzard (2002, pp. 115–119)

[67] Ferling (2000, pp. 43–44)

[37] Ellis (2004, pp. 17–18)

[68] Pogue, Dennis J. (January 2004). Shad, Wheat, and Rye (Whiskey): George Washington, Entrepreneur (PDF). The Society for Historical Archaeology Annual Meeting. St. Louis, Missouri: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. pp. 2–10.

[38] Anderson (2005, pp. 100–101) [39] Alden (1993, pp. 35–36) [40] Alden (1993, p. 37) [41] Ferling (2010, pp. 35–36) [42] Alden (1993, pp. 37–46)

[69] Pogue, Dennis J. (Spring–Summer 2003). “George Washington And The Politics of Slavery” (PDF). Historic Alexandria Quarterly (Virginia: Oﬃce of Historic Alexandria). Retrieved January 3, 2011.

[46] Ellis (2004, p. 38)

[70] Fox hunting: Ellis (2004, p. 44). Mount Vernon economy: Ferling (2010, pp. 66–67); Ellis (2004, pp. 50–53); Bruce A. Ragsdale, “George Washington, the British Tobacco Trade, and Economic Opportunity in PreRevolutionary Virginia”, in Higginbotham (2001, pp. 67– 93).

[47] Lengel (2005, pp. 75–76, 81)

[71] Fischer (2004, p. 14)

[48] Chernow (2010, ch. 8)

[72] Ferling (2000, pp. 73–76)

[49] Freeman (1968, pp. 135–139); Flexner (1974, pp. 32– 36); Ellis (2004, ch. 1); Higginbotham (1985, ch. 1); Lengel (2005, pp. 77–80).

[73] Freeman (1968, pp. 174–176)

[50] Higginbotham (1985, pp. 14–15)

[75] Alden (1993, p. 101)

[51] Lengel (2005, p. 80)

[76] Ferling (2010, p. 100)

[52] Ellis (2004, pp. 38, 69) [53] Fischer (2004, p. 13)

[77] Cont'l Cong., Credentials of the Delegates from Virginia, in 1 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 23 (Library of Cong. eds., 1904).

[54] Alden (1993, p. 70)

[78] Rasmussen & Tilton (1999, p. 294)

[43] Flexner (1965, p. 138) [44] Alden (2010, pp. 47, 54) [45] Fischer (2004, pp. 15–16)

[74] Randall (1997, p. 262)

41.14. REFERENCES

221

[79] Bell (2005)

[101] Heydt, Bruce (December 2005). "'Vexatious Evils’: George Washington and the Conway Cabal”. American [80] Cont'l Cong., Acceptance of Appointment by General History 40 (5): 50–73. Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 91–92 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905). [102] Alden (1993, p. 163) [81] Ellis (2004, pp. 68–72)

[103] Chai, Jane; Homol, Lindley (2009). “The Forging of an Army”. Pennsylvania Center for the Book. Pennsylvania [82] “WEDNESDAY, JUNE 14, 1775 (Journals of the ConState University. Retrieved January 19, 2011. tinental Congress, 1774-1789, ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904-37)". memory.loc.gov. [104] “History & Culture”. Valley Forge National Historical Library of Congress. June 14, 1775. pp. 89–90. RePark. National Park Service. Retrieved January 19, 2011. trieved June 21, 2015. [83] Cont'l Cong., Commission for General Washington, in 2 [105] Fowler, William Morgan, Jr. “Valley Forge”. World Book Encyclopedia 20 (2002 ed.). World Book Inc. p. 266. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 96–7 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905). [106] Rogers, J. David. “George Washington: God’s Man for America” (PDF). Missouri University of Science and [84] Cont'l Cong., Instructions for General Washington, in 2 Technology. Retrieved January 19, 2011. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 100–1 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905). [107] Ferling (2000, p. 186) [85] Alden (1993, p. 124) [108] Peale, Charles Willson. “Frederick William Augustus, [86] Higginbotham (1985, ch. 3) Baron Von Steuben”. Portraits from the Middle Theater, American Revolutionary War. Independence National [87] “Creation of the War Department”. Papers of the War DeHistorical Park, National Park Service Museum Collecpartment, 1784–1800. Fairfax, Virginia: Center for Histions. Retrieved June 2, 2011. tory and New Media. January 20, 2011. Retrieved June 3, 2011. [88] Carp (1990, p. 220)

[109] “This Day in History: American Revolution – June 18, 1778, British abandon Philadelphia”. History.com. Retrieved June 2, 2011.

[89] Jensen, Richard (February 12, 2002). “Military History of the American Revolution”. Jensen’s Web Guides. Uni- [110] “Battle of Monmouth 1778”. Rediscovering George Washversity of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved January 18, 2011. ington. PBS. 2002. Retrieved June 2, 2011. [90] Stephenson, Orlando W. (January 1925). “The Sup- [111] Grizzard (2002, p. 303) ply of Gunpowder in 1776”. The American Historical Review (University of Chicago) 30 (2): 271–281. [112] Alden (1993, p. 184) doi:10.2307/1836657. JSTOR 1836657. [113] Barbara Alice Mann (2008). George Washington’s War [91] Lengel (2005); Higginbotham (1985, pp. 125–134) on Native America. U. of Nevada Press. p. 106. ISBN 9780803216358. [92] Bickham, Troy O. (January 2002). “Sympathizing with Sedition? George Washington, the British Press, and [114] Alden (1993, pp. 185–186) British Attitudes during the American War of Independence”. The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohun[115] Alden (1993, pp. 187–188) dro Institute of Early American History and Culture) 59 (1): 101–122. doi:10.2307/3491639. ISSN 0043-5597. [116] Alden (1993, p. 190) JSTOR 3491639. [93] McCullough (2005, pp. 186–195)

[117] Alden (1993, p. 193)

[94] Alden (1993, p. 137)

[118] Lancaster & Plumb (1985, p. 311)

[95] Ketchum (1999, p. 235)

[119] Alden (1993, pp. 198–199)

[96] Fischer (2004, p. 367)

[120] Alden (1993, pp. 198, 201)

[97] “American Presidents: George Washington”. American- [121] Presidents.com. 2011. Retrieved November 13, 2011. [122] [98] Henderson, Donald (2009). Smallpox: The Death of a Disease. New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978- [123] 1591027225. [99] Buchanan (2004, p. 226) [100] Higginbotham (1971, ch. 8)

Mann (2005, p. 38); Lancaster & Plumb (1985, p. 254). Alden (1993, pp. 201–202) Kohn, Richard H. (April 1970). “The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat”. The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture) 27 (2): 187–220. doi:10.2307/1918650. JSTOR 1918650.

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[124] Wright, Robert K.; Morris J. MacGregor (1987). “The Peace Establishment (George Washington, Sentiments on a Peace Establishment, 2 May 1783)". Soldier-statesmen of the Constitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. Government). p. 193. Retrieved September 7, 2012.

[148] Unger (2013, p. 237) [149] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, p. 290) [150] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, pp. 240, 285, 290, 361) [151] Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. New York: Penguin Press. p. 427. ISBN 1-59420-009-2.

[125] Wright, Robert K.; Morris J. MacGregor (1987). “The Articles of Confederation”. Soldier-statesmen of the Con- [152] Alden (1993, pp. 243–244) stitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. [153] Webb, William B.; Wooldridge, John (1892). “Chapter Government). p. 27. Retrieved September 7, 2012. IV: Permanent Capital Site Selected”. In Crew, Harvey W. Centennial History of the City of Washington, D.C. [126] Washington, George. “Letter to Continental Army, Dayton, Ohio: United Brethren Publishing House. p. 87. November 2, 1783, Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry OCLC 2843595. Retrieved December 29, 2011. Knox, November 2, 1783”. George Washington Papers, 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts. Library of [154] Coakley, Robert W. (1996) [1989]. The Role of Federal Congress. Retrieved November 13, 2011. Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878. DIANE Publishing. pp. 43–49. ISBN 978-0-7881-2818-9. [127] Alden (1993, p. 210) Retrieved November 13, 2011. [128] Wood (1992, pp. 105–106) [129] Brookhiser (1996, p. 103) [130] Alden (1993, p. 209)

[155] Kohn, Richard H. (December 1972). “The Washington Administration’s Decision to Crush the Whiskey Rebellion” (PDF). The Journal of American History 59 (3): 567–584. doi:10.2307/1900658. JSTOR 1900658.

[131] John Shi, “Review,” Journal of Southern History (May [156] Ellis (2004, p. 225) 1990) 46:2 p. 336. [157] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, pp. 335–354) [132] “George Washington, Covenanter squatters Historical [158] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, ch. 9) Marker”. ExplorePA. WITF. 2011. Retrieved January 7, [159] Estes, Todd (Autumn 2000). “Shaping the Politics of 2014. Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty De[133] Unger (2013, p. 33) bate”. Journal of the Early Republic 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.; Estes, Todd [134] Alden (1993, p. 221) (2001). “The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty”. The Virginia Maga[135] Alden (1993, pp. 226–227) zine of History and Biography 109 (2): 127–158. JSTOR 4249911. [136] Alden (1993, p. 229) [137] “Constitution of the United States”. The Charters of Free- [160] Varg, Paul A. (1963). Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. dom. National Archives and Records Administration. Repp. 95–122. OCLC 425621. trieved January 3, 2011. [161] [138] “The President’s House: Freedom and Slavery in the Making of a New Nation”. Independence National Historical [162] Park. National Park Service. Retrieved January 3, 2011. [163] [139] Jensen (1948, pp. 178–179) [140] Unger (2013, pp. 61, 146) [141] “Presidential Oaths of Oﬃce”. Presidential Inaugurations. Library of Congress. Retrieved November 13, 2011. [142] Alden (1993, p. 236) [143] [144] [145] [146] [147]

Grizzard (2005, p. 263) Lengel (2005, p. 357) “VI. Religion and the Federal Government”. Religion and the Founding of the American Republic. Library of Congress Exhibition. Retrieved November 13, 2011.

[164] Washington, George (1796). “Washington’s Farewell Address”. Avalon Project. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved November 29, 2010.

[165] Matthew Spalding, “The Command of its own Fortunes: Reconsidering Washington’s Farewell Address” in Chernow (2010, Kindle location 11,386) Fishman, Pederson & Rozell (2001, ch. 2); Virginia Arbery, “Washington’s Farewell Address and the Form of Unger (2013, p. 79) the American Regime” in Gregg & Spalding (1999, pp. 199–216) John Spencer Bassett (1906). The Federalist System, 1789-1801. Harper & Brothers. p. 155. [166] Breen, Eleanor E.; White, Esther C. (December 2006). “A Pretty Considerable Distillery—Excavating Ellis (2004, pp. 197–198) George Washington’s Whiskey Distillery” (PDF). QuarWhite, Leonard D. (1948). The Federalists: A Study in terly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia Administrative History. New York: Macmillan Co. p. (Archeological Society of Virginia) 61 (4): 209–220. Retrieved November 4, 2011. 100. OCLC 1830658.

41.14. REFERENCES

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[187] “Today in History: May 22”. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 2, 2011.

[171] “Lucius (Titus) Quinctius Cincinnatus”. Kentucky Educational Television. Retrieved May 20, 2014. [188] “The Funeral”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 5, [172] Kristin Fahrenbruck Baumgartner. “American Cincin2006. Retrieved July 3, 2011. natus”. characterﬁrst online library. Retrieved May 20, 2014.

[189] Boorstin, Daniel J. (1965). The Americans: The National Experience. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 349–350. [173] “The Poems of Philip Freneau, Volume II (of III)". ISBN 0-394-70358-8. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 2014-09-06. [174] “Ode to Napoleon Buonoparte”. Retrieved May 20, 2014. [190] Johnston, Elizabeth Bryant (1889). Visitors’ Guide to Mount Vernon (16th ed.). Washington, D.C: Gibson [175] Vadakan, Vibul V. (Winter–Spring 2005). “A physician Brothers, printers. pp. 14–15. OCLC 22376201. Relooks at the death of Washington”. The Early America trieved July 3, 2011. Review 6 (1). [191] Washington, George; Jeﬀerson, Thomas; Peters, Richard [176] “James Craik (1730-1814)". George Washington’s Mount (1847). Knight, Franklin, ed. Letters on Agriculture. Vernon. Retrieved June 4, 2013. Washington, The editor; Philadelphia, W. S. Martien. pp. 177–180. OCLC 3347675. Retrieved November 13, [177] Lear, Tobias (1799). Tobias Lear to William Augustine 2011. Washington December 15, 1799 (The Writings of George Washington, Volume 14). G. P Putman & Sons. p. 257. [192] “Mount Vernon Visited; The Home of Washington As It Retrieved June 4, 2013. Exists Today”. The New York Times. March 12, 1881. p. [178] Ernst, Edzard; Singh, Simon (2008). Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 9–12.

2. The body was placed in this sarcophagus on October 7, 1837, when the door of the inner vault was closed and the key thrown in the Potomac.

[179] Mitgang, Herbert (December 14, 1999). “Death of a [193] Saﬁre, William, ed. (2004). Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 185. president: a 200-year-old malpractice debate”. New York ISBN 0-393-05931-6. Retrieved December 29, 2011. Times. [180] Felisati, D; Sperati, G (February 2005). “George Wash- [194] Parry (1991, p. xi) ington (1732–1799)". Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica [195] Hindle, Brooke (1980) [1964]. David Rittenhouse. New 25 (1): 55–58. PMC 2639854. PMID 16080317. York: Arno Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-405-12569-0. Retrieved October 7, 2010. [181] Lear, Tobias (December 14–25, 1799). “Tobias Lear’s Journal Account of George Washington’s Last Illness and [196] 5 U.S.C. § 6103 Death 14-25 December 1799”. Papers of George Washington (University of Virginia). Archived from the origi- [197] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter W” (PDF). nal on July 6, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2013. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [182] Wallenborn, White McKenzie (November 5, 1997). “George Washington’s Terminal Illness: A Modern Med[198] Cunliﬀe (1958, pp. 24–26) ical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington”. The Papers of George Washington (Uni- [199] Hughes (1926, pp. 1:24, 501) versity of Virginia). Archived from the original on April [200] Grizzard (2002, pp. 45–47) 13, 2005. Retrieved June 1, 2013. [183] Craik, James; Dick, Elisha (December 31, 1799). [201] Cohen, Sheldon S. (April 1991). “Monuments to Great“Doctors Craik and Dick’s Account of Washington’s Last ness: George Dance, Charles Polhill, and Benjamin Illness and Death”. The Papers of George Washington West’s Design for a Memorial to George Washington”. (University of Virginia). Archived from the original on Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 99 (2): 187– July 6, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2013. 203. JSTOR 4249215.

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[202] Savage, Kirk (2009). Monument Wars: Washington, D.C., [219] Lengel, Edward G. (ed.). “The Papers of George Washthe National Mall, and the Transformation of the Memorial ington: Digital Edition”. University of Virginia. ReLandscape. Berkeley,Calif: Univ.of California Press. pp. trieved March 7, 2011. 32–45. ISBN 978-0-520-25654-5. [220] “NYC Auction Of George Washington Document Sets [203] “Washington Monument State Park”. Annapolis, MD: Record”. CBS News New York. Retrieved June 22, 2012. Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved [221] Dann, John C. (May 8, 2004). “Case 5—Family BackDecember 11, 2010. ground, Part I”. George Washington: getting to know the [204] Schwartz, Barry (1990) [1987]. George Washington: The man behind the image. University of Michigan: William Making of an American Symbol. New York: Free Press. L. Clements Library. Retrieved December 19, 2011. ISBN 0-02-928141-5. [222] Homans, Charles (October 6, 2004). “Taking a New Look [205] Kloetzel, James E., ed. (2009). Scott 2010 Specialized at George Washington”. The Papers of George WashingCatalogue of United States Stamps & Covers. Sidney, ton: Washington in the News. Alderman Library, UniverOhio: Scott Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-89487-446-8. sity of Virginia. Archived from the original on September 1, 2006. Retrieved September 28, 2007. [206] Callahan, Charles H. (1998) [1913]. Washington: The Man and the Mason. Kila, Mont: Kessinger. pp. 329– [223] “FAQ > George Washington, 1732–1799”. The Papers of 342. ISBN 0-7661-0245-9. Retrieved August 25, 2010. George Washington. University of Virginia. n.d. Archived from the original on March 30, 2015. Retrieved May 4, [207] Weber, John (2009). An Illustrated Guide to the Lost Sym2015. bol. London: Simon & Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 1-41652366-9. Retrieved August 25, 2010. [224] Stuart, Gilbert. “George Washington (the Athenaeum portrait)". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved Decem[208] “Map of Washington”. Worldatlas. Retrieved January 3, ber 18, 2011. 2011. [209] “George Washington’s 50 Guinea Draft”. Philadelphia: [225] Chernow (2010, pp. 172–176) C.V. Starr Center for the Study of the American Experi[226] Chernow (2010, pp. 187–189) ence. December 23, 1782. Archived from the original on June 9, 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2011. [227] Lloyd, John; Mitchinson, John (2006). The Book of General Ignorance. New York: Harmony Books. p. 97. ISBN [210] “Board of Visitors and Governors”. Chestertown, Mary978-0-307-39491-0. Retrieved July 3, 2011. land: Washington College. Archived from the original on August 19, 2011. Retrieved December 17, 2011. [211] “Most Common U.S. Street Names”. Washington, D.C.: National League of Cities. 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2013.

[228] Glover, Barbara (Summer–Fall 1998). “George Washington—A Dental Victim”. The Riversdale Letter. Retrieved June 30, 2006.

[229] Dentures, 1790–1799, George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate, Museum and Gardens [212] “July 4th Marks 150th Anniversary of the Dedication Of Union Square’s George Washington Monument”. City of [230] Mary V. Thompson, “The Private Life of George WashNew York Parks & Recreation. 2006. Retrieved July 7, ington’s Slaves”, Frontline, PBS 2012. [213] “The George Washington Equestrian Monument”. The [231] “The Portrait—George Washington:A National Treasure”. Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved Virginia State Capitol History Project. Retrieved July 7, January 21, 2011. 2012. [214] “Virginia Washington Monument”. National Park Ser- [232] Chernow (2010, ch. 66) vice. Retrieved July 7, 2012. [233] Striner, Richard (2006). Father Abraham: Lincoln’s Relentless Struggle to End Slavery. Oxford University Press. [215] “The Great Seal of the Confederacy”. Home of the Amerp. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-518306-1. ican Civil War. June 1, 2002. Retrieved January 18, 2011.

[234] Stewart, David O. (2007). The Summer of 1787. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432[216] “The addition of the statue of President George Washing8692-3. ton to the National Statuary Hall Collection”. Oﬃce of the Clerk, US House of Representatives. Retrieved July [235] Dunbar, Erica Armstrong (February 16, 2015). “George 14, 2012. Washington, Slave Catcher”. New York Times. Retrieved February 16, 2015. [217] “Houdon Statue of George Washington”. The GW and Foggy Bottom Encyclopedia. December 21, 2006. Re[236] Twohig, Dorothy (October 1994). "'That Species of Proptrieved August 24, 2010. erty': Washington’s Role in the Controversy Over Slav[218] Fitzpatrick, John (ed). “Writings of George Washington ery”. The Papers of George Washington. University of – Online Fitzpatrick edition”. University of Virginia. ReVirginia. Archived from the original on April 13, 2005. trieved March 7, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011.

41.15. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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[237] Hirschfeld (1997, pp. 11–12) [238]

[239] [240]

[241]

[254] Paul F. Boller, “George Washington and Religious Liberty.” William and Mary Quarterly (1960): 486-506. in Haworth, Paul Leland (2004) [1915]. George WashingJSTOR ton: Farmer. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. pp. 78–80. ISBN 1-4191-2162-6. Retrieved November 14, [255] Johnson (1919, pp. 87–195) 2011. [256] Chernow (2010, ch. 12) Ellis (2004, p. 192) [257] Espinosa (2009, p. 52) Wood, Gordon (December 16, 2004). “The Man Who Would Not Be King”. The New Republic (carried at pow- [258] Chernow (2010, ch. 12, note 14) ells.com). Retrieved August 4, 2006. [259] Novak, M. and Novak, J., Washington’s God: Religion, Slave raffle linked to Washington’s reassessment of slavLiberty, and the Father of Our Country, Basic Books, ery: Wiencek (2003, pp. 135–36, 178–88). Washington’s 2007, p. 158. decision to stop selling slaves: Hirschfeld (1997, p. 16). Influence of war and Wheatley: Wiencek (2003, ch. 6). [260] Novak, M. and Novak, J., Washington’s God: Religion, Dilemma of selling slaves: Wiencek (2003, p. 230); Ellis Liberty, and the Father of Our Country, Basic Books, (2004, pp. 164–167); Hirschfeld (1997, pp. 27–29). 2007, p. 161.

[242] Washington, George (April 12, 1786). “Letter to Robert [261] Mackey, Albert G. (November 4, 1852). “Washington as Morris”. The Papers of George Washington: The Confeda Freemason”. Charleston, SC: Phoenixmasonry Masonic eration Series, Volume 4. University of Virginia. Archived Museum and Library. Retrieved February 17, 2010. from the original on May 3, 2006. Retrieved November 14, 2011. [262] Chernow (2010, pp. 27, 704) [243] Lawler Jr., Edward. “Washington, the Enslaved, and the [263] Harris, R. W. Claude (August 25, 2000). “Washington 1780 Law”. Retrieved July 21, 2012. and Freemasonry” (PDF). Lodge Anecdotes. AlexandriaWashington Lodge No. 22, A.F. & A.M. Retrieved De[244] Nash, Gary B. (2006). “For Whom will the Liberty Bell cember 28, 2011. Toll? From Controversy to Cooperation”. In James Oliver Horton & Lois E. Horton. Slavery and Public History: The [264] “History”. Alexandria-Washington Lodge No. 22, A.F. Tough Stuﬀ of American Memory. Chapel Hill: University & A.M. Retrieved December 28, 2011. of North Carolina Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-0-80785916-2. [265] Trotter, Gordon T., Yorktown Issue, National Postal Museum online. [245] Lawler Jr., Edward. “Oney Judge”. Retrieved July 21, 2012. [266] Trotter, Gordon T., [3c Constitution Sesquicentennial plate block of four Constitution Sesquicentennial Issue], [246] For the text of Washington’s letters in which he contests National Postal Museum online. the law, see http://www.ushistory.org/presidentshouse/ slaves/washingtonand8.htm [267] Haimann, Alexander T., Washington Inauguration Issue, [247] Craig LaBan, "A birthday shock from Washington’s chef", Philadelphia Inquirer, February 22, 2010, accessed April 2, 2012 [248] Grizzard (2005, pp. 285–286) [249] “The Will of George Washington: Slave Lists”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. June 1799. Archived from the original on April 27, 2005. Retrieved August 6, 2009. [250] Ferling (2009, p. 364) [251] “Martha Washington and Slavery”. www.mountvernon. org. George Washington’s Mount Vernon/Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. Retrieved March 26, 2015. [252] Thompson, Mary (2008). In The Hands of a Good Providence. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8139-2763-3. [253] Gregg L. Frazer, The Religious Beliefs of America’s Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution (University Press of Kansas, 2012)

National Postal Museum online.

41.15 Bibliography For a list of written works, see George Washington bibliography.

• Alden, John R. (1993). George Washington, a Biography. Norwalk: Easton Press. • Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-40642-3. • Anderson, Fred (2005). The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (abridged ed.). New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0670-03454-3.

226 • Bell, William Gardner (2005) [1983]. Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army’s Senior Officer. Washington, D.C: Center of Military History, United States Army. pp. 52–53, 66–67. ISBN 0-16-072376-0. CMH Pub 70–14. • Boller, Paul F. (1963). George Washington & Religion. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press. OCLC 563800860. • Boller, Paul F. (1995). Not So!: Popular Myths About America from Columbus to Clinton. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19509186-8. • Brookhiser, Richard (1996). Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-82291-1. • Buchanan, John (2004). The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-44156-4. • Bumgarner, John R. (1994). The Health of the Presidents: The 41 United States Presidents Through 1993 from a Physician’s Point of View. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-89950-956-8. • Carp, E. Wayne (1990) [1984]. To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-8078-4269-0. Retrieved November 13, 2011. • Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7., Pulitzer Prize • Cunliffe, Marcus (1958). George Washington, Man and Monument. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 58007859. • Dalzell, Robert F., Jr.; Dalzell, Lee Baldwin (1998). George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512114-7. • Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1995) [1993]. The Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0., standard political history of 1790s • Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. • Espinosa, Gastón (2009). Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush with Commentary and Primary Sources. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231-14332-5.

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON • Ferling, John E. (2000). Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jeﬀerson, and the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513409-5. • Ferling, John E. (2009). The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-465-0. • Ferling, John E. (2010) [1988]. First of Men: A Life of George Washington. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539867-0. • Fischer, David Hackett (2004). Washington’s Crossing. Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517034-2. • Fishman, Ethan M.; Pederson, William D.; Rozell, Mark J., eds. (2001). George Washington, Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96868-5. • Flexner, James Thomas (1965). George Washington: the Forge of Experience, 1732–1775. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 426484. • Flexner, James Thomas (1974). Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-28605-2. • Freeman, Douglas Southall (1948). George Washington, a Biography 7 v. New York: Scribner. OCLC 732644234. • Freeman, Douglas Southall (1968). Harwell, Richard Barksdale, ed. Washington. New York: Scribner. OCLC 426557. • Gregg, Gary L., II; Spalding, Matthew, eds. (1999). Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition. Wilmington, Del: ISI Books. ISBN 1-882926-38-2. • Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2002). George Washington: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-082-4. • Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2005). George!: A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista, Va: Mariner Pub. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. • Higginbotham, Don (1971). The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 142627. • Higginbotham, Don (1985). George Washington and the American Military Tradition. Athens: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-0786-6. • Higginbotham, Don, ed. (2001). George Washington Reconsidered. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-2005-1.

41.16. EXTERNAL LINKS • Higginbotham, Don (2002). George Washington: Uniting a Nation. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littleﬁeld Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-2208-3. • Hirschfeld, Fritz (1997). George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1135-6. • Hofstra, Warren R., ed. (1998). George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison, Wis: Madison House. ISBN 0-945612-50-8. • Hughes, Rupert (1926). George Washington... New York: W. Morrow & Co. OCLC 17399028. • Jensen, Merrill (1948). The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. OCLC 498124. • Johnson, William (1919). George Washington, the Christian. New York: The Abingdon Press. OCLC 19524242. Retrieved December 29, 2011. • Ketchum, Richard M. (1999) [1973]. The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-6098-7. • Lancaster, Bruce; Plumb, John H. (1985). The American Revolution. New York: American Heritage Press. ISBN 0-8281-0281-3., heavily illustrated • Lengel, Edward G. (2005). General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8. • Mann, Barbara Alice (2005). George Washington’s War on Native America. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-98177-0. • Middlekauﬀ, Robert. Washington’s Revolution: The Making of America’s First Leader (2015), the revolution from General Washington’s perspective Excerpt • McCullough, David (2005). 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2671-2. • O'Brien, Conor Cruise (2009). First in Peace: How George Washington Set the Course for America. Foreword by Christopher Hitchens. Cambridge: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81619-2. • Parry, Jay A.; Allison, Andrew M. (1991). The Real George Washington: The True Story of America’s Most Indispensable Man. United States: National Center for Constitutional Studies. ISBN 9780-88080-014-3. • Randall, Willard Sterne (1997). George Washington: A Life. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2779-3.

227 • Rasmussen, William M. S.; Tilton, Robert S. (1999). George Washington-the Man Behind the Myths. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-1900-2. • Unger, Harlow Giles (2013). “Mr. President” George Washington and the Making of the Nation’s Highest Oﬃce. Boston: Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group. ISBN 978-0-30682241-4. • Vadakan, Vibul V., M.D. (Winter–Spring 2005). “A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington”. The Early America Review (DEV Communications) 6 (1). ISSN 1090-4247. • Wallenborn, White McKenzie, M.D. (November 5, 1997). “George Washington’s Terminal Illness: A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. • Wiencek, Henry (2003). An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-17526-8. • Wood, Gordon S. (1992). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: A.A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-40493-7.

41.16 External links • George Washington at DMOZ • “Dec. 14, 1799: The excruciating ﬁnal hours of President George Washington” (PBS) • American President: George Washington (1732– 1799) at the Miller Center of Public Aﬀairs, University of Virginia • George Washington: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress • George Washington Resources at the University of Virginia Library • Original Digitized Letters of George Washington Shapell Manuscript Foundation • • The Papers of George Washington at the Avalon Project • The Papers of George Washington, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives • George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate, Museum & Gardens

228

CHAPTER 41. GEORGE WASHINGTON • Discover the Real George Washington: New Views from Mount Vernon, a traveling exhibit

• George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Virginia from the National Park Service • Copies of the wills of General George Washington: the ﬁrst president of the United States and of Martha Washington, his wife (1904), edited by E. R. Holbrook • Rediscovering George Washington at PBS • “What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader?". EDSITEment: Lesson Plans. National Endowment for the Humanities. • Works by George Washington at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about George Washington at Internet Archive • Works by George Washington at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Chapter 42

Gibbes Museum of Art 28, 1903, removing the remains of the South Carolina Agricultural Hall which had occupied the lot.[6] Although work on the foundations had begun already, a ceremony was held on December 8, 1903, to lay the cornerstone of the building at the northeast corner.[7] The museum formally opened on April 11, 1905. The collection on display on the opening day included more than 300 pictures, many bronzes, and about 200 miniatures in addition to an “instructive collection” of Japanese prints.[8] The Gibbes Museum of Art looks virtually identical to its original appearance, seen here in a postcard dated 1907.

Formerly known as the Gibbes Art Gallery, the Gibbes Museum of Art is an art museum in Charleston, South Carolina. Established as the Carolina Art Association in 1858, the museum moved into a new Beaux Arts building at 135 Meeting Street, in the Charleston Historic District, in 1905. The Gibbes houses a premier collection of over 10,000 works of fine art, principally American works, many with a connection to Charleston or the South. The benefactor, James Shoolbred Gibbes, donated $100,000 to the Carolina Arts Association upon his death in 1899 for the “erection of a suitable building for the exhibitions of paintings.” Receipt of the money by the city, however, was delayed by a will contest filed by nieces and nephews of Gibbes. Their case was heard in the state court of New York during 1900 and 1901. On December 6, 1901, the New York Supreme Court (the state’s trial-level court) issued an opinion declaring that the gift to Charleston was valid.[1][2] Receiving the money in 1903, the Association hired Frank Pierce Milburn to design the gallery. His design included a Tiffany-style dome, Doric columns and pediment capped windows and doors. Milburn completed the drawings of the building in mid-1903, and a drawing of the proposed building appeared in the Charleston Evening Post on June 5, 1903.[3] Notices were published seeking contractors’ bids for the work starting in August 1903.[4] In September 1903, H.T. Zacharias was selected as the contractor and received a contract for $73,370 for the building.[5] Zacharias started work on September

At present, the museum is completing a year and a half renovation project through the generosity of over 400 individuals and organizations. The renewal was necessary for a building that is 111 years old, but, more importantly, has provided the opportunity for a new vision for the museum -- where art is created, explored, as well as displayed. Public spaces on the first floor include artist studios, lecture rooms, reception rooms, cafe, and gift shop which opens onto a world class garden suitable for weddings or other festive gatherings. The second floor retains its Beaux Arts elegance, but now will have improved LED lighting and an ingenious display for its famous collection of American art miniatures. Office space on the second and third floors has been reconfigured to provide increased area for new exhibits and an enhanced display of “The Charleston Story” . The Gibbes will now enhance lives through art for the entire diverse community that lives in and visits Charleston. The museum’s collections include the work of numerous artists with connections to Charleston; among them are Henrietta Johnston, Mary Roberts, Charles Fraser, William Melton Halsey,[9] and Jeremiah Theus.

42.1 References

229

[1] “The Gibbes Bequest”. News & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). December 7, 1901. p. 10. [2] “Gibbes Bequest Is Sustained”. Evening Post (Charleston, South Carolina). December 7, 1901. p. 2. [3] “The James S. Gibbes Art Institute”. Evening Post (Charleston, South Carolina). June 5, 1903. p. 6.

230

[4] “Notice to Contractors”. Evening Post (Charleston, South Carolina). August 3, 1903. p. 4. [5] “Gets Contract for Institute”. Evening Post (Charleston, South Carolina). September 15, 1903. p. 7. [6] “Gibbes Art Institute - Front Elevation”. Evening Post (Charleston, South Carolina). September 28, 1903. p. 5. [7] “With Masonic Rites”. News & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). December 9, 1903. p. 8. [8] “The Gibbes Art Gallery”. News & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). April 12, 1905. p. 2. [9] Severens, Martha R. (1999). William Halsey : essay. Greenville, S.C.: Greenville County Museum of Art. p. 14. ISBN 096032464X.

42.2 External links • Oﬃcial website

CHAPTER 42. GIBBES MUSEUM OF ART

Chapter 43

Fireproof Building The Fireproof Building, also known as the County Records Building, is located at 100 Meeting Street, Charleston, South Carolina. Built in 1827, it was the most completely ﬁre-resistant building in America and it is believed to be the oldest ﬁre-resistant building in America today.[3] It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973.

• Passive ﬁre protection • Fire test • Active ﬁre protection

43.3 References [1] Staﬀ (2007-01-23). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

43.1 Description and history The Fireproof Building is set in central Charleston, at the northwest corner of Washington Square. It is a two-story masonry structure, set on a tall stone foundation with an arcade of round-arch openings, and built out brick that has been stuccoed to resemble stone.[4] The building is in the Palladian style, with Doric porticoes north and south, and achieves a sophisticated appearance with clean and crisp lines, and relatively little ornamentation. Inside, the building has an oval stair hall lit by a cupola. The stone stairs are cantilevered through three stories.

[2] “Fireproof Building”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-0321. [3] “Fireproof Building, Charleston County (100 Meeting St., Charleston)". National Register Properties in South Carolina listing. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 2008-03-21. [4] Tray Stephenson and Bernard Kearse (April 20, 1973). “National Register of Historic Places InventoryNomination: The Fireproof Building” (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying one photo, exterior, from 1971 PDF (32 KB)

The building was designed by Robert Mills and constructed by John G. Spindle in 1827. Mills, the nation’s first domestically-trained architect, was an early advocate of buildings designed to include fire-resistant materials. It was originally used to house offices and records for Charleston County offices. Today, the building is the home of the South Carolina Historical Society.[5] The Fireproof Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969,[1] and further was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973.[2][4]

[5] Edgar, Walter, ed. The South Carolina Encyclopedia, University of South Carolina Press, 2006, p. 325, ISBN 157003-598-9

43.4 External links

43.2 See also • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

• Fireproof Building, Charleston County (100 Meeting St., Charleston), including 7 photos, at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. SC-13-2, "County Records Building, 100 Meeting Street (at Chalmers Street), Charleston, Charleston County, SC", 27 photos, 1 color transparency, 8 measured drawings, 5 data pages, 3 photo caption pages, supplemental material • Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary

• Fireprooﬁng • Firestop 231

232 • Robert P. Stockton, Information for Guides of Historic Charleston, South Carolina 350 (1985). • South Carolina Historical Society • U.S. National Park Service

CHAPTER 43. FIREPROOF BUILDING

Chapter 44

Nathaniel Russell House The Nathaniel Russell House is a historic house at 51 Meeting Street in Charleston, South Carolina, United States.[2][3] Built by wealthy shipping merchant Nathaniel Russell in 1808, it is recognized as one of America’s most important Neoclassical houses.[4] It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973.[1]

44.1 Mansion and grounds 44.1.1

Architecture

brick, the three bay entrance front emphasizes height rather than width with the main living areas on the second and third-stories. The house is 9,600 square feet (890 m2 )[5] with 6,000 square feet (560 m2 ) of living area. The first-story entrance front is dominated by the residence’s grand entrance door. The eight-panel door is faux-grained and is encased by fluted pilasters, and topped by an elliptical fanlight detailed with looped tracery set within a molded nichelike arch. The entrance is flanked by single unadorned windows. The three windows on the second-floor are emphasized by their floor length, ornamented with white marble lintels and are set in recessed red-brick arches with white keystones, tied together with a narrow white string course that runs around the entire perimeter of the house. Also featured is a light wrought-iron balcony that breaks out in a semicircle before each of the second-story windows, and displays Nathaniel Russell’s initials in the center. A balcony also surrounds the projecting bay on the south side of the house, but does not interconnect with the one on the entrance front. Above the second-story brick arches is found a subtle red, double-brick string course that is topped with three additional windows on the third floor with prominent marble lintels. The architectural details that are found on the entrance front is carried over to the south facing façade, and can be viewed from the garden. A paneled balustrade runs fully about the central block and the south bay rendering the low hipped roof imperceptible.[6]

44.1.2 Interior First ﬂoor

South Bay of house

Russell commissioned an unknown architect to build a large townhome in the then popular Federal-style. Sited on a large city lot in downtown Charleston, the rectangular house has a symmetrical façade, with a projecting four-sided bay that rises the full three-stories of the central block of the house. Constructed of Carolina gray

The interior of the Nathaniel Russell house is greatly influenced by the Adam style, popular at the first of the 19th-century, that introduced curved walls, elaborate plasterwork decorations and striking mixed color schemes. The house features three main rooms per floor each of different geometric designs: a front rectangular room, a center oval room, and a square room in the rear.[4] The rectangular entrance hall with a black and white diamond patterned floorcloth edged with a leaf motif, and the adjacent office was where Russell would

233

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CHAPTER 44. NATHANIEL RUSSELL HOUSE terior and tortoise shell on the interior. Curved mullioned mirrors on one side of the room balance the windows to provide symmetry and reflect light in the room.[6] The large rectangular withdrawing room found at the front of the house has soft gray walls and white wainscoting that offsets the multilayered gilded cornice molding. The windows are surrounded with tall slender pilasters and overhanging entablatures, that add dimension to the walls. With windows on three sides, the room was utilized primarily during the day to take advantage of the daylight and breezes. At the rear of the house is the square shaped master bedroom, and additional bedchambers are found on the third floor.[6] Though most of the art and furniture displayed in the house are not original to the Nathaniel Russell House, they are of the correct time period for when the Russell family inhabited the house, and many are of Charleston origin.

Elliptical spiral staircase, which ascends three ﬂoors

conduct business. Separating the public rooms at the front of the house from the more private rooms used by the family, wide faux-grained double doors with glazed rosette patterned insets and an elliptical fan shaped transom, gives access to the golden walled stair hall that showcases the most important architectural feature of the house, the cantilevered spiral staircase, that ascends to the third floor. The asymmetrical hall is illuminated by a Palladian window, and further ornamented with trompel'œil painting resembling a plaster cornice and an elliptical medallion that were painted by Charleston artisan Samuel O'Hara. Off the central stair hall is the oval dining room, with turquoise walls that appear painted, but are small squares of unpatterned wallpaper bordered with interlocking rings, in red and gold, above cypress wainscoting painted white.[6] The heart-pine floors and the wood interior shutters are original. At the rear of the house is a square parlor, that was enlarged at a later date to connect the house with the kitchen, and was used by the family for everyday dining. Second floor The second-floor oval drawing room is the most highly decorated room in the house and is where the women of the house retired to after dinner. Papered in apricot, it features elaborate plaster moldings covered with 24karat gold leaf and plinth blocks at the base painted to resemble lapis lazuli. The Adamesque ornamentation of the fireplaces’ mantles and cornices are among the most detailed in the city.[7] The curved entry doors are fauxgrained to resemble flame-grained mahogany on the ex-

Nathaniel Russell House Slave Quarters

44.1.3 Grounds The house and grounds are separated from the street by a brick and wrought iron fence with the entrance gate flanked by tall brick columns capped with stone ball finials. To the south of the house is the garden that was originally laid out in a geometric arrangement with patterned beds of flowers, ornamental shrubs and large orange and grapefruit trees.[8] Today a formal English garden can be found with gravel paths, boxwood hedges and plants favored in the 19th-century. In the rear of the house is the two-story slave quarters that housed many of the estimated 18 slaves that were at the Nathaniel Russell House.

44.2 History Nathaniel Russell (1738-1820) originally from Rhode Island, settled in Charleston in 1765, becoming a prosperous shipping merchant. In 1788, Russell married Sarah Hopton (1752-1832), a member of one of Charleston’s

44.6. EXTERNAL LINKS wealthiest families at the age of 50, and two daughters were born soon after, Alicia in 1789 and Sarah in 1792. As one of the wealthiest citizens in Charleston, Nathaniel Russell sought to build a more prestigious home to display his prominence in the city. Construction began on the house in 1803, and the Federal style house was completed five years later at a cost of $80,000, when 70-yearold Nathaniel and his family moved into their new home. The house remained in the Russell family until 1857 when it was purchased by Robert Allston (1801-1864), a successful rice planter who lived in the mansion while he was governor of South Carolina . In 1870, his executors sold it to the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy where it served as a boarding school from 1870 through 1905, upon which the mansion was converted back to a private residence by the Mullally and Pelzer families. In 1955, when it became apparent that the garden may be subdivided after the house had languished on the market for two years, the Historic Charleston Foundation was created to preserve the property. Within 30 days, the Foundation was able to raise the $65,000 needed to purchase the property, and opened the house for public tours soon after. In 1995, the Historic Charleston Foundation embarked on a multi-year study and restoration of the mansion to return the interior finishes and architectural details to how it looked when first built. Grants and donations have enabled the acquisition of a significant collection of objects with Charleston provenance, to allow the Foundation to interpret Charleston’s merchant elite in the early 19thcentury.[4] It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973, and is today a popular attraction in Charleston.[9]

44.3 Gallery • View of the gardens, ending in a small green lawn, surrounding the house

44.4 See also • Charleston Female Seminary • Edmondston-Alston House • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

44.5 References [1] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

235

[2] Stephenson, Tray; Bernard Kearse (April 25, 1973). “Nathaniel Russell House”. National Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. National Park Service. [3] “Nathaniel Russell House” (pdf). Photographs. National Park Service. Retrieved 26 May 2012. [4] “Nathaniel Russell House”. Historic Charleston Foundation. Retrieved January 12, 2007. [5] “Whole Building Systems Completes Energy Survey and Engineering Analysis of Nathaniel Russell House Museum in Historic Charleston, SC”. reuters.com. February 21, 2013. Retrieved April 12, 2015. [6] Sully, Susan. “Charleston Architecture and Interiors”. Retrieved April 13, 2015. [7] “The Nathaniel Russell House”. Talk of the Towne. Retrieved January 12, 2007. [8] Cothran, James R. “Gardens of Historic Charleston”. Retrieved April 14, 2015. [9] “Nathaniel Russell House”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 200803-22.

44.6 External links • Nathaniel Russell House, at the Historic Charleston Foundation • Nathaniel Russell House, Charleston County (51 Meeting St., Charleston), at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. SC-145, "Nathaniel Russell House, 51 Meeting Street, Charleston, Charleston County, SC", 11 photos, 3 data pages, 1 photo caption page • HABS No. SC-145-A, "Nathaniel Russell House, Dependencies", 2 photos, 1 photo caption page • Historic Charleston Foundation — Gallery of images of the Nathaniel Russell House • Google maps — Satellite image centered on the building

Chapter 45

Gov. William Aiken House Not to be confused with William Aiken House and Associated Railroad Structures.

Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. Retrieved 10 June 2012. [3] “Governor William Aiken House, Charleston County (48 Elizabeth St., Charleston)". National Register Properties in South Carolina listing. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 2008-04-03.

The Gov. William Aiken House, also known as the Aiken-Rhett House, or the Robinson-Aiken House, is a home built in 1820 at 48 Elizabeth Street in Charleston, South Carolina.[2] It was a home of William Aiken, Jr., a governor of South Carolina, and before that was a home of his father, the railroad company owner William Aiken.[3]

45.3 External links • Oﬃcial website • Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. SC-269, "Robinson-Aiken House, 48 Elizabeth Street, Charleston, Charleston County, SC", 81 photos, 11 measured drawings, 10 data pages, 5 photo caption pages • HABS No. SC-269, "Robinson-Aiken House, Slave Building and Kitchens", 4 photos, 2 measured drawings, 5 data pages, 1 photo caption page

Gov. William Aiken House

The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.[1] Historic Charleston Foundation owns and operates the Aiken-Rhett House as a historic house museum, as well as the Nathaniel Russell House.

45.1 See also • William Aiken House and Associated Railroad Structures

45.2 References [1] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [2] McNulty, Kappy (March 15, 1977). “Governor William Aiken House, Robinson-Aiken House” (pdf). National

236

• HABS No. SC-275, "Robinson-Aiken House, Service Building and Stable", 5 photos, 3 measured drawings, 5 data pages, 1 photo caption page • HABS No. SC-274, "Robinson-Aiken House, Cow House", 3 photos, 2 measured drawings, 3 data pages, 1 photo caption page • HABS No. SC-277, "Robinson-Aiken House, Necessary Building", 3 photos, 2 measured drawings, 4 data pages, 2 photo caption pages

Chapter 46

Heyward-Washington House The Heyward-Washington House is a historic house museum at 87 Church Street in Charleston, South Carolina. Built in 1772, it was home to Thomas Heyward, Jr., a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, and was where George Washington stayed during his 1791 visit to the city. It is now owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. Furnished for the late 18th century, the house includes a collection of Charleston-made furniture. Other structures include the carriage shed and 1740s kitchen building.

46.2 See also

The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970.[2][3]

46.3 References

• Edmondston-Alston House • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

[1] Staﬀ (2007-01-23). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

46.1 History Built in 1772, this Georgian-style double house was the town home of Thomas Heyward, Jr., one of four South Carolina signers of the Declaration of Independence. A patriot leader and artillery oﬃcer with the South Carolina militia during the American Revolutionary War, Heyward was captured when the British took Charleston in 1780. He was exiled to St. Augustine, Florida, but was exchanged in 1781.

[2] “Heyward-Washington House”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-02-27. [3] James Dillon (1978). “National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Heyward-Washington House” (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying two photos, exterior, from 1969 PDF (32 KB)

46.4 External links

The City rented this house for George Washington's use during the President’s week-long Charleston stay, in May 1791, and it has traditionally been called the “HeywardWashington House.” Heyward sold the house in 1794 to John F. Grimke, also a Revolutionary War officer and father of Sarah and Angeline Grimke, the famous abolitionists and suffragettes. It was acquired by the museum in 1929, opened the following year as Charleston’s first historic house museum, and was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1978. Here you will see a superb collection of historic Charleston-made furniture including the priceless Holmes Bookcase, considered one of the finest examples of American-made colonial furniture. The property also features the only 1740s kitchen building open to the public in Charleston as well as formal gardens featuring plants commonly used in the South Carolina Lowcountry in the late 18th century. 237

• Heyward-Washington House, Charleston County (87 Church St., Charleston), at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • The Heyward-Washington House, at The Charleston Museum

Chapter 47

Joseph Manigault House The Joseph Manigault House is a historic house museum at 350 Meeting Street in Charleston, South Carolina that is owned and operated by the Charleston Museum. Built in 1803, it was designed by Gabriel Manigault to be the home of his brother, and is nationally signiﬁcant as a well-executed and preserved example of Adam style architecture. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973.[2][3]

47.2 See also • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

47.3 References [1] Staﬀ (2007-01-23). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

47.1 Description and history The Manigault House is located near the center of the Charleston peninsula, at the corner of Meeting and John Streets. It is a three story brick structure, set on a raised brick foundation. The main facade has a two-story porch across the center three bays, with elaborate doorways on both floors featuring slender pilasters and sidelight windows. A semicircular stairwell projects from one sidewall, and a bowed porch from the other, giving the house the rough shape of a parallelogram. The interior features delicately refined woodwork in its fireplace mantels, door and window moulding, and cornices, reflective of the style promoted by Robert Adam, which differentiated the scale of these elements in domestic and civic architecture.[3] The gatehouse standing near the property entrance is a architectural folly.[2]

[2] “Joseph Manigault House”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved March 8, 2008. [3] Tray Stephenson and Bernard Kearse (April 19, 1993). “National Register of Historic Places InventoryNomination: Joseph Manigault House” (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying one photo, exterior, from 1960 PDF (32 KB)

47.4 External links

The house was built in 1803 for Joseph Manigault to a design by his brother Gabriel. Gabriel Manigault had studied architecture in London before the American Revolutionary War, and was familiar with Robert Adams’ design principles. This was the ﬁrst major work of his to exhibit these principles, and was also one of the ﬁrst houses in Charleston that was not obviously based on the standard “single house” and double house” models then commonly used. The house also includes a number of construction elements designed to minimize problems with pests.[3] In 1920, the house was threatened with demolition to make way for a gas station. In response, a group of Charlestonians organized a preservation group which would become the Preservation Society of Charleston. 238

• Joseph Manigault House, at The Charleston Museum • Joseph Manigault House, Charleston County (350 Meeting St., Charleston), at South Carolina Department of Archives and History

Chapter 48

City Market (Charleston, South Carolina) The City Market, or Centre Market, is a historic market complex in downtown Charleston, South Carolina. Established in the 1790s, the market stretches for four city blocks from the architecturally-signiﬁcant Market Hall, which faces Meeting Street, through a continuous series of one-story market sheds, the last of which terminates at East Bay Street. The Market Hall has been described as a building of the “highest architectural design quality.”[1] The entire complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Market Hall and Sheds and was further designated a National Historic Landmark.[1][4] Initially known as the Centre Market, Charleston’s City Market was developed as a replacement for the city’s Beef Market building (on the site of Charleston’s City Hall, 100 Broad Street), which burned in 1796. Market Hall, designed by Charleston architect Edward B. White, was added in the early 1840s. Throughout the 19th century, the market provided a convenient place for area farms and plantations to sell beef and produce, and also acted as a place for locals to gather and socialize.[5] Today, the City Market’s vendors sell souvenirs and other items ranging from jewelry to Gullah sweetgrass baskets. Since 1899, the City Market has housed Charleston’s Confederate Museum.

48.1 Design Market Hall is a Greek Revival-style building consisting of one raised story resting atop a rusticated open groundlevel arcade. The building’s high base and frontal portico were inspired by Greek and Roman temples such as the Temple of Portunus and Temple of Athena Nike.[1] The portico contains four Doric columns that support the entablature and pediment, and is accessed by a double ﬂight of stairs with elaborate iron work. The upper ﬂoor is scored in an ashlar pattern. The cornice, portico, and Doric capitals are red sandstone, while the triglyphs and moldings are cement.[6] The metopes in the entablature are decorated with alternating bucrania and rams’ heads, which are symbols for a meat market. The hall’s exterior brick walls are covered with brownstone stucco.[6]

Market Hall (prior to restoration), with sheds stretching into the distance

The City Market stretches for 1,240 feet (380 m) through a continuous series of sheds oriented east-to-west, and flanked by North Market Street on the north side and South Market Street on the south.[6] Market stalls occupy the first story of Market Hall, and continue through a one-story shed that stretches from the rear of the hall to Church Street. The second shed stretches from Church to Anson Street, the third from Anson to State Street, and the fourth from State Street to East Bay. The sheds are simple rectangular structures with open stalls and center walkways. Since their completion in the early 19th century, the sheds have been renovated and rebuilt numerous times due to damage from earthquakes, fire, and other disasters.[6]

48.2 History Charleston’s first public market was established in 1692 at the corner of Broad and Meeting streets, although a formal brick building wasn't built at the site until 1739. This first “Beef Market” was replaced by a more appealing structure in 1760, and within a short period, new markets for fish and general merchandise were established along Vendue (Queen) and Tradd streets.[5] In 1788, the family of Revolutionary War general Charles Cotesworth Pinckney donated a strip of recovered marshland for the establishment of the “Centre Market,” which would stretch

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CHAPTER 48. CITY MARKET (CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA) the city enlisted local architect Edward B. White (1806– 1882) to design the current head-house, Market Hall, which was completed in 1841. The upper room of the hall initially served as a large assembly room, and later as a military recruiting oﬃce at the outbreak of the Civil War.[6] In 1899, the United Daughters of the Confederacy Chapter 4 began using Market Hall to house the Confederate Museum, which displayed Confederate artifacts and other items from the city’s Civil War period.[9] The museum closed in 1989 after Market Hall suﬀered substantial damage during Hurricane Hugo (including the partial removal of its roof), and was later reopened after having been temporarily housed in a Charleston kindergarten.[10]

Aerial view of the market

from the docks of Charleston Harbor all the way to Meeting Street.[6] The first market sheds were erected around 1790, and gradually expanded to occupy most of the strip from the harbor to Meeting Street by 1806.[6] After the Beef Market building burned in 1796, Charleston’s beef market was shifted to the Centre Market. In its early days, the market was primarily a place to sell foodstuffs, and was subdivided into sections for beef, fish, and farm produce. The market was also a social center, where the city’s lower and middle class residents could gather for drinking and playing games.[5] Vultures, which kept the market clean by eating discarded meat scraps, were a common sight at the market into the 20th century and were protected by law.[7][8]

By the early days of the twentieth century, the number of food merchants using the Market had dropped dramatically. In January 1901, the Charleston City Council took up the matter, and a report was endorsed to replace the market sheds between East Bay (to the east) and Anson Street (to the west) with a small park to reinvigorate the area.[11] While proponents of this action argued it would save taxpayer money on upkeep of the aging structures, a special committee of City Council reversed course following criticism from historical preservationists.[12] The same matter cropped up again at a City Council meeting on November 8, 1904, when a motion was adopted calling for the demolition of the market sheds between East Bay and Anson to be replaced with grounds laid out in “an ornamental fashion.”[13] The debate about the future of the structures remained alive through mid-1905 when City Council considered letters in support of saving the buildings as unique examples of their architecture in America. Preservationists suggested preserving the buildings as a covered walkway,[14] or converting the ﬁnal building (from East Bay to State Street) into a public bath house.[15] Business leaders, on the other hand, suggested the city demolish the Market and replace it with a freight station in a petition submitted to City Council in August 1905.[16] Finally, on September 12, 1905, the special committee investigating the options submitted a report to City Council which called for whitewashing the walls of the eastern sheds, removing the woodwork inside, and converting the sheds into a covered walkway until another use might be developed.[17] The work on the eastern buildings began in December 1906, and the remaining buildings were reorganized to collect meat vendors together along the northern side with fruit and vegetable vendors along the south.[18] On the morning of 29 September 1938, a series of tornadoes swept through Charleston, killing 32, injuring 100, and destroying $2 million in property. One tornado extensively damaged the City Market.[19]

Church Street entrance to the market, with Gullah sweetgrass basket vendors on the left

In 1838, a ﬁre destroyed the market’s head-house, and

On July 30, 1954, a plane spotting tower (complete with telephone) was opened atop one of the Market sheds for use by the Charleston Ground Observers Corps.[20] Following Hurricane Hugo in 1989, the building was re-

48.4. REFERENCES

241

Sheds, 20 April 1973. Retrieved: 26 May 2010. [2] Staﬀ (2007-01-23). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [3] “Market Hall and Sheds”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 200803-21. [4] “Market Hall and Sheds” (PDF). Photographs. National Park Service. Retrieved 26 May 2012. [5] Nicole Isenbarger, Otters, Hucksters, and Consumers: Placing Colonoware Within the Internal Slave Economy Framework (Master’s Thesis, University of South Carolina Department of Anthropology, 2006), pp. 66-70. [6] Jonathan H. Poston, The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture (University of South Carolina Press 1997), pp. 338-339, 395-396. [7] City Market Preservation Trust, History, Charelston City Market. Retrieved: 26 May 2010. [8] “Charleston’s Buzzards”. Charleston News & Courier. June 20, 1911. p. 6. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [9] “The Home of Many Relics”. Charleston News & Courier. April 15, 1906. p. 22. Retrieved September 10, 2012. Market Entrance

stored by the City of Charleston and received a Carolopolis Award from the Preservation Society in January 2003. The building was repainted in its original colors, which included strong ochre coloring and bright green ironwork, much to the displeasure of many locals, including the mayor of Charleston.[6] A less colorful color scheme had been in place since 1906 when the main hall was painted “French gray and white with the door and railings a bronze green.”[21]

48.3 See also

[10] Tony Horwitz (1998). Confederates in the Attic (1st Vintage Departures ed.). Vintage Books. p. 52. ISBN 0679439781. [11] “About the New Park”. Charleston News & Courier. February 2, 1901. p. 10. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [12] “A Hearing Will Be Given”. Charleston News & Courier. June 4, 1901. p. 10. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [13] “Held a Short Session”. Charleston News & Courier. November 9, 1904. p. 7. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [14] “An Oﬀer Made by Council”. Charleston News & Courier. March 29, 1905. p. 7. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [15] “The Public Market Matter”. Charleston News & Courier. July 20, 1905. p. 8. Retrieved September 10, 2012.

• Market House (Fayetteville, North Carolina), a functionally similar National Historic Landmark

[16] “Do Away with the Market”. Charleston News & Courier. August 23, 1905. p. 10. Retrieved September 10, 2012.

• Quincy Market, in Boston, Massachusetts

[17] “Terminal Company Scored”. Charleston News & Courier. September 13, 1905. p. 5. Retrieved September 10, 2012.

• List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina

48.4 References [1] Tray Stephenson and Bernard Kearse, National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form for Market Hall and

[18] “Stalls Being Removed”. Charleston News & Courier. December 4, 1906. p. 10. Retrieved September 10, 2012. [19] http://www.erh.noaa.gov/chs/events/ 1938CharlestonTornadoes.shtml [20] “New Observation Post for Plane Spotters”. Charleston News & Courier. Aug 4, 1954. Retrieved Sep 9, 2012. [21] “Painting the Market”. Charleston News & Courier. June 9, 1910. p. 12. Retrieved Sep 9, 2012.

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CHAPTER 48. CITY MARKET (CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA)

48.5 External links • Historic Charleston City Market — oﬃcial site • Market Hall and Sheds, Charleston County (188 Meeting St., Charleston), including 8 photos, at South Carolina Department of Archives and History • Market Hall — Historic American Buildings Survey entry at the Library of Congress; contains dozens of photographs and architectural diagrams • Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary • Confederate Museum, Charleston • Photos of Exhibits from the Charleston Confederate Museum

Chapter 49

South Carolina Aquarium The South Carolina Aquarium, located in Charleston, South Carolina, opened on May 19, 2000, on the historic Charleston Harbor. It is home to more than ten thousand plants and animals including North American river otters, loggerhead sea turtles, alligators, great blue herons, hawks, owls, lined seahorses, jellyfish, pufferfish, green moray eels, horseshoe crabs, sea stars, pythons, and sharks. The largest exhibit in the Aquarium is the Great Ocean Tank, which extends from the first to the third floor of the Aquarium; it holds more than 385,000 US gallons (1,460,000 l) of water and contains more than seven hundred animals.[3] The Aquarium also features a Touch Tank, where patrons may touch horseshoe crabs, Atlantic stingrays, and other marine animals.

a Nile crocodile.

49.2 Sea Turtle Rescue Program In addition to education efforts in support of a healthy loggerhead sea turtle habitat, the South Carolina Aquarium utilizes its facilities to operate a Sea Turtle Hospital. The South Carolina Department of Natural Resources transports injured or stranded sea turtles to the hospital, after which aquarium staff and volunteers nurture the animal back to health. A staff veterinarian can perform surgery, administer x-rays, IVs, and even provide blood transfusions to turtles that are severely anemic.

Rehabilitated turtles are taken to a local beach and allowed to return to the ocean once they can live on their 49.1 Exhibits own. The average turnaround time for an injured turtle is 7–8 months. The aquarium has rehabilitated and released The Aquarium, jutting out 200 feet (61 m) into the over 130 sea turtles since it opened. Behind-the-Scenes [4] Charleston Harbor, offers a state-of-the-art environmen- Tours of the Sea Turtle Hospital can be taken. tal learning center that encompasses the entire spectrum of the Southeast Appalachian Watershed as found in South Carolina: The Mountain Forest, the Piedmont, the 49.3 Staffing and Funding Coastal Plain, the Coast, and the Ocean. The 93,000square-foot (8,600 m2 ) building includes 9 galleries feaThe aquarium has more than 80 paid staff, with a comturing 6,000-7,000 amazing aquatic animals, from river plement close to 400 volunteers. The volunteer program otters and sharks to loggerhead turtles, in more than 100 has become a model in the community. exhibits. A rotating exhibit on the first floor originally featured “Secrets of the Amazon,” a collection of ani- The South Carolina Aquarium is a private not-for-profit mals and plants native to the Amazon River basin. In education and conservation organization, funded by a 2008, this exhibit changed to “Camp Carolina,” a simu- combination of ticket, concession and souvenir sales, and lation of a camping experience in the mountains of South corporate, government and private donations. Carolina. Showcased animals include skunks, barn owls, snakes, and a bald eagle. Penguin Planet, a changing exhibit, was opened from 2009 to 2010 and featured four 49.4 Gallery Magellanic penguins. A rare albino American alligator, one of only 50 in the world now calls the Aquarium home • and is part of the Blackwater swamp exhibit. He is a permanent addition. In March 2011, the Aquarium reopened • “Liberty”, a bald eagle rescued from Naples, the renovated Salt Marsh exhibit which features a feed the Florida, resides in the Charleston aquarium. stingray experience. In the spring of 2012, the Aquarium opened a new exhibit in the changing exhibit space • Jellyfish called “Madagascar Journey” featuring ring-tailed lemurs on loan from the Duke Primate Center, tomato frogs, and • One of the many fish exhibits at the aquarium 243

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• Live albino alligator • Rattlesnakes on exhibit • Mountain Forest exhibit at the aquarium

49.5 References <div class="reﬂist columns references-column-width” style="-moz-column-width: [1] [2]

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[1] “Frequently Asked Questions”. scaquarium.org. South Carolina Aquarium. Retrieved June 12, 2012. [2] “List of Accredited Zoos and Aquariums”. aza.org. AZA. Retrieved June 12, 2012. [3] http://www.discoversouthcarolina.com/Insider/less_ traveled_2010/Stories/3082 [4] “Sea Turtle Rescue Program”. scaquarium.org. South Carolina Aquarium. Retrieved June 12, 2012.

49.6 External links • Media related to South Carolina Aquarium at Wikimedia Commons • Oﬃcial website

Chapter 50

Fort Sumter Fort Sumter is a sea fort in Charleston, South Carolina, notable for two battles of the American Civil War. It was one of a number of many special forts planned after the War of 1812, combining high walls and heavy masonry, and classiﬁed as Third System, as a grade of structural integrity. Work started in 1829, but was incomplete by 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the Union. It is open for public tours as part of the Fort Sumter National Monument operated by the National Park Service.

50.2 Civil War

The First Battle of Fort Sumter opened on 12 April 1861, when Confederate artillery fired on the Union garrison. These were the first shots of the war, and continued all day, watched by many civilians in a celebratory spirit. The fort had been cut off from its supply line, and surrendered next day. The Second Battle of Fort Sumter (8 September 1863) was a failed attempt by the Union to retake the fort, dogged by rivalry between army and navy commanders. Although the fort was reduced to rubble, it remained in Confederate hands until it was evacuated as Sherman marched through South Carolina in February 1865. Fort Sumter is now a National Monument with a Visitor Education Center.

50.1 Construction

Letter from William H. Seward advising President Lincoln on the obstacles in resupplying Fort Sumter, March 1861

Named after General Thomas Sumter, Revolutionary War hero, Fort Sumter was built following the War of 1812, as one of a series of fortifications on the southern U.S. coast to protect the harbors. Construction began in 1829,[2] and the structure was still unfinished in 1861, when the Civil War began. Seventy thousand tons of granite were imported from New England to build up a sand bar in the entrance to Charleston Harbor, which the site dominates. The fort was a five-sided brick structure, 170 to 190 feet (52 to 58 m) long, with walls 5 feet (1.5 m) thick, standing 50 feet (15.2 m) over the low tide mark. It was designed to house 650 men and 135 guns in three tiers of gun emplacements, although it was never filled near its full capacity.

On December 26, 1860, six days after South Carolina seceded from the Union, U.S. Army Major Robert Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, spiking its large guns, burning its gun carriages, and taking its smaller cannon with him to be trained on the city.[3] He secretly relocated companies E and H (127 men, 13 of them musicians) of the 1st U.S. Artillery to Fort Sumter on his own initiative, without orders from his superiors.[4][5][6][7][8] He thought that providing a stronger defense would delay an attack by South Carolina militia. The fort was not yet complete at the time and fewer than half of the cannons that should have been available were in place, due to military downsizing by President James

245

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Buchanan. In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, South Carolina Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because,” I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina.”[9] Over the next few months repeated calls for evacuation of Fort Sumter[10][11] from the government of South Carolina and then from Confederate Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard were ignored. Union attempts to resupply and reinforce the garrison were repulsed on January 9, 1861 when the first shots of the war, fired by cadets from the Citadel, prevented the steamer Star of the West, hired to transport troops and supplies to Fort Sumter, from completing the task. After realizing that Anderson’s command would run out of food by April 15, 1861, President Lincoln ordered a fleet of ships, under the command of Gustavus V. Fox, to attempt entry into Charleston Harbor and supply Fort Sumter. The ships assigned were the steam sloop-of-war USS Pawnee, steam sloop-of-war USS Powhatan, transporting motorized launches and about 300 sailors (secretly removed from the Charleston fleet to join in the forced reinforcement of Fort Pickens, Pensacola, FL), armed screw steamer USS Pocahontas, Revenue Cutter USRC Harriet Lane, steamer Baltic transporting about 200 troops, composed of companies C and D of the 2nd U.S. Artillery, and three hired tug boats with added protection against small arms fire to be used to tow troop and supply barges directly to Fort Sumter.[12][13] By April 6, 1861 the first ships began to set sail for their rendezvous off the Charleston Bar. The first to arrive was Harriet Lane, the evening of April 11, 1861.[14]

50.2.1

First Battle of Fort Sumter

Main article: Battle of Fort Sumter On Thursday, April 11, 1861, Beauregard sent three aides, Colonel James Chesnut, Jr., Captain Stephen D. Lee, and Lieutenant A. R. Chisolm to demand the surrender of the fort. Anderson declined, and the aides returned to report to Beauregard. After Beauregard had consulted the Confederate Secretary of War, Leroy Walker, he sent the aides back to the fort and authorized Chesnut to decide whether the fort should be taken by force. The aides waited for hours while Anderson considered his alternatives and played for time. At about 3 a.m., when Anderson finally announced his conditions, Colonel Chesnut, after conferring with the other aides, decided that they were “manifestly futile and not within the scope of the instructions verbally given to us”. The aides then left the fort and proceeded to the nearby Fort Johnson. There, Chesnut ordered the fort to open fire on Fort Sumter.[15] On Friday, April 12, 1861, at 4:30 a.m., Confederate batteries opened fire, firing for 34 straight hours, on the fort. Edmund Ruffin, noted Virginian agronomist and seces-

1861, inside the fort ﬂying the Confederate Flag

sionist, claimed that he fired the first shot on Fort Sumter. His story has been widely believed, but Lieutenant Henry S. Farley, commanding a battery of two 10 inch siege mortars on James Island fired the first shot at 4:30 A.M. (Detzer 2001, pp. 269–71). No attempt was made to return the fire for more than two hours. The fort’s supply of ammunition was not suited for the task; also, there were no fuses for their explosive shells, which means that they could not explode. Only solid iron balls could be used against the Rebel batteries. At about 7:00 A.M., Captain Abner Doubleday, the fort’s second in command, was given the honor of firing the Union’s first shot, in defense of the fort. He missed, in part because Major Anderson did not use the guns mounted on the highest tier, the barbette tier (where the guns could engage the confederate batteries better), where the gunners would be more exposed to Confederate fire. The firing continued all day. The Union fired slowly to conserve ammunition. At night the fire from the fort stopped, but the Confederates still lobbed an occasional shell into Sumter. On Saturday, April 13, the fort was surrendered and evacuated. During the attack, the Union colors fell. Lt. Norman J. Hall risked life and limb to put them back up, burning off his eyebrows permanently. A Confederate soldier bled to death having been wounded by a misfiring cannon. One Union soldier died and another was mortally wounded during the 47th shot of a 100 shot salute, allowed by the Confederacy. Afterwards the salute was shortened to 50 shots. Accounts, such as in the famous diary of Mary Chesnut, describe Charleston residents along what is now

50.2. CIVIL WAR

247

known as The Battery, sitting on balconies and drinking highest level, where they had wide angles of fire and could salutes to the start of the hostilities. fire down on approaching ships. The barbette was also The Fort Sumter Flag became a popular patriotic symbol more exposed to enemy gunfire than the casemates in the after Major Anderson returned North with it. The flag is two lower levels of the fort. still displayed in the fort’s museum. A supply ship Star of the West took all the garrison members to New York City. There they were welcomed and honored with a parade on Broadway.

50.2.2

Union siege of Fort Sumter

A special military decoration, known as the Gillmore Medal, was later issued to all Union service members who had performed duty at Fort Sumter under the command of Major-General Quincy Adams Gillmore Fort Sumter Armaments, August 17, 1863 • Interior View of Fort Sumter, taken by a Confederate photographer, 1864. • Exterior view of Fort Sumter, 1865. Banded riﬂe in foreground, fraise at top. • View of Fort Sumter from the sandbar, 1865. • View of Confederate-held Fort Sumter, 23 August 1863.

After the devastating bombardment, both Major General Quincy A. Gillmore and Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren, now commanding the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, determined to launch a boat assault on Fort Sumter for the night of September 8–9, 1863. CooperDrawing of Fort Sumter ation between the Army and Navy was poor. Dahlgren refused to place his sailors and marines under the comMain article: Second Battle of Fort Sumter mand of an army officer, so two flotillas set out towards Fort Sumter that night. The army flotilla was detained Union efforts to retake Charleston Harbor began on April off Morris Island by the low tide. By the time they could 7, 1863, when Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont, proceed, the navy assault had already been defeated and commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, the army flotilla returned to shore. led the ironclad frigate New Ironsides, the tower ironclad The navy’s assault involved 400 sailors and marines in Keokuk, and the monitors Weehawken, Pasaic, Montauk, 25 boats. The operation was a fiasco from beginning Patapsco, Nantucket, Catskill, and Nahant in an attack on to end. Poor reconnaissance, planning and communicathe harbor’s defenses (The 1863 Battle of Fort Sumter tion all characterized the operation. Commander Thomas was the largest deployment of monitors in action up to H. Stevens, Jr., commanding the monitor Patapsco, was that time). The attack was unsuccessful, the Union’s best placed in charge of the assault. When Commander ship, USS New Ironsides never effectively engaged, and Stevens protested that he “knew nothing of [the assault’s] the ironclads fired only 154 rounds, while receiving 2,209 organization " and “made some remonstrances on this from the Confederate defenders (Wise 1994, p. 30). Due grounds and others.” Dahlgren replied “There is nothto damage received in the attack, the USS Keokuk sank ing but a corporal’s guard [about 6–10 men] in the fort, the next day, 1,400 yards (1,300 m) off the southern tip of and all we have to do is go and take possession.” (Stevens Morris Island. Over the next month, working at night to 1902, p. 633). This underestimation of the Confederate avoid the attention of the Federal squadron, the Confed- forces on Dahlgren’s part may explain why he was hostile erates salvaged Keokuk’s two eleven-inch Dahlgren guns to a joint operation wishing to reserve the credit for the (Ripley 1984, pp. 93–6). One of the Dahlgren guns was victory to the navy. Less than half of the boats landed. promptly placed in Fort Sumter. Most of the boats that did land landed on the right flank The Confederates, in the meantime, were strengthening Fort Sumter. A workforce of just under 500 slaves, under the supervision of Confederate Army engineers, were filling casemates with sand, protecting the gorge wall with sandbags, and building new traverse,[16] blindages,[17] and bombproofs.[18] Some of Fort Sumter’s artillery had been removed, but 40 pieces still were mounted. Fort Sumter’s heaviest guns were mounted on the barbette, the fort’s

or right gorge angle, rather than on the gorge where there was a passable breach. The Union sailors and marines who did land could not scale the wall. The Confederates ﬁred upon the landing party and as well as throwing hand grenades and loose bricks. The men in the boats that had not landed ﬁred muskets and revolvers blindly at the fort, endangering the landing party more than the garrison. The landing party took shelter in shell holes in

248 the wall of the fort. In response to a signal rocket fired by the garrison, Fort Johnson and the Confederate warship CSS Chicora opened fire upon the boats and landing party. The boats that could withdraw withdrew, and the landing party surrendered. The Union casualties were 8 killed, 19 wounded, and 105 captured (including 15 of the wounded). The Confederates did not suffer any casualties in the assault.

CHAPTER 50. FORT SUMTER

50.3 After the war

Fort Sumter, ca. 1900

When the Civil War ended, Fort Sumter was in ruins. The U.S. Army worked to restore it as a useful military installation. The damaged walls were re-leveled to a lower height and partially rebuilt. The third tier of gun emplacements was removed. Eleven of the original first-tier gun rooms were restored with 100-pounder Parrott rifles. From 1876 to 1897, Fort Sumter was used only as an unmanned lighthouse station. The start of the Spanish– American War prompted renewed interest in its military use and reconstruction commenced on the facilities that had further eroded over time. A new massive concrete blockhouse-style installation was built in 1898 inside the Flag-raising over Fort Sumter, 14 April 1865 original walls, armed with two 12-inch M1888 guns, one on a disappearing carriage. Named “Battery Huger” in honor of Revolutionary War General Isaac Huger, it never After the unsuccessful boat assault, the bombardment saw combat. recommenced and proceeded with varying degree of intensity, doing more damage to Fort Sumter until the end One hundred and forty seven years after it was sent, a of the war. The garrison continued to suffer casualties. rolled up telegraphic message was found and eventually The Confederates continued to salvage guns and other given to a museum in Charleston, S.C. The telegram was material from the ruins and harassed the Union batteries dated April fourteenth, 1861 from the Governor of South on Morris Island with sharpshooters. The Confederates Carolina to Gazaway Bugg Lamar in New York with a mounted four 10-inch (250 mm) columbiads, one 8-inch most interesting message, part of which is told below: (200 mm) columbiad rifled, and two rifled 42-pounders, (for the complete text see “External Links”, Ft. Sumter in the left face, bottom tier casemates. The last Confed- telegram). erate commander, Major Thomas A. Huguenin, a grad- In 1966, the site was listed on the National Register of uate from The Citadel, The Military College of South Historic Places.[19][20][21] Carolina, never surrendered Fort Sumter, but General William T. Sherman's advance through South Carolina finally forced the Confederates to evacuate Charleston on 50.4 Fort Sumter National MonuFebruary 17, 1865 and abandon Fort Sumter. The Fedment eral government formally took possession of Fort Sumter on February 22, 1865 with a flag raising ceremony. One Union soldier was killed and another Union soldier was Fort Sumter National Monument encompasses three sites mortally wounded during the surrender ceremony (see in Charleston: the original Fort Sumter, the Fort Sumter above). Fifty two Confederate soldiers were killed there Visitor Education Center, and Fort Moultrie on Sullivan’s during the remainder of the war. While a number of Island. Access to Fort Sumter itself is by private boat slaves were killed while working at the fort, the exact or a 30-minute ferry ride from the Fort Sumter Visitor Education Center or Patriots Point. number is unknown.

50.5. NOTES

Fort Sumter National Monument

249

Tourists at Fort Sumter on a hot summer afternoon

Aerial view of Fort Sumter National Monument.

Cannon displayed at Fort Sumter

Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in downtown Charleston, South Carolina, the five small flags that were arranged in a semi-circle around the large flagpole flying the 50-star United States flag at Fort Sumter were lowered so that the South Carolina flag could be flown at half mast. Those flown include (1) a 33-star United States flag, (2) a Confederate First National Flag (Stars and Bars), (3) a South Carolina State Flag, (4) a Confederate Second National Flag (Stainless Banner), and (5) a 35-star United States flag. This display was added to Fort Sumter National Monument in the 1970s. In August The interior of Fort Sumter from the top of the fort 2015 the flag poles were removed to create a new exhibit The four historic national flags now fly on the lower paThe Visitor Education Center’s museum features exhibits rade ground.[22] about the disagreements between the North and South that led to the incidents at Fort Sumter. The museum at Fort Sumter focuses on the activities at the fort, including 50.5 Notes its construction and role during the Civil War. April 12, 2011 marked the 150th Anniversary of the start of the Civil War. There was a commemoration of the events by thousands of Civil War reenactors with encampments in the area. A United States stamp of Fort Sumter, and first day cover, was issued that day. On June 28, 2015, in the aftermath of the events of June 17, 2015, when a mass shooting took place at

[1] “Listing of acreage as of December 31, 2011”. Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved May 14, 2012. [2] “Fort Sumter National Monument — Draft General Management Plan Environmental Assessment” (PDF). National Park Service. 1998. p. 10. Retrieved July 30, 2015.

250

[3] See Wikipedia, Battle of Fort Sumter, and authorities there cited. [4] Elliot, p. 117 [5] Elliot, p. 103 [6] Robert Anderson to Rev. R. B. Duane, December 30, 1860 [7] Robert Anderson to Robert N. Gourdin, December 27, 1860. [8] Haskin, William, Major, 1st U.S. Artillery (1896). “History of the 1st U.S. Artillery”. Archived from the original on 2010-07-25. [9] James Buchanan (1911). The Works of James Buchanan: Comprising His Speeches, State Papers, and Private Correspondence. p. 178. [10] Elliot, p. 13 [11] Harris, W.A. (1862). The record of Fort Sumter, from its occupation by Major Anderson, to its reduction by South Carolina troops during the administration of Governor Pickens. Columbia, SC: South Carolinian Steam Job Printing Oﬁice. p. 7. Retrieved 27 September 2014. [12] Elliot, p. 240 [13] Oﬃcial Records of the Union and Confederate Navies Series I - Volume 4- Pages 223-225: [14] Elliot, p. 304 [15] Elliot, pp. 59–60

CHAPTER 50. FORT SUMTER

50.6 References • Allen, Kevin. “The Second Battle of Fort Sumter: The Debate over the Politics of Race and Historical Memory at the Opening of America’s Civil War Centennial, 1961.” The Public Historian (2011) 33#2 pp. 94–109 in JSTOR • Chesnut, Mary Boykin (2011). A Diary from Dixie. Waking Lion Press. ISBN 1-434103-22-6. • Hendrix, M. Patrick. A History of Fort Sumter: Building a Civil War Landmark (The History Press, 2014) • Cooper, William J. We Have the War Upon Us: The Onset of the Civil War, November 1860-April 1861 (2012) • Detzer, David R. (2001). Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston and the Beginning of the Civil War. New York: Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-100641-5. • Doubleday, Abner (1998). Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61. Charleston, SC: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company. ISBN 1877853-40-2. • Hendrix, M. Patrick. A History of Fort Sumter: Building a Civil War Landmark (The History Press, 2014) • Ripley, Warren (1984). Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War. Charleston, S.C.: The Battery Press. ISBN 0-88394-003-5. • Wise, Stephen R. (1994). Gate of Hell: Campaign for Charleston Harbor, 1863. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249985-5.

[16] Traverses, Civil War Fortiﬁcations dictionary.

50.6.1 Primary sources [17] Civil War Dictionary [18] Civil War Dictionary [19] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [20] Nelson, Benjamin G. (October 10, 1973). “Fort Sumter National Monument” (pdf). National Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. Retrieved 11 June 2012. [21] “Fort Sumter National Monument, Charleston County (Charleston Harbor and Sullivan’s Island)". National Register Properties in South Carolina. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 11 June 2012. [22] “Timeline Photos - Fort Sumter National Monument Facebook”.

• Elliott, Stephen, Jr. (1902). “Detailed report, September 12, 1863”. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office) 14: 637–9. • Scott, Robert N. (1890). “Return of Casualties in the Confederate forces at Fort Sumter, August 12 – December 11 (1863)". The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series I. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office). XXVIII (Part I): 650. • Stevens, Thomas H.. (1902). “Delayed report, September 28, 1865”. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office) 14: 633. Retrieved 2007-11-18.

50.7. EXTERNAL LINKS • Turner, John W. (1890). “Reports”. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Oﬃcial Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series I. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Oﬃce). XXVIII (Part I): 212–25.

50.7 External links • National Park Service’s Official Website for Fort Sumter • Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary • Battle of Fort Sumter: Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (CWPT) • Timeline and narrative of the battle of Fort Sumter • Major Robert Anderson’s telegram announcing the surrender of Fort Sumter—Image of original telegram • Battle of Fort Sumter—Historical Preservation Site • Crisis at Fort Sumter—Multimedia teaching tool from Tulane University including text from historical documents • Fort Sumter article at FortWiki.com • Fort Sumter at NorthAmericanForts.com • Charleston, SC Insider’s Guide—Short article about Ft. Sumter for travelers • Extensive collection of photos and drawings from The Library of Congress • The Civil War Field Fortifications Website • Charleston SC Real Estate—Webcam provides live streaming video of Fort Sumter • Letters associated with the first battle of Ft. Sumter • Abner Doubleday, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-'61, 1876, from Google Books • Ft. Sumter telegram http://www.postandcourier. com/article/20110413/ARCHIVES/304139995

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Chapter 51

The Battery (Charleston) nade, paralleling East Battery, as the street is known south of Water Street, to the intersection of Murray Boulevard, is known as High Battery. Fort Sumter is visible from the Cooper River side (High Battery) and from the point, as are Castle Pinckney, the World War II aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV-10), Fort Moultrie, and Sullivan’s Island. Two ten-inch Columbiads at the South Battery guard Charleston Harbor (1863)

As a tourist destination, the Battery is famous for its stately, mainly antebellum homes. Included among the grand houses are the Louis DeSaussure House (1 East Battery), the Roper House (9 East Battery), the William Ravenel House (13 East Battery),the Edmondston-Alston House (21 East Battery), the Charles Drayton House (25 East Battery), the Villa Margherita (4 South Battery), the William Washington House (8 South Battery), the Col. John A.S. Ashe House (26 South Battery), the James Spear House (30 South Battery), and the Col. John Ashe House (32 South Battery). Fort Broughton (ca. 1735) and Fort Wilkins (during the American Revolution and War of 1812) occupied White or Oyster Point, so named because of the piles of bleached oyster shells on the point at the tip of the peninsula. In the 18th century, rocks and heavy materials were used to fortify the shore of the Cooper River on the eastern side of the peninsula. In 1838, this area along the seawall became a promenade. First used as a public park in 1837, the area now known as White Point Garden became a place for artillery during the American Civil War. In popular speech and in a number of unoﬃcial guidebooks and Web sites, The Battery and White Point Garden are sometimes referred to as “Battery Park,” but the park and seawall promenade are not regarded by the City of Charleston as a single entity, and the term “Battery Park” is not an oﬃcial designation.

Closeup of a Columbiad at South Battery (1863)

The Battery is a landmark defensive seawall and promenade in Charleston, South Carolina. Named for a civilwar coastal defense artillery battery at the site, it stretches along the lower shores of the Charleston peninsula, bordered by the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, which meet here to form Charleston harbor. Historically, it has been understood to extend from the beginning of the seawall at the site of the former Omar Shrine Temple (40-44 East Bay Street) to the intersection of what is now Murray Boulevard and King Street. The higher part of the prome-

In 2004, a structural report by the City of Charleston showed that the Battery was suﬀering serious problems and could fail to protect the southeastern portion of the city during hurricanes. In 2012, the City announced that a $3.2 million restoration project would soon commence at the juncture of High Battery (along East Battery) and Low Battery (along Murray Blvd.).[1]

252

51.2. REFERENCES

The Battery in ruins from shellﬁre, April, 1865

A historic home on the Battery.

51.1 See also Media related to Battery Park (Charleston) at Wikimedia Commons • Charleston Battery, a professional men’s soccer team in the Charleston area.

51.2 References [1] “Finally a ﬁx for the Battery”. Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved Dec 26, 2012.

Coordinates: 32°46′09″N 79°55′44″W / 32.7692°N 79.9288°W

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Chapter 52

Rainbow Row to restore them immediately. In 1931, Dorothy Haskell Porcher Legge purchased a section of these, house numbering 99 through 101 East Bay, and began to renovate them. She chose to paint these houses pink based on a colonial Caribbean color scheme. Other owners and future owners followed suit, creating the “rainbow” of pastel colors present today. The coloring of the houses helped keep the houses cool inside as well as give the area its name. By 1945, most of the houses had been restored.[1] Common myths concerning Charleston include variants on the reasons for the paint colors. According to some tales, the houses were painted in the various colors such that the intoxicated sailors coming in from port could remember which houses they were to bunk in. In other verRainbow row sions, the colors of the buildings date from their use as stores; the colors were used so that owners could tell illitRainbow Row is the name for a series of thirteen color- erate slaves which building to go to for shopping. ful historic houses in Charleston, South Carolina. It represents the longest cluster of Georgian row houses in the United States. The houses are located north of Tradd St. and south of Elliot St. on East Bay Street, that is, 83 to 107 East Bay Street. The name Rainbow Row was coined after the pastel colors they were painted as they were restored in the 1930s and 1940s. It is a popular tourist attraction and is one of the most photographed parts of Charleston.

52.1 History Rainbow Row originally fronted directly on the riverfront of the Cooper River, but that land was subsequently filled Panoramic image of Rainbow Row in. Merchants constructed commercial buildings with stores on the first (ground) floor and living quarters above. Most of the buildings had no interior access between the first and second floors; exterior stairs were located in the yards behind the houses. In 1778, a fire destroyed much of the neighborhood, and only 95 to 101 East Bay Street were spared.

52.2 Houses

After the Civil War, this area of Charleston devolved into near slum conditions. In the 1920s, Susan Pringle Frost, the founder of the Society for the Preservation of Old Rainbow Row is composed of thirteen diﬀerent buildings, Dwellings, now the Preservation Society of Charleston, most of which share party walls with their neighboring bought six of the buildings, but she lacked the money houses. The following are summaries of the buildings. 254

52.2. HOUSES

52.2.1

255

79-81 East Bay Street

The two-part structure at the northwest corner of Tradd St. and East Bay St. anchors the southern end of Rainbow Row. The southernmost building dates from about 1845 (making it the newest building in Rainbow Row), while the adjoining building at 81 East Bay St. was built after a 1778 ﬁre and before 1785.[2]

52.2.2

83 East Bay Street

The William Stone House was built in about 1784 by a Tory merchant who left Charleston for England during the Revolutionary War. An earlier building was destroyed in a ﬁre in 1778, but it had been replaced by the time the tract was sold in 1784. Susan Pringle Frost bought 83 East Bay Street and restored it as a dwelling in 1941, adding a neoclassical balcony to the front and replacing a storefront with a Colonial Revival style door.[3] 89 East Bay St. was built in about 1770.

52.2.3

85 East Bay Street

52.2.6 91 East Bay Street

The house at 85 East Bay Street was probably built near the time of the American Revolution. Like others on Rainbow Row, it had a commercial use on the ground ﬂoor (viz., a ship chandlery) and living space above. The interior living space displays Chinese Chippendale details. In 1944, the house was purchased by Mrs. Louise Graves and restored. It was the last house along Rainbow Row to be restored following many years of vacancy.[4]

Merchants Peter Leger and William Greenwood bought a building at 91 East Bay Street in 1774, but it was destroyed in a fire in 1778. In 1793, the building was sold to Nathaniel Russell, a Rhode Island merchant. After a series of owners and uses, Susan Pringle Frost bought the house in 1920; she sold it to New York playwright John McGowan in 1941. McGowan removed Greek Revival details which had been added to the house in the 19th century and had the current details created including the large arched doors on the first floor and roofline.[7] In the 52.2.4 87 East Bay Street panoramic photo above, 91 East Bay St. is the second house from the left. In the panoramic photo above, the In 1778, a former building was destroyed in a fire and house is at the extreme right edge. was replaced by Scottish merchant James Gordon after he bought the land in 1792. The four-story building was purchased by Susan Pringle Frost in 1920, and she sub- 52.2.7 93 East Bay Street sequently did some of the restoration work. She added a balcony to the front of the house before reselling it The James Cook House was built in about 1778 and had a in 1955. The house still has its original windows and commercial use on the first floor with a residence above. Following its restoration, there is a kitchen and dining stucco.[5] room on the first floor and a drawing room and library on the second floor.[8] In the panoramic photo above, 93 East Bay St. is the bright yellow house, third from the 52.2.5 89 East Bay Street left. Like its neighbors, 89 East Bay Street, also known as the Deas-Tunno House, was built for commercial uses with residential space above. It was constructed in about 1770 and is unlike most houses along Rainbow Row in that it includes a side yard separating it from the adjacent house to the south. The garden is screened by a wall with a balustrade. A garage fronts the sidewalk.[6]

52.2.8 95 East Bay Street Because of gaps in the chain of title, a builder for 95 East Bay Street has been impossible to pinpoint. However, it has stylistic clues which suggest a connection to the neighboring houses at 97 and 99-101 East Bay Street and

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CHAPTER 52. RAINBOW ROW

a possible connection to the builder of those buildings, Othniel Beale. In 1779, 95 East Bay Street was owned by Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. In 1789, a commercial interest bought the property, but the storefront window was later replaced with the existing pair of entrances and small windows.[9] The house was restored by New York playwright John McGowan in 1938.[10] In the panoramic photo above, 95 East Bay St. is the green, four story house with Flemish gable rooﬂine.

was restored in the 1930 by Anna Wells Rutledge with the assistance of architects Simons and Lapham.[14]

52.2.11 105 East Bay Street The Dutarque-Guida House was built after the tract was acquired by Lewis Dutarque in 1778. The building was bought by Italian immigrant Giovanni Domenico Guida who installed an iron, Victorian storefront on the building with his name displayed. Anna Wells Rutledge purchased the building in 1970 and retained the storefront. It is the only building on Rainbow Row to retain its Victorian storefront.[15]

52.2.12 107 East Bay Street

Drawing, Othniel Beale House and Rainbow Row, Historic American Buildings Survey

52.2.9

97 and 99-101 East Bay Street

John Blake bought the lot at the southwest corner of Elliott St. and East Bay St. in 1791 and immediately executed an agreement with the owner of the neighboring property to the south at 105 East Bay St. The neighboring house had been built eight inches across the property line onto Blake’s new lot. In exchange for receiving a deed to the misplaced wall, Blake agreed to build a gutter to drain water from between the existing building and the one which he planned to construct. Thus, 107 East Bay Street seems to date to about 1792. During more than 200 years, the house has seen many alterations to its appearance and interior. Indeed, when the house was bought by Irving Solomon in the 1970s, the new owner was unable to determine the original conﬁguration for restoration. A two-story kitchen house stands behind 107 East Bay St. and can be seen from Elliott St.; it is now a separate house titled 1 Elliott St.[16]

Othniel Beale bought the lot upon which 97 East Bay St. is built in March 1741 for a price not indicating the presence of a building. When he added a small piece of land to his lot in 1748, the deed referred to his “new Brick Store” as one of the landmarks. Beale also built the adjoining 99-101 East Bay St., a building which shares a roof, party wall, and decorative elements. After the death 52.3 Further reading of Beale, both properties passed through several owners and uses. Susan Pringle Frost bought 97 East Bay Street • The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the and resold it in 1936.[11] Judge Lionel K. Legge and Mrs. City’s Architecture by Jonathan H. Poston, Historic Dorothy Legge undertook a restoration of 99-101 East Charleston Foundation [12] Bay Street starting in July 1931. Their house was the ﬁrst on Rainbow Row to be restored along Rainbow Row; Coordinates: 32°46′32″N 79°55′38″W / 32.77556°N Mrs. Dorothy Haskell Porcher Legge was recognized for 79.92722°W her groundbreaking restoration work on the house with an award from the Preservation Society of Charleston [1] Stockton, Robert (July 30, 1979). “Rainbow Row Saw in 1992.[13] Detailed plans of the house were produced Hard Times”. Charleston News & Courier. pp. B–1. Refor the Historic American Buildings Survey and can be trieved November 3, 2013. viewed here. In the panoramic photo above, 99-101 East Bay St. is the widest house shown, and 97 East Bay is the [2] Poston, Jonathan (1997). The Buildings of Charleston. The University of South Carolina. p. 100. ISBN 1blue house with three windows and a door on the ground 57003-202-5. ﬂoor to its left.

52.2.10

103 East Bay Street

The Joseph Dulles House was built about 1787. The builder was an ancestor of John Foster Dulles. The house

[3] Poston, Jonathan (1997). The Buildings of Charleston. The University of South Carolina. pp. 101–101. ISBN 1-57003-202-5. [4] “Last Rainbow Row House is Sold”. Charleston News & Courier. June 2, 1944. p. 4. Retrieved November 3, 2013.

52.3. FURTHER READING

[5] Poston, Jonathan (1997). The Buildings of Charleston. The University of South Carolina. p. 102. ISBN 157003-202-5. [6] “Maternal Welfare Bureau Completes Plans for Tour”. Mar 12, 1947. p. 5. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [7] Stockton, Robert (Apr 23, 1979). “91 East Bay Street Has Long History”. Charleston News & Courier. pp. B– 1. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [8] “Rainbow Row House On Tour”. Charleston News & Courier. Feb 24, 1969. pp. 5–A. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [9] Stockton, Robert (May 14, 1979). “House Is Missing Its 'Twin'". Charleston News & Courier. pp. B–1. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [10] “East Bay House to Be Restored”. Charleston News & Courier. July 29, 1938. pp. 2–B. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [11] Stockton, Robert (May 7, 1979). “97 East Bay Street Built Around 1741”. Charleston News & Courier. pp. B–1. Retrieved November 3, 2013. [12] “Building in July”. News and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). August 4, 1931. p. 12. [13] Givens, Dorothy (Nov 20, 1992). "'Trendsetter' Legge wins Frost Award”. Charleston Post & Courier. pp. 3– B. [14] Poston, Jonathan. The Buildings of Charleston. The University of South Carolina. p. 106. [15] Poston, Jonathan (1997). The Buildings of Charleston. The University of South Carolina. pp. 106–107. [16] Stockton, Robert (Feb 21, 1977). “Rainbow Residence Housed Store”. Charleston News & Courier. pp. B–1. Retrieved November 3, 2013.

257

Chapter 53

Charleston Battery For other uses, see The Battery (Charleston). Charleston Battery is an American professional soccer club based in Charleston, South Carolina. Founded in 1993, the team plays in the United Soccer League and, along with the Richmond Kickers, is the oldest continuously operating professional club in the United States. Charleston is one of the more successful lower division soccer teams in the United States, having previously won the USISL Pro League in 1996, the USL A-League in 2003, and the ﬁnal season of the USL Second Division in 2010.[1] In 2012, the team won the USL Pro Championship, winning its fourth title in club history. The club has played its home games at the soccer-speciﬁc MUSC Health Stadium in the Daniel Island section of Charleston since 1999. The team’s colors are black and yellow, with a traditional red scheme for away uniforms. Since 2005, their head coach and general manager has been Mike Anhaeuser.

53.1 History

Calichman and Eric Wynalda while also bringing in notable foreign signings such as Terry Phelan and Raul Diaz Arce. In 2001 Dicks was replaced by fellow Englishman Chris Ramsey, who led Charleston to the A-League championship in 2003 with a 3-0 victory in the final over Minnesota Thunder in Charleston. Following Ramsey’s departure in 2004, the club promoted longtime player and assistant coach Mike Anhaeuser to be the club’s new manager. In 2008 the Battery reached the Lamar Hunt US Open Cup final for the first time, playing against Major League Soccer team D.C. United at RFK Stadium.[2] In the final the Battery conceded an early goal but bounced back with a quick-fire equalizer through an Ian Fuller goal, assisted by Chris Williams. Later in the half Lazo Alavanja hit the post but at half time the scores were tied at 1–1. At the start of the second half Charleston conceded early again, but in the final seconds of extra time Marco Reda put the ball in the back of the net for Charleston, only to have his goal controversially disallowed as offside. D.C. United would go on to win the match 2–1. Charleston remain the most recent non-MLS club to play in the Open Cup final.

In 2010 Charleston was invited by several other USL clubs to join the breakaway league eventually known as the North American Soccer League, but the Battery chose to remain in the USL system and self-relegate to the USL Second Division, which eventually became the chief USL professional division. In their first third division season in 2010, Charleston led the league standings for the entire year and went undefeated at home. Charleston defeated the Richmond Kickers 2–1 in the final to claim the club’s third league championship. Lamar Neagle was named the USL-2 league MVP and lead the league in scoring with 13 league goals.[3] Anhaeuser was named the league’s manager of the year, his second time receiving the honor.[3] In 2012 the Battery won their fourth league title in club history, defeating local rivals Wilmington In 1999 the Battery moved into what is now known as Hammerheads 1-0 in the final. Micheal Azira scored a MUSC Health Stadium, becoming the first non-Major 74th-minute winner after Jose Cuevas slipped a pass to League Soccer club in the United States to build its own him on the left side of the penalty area. stadium, and forged a reputation as one of the country’s most well-established lower division clubs. The Battery On January 23, 2014, it was announced that the Battery hired veteran English coach Alan Dicks and signed many had signed a one-year deal to become the USL Pro afexperienced domestic players such as Paul Conway, Dan filiate of Vancouver Whitecaps FC.[4] For the 2015 seaThe Battery was formed in 1993 by an ownership group of local soccer enthusiasts led by Tony Bakker, a native of London who had relocated his software company Blackbaud to the Charleston area in 1989. The club hired experienced college coach and University of South Carolina graduate Tim Hankinson to develop the team, and the Battery started as a member of the USISL, which eventually evolved and came to be known as the USL in 1995. The Battery won the their first league championship in 1996 under Portuguese manager Nuno Piteira, defeating the Charlotte Eagles 3–2 in the final. In 1997 Charleston became one of the original clubs of the newly branded A-League (later the USL First Division).

258

53.5. PLAYERS AND STAFF

259

son, the Battery signed a one-year deal to aﬃliate with and commentary from former players Stephen Armstrong the Houston Dynamo on December 22, 2014.[5] and Nelson Akwari. On January 15, 2016, it was announced that the club would be partnering with the Atlanta United FC for the 2016 MLS season.

53.2 Colors and badge

53.5 Players and staﬀ 53.5.1 Current roster

Where a player has not declared an international alleCharleston’s traditional colors are yellow, black and red. giance, nation is determined by place of birth. Squad [7] The club badge is a classic shield in yellow and black fea- correct as of September 24, 2015. turing a pair of crossed artillery cannons (alluding to the city’s naval history and prominent role in the American Civil War and American Revolution) above a depiction 53.5.2 Staﬀ of a traditional-style soccer ball. • Tony Bakker - Chairman

53.3 Stadiums

•

Andrew Bell – President/Broadcaster

• • Stoney Field; Charleston, South Carolina (1993– 1998) • MUSC Health Stadium (formerly Blackbaud Stadium); Daniel Island, South Carolina (1999– present) The Battery played their first six seasons in downtown Charleston at Stoney Field, a facility they shared with various college and high school sports teams. The club moved to MUSC Health Stadium (known until 2015 as Blackbaud Stadium) on Daniel Island in 1999. The first privately funded soccer-specific stadium built in the United States, it seats 5,100 people.[6] MUSC Health Stadium is modeled on lower level English soccer grounds and features an on-site pub called The Three Lions behind the west stand.

53.4 Club culture The Battery’s official supporters’ group is 'The Regiment', who stand in section E1 with other supporters’ groups including the American Outlaws-affiliated Queen Anne’s Revenge and the Spanish-speaking Charleston Barra Brava. The Battery competes for the Coffee Pot Cup every time it faces their rival team D.C. United of Major League Soccer, a trophy established by the two sides’ supporters and currently held by DC. The clubs have regularly faced each other in friendlies and cup competitions, with the 2008 US Open Cup final remaining the highest profile match between the two clubs to date. Charleston are also longtime league rivals of the Richmond Kickers, DC’s minor league affiliate. The team’s games are broadcast on YouTube and local radio with play-by-play from club president Andrew Bell,

Mike Anhaeuser – Head Coach/General Manager

•

John Wilson - Assistant Coach

•

Dusty Hudock - Assistant Coach

•

Bobby Weisenberger – Head Athletic Trainer

•

Clark Brisson - Academy Director

53.5.3 Notable former players This list includes those former players who received international caps while playing for the team, made signiﬁcant contributions to the team in terms of appearances or goals, or who made signiﬁcant contributions to the sport either before they played for the team, or after they left. • See also: All-time Charleston Battery roster

53.5.4 Head coaches •

Tim Hankinson (1993–1994)

•

Nuno Piteira (1995–1999)

•

Alan Dicks (1999–2001)

•

Chris Ramsey (2001–2004)

•

Michael Anhaeuser (2004–present)

53.6 Achievements • USL A-League • Champions (2): 1996*, 2003

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CHAPTER 53. CHARLESTON BATTERY • Atlantic Division Champions (2): 2000

1995*,

[3] “United Soccer Leagues (USL)". usl2.uslsoccer.com. Retrieved May 2, 2014.

• Southeast Division Champions (2): 2003

2002,

[4] “Vancouver Whitecaps announce USL PRO aﬃliate agreement with Charleston Battery”. Major League Soccer. January 23, 2014. Retrieved March 29, 2014.

• USL Second Division • Champions (1): 2010 • Regular Season Champions (1): 2010 • USL Pro • Champions (1): 2012

[5] “Battery, Dynamo sign 2015 deal”. Charleston Battery. December 22, 2014. Retrieved January 11, 2015. [6] http://www.charlestonbattery.com/stadium_overview. asp [7] “Roster – Charleson Battery”. Charleston Battery. Retrieved September 24, 2015.

• US Open Cup • Runner Up (1): 2008

53.10 External links

• Semiﬁnals (2): 1999, 2004 • Quarterﬁnals (3): 2007, 2009, 2010 • Southern Derby • Winner (5): 2003, 2005^, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015 as co-champions^

53.7 Record 53.7.1

Year-by-year

53.7.2

Record vs. International and MLS teams

Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup Record: W:8–D:1–L:13 Carolina Challenge Cup Record: W:5–D:9–L:20 Exhibition Record: W:5–D:2–L:7

53.8 See also • Battery Park • Carolina Challenge Cup •

Battery stuﬀs Sounders, Charleston Post and Courier Article

53.9 References [1] “United Soccer Leagues (USL)". usl2.uslsoccer.com. Retrieved May 2, 2014. [2] http://www.charleston.net/news/2008/aug/Charleston defeated the Richmond Kickers 2–1 to claim the championship, the third in the history of the club. 13/battery_stuﬀs_sounders50669/

• Charleston Battery oﬃcial site

Chapter 54

Charleston Southern University Charleston Southern University, founded in 1964 as Baptist College, is an independent comprehensive university located in North Charleston, South Carolina. Charleston Southern enrolls 3,600 students.[2] Aﬃliated with the South Carolina Baptist Convention, the university’s vision is to be nationally recognized for integrating faith in learning, leading and serving.[3]

54.1 Academics The university is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award bachelor’s and master’s degrees. CSU students can choose from more than 50 undergraduate majors and graduate programs in business, criminal justice, computer science, education and nursing. Each degree program is combined with a comprehensive liberal arts foundation which is designed to develop problem-solving and communication skills.

54.3 Student activities Beyond the classroom, students can participate in a variety of campus activities including academic clubs, service organizations, intramural athletics and campus ministries. Intramural athletic activities include ﬂag football, basketball, volleyball, ultimate frisbee, and more. Campus ministries include Campus Crusade for Christ, Fellowship of Christian Athletes, Prison, Campus Outreach, and Elevate.

54.3.1 Student life Single students under 21 years of age are encouraged to live on campus. There are at least three dining facilities on campus; one is the cafeteria located in the Strom Thurmond Student Center, another is Java City located near the library, and the most recent addition is a Chick-ﬁl-A on campus.

The College of Nursing (CSU’s nursing program) offers Academic clubs a three-year Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) program that works closely with area hospitals. Post-grad • Alpha Kappa Delta they offer a MSN with an emphasis on education. In 2010, the program was expanded to offer a 2-1 Asso• Alpha Nu Omega ciate’s degree in Nursing (ADN) to BSN program with Trident Technical College. • Future Teachers Society The School of Business maintains one of the larger MBA • Kappa Kappa Psi programs in the state of South Carolina. While the GMAT is not required for admission, the administra• Market Economics Society tion has maintained a flexible yet rigorous MBA program where students can attend face-to-face classes, take on• Music Educators Chapter line courses, or a combination of both. • Music Therapy • Psi Chi

54.2 Campus Charleston Southern is located right oﬀ Exit 205B on I26 in North Charleston, South Carolina. It is situated on 300 acres (121 ha), formerly the site of a rice and indigo plantation. 261

• Sigma Tau Delta • Spanish Club • Tri Beta

262

CHAPTER 54. CHARLESTON SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY

Service clubs and Greek organizations • Alpha Delta Pi • Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority

54.4 Notable alumni • Dr. Sam Gandy - Alzheimer’s research, Mount Sanai Hospital, New York

• American Chemical Society

• Warren Peper - Post and Courier columnist and former TV anchor

• Baptist Campus Ministries

• Stuart Lake - CSU baseball coach

• Campus Activities Board • Campus Crusade • Catalyst • CSU Students for Life • Delta Sigma Theta sorority • Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity • Kappa Kappa Psi

• Bobby Parnell - Pitcher for the New York Mets • Tim Scott - United States Senator • Keith Summey - Mayor, North Charleston • Tessa Spencer - TV news anchor, ABC • Charlie Simpkins - Olympic Silver Medalist • R. J. Swindle - Pitcher in the Tampa Bay Rays organization • Tyler Thornburg - Pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers

• Lambda Theta Chi • Lambda Tau Chi

54.5 References

• Omega Psi Phi fraternity

[1] http://csuniv.edu/news/csu_style_guide_final_web.pdf

• Omega Phi Beta sorority

[2] www.csuniv.edu

• Phi Beta Sigma fraternity

[3] http://www.csuniv.edu/discover/foundingprinciples.asp [4] http://www.csusports.com/article.asp?articleID=2558

• Psi Delta Phi sorority • Psi Kappa Phi fraternity • Recreational Services • Residence Life Council • Sigma Gamma Rho sorority • Student Government Association • Zeta Phi Beta sorority

54.3.2

Athletics

Main article: Charleston Southern Buccaneers The university offers intercollegiate athletics for both men and women, competing in the NCAA Division I Big South Conference. Charleston Southern fields teams in the following sports: In 2008, CSU closed its highly successful men’s tennis program to reallocate funds to other sports.[4] CSU formerly fielded a men’s soccer team.

54.6 External links • Oﬃcial website • Charleston Southern Athletics website Coordinates: 32°58′51″N 80°4′16″W / 32.98083°N 80.07111°W

Chapter 55

Charleston School of Law The Charleston School of Law is a private law school located in Charleston, South Carolina, established in 2003. The school was fully accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) in August 2011.[1] The school was founded upon a principle of promoting public service by its students and graduates; each student must perform at least 30 hours of public service before graduation.[2] According to Charleston School of Law’s 2013 ABArequired disclosures, 53.33% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation.[3]

55.1.2 ABA accreditation In October 2005, the American Bar Association (ABA) sent an accreditation team to review the progress of the law school toward accreditation.[7] In April 2006, the ABA’s Accreditation Committee recommended provisional accreditation, but its ﬁnal authority (the ABA’s Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar) deferred a vote on the committee’s recommendation until December 2006. The school was asked to address questions related to the institution’s governance, library resources, and commitment to diversity.

55.1 History 55.1.1

at the University of South Carolina Law School).[5] The ﬁve founders created a limited liability company through which to operate the law school, and its creation was approved by the South Carolina Secretary of State on May 12, 2003. In 2004, the South Carolina Commission on Higher Education granted a license to allow the school to start accepting students in Fall 2004.[6]

Inspiration and establishment

The deferral caused concern for the school: In South Carolina, only graduates of ABA-accredited law schools may sit for the bar exam. Although students graduating from a provisionally accredited law school enjoy the full rights guaranteed to those graduating from fully accredited schools, including the right to sit for the bar exam,[8] the delay until December 2006 was a problem since the deadline for registering for the bar exam was January 2007. The ﬁrst location of the Charleston School of Law in 2003 was at 560 King St.

Nevertheless, on December 2, 2006, the ABA granted CSOL provisional accreditation, the highest level of accreditation available at that time.[9] Full accreditation In 2002, five Charleston judges and attorneys started to cannot be granted until a school has been in operation work on establishing a law school in Charleston. The for five years. school would be the first organized effort to offer instruction in the law in Charleston since the 1828 dissolution of On August 5, 2011, the ABA granted the school full [10] the Forensic Club. The five founders were Alex Sanders accreditation. (a former president of the College of Charleston and a former Chief Judge of the South Carolina Court of Appeals); Edward J. Westbrook (a lawyer in Charleston); the 55.1.3 School’s first graduation Robert Carr (a U.S. magistrate judge); George Kosko (a U.S. magistrate judge until 2008);[4] and Ralph McCul- On May 19, 2007, the school’s first class of 186 students lough (a professor emeritus and former associate dean graduated at a ceremony held at The Citadel, The Military 263

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CHAPTER 55. CHARLESTON SCHOOL OF LAW

College of South Carolina, also located in Charleston.[11] Former U.S. Senator Ernest “Fritz” Hollings delivered the main address. Jean H. Toal, Chief Justice of the South Carolina Supreme Court; and the William Walter Wilkins, Chief Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit received LL.D. honorary degrees. With the blessing of the descendants of the organizers of the original Forensic Club, the school organized an honorary society also known as the Forensic Club. In its current form, up to five students are inducted into the group each year from the graduating class based on the recommendation of the faculty and approval by the founders. The first four inductees were Cameron Blazer, M. Brooks Derrick, Charles Marchbanks and Jeff Yungman.[12]

55.1.4

Possible change of ownership

On July 25, 2013, the school announced that it had entered a consulting/management contract with a subsidiary of InfiLaw, a Delaware Corporation[13] with headquarters in Naples, Florida, which owns three other schools.[14][15] Two of the school’s founders, Sanders and McCullough, were paid by InfiLaw and left the board when the arrangement with InfiLaw was announced.[16] This announcement was seen as a prelude to a sale of the school and was immediately opposed by students.[17] Formal announcement of a sale of the school was made on August 28, 2013,[18][19] but documents submitted to the South Carolina Commission on Higher Education (CHE) revealed that an agreement had been executed between the law school and InfiLaw on July 23, 2013.[20] The students and alumni of the law school were opposed to the sale for reasons including the perceived poor reputation of InfiLaw schools.[21] In the weeks after the announcement of the possible takeover, 41 students transferred, a 64% increase in transfers from previous years.[22] Still first year student enrollment in the fall of 2013 exceeded the enrollment for 2012. See Admissions information below. On September 27, 2013, one of the three remaining founders, Westbrook, wrote to the other two remaining founders and outlined three proposals for avoiding the sale to InfiLaw: a cooling off period, the redemption of the interests of Kosko and Carr by the law school, and the exploration of a merger with the College of Charleston. Westbook stated that he would donate his own one-third interest to the College of Charleston if the third option were accepted.[23] On October 2, 2013, Carr and Kosko rejected the offer made by Westbrook, claiming that no offers had been submitted; instead, they announced that they were proceeding with pursuing a sale to InfiLaw.[24] On October 3, 2013, the CHE met in Charleston and agreed to waive a condition of the law school’s license to permit the exploration of a possible merger between the law school and the College of Charleston or other public school; the waiver of that prohibition was granted for 90

days.[25] On October 14, 2013, InfiLaw released a statement in which it claimed to be willing to consider discussions with either the College of Charleston or the University of South Carolina about the future ownership of the school; no details of minimum expectations or deadlines were given. The College of Charleston’s immediate response to a newspaper reporter’s inquiry was that the college had not seen the letter and had no comment.[26] Representatives of the College of Charleston and InfiLaw met in late October 2013 to discuss proprietary information, but no other information about the meeting, including its attendees and agenda, has been released.[27] In a survey completed almost exclusively by current students and released in early November 2013, only 0.55% of respondents supported the sale of the school to Infilaw.[28][29] The CHE assembled a team to investigate the possible transfer and accepted written (or recorded) statements about the transfer through February 10, 2014. Among those opposing the deal were tenured professors Jerry Finkel and Randall Bridwell who wrote about concerns about bar passage rates and class sizes.[30] Also on February 10, 2014, the CHE disclosed a statement submitted by Charleston mayor Joseph P. Riley, Jr. on December 16, 2013, which opposed the InfiLaw deal. Among the mayor’s reasons was a real estate agreement from 2004; the city had purchased property on Woolfe St. for $1.2 million and sold it to the new law school for $875,000 to help it establish itself. He explained, “Certainly the city of Charleston would not have done this with any thought that eventually the Charleston School of Law would become part of a national, for-profit system of law school.”[31] The CHE’s Academic Affairs and Licensing Committee scheduled its meeting to vote on the InfiLaw proposal on May 1, 2014 at 9:00 a.m. The full CHE announced that it would take up the committee’s vote immediately afterward at 10:30 a.m.[32] Instead of taking up the issue, a panel of the CHE announced on May 1, 2014, that it would hold two more public meetings before considering the matter on May 19, 2014; the full CHE would then hear the panel’s recommendation at a meeting on June 5, 2014.[33] On May 13, 2014, a supermajority of the school’s faculty publicly released two letters opposing the InfiLaw deal.[34][35] The first public hearing on the takeover was held in Charleston on May 16, 2014, from 11:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. Representatives of Inifilaw were “greatly outnumbered” by those opposing the license. Opponents included faculty, alumni, and students. Riley also opposed the license.[36] One of the founders, Westbrook, offered to continue his funding of the school in the event of a denial of Infilaw’s license.[37] A recording of the session was posted by the CHE.[38] A second public hearing was held on May 19, 2014, in Columbia, South Carolina. Speakers expressed concerns about InfiLaw’s practice of accepting students who incur large debt but do not graduate and bar a bar exam.[39] During the second hearing, the lawyer

55.1. HISTORY

265

for Infilaw revealed that the founders of the school had taken $25 million in profits between 2010 and 2014 and that InfiLaw had paid $6 million more to some of the founders.[40] Founder Carr said, ". . . I never thought it was going to be a big business deal. I was wrong.”[41] Westbrook later revealed that Carr and Kosko had not only been draining profits from the business for several years over his objections, but they had also depleted the finances of the school by signing an expensive consulting contract with InfiLaw and by then having to hire a marketing firm to manage the public relations crisis their decisions had caused.[42]

been filed with the CHE, but the school’s dean said that he had been told to continue with the parallel process of obtaining American Bar Association approval.[48] Meanwhile, a nonprofit was created as of August 7, 2014, in South Carolina known as the Charleston School of Law Eleemosynary.[49] On September 18, 2014, Ed Westbook announced the make-up of the first board of directors for the non-profit; members included representatives of the local bar, the South Carolina judiciary, and law school administrators with national experience.[50] On September 22, 2014, the Charleston Post & Courier’s editorial board endorsed the non-profit for the school while recognizing that InfiLaw had shown no signs of changing its The CHE’s Committee on Academic Affairs and Licens[51] ing voted 3-1 to reject the license to buy the school at course. its meeting on May 19, 2014. The vote was then set to A delegation presented the case for the transfer to a combe taken up by the full CHE at its meeting on June 5, mittee of the ABA on October 30, 2014, at an ABA 2014.[40] meeting in San Antonio, Texas. Owners Carr and Kosko On May 27, 2014, a lawyer representing InfiLaw threat- used their majority vote to send only Dean Abrams on ened the law school, stating that InfiLaw would seek to behalf of the school and not to permit dissenting owner [52] have the $6,000,000 used to buy out the interests of Westbrook a chance to speak at the ABA meeting. McCullough and Sanders repaid immediately if nega- Following the meeting in San Antonio, the ABA said that tive publicity did not stop. The letter stated that the the committee’s decision would be taken up by the associpurchase agreement between the Charleston School of ation’s full Council of the Section of Legal Education and Law and InfiLaw prohibited any of the founders from Admission to the Bar on December 6, 2014, and declined [53] doing anything to interfere with the takeover, including to comment about the October 30, 2014 decision. speaking out on behalf of the students, alumni, and faculty at public hearings. InfiLaw deemed the opposition of founder Westbrook a violation of the term and demanded that he cease all such behavior. If not, InfiLaw’s lawyer reported that InfiLaw would have no choice but to call the note and seize all the collateral needed to repay the money. InfiLaw’s lawyer noted that "[s]uch an action would have dire consequences, not only for the Charleston School of Law, but for its students, faculty, staff and othe constituencies.”[43] Shortly before the CHE was scheduled to meet, the South Carolina Attorney General’s office issued an advisory opinion confirming that the CHE would need to follow the law and either deny or grant a license based on whether InfiLaw satisfied the requirements of the licensing law.[44] On the afternoon of June 4, 2014, InfiLaw withdrew its request from the agenda of the CHE for its June 5, 2014 meeting. A state senator, John Courson, had apparently initiated the delay to give the CHE more time to consider the matter. After the surprise delay, opponents suggested that the delay was sought to avoid what InfiLaw saw as a likely defeat. In a prepared statement, InfiLaw stated that it would still pursue the license.[45] Soon after the withdrawal of the application for a license, opponents of InfiLaw’s takeover, including official representatives of both the current students and alumni,[46] began calling for the creation of a non-profit to run the school instead. On June 14, 2014, the local newspaper, the Charleston Post & Courier, published its editorial favoring that outcome.[47]

On November 13, 2014, the three members of the school voted to hire Maryann Jones as the business’s new president, replacing Dean Andy Abrams, who had been serving simultaneously as the dean and the president of the business since the retirement of McCullough.[54] After only eight days on the job, Ms. Jones gave notice that she would not continue in the position, citing the disharmony about the future of the school: “The level of vitriol, with all sides making me a lightning rod for an unfortunate situation that was not of my making, makes this truly a situation that I am unwilling at this stage of my life to undertake.” After having agreed to serve as an objective party in the dispute, Ms. Jones had begun immediately pressuring constituencies to support the sale of the school to InfiLaw (for whom she had been working before taking the job). When Mr. Westbrook objected to her taking a position without first familiarizing herself with the positions of the interested parties, Ms. Jones resigned.[55][56] The ABA’s Council of the Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar met during an ABA meeting held in Puerto Rico on December 6, 2014, and deferred action on InfiLaw’s request for its acquiescence to the takeover of the Charleston School of Law until the state regulators in South Carolina had made their own decision.[57][58] Infilaw began a campaign of lobbying members of the South Carolina legislature to influence the selection of CHE members.[59]

On December 15, 2014, both Westbrook and InﬁLaw’s representative, Peter Gopelrud, addressed a meeting of By the start of the Fall 2014 term in August 2014, no new the Charleston County legislative delegation (i.e., the application for the transfer of the license to InﬁLaw had members of the South Carolina Senate and South Car-

266 olina House of Representatives whose districts include parts of Charleston County) during one of its regular meetings held in McClellanville, South Carolina. When questioned by the delegation, Gopelrud admitted that InﬁLaw had hired a member of the South Carolina House of Representatives, Jim Merrill, to assist it. Following the presentations, the delegation adopted a resolution favoring Westbrook’s non-proﬁt model by a vote of 10-0 (with three members abstaining).[60]

CHAPTER 55. CHARLESTON SCHOOL OF LAW with the CHE to that point.[66]

On May 15, 2015, approximately three-quarters of the school’s faculty recorded their strong opposition to the InfiLaw sale in a commentary appearing in the local newspaper.[67] On the same day, the remaining owners released a statement stating that no information about the future of the school would be released until the following week (that is, the week of May 18).[68] On May 22, 2015, the school announced that it would accept an enIn mid-[61] March 2015, the law school offered a buy-out tering class for 2015-2016. It simultaneously announced of existing faculty members to reduce its operating costs. that the school would not be renewing the contracts of In March 2015, the school’s first dean, Richard Gershon, seven of its faculty in a cost-cutting move.[69] wrote a blog post in which he charged that the two of On June 5, 2015, the board of the school announced the three remaining founders favoring InfiLaw’s takeover, the hiring of Joseph D. Harbaugh as the interim presiCarr and Kosko, were motivated by greed; they had never dent of the school. In addition to his educational backcontributed money to the operation of the school at its ground, Harbaugh serves on InfiLaw System’s National start and had any personal, financial responsibility for the Policy Board.[70] school discharged after only two years. A spokesman reOn June 26 and 29, 2015, two of the seven professors sponded that the statements were inaccurate.[62] whose contracts were not renewed a month earlier filed On March 24, 2015, Westbrook gave notice that he was suit against the law school’s owners (including both Carr, resigning as a director of the LLC that owns the school. Kosko, and their limited liability company). The suits, He will either donate his ownership interest to a charity or filed by Nancy Zisk and Allyson Haynes-Stuart, claim sell that interest and donate the proceeds to charity. He that the owners of the school falsely claimed a finanstated that he would be willing to sell his interest to the cial emergency existed and that the owners have, instead, remaining owners of the LLC.[63] continued draining money from the school’s operation to On May 6, 2015, the two remaining owners, Carr and avoid paying salaries and have violated tenure rights to Kosko, released a prepared statement in which they said retaliate for the plaintiffs’ opposition to the sale of the the school might not accept new students for the 2015- school to InfiLaw.[71] South Carolina trial judge Markley 2016 entering class. According to the announcement, the Dennis granted Professor Zisk an injunction which reowners are making plans to conduct a “teach out,” a sort quired the school to rehire her pending the outcome of the of unwinding of the school by continuing to educate those lawsuits.[72] On October 19, 2015, Carr, Kosko, and the students who are already enrolled but not accepting new law school counterclaimed against Professors Zisk and students. Two other schools, likely InfiLaw schools in Haynes, alleging that they had sabotaged the school and North Carolina and Florida, have been contacted about conspired with others to prevent its sale to Infilaw.[73] absorbing the current students.[64] On May 6, 2015, Carr On August 14, 2015, the school announced that it would and Kosko held a meeting with the school’s faculty and not be granting to three professors tenure despite admitstaff in the newly vacated second floor of the school’s ting their qualifications; the school explained that it could Meeting Street location. Carr explained that the school not extend tenure during the alleged financial crisis.[74] would be consolidating its operations in the building by On October 16, 2015, two of the professors sued the taking over the second floor. At the end of the remarks, Charleston School of Law for several claims arising out Carr added that the burden of keeping the school afloat of their denial of tenure and the financial mismanagement was on the shoulders of the faculty and staff. He implored by the school’s owners.[73] the attendees to contact InfiLaw’s representatives either individually or collectively to express support for InfiLaw On October 28, 2015, the dean of the school announced and to plead for InfiLaw’s return. Carr said that such sup- that a lawyer from Georgetown, South Carolina named port would have to be expressed to the students and to the Ed Bell would be assuming the presidency as of Thursday, [75] public, including the Commission on Higher Education. October, 29, 2015. Before being sworn in as the new He also announced that a decision about the school’s fu- president of the school, Bell explained that he had agreed ture would be made early the following week (that is, the to personally fund the pay-off of the approximately $6 million debt the school had incurred to InfiLaw. Addiweek of May 11).[65] tionally, he stated that his immediate plans included creCarr suggested that the lack of strong and public support ating a board of directors, converting the school to a nonfor the sale to InfiLaw would mean that the law school profit, and securing a new campus.[76] would close. However, three days later, the CHE wrote to Carr and Kosko and reminded them that any teachout plans and any decision not to accept an entering class would require approval, but that nothing had been shared

55.5. STUDENT BODY

267

55.2 Costs, post-graduation infor- 55.5 Student body mation and student debt

The median age of first-year, full-time students at the school is twenty-three years; however, students range 55.2.1 Costs from age twenty to fifty-one. About half of the full-time student body (56 percent) are South Carolina residents. The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, Males outnumber females in the full-time program by a fees, and living expenses) at Charleston for the 2013- 52–48 margin. 2014 academic year is $57,097.[77] Law School Transparency's estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $213,710.[78]

55.6 Other information

55.2.2

Employment

On November 29, 2007, the school’s ﬁrst dean, Richard Gershon, announced he would be leaving the post to reAccording to Charleston School of Law’s 2013 ABA- turn to full-time teaching at the school. He was awarded required disclosures, 53.33% of the Class of 2013 ob- an honorary LL.D degree in May 2008 for his leadership. tained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment In December 2007, Andrew “Andy” L. Abrams, a pronine months after graduation.[79] Charleston School fessor at the school and a former provost for the College of Law’s Law School Transparency under-employment of Charleston, was named as the school’s interim dean. In score is 28%, indicating the percentage of the Class June 2008, Abrams became the school’s second dean.[105] of 2013 unemployed, pursuing an additional degree, or working in a non-professional, short-term, or part-time Former U.S. Senator and South Carolina Governor Ernest Hollings is on the Board of Advisors of the Charleston job nine months after graduation.[80] School of Law and is a Distinguished Visiting Professor of Law there. He delivered the commencement address to 55.2.3 Average Debt the ﬁrst graduating class there on May 19, 2007.[106][107] According to U.S. News & World Report, the average indebtedness for law school of 2013 graduates who incurred law school debt was $146,765, and 89% of 2013 graduates took on debt.[81]

55.3 Admissions The following tables reﬂect admissions information arranged by the year of admission, not by year of graduation.

55.4 South Carolina bar-exam passage In South Carolina, the bar exam is administered twice a year, in July and February. July is the primary testing date for those who graduate in May. A much smaller group, generally out-of-state applicants, repeat takers, and December graduates, take the February exam. The school graduated its ﬁrst students in May 2007 who sat for the exam in July 2007. The following are the pass rates for school alumni for each South Carolina bar exam since July 2007. *

The July 2007 results were revised upwards (from an original 65 percent rate) after the South Carolina Supreme Court threw out a section of the exam because of an error by a bar examiner.[104]

55.7 Facilities When the law school was first organized in 2003, the school was operated out of a building at 560 King St. (pictured above) while work progressed on its future location. Although the school left that building within one year, the school’s physical plant has always been located in Charleston’s Upper King Street district. During its first year in operation, the school was located at 81 Mary St. (pictured above), in an antebellum railroad station. That building continues to serve as the school’s law library, while most classrooms, offices, and other uses have moved to new locations as the school has grown and acquired new space. The school has leased space in nearby buildings including the Chase Building at 414 King St. (designed by Augustus Constantine, c. 1946);[108] a large portion of the AT&T Building at the southwest corner of Mary and Meeting Streets;[109] administrative space at 394 Meeting St. (designed by Leonard C. Gaines in 1955),[110] and suites of offices at both 440 and 444 King St. for its IT department and career services offices. In 2004, the school purchased a 1.25 acre lot at the corner of Woolfe St. and Meeting St. from the City of Charleston for $875,000; no improvements have been added, but the sale (at a loss to the City) was made to keep the school on the peninsula.[111] • 414 King Street • AT&T Building

268 • 394 Meeting Street • 440 King Street • 444 King Street

55.8 Publications 55.8.1 Charleston Law Review The Charleston Law Review is a journal published by an independent organization composed of second- and third-year students at the school. The organization’s primary objective is to foster the knowledge and insight of students, practitioners, scholars and the judiciary through a traditional forum dedicated to the pursuit of innovative legal expression, composition and scholarship. Members of the organization contribute to this objective by editing articles, writing notes, and actively participating in all aspects of the publication process. Its inaugural journal, released in Fall 2006, featured ﬁve articles by legal scholars on topics ranging from human traﬃcking to preservation of Gullah-Geechee culture. It published a second issue devoted to student works in Spring 2007. The foreword of Volume 2, Issue 1 (Fall 2007) was written by U.S. President Barack Obama, who, at the time, was a U.S. Senator from Illinois and a leading candidate for the Democratic Party nomination in the 2008 U.S. presidential election.[112] Retired Justice Sandra Day O'Connor was the keynote speaker at a symposium on First Amendment religious issues co-hosted by the Charleston Law Review on April 15, 2013.[113]

CHAPTER 55. CHARLESTON SCHOOL OF LAW to cater to subscribers who would welcome a printed version. The printed version will also allow for inclusion of selected student works.

55.8.3 Maritime Law Bulletin The Maritime Law Bulletin (MALABU) is a periodical bulletin, edited by law students, focusing on signiﬁcant maritime issues. First published in February 2006, the bulletin is the publishing arm of the school’s Charleston Maritime Law Institute. The institute is a collaborative eﬀort involving students, professors and leading maritime lawyers and professionals from around the Southeastern U.S.. In addition to promoting maritime legal studies at the school, the institute will provide programs and seminars periodically on maritime matters.[115]

55.8.4 Resolved: Journal of Alternative Dispute Resolution Resolved is a student-run e-Publication that was founded in conjunction with the Center for Dispute Resolution. The Center’s vision in creating Resolved is to promote research and writing in the areas of dispute resolution theory, skills, techniques and application. Resolved provides a comprehensive resource that fosters intellectual discourse amongst the judiciary, professors, students, mediators and attorneys through a contemporary medium.[116] Resolved is dedicated to increasing awareness of alternative dispute resolution trends and sharing thoughtprovoking viewpoints. Megan Hunt was the inaugural editor-in-chief.[117] Subsequently, Justice Perkins was editor-in-chief for 2010–2011 [118] and M. Christie McDonnell is the editor-in-chief for 2011–2012.[119]

Sara Ruff was the inaugural editor-in-chief (2006–2007). Subsequent editors-in-chief have been George “Matt” Kendall (2007–2008), Katie Fowler Monoc (2008– 2009), Ben Garner (2009–2010), Piper Reiff Byzet 55.9 Notable Alumni (2010–2011), Mollie Mohan (2011–2012), Morgan Peterson (2012–2013), Leigh Ellen Gray (2013–2014), • Nick Shalosky, the first openly gay elected official in Jose Gonzales (2014–2015), and Hank Young (current). South Carolina, graduated in 2013.

55.8.2 Federal Courts Law Review Founded in July 1997, the Federal Courts Law Review is an electronic law review dedicated to legal scholarship relating to federal courts. Articles are from scholars, judges and distinguished practitioners. Its editorial board, composed primarily of U.S. magistrate judges and law-school professors, to combine the insight of the federal judiciary with the perspective of law-school academics. The school was selected in 2005 by the Federal Magistrate Judges Association to oversee the publication of a printed version of the Federal Courts Law Review.[114] This companion to the current online format is intended

55.10 References [1] Behre, Robert (August 6, 2011). “School of Law clears Bar hurdle”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved August 7, 2011. [2] Condon, Michelle Mensore (Nov 7, 2013). “Law school’s pro bono program matches students to community needs”. Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved November 7, 2013. [3] “Employment Statistics”. [4] Smith, Glenn (January 3, 2008). “Fellow Judges Deny Kosko a New Term”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved May 24, 2009.

55.10. REFERENCES

[5] “Ralph McCullough Biography”. Finkel Law Firm. [6] Behre, Robert (July 9, 2004). “New Charleston College, Law School Pass State Test”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [7] Kropf, Schuyler (October 19, 2005). “Bar Association Accreditation Team Takes Look at Charleston School of Law”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [8] “The American Bar Association Law School Approval Process”. American Bar Association. August 2007. [9] Knich, Diane (December 6, 2006). “School of Law Gets the Go-Ahead”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [10] Behre, Robert (August 6, 2011). “School of Law clears Bar hurdle”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved August 7, 2011. [11] Knich, Diane (May 20, 2007). “A Class of Pioneers”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [12] "http://www.charlestonlaw.edu/v.php?pg=17". External link in |title= (help) [13] http://www.infilaw.com [14] Knich, Diane (July 26, 2013). “Charleston School of Law enteres into management services agreement; is sale next?". The Post and Courier. Retrieved July 26, 2013. [15] “Charleston School of Law enteres management pact”. The Island Packet. July 26, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013. [16] Knich, Diane (July 26, 2013). “Charleston School of Law graduates talk about fighting possible sale of school”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved July 28, 2013. [17] http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20130726/ PC16/130729493 [18] Kropf, Schuyler (Aug 28, 2013). “InfiLaw buying Charleston School of Law”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved Sep 17, 2013. [19] “Charleston School of Law announces intent to sell to InfiLaw”. The Charleston City Paper. Aug 28, 2013. Retrieved Sep 17, 2013. [20] Knich, Diane (Sep 5, 2013). “Charleston School of Law sale to Infilaw was in the works since at least late July”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved Sep 17, 2013. [21] Segrist, Liz (Aug 29, 2013). “Students question Charleston School of Law, InfiLaw leaders”. The Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved Sep 17, 2013. [22] Jones, Ashby (Oct 20, 2013). “Private-Equity Group’s for-Profit Law School”. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 21, 2013. [23] Knich, Diane (Sep 30, 2013). “Charleston School of Law founder Westbrook: InfiLaw is not the only option for school’s future”. The Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved Sep 30, 2013.

269

[24] Knich, Diane (Oct 2, 2013). “Charleston School of Law founders proceeding with plan to sell to InfiLaw System”. The Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved Oct 2, 2013. [25] Knich, Diane (Oct 3, 2013). “State commission waives ban on talking about sale of Charleston School of Law to CofC”. The Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved Oct 3, 2013. [26] “Infilaw Open to Discussion Sale of Charleston School of Law to College of Charleston”. Charleston Post & Courier. Oct 14, 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2013. [27] Knich, Diane (Oct 27, 2013). “College of Charleston met with InfiLaw on possible purchase of Charleston School of Law”. Charleston Post & Courier. Retrieved October 28, 2013. [28] “Future of the Charleston School of Law - Student Survey” (PDF). FITSNews. Retrieved November 7, 2013. [29] Bowers, Paul (November 11, 2013). “Survey: Most Charleston School of Law students oppose InfiLaw sale”. (Charleston) City Paper. Retrieved November 11, 2013. [30] Knich, Diane (January 26, 2014). “2 longtime law profs advise against Infilaw”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved February 11, 2014. [31] Knich, Diane (February 11, 2014). “Mayor Riley discourages state panel from granting a license to Infilaw to run Charleston School of Law”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). [32] Knich, Diane (April 28, 2014). “Decision expected Thursday on whether sale of Charleston School of Law to InfiLaw System can move forward”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved April 28, 2014. [33] Shain, Andrew (May 1, 2014). “Vote delayed on InfiLaw’s license to run Charleston law school”. The State (Columbia, South Carolina). Retrieved May 1, 2014. [34] Knich, Diane (May 14, 2014). “Public hearing Friday on license for InfiLaw to run Charleston School of Law”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved May 16, 2014. [35] http://probonopopuli.com/2014/05/13/ tenured-and-non-tenured-faculty-issue-statements-opposing-infilaw-deal/ [36] Slade, David (May 16, 2014). “With license vote coming, InfiLaw’s purchase of Charleston School of Law faces ongoing criticism”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved May 16, 2014. [37] Barker, Ashley (May 19, 2014). “Law school founder offers alternative to InfiLaw”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved May 19, 2014. [38] “Audio recording of the May 16, 2014 public hearing”. South Carolina Commission on Higher Education. May 16, 2014. Retrieved May 16, 2014. [39] Click, Carolyn (May 19, 2014). “InfiLaw loses round in bid to run Charleston law school”. The State (Columbia, South Carolina). Retrieved May 20, 2014.

270

[40] Borden, Jeremy (May 19, 2014). “South Carolina committee rejects InfiLaw purchase of Charleston School of Law”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved May 19, 2014. [41] Knich, Diane (May 25, 2014). “Charleston School of Law founders withdrew $25 million in profits leaving school on shakey financial ground”. Charleston, South Carolina. Retrieved May 25, 2014. [42] Knich, Diane (June 3, 2014). “Charleston School of Law founder: InfiLaw deal created financial problems”. Post & Courier. Retrieved June 4, 2014. [43] “New memo from Ed Westbrook”. Letter of May 27, 2014. Pro Bono Populi. May 28, 2014. pp. Attachment G. Retrieved May 29, 2014. [44] Knich, Diane (June 2, 2014). “AG: InfiLaw can't be denied Charleston law school license if it meets criteria”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved June 14, 2014. [45] Knich, Diane (June 4, 2014). “InfiLaw license application pulled”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved June 4, 2014. [46] “Alumni and Student Representatives Issue Joint Statement”. Joint Student/Alumni Leadership Statement on the Future of the Charleston School of Law. Pro Bono Populi. June 13, 2014. Retrieved June 14, 2014. [47] “Make CSOL a non-profit school”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). June 14, 2014. Retrieved June 14, 2014. [48] Knich, Diane (August 19, 2014). “Charleston School of Law kicks off new year amid uncertainty over ownership”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved August 19, 2014.

CHAPTER 55. CHARLESTON SCHOOL OF LAW

[55] “New Charleston School of Law president steps down”. Charleston Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). November 21, 2014. Retrieved November 21, 2014. [56] Heffernan, Ashley (November 21, 2014). “New Charleston School of Law president quits; students protest budget”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved November 22, 2014. [57] Sloan, Karen (December 8, 2014). “InfiLaw’s Acquisition of Charleston Law Hits Snag at ABA”. The National Law Journal. Retrieved December 8, 2014. [58] Knich, Diane (December 9, 2014). “American Bar Association defers decision on sale of Charleston School of Law to InfiLaw”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved December 9, 2014. [59] Knich, Diane (December 13, 2014). “InfiLaw making case to lawmakers for Charleston School of Law sale”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved December 14, 2014. [60] Knich, Diane (December 15, 2014). “Charleston County Legislative Delegation supports nonprofit organization, not InfiLaw, taking the reins at Charleston School of LawRep. Merrill paid to work for InfiLaw”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved December 15, 2014. [61] Knich, Diane (March 17, 2015). “Charleston School of Law offers buyouts to faculty members”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved March 26, 2015. [62] Knich, Diane (March 26, 2015). “Former dean blasts Charleston School of Law owners over InfiLaw sale”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved March 26, 2015.

[49] “South Carolina Secretary of State”. Business Filings. South Carolina Secretary of State. Retrieved August 31, 2014.

[63] Knich, Diane (March 28, 2015). “Charleston School of Law founder Ed Westbrook resigns from board, plans to sever ties with school”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved March 28, 2015.

[50] Knich, Diane (September 19, 2014). “Charleston School of Law founder Westbrook launches nonproﬁt group as alternative to Inﬁlaw”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved September 18, 2014.

[64] Knich, Diane (May 6, 2015). “Charleston School of Law may not enroll new students in the fall”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved May 6, 2015.

[51] “A good option for CSOL”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). September 22, 2014. Retrieved September 22, 2014.

[65] Bantz, Philip (May 13, 2015). “EXCLUSIVE VIDEO – Charleston School of Law: A law school on the brink”. South Carolina Lawyers Weekly. Retrieved May 14, 2015.

[52] Knich, Diane (October 16, 2014). “Two of Charleston School of Law’s three owners pushing forward with planned sale to InﬁLaw”. Charleston Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved October 16, 2014.

[66] Heﬀernan, Ashley (May 15, 2015). “Law school owners still looking for buyer”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved May 18, 2015.

[53] Knich, Diane (November 5, 2014). “Charleston School of Law kept in suspense about InﬁLaw sale”. Post & Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved November 5, 2014. [54] Heﬀernan, Ashley (November 13, 2014). “Charleston School of Law names new president, Abrams stays on as dean”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved November 22, 2014.

[67] “Charleston School of Law faculty wants to return to founding principle”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). May 15, 2015. Retrieved May 15, 2015. [68] Knich, Diane (May 15, 2015). “Charleston School of Law future continues to be murky”. Post and Courier. Retrieved May 15, 2015. [69] “Charleston School of Law to enroll students for the fall”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). May 22, 2015. Retrieved May 23, 2015.

55.10. REFERENCES

[70] Knich, Diane (June 5, 2015). “Charleston School of Law hires new interim president”. Post and Courier. Retrieved June 6, 2015. [71] Heffernan, Ashley (July 2, 2015). “Fired professors sue Charleston law school”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved July 3, 2015. [72] Knich, Diane (August 5, 2015). “Judge blocks Charleston School of Law from laying off professor while lawsuit pending”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved August 24, 2015. [73] Ashley Heffernan (October 22, 2015). “Law school files counterclaims against professors”. Charleston Regional Business Journal. Retrieved October 22, 2015. [74] Knich, Diane (August 14, 2015). “Charleston School of Law leaders withhold tenure”. Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved August 24, 2015.

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[93] “Applicants Passing the July 2010 Bar Examination”. Retrieved October 30, 2010. [94] “Applicants Passing the February 2011 Bar Examination”. Retrieved April 22, 2011. [95] “Applicants Passing the July 2011 Bar Examination”. Retrieved October 23, 2011. [96] “Applicants Passing the February 2012 Bar Examination” (PDF). Retrieved April 22, 2011. [97] “Applicants Passing the July 2012 Bar Examination” (PDF). Retrieved October 26, 2012. [98] “South Carolina February 2013 Bar Examination Results” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. Retrieved April 26, 2013. [99] “Applicants Passing the July 2013 Bar Examination” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. Retrieved Oct 24, 2013.

[75] Bowers, Paul (October 28, 2015). “Charleston School of Law names attorney Ed Bell president”. Charleston Post and Courier (Charleston, South Carolina). Retrieved Oc- [100] “Applicants Passing the February 2014 Bar Examination” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. Retrieved April tober 28, 2015. 25, 2014. [76] Ashley Heffernan (October 29, 2015). “New law school president to pay off $6M InfiLaw loan”. Charleston Re- [101] “Applicants Passing the July 2014 Bar Examination” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. Retrieved gional Business Journal. Retrieved October 30, 2015. November 5, 2014. [77] “Tuition and Expenses”. [102] “APPLICANTS PASSING THE FEBRUARY 2015 [78] “Charleston School of Law Profile”. BAR EXAMINATION” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. May 1, 2015. Retrieved May 6, 2015. [79] “Employment Statistics”. [103] “APPLICANTS PASSING THE JULY 2015 BAR EX[80] “Charleston School of Law Profile Profile”. AMINATION” (PDF). South Carolina Supreme Court. Retrieved October 30, 2015. [81] http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews. com/best-graduate-schools/top-law-schools/ grad-debt-rankings [82] “Class of 2014 profile”. Retrieved Oct 11, 2011. [83] “Class of 2015 profile”. Retrieved Oct 23, 2012.

[104] Knich, Diane (November 7, 2007). “State High Court Drops Portion of Bar Exam”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [105] “Charleston School of Law”. www.charlestonlaw.edu. Retrieved June 5, 2009.

[84] “Class of 2016 Profile”. Charleston School of Law. Re[106] “Board of Advisors webpage”. Charleston School of Law. trieved February 13, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2009. [85] “Class of 2017 Profile”. Charleston School of Law. Re[107] “Hollings to Address First Graduation Class” (PDF). trieved September 6, 2014. Reprint from The Citadel of an article from The State [86] “Class of 2014 profile”. Retrieved Oct 11, 2011. (newspaper) online. March 25, 2007. [87] “Class of 2015 profile”. Retrieved Oct 23, 2012. [88] “Class of 2016 Profile”. Charleston School of Law. Retrieved February 13, 2014.

[108] Fossi, Caroline (August 7, 2007). “Law School Plans To Expand to King Street”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009.

[89] “Class of 2017 Proﬁle”. Charleston School of Law. Re- [109] Knich, Diane (February 28, 2006). “Law School Aims To Buy Building on Meeting Street”. The Post and Courier. trieved September 6, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [90] “Applicants Passing February 2009 Bar Examination”. [110] “Modern Building Replaces Old Half Timbered House”. Retrieved April 26, 2010. Charleston News & Courier. March 24, 1955. p. 15A. Retrieved Dec 4, 2012. [91] “Applicants Passing July 2009 Bar Examination”. Retrieved April 26, 2010. [111] Knich, Diane (July 26, 2013). “Charleston School of Law [92] “Applicants Passing the February 2010 Bar Examination”. graduates talk about ﬁghting possible sale of school”. The Retrieved April 26, 2010. Post and Courier. Retrieved July 28, 2013.

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[112] Knich, Diane (December 6, 2007). “Obama Writes Article for Charleston Law Review”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [113] Knich, Diane (Feb 13, 2013). “Retired Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor to speak at Charleston School of Law”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved April 28, 2013. [114] Staﬀ writer (August 5, 2005). “Law School To Publish Federal Law Review”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved January 5, 2011. [115] Knich, Diane (March 6, 2006). “Law School Opens Maritime Institute”. The Post and Courier. Retrieved June 5, 2009. [116] http://adrepub.charlestonlaw.edu/about-us [117] http://adrepub.charlestonlaw.edu/ volume-i-issue-i-fall-2010 [118] http://adrepub.charlestonlaw.edu/ volume-i-issue-i-fall-2010 [119] http://adrepub.charlestonlaw.edu/ volume-i-issue-ii-fall-2011

55.11 External links • charlestonlaw.edu, the school’s oﬃcial website

CHAPTER 55. CHARLESTON SCHOOL OF LAW

Chapter 56

Bed and breakfast For other uses, see Bed & Breakfast (disambiguation). exist if the same owner operates multiple B&B’s. A bed and breakfast (Typically shortened to B&B but Some B&Bs operate in a niche market. Floating bed and breakfasts are boats or houseboats which oﬀer B&B accommodation; the CCGS Alexander Henry museum ship was one example. In some communities, former lighthouse keeper quarters have been turned into B&B rooms after the light has been automated or decommissioned.

56.2 Regional diﬀerences 56.2.1 Australia

Breakfast at a B&B in Quebec City, Canada.

also spelled BnB in Internet usage) is a small lodging establishment that offers overnight accommodation and inclusive breakfast, but usually does not offer other meals. Typically, bed and breakfasts are private homes or family homes offering accommodations-the typical B&B has between 4 and 11 rooms, with 6 being the average. [1]

Despite the cultural similarities and a population more than twenty times greater, there are far fewer B&Bs in the whole of Australia than there are in just the South Island of New Zealand.[2]

Since the 1960s the average per capita disposable income of Australians has been greater than that of New Zealanders and this has mitigated the powerful incentive to let out rooms in their homes to travellers. Another factor may be that Australia has, apart from City States such as Singapore, the greatest concentration of city dwellers "Bed and breakfast" is also used as a term to describe anywhere on the globe and these cities are amply supplied the level of catering included in a hotel’s room prices (as with budget hotels and motels. opposed to room only, half-board, full-board etc.).

56.2.2 China

56.1 Overview Generally, guests are accommodated in private bedrooms with private bathrooms, or in a suite of rooms including an en suite bathroom. Some homes have private bedrooms with a bathroom which is shared with other guests. Breakfast is served in the bedroom, a dining room, or the host’s kitchen. B&Bs and guest houses may be operated as either a secondary source of income or a primary occupation.. Often the owners themselves prepare the breakfast and clean the rooms, but some bed and breakfasts hire staﬀ for cleaning or cooking. Properties with hired professional management are uncommon (unlike inns or hotels) but may

In China expatriates have remodelled traditional structures in quiet picturesque rural areas and opened a few rustic boutique hotels with minimum amenities. Most patrons are tourists but they are growing in popularity among the Chinese.[3]

56.2.3 Cuba In Cuba, which opened up to tourism in the 1990s after the ﬁnancial support of the Soviet Union ended, a form of B&B called casa particular (“private home”) became the main form of accommodation outside the tourist resorts.

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56.2.4

CHAPTER 56. BED AND BREAKFAST

Hungary

In Hungary B&B is very popular. Usually is a small family-run hotel, an intimate ambience and a pleasant atmosphere. It provides an aﬀordable alternate for the hotels. In Hungarian the B&B is called “Panzió" or “Szálló".

56.2.5

India

In India, the government is promoting the concept of bed & breakfast.[4] The government is doing this to increase tourism, especially keeping in view the demand for hotels during the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi.[5] They have classified B&B in 2 categories - Gold & Silver B&B. In the patio of a guest house in Tamchy, Kyrgyzstan All B&B will be approved by the Ministry of Tourism who will then categorize it as Gold or Silver based upon business of hospitality. In the last decade, there has been the pre-defined criteria.[6] development of bed and breakfasts also in southern Israel Enormous growth in metro cities like Delhi, Gurgaon, in the Negev.[7][8] Pune, Bangalore and Mumbai; people are rushing to these cities in terms to have a respective job and Bed & Breakfast is becoming a favourite option among them. Average 56.2.8 Italy B&B service provider are providing these service as standard in their premises like Air-conditioner or air cooler, In Italy, regional law regulates B&Bs. There is a national free food, free wifi internet; and premium provider are law “Legge 29 marzo 2001, n. 135” but each region providing whole bunch of extra services like lift system maintains a specific regulation. Each region can adopt in the building, no electricity bill for air-conditioner and different regulations but they must observe the national geyser usage, 50Mbit/s to 100Mbit/s leased internet line law on Tourism (Law N° 135 /2001). [9] for guests, intercom, security with IP cameras (which is mandatory by local state government and police department) and security guard 24*7. Charges for standard 56.2.9 Netherlands B&B is around $100 to $120 each head for a month and for premium B&B services starts from $180 and above. Bed & Breakfast in the Netherlands literally means what it says, namely 'bed with breakfast'. In the Netherlands, it is also often referred to as lodgings with breakfast, a gue56.2.6 Ireland stroom or guesthouse. Bed & Breakfast is a small-scale type of accommodation, which is available to guests for Registered Irish B&Bs are star rated by Fàilte Ireland a short stay. Nearly all bed & breakfasts are established and along with the majority unregistered B&Bs, form the in a residential home and are run by the owners of that B&B Owners Association Ireland. Generally, B&Bs in particular residence. There are approximately 5,000 bed Ireland are family owned & run, with a small percent- & breakfasts in the Netherlands. age being leased/managed but still with the personal service expected in this sector. Owners / Managers nearly always live on premises. Breakfast can mean a cooked 56.2.10 New Zealand "Irish Fry" or continental style buffet. Bed and breakfasts in New Zealand tend to be more expensive than motels and often feature historic homes and 56.2.7 Israel furnished bedrooms at a commensurate price. The Israeli B&B is known as a zimmer (German for room). All over the country, but especially in northern Israel (Galilee, Upper Galilee and Golan Heights) the zimmers has developed an extensive industry. Settlements belonging to private families and rural settlements are rented for a short period. This industry began to develop in the 1990s, when agriculture became less profitable, and many families with farms in community, kibbutzim, farms and individual seats decided to try their luck in the

56.2.11 Pakistan The trend of B&Bs in Pakistan is quite widespread. Popular resorts like Murree, which attract many tourists from diﬀerent parts of the country, have a number of such resthouses. The expenses can vary, depending on the quality of facilities. Most bed and breakfast facilities tend to expediently cater to families, given the high level of group

56.2. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

275

56.2.12 Romania While exploring Romania’s countryside, smaller cities or traditional villages, visitors can stay at a bed and breakfast (usually called “Pensiune”). Bed and Breakfast in Romania are rated with daisies, from one to three, three daisies being the best rating. A Bed and Breakfast oﬀers clean and inexpensive accommodations as well as the opportunity to learn about the day-to-day life and culture of rural part Romania especially in Transylvania where B&B is more popular. Visitors will have the chance to try fresh, organic farm products. A Centre of New Zealand Bed and Breakfast

56.2.13 Spain Bed and breakfast is a 21st-century phenomenon in Spain. In the past, the equivalent was “Habitacion con derecho a cocina” which means “room along with use of the kitchen area”. In Spain, bed and breakfast oﬀers are provided by hotels, hostels, apartments, houses and Inns. Normally bed and breakfast ﬂats or houses consist of 5-7 rooms but as they are not heavily regulated, people are free to provide their houses as bed and breakfast to pay for some of the bills. This has resulted in a degeneration of bed and breakfast standards.

56.2.14 Sweden Bed and breakfast was more or less a direct import from the British style B&B. The B&B isn't evenly spread over the country, most are in southern province of Skåne or near one of the three larger cites, Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. Some breakfast hotels and other minor hotels trying to profit from the name also call their accomThe front yard of the Dupont at the Circle B&B, located at 1604 modation B&B. 19th Street, N.W., in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Snow continues to pile up during the Second North No laws in Sweden restrict such advertising; the only reAmerican blizzard of 2010. striction is from the authority of traffic (Trafikverket), who only give permission to put up the bed and breakfast sign by the local road if the owner lives in the same building as the guests. If the proprietor has less than eight beds, tourism, and offer suitable overnight lodging. no permissions from the police office is required to run public accommodations, but fire safety and food safety applies to all new facilities, regardless of the number of beds. In a Swedish B&B using the kitchen is not allowed for guests. Standard is usually acceptable but sometimes with en-suite bathroom or sometimes a shared bathroom in the corridor. Most people in Sweden speak and understand English, but in small establishments it often can be tricky Carriage B&B Hinto Panzio in Transylvania, Odorheiu-Secuiesc to pay with Visa card or Euro. Swedish bed and breakfast (Szekelyudvarhely), Romania may be found through local or regional tourist organizations or the owner’s webpage.

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CHAPTER 56. BED AND BREAKFAST European-style B&Bs (Zimmer frei in Germany, chambres d'hotes in France) for the ﬁrst time. Some were inspired to open B&Bs in the U.S.; tourist home owners updated their properties as B&Bs. The interest in B&Bs coincided with an increasing interest in historic preservation, spurred by the U.S. Bicentennial in 1976 and assisted by two crucial pieces of legislation: the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, and the Tax Reform Act of 1976, which provided tax incentives for the restoration and reuse of historic structures.

Through the 1980s and 1990s, B&Bs increased rapidly in numbers and evolved from homestay B&Bs with shared baths and a simple furnishings to beautifully renovated historic mansions with luxurious décor and amenities. Little Langford Farmhouse, Salisbury, Wiltshire Many B&Bs created a historical ambiance by adapting historic properties (such as the 1830s Federal-style Holladay House in Orange, Virginia) as guesthouses dec56.2.15 United Kingdom orated with antique furniture. Printed directories listed options in various cities. By the mid-1990s, the InterB&Bs and guest houses are generally a budget option net made it more affordable for innkeepers to promote compared to hotels, although some up-market B&Bs also their properties worldwide; it provided on-line reservaexist. There are numerous B&Bs found in seaside towns, tion software and allowed travellers to view detailed phothe countryside as well as city centres. tos, videos, and reviews. B&Bs are graded by Visit Britain and other organisations B&B and Inn owners have been adding amenities such and may be rated on a star system. 3, 4 and 5 star estabas wireless Internet access, free parking, spa services or lishments have a higher standard. A majority of B and Bs nightly wine and cheese hours. To stay competitive with in the UK have en-suite facilities. the rest of the lodging industry, larger bed and breakfast inns have expanded to offer wedding services, business conference facilities, and meeting spaces as well as many 56.2.16 United States other services a large hotel might offer. The custom of opening one’s home to travellers dates back the earliest days of Colonial America. Lodging establishments were few and far between in the 18th century and, apart from a limited number of coaching inns, wayfarers relied on the kindness of strangers to provide a bed for the night. Hotels became more common with the advent of the railroad and later the automobile; most towns had at least one prominent hotel. During the Great Depression, tourist homes provided an economic advantage to both the traveller and the host. Driving through town on US Highways (in a pre-Interstate highway era), travellers stopped at houses with signs reading Tourists or Guests, where one could rent a room for the night for approximately $2. While little more than short-stay boarding houses, the rooms brought needed income for the home owner and saved money for the traveller. A tourist home or guest house represented an intermediate option between inexpensive campgrounds or cabins and costly railway hotels. (The motel fad of the 1950s and 1960s later filled this niche, now occupied by economy limited service hotels.) Non-white travellers could consult The Negro Motorist Green Book, a printed directory, to find lodging at which they would be welcome despite racial segregation and widespread discrimination.

There are approximately 17,000 B&Bs in the United States. [10] B&Bs are found in all states, in major cities and remote rural areas, occupying everything from modest cottages to opulent mansions, and in restored structures from schools to cabooses to churches.

56.3 Regulations Regulations and laws vary considerably between jurisdictions both in content and extent and in enforcement. The most common regulations B&Bs must follow pertain to safety. They are usually required by local and national ordinances to have fire resistance, a sufficient fire escape plan in place, and smoke detectors in each guest room. Kitchens and equipment used to serve meals are also often required to be monitored for hygienic operation, but there are significant national and local differences.

In Hawaii, it is illegal to open a new bed & breakfast on Oahu as of 1989. The reason for the moratorium is to force home owners with extra room to rent out their exAfter World War II, middle-class Americans began trav- tra space to low income residents who otherwise cannot elling in Europe in large numbers, many experiencing the aﬀord housing on crowded Oahu.

56.6. SEE ALSO

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56.4 Professional and trade associ- 56.5.3 ComScore study ations Another study suggests that people trust online reviews Many inns and bed and breakfasts are members of professional associations. There are international, national, regional, and local associations, all of which provide services to both their members and the travelling public. Many require their members to meet speciﬁc standards of quality, while others simply require a lodging establishment to pay dues. These associations also facilitate marketing of the individual B&Bs and provide a stamp of approval that the business in question is reputable. In the United States, the two primary nationwide professional associations are the Professional Association of Innkeepers International (PAII) and the Association of Independent Hospitality Professionals (AIHP).

posted by previous guests:[13]

56.5.4 Journal of Travel Research study A study by the Journal of Travel Research stated:[14]

56.5.5 Prince Edward Island study A 2007 study on Prince Edward Island[15]

56.5.6 TIME magazine

While various local governments have regulations and in- According to TIME magazine:[16] spect lodging establishments for health and safety issues, membership in a state/provincial/national bed and breakfast association can indicate a higher standard of hospital- 56.6 See also ity. Associations sometimes review their members’ properties and tend to have additional standards of care. • Inn In the US for example, each state has an innkeeping asso• List of human habitation forms ciation (usually non-proﬁt) that exists to promote the industry and tourism. Within those state associations, many city and regional bed and breakfast associations can be found. Many state, city and regional associations, have 56.7 References inspection criteria that often exceed government requirements for safety and cleanliness. [1] “The B&B Industry”. innkeeping.org. Retrieved 2015In Australia, the industry is represented by the Bed & Breakfast, Farmstay and Accommodation Australia Ltd (BBFAA). In the British Isles the national approval boards set up by governments are far more stringent than others and standards are expected to be high. In Ireland there is an association that will only use the national tourist board’s approved members (Almara Accommodations Dublin)

56.5 Studies 56.5.1

Tourism Queensland study

In January 2003 Tourism Queensland conducted a review of current research to gain a better understanding of the Bed & Breakfast (B&B) market:[11]

56.5.2

Michigan State University study

According to a study by Michigan State University:[12]

09-04. [2] Private Stay Accommodation Directory, "Australia", accessed 4 April 2007 shows 43 pages for Australia as a country and a combined total of 51 pages for various regions of the South Island of "New Zealand" [3] Mike Ives (August 13, 2013). “From Outsiders to Innkeepers in China’s Sleepy Countryside”. The New York Times. Retrieved August 14, 2013. [4] Guidelines For Approval and Registration of 'Incredible India Bed And Breakfast' Establishments (MS Word Document) [5] Delhi tourism department promoting B&B in Delhi. [6] Ministry of Tourism B&B criteria in Delhi. [7] Mirovsky, Arik, There’s gold in them thar hills..., Hareetz.com, retrieved 2009-04-05 [8] end, week, Everything about zimmers..., Roy engel, archived from the original on 6 June 2011, retrieved 201106-13 [9] Bed and Breakfast in Europe [10] “The B&B Industry”. innkeeping.org. Retrieved 2015-

According to this study, many bed and breakfast visitors 09-04. make use of evaluations, given by other guests. This system of independent reviews is one of the fastest growing [11] Bed & Breakfast Tourism (PDF), Tourism Queensland, January 2003, retrieved 2009-04-05 consumer content oriented sites on the net.

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[12] Koth, Barbara A, Assistant Extension Specialist; William C. Norman, Ph.D. candidate (6 June 2002), The Minnesota Bed and Breakfast Market: A Guest Profile (Research Summaries), University of Minnesota Minnesota Extension Service [13] Aun, Fred (3 December 2007), ComScore Study Reinforces Online Reviews’ Impact on Offline Sales, ClickZ.com, archived from the original on 6 November 2009, retrieved 2009-10-04 [14] Monty, Ben (2003), “Hedonic Pricing and Willingness to Pay for Bed and Breakfast Amenities in Southeast Wisconsin”, Journal of Travel Research (La Follette School of Public Affairs at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, University of Wisconsin—Whitewater) 42 (2): 195–199, doi:10.1177/0047287503257500 [15] Significant research of bed & breakfast and country inns, The Association of Prince Edward Island, Tourism Research Center: At the University of Prince Edward Island, 2007 [16] Marchant, Valerie; Witkowski, Tom; Benson, Jyl; Monday, Harriet (18 November 2002), “Bed, Breakfast And Beyond”, TIME magazine (Time-Life), retrieved 200905-04

CHAPTER 56. BED AND BREAKFAST

Chapter 57

Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge over the Cooper River in South Carolina, connecting downtown Charleston to Mount Pleasant. The eight lane bridge satisﬁed the capacity of U.S. Route 17 when it opened in 2005 to replace two obsolete cantilever truss bridges. The bridge has a main span of 1,546 feet (471 m), the third longest among cable-stayed bridges in the Western Hemisphere. It was built using the design-build method and was designed by Parsons Brinckerhoﬀ.

warning “Use lanes with green arrow” and “Do not use red X lane” on the bridge.

By the 1960s the Grace Memorial Bridge had become insufficient, with its two narrow 10-foot (3 m) lanes built for Ford Model As and its steep grades of up to 6 percent. Later changes to the side rail and curb reduced the lane width further. A new bridge was constructed alongside and parallel to it. Named for the then-South Carolina Highway Commissioner, the Silas N. Pearman Bridge opened in 1966 at cost of $15 million. Its three lanes, at a modern 12-foot (3.7 m) width, opened to northbound traffic while its older counterpart carried the southbound traffic into downtown Charleston. One lane was reversible on the Pearman bridge, which led to signs

57.2.1 Funding

The two truss bridges had become functionally obsolete by 1979. Extensive metal deterioration caused by the lack of maintenance shortly after Grace Bridge’s tolls were removed limited the capacity of the older Grace bridge to ten ton vehicles (later five tons), and the reversible lane on the Pearman was eliminated (it had been able to switch to three lanes northbound for rush hour traffic), making that lane southbound permanently, diverting all heavy trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles to that lane on the Pearman bridge. Neither of the bridges had emer57.1 History gency lanes, and the Pearman bridge had no median between the northbound and southbound lanes because of The first bridge to cross the lower Cooper River opened its reversible lane, and it was not until 2002 when flexiin 1929, eventually named the John P. Grace Memorial ble barriers were added to the Pearman bridge to prevent Bridge for former Charleston mayor John P. Grace, who head-on collisions. spearheaded the project. The main span of the double cantilever truss bridge was the fifth longest in the world Furthermore, the vertical clearance above the river – once at 1,050 feet (320 m) and soared 150 feet (46 m) above among the highest in the world – could no longer accomthe river. The main span of the second cantilever was modate modern shipping vessels. Three of Charleston’s the twelfth-longest in the world. The total length of the four shipping terminals are situated up the Cooper and structure was about 2.7 miles (4.3 km). Following a 17- Wando Rivers, and the limited bridge clearance excluded month construction at a cost of $6 million, it opened with the access of ships that would otherwise be beneficial to a 3-day celebration that attracted visitors from around the the economy of South Carolina. Now that the old bridges globe. Engineers and critics proclaimed colorful descrip- are disassembled, the world’s largest modern container tions of the unique structure, deeming it “the first roller- ships are able to access all terminals of the nation’s fourthcoaster bridge” and citing that “steep approaches, stupen- largest container port. dous height, extremely narrow width, and a sharp curve at the dip conspire to excite and alarm the motorist.” Privately owned originally, a $1.00 toll was charged for car and driver to cross. In 1943 the state of South Carolina 57.2 Building the Bridge purchased the bridge, and the tolls were lifted in 1946.

Raising financial support for a new eight-lane bridge over the Cooper River was a struggle 20 years in the making, prolonged by the state’s insistence that it could not afford such a bridge and by Charleston’s reluctance to provide any funds for the project. Several proposals were made for a toll bridge, but the mayors of Charleston and Mount Pleasant objected. When officials revealed in 1995 that the Grace Bridge scored a 4 out of 100 for safety and integrity, retired U.S. Congressman Arthur Ravenel, Jr. ran for the South Carolina Senate with a goal of solving the

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One of the two towers.

Charleston’s new bridge over the Cooper River is a cablestayed suspension design with two diamond-shaped towers, each 575 feet (175 m) high. The total length of the structure is 13,200 feet (4.0 km), with the main span stretching 1,546 feet (471 m) between the towers. 128 individual cables anchored to the inside of the diamond towers suspend the deck 186 feet (57 m) above the river. The roadway consists of eight 12-foot (3.7 m) lanes, four in each direction as well as a 12-foot (3.7 m) bicycle and Arthur Ravenel, Jr. pedestrian path to the design, which runs along the south edge of the bridge overlooking Charleston Harbor and the funding problem. He helped to establish the S.C. Infras- Atlantic Ocean. tructure Bank and worked with local, state, and federal The bridge superstructure is designed to withstand shipofficials to create partnerships that helped to materialize ping accidents and the natural disasters that have plagued the final funding. Charleston’s history. The span is designed to endure wind The State Infrastructure Bank (SIB) budgeted $325 mil- gusts in excess of 300 mph (480 km/h), far stronger lion to accompany $96.6 million from the Federal High- than those of the worst storm in Charleston’s history, way Administration. The project did not become a real- Hurricane Hugo in 1989. Engineers also considered the ity, however, until the SIB agreed to commit to a $215 1886 earthquake that nearly leveled Charleston. The million federal loan, provided that Charleston County Ravenel Bridge is designed to withstand an earthquake of would contribute $3 million a year for 25 years, includ- approximately 7.4 on the Richter magnitude scale withing an 8.33% sales tax increase, to the federal loan, as out total failure. To protect the bridge from errant ships, well as yearly payments from the SCDOT and State Ports the towers are flanked by one-acre rock islands. Ships Authority. The overall price of the bridge totaled around will run aground on the islands before colliding with the towers. $700 million.

57.2.2

Design

The bridge includes a shared bicycle-pedestrian path named Wonders’ Way in memory of Garrett Wonders. Wonders was a US Navy ensign stationed in Charleston and was in training for the 2004 Olympics before he died in a bicycle-vehicle collision.[3] The path was included in design of the new bridge because of grassroots eﬀorts by groups such as a ﬁfth grade class at a local elementary school.[4]

57.2.3 Construction

Road deck of the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge.

Groundbreaking on the bridge occurred in 2001 in Mount Pleasant. The bridge was built as a design-build project, meaning that one contract was signed to both design and construct the bridge. This meant that construction could begin even while the design was not yet ﬁnalized. The bridge was built by a joint venture of two major construction ﬁrms operating under the name Palmetto Bridge

57.3. BRIDGE RUN

281

Fireworks celebration, July 2005, to kick oﬀ the new bridge. View from atop the MUSC Parking Garage facing northwest

months. Constructors. The joint venture partners were Tidewater Skanska of Norfolk, Virginia and Flatiron Constructors of Longmont, Colorado. The construction joint venture hired Parsons Brinckerhoﬀ to complete the design. For the sake of simplifying labor and equipment resources, Palmetto Bridge Constructors actually managed the building of the bridge as ﬁve separate projects (the two highway interchanges at either end of the bridge, the two approach spans, and the cable-stayed span) going on simultaneously.

Following a week-long celebration that included a public bridge walk, concerts, dinners, and ﬁreworks, the bridge was dedicated and opened on July 16, 2005 – one year ahead of schedule and under budget. The bridge was featured on the TV show Extreme Engineering.

57.3 Bridge Run

By the summer of 2002 the foundations for the towers and most of the piers were in place and the rock islands were completed. The steel and concrete towers began to ascend from the islands soon after. Originally, each of the towers was to be topped with a 50-foot (15 m) multicolored LED “beacon,” but public opinion caused this plan to be scrapped. The fast-paced construction schedule led to contractors to use a self-climbing form system to build the towers. The formwork, supplied by PERI, provided a solution to meet the tight construction tolerances and provide safe access for workers laboring hundreds of feet in the air. The self-climbing system meant that the tower cranes did not have to spend time raising the forms after each seg- Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge view from Patriot’s Point, July 2006. ment of concrete hardened, and instead could be better The last fragments of the two old bridges can be seen in the backused to haul material from barges below.[5] ground. The ﬁrst cables were hung from the towers in 2004—as a time-saving measure, this was done before the towers were wholly completed. Sections of the deck were built outward from each of the towers as more cables were hung. The decks of the approaches were taking shape as well. Construction of part of the roadway actually occurred over the top of the old cantilever bridges, which remained open to traﬃc without interruption.

The bridge is home to the annual USA Track & Field 10,000 meter (6.2 mi) Cooper River Bridge Run on the ﬁrst weekend of April. This event attracts up to 50,000 people. The route starts in Mount Pleasant and ﬁnishes in downtown Charleston at Marion Square.

57.4 Media appearances

A ceremony was held in March 2005, when the last slab of the deck was added, thus making the bridge “complete.” The cover of Darius Rucker's 2010 album Charleston, SC But paving, installation of lights and signs, and cleanup 1966 features a picture of Rucker, a Charleston native, meant that the bridge would not open for another four with the Ravenel Bridge in the background.

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The 2014 television series Reckless features the bridge in its title sequence.

• Unbuilding (demolition) of the Grace and Pearman Bridges, Site of Frank Starmer

In the video game Need for Speed Undercover a bridge similar to the Ravenel Bridge was featured but only on the Playstation 3, Xbox and PC versions. It was also featured in the 2012 version of Need for Speed Most Wanted (but it only crosses half of the water)

• Cooper River Bridge Run

The 2009 movie "The New Daughter" starring Kevin Costner features the Ravenel Bridge in several scenes as the movie is based in and around "Charleston, South Carolina". "Southern Charm" TV Series by "Bravo" features Thomas Ravenel and the Ravenel Bridge that is from his family.

57.5 References [1] “T.Y. Lin International Group | Projects | Arthur Ravenel Jr. (Cooper River) Bridge”. Tylin.com. Retrieved 201305-05. [2] SCDOT Traﬃc Counts, Accessed May 15, 2008 [3] South Carolina General Assembly, Concurrent Resolution, June 1, 2004. [4] National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, Campaign Safe & Sober, December 1999. [5] “High-rise remit”. Bridge Design & Engineering (London: The Hemming Group) (32). 2003-12-10. ISSN 13597493. Retrieved 2008-07-26.

• Annan, Jason; & Gabriel, Pamela (2002). The Great Cooper River Bridge. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-470-2 • The Cooper River Bridge (2004). South Carolina Department of Transportation Accessed July 23, 2005. • Porter, Arlie: "State ﬁnalizes Cooper River bridge funding.” The Post and Courier, July 2, 2001. • Roko, Ellyde: "New bridge ends its 'long journey'.” The State, July 17, 2005.

57.6 External links • The Oﬃcial Website for the Cooper River Bridge, from SCDOT • Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge at Structurae • The Bridge Builders, Special Supplement from the Post & Courier • The Story of the Building of the Arthur Ravenel Bridge, Site of Frank Starmer

Chapter 58

John P. Grace Memorial Bridge This article is about the original bridge which was demolished. For the bridge that was demolished along with it, see Silas N. Pearman Bridge. For the current bridge, see Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge.

The John P. Grace Memorial Bridge, or the Cooper River Bridge as it was familiarly known, was a cantilever bridge that crossed the Cooper River in Charleston, South Carolina. It opened on August 8, 1929 and was built by the Cooper River Bridge Company. Shortridge Hardesty of Waddell & Hardesty, New York designed the bridge.[1] The John P. Grace Memorial Bridge (left) and the new Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge (right) in May 2005. The Silas N. Pearman

The Silas N. Pearman Bridge was opened beside it in Bridge can be seen on the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge’s side. 1966 to relieve traﬃc. They were both replaced by the Arthur Ravenel, Jr. Bridge in 2005.

58.2 Replacement In 1995 the Grace bridge scored only a 4 out of 100 (4%), or an F, in safety. Arthur Ravenel Jr. ran for SC Senate as a way to solve the problem. He planned for an 8 lane bridge to replace the Grace/Pearman spans of US 17. The ribbon was cut on August 8, 1929, at 1:12 p.m. by Construction started in 2001 and the new bridge opened Col. James Armstrong, and between 30,000 and 50,000 in July 2005, at which point the Grace bridge closed to people[2] crossed the bridge during its first day. The traffic. bridge was owned by Cooper River Bridge, Inc., a private company. President of the company was John P. Grace, former mayor of Charleston. The bridge was built by a consortium of four engineering and construction firms. Construction lasted seventeen months, and the final cost 58.3 Demolition of the bridge was six million dollars, to be financed by a 50-cent toll. The bridge had two 10 ft (3.0 m) lanes. In 1946 the state bought the bridge from Cooper River After a “Burn The Bridges” run and a parade of 1929-era Bridge, Inc. and the 50-cent toll was removed. Unfortu- cars over the empty deck, demolition of the Grace Bridge nately the same year a freighter rammed the bridge rip- began in August 2005. There had been a movement to try ping down a 240-foot (73 m) section of it. Widening oc- to sell the bridge or to place it on the National Register curred in 1959 for a breakdown lane. Construction on the of Historic Places so that, after removal, it could be reparallel Silas N. Pearman Bridge - intended to alleviate assembled elsewhere, but most of the steel and concrete load limits on the Grace bridge - was completed in 1966. was either recycled or dropped into the ocean to start arIn 1979, a 3rd lane was added to the Grace bridge at the tificial fishing reefs. The demolition of the Grace Bridge Charleston approach. By 1979, the bridge became func- took approximately 2 years and required closing the shiptionally obsolete and there were many plans to replace the ping lane for half a day as the main span was cut from the bridge, but not enough money. cantilever sections and lowered onto a barge below.

58.1 History

283

284

58.4 In popular culture • The old bridge most notably was utilized for ﬁlming of a scene in the 1995 ﬁlm Die Hard with a Vengeance.

58.5 References [1] Hardesty & Hanover timeline, 1887-1938, accessed April 26, 2007 [2] “50,000 Persons Cross Cooper as Bridge Is Opened”. Charleston News & Courier. Aug 9, 1929. pp. A1. Retrieved October 21, 2013.

• Annan, Jason; Pamela Gabriel. The Great Cooper River Bridge. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-470-2.

58.6 External links • Grace Memorial Bridge at Structurae • Unbuilding the Grace and Pearman Bridges A series of photo essays documenting the entire demolition process by Frank Starmer and Sparky Witte • Photographic Record of the Cooper River Bridge at the Charleston Archive at Charleston County Public Library

CHAPTER 58. JOHN P. GRACE MEMORIAL BRIDGE

Chapter 59

Port of Charleston The Port of Charleston is a seaport located in South Carolina in the Southeastern United States. The port’s facilities span three municipalities — Charleston, North Charleston, and Mount Pleasant — with ﬁve public terminals owned and operated by the South Carolina Ports Authority. These facilities handle containers; motor vehicles; and other rolling stock, non-containerized goods and project cargo, as well as Charleston’s cruise ship operation. Additional facilities in the port are privately owned and operated, handling bulk commodities like petroleum, coal and steel.

59.1 Early History

The Port of Charleston later suffered in the wake of the Civil War. The harbor itself was in shambles and filled with mines and the wrecks of sunken Confederate and Union ships. The Southern economy had little to export, and Charleston’s network of private wharves were neglected and left to ruin. The establishment of several major federal military bases during the early 20th century benefited Charleston Harbor tremendously. Because of this federal presence, the harbor itself was wellmaintained and greatly improved over the years. Mayor John P. Grace brought renewed interest in reviving the Port of Charleston’s shipping presence by establishing the Port Utilities Commission in the early 1920s. In 1922 the city purchased the Charleston Terminal Company, which owned the majority of the peninsula’s commercial waterfront assets, for $1.5 million. In 1942, the South Carolina Legislature established the South Carolina Ports Authority[3] with the responsibility to foster waterborne commerce for the benefit of the State of South Carolina.

59.2 Ranking, Volume and Investments

Archived photo of port operations in Charleston

Charleston’s earliest history is tied to its prominence as a center of trade. After establishing Charles Towne along the banks of the Ashley River in 1670, the original settlers moved to the Charleston peninsula, favoring that location’s natural harbor. By 1682 Charles Towne was declared the port of entry for the colony. From the founding of the colony until the start of the American Civil War, the colony’s principal exports were lumber and naval stores, furs and animal skins, rice, indigo, cotton, and tobacco; and imports of primarily human traﬃc up until late 1700’s. As a result of this trade, the colony ﬂourished.

A container ship prepares to sail beneath the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge, the longest cable-stayed bridge in North America.

In 2012, the Port of Charleston ranked as the 8th port in the United States by cargo value, with $63 billion in imports and exports traded across the docks. In 2008, readers of Cargo Business News named the Port of Charleston the most productive port in their supply chain.[4] The Port

285

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CHAPTER 59. PORT OF CHARLESTON

of Charleston hosts shipping service by more than 30 of To better handle ships, passengers, traffic and security rethe world’s top carriers, both on regular and inducement quirements, the Ports Authority identified a need to imcalls. prove and enhance the cruise terminal, which opened in The South Carolina Ports Authority plans to invest $1.3 1973. Cruise ships have called Union Pier since 1913. billion in new and existing facilities over a 10-year The Ports Authority began hosting meetings, telling the period.[5] This plan includes a new container terminal community on how the agency envisioned to best develop in North Charleston on the former Navy Base, as well an improved cruise facility. Through an extensive public as major improvements to existing facilities, technology process, including more than 100 meetings with neighbors and other stakeholder groups, the resulting Union upgrades and a new cruise terminal. Today the Port of Charleston boasts the deepest water in the southeast re- Pier Concept Plan was endorsed unanimously by City Council in September 2010. gion and regularly handles ships too big to transit through the Panama Canal. A next-generation harbor deepen- The new cruise terminal would be relocated north on ing project is currently underway to take the Port of Union Pier Terminal to an existing structure that would be Charleston’s entrance channel to 54 feet and harbor chan- renovated and modernized, freeing much of Union Pier nel to 52 feet at mean low tide. With an average high tide for public uses and other non-industrial development if of 6 feet, the depth clearances will become 60 feet and the Ports Authority chooses to sell it. If the port chooses 58 feet respectively. to and is able to sell the remainder of the property, it could present an opportunity to re-knit about 35 acres of currently industrial property into the fabric of the city, while 59.3 Terminals in the Port of also re-connecting the city to the waterfront. The Ports Authority does not yet have permits for the new cruise terCharleston minal. A federal judge instructed the agency to re-apply for a federal permit, but the agency has not yet done so. • Wando Welch Terminal – used for container cargo, located in the town of Mount Pleasant. • Columbus Street Terminal – used for project cargo, 59.5 Shipyard breakbulk and roll-on/roll-off cargo. Located in the city of Charleston. With the closure of the Naval Base and Charleston Naval • Union Pier Terminal – used for cruise ship opera- Shipyard in 1996, Detyens, Inc. signed a long term lease. With three dry docks, one floating dock, and six piers, tions, located in Charleston. Detyens Shipyards, Inc. is the largest commercial facility • North Charleston Terminal – used for container on the East Coast. Projects include military, commercial, cargo, located in the city of North Charleston. and cruise ships. • Veterans Terminal – used for project cargo, breakbulk and roll-on/roll-off cargo. Located in the City of North Charleston.

59.6 Military

• Naval Base Terminal - 280 acre facility opening in Portions of the Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan 2018, to be used for container cargo. The facility, area (Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, and located in North Charleston, will increase port caHanahan) are home to branches of the United States milpacity by 50%. itary. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902-1996) became the third largest U.S. home port, serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the Charleston Naval 59.4 Cruise Terminal and Union Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, sub tenders, and submarines. Also during this period, the shipPier Redevelopment yard conducted refueling of nuclear subs. Cruise operations in the Port of Charleston are part of the South Carolina Ports Authority’s legislated mandate to increase maritime commerce. A study commissioned by the South Carolina Ports Authority projected that cruise operations could support 407 jobs and $37 million in economic beneﬁts in 2010 in the Tri-County, though a follow-up study to determine actual costs and beneﬁts has not occurred. In May 2010, the Carnival Fantasy began home-porting the Carnival Fantasy in the Port of Charleston.

During this period, the Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet’s loadout base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN “Boomer” squadrons and a sub tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a sub tender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 closure of the station’s Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM-27 Polaris, UGM-73 Poseidon, and UGM-96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and main-

59.8. EXTERNAL LINKS tained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps security force company. In 2010, the Air Force base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (>17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, encompassing over 20,877 acres (8,449 ha) and supporting 53 military commands and federal agencies, provides service to over 79,000 airmen, sailors, soldiers, Marines, Coast Guardsmen, Department of Defense civilians, dependents, and retirees. In supporting Joint Base Charleston, 231 acres (93 ha) of the former Charleston Naval Base have been transformed into a multiuse Federal complex, with 17 Government and Military tenants, as well as homeport for six RO-RO Military Sealift Command ships, two Coast Guard National Security cutters, two NOAA research ships, Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy, and the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers.

59.7 References [1] Container Business Up 10% at South Carolina Ports in 2012 http://www.scspa.com/about/news/pressroom/ pressroom.asp?PressRelease=370 [2] US Census Foreign Trade 920 Data Tables 1 and 4 http: //www.scspa.com/About/statistics/dollarvalue.asp [3] “Title 54 - Ports and Maritime Matters, Chapter 3. South Carolina State Ports Authority”. South Carolina Code of Laws. South Carolina Legislature. Retrieved 29 December 2011. [4] Charleston Regional Business Journal, Port of Charleston, Wando terminal lead poll [5] SC Ports Capital Plan

59.8 External links • Oﬃcial website

287

Chapter 60

Awendaw, South Carolina Awendaw is a small ﬁshing town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 1,294 at the 2010 census.[3] Awendaw is part of the Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan area.

60.1 History Awendaw was named by the Sewee tribe. It is also home to an oyster shell mound created by the Sewee tribe. It is the northernmost shell ring in a group that stretches south to the tip of Florida. Most of the mound is still intact. The rest of it was destroyed to construct roads and homes for the citizens of Awendaw. Awendaw was settled in 1696 as “Wappetaw” by settlers from Salem, Massachusetts, who had left after the Salem Witch Trials. The town was heavily damaged by Hurricane Hugo in September 1989, but did not receive as significant damage in 2004 when Hurricane Gaston made landfall in the region. In 1992, the town of Awendaw was first incorporated and elected Willam H. Alston as the first Mayor. Alston served as Mayor until 2009.

The population density was 144.3 people per square mile (55.7/km²). There were 443 housing units at an average density of 53.5 per square mile (20.7/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 64.60% African American, 34.39% White, 0.08% Asian, 0.59% from other races, and 0.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.92% of the population. There were 400 households out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.8% were married couples living together, 19.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.0% were non-families. 20.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.47. In the town the population was spread out with 29.5% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was The Sewee Mound was listed on the National Register of $35,250, and the median income for a family was Historic Places in 1970.[4] $42,917. Males had a median income of $31,696 versus $21,422 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,781. About 13.5% of families and 12.4% 60.2 Geography of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.6% of those under age 18 and 18.1% of those age 65 Awendaw is located in northeastern Charleston County, or over. along U.S. Route 17 at 32°59′11″N 79°38′36″W / 32.98639°N 79.64333°W (32.986445, −79.643451).[5] US 17 leads southwest 28 miles (45 km) to Charleston 60.4 Government and northeast 32 miles (51 km) to Georgetown. According to the United States Census Bureau, Awendaw The town is run by an elected Mayor-council government has a total area of 9.7 square miles (25.1 km2 ), of which system. 9.5 square miles (24.5 km2 ) is land and 0.2 square miles Mayor Miriam C. Green (0.5 km2 ), or 2.13%, is water.[3] Council members

60.3 Demographics

• Bryan McNeal, Jr.

As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 1,195 people, 400 households, and 312 families residing in the town. 288

• Betty Simmons • Sheila Powell

60.8. CLIMATE • Rodney Porcher • Roberta S. Whiteside

289

60.8 Climate 60.9 References

Administrator • Bill Wallace Town clerk • Gregory Saxton

60.5 Landmarks The 609.6-meter-high (2,000 ft) WCSC-Tower is one of the world’s tallest constructions. The Media General Tower is also more than 600 m (2,000 ft) high. In 2001, the town’s public library was opened as the “Awendaw Community Library”. Currently named the William H. Alston Municipal Public Library, it is one of two municipal public libraries in the state. In 2011, Tractor Supply Company opened a new store. It was the ﬁrst national chain of its kind to open in Awendaw.

[1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Awendaw town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 25, 2015. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2012. [8] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010.

60.6 Blue Crab Festival To many Awendaw citizens, crabbing is a hobby and one of the town’s main economic resources. Every year in the summer, the town has the Blue Crab Festival.

60.10 External links • Town of Awendaw oﬃcial website • Awendaw at DMOZ

60.7 Notable people

Stores Awendaw, SC

• Danielle Howle, singer-songwriter

Chapter 61

Cottageville, South Carolina Cottageville is a town in Colleton County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 762 at the 2010 census.[3]

61.1 Geography Cottageville is in eastern Colleton County, along U.S. Route 17 Alt. Walterboro, the county seat, is 11 miles (18 km) to the west, and Summerville is 20 miles (32 km) to the east.

The median income for a household in the town was $38,281, and the median income for a family was $44,583. Males had a median income of $29,886 versus $22,019 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,765. About 14.7% of families and 18.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.3% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over.

61.3 References

According to the United States Census Bureau, Cottageville has a total area of 3.4 square miles (8.8 km2 ), all of it land.[3]

[1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.

61.2 Demographics

[3] “Geographic Identiﬁers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Cottageville town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factﬁnder. Retrieved July 2, 2015.

As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 707 people, 274 households, and 206 families residing in the town. The population density was 222.2 people per square mile (85.8/km²). There were 310 housing units at an average density of 97.4 per square mile (37.6/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 85.71% White, 11.88% African American, 0.42% Native American, 0.42% Asian, 0.14% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.28% from other races, and 1.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.42% of the population.

[2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.

[4] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [5] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

61.4 External links

There were 274 households out of which 32.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.9% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.8% were non-families. 21.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 2.97. In the town the population was spread out with 25.3% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 26.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 93.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males. 290

• Oﬃcial website

Chapter 62

Folly Beach, South Carolina population was 2,617 at the 2010 census,[3] up from 2,116 at the 2000 census. Folly Beach is within the CharlestonNorth Charleston-Summerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area.

62.1 History The Folly North Site (38CH1213) and Secessionville Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[4]

Center Street at Folly Beach

62.2 Geography Folly Beach is located 11 miles (18 km) south of downtown Charleston at 32°39′58″N 79°56′21″W / 32.66611°N 79.93917°W (32.666152, −79.939213),[5] along the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 18.9 square miles (48.9 km2 ), of which 12.5 square miles (32.4 km2 ) is land and 6.4 square miles (16.5 km2 ), or 33.72%, is water.[3] Known to Charleston locals as “the Edge of America”, Folly Beach is home to numerous surf spots, the most popular being the Washout, 10th Street and the Folly Beach Pier. Despite its usually calm conditions, Folly Beach has gained prominence as one of the more popular surf spots along the East Coast. Folly Beach is an eclectic beach community with surf shops, restaurants, gift shops, oﬃces, and bars along Center Street; the main road and gateway to the community.

62.3 Demographics As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 2,116 people, 1,060 households, and 489 families residing in the Under Folly Beach Pier city. The population density was 172.7 people per square mile (66.6/km²). There were 1,747 housing Folly Beach is a city located on historic Folly Island in units at an average density of 142.5 per square mile Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The (55.0/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.64% 291

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CHAPTER 62. FOLLY BEACH, SOUTH CAROLINA

White, 0.76% African American, 0.47% Native Amer- County. Within Folly Beach, the county operates Folly ican, 0.19% Asian, 0.52% from other races, and 1.42% Beach County Park and Folly Beach Fishing Pier. from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.42% of the population. There were 1,060 households out of which 13.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% were married couples living together, 4.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.8% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.51. In the city the age distribution of the population shows 10.9% under the age of 18, 13.6% from 18 to 24, 33.5% from 25 to 44, 29.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $46,935, and the median income for a family was $66,058. Males had a median income of $34,125 versus $30,075 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,493. About 4.6% of families and 12.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.7% of those under age 18 and 2.5% of those age 65 or over.

62.4 Government The city is run by an elected strong Mayor-council government system.

62.4.1

Mayor

62.5 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Folly beach city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 25, 2015. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [8] “Charleston County election results by precinct: 2006 general election”.

62.6 External links • City of Folly Beach oﬃcial website • Folly Beach

Tim Goodwin

• Photos of Folly Beach

62.4.2

• Charleston County Park and Recreation Commission

Council members

DJ Rich, Pennell Clamp, Tom Scruggs, Dale Stuckey, Eddie Ellis, and Sandra Hickman

62.4.3

Voting patterns

In 2006, the city’s residents voted against Amendment 1, which sought to ban same-sex marriage in South Carolina. Statewide, the measure passed by 78% to 22% but the voters of Folly Beach rejected it by 503 votes (49%) to 528 (51%).[8]

62.4.4

County parks

The Charleston County Park and Recreation Commission (CCPRC) operates numerous facilities within Charleston

Chapter 63

Hanahan, South Carolina Hanahan is a city in Berkeley County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 12,937 at the 2000 census. The 2010 census puts the population at 17,997.[3] Portions of the Naval Weapons Station Charleston, including the Naval Consolidated Brig Charleston, are located in Hanahan. As deﬁned by the U.S. Oﬃce of Management and Budget, and used by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes only, Hanahan is included within the Charleston-North CharlestonSummerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area

ter of Historic Places in 1978.[4]

of Charleston, aeronautics, logistics and the defense industries. There are two commercial districts, one in the southernmost section of the city and another in Tanner Plantation. There has been some commercial development in the area known as Tanner Plantation, a primarily residential portion of the city which has developed over about the last 15 years. Hanahan’s proximity to rail and major roadways make it an ideal place for cargo warehousing.

Fishing and water sports are a large part of life in Hanahan. With several neighborhoods that have tidal water behind them,[9] Hanahan has direct access to the Cooper River and the Charleston Harbor. Fishing is a very popular thing to do in Hanahan. The Goose Creek Reservoir[10] is located in the middle of Hanahan. The Reservoir contains a wide range of ﬁsh species and hosts several tournaments per year.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.5 square miles (29.8 km2 ), of which 10.7 square miles (27.7 km2 ) is land and 0.81 square miles (2.1 km2 ), or 7.14%, is water.[3]

63.2 Community

Hanahan has three public schools for school aged children. Hanahan Elementary and Hanahan Middle School were both awarded National Blue Ribbon Award status by the U.S. Department of Education in 2014.[5] Out of 63.1 Geography 5 schools in the entire state, Hanahan has two of them. Hanahan also continues to cultivate some of the best softHanahan is located at the very south end of Berkeley County, and its city limits on the west and south sides ball and baseball players in the state. Both the 9- and 11are contiguous with the county line between Berkeley and year-old girls team won the Dixie[6]Ponytails World Series as well as the Dixie Charleston counties. It was incorporated as a city in 1972. Softball Championship in 2013 Angles World Series Softball Championship.[7] Hanahan is bordered on the west and south by the city of North Charleston. To the east is the old Naval Weapons Hanahan has several professional services available: the Station, which was formerly a submarine base, and is still city has a physician’s office that has several doctors, five federal property. A very small portion of this federal base dental offices with multiple dentists, two veterinarians, a is actually in Hanahan’s city limits. Among other uses of large land surveying company, one professional financial the former submarine base, the Naval Consolidated Brig advisor, a fairly large firm of professional engineers in the is there, as is the Navy’s Nuclear Power School. To the city and defense related engineering firms. east and north is the city of Goose Creek, as well as un- Yeaman’s Hall Club is located in Hanahan. Yeaman’s is ranked the #2 private course in the State of South incorporated portions of Berkeley County. Carolina.[8] Built in 1925, the Seth Raynor designed CSX Transportation has a main north-south track that runs along Hanahan’s west city limit. Hanahan is primar- course continues to be a world class golf course for those ily a residential city. It does have quite a number of major fortunate enough to play it. The Yeaman’s Hall Club is warehouses in the northeast and southeast portions of the home to a vast array of Live Oaks and other varieties of city, most of whose business is tied directly to the Port trees that add to the natural beauty of the course.

Opened in 2013, the Hanahan Amphitheater[11] is an outThe Otranto Plantation was listed on the National Regis- door community theater that hosts city run events, movies 293

294 in the park and concerts.

63.3 Demographics With a population of 19,597, Hanahan is a growing city.[14] In the census of 2000 census,[1] there were 12,937 people (13,818 in 2005 estimate), 5,243 households, and 3,339 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,284.7 people per square mile (496.0/km²). There were 5,698 housing units at an average density of 565.8 per square mile (218.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 70.6% White, 17.7% African American, 0.4% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 0.1% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.17% of the population. There were 5,243 households out of which 27.9% have youngsters under age 18 years living with them, 46.1% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.3% were non-families. 27.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.84. In the city the population was spread out with 21.0% under the age of 18, 13.8% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 112.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 113.0 males.

CHAPTER 63. HANAHAN, SOUTH CAROLINA is located at 1200 S. Basilica Avenue, and Station 3 is located at 1101 Williams Lane in the fast-growing Tanner Plantation area. The department operates three engine companies, one tower company,one medic unit,and one battalion oﬃcer vehicle manned by the shift oﬃcer. Portions of the Naval Weapons Station Charleston, including the Naval Consolidated Brig Charleston, are located in Hanahan.[15][16]

63.5 Climate 63.6 Armed Forces Portions of The Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan area, (The City of Charleston, The City of North Charleston, The City of Goose Creek, and The City of Hanahan) are home to branches of the United States Military. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902-1996) became the third largest U.S. homeport serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the Charleston Naval Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, sub tenders, and submarines. The Shipyard was also equipped for the refueling of nuclear subs. During this period, the Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet’s load out base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN “Boomer” squadrons and a sub tender were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a sub tender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 closure of the Station’s Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM-27 Polaris, UGM-73 Poseidon, and UGM-96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and maintained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps Security Force Company.

The median income for a household in the city was $39,327, and the median income for a family was $45,246. Males had a median income of $30,354 versus $22,374 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,629. About 6.0% of families and 17.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.9% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over. In 2010, the Air Force Base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (>17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, encompassing over 20,877 acres and supporting 53 Military 63.4 Government and infrastruc- Commands and Federal Agencies, provides service to over 79,000 Airmen, Sailors, Soldiers, Marines, Coast ture Guardsmen, DOD civilians, dependents, and retirees. The form of government is council. The council is the governing body of the city, with the city administrator 63.6.1 Navy being hired by, and serving at the pleasure of, the city council. The council and mayor are elected by the voters. • Charleston Naval Weapons Station, Joint Base The mayor is a first among equals on the council, preCharleston (>17,000 acres, 27 square miles), Goose siding over council meetings and representing the city at Creek and Hanahan official functions. The council hires and fires department • Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Atlantic heads. The mayor and council members, though paid a (SPAWAR) small salary, are not full-time, but are citizens with other jobs. • Naval Nuclear Power Training Command The Hanahan Fire Department operates three stations. • Nuclear Power School Station 1 is located at 5826 Campbell Street, Station 2

63.6. ARMED FORCES • Nuclear Power Training Unit

295

63.6.2 Air Force

• Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS Daniel Webster (SSBN-626)

• Charleston Air Force Base, Joint Base Charleston (3,877 acres, 6.06 square miles), North Charleston

• Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS Sam Rayburn (SSBN-635)

• Charleston Air Force Auxiliary Base, North, SC (2,393 acres, 3.74 square miles)

• Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS La Jolla (SSN-701), 2015 delivery • Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS San Francisco (SSN-711), After 2015 delivery • Naval Consolidated Brig, Charleston, East Coast • Mobile Mine Assembly Unit Eleven (MOMAU-11) • Naval Operations Support Center Charleston

• Charleston Defense Fuel Storage and Distribution Facility, Hanahan • 628th Air Base Wing • 628th Mission Support Group • 628th Medical Group • 315th Airlift Wing • 437th Airlift Wing • 373rd Training Squadron, Detachment 5

• Navy Reserve Center

• 1st Combat Camera Squadron

• Navy Munitions Command CONUS, Detachment Charleston

• 412th Logistics Support Squadron OL-AC

• Explosive Ordnance Detachment

• Civil Air Patrol – Charleston Composite Squadron

• Air Force ROTC Det 772

• Naval Health Clinic Charleston • Navy Dental Clinic • Naval Criminal Investigative Service Training, Federal Complex

63.6.3 Marines • Marine Corps Reserve Center, Naval Weapons Station

• Lay berth for Roll-On Roll-Oﬀ Naval Ships, Mili- 63.6.4 Coast Guard tary Sealift Command, Federal Complex • Coast Guard Sector Charleston (District 7) • MV Cape Ducato (T-AKR-5051), Military Sealift • Coast Guard Station Charleston Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex • Coast Guard Helicopter Air Facility, Johns Island • MV Cape Douglas (T-AKR-5052), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex

• Coast Guard Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin, Johns Island

• MV Cape Domingo (T-AKR-5053), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex

• Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy, Federal Complex

• MV Cape Decision (T-AKR-5054), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex • MV Cape Diamond (T-AKR-5055), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex • MV Cape Edmont (T-AKR-5069), Military Sealift Command Ship, Ready Reserve Force, Federal Complex

• Coast Guard Reserves, Charleston

• USCGC Hamilton (WMSL-753) National Security Cutter, Federal Complex • USCGC James (WMSL-754) National Security Cutter, Federal Complex • USCGC Tarpon, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Tybee Island • USCGC Yellowﬁn, Marine Protector-class coastal patrol boat, Charleston • USCGC Anvil, Charleston

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63.6.5

CHAPTER 63. HANAHAN, SOUTH CAROLINA

Army

• The 437 Airlift Wing

• United States Army Corps of Engineers, Charleston District • South Carolina Army National Guard • Army Reserve Training Center, Naval Weapons Station • 841st Army Transportation Battalion, Weapons Station

• The 1st Combat Camera Squadron • The 412 Flight Test Squadron • U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Naval

• 1182nd Army Deployment & Distribution Support Battalion, Naval Weapons Station • 1189th Army Transportation Brigade, Reserve Support Command, Naval Weapons Station • Army Strategic Logistics Activity, Naval Weapons Station

63.6.6

• The 315 Airlift Wing

Federal Complex (former Charleston Naval Base), North Charleston

63.7 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Hanahan city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 4, 2014. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

• Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC), Department of Homeland Security

[5] http://www.scott.senate.gov/press-release/ senator-scott-congratulates-south-carolina’s-2014-national-blue-ribbon-scho

• Moored FLETC Training Ship, SS Cape Chalmers (T-AK-5036)

[6] http://www.blufftontoday.com/ bluffton-sports/2013-08-01/ dixie-world-series-title-worth-wait-hanahan#.VD3J_ G1DhwE

• Sea Hawk Interagency Operations Center • Customs and Border Protection Satellite Academy • Immigration and Customs Enforcement Satellite Academy • U.S. Courts, Federal Probation and Pretrial Services Academy • Food and Drug Administration Training Academy • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) • NOAAS Nancy Foster (R 352) Ship • NOAAS Ronald H. Brown (R 104) Ship • U.S. Department of State • Global Financial Services Center, U.S. Department of State • Passport Service Center, U.S. Department of State

[7] http://www.dillonheraldonline.com/2013/08/13/ tennessee-wins-2013-dixie-darlings-world-series-sc’s-hanahan-wins-two-cha [8] http://www.top100golfcourses.co.uk/htmlsite/ productdetails.asp?id=718 [9] http://www.scdhec.gov/environment/WaterQuality/ NavigableWaters/ [10] http://www.hookandbullet.com/ fishing-goose-creek-reservoir-hanahan-sc/ [11] http://www.journalscene.com/storyimage/JS/20130911/ OG01/130919890/AR/0/AR-130919890.jpg&MaxW= 840&q=90 [12] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [13] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

• United States Maritime Administration

[14] http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2013/ files/SUB-EST2013_45.csv

• Joint Base Charleston

[15] "Hanahan city, South Carolina.” U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on May 30, 2010.

• United States Marine Corps • SPAWAR Systems Center Atlantic

[16] "Charleston Base Map.” Naval Consolidated Brig, Charleston. Retrieved on May 30, 2010.

63.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[17] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2012. [18] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010.

63.8 External links • City of Hanahan oﬃcial website • Hanahan at DMOZ • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum • Congressional Medal of Honor Museum • USS Yorktown CV10 Association

297

Chapter 64

Goose Creek, South Carolina Goose Creek is a city in Berkeley County in the U.S. state of South Carolina. The population was 35,938 at the 2010 census.[3] Most of the Naval Weapons Station Charleston is in Goose Creek. As deﬁned by the U.S. Oﬃce of Management and Budget, and used only by the U.S. Census Bureau and other Federal agencies for statistical purposes, Goose Creek is included within the Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area.

householder with no husband present, and 16.8% were non-families. 12.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 2.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.22.

64.1 Geography

The median income for a household in the city was $45,919, and the median income for a family was $47,937. Males had a median income of $31,965 versus $23,754 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,905. About 5.8% of families and 6.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.0% of those under the age of 18 and 7.3% of those 65 and older.

Goose Creek is located in southern Berkeley County at 33°0′N 80°2′W / 33.000°N 80.033°W (32.9955, −80.0289).[4] It is bordered to the east by the Cooper River and the Back River, to the southeast by an outer portion of the city of Charleston, to the southwest by the city of Hanahan and (farther to the west) the city of North Charleston in Charleston County, and to the west by the unincorporated community of Ladson.

In the city the population was spread out with 29.6% under the age of 18, 18.2% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 15.4% from 45 to 64, and 4.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 115.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.3 males.

64.3 History

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 40.8 square miles (105.8 km2 ), of Although the city of Goose Creek was established in which 40.1 square miles (103.8 km2 ) is land and 0.77 1961,[7] its history dates back many centuries. In early square miles (2.0 km2 ), or 1.88%, is water.[3] colonial times the term “Goose Creek men” was used for a group of colonists, mostly settled a few miles north of Charleston near a stream called Goose Creek, a tributary of the Cooper River. The Goose Creek men became 64.2 Demographics leaders of the early Indian trade, and by the 1690s many held important offices in the colonial government. At first As of the census[1] of 2010, there were 35,938 peothe Goose Creek men dealt mainly in Indian slaves, while ple, 8,947 households, and 7,443 families residing in later the deerskin trade dominated. Several colonial govthe city. The population density was 921.6 people per ernors were Goose Creek men, such as James Moore and square mile (355.9/km²). There were 9,482 housing Robert Daniell.[8][9][10] units at an average density of 299.2 per square mile (115.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 78.50% The Otranto Plantation Indigo Vats and St. James Church White, 14.22% African American, 0.59% Native Amer- are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[11] ican, 2.66% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 1.56% from other races, and 2.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.05% of the population. 64.4 Armed forces There were 8,947 households out of which 49.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.9% Portions of the Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female area (Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, and 298

64.5. POLICE FORCE

299

Hanahan) are home to branches of the United States military. During the Cold War, the Naval Base (1902-1996) became the third largest U.S. homeport serving over 80 ships and submarines. In addition, the Charleston Naval Shipyard repaired frigates, destroyers, cruisers, sub tenders, and submarines. The shipyard was also equipped for the refueling of nuclear subs.

• Navy Munitions Command CONUS, Detachment Charleston

In 2010, the Air Force base (3,877 acres) and Naval Weapons Station (>17,000 acres) merged to form Joint Base Charleston. Today, Joint Base Charleston, encompassing over 20,877 acres (8,449 ha) and supporting 53 military commands and federal agencies, provides service to over 79,000 airmen, sailors, soldiers, Marines, Coast Guardsmen, DOD civilians, dependents, and retirees.

• Army Reserve Training Center

• Explosive Ordnance Detachment • Naval Health Clinic Charleston

• Navy Dental Clinic During this period, the Weapons Station was the Atlantic Fleet’s loadout base for all nuclear ballistic missile submarines. Two SSBN “Boomer” squadrons and a sub ten64.4.2 Marines der were homeported at the Weapons Station, while one SSN attack squadron, Submarine Squadron 4, and a sub • Marine Corps Reserve Center, Naval Weapons Statender were homeported at the Naval Base. At the 1996 tion closure of the Station’s Polaris Missile Facility Atlantic (POMFLANT), over 2,500 nuclear warheads and their UGM-27 Polaris, UGM-73 Poseidon, and UGM-96 Trident I delivery missiles (SLBM) were stored and main- 64.4.3 Army tained, guarded by a U.S. Marine Corps security force • South Carolina Army National Guard company.

64.4.1

Navy

• Charleston Naval Weapons Station, Joint Base Charleston (>17,000 acres, 27 square miles), Goose Creek and Hanahan • Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Atlantic (SPAWAR) • Naval Nuclear Power Training Command • Nuclear Power School

• 841st Army Transportation Battalion • 1182nd Army Deployment & Distribution Support Battalion • 1189th Army Transportation Brigade, Reserve Support Command • Army Strategic Logistics Activity • Joint Base Charleston • United States Marine Corps • SPAWAR Systems Center Atlantic • The 437 Airlift Wing

• Nuclear Power Training Unit

• The 315 Airlift Wing

• Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS Daniel Webster (SSBN-626)

• The 1st Combat Camera Squadron

• Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS Sam Rayburn (SSBN-635) • Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS La Jolla (SSN-701), 2015 delivery • Moored Training Nuclear Submarine, USS San Francisco (SSN-711), After 2015 delivery

• The 412 Flight Test Squadron • U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

64.5 Police force

The Goose Creek Police Department is housed at the Marguerite H. Brown Municipal Center, along with the City Hall and Municipal Court, and is an active depart• Mobile Mine Assembly Unit Eleven (MOMAU-11) ment within the community of Goose Creek. The Goose Creek Police Department is a CALEA accredited agency • Naval Operations Support Center Charleston and works to maintain a good relationship with the citi• Navy Reserve Center zens using the community policing method.[12] • Naval Consolidated Brig, Charleston, East Coast

300

64.6 High schools There are three high schools that serve the Goose Creek area. Goose Creek High School and Stratford High School serve students inside Goose Creek, while Cane Bay High School is located outside Goose Creek city limits and serves students from both in and out of Goose Creek’s city limits. Goose Creek High School is the home of the Berkeley County School of the Arts (BCA) Program. BCA is split into diﬀerent areas (creative writing, music, dance, art, drama, and voice), each focusing on broadening the students’ talent in that subject. Each student must try out and be accepted into the program, and only incoming freshmen are eligible for this program. Goose Creek is the only school in the area which hosts this.

64.7 Climate 64.8 Notable people

CHAPTER 64. GOOSE CREEK, SOUTH CAROLINA

[10] Smith, Henry A. M. (1928). “Goose Creek”. The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 29: 1–25, 71–96, 167–92, 265–79. ISSN 0148-7825. [11] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [12] “Drug Raid At S.C. High School”. CBS News. 7 November 2003. [13] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2012. [14] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010. [15] Brandon Shell - Gamecocks Player Proﬁle

64.10 External links • City of Goose Creek oﬃcial website • Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum

• Brandon Shell, Oﬀensive Lineman, University of South Carolina [15] • Justin Smoak, Major League Baseball player • Matt Wieters, Major League Baseball player

64.9 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Goose Creek city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved April 4, 2014. [4] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [5] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [6] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] About Goose Creek, City of Goose Creek. [8] Oatis, Steven J. (2004). A colonial complex: South Carolina’s frontiers in the era of the Yamasee War, 1680– 1730. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-35755. [9] Overview of the History of Goose Creek, City of Goose Creek.

• Congressional Medal of Honor Museum • USS Yorktown CV10 Association

Chapter 65

Harleyville, South Carolina Harleyville is a town in Dorchester County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 677 at the 2010 census,[3] up from 594 at the 2000 census. Harleyville is part of the Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville metropolitan area.

children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% were married couples living together, 22.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.0% were non-families. 30.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.99.

65.1 History

In the town the population was spread out with 28.3% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 23.6% from [4] 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 Harleyville was named for a family. years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For The St. Paul Camp Ground was added to the National every 100 females there were 83.3 males. For every 100 Register of Historic Places in 1998.[5] females age 18 and over, there were 75.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $26,397, and the median income for a family was 65.2 Geography $35,313. Males had a median income of $33,083 versus $21,875 for females. The per capita income for the Harleyville is located in northern Dorchester County town was $16,412. About 23.1% of families and 43.4% at 33°12.7′N 80°26.9′W / 33.2117°N 80.4483°W of the population were below the poverty line, including (33.2122, −80.4486).[6] U.S. Route 178 passes through 25.2% of those under age 18 and 22.9% of those age 65 the center of town, leading northwest 31 miles (50 km) or over. to Orangeburg and southeast 7 miles (11 km) to its terminus at U.S. Route 78. South Carolina Highway 453 leads north 1 mile (1.6 km) to Exit 177 on Interstate 26; I-26 leads northwest 68 miles (109 km) to Columbia and 65.4 References southeast 45 miles (72 km) to Charleston. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.2 square miles (3.0 km2 ), all of it land.[3]

65.3 Demographics As of the census[1] of 2010, there were 693 people, 250 households, and 165 families residing in the town. The population density was 601.1 people per square mile (231.7/km²). There were 282 housing units at an average density of 285.4 per square mile (110.0/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 59.26% White, 38.38% African American, 0.67% Native American, 0.17% from other races, and 1.52% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.18% of the population. There were 250 households out of which 31.2% had 301

[1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Harleyville town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved January 5, 2016. [4] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 150. [5] Staff (2009-03-13). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [6] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423.

302

[7] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [8] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

65.5 External links • Town of Harleyville oﬃcial website

CHAPTER 65. HARLEYVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA

Chapter 66

Hollywood, South Carolina Hollywood is a town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 4,714 at the 2010 census,[3] up from 3,946 at the 2000 census. Hollywood is part of the Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area.

25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 86.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $30,297, and the median income for a family was $35,406. Males had a median income of $29,306 versus $20,115 for females. The per capita income for the 66.1 Geography town was $17,521. About 18.7% of families and 22.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including Hollywood is located in western Charleston County 31.3% of those under age 18 and 32.0% of those age 65 at 32°44′48″N 80°13′34″W / 32.7467°N 80.2260°W or over. (32.7467, −80.2260).[4] It is bordered by Ravenel to the north and Meggett to the south. Charleston is 21 miles (34 km) to the east.

66.3 Government

According to the United States Census Bureau, Hollywood has a total area of 24.5 square miles (63.5 km2 ), The city is run by an elected mayor-council government of which 23.1 square miles (59.9 km2 ) is land and 1.4 system. square miles (3.6 km2 ), or 5.64%, is water.[3]

66.3.1 Council members

66.2 Demographics

Annette Sausser, Ezell Middleton, Kenny Smalls, Arnold As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 3,946 peo- Collins, Ned Mitchell. ple, 1,392 households, and 1,056 families residing in the town. The population density was 196.8 people per square mile (76.0/km2 ). There were 1,516 housing units at an average density of 75.6 per square mile 66.4 Climate (29.2/km2 ). The racial makeup of the town was 68.78% African American, 29.78% White, 0.15% Native Amer66.5 References ican, 0.10% Asian, 0.03% Paciﬁc Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 0.38% from two or more races. Hispanic [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. or Latino of any race were 1.72% of the population. There were 1,392 households out of which 32.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.2% were married couples living together, 23.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.1% were non-families. 20.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.30. In the town the population was spread out with 29.5% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 303

Retrieved 2008-01-31.

[2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Hollywood town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 25, 2015. [4] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423.

304

[5] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [6] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data”. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2012. [8] “Climatological Normals of Charleston, South Carolina”. Hong Kong Observatory. Retrieved June 9, 2010.

66.6 External links • Town of Hollywood oﬃcial website

CHAPTER 66. HOLLYWOOD, SOUTH CAROLINA

Chapter 67

Isle of Palms, South Carolina Isle of Palms is a city in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population of the city was 4,133.[3] Isle of Palms is a barrier island on the South Carolina coast. The city is included within the Charleston-North CharlestonSummerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area. The town lies along a narrow strip of land, hugging the beach, separated from the mainland by the Intracoastal Waterway. It is an aﬄuent community of both vacation home owners and yearround residents, with large beachfront homes, resorts, and local restaurants. Beach volleyball is popular in the summer, and the “Windjammer” club hosts several tournaments throughout the year.

67.3 Demographics

Isle of Palms Recreation Department

67.1 Geography Isle of Palms is located along the Atlantic Ocean, 15 miles (24 km) by road east of downtown Charleston. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Isle of Palms has a total area of 5.4 square miles (14.1 km2 ). 4.4 square miles (11.5 km2 ) of it is land, and 1.0 square mile (2.6 km2 ) of it (18.40%) is water.[3] It is the location of the Wild Dunes Resort.

67.2 Airport The city of Isle of Palms is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of Isle of Palms. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John’s Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority.

As of the census[1] of 2010, there were 4,133 people residing in the city. The population density was 743.6 people per square mile (287.1/km²). There were 4,274 housing units at an average density of 868.7 per square mile (296.8/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.65% White, 1.06% Hispanic or Latino, 0.56% African American, 0.75% Asian, 0.15% Native American, 0.17% from other races, and 0.73% from two or more races. There were 1,828 households, of which 20.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.4% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.8% were non-families. 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.66. The city population was spread out with 17.0% under the age of 18, 3.2% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 49, 31.8% from 50 to 64, and 22.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47. For every 100 females there were 98 males. The median income for a household in the city was $76,170, and the median income for a family was $88,874. Males had a median income of $60,640 versus $37,500 for females. The per capita income for the city

305

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CHAPTER 67. ISLE OF PALMS, SOUTH CAROLINA

was $44,221. About 1.7% of families and 3.4% of the Mount Pleasant to allow automobile traﬃc to reach the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% island. of those under age 18 and 1.0% of those age 65 or over. Large-scale residential development began when J.C. Long bought up most of the island and built low-cost housing for World War II veterans. In 1975, the Sea Pines Company (of Hilton Head Island fame) established the 67.4 Government 900-acre (360 ha) development now known as the Wild The city is run by an elected Mayor-council government Dunes Beach and Racquet Club. system.

E. Lee Spence, a pioneer underwater archaeologist and proliﬁc author of books and articles about shipwrecks and sunken treasure, discovered, with the help of Isle of Palms residents Wally Shaﬀer and George Campsen, 67.4.1 Mayor many shipwrecks along the shores of the Isle of Palms in the 1960s. Their discoveries included the Civil War Richard F. Cronin (began term Jan 27, 2009) blockade runners Rattlesnake, Stonewall Jackson, Mary Bowers, Constance, Norseman and the Georgiana. The iron-hulled steamer Georgiana, which was sunk on her 67.4.2 Council members maiden voyage, was described in contemporary docuBarbara Bergwerf, J. Martin Bettelli, Ryan L. Buck- ments as pierced for 14 guns and more powerful than the hannon (Mayor Pro Tem), Jimmy Carroll, Dick Cronin famous Confederate cruiser Alabama. These historic dis(Mayor), Sandy Ferencz, Patrick Harrington, Michael coveries resulted in the passage of South Carolina’s Underwater Antiquities Act allowing the archaeological salLoftus, Jimmy Ward.[6] vage of shipwrecks.

67.5 History

During Hurricane Hugo, which struck September 21, 1989, much of the island was ﬂooded by the storm surge. The northeastern end of the Isle of Palms, which is home to the private community of Wild Dunes, endured a severe erosion crisis as a shoal attached to that section of the island and caused sand to be washed away from around the foundation of a large condominium. The city undertook a controversial beach restoration project in the spring and summer of 2008[7] which replenished the beach with dredged sand and saved the threatened structures.

67.5.1 County parks The Charleston County Park and Recreation Commission (CCPRC)[8] operates numerous facilities within Charleston County including Isle of Palms County Park. Marinas and boat landings: The beach at Isle of Palms

The island’s original inhabitants were the Sewee tribe. During the Civil War, the H.L. Hunley departed from Breach Inlet, between Isle of Palms and Sullivan’s Island. In the late nineteenth century, local residents began using the island as a vacation spot. At that time it was only accessible by ferry. It was bought by J.S. Lawrence in 1899, who gave the island its current name; before then it was known as “Hunting Island” or “Long Island”. A 50-room hotel was built in 1906. In 1912, James Sottile had a beach pavilion and an amusement park built, and a trolley line was constructed from Mount Pleasant on the mainland to Isle of Palms via Sullivan’s Island. In 1929, Grace Memorial Bridge was built between Charleston and

• Cooper River Marina • Multiple county-wide boat landings

67.6 See also • Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council

67.7 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.

67.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Isle of Palms city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 25, 2015. [4] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [5] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [6] http://www.iop.net/government/CityCouncil.aspx www. iop.net [7] “Isle of Palms”. iop.net. [8] “Charleston County Parks and Recreation - Official Website”. ccprc.com.

67.8 External links • Isle of Palms travel guide from Wikivoyage • Oﬃcial website of Isle of Palms • Island Eye News, bi-weekly newspaper of Isle of Palms and Sullivan’s Island • Isle of Palms at DMOZ

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Chapter 68

James Island, South Carolina James Island is a town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. It is located in the central and southern parts of James Island. As deﬁned by the U.S. Ofﬁce of Management and Budget, and used by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes only, James Island is included within the Charleston-North CharlestonSummerville metropolitan area and the Charleston-North Charleston Urbanized Area.

constitutional. Mary Clark was elected mayor of the town for the third time in August 2006. On November 7, 2008 the City of Charleston lost its lawsuit against the Town of James Island in Circuit Court. In an election on August 3, 2010, incumbent Clark lost to Bill Woolsey, an economics professor who was a former town councilman.

The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled against the Town of James Island in June 2011. It ruled that the South Carolina incorporation law used by the Town was 68.1 History constitutional, but that approximately 25% of the Town was not contiguous. Rather than remove that portion of Long settled as a semi-rural area, this island has been af- the Town, it ordered the Town closed. fected by increasing urbanization and the expansion of The Town was incorporated a fourth time after a referthe city of Charleston. endum on April 24, 2012. The City of Charleston deterIsland residents incorporated the Town of James Island mined that it could not successfully challenge the Town on January 8, 1993. Joan Sooy was elected as the first by May and the deadline for a challenge passed on July 17. Former Mayor Bill Woolsey led the incorporation efMayor. fort and was unopposed in the election held on July 31, A lawsuit was filed by the City of Charleston claiming 2013. He was subsequently re-elected July 29th. that the parts of the new Town were not contiguous, being separated by salt marsh that it had already incorpo- The town limits have never incorporated the entire israted. The City of Charleston prevailed at Circuit Court land of James Island, as the City of Charleston has and the Town appealed. The South Carolina Supreme annexed land on James Island before the original incorporation of the town and between subsequent reCourt ruled against the Town in 1997. incorporations. There were approximately 18,000 resThe South Carolina legislature changed incorporation law idents in what were the town boundaries and approxito allow incorporation over already annexed salt marsh. mately 20,000 in Charleston’s city limits as of the 2010 The Town of James Island was incorporated a second US Census. The Town currently includes a population time in 2002. Mary Clark was elected Mayor. of 11,500. Approximately 6,000 residents remain in unThe City of Charleston challenged the Town again, this incorporated Charleston county, and 20,000 in the City time arguing that the new incorporation law was uncon- of Charleston. James Island is the home of many hisstitutional special legislation. The City of Charleston pre- torical events and areas. McLeod Plantation, a former vailed in Circuit Court and the Town of James Island ap- Sea Island cotton plantation, was recently sold by Historic pealed. The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled that Charleston Foundation to the Charleston County Parks the singling out “salt marsh” was irrational, the legisla- and Recreation Commission. Ft. Johnson is reported to tion was ruled unconstitutional and the Town was closed be the site of the first shot of the Civil War. The remains of Ft. Lamar are nearby. Recent renovations of historfor a second time. ical places include the Seashore Farmer’s Lodge on Sol South Carolina changed the state laws affecting incor- Legare Road. poration, effective on July 1, 2005. A third attempt to become a town was successful in June 2006, when The Fort Johnson/Powder Magazine, Fort Pemberton, about 3,000 voted to incorporate. The day after the vote, Lighthouse Point Shell Ring (38CH12), Marshlands Charleston mayor Joseph P. Riley, Jr. filed a lawsuit Plantation House, Seashore Farmers’ Lodge No. 767, and against the town for the third time saying that it was un- Unnamed Battery No. 1 are listed on the National Regis308

68.6. REFERENCES

309

ter of Historic Places.[2] Date regarding cost of living and real estate markets on the Island. More upscale neighproperty values is taken from the City-data website and borhoods in the town include White Point Estates, Stiles the Charleston County Sheriﬀs Oﬃce incident report. Point, Eastwood, Harborwoods, and Parrot Creek.

68.2 Airport The town of James Island is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of James Island. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller airport located in the John’s Island section of the city of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority.

68.3 Demographics 68.4 Notable people • Stephen Colbert, comedian and television host, spent some of his childhood on James Island and attended Stiles Point Elementary School. He has frequently mentioned both Charleston and South Carolina on his television program The Colbert Report[5] • Roddy White, Atlanta Falcons wide receiver[6] • Samuel Smalls, the man on whom DuBose Heyward based his novel Porgy and its subsequent George Gershwin written opera Porgy and Bess, is buried next to James Island Presbyterian Church[7] • Gorman Thomas, Milwaukee Brewers center ﬁelder and designated hitter[8][9]

68.5 Neighborhoods

• Oak trees over 100 years old line the entrance to Riverland Terrace • Boat landing in Riverland Terrace • The Wappoo Cut which borders one side of neighborhood • Plymouth Park • Recently remodeled Town Hall

68.6 References [1] “Bill Woolsey”. Libertarian Party. Retrieved 2014-0809. [2] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [3] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [4] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [5] “Stephen Colbert donates ATV to Charleston turtle nesting program”. WBTV. July 2, 2010. Retrieved May 18, 2014. [6] McClure, Vaughn (May 17, 2014). “Roddy White’s brother shot dead”. ESPN.com. Retrieved May 18, 2014. [7] “World knew him as Porgy-he died a beggar”. The Tuscaloosa News. Google News. December 24, 1989. Retrieved May 18, 2014. [8] “Stormin' Thomas reconnects with Lowcountry roots, Citadel baseball”. WCIV. February 18, 2013. Retrieved May 18, 2014. [9] Mehring, Chris (March 4, 2014). “Gorman Thomas is special guest for 2014 Leadoﬀ Experience”. Minor League Baseball. Retrieved May 18, 2014.

One of James Island’s oldest neighborhoods, Riverland Terrace, was developed in the 1940s. Originally planned to include a large resort like hotel, the Terrace is located 68.7 External links 10 minutes west of downtown Charleston, South Carolina along Wappoo Creek and the inland waterway. The • Official website neighborhood boasts a public boat landing, Charleston Municipal Golf Course, a playground, five restaurants, • James Island at DMOZ and antique shops. Leading into the neighborhood is the • List of actual James Island subdivisions Avenue of Oaks, consisting of 73 live oak trees believed to be over 100 years old. They once led to Wappoo Hall Plantation on the Stono River. A Civil War fortifica- Coordinates: 32°44′16″N 79°56′34″W / 32.73778°N tion known as Fort Pemberton, built in 1862, remains to- 79.94278°W day. Riverland Terrace has long been one of the hottest

Chapter 69

Meggett, South Carolina Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with density of 37.1 per square mile (14.3/km²). The racial unknown parameter “incorporated” (this message is makeup of the town was 78.78% White, 20.24% African shown only in preview). American, 0.41% Native American, 0.08% Asian, and 0.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.57% of the population. Meggett is a town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 1,226 at the There were 484 households out of which 28.3% had 2010 census.[3] Meggett is part of the Charleston-North children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.8% Charleston-Summerville metropolitan area. were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.1% were non-families. 18.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 69.1 History 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 2.90. The Towles Farmstead was listed on the National Register [4] In the town the population was spread out with 21.5% of Historic Places in 1994. under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 33.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For 69.2 Geography every 100 females there were 105.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.8 males. Meggett is located in southwestern Charleston County at 32°42′20″N 80°15′47″W / 32.70556°N 80.26306°W The median income for a household in the town was (32.705515, −80.263106).[5] It is bordered to the north $45,809, and the median income for a family was by the town of Hollywood. The traditional center of $51,667. Males had a median income of $36,563 versus Meggett is along South Carolina Highway 165, 1.5 miles $26,375 for females. The per capita income for the town (2.4 km) south of the center of Hollywood and 2.5 miles was $22,906. About 6.0% of families and 9.3% of the (4.0 km) north of the highway’s end at Yonges Island. population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% The Meggett town limits have expanded east as far as the of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over. Stono River and west beyond Toogoodoo Creek as far as South Carolina Highway 174. To the south the town extends as far as Yonges Island next to the Wadmalaw River. 69.4 Government According to the United States Census Bureau, Meggett has a total area of 18.4 square miles (47.7 km2 ), of which 17.8 square miles (46.2 km2 ) is land and 0.58 square miles (1.5 km2 ), or 3.11%, is water.[3] The town area has increased from a total of 14.8 square miles (38.4 km2 ) in 2000.

The town is run by an elected mayor–council government system. The mayor is Harry V. “Buster” Herrington III, and the council members are Tommy Butler (Mayor Pro Tem), Keith McCarty, Tom Hutto, and Angela Watts.

69.5 References

69.3 Demographics As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 1,230 people, 484 households, and 377 families residing in the town. The population density was 84.4 people per square mile (32.6/km²). There were 540 housing units at an average

310

[1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.

69.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Meggett town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 29, 2015. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

69.6 External links • Town of Meggett oﬃcial website

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Chapter 70

Ridgeville, South Carolina Ridgeville is a town in Dorchester County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 1,979 at the 2010 census,[3] up from 1,690 at the 2000 census. Ridgeville is part of the Charleston-North CharlestonSummerville metropolitan area.

were non-families. 25.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.19.

In the town the population was spread out with 8.4% under the age of 18, 11.5% from 18 to 24, 53.2% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.3% who were 65 years 70.1 History of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 434.8 males. For every 100 The Cypress Methodist Camp Ground was added to the females age 18 and over, there were 542.3 males. National Register of Historic Places in 1978.[4] The median income for a household in the town was $32,639, and the median income for a family was $42,188. Males had a median income of $22,500 ver70.2 Geography sus $22,404 for females. The per capita income for the town was $9,186. About 13.6% of families and 18.9% Ridgeville is located near the center of Dorchester of the population were below the poverty line, including County at 33°5.6′N 80°18.8′W / 33.0933°N 80.3133°W 27.8% of those under age 18 and 21.1% of those age 65 (33.0931, −80.3124).[5] South Carolina Highway 27 or over. passes through the town, leading north 1.7 miles (2.7 km) to U.S. Route 78 and 3.2 miles (5.1 km) to Exit 187 on Interstate 26.

70.4 Government and infrastruc-

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town ture has a total area of 1.8 square miles (4.7 km2 ), all of it land. The town limits extend east to include Lieber Correctional Institution, run by the South Carolina Depart- The South Carolina Department of Corrections operates the Lieber Correctional Institution in Ridgeville.[8] The ment of Corrections. prison houses the state’s male death row.[9]

70.3 Demographics 70.5 References As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 1,690 people, 214 households, and 156 families residing in the town. The population density was 930.4 people per square mile (358.5/km²). There were 232 housing units at an average density of 127.7 per square mile (49.2/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 39.94% White, 58.70% African American, 0.59% Native American, 0.30% from other races, and 0.47% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.47% of the population. There were 214 households out of which 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% were married couples living together, 19.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.1% 312

70.5. REFERENCES

[5] “US Gazetteer ﬁles: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [8] "Lieber Correctional Institution.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010. [9] "Death Row/Capital Punishment.” South Carolina Department of Corrections. Retrieved on August 17, 2010.

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Chapter 71

Rockville, South Carolina Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with American, 1.46% from other races. Hispanic or Latino unknown parameter “incorporated” (this message is of any race were 2.19% of the population. shown only in preview). There were 64 households out of which 10.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.5% Rockville is a town in Charleston County, South Car- were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female olina, United States, that was founded in 1784. The householder with no husband present, and 29.7% were population was 134 at the 2010 census.[3] Rockville is non-families. 28.1% of all households were made up of part of the Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville individuals and 10.9% had someone living alone who was metropolitan area. 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.14 and the average family size was 2.60. In the town the population was spread out with 10.9% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 16.1% from 25 to 44, 41.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.6% who were 65 The Hanckel Mound, Horse Island, Rockville Historic years of age or older. The median age was 52 years. For District, and John Seabrook Plantation Bridge are listed every 100 females there were 107.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males. on the National Register of Historic Places.[4] The median income for a household in the town was $58,977, and the median income for a family was $69,821. Males had a median income of $45,208 versus 71.2 Geography $33,750 for females. The per capita income for the town was $36,620. There were 3.9% of families and 3.1% of Rockville is located in southwestern Charleston County the population living below the poverty line, including no at 32°36′11″N 80°11′49″W / 32.60306°N 80.19694°W under eighteens and none of those over 64. (32.602932, −80.196942),[5] at the south end of South Carolina Highway 700, on the north bank of tidal Bohicket Creek, an arm of the North Edisto River. To the south across Bohicket Creek is the town of Seabrook 71.4 Government Island. SC Highway 700 leads northeast 11 miles (18 km) to Johns Island and 22 miles (35 km) to Charleston. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town The city is run by an elected mayor–council government has a total area of 0.50 square miles (1.3 km2 ), of which system.

71.1 History

0.42 square miles (1.1 km2 ) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km2 ), or 17.52%, is water.[3]

71.4.1 Mayor

71.3 Demographics

Riley A Bradham II

As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 137 people, 64 households, and 44 families residing in the town. The population density was 314.7 people per square mile 71.4.2 Council Members (120.2/km²). There were 84 housing units at an average density of 193.0 per square mile (73.7/km²). The racial Zachary Nelson (Mayor Pro Tem), Mary Ann Cates, Simakeup of the town was 86.86% White, 11.68% African mon Black, Margaret Schwuchow, Zackary Nelson 314

71.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

71.5 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Rockville town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved June 29, 2015. [4] Staff (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [7] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

71.6 External links • Town of Rockville oﬃcial website

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Chapter 72

Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina Warning: Page using Template:Infobox settlement with unknown parameter “incorporated” (this message is shown only in preview). Sullivan’s Island is a town and island in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor, with a population of 1,791 at the 2010 census.[3] The town is part of the Charleston metropolitan area. Sullivan’s Island was the point of entry for approximately 40 percent of the 400,000 enslaved Africans brought to British North America; it has been likened to Ellis Island, the 19th-century reception point for immigrants in New York City.[4] During the American Revolution, the island Circa 1900 building on Sullivan’s Island, renovated for use as was the site of a major battle at Fort Sullivan on June condominiums 28, 1776, since renamed Fort Moultrie in honor of the American commander at the battle. who passed through Sullivan’s Island. On September 23, 1989, Hurricane Hugo came ashore near Sullivan’s Island; few people were prepared for the “There is no suitable memorial, or plaque, destruction that followed in its wake. The eye of the huror wreath or wall, or park or skyscraper lobby,” ricane passed directly over Sullivan’s Island. The Ben writer Toni Morrison said in 1989.[5] “There’s Sawyer Bridge was a casualty, breaking free of its locks. no 300-foot tower, there’s no small bench by Before the storm was over, one end of the bridge was in the road.” the water and the other was pointing skyward. Sullivan’s Island police chief, Jack Lilien, was the last person to leave the island before the bridge gave way. On July 26, 2008, the Toni Morrison Society dedicated a small bench on Sullivan’s Island to the memory of the slave trade; the memorial was privately funded.[6]

72.1 History

Albert Wheeler Todd, an architect from Charleston, designed a town hall for the island.[7]

The island was known as O'Sullivan’s Island, named for Captain Florence O'Sullivan, who was stationed here as a lighthouse keeper in the late 17th century. O'Sullivan was captain of one of the ships in the ﬁrst ﬂeet to establish English and Irish settlement at Charleston. In 1671, he became surveyor general. He appears in the earliest record of Irish immigration to the Carolinas, mentioned as being taken on “at Kingsayle (Kinsale) in Ireland".

The Atlanticville Historic District, Battery Gadsden, Battery Thomson, Fort Moultrie Quartermaster and Support Facilities Historic District, Moultrieville Historic District, Dr. John B. Patrick House, Sullivan’s Island Historic District, and U.S. Coast Guard Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[8]

Sullivan’s Island was the disembarkation port for over 40% of the estimated 400,000 slaves transported from Africa to the Britain’s North American Colonies, making it the largest slave port in North America. It is estimated that nearly half of all African Americans have ancestors

72.1.1 Fort Moultrie On June 28, 1776, an incomplete fort was held by colonial forces under Colonel William Moultrie against an onslaught by the British under General Sir Henry Clinton's

316

72.3. AIRPORT

317 km2 ), of which 2.5 square miles (6.5 km2 ) is land and 0.93 square miles (2.4 km2 ), or 27.36%, is water.[3]

72.3 Airport The town of Sullivan’s Island is served by the Charleston International Airport. It is located in the City of North Charleston and is about 12 miles (20 km) northwest of Sullivan’s Island. It is the busiest passenger airport in South Carolina (IATA: CHS, ICAO: KCHS). The airport shares runways with the adjacent Charleston Air Force Base. Charleston Executive Airport is a smaller The Moultrie Flag (also known as the Liberty Flag) being raised airport located in the John’s Island section of the city over Fort Moultrie, after its successful defense against British in- of Charleston and is used by noncommercial aircraft. vaders Both airports are owned and operated by the Charleston County Aviation Authority. army sailing with Commodore Sir Peter Parker's men-ofwar. The British cannon had no eﬀect on the sand-ﬁlled palmetto log walls of the fort; only the shots that came over the walls took any lives.

72.4 Demographics

During this battle, a flag designed by Moultrie flew over the fortress; it was dark blue with a crescent moon on it bearing the word “liberty”. When this flag was shot down, Sergeant William Jasper reportedly picked it up and held it aloft, rallying the troops until a new standard could be provided. Because of the importance of this pivotal battle that flag became symbolic of liberty in South Carolina, the South, and the nation as a whole. The Battle of Sullivan’s Island was commemorated by the addition of a white palmetto tree to the flag used to rally that day, the Moultrie Flag; this became the basis of the flag of South Carolina. The victory is celebrated and June 28 is known as Carolina Day. The history of the island has been dominated by Fort Moultrie, which, until its closure in the late 1940s, served as the base of command for the defense of Charleston. After World War II, the Department of Defense concluded that such coastal defense installations were no longer needed given current technology and style of war.

The beach at Sullivan’s Island

As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 1,911 people, 797 households, and 483 families residing in the town. The population density was 787.2 people per square mile (303.6/km²). There were 1,045 housing units at an average density of 430.5 per square mile (166.0/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 98.74% White, 0.63% African American, 0.05% Native Ameri72.2 Geography can, 0.16% Asian, and 0.42% from race were 0.84% of Sullivan’s Island is located along the Atlantic Ocean near the population. . the center of Charleston County. The town is bordered There were 797 households out of which 29.1% had to the west by the entrance to Charleston Harbor, to the children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% north by the Intracoastal Waterway, and to the east by were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female Breach Inlet and Swinton Creek. The Ben Sawyer Bridge householder with no husband present, and 39.3% were connects Sullivan’s Island to Mount Pleasant to the north. non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of A bridge spanning Breach Inlet connects it to Isle of individuals and 7.0% had someone living alone who was Palms to the east. By road it is 9 miles (14 km) north 65 years of age or older. The average household size was and then west into Charleston. 2.40 and the average family size was 3.01. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town of Sul- In the town the population was spread out with 24.0% livan’s Island has a total area of 3.4 square miles (8.9 under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from

318

CHAPTER 72. SULLIVAN’S ISLAND, SOUTH CAROLINA

25 to 44, 31.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 100.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $72,955, and the median income for a family was $96,455. Males had a median income of $58,571 versus $41,029 for females. The per capita income for the town was $49,427. About 1.4% of families and 4.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.2% of those under age 18 and 0.9% of those age 65 or over. Sullivan’s Island has some of the highest per capita real estate costs in the United States. Although not the most expensive in the region, home values on Sullivan’s Island, Charleston Light based on the small size of the island and number of regular residents, makes it one of the priciest locations. For most of its history, the town, located on the southwest half of the island, was known as “Moultrieville”. Later, Atlanticville, a community on the north-east of the 72.5 Literary references islands, merged with Moultrieville and together the two became the town of Sullivan’s Island. • The writer Edgar Allan Poe was stationed at Fort Moultrie from November 1827 to December In 1962, the new Charleston Light was built. 1828.[11] The island is a setting for much of his short In May 2006, the Town of Sullivan’s Island became the story "The Gold-Bug" (1843). In Poe’s short story ﬁrst municipality in South Carolina to ban smoking in all "The Balloon-Hoax", a gas balloon is reported to public places. The ordinance passed 4-2 and the ban went have made a trip from Great Britain to Sullivan’s Is- into eﬀect in June.[12] land in three days. The town library, situated in a refurbished military battery, is named after the poet, Several districts and properties on Sullivans’ Island of Historic and streets such as Raven (after his narrative poem have been listed in the National Register [13] Places: Atlanticville Historic District, Moultrieville "The Raven" (1845)) and Gold Bug avenues comHistoric District,[14] Sullivans Island Historic District,[15] memorate his works. Fort Moultrie Historic District,[16] U. S. Coast Guard • The novel Sullivan’s Island by Dorothea Benton Historic District,[17] Battery Gadsden[18] and Battery Thomson.[19] Frank, is set here. • Pat Conroy set his semi-autobiographical memoir The Boo (1970) and the novel Beach Music (1995) here. • In Lawrence Hill's novel, The Book of Negroes, the main character, Aminata Diallo, passes through Sullivan’s Island in 1757 at the age of 11 after being kidnapped in Mali and sold into slavery.

72.6 Other references E. Lee Spence, a pioneer underwater archaeologist, was a longtime resident of Sullivan’s Island. In the 1960s and 1970s, he discovered many shipwrecks along its shores. Those discoveries included the Civil War blockade runners Flora, Beatrice, Stono, Flamingo, Prince Albert, and the Celt (also known as the Colt). In 1981, adventure novelist and marine archaeologist Clive Cussler and his organization the National Underwater and Marine Agency discovered the wreck of the blockade runner Raccoon oﬀ Sullivan’s Island.

72.7 See also • Battle of Sullivan’s Island • John Henry Devereux, a South Carolina architect who had the largest mansion on the island

72.8 References [1] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “Geographic Identiﬁers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Sullivan’s Island town, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factﬁnder. Retrieved June 30, 2015. [4] “African Slave Traditions Live On in U.S.”, CNN.

72.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

[5] Morrison, Toni. “a bench by the road”. uuworld.org. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [6] Lee, Felicia R. (July 28, 2008). “Bench of Memory at Slavery’s Gateway”. The New York Times. [7] The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture By Jonathan H. Poston, page 316 [8] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [9] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [10] “Census of Population and Housing”. Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. [11] Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001: 98. ISBN 0-8160-4161-X. [12] http://no-smoking.org/may06/05-18-06-1.html [13] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [14] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [15] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [16] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [17] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 1973-06-19. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [18] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 1974-06-25. Retrieved 2014-04-15. [19] “SCDAH”. Nationalregister.sc.gov. 1974-06-25. Retrieved 2014-04-15.

72.9 Further reading • Gadsden Cultural Center; McMurphy, Make; Williams, Sullivan (October 4, 2004). Sullivan’s Island/Images of America. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 978-07385-1678-3. • “Hurricane Hugo: A Landmark in Time” (2009). The Post and Courier, Charleston, SC-Evening Post Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-98251540-2.

72.10 External links • Oﬃcial website • The Island Eye News, local Sullivan’s Island publication

319

Chapter 73

Walterboro, South Carolina Walterboro is a city in Colleton County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 5,398 at the 2010 census.[1] It is the county seat of Colleton County.[4] Walterboro is located 48 miles (77 km) west of Charleston and is located near the ACE Basin region in the South Carolina Lowcountry.

73.1 History Walterboro (originally spelled “Walterborough”) was founded in 1783 as a summer retreat for local planters looking to escape their malaria-ridden, Lowcountry plantations. The original settlement was located on a hilly area, covered with pine and hickory trees and named “Hickory Valley”. Two of the earliest settlers were Paul and Jacob Walter. The two brothers owned plantations in nearby Jacksonboro. Paul’s small daughter Mary was taken ill with malaria, a common disease amongst the families who built their plantations in the marshy areas of the Lowcountry, suitable to rice production. To save Mary’s life the two brothers went looking for a more healthy location in which to live during the summer months and started the town that was later named for them. In 1817, Walterboro was named the third county seat of Colleton County, and has remained such until the present. This was followed by the construction of a county courthouse and jail in 1821, the courthouse being design by well-known architect Robert Mills. The town quickly spread out from the original Hickory Valley location, its population growth fueled successively by the town becoming the county seat in 1821, the establishment of a railroad line connecting the city with Columbia and Charleston in the 1880s, the establishment of an airﬁeld in the 1930s and more recently the establishment of Interstate 95 in the 1960s, making the town a prime overnight stop on the road to Florida or New York.

well as a 250-person prisoner of war camp. In 1944 the airfield changed commands and became an advanced combat training base for individual fighters, primarily the black trainees graduating from Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee, Alabama. Over 500 of the famed Tuskegee Airmen trained at Walterboro Army Air Field between April 1944 and October 1945, including individuals training as replacement pilots for the 332nd Fighter Squadron and the entire 447th Bombardment Group. The base closed in October 1945 and returned to its origins as a local airfield. Today Walterboro is dotted with historic homes dating back to 1820, and a charming downtown that has kept many of its historic buildings. The city has become increasingly known as an antiquing destination and is a popular day trip from Charleston and Beaufort.

73.2 Geography Walterboro is located somewhat north of the center of Colleton County at 32°54′15″N 80°39′58″W / 32.90417°N 80.66611°W (32.904289, −80.666238).[5] Interstate 95 passes west of the city, leading northeast 110 miles (180 km) to Florence and southwest 67 miles (108 km) to Savannah, Georgia. The southern terminus of U.S. Route 15 is in the center of Walterboro; it leads north, running roughly parallel to I-95, reaching St. George in 21 miles (34 km). U.S. Route 17 Alt leads east from US 15 32 miles (51 km) to Summerville in the Charleston vicinity and southwest 21 miles (34 km) to Yemassee. South Carolina Highway 64 leads northwest past I-95 Exit 57 25 miles (40 km) to Ehrhardt and southeast 16 miles (26 km) to Jacksonboro.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Walterboro has a total area of 6.5 square miles (16.8 km2 ), all In 1942, Walterboro became home to the Walterboro land.[1] Army Air Field, a sub-base of Columbia Army Air Base and part of the overall network of army air training facilities that sprang up across the US during World War II. The base was established to provide advanced air combat training to ﬁghter and bomber groups. It also hosted 73.3 Culture the largest camouﬂage school in the United States, as 320

73.4. DEMOGRAPHICS

73.3.1

Rice Festival

321

73.4 Demographics

The Colleton County Rice Festival takes place to celebrate the county’s history with the rice crop, the staple crop until the Civil War. After that it still impacted the county. The festival is held at the end of April each year. The 2014 festival was the 39th year it has taken place. For each festival there is a parade, pageant, run/walk, and cooking contest. The Rice Festival is usually held on Friday and Saturday.

As of the census[2] of 2010, there were 5,401 people residing in the city. The population density was 832.0 people per square mile (401.1/km²). There were 2,571 housing units at an average density of 475.8 per square mile (183.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 44.1% Non-Hispanic White, 50.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.0% Paciﬁc Islander, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9% of the population.

73.3.2

There were 2,231 households out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 years living with them, 39.0% were married couples living together, 23.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.8% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.90.

Great Swamp Sanctuary

The Sanctuary is 800 acres (3.2 km2 ) of braided-creek hardwood flats bottomland swamp. It consists of boardwalks, walking trails, bicycle paths, a canoe/kayak trail, observation areas, and a 10,000-square-foot (1,000 m2 ) Discovery Center is planned. When it is completely finished the sanctuary will be the most significant naturebased facility in the lower part of South Carolina. It is In the city the population was spread out with 25.8% unopen every day from dawn until dusk and is free. It is der the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 24.6% from 25 to located on Detreville Street in Walterboro. 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 79.7 males. For every 100 73.3.3 Slave Relic Museum females age 18 and over, there were 73.1 males. The museum houses many of the relics slaves made and used during the period that they were enslaved (17501860s). The museum is located on Carn Street. The hours of operation are Monday through Thursday 9:30 am to 5:00 pm and Saturdays 10:00 am to 3:00 pm.

73.3.4

The South Carolina Artisan Center

The median income for a household in the city was $24,135, and the median income for a family was $32,549. Males had a median income of $27,488 versus $20,351 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,223. About 20.6% of families and 30.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.1% of those under age 18 and 10.4% of those age 65 or over.

The South Carolina Artisan Center is the official folk art and craft center of the state. The center is located on 73.5 Education Wichman Street. The hours are Monday - Saturday 10am to 5:30pm and Sunday 1pm to 5pm. Walterboro has several public and private schools in its surrounding area. There are five public elementary schools (Bells Elementary,Cottageville Elementary, Hen73.3.5 Other attractions dersonville Elementary, Forest Hills Elementary, and Northside Elementary, one public middle school (Col• Colleton Museum & Farmer’s Market (East Wash- leton County Middle School), and one public high school ington Street) (Colleton County High School). There are two private K-12 schools: Colleton Preparatory Academy and North • SC Artisans Center (Wichman Street) Walterboro Christian Academy. The University of South Carolina Salkehatchie has a branch in Walterboro, and • Little Library (Wichman/Fishburne Street) Clemson University has a county extension office in the • Colleton County Historical & Preservation Society city. (Church Street) • Old Water Tower (Memorial Ave/Washington Street) • Tuskegee Airmen Memorial (Walterboro Army Airfield)

73.6 Notable residents • William Jones Boone, ﬁrst Episcopal bishop of Shanghai

322 • Norman Hand, NFL defensive tackle

CHAPTER 73. WALTERBORO, SOUTH CAROLINA

73.9 External links

• Craig Mack, hip hop artist

• City of Walterboro oﬃcial website

• Dean Meminger, basketball player and coach

• Rice Festival

• Deangelo Parker, the rapper Pgeezy

• Great Swamp Sanctuary

• John Peurifoy, diplomat • Young Scooter, hip hop artist • Brother Stair, radio preacher • Darwin Walker, NFL defensive tackle • John F. Walker, security consultant • Bill Workman, former economic development consultant; mayor of Greenville, South Carolina, from 1983 to 1995; retired in Walterboro, where he was also reared in early childhood • Matt Willis- General Manager Advance Auto Parts

73.7 Infrastructure Walterboro is accessible from Interstate 95 (access at exits 53 and 57), where lodging, dining, and gas station facilities make it a popular stopping point for travelers. Other roads of importance include U.S. Highway 15, Alternate U.S. Highway 17, and several state highways. The Lowcountry Regional Airport provides general aviation services to Walterboro and Colleton County.

73.8 References [1] “Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Walterboro city, South Carolina”. U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved July 1, 2015. [2] “American FactFinder”. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [3] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [4] “Find a County”. National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07. [5] “US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990”. United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-0423. [6] “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014”. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

• Slave Relic Museum • South Carolina Artisan Center

Chapter 74

Cross, South Carolina Cross is an unincorporated community located in rural northwestern Berkeley County, South Carolina, United States.[1] It is centered at the junctions of South Carolina Highway 6 and South Carolina Highway 45. The zip code for Cross is 29436.[2] The Lawson’s Pond Plantation and Loch Dhu are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[3]

74.1 Notable residents • Rod Wilson

74.2 Notes [1] “Cross, South Carolina”. Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. [2] United States Postal Service (2012). “USPS - Look Up a ZIP Code”. Retrieved 2012-02-15. [3] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

323

Chapter 75

Dewees Island Dewees Island is a barrier island about 11 miles north of Charleston. The inlet between it and the Isle of Palms is shown on early maps as Spence’s Inlet, but is today called Dewees Inlet. The island is private, consisting only of residential properties and a wildlife preserve.[1] It is accessible only by ferry or private boat.

vited John Knott to consider further development, and “Island Preservation Partnership” was formed in 1991. With great sensitivity to “living in harmony with nature”, the island was laid out to accommodate 150 building lots, and the infrastructure was put in place.

In 1991 Knott, with the Royalls, R. Kennedy IV and others, formed an investment group aimed at developing and preserving the island. “Sales and building followed quickly,” according to the POA. The ﬁrst new homes were 75.1 History built in the 1980’s. The island was ceded to the owners in 2007 and has since been managed by the Property OwnProbably one of ﬁve original hunting islands of the Sewee ers Board and the Utility Board.[4] Indians, the island was under British proprietorship unIn 2015, the island had 150 home sites and very strict til it was eventually owned by Thomas Cary in 1700. building codes requiring a “small footprint and very little In 1702 he sold Sessions Island (now Capers Island) to clearing of natural vegetation.”[5] Information as to the William Capers and in 1706 he sold Bull Island to John sale of homes or lots was available from two agencies, Collins. Dewees Island was then known as Timicau IsDewees Real Estate and Carolina One Real Estate and land, and somewhere between those two sales, Thomas some were also listed on the Dewees Island POA orgaCary sold the island to Roger Player, where it passed nization web site. Home rentals were available and could through a succession of owners, eventually conveying to be searched and booked on several web sites. The ComCornelius Dewees, of Dutch origin, perhaps as early as munity Center, with its full kitchen, included facilities for 1701. [2] Over time the island has been home to Indians, social and recreational functions as well as a pool and tenRevolutionary War soldiers, and Civil War blockades. It nis courts. [6] There were no restaurants or stores.[7] has a World War II submarine tower. Dewees Island residents during the 1800s were represented primarily as oystermen and farmers in census records. In the 1800s rice 75.2 Transportation planters began farming on Dewees. Before 1898 land ownership on Dewees Island was complicated by wars, legal disputes and uncertainty. In 1898 John Murphy, a Charleston contractor and alderman, purchased land on the island and became the single owner. On the island Murphy grew artichokes, cane for chairs and raised pigs. Contracted workers harvested oysters and clams. Murphy owned a steamship, Undine, which he used to visit the island.

The Dewees Islander passenger-only ferry runs between the Isle of Palms and Dewees Island, a 20 minute trip. Do note that the ferry is “private transportation for the owners, their families and guests, renters on the island and service providers. Everyone who rides the ferry must be pre-registered by an owner in order to be allowed entry to the island.”[8] The primary mode of transportation on Dewees is electric golf carts; the use of gas-powered A family (Huyler) lived on the island for much of 1925vehicles is prohibited, with exceptions for some work ve52. According to the Dewees Island POA, “The island hicles used for construction and maintenance. was purchased by RS Reynolds in 1956 and used as a hunting retreat. An investor partnership bought Dewees in 1972...”[3]

The ﬁrst modern residential homes on Dewees were built 75.3 Governance in the 1980s on the south end of the island by the Royalls, Bobby Kennedy and others. After the island was Dewees is a private island managed by the Dewees Island devastated by hurricane Hugo, in 1989, the investors in- Property Owners Association. 324

75.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

75.4 Tourism Approximately 2,000 people visit Dewees Island each year. The visitors include owners, owners’ guests, renters and ecotourists on specially arranged tours.

75.5 References [1] no by-line.-->. “The Huyler House - Guest Suites- Rental Information”. Dewees Island. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [2] Cochrane, James (2007). Dewees: The Island and Its People. History Press. pp. 38–67. ISBN 978-1-59629-3397. [3] no by-line.-->. “Island History”. Dewees Island. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [4] no by-line.-->. “Island History”. Dewees Island. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [5] no by-line.--> (2015). “ABOUT DEWEES ISLAND”. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [6] no by-line.--> (2015). “COMMUNITY CENTER AND SUITE RENTALS AT HUYLER HOUSE”. Dewees Island POA. Dewees Island Property Owners Association. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [7] no by-line.--> (2015). “Not your ordinary beach vacation”. Dewees Rentals. Watson Property Management Group. Retrieved December 30, 2015. [8] no by-line.--> (2015). “DEWEES ISLAND FERRY INFORMATION”. Dewees Island POA. Dewees Island POA. Retrieved December 30, 2015.

75.6 External links • Archaeological Survey of Dewees Island Charleston County, South Carolina. Christopher T. Espenshade, Paul E. Brockington, Jr., Joseph L. Tippett, B. G. Southerlin. 1987 (tDAR ID: 148121) • Dewees: The Island and Its People by James Cochrane, Arcadia Publishing, 2007 (ISBN 159629339X); (ISBN 978-1596293397)

325

Chapter 76

Edisto Island, South Carolina Edisto Island is one of South Carolina’s Sea Islands, the larger part of which lies in Charleston County, with its southern tip in Colleton County. The town of Edisto Beach is in Colleton County, while the Charleston County part of the island is unincorporated.

Island Presbyterian Church, Fig Island, Frogmore, Paul Grimball House Ruins, Hutchinson House, Middleton’s Plantation, Oak Island, Old House Plantation, Peter’s Point Plantation, Presbyterian Manse, Prospect Hill, William Seabrook House, Seaside School, Seaside Plantation House, Spanish Mount Point, Sunnyside, The island, town, and Edisto River are named after the historic Edistow people, a Native American sub-tribe of Hephzibah Jenkins Townsend’s Tabby Oven Ruins, the Cusabo Indians, who inhabited the island as well as Trinity Episcopal Church, Wescott Road, and Windsor Plantation are listed in the National Register of Historic nearby mainland areas. Places.[4]

76.1 History

76.2 Geography

Indigenous peoples often had fishing camps on the islands, using them seasonally. The historic Edisto people are known to have occupied the island as well as mainland areas and traded with the upcountry Catawba.[2] The sub-tribe became extinct during the colonial period. The Wassamassaw Tribe of Varnertown Indians is a group of descendants of various tribes who intermarried and who have occupied a settlement between Summerville and Moncks Corner in Berkeley County, South Carolina. In 2005 they gained state recognition as an Indian group, one of six tribes to do so.[2][3] The first tracts of land, called plantations, were granted on Edisto Island before 1700. Landowners first harvested timber and deerskins, planted indigo and some rice, and kept herds of free-ranging cattle to produce hides for the European market and salt beef for Caribbean plantations. Cotton gradually became the principal crop, and after the American Revolution, Edisto Island planters became wealthy and famous from their production of longstaple Sea Island cotton. The labor done by hundreds of enslaved Africans who developed the creole Gullah language and culture on the islands and in the Lowcountry, distinctive for its African traditions. Since the twentieth century, the island has been redeveloped for use as a tourist destination and resorts, although some private plantations remain.

Edisto Island is located 42 miles (68 km) (about one hour by car) southwest of Charleston. Edisto Island is home to Edisto Beach and Wyndham Oceanridge resort. The only grocery store near the beach is a BI-LO out on Jungle Road. There are three gas stations and about a dozen independently owned restaurants, most of which specialize in local seafood.

76.3 Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 2,301 people, 1,030 households, and 685 families residing in the CDP. The population density was about 34 people per square mile. There were 1,193 housing units at an average density of 34ppl/sq mi (84.4/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 59.6% White, 39.1% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.0% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population. There were 1,030 households out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.4% were married couples living together, 21.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.4% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.16.

The Alexander Bache U.S. Coast Survey Line, Bailey’s Store, Bleak Hall Plantation Outbuildings, Brick House Ruins, Brookland Plantation, Cassina Point, Crawford’s Plantation House, Edisto Island Baptist Church, Edisto In the CDP the population was spread out with 27.0% 326

76.6. EXTERNAL LINKS under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.8 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $25,962, and the median income for a family was $31,000. Males had a median income of $24,609 versus $19,131 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,500. About 18.2% of families and 20.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.3% of those under age 18 and 34.5% of those age 65 or over.

76.4 Notable residents • James Jamerson, bass player and member of the Funk Brothers, who played Motown hits in the 1960s, was born here. • Micah Jenkins, Confederate general in the American Civil War, mortally wounded by friendly ﬁre at the Battle of the Wilderness • Burnet Maybank III, owns the largest private plantation on the island

76.5 References [1] “US Board on Geographic Names”. United States Geological Survey. June 30, 2015. Retrieved 2008-01-31. [2] Bo Petersen, “Researchers explore local tribe’s ties to legendary temple”, The Post and Courier, 17 April 2005, accessed 14 December 2011 [3] Bo Petersen, “Local tribe reclaims its roots, heritage”, 17 April 2005, accessed 14 December 2011 [4] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.

76.6 External links • Photos of Edisto Island

327

Chapter 77

Morris Island For other uses, see Morris Island (disambiguation). by the Union when it was learned that the Confederacy Morris Island is an 840 acre (3.4 km²) uninhabited had a similar number of human shields in Charleston to deter Union ships from ﬁring on the city. Land erosion has destroyed a great deal of the old fortiﬁcations on the island, including some parts of Fort Wagner.

Morris Island Lighthouse

island in Charleston Harbor in South Carolina, accessible only by boat. The island lies in the outer reaches of the harbor and was thus a strategic location in the American Civil War. The island forms parts of the cities of Charleston and Folly Beach, in Charleston County.

77.1 History

Union Army mortar battery on Morris Island, 1865

Morris Island was heavily fortified to defend Charleston harbor, with the fortifications centered on Fort Wagner. It was the scene of heavy fighting during the Union 77.2 Morris Island Light Army's campaign to capture Charleston, and is perhaps best known today as the scene of the ill-fated assault by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, an African- Morris Island is also the site of the Morris Island Light, a American regiment. The regiment and this assault, where lighthouse that stands on the southern side of the entrance it suffered over 50% casualties, was immortalized in the to Charleston Harbor, north of the town of Folly Beach. film Glory. After the Confederates abandoned Morris Island in 1863, the Union occupied it and transferred 520 Confederate 77.3 Ownership officers from Fort Delaware to Morris Island. They were used as Human Shields in an attempt to silence the Con- Plans to commercially develop the 125 acres (506,000 federate artillery at Fort Sumter and soon became known m²) of high ground on the northern tip of Morris Island as in the South as the Immortal Six Hundred. This was done a luxury residential area resulted in several groups fight328

77.5. EXTERNAL LINKS ing to have the island declared a national historical park or added to the Fort Sumter park. In January 2005, Charleston developer Harry Huffman, listed the 125 acres (0.51 km2 ) for sale on eBay for $12.5 million. Huffman was in negotiations to sell the island to a consortium of preservation groups, but claimed to have listed the island to see if there was any other interest.[1] Charleston zoning regulations permit no more than 5 homes to be built on the island. Huffman had waged a number of battles with the local development agencies to change the zoning, but claimed to have grown tired of fighting and just wanted to sell. The island was last sold in the 1980s for $3 million. On February 2, 2006, the Trust for Public Land (TPL), a non-profit private land conservation organization, announced the purchase of Morris Island for $4.5 million. Ginn Resorts had previously purchased the island for a reported $6.5 million. In May 2008, TPL and partners (including the South Carolina Conservation Bank, the South Carolina State Ports Authority, the Civil War Preservation Trust, and many private donors) purchased the island on behalf of the City of Charleston from Ginn Resorts for $3 million. According to TPL, the city and county are working “to complete a management plan to protect the island’s nationally significant historical and natural resources.”[2][3]

77.4 References [1] The Beaufort Gazette, “Historic Morris Island is up for sale on eBay,” January 28, 2005; p.3A404 not found [2] Morris Island Now Protected[404 “Page Not Found”] [3] Historic Morris Island Battleﬁeld Again Under Threat of Development

77.5 External links • Morris Lighthouse • Morris Guide • Civil War Photos of Morris Island (CWPT) • Assault on Battery Wagner: Maps, Histories, Photos, and Preservation News (CWPT) Coordinates: 32°42′57″N 79°53′25″W / 32.71583°N 79.89028°W

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Chapter 78

Wadmalaw Island Wadmalaw Island is an island located in Charleston Classic Tea and also produced Sam’s Choice Instant Tea, County, South Carolina, United States. sold through Sam’s Clubs. American Classic Tea has been the official tea of the White House since 1987. In 2003, Bigelow Tea Company purchased the Charleston Tea Plantation and temporarily closed the plantation in 78.1 Geography order to renovate it.[5] The plantation reopened in January 2006. Tours are now offered of this last remaining Wadmalaw Island is located generally to the southwest of working Tea Farm in America. Wadmalaw now produces Johns Island and more than halfway encircled by it. To Firefly, a sweet tea flavored vodka. It is popular throughthe north it is bordered by Church Creek; to the northeast out the Southern United States because of its recognizable and east by Bohicket Creek; to the south by the North flavor and cultural significance. Edisto River; and to the west by the Bohicket Creek. The island’s only connection to the mainland is via a bridge over Church Creek. The island is about 10 miles long by 78.3 See also 6 miles wide. It has a land area of 108.502 km² (41.893 sq mi). The 2000 census reported a population of 2,611 • Charleston Tea Plantation persons.[1]

78.4 References

78.2 History

[1] Wadmalaw Island: Census Tract 22, Charleston County, South Carolina United States Census Bureau

Wadmalaw Island was landed upon by Captain Robert Sandford and the crew of the Berkeley Bay in mid-June 1666 after an excursion up the Bohicket Creek. It is believed that Sandford landed where Rockville, South Carolina now sits. On June 23, 1666, Captain and crew carried out the ritual of turf and twig, claiming the land for England and the Lords Proprietors.[2]

[2] Zepke, Terrance. Coastal South Carolina: Welcome to the Low Country. Pineapple Press, Inc., 2006. ISBN 156164-348-3 p. 155 [3] Zepke, Terrance. Coastal South Carolina: Welcome to the Low Country. Pineapple Press, Inc., 2006. ISBN 156164-348-3 p. 155

In 1670, 148 colonists arrived and settled on the west bank of the Ashley (Kiawah) River. They survived the ﬁrst four years of poor crop production through the generosity of natives who shared beans and corn. They later moved to what is now Charleston.[3]

[4] Franklin PM, Mikula N. Backroads of South Carolina: a Guide to South Carolina’s Most Scenic Backroad Adventures. Voyageur Press, 2006 ISBN 0-7603-2640-1 p. 37 [5] Franklin PM, Mikula N. Backroads of South Carolina: a Guide to South Carolina’s Most Scenic Backroad Adventures. Voyageur Press, 2006 ISBN 0-7603-2640-1 p. 40

In 1890, planters organized the ﬁrst sailing regatta at Rockville, less than a mile from the tea plantation. The 120th Rockville Regatta was held in August, 2010. In more recent times, The Lipton Tea Company operated an experimental tea farm on Wadmalaw Island from 1960 until 1987, when it was sold to Mack Fleming and Bill Hall. These gentlemen converted the experimental farm into a working tea plantation. The Charleston Tea Plantation utilized a converted cotton picker and tobacco harvester to mechanically harvest the tea.[4] The Charleston Tea Plantation sold tea mail order known as American

78.5 External links

330

• Yahoo! Maps • Charleston Tea Plantation • city-data.com page on Wadmalaw Island

78.5. EXTERNAL LINKS Coordinates: 32°40′25″N 80°10′42″W / 32.67361°N 80.17833°W

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Chapter 79

List of schools in Charleston, South Carolina • St. James-Santee - CCSD

This is a listing of schools in Charleston, South Carolina.

• Stiles Point Elementary School

79.1 Elementary schools • Angel Oak Elementary School

• Stono Park Elementary School Cane bay elementary school • West Ashley Int

• Ashley River Elementary School • Buist Academy - CCSD • Charles Pinckney Elementary School - CCSD

79.2 Middle schools

• Charleston Dev. Academy

• Buist Academy - CCSD

• Charleston Progressive

• C. E. Williams Middle School

• Charlestowne Academy

• Charleston Progressive

• Drayton Hall Elementary School

• Charlestowne Academy

• E. B. Ellington Elementary School

• Discipline School • Fort Johnson Middle School

• Fraser Elementary School

• Haut Gap Middle School

• Harbor View Elementary School

• James Island Middle School

• James Island Elementary School - CCSD

• Moultrie Middle School - CCSD

• James Simons Elementary School

• Charleston Charter School for Math & Science

• Memminger Elementary School - CCSD

• West Ashley Middle School - CCSD

• Minnie Hughes Elementary School

• Palmetto Scholars Academy

• Mitchell Elementary School • Montessori Program

79.3 High schools

• Mt. Zion Elementary School

• Burke High School

• Murray-LaSaine Elementary School

• Charlestowne Academy

• Orange Grove Elementary School

• Discipline School

• Sanders-Clyde Elementary School

• IB at James Island Charter High School

• Springﬁeld Elementary School

• James Island Charter High School

• St. Andrews

• West Ashley High School - CCSD 332

79.5. HIGHER EDUCATION

79.4 Private schools • Charleston Collegiate School • Addlestone Hebrew Academy • Ashley Hall • Bishop England High School - Diocese of Charleston • Blessed Sacrament - Diocese of Charleston • The Charleston Catholic School • Charleston Day School • First Baptist Church School • James Island Christian School * Mason Preparatory School • Nativity School • Porter-Gaud School

79.5 Higher education • College of Charleston • Charleston School of Law • The American College of the Building • Medical University of South Carolina • Roper Hospital School of Practical Nursing • The Citadel • Trident Technical College, small satellite campus oﬀ Columbus Street, Charleston East Side.

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Chapter 80

Charleston County School District Charleston County School District is a school district 80.2.1 High Schools within Charleston County, South Carolina, that educates • Academic Magnet High- County-wide Magnet roughly 45,000 kindergarten to 12th grade students in 80 schools. In July 2015, Dr. Nancy J. McGinley, who re• Baptist Hill Middle/High- Neighborhood (District signed in October 2014 after serving as Superintendent 23) just over seven years, was replaced by Dr. Gerrita Postle[1] wait after Dr. McGinley’s termination for her handling • Burke Middle & High- Neighborhood (District 20) of a racially-charged incident at one of the district’s high schools.[2] • Charleston Charter School for Math and ScienceCharter • Clark Academy- County-wide Program

80.1 Districts

• Garrett Academy of Technology- County-wide Magnet

Charleston County School district was created by South Carolina Act 340 of the South Carolina General Assembly in 1967. The “Act of Consolidation” took the 8 separate school districts and put them under a county wide district to equally fund education in all areas of the county. The former independent school districts remain as constituent school districts within the structure of the Charleston County School district with their own school boards and duties.

• Greg Mathis Charter School- Charter • James Island Charter High- Charter (District 3) • Liberty Hill Academy- County-wide Program • Lincoln Middle-High- Neighborhood (District 1) • Military Magnet Academy- County-wide Magnet

• St. James-Santee School District No. 1

• North Charleston High- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Moultrie School District No. 2

• School of the Arts- County-wide Magnet • St. John’s High- Neighborhood (District 9)

• James Island School District No. 3

• Stall High- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Cooper River School District No. 4

• Wando High- Neighborhood (District 2)

• St. John’s School District No. 9

• West Ashley High- Neighborhood (District 10)

• St. Andrew’s School District No. 10 • City of Charleston School District No. 20

80.2.2 Middle Schools

• St. Paul’s School District No. 23

• Buist Academy- County-wide Magnet

(NOTE: District numbering reﬂects the consolidation of over 25 school districts that existed before desegregation.)

• Baptist Hill Middle/High- Neighborhood (District 23) • Burke Middle & High- Neighborhood with Countywide Program (District 20)

80.2 Schools

• C E Williams Middle- Partial Magnet (District 10) 334

80.2. SCHOOLS • Cario Middle- Neighborhood (District 2) • Charleston Charter School for Math and ScienceCharter • Charleston Development Academy- Charter • Daniel Jenkins Creative Learning Center- Countywide Program

335 • Charleston Progressive Academy- County-wide Magnet • Corcoran Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4) • Drayton Hall Elementary- Neighborhood (District 20) • Ellington Elementary- Neighborhood (District 23)

• East Cooper Montessori Charter School- Charter

• Frierson Elementary- Neighborhood (District 9)

• Ft. Johnson Middle- Neighborhood (District 3)

• Goodwin Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Haut Gap Middle- Partial Magnet (District 9)

• Harbor View Elementary- Neighborhood (District 3)

• James Island Middle- Neighborhood (District 3) • Laing Middle- Partial Magnet (District 2)

• Hunley Park Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Liberty Hill Academy- County-wide Program

• James B. Edwards Elementary- Neighborhood (District 2)

• Lincoln Middle-High- Neighborhood (District 1)

• James Island Elementary- Neighborhood (District 3)

• Military Magnet Academy- County-wide Magnet

• Jane Edwards Elementary- Neighborhood (District 23)

• Montessori Community School Program- Countywide Magnet Program • Morningside ARMS Boys’ Academy- Neighborhood: Single-Gender (District 4) • Morningside EXCEL Girls’ Academy- Neighborhood: Single Gender (District 4) • Moultrie Middle- Neighborhood (District 2)

• Jennie Moore Elementary- Partial Magnet (District 2) • Ladson Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4) • Lambs Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4) • Laurel Hill Primary- Neighborhood (District 2)

• Northwoods Middle- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Memminger School of Global Studies- Partial Magnet (District 20)

• Pattison’s Academy for Comprehensive EducationCharter

• Minnie Hughes- Neighborhood (District 23)

• Sanders-Clyde Elementary/Middle- Neighborhood (District 20) • School of the Arts- County-wide Magnet • St. Andrew’s Middle- Partial Magnet (District 10) • West Ashley Middle- Partial Magnet (District 10) • Zucker Middle- Partial Magnet (District 4)

80.2.3

Elementary and Primary Schools and Programs

• Mitchell Math and Science- Partial Magnet (District 20) • Montessori Community School Program- Countywide Magnet Program • Mt. Pleasant Academy- Neighborhood (District 2) • Mt. Zion- Neighborhood (District 2) • Murray-LaSaine Elementary- Neighborhood (District 3) • North Charleston Creative Arts Elementary- Partial Magnet (District 4)

• Angel Oak Elementary- Neighborhood (District 9)

• Oakland Elementary- Neighborhood (District 10)

• Ashley River Creative Arts Elementary- Constituent District Magnet (District 10)

• Pepperhill Elementary- Neighborhood (District 4)

• Belle Hall Elementary- Neighborhood (District 2) • Blaney Elementary- Neighborhood (District 23) • Buist Academy- County-wide Magnet

• Pinckney Elementary- Neighborhood (District 2) • Springﬁeld Elementary- Neighborhood (District 10) • St. Andrews School of Math and Science- Partial Magnet (District 10)

336

CHAPTER 80. CHARLESTON COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICT

• St. James-Santee Elementary- Neighborhood (District 1) • Stiles Point Elementary- Neighborhood (District 3) • Stono Park Elementary- Neighborhood (District 10) • Sullivans Island Elementary- Neighborhood (District 2) • Whitesides Elementary- Neighborhood (District 2)

80.3 See also • List of schools in Charleston, South Carolina • Septima Poinsette Clark

80.4 References [1] http://charlestonpost.nc.newsmemory.com/publink.php? shareid=2fb1a4cd9&pSetup=charlestonpost [2] http://charlestonpost.nc.newsmemory.com/publink.php? shareid=29f3a36cb&pSetup=charlestonpost

80.5 External links • Charleston County School District Homepage

Chapter 81

Berkeley County School District The Berkeley County School District is a school district within Berkeley County, South Carolina. It is based in Moncks Corner, South Carolina and serves all of Berkeley County including the portion of the City of Charleston on Daniel Island and the Cainhoy Peninsular.

337

Chapter 82

Media in Charleston, South Carolina Charleston is the nation’s 95th largest designated market 82.2 Radio area (DMA), with 326,770 households and 0.27% of the U.S. TV population.[1] The following stations are licensed 82.2.1 FM in Charleston and have signiﬁcant operations or viewers in the city:[2] • WSCI - South Carolina Educational TV Radio [89.3 MHz] - NPR News and Classical

82.1 Major network television afﬁliates

• WKCL - We Know Christ Lives [91.5 MHz] - Contemporary Christian

• WCBD-TV (2, NBC, CW): owned by Media General, studios in Mount Pleasant, licensed in Charleston

• WWWZ - Z93 Jamz [93.3 MHz] - Urban Contemporary

• WCIV-TV (4, ABC): (Allbritton Communications), studios in Mount Pleasant, licensed in Charleston

• WSSX - 95SX [95.1 MHz] - Contemporary Top 40

• WCSC-TV (5, CBS): owned by Raycom, studios in Charleston, licensed in Charleston • WITV-TV (7, PBS): owned by South Carolina Educational Television, transmitter in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, licensed in Charleston • WLCN-CD (18, RTV): owned by Faith Assembly, studios in Summerville, licensed in Charleston • WTAT-TV (24, Fox): owned by Cunningham Broadcasting Company, studios in North Charleston, licensed in Charleston • WAZS-LD (29, Azteca America Independent): owned by Jabar Communications, studios in North Charleston, licensed in Charleston • WMMP-TV (36, My Network Television): owned by Sinclair Broadcasting Company, studios in North Charleston, licensed in Charleston

• WCKN - Kickin' 92.5 [92.5 MHz] - Country music

• WSCC - NewsRadio94.3 [94.3 MHz] - News / Talk

• WMXZ - Greatest Hits 95.9 [95.9 MHz] - Country music • WIWF - The Wolf [96.9 MHz] - Country • WYBB - 98X [98.1 MHz] - Active Rock • WWIK -ESPN [98.9 MHz] - Sports • WSPO - The Box [99.3 MHz] - Urban Contemporary • WXST - Star99.7 [99.7 MHz] - Urban Adult Contemporary • WALC - HIS Radio [100.5 MHz] - Contemporary Christian • WAYA-FM - WAY-FM [100.9 MHz] - Contemporary Christian • WAVF - CHUCK FM [101.7 MHz] - Adult Hits • WXLY - Y102.5 [102.5 MHz] - Adult Contemporary • WEZL - WEZL 103.5 [103.5 MHz] - Country

• WHDC-TV 12 (independent)

• WRFQ - Q104.5 [104.5 MHz] - Classic Rock

• WCBD DT2-TV 14 (CW)

• WCOO - The Bridge @ 105.5 [105.5 MHz] - Album Adult Alternative

• WCHD-TV 49 338

82.5. EXTERNAL LINKS • WJNI - Gospel 106.3 [106.3 MHz] - Gospel • WMGL - 107-3 MAGIC [107.3 MHz] - Urban Adult Contemporary

82.2.2

• WLTQ - [730 kHz] - Black Gospel • WTMZ - The Team [910 kHz] - Sports Talk (ESPN Radio) • WJKB - AM 950 Classic Hit Country [950 kHz] Classic Country • WAZS - El Sol [980 kHz] - Spanish • WTMA - The Lowcountry’s Big Talker [1250 kHz] - News / Talk • WQSC - The Boardwalk [1340 kHz] - Beach Music • WIOP - The Box [1390 kHz] - Urban Contemporary (Simulcast on 99.3 FM) • WQNT - [1450 kHz] - Sports Talk (Fox Sports Radio) • WZJY - [1480 kHz] - Talk

82.2.3

High deﬁnition digital radio

• 1640 XSUR [3] - 70s & 80s (“Surfside 1640”)

82.3 Print, online media and mobile apps • Local newspapers in Charleston include The Post and Courier, the Charleston City Paper, The Charleston Chronicle, the Charleston Regional Business Journal, The Catholic Miscellany, and the Island Eye News. • A local online-only paper is TheDigitel.

82.4 References [1] “Charleston drops in TV market pecking order”. [2] “Television station listings in Charleston, South Carolina - Total station FCC ﬁlings found”. [3] http://wzfb.com/surfside/

82.5 External links • Charleston radio stations on TvRadioWorld • Local Charleston online travel gGuide

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Chapter 83

List of people from Charleston, South Carolina This is a list of notable people who were either born in, or have lived in, Charleston, South Carolina.

83.2 Entertainers • Angry Grandpa (born 1950), internet personality • Stephen Colbert (born 1964), comedian

83.1 Athletes

• Joel Derfner (born 1973), musical theater composer

• Luther Broughton (born 1974), NFL player

• Andy Dick (born 1965), comedian

• Nehemiah Broughton (born 1982), NFL player

• Thomas Gibson (born 1962), actor

• Kwame Brown (born 1982), basketball player

• Shanola Hampton (born 1977), actress

• Garrett Chisolm (born 1988), NFL player

• Lauren Hutton (born 1943), actress

• Beth Daniel (born 1956), professional golfer

• Mabel King (1932-99), actress

• Zola Davis (born 1975), NFL and XFL player

• Logan Marshall-Green (born 1976), actor

• Carlos Dunlap (born 1989), NFL player

• Bill Murray (born 1950) actor and comedian

• Oronde Gadsden (born 1971), NFL player

• Will Patton (born 1954), actor

• AJ Green (born 1988), NFL player

• Grace Peixotto (born 1817), madam[1]

• Harold Green (born 1968), NFL player

• Darius Rucker (born 1966), lead singer of Hootie & the Blowﬁsh, and country star

• Anthony Johnson (born 1974), NBA player • Katrina McClain Johnson (born 1965), Olympic gold medalist; retired WNBA player

• Elise Testone (born 1983), singer, American Idol contestant

• Byron Maxwell (born 1988), NFL player

• Melanie Thornton (1967–2001), singer, member of La Bouche

• David Meggett (born 1966), NFL player • Bud Moore (born 1941), NASCAR driver

83.3 Military ﬁgures

• Langston Moore (born 1981), former NFL player

• Mark Wayne Clark (1896–1984), United States Army general of World War II and the Korean War

• Ovie Mughelli (born 1980), NFL player • Josh Powell (born 1983), NBA player

• Benjamin Huger (1805–1877), Confederate Army general

• Laron Proﬁt (born 1977), NBA player

• Private First Class Ralph Henry Johnson (19491968), USMC, Vietnam War

• Robert Quinn (born 1990), NFL player • Art Shell (born 1946), NFL player and coach

• Robert C. Richardson, Jr. (1882–1954), United States Army general of World War II

• Roddy White (born 1981), NFL player 340

83.5. SCIENTISTS

341

• William Childs Westmoreland (1914–2005), United States Army general of Vietnam; U. S. Army Chief of Staﬀ 1968–1972

83.4 Political ﬁgures • William Aiken, Jr. South Carolina[2]

(1806–1887), Governor of

• Judah P. Benjamin (1811–1884), U.S. Senator from Louisiana, Confederate States Secretary of State and Attorney General • James Francis Byrnes (1879–1972), U.S. Representative and Senator, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Secretary of State, and Governor of South Carolina • Floride Calhoun (1792–1866), Second Lady of the United States; wife of John C. Calhoun • John C. Calhoun (1782–1850), U.S. Representative and Senator, Vice President, Secretary of State, and Secretary of War • Henry William de Saussure (1763–1839), second director of United States Mint; intendant (mayor) of Charleston • William Drayton, Sr. (1733–1790), associate justice of South Carolina Supreme Court[2] • Christopher Gadsden (1724–1805), American Revolutionary War leader • James Gadsden (1788–1858), U.S. minister to Mexico; president of the South Carolina Railroad Company • Robert Young Hayne (1791–1839), Mayor of Charleston 1836–1837; United States Senator 1823–1833; Governor of South Carolina[3] • Thomas Heyward, Jr. (1746–1809), signer of the Declaration of Independence • Fritz Hollings (born 1922), United States Senator from South Carolina; Governor and Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina • Henry Laurens (1724–1792), American Revolutionary War leader • Burnet Maybank (1899–1954), Charleston mayor (1931–1935); South Carolina governor (1939– 1941); United States Senator from South Carolina[4]

• William Porcher Miles (1822–1899), lawyer; Mayor of Charleston 1855-1857; U.S. Representative from South Carolina; member of the Confederate Congress; designed the Confederate battle ﬂag[5] • Thomas Parker (1760—1820), U.S. District Attorney for S.C. 1792–1820; married daughter of William Henry Drayton, Mary Drayton[6] • Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (1746–1825), American Revolutionary War leader; United States Ambassador to France; Federalist candidate for President in the 1804 and 1808 United States presidential elections • Joel Roberts Poinsett (1779–1851), botanist, politician, and diplomat; U.S. Representative; United States Ambassador to Mexico, Secretary of War; founded precursor to the Smithsonian Institution; namesake of the poinsettia • Joseph P. Riley, Jr. Charleston 1975-2015

(born 1943), Mayor of

• Joseph O. Rogers, Jr. (1921-1999), member of the South Carolina House of Representatives from Clarendon County 1955-1966; Republican gubernatorial nominee in 1966; reared in Charleston; spent adult years in Manning • Edward Rutledge, signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence; Governor of South Carolina, 17981800 • John Rutledge, President of South Carolina, 17761778; Commander and Chief of South Carolina forces during Revolutionary War; Governor of South Carolina, 1779-1782; second Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court; signed the U.S. Constitution • James Skivring Smith (1825–1884), President of Liberia, 1871-1872 • George Alfred Trenholm (1807–1876), Confederate States Secretary of the Treasury • Bill Workman (born 1940), Charleston native; mayor of Greenville, 1983-1995; economic development specialist

83.5 Scientists

• Burnet Maybank Jr., lawyer and Lieutenant governor of South Carolina

• Robert Furchgott (1916-2009), biochemist and Nobel Laureate

• Christopher Memminger (1803–1888), Confederate Minister of the Treasury; proponent of public schools

• Ernest Everett Just (1883–1941), biologist • William Charles Wells (1757–1817), physician

342

CHAPTER 83. LIST OF PEOPLE FROM CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

83.6 Writers and artists • David Carson (born 1956), graphic designer • Joel Derfner (born 1973), writer

• Sallie Krawcheck (born 1964), Citigroup chief financial officer • Samuel Maverick (1803–1870), firebrand rancher from whom the term "maverick" was coined

• Shepard Fairey (1970), artist known for Andre the Giant “Obey” and Barack Obama “Hope” stencil pieces

• Burnet Maybank III, lawyer; two-time head of South Carolina Department of Revenue

• Arthur Freed (1894–1973), Hollywood producer, composer, and writer

• Vanessa Minnillo (born 1980), Miss USA 1998, MTV VJ, and Entertainment Tonight correspondent

• Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Jr. (1911–2001), author, Cheaper by the Dozen

• Molly O'Connell, runner-up of America’s Next Top Model, Cycle 16

• Dubose Heyward (1885–1940), writer and lyricist, Porgy and Bess

• George B. Rabb, zoologist

• Jessica Hische (born 1984), illustrator • Robert Jordan (1948–2007), novelist, author of the The Wheel of Time series

• Robert Mills (1781–1855), architect

• Merton Simpson, (born 1928), abstract expressionist artist, African art collector, musician • David Stahl (1949–2010), conductor

• Carew Rice (1899–1971), silhouettist

• Elizabeth Timothy, ﬁrst female newspaper publisher in America

• Alexandra Ripley (1934–2004), author, Scarlett

• Lewis Timothy, ﬁrst American librarian

• Stella F Simon, photographer

• Denmark Vesey (1767–1822), freedman tried and executed for allegedly plotting a slave revolt

• Philip Simmons (1912–2009), ironworker • William Gilmore Simms (1806–1870), poet, novelist, and historian • Frank Lebby Stanton (1857–1927), lyricist; columnist for the Atlanta Constitution; author of the lyrics of "Just Awearyin' for You"

• J. Waites Waring (1880–1968), United States District Court for District of South Carolina judge; part of three-judge panel that heard school desegregation case Briggs v. Elliott

83.8 References

• Norb Vonnegut (born 1958), author

83.7 Other

[1] Jones, Mark R (2006). Wicked Charleston: Prostitutes, Politics and Prohibition (illustrated ed.). The History Press. p. 19-23. ISBN 9781596291348. Retrieved 13 May 2015.

• William Abbott, manager of the New Charleston Theatre [2]

[2] Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607-1896. Chicago: Marquis Who’s Who. 1963.

• Garland Bayliss, historian and administrator at Texas A&M University; taught at the Citadel in the mid-1950s[7]

[3] “Robert Young Hayne” http://www.HalseyMap.com/ Flash/mayors-detail.asp?polID=28

• Frank Birnbaum, 20thcentury Jewish cantor • Rick Brewer (born 1956), former administrator at Charleston Southern University; current president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana[8] • Septima Poinsette Clark (1898–1987), educator, civil rights activist; “grandmother of the American civil rights movement" • Lauren Hutton (born 1943), model • Ellsworth “Bumpy” Johnson (1905–1968), wellknown African American mob boss

[4] “Burnet Rhett Maybank” http://www.HalseyMap.com/ Flash/mayors-detail.asp?polID=44 [5] “William Porcher Miles” http://www.HalseyMap.com/ Flash/mayors-detail.asp?polID=32 [6] O'Neall, John Belton (1859). “Thomas Parker”. Biographical sketches of the bench and bar of South Carolina 2. Charleston, S.C.: S.G. Courtenay & Co. pp. 47–50. Retrieved October 21, 2011. [7] “Garland Erastus Bayliss”. Bryan-College Station Eagle. May 28, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015. [8] Leigh Guidry (March 25, 2015). “LC board names South Carolina VP as ninth president”. The Alexandria Town Talk. Retrieved July 23, 2015.

83.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

83.9 External links • IMDB’s List of People from Charleston, SC

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Chapter 84

List of tallest buildings in Charleston, South Carolina

St. Matthewâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s German Evangelical Lutheran Church is the tallest building in Charleston. It was the tallest building in South Carolina from 1872-1966.

There are 20 high-rise buildings located in Charleston, South Carolina. [1]

84.1 Notes [1] Emporis listing of hi-rises for Charleston, South Carolina

St. Philipâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Episcopal Church, one of the tallest buildings in Charleston

[2] Dockside Website

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Chapter 85

List of television shows and ﬁlms in Charleston, South Carolina • The Learning Channel series The Real Estate Pros with local real estate agency Trademark Properties and its owner Richard C. Davis, 2007 (*)

Because of its classic Old South buildings and scenery, Charleston, South Carolina has been featured in many ﬁlms and television shows.

• Reckless, 2014, CBS (*)

85.1 Television shows

• Scarlett, 1994 TV miniseries based on Alexandra Ripley’s sequel to Gone with the Wind (*)

The following television shows have been filmed in part in or near Charleston, South Carolina. Filming locations that are identifiable in the final production are indicated in parentheses. When the filming location was meant to represent Charleston as the setting, an asterisk has been added.

• Southern Charm, 2014-present, Bravo reality show (*)

• Army Wives, mainly ﬁlmed at the old Navy base, in the City of North Charleston, where they built a fake town for the series; a sound stage for the show is located in the Oakridge Shopping Center oﬀ Dorchester Road, in the City of North Charleston; 200713 (*)

• Special Bulletin, a 1983 TV-ﬁlm on NBC presented as a simulated news broadcast of a nuclear terrorism-related hostage taking and subsequent nuclear explosion resulting in the total destruction of the City of Charleston (*)

85.2 Films

The following movies were filmed at least in part in Charleston, South Carolina. Identifiable locations shown • Deadly Pursuits, 1996 TV movie with Tori Spelling in the films are indicated in parentheses. When the film(*) ing location was meant to represent Charleston as the set• Pilot episode for miniseries El Cid, dramatization of ting, an asterisk has been added. the lives of Citadel cadets; Citadel campus (*) • Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls, 1995, starring Jim • The 1990s Nickelodeon show Gullah Gullah IsCarrey; #1 film in U.S. land took place on a fictional barrier island near • Angel Camouflaged 2010, James Brolin Charleston, South Carolina; one episode featured the family visiting downtown Charleston, showing • The Break, 1995, Martin Sheen; about tennis things like sweet-grass baskets; 1994-98 (*) • Chasers 1994, Tom Berenger

• TV movie The Hunley on TNT • ABC TV miniseries of the trilogy of North and South (1994, starring Patrick Swayze and Kirstie Alley), Love and War, Heaven & Hell: North & South, Book III; Calhoun Mansion at 16 Meeting St. and Boone Hall Plantation (*) • Palmetto Pointe (*)

• Cold Mountain, 2003, set in the Civil War (1864), starring Nicole Kidman, Jude Law, and Renee Zellweger • Consenting Adults, 1992, Kevin Kline and Kevin Spacey • The Corn Dog Man

345

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CHAPTER 85. LIST OF TELEVISION SHOWS AND FILMS IN CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

• The Dangerous Lives of Altar Boys, 2002, starring Emile Hirsch and Kieran Culkin • Deceiver • Dear John , starring Amanda Seyfried and Channing Tatum; #1 film in the U.S. • Dear Osama bin Laden • Die Hard with a Vengeance, 1995, Bruce Willis, Samuel L. Jackson; old Cooper River bridges; #1 film in the U.S. • Don't Tell Her It’s Me (aka The Boyfriend School) • For the Boys 1991, Bette Midler and James Caan; set in the 1940s • The Great Santini, 1979, starring Robert Duvall and Blythe Danner; set in 1962; written by Pat Conroy (*) • The In Crowd • The Jackal, 1997, starring Bruce Willis, Richard Gere, and Sidney Poitier • Kitty Kitty • The Legend of Bagger Vance, 2000, starring Will Smith, Matt Damon, and Charlize Theron; set in 1930; about golf • Leo, Spanish film • Little Senegal • Look Out, Here Comes Tomorrow • The Lords of Discipline, 1983, written by Pat Conroy (*) • Major League: Back to the Minors 1998, Scott Bakula • Mary Jane’s Last Dance • My Man Done Me Wrong • The New Daughter, 2009, Kevin Costner • The Notebook, 2004, upper King St. near Cannon St. and Spring St., and Boone Hall Plantation • O, 2001, starring Josh Hartnett, Julia Stiles, Mekhi Phifer, and Martin Sheen; based on Shakespeare’s Othello (*) • An Occasional Hell • Other Voices, Other Rooms • Paradise, 1982, Phoebe Cates • The Patriot, 2000, College of Charleston, lower Meeting St. and Cypress Gardens in Goose Creek (*)

• The Prince of Tides, 1991, starring Nick Nolte, Barbra Streisand, and Blythe Danner, written by Pat Conroy (#1 film in U.S.) • Quiet Victory: The Charlie Wedemeyer Story • Rich in Love • Swamp Thing, 1982, directed by Wes Craven; filmed at Cypress Gardens • White Squall, 1996, starring Jeff Bridges and Ryan Phillipe; about sailing

Chapter 86

National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina complete through NPS recent listings posted January 8, 2016.[2]

86.1 Current listings 86.2 Former listing 86.3 See also • Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina • List of National Historic Landmarks in South Carolina

Location of Charleston in South Carolina

• National Register of Historic Places listings in South Carolina

This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina. This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Charleston, South Carolina, United States. The locations of National Register properties and districts for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in a Google map.[1]

86.4 References

There are 184 properties and districts listed on the National Register in Charleston County, including 43 National Historic Landmarks. The city of Charleston is the location of 93 of these properties and districts, including 34 of the National Historic Landmarks; they are listed here, while the 90 properties and districts in the remaining parts of the county are listed separately. The city of North Charleston is the location of 5 of these properties and districts; they are listed separately. Another property in Charleston was once listed but has been removed. Three properties and districts — the Ashley River Historic District, Ashley River Road, and the Secessionville Historic District — are split between the city and the other parts of the county, and are thus included on both lists.

[1] The latitude and longitude information provided in this table was derived originally from the National Register Information System, which has been found to be fairly accurate for about 99% of listings. For about 1% of NRIS original coordinates, experience has shown that one or both coordinates are typos or otherwise extremely far off; some corrections may have been made. A more subtle problem causes many locations to be off by up to 150 yards, depending on location in the country: most NRIS coordinates were derived from tracing out latitude and longitudes off of USGS topographical quadrant maps created under the North American Datum of 1927, which differs from the current, highly accurate WGS84 GPS system used by most on-line maps. Chicago is about right, but NRIS longitudes in Washington are higher by about 4.5 seconds, and are lower by about 2.0 seconds in Maine. Latitudes differ by about 1.0 second in Florida. Some locations in this table may have been corrected to current GPS standards. [2] “National Register of Historic Places: Weekly List Actions”. National Park Service, United States Department

This National Park Service list is 347

348CHAPTER 86. NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES LISTINGS IN CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA

of the Interior. Retrieved on January 8, 2016. [3] Numbers represent an ordering by significant words. Various colorings, defined here, differentiate National Historic Landmarks and historic districts from other NRHP buildings, structures, sites or objects. [4] Staff (2009-03-13). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [5] The eight-digit number below each date is the number assigned to each location in the National Register Information System database, which can be viewed by clicking the number.

Chapter 87

1886 Charleston earthquake The 1886 Charleston earthquake occurred at about 9:50 pm on August 31 with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The intraplate earthquake caused 60 deaths and between ﬁve and six million dollars in damage to 2,000 buildings in the Southeastern United States. It is one of the most powerful and damaging earthquakes to hit the East Coast of the United States. Very little to no historical earthquake activity had occurred, which is unusual for any seismic area.[2]

87.1 Earthquake

northwest, as far as New Orleans, Louisiana to the west, as far as Cuba to the south, and as far as Bermuda to the east.[4] It was so severe that outside the immediate area, there was speculation that the Florida peninsula had broken away from North America.[3] It is a heavily studied example of an intraplate earthquake. It is believed to have occurred on faults formed during the break-up of Pangaea. Similar faults are found all along the east coast of North America. It is thought that such ancient faults remain active from forces exerted on them by present-day motions of the North American Plate. The exact mechanisms of intraplate earthquakes are a subject of much ongoing research.

One of many “earthquake bolts” found throughout period houses in Charleston

Damage from Charleston earthquake of August 31, 1886

87.1.1 Damage

See also: List of earthquakes in the United States

Within the city almost all of the buildings sustained damage and most had to be torn down and rebuilt. Wires The earthquake is estimated to have been 7.0 on the were cut and the railroad tracks were torn apart, cutting moment magnitude scale with a Mercalli intensity of X residents oﬀ from the outside world and vice versa. The (Extreme). Sandblows were common throughout the af- damage was assessed to be between ﬁve and six million fected area due to liquefaction of the soil. Aftershocks dollars. continued to be felt for weeks after the event[3] and mi- Major damage occurred as far away as Tybee Isnor earthquake activity that still continues in the area to- land, Georgia, (more than 60 miles away) and strucday may be a continuation of aftershocks. There were at tural damage was reported several hundred miles from least sixty fatalities. Charleston (including central Alabama, central Ohio, It was felt as far away as Boston, Massachusetts to the eastern Kentucky, southern Virginia and western West north, Chicago, Illinois and Milwaukee, Wisconsin to the Virginia). 349

350

CHAPTER 87. 1886 CHARLESTON EARTHQUAKE

The Old White Meeting House near Summerville, Dorchester County, South Carolina was reduced to ruins.[5]

87.1.2

Aftermath

Earthquake bolts were added to existing unreinforced masonry buildings to add support to the structure without having to demolish the structure due to instability. The bolts pass through the existing masonry walls tying walls on opposite sides of the structure together for stability.

87.2 See also • Geology of the United States • South Carolina earthquakes

87.3 References [1] Stover, C.W.; Coﬀman, J.L. (1993), Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (Revised), U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527, United States Government Printing Oﬃce, pp. 348–351 [2] Bollinger, G. A. (1972), “Historical and recent seismic activity in South Carolina”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (Seismological Society of America) 62 (3): 851–864 [3] Pickney, Paul (1906), Lessions Learned from the Charleston Quake [4] Charleston Quake, 1886, USGS [5] “Old White Meeting House Ruins and Cemetery, Dorchester County (SC Hwy 642, Summerville vicinity)". National Register Properties in South Carolina. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 5 July 2012.

Sources • Talwani, P.; Cox, J. (1985), “Paleoseismic Evidence for Recurrence of Earthquakes near Charleston, South Carolina”, Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 229 (4711): 379–381, doi:10.1126/science.229.4711.379 • Tarr, A.C.; Talwani, P.; Rhea, S.; Carver, D.; Amick, D. (1981), “Results of recent South Carolina seismological studies”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (Seismological Society of America) 71 (6): 1883–1902

87.4 External links • The Charleston Earthquake of 1886 – University of South Carolina • Historical Earthquakes: Charleston, South Carolina – United States Geological Survey • Fault Map of South Carolina – South Carolina Department of Natural Resources • Waring Historical Library 1886 Charleston Earthquake Photo Collection – Lowcountry Digital Library • Overview of an archival collection on the Charleston earthquake – Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library • Charleston Earthquake, 1886 – University of South Carolina • Isoseismal map of the earthquake centered near Charleston, South Carolina, on August 31, 1886 – University of California, Santa Cruz

Chapter 88

Riverland Terrace Riverland Terrace, developed starting in the 1920s, is James Island, South Carolina's oldest neighborhood. The Terrace is located just 10 minutes west of downtown Charleston, South Carolina along Wappoo Creek and the inland waterway. The neighborhood boasts a public boat landing, Charleston Municipal Golf Course, a playground, ﬁve restaurants and numerous antique shops.

88.2 Gallery • Oak trees over 100 years old line the entrance to Riverland Terrace • The Wappoo Cut which borders one side of neighborhood

Leading into the neighborhood is the historic Avenue of • Plymouth Park Oaks, consisting of 73 live oak trees believed to be over 100 years old. They once led to Wappoo Hall Plantation, owned by Lt. Col. George Lucas of the English Army and 88.3 External links managed by his daughter Eliza Lucas Pinckney. She developed the indigo industry of the colony as a successful • RTNA cash crop before the American Revolution. The plantation fronted on the Stono River. Fort Pemberton, a Civil Coordinates: 32°45′43″N 79°59′25″W / 32.76194°N War fortiﬁcation built in 1862, remains today. 79.99028°W The Terrace consists of approximately 800 homes. Sizes and prices vary greatly. Starter homes of 900 square feet (84 m2 ) begin at $200,000 up to 2 plus million for deep water lot homes and everything in between. Riverland Terrace has an active neighborhood association that meets 3-4 times each year. The community actively works to preserve the historical integrity of the community, thus contributing to the hometown feel.

88.1 The Riverland Terrace Neighborhood Association The Riverland Terrace Neighborhood Association (RTNA) is a not-for-proﬁt volunteer neighborhood organization for those who live, work, or play within Riverland Terrace. RTNA is committed to promoting and protecting the beauty, safety, stability, cleanliness, and social and economic viability of the neighborhood by fostering alliances with the local residents, merchants, and government oﬃcials. RTNA seeks to represent community interests as a single voice. 351

Chapter 89

Old Slave Mart The Old Slave Mart is a building located at 6 Chalmers Street in Charleston, South Carolina that once housed an antebellum slave auction gallery.[3] Constructed in 1859, the building is believed to be the last extant slave auction facility in South Carolina. In 1975, the Old Slave Mart was added to the National Register of Historic Places for its role in Charleston’s African-American history. Today, the building houses the Old Slave Mart Museum.[1][4] The Old Slave Mart was originally part of a slave market known as Ryan’s Mart, which covered a large enclosed lot between Chalmers and Queen streets. The market was established in 1856 by Charleston City Councilman Thomas Ryan, after a citywide ban on public slave auctions made private facilities necessary. Slave auctions were held at the site until approximately 1863; in 1865, the Union Army occupied Charleston and closed Ryan’s Mart. The Old Slave Mart Museum has operated on and oﬀ since 1938.[4] The layout of Ryan’s Mart, circa 1860

89.2 History

89.1 Design

Throughout the ﬁrst half of the 19th century, slaves brought into Charleston were sold at public auctions held on the north side of the Exchange and Provost building.[1] After the city prohibited public slave auctions in 1856, enclosed slave markets sprang up along Chalmers, State, and Queen streets. One such market was Ryan’s Mart, established by City Councilman and broker, Thomas Ryan and his business partner, James Marsh. Ryan’s Mart originally consisted of a closed lot with three structures— a four-story barracoon or slave jail, a kitchen, and a morgue or “dead house.”[4]

The Old Slave Mart is a 67-foot (20 m) by 19-foot (5.8 m) brick structure with a stuccoed façade. The front (south side) faces the cobblestone-paved Chalmers Street. The building originally measured 44 feet (13 m) by 20 feet (6.1 m), but an extension in 1922 gave it its current dimensions. The unique façade of the Old Slave Mart consists of 20-foot (6.1 m) octagonal pillars at each end, with In 1859, an auction master named Z. B. Oakes purchased Ryan’s Mart, and built what is now the Old Slave a central elliptical arch comprising the entrance.[4] The building originally contained one large room with Mart building for use as an auction gallery. The builda 20-foot (6.1 m) ceiling. In 1878, a second floor was ing’s auction table was 3 feet (0.91 m) high and 10 feet [1] added, and the roof was overhauled. The arched entry- (3.0 m) long and stood just inside the arched doorway. to slaves, the market sold real estate and way originally held an iron gate; in the late 1870s it was In addition [4] stock. Slave auctions at Ryan’s Mart were advertised filled in with simple doors. Interior partitions were added in broadsheets throughout the 1850s, some appearing as in subsequent decades, dividing the first floor into three Galveston, Texas. far away as [4] rooms. Today, there is an iron gate in the archway once again.

When Union forces occupied Charleston beginning in 352

89.5. EXTERNAL LINKS February 1865, the slaves still imprisoned at Ryan’s Mart were freed.[5] In 1878, the Old Slave Mart was converted into a tenement dwelling, with a second ﬂoor added.[1] A car dealership and showroom operated in the building in the 1920s, necessitating the expansion of the rear of the building.[4] In 1938, Miriam B. Wilson purchased the building and established the Old Slave Mart Museum, which initially displayed African and African-American art.[1] The City of Charleston and the South Carolina African American Heritage Commission restored the Old Slave Mart in the late 1990s.[6] The museum now interprets the history of the city’s slave trade. The area behind the building, which once contained the barracoon and kitchen, is now a parking lot.

89.3 References [1] National Conference of State Historic Preservation Oﬃcers, Old Slave Mart. Retrieved: 27 May 2010. [2] Staﬀ (2010-07-09). “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. [3] “Old Slave Mart, Charleston County (6 Chalmers St., Charleston)". National Register Properties in South Carolina. South Carolina Department of Archives and History. Retrieved 23 June 2012. [4] Nenie Dixon and Elias Bull, National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form for Old Slave Mart, 12 February 1975. Retrieved: 27 May 2010. [5] Information obtained from a display in the Old Slave Mart Museum, 2010. [6] Jonathan H. Poston, The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture (University of South Carolina Press 1997), pp. 64-65.

89.4 See also • Antebellum South Carolina

89.5 External links • Old Slave Mart Museum - oﬃcial website • Historic Charleston’s Religious and Community Buildings, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary • Museum Grand Opening Press Release, October 2007

353

354

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

89.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 89.6.1

Text

• Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=700172071 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, RobLa, Rmhermen, Toby Bartels, Juwiley, KF, Olivier, Ram-Man, Bdesham, Infrogmation, Rambot, Lquilter, Ahoerstemeier, Nikai, Andres, Deisenbe, Harry Potter, Janko, RickK, Choster, JCarriker, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Radiojon, Tpbradbury, Nv8200pa, Wetman, Bcorr, Pollinator, Bearcat, Dale Arnett, RedWolf, Postdlf, JB82, Seth Ilys, Ninjamask, Carnildo, Alexwcovington, MPF, Gtrmp, Skipanderson, Bkonrad, Michael Devore, Niteowlneils, Kainaw, John Abbe, Wmahan, Neilc, Stevietheman, Alexf, Kjetil r, ClockworkLunch, Boone, Plasma east, CaribDigita, JimWae, Balcer, Amesville, Neutrality, Karl Dickman, Kevin Rector, Grunt, Mennonot, Mike Rosoft, D6, Martschink, Heegoop, Buffyg, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Ffirehorse, Jaedza, Vsmith, Bender235, Sum0, Omnibus, Purplefeltangel, DS1953, MikesLogic, Mwanner, Aude, Phiwum, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Stesmo, 23skidoo, Jolomo, Acntx, Sampo Torgo, Giraffedata, Nk, Darwinek, Jonathunder, SPUI, Justinc, Jjron, A2Kafir, Ddddan, Alansohn, V2Blast, Philip Cross, Complex01, Mcg, TommyBoy, Spangineer, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Amorymeltzer, RainbowOfLight, Skyring, Ianblair23, Pauli133, BDD, Henry79, MasterShake~enwiki, Ghirlandajo, Ttownfeen, Djsasso, Kazvorpal, Kitch, Yurivict, Stemonitis, Nuno Tavares, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), OwenX, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Bellhalla, Scriberius, Before My Ken, Bbatsell, BenZin, Vanished895703, Haunti, Wgsimon, Mandarax, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Tzadikv, Ehayes, DJ Silverfish, RxS, Dpr, Limegreen, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Attitude2000, Bill37212, Edenburg, Vegaswikian, Miserlou, Firebug, Titoxd, Ground Zero, Mason.Jones, Drumguy8800, Magalhães, Tedder, RegBarc, Scott Mingus, Chobot, AFA, Evilphoenix, Karch, Knife Knut, Bgwhite, Mysekurity, Cornellrockey, Banaticus, JPD, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Lincolnite, Garnetpalmetto, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, RadioKirk, Absolutadam802, PaulGarner, Badagnani, Welsh, Rjensen, Howcheng, Waterguy, Afiler, Irishguy, THB, Midnite Critic, CrazyC83, Cholmes75, Jo Bo, Gadget850, Cjboffoli, Doncram, Derek.cashman, JonathanLamb, Kmusser, FF2010, 21655, Luxa, Cloudbound, Dspradau, GraemeL, JLaTondre, Kungfuadam, John Broughton, Asterion, SmackBot, Moeron, OrgulloKMoore, DuncanBCS, CRKingston, Od Mishehu, Criticalthinker, Duke53, Jcbarr, Gjs238, Imzadi1979, Gif32, Brianski, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, JeffreyAllen1975, Qtoktok, Samhita, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jnelson09, B00P, Djheini, MalafayaBot, Bluquail, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Akhenaton06, Muboshgu, All in, Lionheart Omega, EaglesFanInTampa, HoodedMan, Smallbones, OrphanBot, Pokey5945, MJCdetroit, JonHarder, Azumanga1, Rainmonger, Kittybrewster, Greenshed, Melaniethornton~enwiki, Badbilltucker, Jmlk17, Futuretvman, Amphytrite, RJN, Brando03, RandomP, Akriasas, Derek R Bullamore, Only, BinaryTed, Sonofaque86, Wizardman, NetherlandishYankee, Ligulembot, DDima, Ohconfucius, Mshannon, Rjmorris, Jsrenau, Mrmouse, Zahid Abdassabur, General Ization, Harlanh001, Jeromealden 85, Jaywubba1887, VerruckteDan, PseudoSudo, UP Spartan, OMHalck, SliceNYC, Astuishin, Waggers, Scagle, Bugwit, Jrt989, Swampyank, Hu12, Goddess of War, Iridescent, JaMikePA, Nosimplehiway, TwistOfCain, Joseph Solis in Australia, Tmangray, Manticore2442, FurmanUSC, ChasNick13, Az1568, Courcelles, Chamberlian, Tawkerbot2, The Letter J, Cryptic C62, ChrisCork, Ehistory, HennessyC, JForget, Paulmlieberman, DangerousPanda, Wafulz, Van helsing, Drinibot, DeLarge, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot, Shizane, Old Guard, Ken Gallager, Karenjc, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, Erasmussen, Edwardm, Wgbc2032, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Strongbad1982, Mooseofshadows, Optimist on the run, Omicronpersei8, Gimmetrow, Spyder Monkey, Mathpianist93, Thijs!bot, Montydavis, Tomas417, MrBojanglesNY, Marek69, MainlyTwelve, Inner Earth, JustAGal, Rufus843, Dawnseeker2000, Whisperednumber, J Clear, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Swac, Wengero, Emeraldcityserendipity, Tmopkisn, Darklilac, Dr-t, Mikevegas40, Inqvisitor, DuncanHill, Pompusmaximus, Barek, NE2, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Arch dude, EKindig, Josephhubbard, Sophie means wisdom, MegX, Yahel Guhan, Wasell, Magioladitis, Connormah, Jermainelv, VoABot II, Jllm06, Ronkaplandc, Tedickey, Nyttend, Mjrmtg, Inkan1969, Animum, Ermanon, Torin006, MetsBot, Allstarecho, Gerry D, Islandisee, DerHexer, Pax:Vobiscum, PerryPlanet, Irate velociraptor, Tuckerma, ChasYoshi, 4mula, Millenium man, MartinBot, Unclepea, B33R, Bissinger, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Cjmclark, NC Ranger, J.delanoy, BigrTex, Geologik, Headinthedoor, Surfside, Jerry, Vanished user 342562, Acalamari, Dispenser, Abhijitsathe, Janus Shadowsong, Skier Dude, Oakshade, Mrceleb2007, Ka simmons, Student7, Fjbfour, Sunderland06, White 720, KylieTastic, Cometstyles, Bdmccray, KudzuVine, MoodyGroove, Dsgitlin, Wrijos0563, Raime, VolkovBot, Safemariner, Jakohler, Alabasterarchangel, Ashdog137, Cherdt, Jeff G., Amikake3, AlnoktaBOT, Pinkhouse~enwiki, WOSlinker, Epson291, Bms4880, Deweerdt~enwiki, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Aliceinnyland, Comforta, Rei-bot, Arnon Chaffin, Piperh, Arcyqwerty, MIREL MAS, Bentley4, Wraggborough, UnitedStatesian, Redsox04, Nedrutland, SITOMON, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Gamehope, Dinagurl4595, JoelFBC, Evan72284, Gaelen S., Bwilli87, SieBot, Coffee, Swilson86, Scgatorfan, Hans.brough, Dough4872, BotMultichill, Winchelsea, Rpalme01, Matthew Yeager, King of Corsairs, Mnbitar, Yintan, Johnnyleo11, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Ophois, Mimihitam, Scouto2, Documentary film, Lynntoniolondon, Rosiestep, Jimf233, BluekittySC, Burntorange72, G.-M. Cupertino, LonelyMarble, Giancarlo1992, StaticGull, Hubertfarnsworth, Thegryseone, Wikimaster2555, Wjemather, Escape Orbit, Tay3448, Ermcki, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Ks239, Atletiker, Harwardt, Archive50, KingofQueensKidNJ, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kthumlert, Gawaxay, KiawahIslandGetaways, Arakunem, MasterWorks, Boing! said Zebedee, Methychroma, CounterVandalismBot, Goochylittlepig, JACKSONVILLE12, Blanchardb, Billyfutile, Parkwells, Neverquick, 718 Bot, Ktr101, Excirial, CapitalBot, Gwguffey, ParisianBlade, Veritas116, NuclearWarfare, Wikibojopayne, 7&6=thirteen, Swedie, Redthoreau, BwayKrischen, Mlaffs, Thewellman, C628, Chicora at Charleston, Thingg, Connah0047, Johnuniq, Eyecantspel, Speedofern, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, DAP388, Emilyskinner, XLinkBot, Johnh7, Livingwords, Rreagan007, Citm2000, Bamuller, NellieBly, Cmr08, Yokelly, Rl81566, Sha721, Pucher LeMay, 2007apm, BrucePodger, Kbdankbot, Jhendin, Addbot, Wcathca, Bowmand, Fyrael, Icbmman, GeckoRoamin, Morriswa, SpellingBot, Ronhjones, Kristoff119, Groundsquirrel13, NjardarBot, Download, Msilgals, Buster7, Milepost53, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Jefvos, Bostit, Tassedethe, DCI-NY, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Xenobot, Jcb, PennySpender1983, Amateur55, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Pink!Teen, Ptbotgourou, Specious, Rmsmcd, Ken E. H., Brightlywound3, Charleston85, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, Magicpiano, Cdamgen, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Floquenbeam, Vladimira1, Jim1138, IRP, 90, Ulric1313, Mahmudmasri, Coovara, Amzh20, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Reyps, Ardersier, Xqbot, Jeffrey Mall, GenQuest, Cyphoidbomb, Boilmaker, Rfrgtgt, Lolotte21, Jbcodysc, ProtectionTaggingBot, Jamesmolnar, Ιων, Arondello, RibotBOT, Justthefacts92, Tghyuk, Rthjui, Polyphebus, Joaquin008, Erik9, LowcountryGradCenter, Erik9bot, Hushpuckena, FrescoBot, Worky worky, Sraleci, Remotelysensed, Legos9877, Mmurphy86, ProfReader, Shooterwalker, BenzolBot, M2545, Tetraedycal, Drew R. Smith, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Mr1radudley, Elockid, Triplestop, Rushbugled13, Hillarin, Lloydelliot10, Brad Polard, Paddler72, Orenburg1, FoxBot, Carynm, Trappist the monk, Thái Nhi, Benjdahl, MandyOwens, Rupert1904, Aaronr12300, Tbhotch, Rossdegenstein, Logical Fuzz, Onel5969, Hlecroy, RjwilmsiBot, Sandersecat, Bento00, Ripchip Bot, Acsian88, Daslaw, EmausBot, John of Reading, Sctvman, Dewritech, Gwillhickers, Hous21, Metarahh, Wikipelli, Checkingfax, Dolphin Jedi, Getwitit100, Ὁ οἶστρος, Everard Proudfoot, Jayatchbee97, H3llBot, SporkBot, Flaaghara, Ladiesman321, AmbyBurnside, Whywater, Sross (Public Policy), Leslimason, DaveCello, Gopman12345, Bill william compton, Buffaboy, Insommia, Mydogtryed, Wren Valmont, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, JOHNSON222, Kcwz, Cadetgray, CallidusUlixes, HaloMasterMind, Capitismedia, GnudiRicotta, Snotbot, Iamnotfine, School is fu(king borin!, Chente1989, Widr, Palmettotriumph, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Charlestonbest, Klettersteig1971, SpencerM, Corbinellington, BG19bot, Murry1975, Rlsartain,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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CharlestonFL, Rlp17, Twilson088, CharlestonSCUSA, MusikAnimal, Cecraig77, Accentman, Carlstak, Billcasey905, Glacialfox, JRMASCARIN, Lieutenant of Melkor, Clarkhills93, Nallisonskipper, BattyBot, JOHNSON19, Xela46, Farshid7, Misgoodnite, Cyberbot II, Keithkale, ChrisGualtieri, ACP2011, YFdyh-bot, TheJJJunk, Lukejohnson121, NicholaiBurton, Mogism, Jerrylahm, Makecat-bot, D55689951, Cerabot~enwiki, UsefulWikipedia, Seitzy, Aqlpswkodejifrhugty, Gooyyaoyao, Demondeachem, RookJameson, VonTayUhMod, Epicgenius, Seqqis, I am One of Many, Carolinagrrl, Magnolia677, Audrey.gall, Buddeism, Mister K. Oak, Psimon2387, DanielSerber, Lkeadle, DavidLeighEllis, DosPokemans, Ryanshrum, George8211, Maharris26, Taylor Trescott, Kgartm1185, Meganesia, TomahawkBRAWL, Coopersullivan, Billperry829, Msloewengart, Jtnewtoniii, AKS.9955, Melizabethi123, Cyannaqsxxko, KevinBRobbins, Sciophobiaranger, TerryAlex, KH-1, Jumboshrimp79, Jimmywalker1234567890, Crystallizedcarbon, MyCharleston, BD922, Charestonscnative, Soldier of the Empire, Gerald0896, Wildhorbs, Superfins08, Berlinclark, Scsu76, Ellis1960, Kenshonton75, CarrotCaker333, Supdiop, Jakesamsonite, Meluvswiki, KasparBot, Triviaguy8, Dallas S12345, Babykoala99, Gymtime101, Arbog, Rolandi+, DisuseKid, Scduiatty, BryNat93 and Anonymous: 1202 • Charleston Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston?oldid=696255981 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ellmist, Renata, Squigglybee, BRG, Radiojon, Dragons flight, Hajor, Carlossuarez46, Dale Arnett, Mervyn, Alan Liefting, TOttenville8, Bkonrad, Ravn, Kainaw, Famartin, N328KF, Acntx, Alphax, Jonathunder, Grutness, Hégésippe Cormier, Cdc, Saga City, RJFJR, Nuno Tavares, Georgia guy, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Jacobolus, Robert K S, RichardWeiss, BD2412, Dpr, Vegaswikian, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, YurikBot, Al Silonov, Jo Bo, Bota47, Thnidu, Visual77, Vanka5, Mattarata, AndreasJS, Zyxw, Gilliam, 1892 Fitch Dude, HennessyC, WeggeBot, Ken Gallager, Athyder, Thijs!bot, The Punk, JAnDbot, Avjoska, Hdt83, Cjmclark, Vanished user 342562, Cherry1000, SieBot, Trackinfo, Lauracs, TubularWorld, Niceguyedc, Auntof6, Gwguffey, Dfsghjkgfhdg, Boleyn, Bearsona, Doug butler, Leszek Jańczuk, AndersBot, Tassedethe, Zorrobot, Everyme, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, Wanghaoyu0403, Amqui, LucienBOT, DixonDBot, DexDor, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, UrbanNerd, Kevjonesin, Hondo21, UsefulWikipedia, Ultrahome, Poiuytrewqvtaatv123321, Hdfhighhju and Anonymous: 36 • North Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=700001823 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, John K, WhisperToMe, Seth Ilys, Everyking, Jason Quinn, Chowbok, SarekOfVulcan, RJHall, EurekaLott, Acntx, Giraffedata, Ommnomnomgulp, Krislyn, Richard Barlow, Tabletop, WillC, Leslie Mateus, Tedder, Jo Bo, Gadget850, Alarob, Ray Yallop, Kungfuadam, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Bluebot, Droll, Akhenaton06, Thomson200, MJCdetroit, Ligulembot, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, JzG, Potosino, General Ization, Gobonobo, Whhalbert, FairuseBot, Mellery, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Jtsears, Thijs!bot, Barek, MER-C, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, SAMbo, Jllm06, Nyttend, Ermanon, MetsBot, Islandisee, Daniel885, Dkriegls, Aladdin Sane, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Cjmclark, J.delanoy, Vanished user 342562, Katalaveno, Aboutmovies, VolkovBot, No1vickfan, TXiKiBoT, Jackfork, Ryuhaku, Synthebot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Arbor to SJ, Cdeslandes, Lightmouse, DAP384, Boofee, TheCatalyst31, ClueBot, Drmies, Parkwells, DrSerenity, Auntof6, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Alexbot, Mlaffs, Another Believer, DAP388, Frood, Cmr08, HexaChord, Jhendin, Addbot, Willking1979, RandySavageFTW, Paxuniv, Morriswa, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cdamgen, Dmarquard, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jgarbowicz, WilliamWQuick, Ulric1313, LilHelpa, Amogh Belagodu, NicotineRush, MCDD417, MCCDD417, Justthefacts92, Tghyuk, City of North Charleston, Dancoleman58, Benny White, FrescoBot, Kwiki, Sparrowhawk64, Pinethicket, Hillarin, Rossdegenstein, Hlecroy, EmausBot, John of Reading, Sctvman, Kilon22, Winner 42, Sjones503, Braveviking, Sross (Public Policy), Coycan, Jguy, ChuispastonBot, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, HaloMasterMind, BG19bot, Waskel3121, CharlestonFL, Rjohnson wiki, Lieutenant of Melkor, BattyBot, Misgoodnite, Jacmu, NicholaiBurton, Epicgenius, Magnolia677, Denlah, TheDrapocalypse, Kgartm1185, TomahawkBRAWL, Odinsburgh14, Libertarian12111971, Scsu76, Ellis1960, Thenextprez, Internegative, Lilswagg456, BryNat93, Orientalpark and Anonymous: 124 • U.S. state Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state?oldid=700048251 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, General Wesc, Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Tarquin, EdwardOConnor, BenBaker, Andre Engels, Danny, XJaM, Tsja, Yooden, Sfmontyo, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Zoe, Nonenmac, Heron, Jaknouse, Isis~enwiki, Montrealais, Tedernst, Rickyrab, Ram-Man, Leandrod, Xoder, Edward, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Zocky, DopefishJustin, Dhum Dhum, Dominus, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Wapcaplet, Mic, Dcljr, Delirium, Minesweeper, Ducker, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Theresa knott, TUF-KAT, Angela, Kingturtle, BigFatBuddha, Kimiko, Jiang, Uyanga, º¡º, Ruhrjung, Csernica, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Dwo, Jengod, Mulad, Reddi, JCarriker, Pladask, Dysprosia, PeterK~enwiki, Adoarns, Daniel Quinlan, Andrewman327, Marco Neves, WhisperToMe, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Morwen, Itai, Tempshill, SEWilco, Ed g2s, MiLo28, Nricardo, BuddhaInside, Fvw, AnonMoos, Jfruh, Pakaran, Jusjih, Hajor, JorgeGG, Jeffq, Bunk~enwiki, Rogper~enwiki, Donarreiskoffer, Branddobbe, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Friedo, KeithH, Chrism, Postdlf, Rfc1394, ZekeMacNeil, Meelar, LGagnon, Davodd, Hadal, Jpbrenna, Michael Snow, Rho~enwiki, Anthony, SoLando, Freeman6, Diberri, Cyrius, Davidcannon, Adam78, Radagast, VanishedUser kfljdfjsg33k, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Decumanus, Centrx, Dbenbenn, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Laudaka, Nichalp, Fudoreaper, Robodoc.at, Muke, Bkonrad, Jdavidb, Niteowlneils, Bovlb, Yekrats, Iceberg3k, Brockert, Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Golbez, SonicAD, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Antandrus, Beland, J3ff, Catdude, Maximaximax, Gauss, Roie m, Pmanderson, Jareha, MRSC, Tyler McHenry, Gscshoyru, Neutrality, Jcw69, Andy Christ, Karl Dickman, MementoVivere, Zondor, Jxan3000, Canterbury Tail, Ellsass, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, Jayjg, Bourquie, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Loganberry, Hydrox, Vsmith, Rupertslander, Pie4all88, Ahkond, Triskaideka, Ponder, Mammique, Bender235, Dewet, ESkog, Mateo SA, Swid, Brian0918, Piutus, Zscout370, J. Passepartout, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Tverbeek, RoyBoy, Coolcaesar, MPS, Bobo192, SickTwist, Elipongo, Adrian~enwiki, Kappa, La goutte de pluie, Pschemp, Sam Korn, Pearle, SPUI, Jumbuck, Zachlipton, Danski14, Frank101, Sommerfeld, Alansohn, Nik42, Buaidh, Free Bear, Rd232, Joshbaumgartner, Goldom, Zippanova, Mrmiscellanious~enwiki, Malo, Wtmitchell, Velella, Pioneer-12, EKMichigan, KHill-LTown, Msclguru, Ubermonkey, Dtcdthingy, Sumergocognito, Kusma, Embryomystic, YixilTesiphon, Tchaika, Deror avi, SmthManly, TShilo12, Mwalcoff, Gmaxwell, Scarykitty, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Georgia guy, MK2, Canaen, Ddye, Rameresin, Al E., Wikiklrsc, Andreac, Jon Harald Søby, Toussaint, Prashanthns, Graham87, GoldRingChip, Chunhian, SixWingedSeraph, FreplySpang, Phoenix-forgotten, Electionworld, Mayumashu, Markkawika, Koavf, Dpark, Hiberniantears, BlueMoonlet, ZanderSchubert, Funnyhat, Brighterorange, Trwier, Allycat, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, Nihiltres, Nivix, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Redwolf24, Wars, Alexjohnc3, Born2cycle, Krun, Maltmomma, Simishag, Faustus37, Vchapman, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Cornellrockey, Kaiser599, Roboto de Ajvol, Mercury McKinnon, Wavelength, Retaggio, Jcam, Sceptre, Ryz05, Paleok, RussBot, Homboy, Lincolnite, Red Slash, Pigman, Tsch81, Kirill Lokshin, RadioFan2 (usurped), Stephenb, Okedem, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, IAMTHEEGGMAN, Misos, Wiki alf, Grafen, Jerry warriner, NickBush24, Rjensen, Awiseman, R’son-W, Cleared as filed, Irishguy, Retired username, NihilisticMystic, Froth, Voidxor, Tony1, Zwobot, Syrthiss, Derek.cashman, NWill, Nlu, AjaxSmack, FF2010, 21655, Citynoise, Stilltim, Thnidu, Sotakeit, RickReinckens, Chanheigeorge, Dspradau, Livitup, GraemeL, DGaw, JoanneB, Red Jay, Aharmon1973, Chrishmt0423, Windyjarhead, Whobot, Markustwofour, Che829, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Lewis R, Ajblue98, Roke, One, Deluis, Nz17, Sardanaphalus, Intangible, SmackBot, Derek Andrews, Unschool, Herostratus, DCGeist, Imsaguy, Lagalag, NZUlysses, C.Fred, Rrius, Menah the Great, Big Adamsky, Neoballmon, “Country” Bushrod Washington, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Rune X2, Yamaguchi , Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Pzavon, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, DividedByNegativeZero, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, Ppntori, MPD01605, Kurykh, TimBentley, MK8, Bazonka, Markp6, Mensch, Baa, Coojah, Extrahitz, Sgt Pinback, Ahassan05~enwiki,

356

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

TCY, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Muzi, Awhitfie, Andy120290, Addshore, WikiTony, UU, Jmlk17, Mistamagic28, RaCha'ar, BryanG, Tanis118, Salamurai, SSTwinrova, James Allison, Esrever, Nishkid64, John, Editor19841, JohnCub, Diverman, Gnevin, IronGargoyle, Bssc81, Morten, The Goat, Special-T, Romanticcynic, MrArt, Gnozu, MrD9, Ruscrub, Darry2385, PaulGS, Levineps, Deaþe gecweald, Derekpblank, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, J Di, REexpert44, Shoreranger, CapitalR, DavidOaks, Civil Engineer III, Sedriskill, ChrisCork, Eastlaw, Heisencat, JForget, DangerousPanda, Tums, Bonás, DevinCook, Dynzmoar, Rwflammang, CWY2190, GHe, N2e, Ravensfan5252, Musicalantonio, Cydebot, Reywas92, MC10, Lukemcurley, Dk amareyui, Christian75, Optimist on the run, Supo1987, Daven200520, Corporal Punishment, JodyB, Click23, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Btball, Kentucky1333, Jonathan Headland, John254, Fame, Invitatious, CoramVobis, Flarity, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Yupik, Seaphoto, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Carolmooredc, Quintote, Jayron32, Lyricmac, Superzohar, Random user 8384993, North Shoreman, Yellowdesk, Zchris87v, CrazyPhunk, Retsopllib, Ghmyrtle, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, Mike D 26, MER-C, Awilley, Hello32020, Curious Violet, Munglepoo, Nevermore27, Ipoellet, Andonic, Xeno, Hut 8.5, DanPMK, Y2kcrazyjoker4, SteveSims, Bencherlite, Fitnr, Jevanyn, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Stuartpbrian, RBBrittain, GearedBull, Mbc362, Confiteordeo, Nyttend, WODUP, Catgut, Indon, Shocking Blue, FishUtah, BilCat, Allstarecho, Papercrab, DerHexer, JaGa, Mika293, Textorus, Pax:Vobiscum, Seba5618, Hooky6, MartinBot, IgorSF, Viralxtreme14, Grandia01, Duncan7670, Alice Street, Rettetast, Anaxial, Protophobic, Fethers, Mschel, R'n'B, Njcraig, AlexiusHoratius, JBC3, J.delanoy, Weatherman16, Trusilver, UBeR, Uncle Dick, Mike Winters, Guilherme Paula, Jerry, Gurchzilla, Wikiwopbop, Knight of BAAWA, NewEnglandYankee, Danr2k6, Flatterworld, Student7, Miskwito, KylieTastic, Treisijs, Packerfan386, Bonadea, Rfritch, RVJ, Ja 62, Andy Marchbanks, Useight, TheodoreLarson, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Speciate, Lrdwhyt, Sam Blacketer, Deor, VolkovBot, Castle doc, CWii, Fbifriday, Hippymac, Dave Andrew, Soliloquial, Ryan032, CameronPG, Kojones, TXiKiBoT, Bbik, SeanNovack, Corticopia, Harbir93, Frog47, JayC, Wiendietry~enwiki, Laragua999, Martin451, Mitth'raw'nuruodo, Cab2891, Merijn2, Everything counts, Maxim, FFMG, Gavingreene1988, Madhero88, Uannis~enwiki, Mouse is back, Jeparsley, Inx272, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Tom2we, Insanity Incarnate, Entirelybs, UncleMontezuma, Vera from upstairs, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Antboy221192, Neal grosskopf, Aqwfyj, Obaidz96, SieBot, K. Annoyomous, Tresiden, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Euryalus, Dawn Bard, Purbo T, Connorhalsell, Keilana, Bentogoa, Oda Mari, Jamiepgs, JSpung, Ayudante, Rob1315, Antonio Lopez, Baseball Bugs, Lightmouse, Techman224, Hobartimus, Fock Yeah Seaking, Kumioko (renamed), Coldcreation, BRJensen, Hubertfarnsworth, Archons, Realm of Shadows, Dabomb87, Nn123645, Jimmy Slade, Vmanjr, Furado, Atif.t2, Ratemonth, ClueBot, LAX, Timeineurope, Awg1010, Ajithinfobase, Worobiew, The Thing That Should Not Be, R000t, WDavis1911, Tomaird, Mild Bill Hiccup, Polyamorph, SuperHamster, IRAQ IS KILLING USA, SandyyOmmmSteff, MARKELLOS, Blanchardb, The 888th Avatar, Trivialist, 9-11 suicide bomber, CrazyLuca, Thomassz, DragonBot, Souseiseki42, Canis Lupus, Jusdafax, Goodone121, Electrobe, The Assistrat, Coinmanj, Ice Cold Beer, CPacker, LarryMorseDCOhio, Tnxman307, Botsjeh, Matt T2, Apollo Gilgamesh, BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, Teleomatic, Smarkflea, Goodvac, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Jovianeye, Seablade, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Blast Ulna, SignalheadSucks, Mr. IP, Alfredo012345, HexaChord, Thomasalazar, Addbot, Roentgenium111, Elemented9, Some jerk on the Internet, Dorksrwhales777, The Twenty Thousand Tonne Bomb, Mabdul, Binary TSO, James1218, Concept album, Morriswa, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, Leszek Jańczuk, Fluffernutter, Mac Dreamstate, Noozgroop, NjardarBot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Download, LaaknorBot, Glane23, Lihaas, Uncia, AndersBot, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Amjsjc, Alanscottwalker, Xlonz, Caveman80, R3ap3R, Tide rolls, Packinheat2u, Etihwselyob, Zorrobot, MuZemike, Jarble, HerculeBot, ErinBabes-x, Frehley, Papasmurf0810, Luckas-bot, VengeancePrime, Brookiewookie1996, Legobot II, Erledez, Amirobot, The Original Historygeek, Nallimbot, Markdavid001, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Rubinbot, Galoubet, 90, Graham5571, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Brightgalrs, ChristianH, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Night w, Khajidha, Jeffrey Mall, YBG, Sionk, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Alumnum, Olivewildes, ProtectionTaggingBot, Frankie0607, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Amaury, Drdpw, Moxy, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, Moby-Dick3000, A.amitkumar, Who then was a gentleman?, Paine Ellsworth, Darkskynet, Lucas Duke, Recognizance, Edge3, Mistakefinder, TheVirginiaHistorian, Doremo, Pja1981, Javert, Ahnoneemoos, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, A1b2b3y4, RedBot, Basscabass, Doodlecant, Bgpaulus, Keri, Tim1357, Jerchel, Dinamik-bot, Begoon, Bluefist, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Saidolim.Oromzod, TjBot, Alph Bot, Pie=pies, Myownworst, NerdyScienceDude, Ionut Cojocaru, Dc1374, Steve03Mills, Muslim Wookie, 3-5 file, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Charlesaaronthompson, Gfoley4, I'm with Coco, Pr cuajon, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Gwillhickers, Justin(History), Solarra, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Tanner Swett, Ponydepression, Illegitimate Barrister, Lefthandedgenius, Shuipzv3, 2sc945, Michaelenandry, Unreal7, Hummer293, SporkBot, Professor Storyteller, Wayne Slam, David J Johnson, Android5000, Jsayre64, Rcsprinter123, KarasuGamma, L Kensington, RedSoxFan274, Donner60, Sailsbystars, Sgoldman10, AlexR.L., Carmichael, Smartie2thaMaxXx, Forever Dusk, TYelliot, Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, Markinboone, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Movses-bot, Brauden, Lord Roem, TopoChecker, Doh5678, Frietjes, Hazhk, Marechal Ney, Bobbyb373, CopperSquare, Joel B. Lewis, Widr, Crohall, Proudemon333, IgnorantArmies, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Markw249, Calidum, Thunter1125, Uneek9000, Doorknob747, Murry1975, Baqeri1, Snaevar-bot, CityOfSilver, Ceradon, HIDECCHI001, AvocatoBot, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, Cadiomals, BleHailey, Applebitemak, Klilidiplomus, Astros4477, Wannabemodel, Rizwanasghar1776, Aboobinabra, Adelsverein, Tutelary, Darylgolden, Marjamrob, Hghyux, Dawn Eastwood, Arcandam, EuroCarGT, Garrett 24, Dexbot, Caabhisek, Scholarly Breeze, Lugia2453, Jamesx12345, Zziccardi, Stepojevac, Mattzalaw, Buzity, Rob984, Sɛvɪnti faɪv, Redd Foxx 1991, Kostas Limniatis, Msundqvist, Crice88, DavidLeighEllis, QPT, Southparkfan, Glisfton, My name is not dave, Bronx Discount Liquor, MaryBarakatATL, Paul2520, AbelM7, Runandnottire, DudeWithAFeud, Konveyor Belt, MrMan712, Denboy Kad, Benshokrypton, Ian3060, Akuradani, Trackteur, ConquerorWM, Joebobbillie123, Toypuddle, 1234asd, Dandem1, Shuterson, Cowlord12, Swag.random.changes.guy, Joseisabella, Some Gadget Geek, Fhritpdude, ToonLucas22, Frdylss, Findoutter, Cyborg the Wikipedian, MB298, Tahwikilink, Chrononem, Rishidugar and Anonymous: 1108 • South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina?oldid=700048099 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, Trimalchio, BenBaker, Greg Lindahl, Danny, Sfmontyo, William Avery, Zoe, Richhill, Heron, Jinian, Edward, Vik-Thor, D, Wapcaplet, Paul A, Minesweeper, Goatasaur, Tregoweth, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, TUF-KAT, Suisui, Darkwind, LouI, Rossami, Deisenbe, John K, Jengod, Adam Bishop, RickK, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Tedius Zanarukando, Fuzheado, Mendor, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Steinsky, SatyrTN, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Morwen, ZeWrestler, Ed g2s, Phoebe, MiLo28, Quoth-22, Jeeves, Pollinator, Carbuncle, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Misterrick, KeithH, Domaindesign, Greudin, Romanm, Chris Roy, Postdlf, Meelar, Caknuck, Catbar, Mushroom, Lupo, Radagast, Alexwcovington, Geeoharee, Jrquinlisk, Everyking, Alison, Michael Devore, Varlaam, Rick Block, Robert Bruce Livingston, Golbez, Explendido Rocha, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Utcursch, Keith Edkins, Yardcock, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Beland, Boone, CaribDigita, Oneiros, Cb6, JimWae, Balcer, Saopaulo1, Zfr, Neutrality, Joyous!, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Mike Rosoft, D6, Dufekin, ChrisRuvolo, Stepp-Wulf, Moverton, Discospinster, Guanabot, Cfailde, Vsmith, Autiger, Ericamick, BenPharr, Ahkond, Thepedestrian, Bender235, Zdv, Evice, Mind the gap, CanisRufus, Zscout370, MBisanz, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Art LaPella, Bastique, Bobo192, Circeus, Illuvatar,, Smalljim, Clarkbhm, Pyramide~enwiki, JW1805, Vystrix Nexoth, La goutte de pluie, DCEdwards1966, Runner1928, Maxl, Polylerus, Mareino, A2Kafir, BSveen, Danski14, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Buaidh, Pollanen~enwiki, Arthena, Queson, Craigy144, Cjthellama, AzaToth, Magnum Serpentine, Fritzpoll, TommyBoy, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Cburnett, Ducatista~enwiki, Evil Monkey, Ayequeue, Birdmessenger, Drbreznjev, Prattflora~enwiki, Scooterh, SmthManly, Dennis Bratland, Oleg Alexandrov, Nuno Tavares,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Angr, Woohookitty, DarthParadox, WadeSimMiser, Matijap, MONGO, Jerkmonster, Tabletop, CryptoStorm, WestonWyse, Jhortman, D0t, Palica, Emerson7, Youngamerican, Graham87, BD2412, DJ Silverfish, BorgHunter, Jkatzen, Casey Abell, Sjö, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Jweiss11, Attitude2000, Jivecat, Cribbswh, Funnyhat, ElKevbo, Boccobrock, Durin, FayssalF, Qqqqqq, FlaBot, Ground Zero, McPhail, WillC, Mark Sublette, Skillz187, RexNL, Gurch, Wars, Goudzovski, Tedder, BradBeattie, Mcy919, Idaltu, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Evilphoenix, DVdm, Knife Knut, Bgwhite, Simesa, Therefore, Banaticus, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Whoisjohngalt, RobotE, Jcam, RussBot, MoriyaMug, Epolk, Danaimband, SpuriousQ, Wikispork, Locke411, RadioFan2 (usurped), Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Shkarter1985, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Swollib, Bachrach44, Welsh, DSYoungEsq, Rjensen, Howcheng, Midnite Critic, CrazyC83, Ruhrfisch, RL0919, RUL3R, Misza13, Garrepi, Tony1, Crazyleaper, Jo Bo, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Cinik, Elkman, Caerwine, Nlu, Wknight94, AjaxSmack, Sandstein, Maximusveritas, Deville, Homagetocatalonia, Barnegat, Lt-wiki-bot, Ninly, Pb30, Little Savage, GraemeL, Aeon1006, Ray Yallop, Iwalters, Realkyhick, Whobot, ArielGold, RunOrDie, Whouk, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, RG2, Radar1, GrinBot~enwiki, Alsharine, Samuel Blanning, BlueChainsawMan, Jettoki, Coldbourne, West Virginian, Jackturner3, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Pwt898, YellowMonkey, Hux, Pfly, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Pgk, C.Fred, Bomac, Davewild, EncycloPetey, Delldot, Eskimbot, Fishing, ProveIt, Opinoso, Gjs238, Kintetsubuffalo, Aivazovsky, Timotheus Canens, Swerdnaneb, HalfShadow, Moebuggy, ElAmericano, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Finduilas 09, Quidam65, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Mirokado, Chwatuva, Vorticity, Achmelvic, Clemson3564, Lollerskates, MalafayaBot, Timneu22, SchfiftyThree, Droll, Deli nk, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Dual Freq, Dtoddmiller, Verrai, GoodDay, John Reaves, RPhillips, AllanJenkins, Ahassan05~enwiki, Akhenaton06, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, EaglesFanInTampa, JimIrwin, AussieLegend, MJCdetroit, Uviolet, Jajhill, Rrburke, Chruck, VMS Mosaic, Andy120290, SundarBot, DIDouglass, Jmlk17, MrRadioGuy, TedE, DantheCowMan, MrPMonday, Dreadstar, J3warner, EdGl, Sonofaque86, RichAromas, Cheeda777, NeilFraser, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Brockmanah, BenH, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Chazchaz101, Soap, John, Chappell007, Tye101, Accurizer, Minna Sora no Shita, NongBot~enwiki, Thegreatdr, UP Spartan, Ckatz, JHunterJ, Slakr, Matt Kurz, PRRfan, Mac McLean, SandyGeorgia, Bookofsecrets, RichardF, Sifaka, Hu12, Djharrity, Levineps, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Skapur, 10014derek, Walton One, Manticore2442, Turbokoala, Alex122188, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Nkayesmith, Uva185, Jonathanjohnson, Bertport, JoannaSerah, Tawkerbot2, Eastlaw, Phillip J, CmdrObot, David s graff, Lavateraguy, Pekinpekin, SupaStarGirl, Eric, CWY2190, NickW557, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot, TheTito, Socially Isolated Hamster, Ken Gallager, Karenjc, Whereizben, YellowPigNowNow, Tej2525, Aaru Bui, Slazenger, Cydebot, Gamecock, Njlincolnlion, Mblumber, Reywas92, MC10, Aflewis, Mato, SyntaxError55, Pstuart84, Gogo Dodo, TicketMan, Khatru2, Dianemain, Eu.stefan, Caliga10, Sadharan, Mooseofshadows, Shers7, BenStorer, Kozuch, Supo1987, SpK, Daven200520, Hbah427, Gimmetrow, Spyder Monkey, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Ante Aikio, Kablammo, N5iln, Magiddens, Marek69, John254, Horologium, Tellyaddict, DanTD, JustAGal, Dfrg.msc, NigelR, John A. 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Snodgrass, Imaon1, Fieldday-sunday, GD 6041, Larry Yuma, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Fluffernutter, NjardarBot, Download, LaaknorBot, A State Of Trance, Google.se, Sciway, Debresser, Buddha24, XRK, Favonian, SpBot, Zara-arush, SamatBot, Chemtiger05, Bostit, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Konstantinos~enwiki, Dayewalker, Myk60640, Kasjanek21, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Annasweetie1, Lightbot, Krano, Nuberger13, Arbitrarily0, Simon J Kissane, CountryBot, Jtdalton3, PennySpender1983, Cchow2, LuK3, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Broadmoor, Bunnyhop11, Ptbotgourou, KingScreamer, NEICenergy, ChristianPolishman, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, Evans1982, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, Gongshow, Jedi310, IW.HG, Cdamgen, Tempodivalse, Bility, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, Kapat, Winterface, Rubinbot, Bacondero, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Carolina Joe, Ncpd727, Ulric1313, Cockjuggler, Flewis, Materialscientist, Citation bot, OllieFury, Ronewirl, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lerriklo, Khajidha, Renaissancee, APS303, DSisyphBot, Jmundo, Locos epraix, Jross2799, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Immgcom, J04n, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Frosted14, 13ddas, Rho421, Omnipaedista, LottsoLuck, RibotBOT, Carrite, Deayah, Doulos Christos, TwinCityIL, GhalyBot, Moxy, Chrisf122, Reyellogreeblu, Lochelj2, Hornymanatee, Andrew Demeary, A.amitkumar, Haldraper, Hushpuckena, RUClimate, Sully-

358

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

boy204, FrescoBot, Tobby72, ColtWindstorm, Laralkaufmann, Lucas Duke, ProfReader, Steve Quinn, Hhagirl08-15, Weetoddid, Chiliad22, Bejammie, Joe285, Citation bot 1, Elgrigg, DeWriterMD, Pinethicket, Elockid, HRoestBot, Abductive, Basketballdjmoore, Alonso de Mendoza, Hayden thomas, Jonesey95, Mcgotime, Enaidowain, Sl4ward, MastiBot, Serols, Σ, Bobjones999, Cmguy777, Wickedsweetcake, Jauhienij, Cnwilliams, Tim1357, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, Baltshazzar, D climacus, Rupert1904, Lotje, Javierito92, Exagon, Myersfa, Extra999, Jultemplet, Jhenderson777, Tiled, Tbhotch, TheOnewithblueeyes, Fry1989, Angelickidd777, Rossdegenstein, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Milaan28, Mean as custard, Hlecroy, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Bhawani Gautam, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, Skamecrazy123, Ectothermsrock, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Pjposullivan, Immunize, Gfoley4, Super48paul, GoingBatty, RA0808, Guido-rdstephen, Jhrussell49, Balzac.0, Dustbunny007, Mfmcdonnell, Bam6285, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, P. S. F. Freitas, RevolveMaster, Dmm09e, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Alleman2, Fdr2001, Tom-L, Former user 20140220, Jessierenew, Access Denied, Hillst2, Aeonx, H3llBot, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Highvale, Rcsprinter123, Sross (Public Policy), Superdollar, Brandmeister, SkyHarborBarnacle, L Kensington, Donner60, SBaker43, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, MicrosoftInc., Zombiecowlizz, Mydogtryed, 8strong, Paul jeanmougin, KarlsenBot, DASHBotAV, Slimepot636, ClueBot NG, JRF13productions, VinculumMan, ATX-NL, MelbourneStar, Cadetgray, BarrelProof, Macberg9797, Asa Miller, HaloMasterMind, Snotbot, Underworldtm314, Iamnotfine, HomeSchooled97, Frietjes, CopperSquare, Widr, WikiPuppies, Chitt66, Sandiann, Palingop2012, North Atlanticist Usonian, Mightymights, Smit179, Weatherman78, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, Calidum, Calabe1992, Cbrick77, WNYY98, BZTMPS, BG19bot, Nostalgiacritic, Quarkgluonsoup, Kndimov, Kkaveh88, Tolea93, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Amp71, Compfreak7, RebeccaVaughn, Neruk, Snow Blizzard, Billcasey905, PC1996, Codiesvw74, Leonmatt29, Jjblt137, Barryjjoyce, Bryan.Xon, Sctobacco, ThePoofer15, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Ekren, Stumink, Allenga201, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Eyeoftheocean, Sk8terguy27, SFK2, Arrandizonee, TheSkiRacer, Jake12345678, Ripple8314, Purpleoranges407, Mrluvaluva31, Vanamonde93, Cbs527, Akaor, Cryx88, Dillonalexander, Jackpotlexi, Kinteharrison, Cool- -boy20, Cpiazentine, Leoesb1032, Kharkiv07, Ginsuloft, RainCity471, Theycallmekarl, 636Buster, Kgartm1185, TomahawkBRAWL, Zyas1, Centromax, Billhall2, The kimchi with no name, ColRad85, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, RafaPaiva, Smithysmith1, Jmc2300, GinAndChronically, Xoegki, Abstrac, Scarlettail, Bubalis, TheQ Editor, Calvingabor, AtLeastJeffersonLives, Monopoly31121993, Noshblu, Lolsadness, Ash2hxc, Larrystylinson2, Whysoserious666, Josetoom, Parker ts, KH-1, Supr chik 97, Crystallizedcarbon, Doctor No9, CalvinBeza, Leogebbia, Oddaaron00, Samuel1498, Lucas559, Jacksummers6487, Bossmaninacan1234, DashWinglet123, OzarksRazorback, Ks schuster, Emsen w, Rushilcs, KasparBot, Rayvay, Hermionedidallthework, Mizzou1993, WikipediaismadebypeoplelikeM78E, Ninjawikiminecraft23, Lmstuffs, BryNat93, Militaryhousing and Anonymous: 1727 • Charleston Harbor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Harbor?oldid=682808185 Contributors: Pollinator, D6, Stephen G. Brown, Kmusser, Jonathanjohnson, CmdrObot, Floridasand, Wildhartlivie, Jllm06, Animum, Milo03, Berean Hunter, Addbot, PennySpender1983, Yobot, Amirobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Xqbot, DrilBot, Gwillhickers, GnudiRicotta and Anonymous: 4 • Ashley River (South Carolina) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_River_(South_Carolina)?oldid=692026232 Contributors: Malo, Op47b, Allen3, Tydaj, Pedriana, Howcheng, BL Lacertae, Kmusser, That Guy, From That Show!, Pfly, Gjs238, Hmains, Bluebot, Beetstra, The Anomebot2, Vchimpanzee, Flyer22 Reborn, Zosomm90, Yobot, Ianmccor, Hushpuckena, Cnwilliams, Bigbear213, Castiron72 and Anonymous: 8 • Cooper River (South Carolina) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper_River_(South_Carolina)?oldid=677271436 Contributors: Sertrel, Nv8200pa, Pollinator, Meelar, Michael Devore, Kainaw, Karl Dickman, Discospinster, Jonathunder, JoaoRicardo, Spangineer, Malo, Ttownfeen, Kingsean1, Wdyoung, Tydaj, Knife Knut, Elminster~enwiki, Awiseman, Lockesdonkey, BL Lacertae, Kmusser, Pfly, Reedy, Gjs238, Hmains, Bluebot, Stubblyhead, Colonies Chris, Tim Pierce, Valfontis, Jamesonellis, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, STBot, Willia4, Scgatorfan, Hobie642, MathDame, Pickypedic, Jesse V., Charlestonbest, Cébaco and Anonymous: 18 • Berkeley County, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_County%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=678519646 Contributors: Jaknouse, Ram-Man, Rambot, Jacquerie27, Owen, D6, Guanabot, CanisRufus, Cg41386, Acntx, Giraffedata, Pearle, Nneonneo, Leslie Mateus, Wavelength, Lincolnite, Jo Bo, Gadget850, Avraham, AshyLarry, SmackBot, Gilliam, Colonies Chris, Sgt Pinback, Smallbones, Backspace, Omnedon, Hu12, WilliamJE, JoannaSerah, HennessyC, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Emeraldcityserendipity, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, Islandisee, MKS, Numbo3, Paris1127, Rocketmaniac, PlanitTide, Phantomksu, GrahamHardy, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Ronmore, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Wedg~enwiki, Monegasque, Benea, Lightmouse, Kumioko (renamed), Hubertfarnsworth, PipepBot, Parkwells, Detroiterbot, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, Cmr08, Jbishop19, Addbot, Maneec, FireMedic1806, Hyperfast, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, DemocraticLuntz, Ulric1313, Amzh20, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Louperibot, Worldenc, AXRL, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Sjones503, Matt shoe, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, Jamesyons, YFdyh-bot, Mheuchert, Kennethaw88, Sarr Cat and Anonymous: 25 • Charleston County, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=696146170 Contributors: Jaknouse, Ram-Man, Rambot, LouI, WhisperToMe, Postdlf, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, CanisRufus, Mwanner, Acntx, RyanGerbil10, BD2412, Ichabod, WillC, Leslie Mateus, Tedder, Zwobot, Jo Bo, Gadget850, Avraham, AshyLarry, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Dnparker, Ohnoitsjamie, Colonies Chris, Sgt Pinback, Smallbones, Backspace, Omnedon, Hu12, HennessyC, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Worker31b, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, CommonsDelinker, Numbo3, KudzuVine, GrahamHardy, VolkovBot, Station1, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, JhsBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Yintan, Wedg~enwiki, Monegasque, Lightmouse, Hubertfarnsworth, ClueBot, Wysprgr2005, Mild Bill Hiccup, Parkwells, 718 Bot, Detroiterbot, Arjayay, Addbot, Hyperfast, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Charleston85, DemocraticLuntz, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, D'ohBot, TobeBot, Worldenc, AXRL, Alph Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, AvicAWB, Sjones503, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, Widr, Bubbag11, YFdyh-bot, Epicgenius, Kennethaw88, 636Buster, Kgartm1185, Backplane, KH-1, Sarr Cat, MB298, BryNat93 and Anonymous: 46 • Dorchester County, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorchester_County%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=678519712 Contributors: Jaknouse, Ram-Man, Rambot, WhisperToMe, HangingCurve, D6, Guanabot, CanisRufus, Acntx, Pearle, Isnow, Leslie Mateus, Gadget850, AshyLarry, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Gilliam, MalafayaBot, Sgt Pinback, Smallbones, Omnedon, Hu12, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Bsmith8259, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, Islandisee, CommonsDelinker, Numbo3, Rocketmaniac, Phantomksu, GrahamHardy, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, JhsBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Wedg~enwiki, Unbuttered Parsnip, Detroiterbot, Addbot, Hyperfast, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Regroce, DemocraticLuntz, 90, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Justthefacts92, D'ohBot, Louperibot, TobeBot, Worldenc, Alph Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, Widr, CharlestonFL, Keon Milton, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Kennethaw88, Sarr Cat and Anonymous: 15 • West Ashley Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Ashley?oldid=694429746 Contributors: Bearcat, Grutness, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, LadyofShalott, NMChico24, Bobaubin, Swac, The Anomebot2, MartinBot, Revwarboy, Pubdog, Lightmouse, Boofee, Toddbarwick, Cantbeatpie, Eyecantspel, Icbmman, Lightbot, Yobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Cdamgen, Ulric1313, Crystal whacker, Humicroav, PigFlu Oink, Cnwilliams, Tim1357, AngelaF1770, CharlestonFL, Lkeadle and Anonymous: 42

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359

• Johns Island, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Island%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=696852255 Contributors: Docu, Centrx, D6, Vsmith, Longhair, SidP, Paraphelion, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Kralizec!, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, UkPaolo, Wavelength, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Sct72, Backspace, Seduisant, RFD, JohnMetta, Spiel, Hu12, LadyofShalott, Jonathanjohnson, Kevin Murray, DeLarge, Ken Gallager, Magioladitis, Redline2200, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, White 720, KylieTastic, Niceley, Alexissadler, Pubdog, Auntof6, LilRoddy, Jonjames1986, Kumachan, MariaMitchell, Addbot, Morriswa, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Arondello, Jrhuva99, PigFlu Oink, DrilBot, ZéroBot, Bxj, Snotbot, PaintedCarpet, Clarkhills93, Captain Chad Hayes, Wabrrett48473, Cerabot~enwiki, Sjhinso, Taylor Trescott, Coopersullivan, Charestonscnative, Jacobdaun, Linda l berry and Anonymous: 41 • James Island (South Carolina) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island_(South_Carolina)?oldid=693677218 Contributors: LouI, DocWatson42, DJac75, Neutrality, ClementSeveillac, SidP, Valentinejoesmith, Funnyhat, Theodork, Arichnad, Retired username, Tierce, SmackBot, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Kurykh, Backspace, Tye101, Ennazus1, Graysonanna, Peter Horn, PKT, JamesAM, Miller17CU94, Chelson1956, Worker31b, Jllm06, Islandisee, FisherQueen, Zrvolous, Spankmeplease, Portia327, Sclrheum, CrazyChemGuy, Kumachan, Icbmman, Lightbot, Ben Ben, OlYeller21, Everwatchful, Graplazorn, Streetlaw, Wiki Ed 539, Midas02, ClueBot NG, WHOKNOWSALL, Coopersullivan, JIsurfer and Anonymous: 35 • Daniel Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Island?oldid=684169400 Contributors: Infrogmation, Bearcat, Grutness, Dismas, CambridgeBayWeather, BL Lacertae, NeilN, SmackBot, Hmains, Backspace, William levin, CmdrObot, Spyder Monkey, Mattisse, LittleOldMe, Jllm06, Hightide13, The Anomebot2, Cjwrite, Lightmouse, Mild Bill Hiccup, Danielisland, Boleyn, Diddlyman2004, Cmr08, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Hoopsman39, Amzh20, Julied0421, This lousy T-shirt, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ejsoccer21, Clarkhills93, Cwobeel, MermaidWiki, Lkeadle, TLTheiss, Connwd, Toni daniell, Freegucci1999, Soheyr and Anonymous: 24 • Wando River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wando_River?oldid=613821371 Contributors: Kmusser, Pfly, Hmains, Newyorkbrad, Ken Gallager, The Br3, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Animum, Lightmouse, Batcheese, Rangasyd and Anonymous: 1 • Stono River Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stono_River?oldid=650235863 Contributors: Centrx, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Axeman89, Kmusser, Hmains, Jonathanjohnson, Kevin Murray, Myasuda, The Anomebot2, Uncle Dick, Jeeny, Parkwells, Hushpuckena, PigFlu Oink, DrilBot, Tim1357, Allenga201 and Anonymous: 2 • Hurricane Hugo Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Hugo?oldid=693450139 Contributors: PierreAbbat, Hephaestos, AntonioMartin, Ubiquity, Ahoerstemeier, Pakaran, Pollinator, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Takinc, Cyrius, HangingCurve, Jfdwolff, Golbez, Utcursch, Antandrus, Paddyez, D6, Moverton, Rich Farmbrough, Buntz, Bender235, Violetriga, Remember, Evolauxia, Polylerus, Honeycake, Alansohn, Lord Pistachio, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Woohookitty, Jdorje, E. Brown, WadeSimMiser, Tabletop, Bkwillwm, Btyner, Behun, Chenxlee, Vary, Tcwd, Ligulem, Yamamoto Ichiro, WillC, Brendan Moody, Jaraalbe, Kummi, TexasAndroid, Monkeyfeet, LittleSmall~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, RattleMan, NickBush24, Thiseye, CrazyC83, Tony1, Nate1481, Dbfirs, TransUtopian, Holderca1, Likwidshoe, Hurricanehink, Davidals, Iwalters, Byrdiecj, Crystallina, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Mscuthbert, Zonder, Eskimbot, Sam8, Mkieper, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Quidam65, Hmains, Jamie C, Bluebot, Good kitty~enwiki, Mitchazenia, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Miquonranger03, Bluquail, Colonies Chris, A. B., Verrai, Lionheart Omega, Storm05, Echtoran, Mtmelendez, Nummymuffin, Kukini, Rory096, Doug Bell, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Molerat, Kheldar2002, J 1982, Thegreatdr, CapeVerdeWave, Pobbie Rarr, Alex122188, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Ldukes, Omni ND, JForget, Exwhysee, Rodneysmall, Runningonbrains, CWY2190, Mpete510, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Spyder Monkey, Thijs!bot, Qwyrxian, Headbomb, Marek69, Jtm12180, JustAGal, Miller17CU94, Palmetto1968, AntiVandalBot, 11tas, Myanw, EECavazos, Inks.LWC, Jrhoadley, VeronicaPR, Ipoellet, Vgmaster, Acroterion, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Rami R, Matt.smart, Zardoz89, ChasYoshi, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Mrhsj, Plasticup, Cg2916, Juliancolton, RJASE1, Hugo999, ABF, RingtailedFox, Philip Trueman, Sparkzy, DebraHoney, B Pete, Qxz, Slysplace, Copper20, Michaeldsuarez, Vchimpanzee, Twooars, Sue Rangell, Megsy56, RJaguar3, XCoalChamber, Toddst1, Fratrep, Denisarona, Invertzoo, WikipedianMarlith, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Dylan620, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, Arunsingh16, Anonymous101, Jusdafax, PixelBot, JeffBillman, RenamedUser jaskldjslak901, Darren23, Responder, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Citm2000, Cyclonebiskit, Addbot, Morriswa, 15lsoucy, Cst17, Alexaduh, StoneCold89, Frmatt, Legobot, Yobot, 12george1, Plasticbot, Krypto98, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Yogiboris, Emaconsul, HurricaneSpin, EBohan, Downpath, Rager56, Wonderworld1995268, WTVJ6, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Citation bot 1, Indyandnorbert, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, TheAustinMan, Curtis23, Mercy11, Viennaiswaiting, Hlecroy, Updatehelper, Undescribed, John of Reading, Medicalcdl, Skyy Train, Lou1986, Strange Passerby, Vladwin, Atk2259725, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, September 1988, Gardyloo2, ClueBot NG, Ryder Busby, O.Koslowski, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, STO12, Moowgly, Hurricanefan25, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, TheCrashBandicoot, IPhonehurricane95, Plmnji, Cyberbot II, Chakangsye, Doberman52, Alexgrim, BDE1982, Ponies89, Mikefordwrites, Level C, Chuckinator5000, WxBot, Ginsuloft, Manul, Liz, Typhoon2013, JaconaFrere, Library Guy, DarwinIvey, Monkbot, JOWEE849, The Sonic1991, H.thomas.atkinson7, Damianfffqfffaff, KasparBot and Anonymous: 351 • Mount Pleasant, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pleasant%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=698203013 Contributors: Ram-Man, Edward, Rambot, Sertrel, Seth Ilys, Everyking, Phe, Ukexpat, Trafton, D6, Jayjg, KevinBot, Acntx, Giraffedata, Pearle, John Cardinal, WadeSimMiser, Rjwilmsi, Bubba73, Bgwhite, RussBot, Tenebrae, Zwobot, Gadget850, Ray Yallop, Curpsbotunicodify, Crunch, SmackBot, Olorin28, Gjs238, Hmains, Kiela2, Colonies Chris, Sgt Pinback, MJCdetroit, Huon, Ligulembot, Syrcatbot, JHunterJ, Boyarty, WilliamJE, Civil Engineer III, JoannaSerah, JohnCD, Denysmonroe81, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Thijs!bot, Volucris, Dawnseeker2000, RoMo37, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, LongBay, Chris9450, Jllm06, Windhamdavid, Nyttend, KConWiki, Animum, MetsBot, WikiVulcan, R'n'B, Cjmclark, Nono64, Adavidb, Juliancolton, VolkovBot, Jeff G., Philip Trueman, Law Lord, Bms4880, Ryuhaku, Uopmegabytes, PGWG, SieBot, Yintan, Pubdog, Tuckpres81, Lightmouse, Parkwells, 718 Bot, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Brokenbydesire, DumZiBoT, TimTay, Cmr08, Jhendin, Addbot, Paper Luigi, Morriswa, Msilgals, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DemocraticLuntz, Hoopsman39, Piano non troppo, SandlapperTwo, Jmundo, Trut-h-urts man, Littlehandegan, Justthefacts92, Chrisavera, Full-date unlinking bot, Rupert1904, Gulbenk, Ammodramus, Islander843, Rossdegenstein, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Logical Fuzz, Onel5969, Bossanoven, Princessedit, EmausBot, Mitch504, Carolinaedits, Tommy2010, H3llBot, SporkBot, Taueres, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, HaloMasterMind, Encycloshave, BollMe, Netrunners, Misgoodnite, Gierens, Danpils, Makecat-bot, Btcsc, Archiebunker2013, Lkeadle, American Money, Kgartm1185, KH-1, Warrior5champ, Jichsjerks, Grizzlynation843, Franklyn.issac and Anonymous: 130 • Summerville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summerville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=693374576 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Ijon, John K, Seth Ilys, Bensaccount, Beland, JimWae, Discospinster, Acntx, Celzrro, Rjwilmsi, Daderot, Tedder, Ptcruiser393, Wimt, Gadget850, ScottFish, Closedmouth, JLaTondre, Kungfuadam, SmackBot, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Bluebot, Hyenaste, WilliamJE, Az1568, Billy Hathorn, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Omicronpersei8, Mentifisto, Yonatan, Epeefleche, Worker31b, LongBay, Aslkdjfa, Jllm06, Nyttend, Islandisee, Edward321, Wdflake, B. Wolterding, Mschel, Johnpacklambert, AntiSpamBot, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Bleaney, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Grover173, Trexsandwich, CounterVandalismBot,

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CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

DAP379, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Muro Bot, Lord Cornwallis, Biturica, DAP388, Summervilledream, Cmr08, MystBot, Addbot, Morriswa, Lightbot, Nuberger13, Zorrobot, Xenobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Bill Ladd, Regroce, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Who then was a gentleman?, Rjessica27, Citation bot 1, Full-date unlinking bot, SporkBot, Donner60, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, Crumpet94941, CharlestonFL, MusikAnimal, CAWylie, Klpope, Therealjharness, Mogism, Makecat-bot, MindofMusse, Lkeadle, Osbornege, Kgartm1185, JaconaFrere, Tessaddison, Wmres00021, Lisa3114, DJMejorada, Wikideleter1445 and Anonymous: 80 • Moncks Corner, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moncks_Corner%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=693969363 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Pollinator, Robbot, Seth Ilys, KevinBot, Aranel, Acntx, John Cardinal, FlaBot, Daderot, Ahunt, Rwalker, SmackBot, Gilliam, Hmains, Jamie C, Bluebot, RFD, WilliamJE, HennessyC, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, JustAGal, Eleuther, LongBay, RBBrittain, Jllm06, Nyttend, Islandisee, RoboMaxCyberSem, VolkovBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Shoneinc, Pubdog, Arbor to SJ, Parkwells, Solar-Wind, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, WutFR, XLinkBot, MarmadukePercy, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, 12george1, DemocraticLuntz, Xqbot, Westwill17, I dream of horses, EmausBot, SporkBot, Digitaldistortion, Henderson1975, KurtWags3, Coopersullivan, Etonmessisthebest, Scarlettail, WikiOriginal-9, 704TheCity, Buhnux and Anonymous: 30 • Timeline of Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid= 696602344 Contributors: Acad Ronin, Tim!, Colonies Chris, Cydebot, PamD, Parkwells, SchreiberBike, Yobot, M2545, , BattyBot, Mogism, Sjhinso, Libertarian12111971, Poiuytrewqvtaatv123321, DisuseKid and Anonymous: 1 • History of Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid= 698681015 Contributors: Stismail, Discospinster, Darwinek, Woohookitty, Ketiltrout, Pleiotrop3, TexasAndroid, Welsh, Rjensen, Gilliam, Hmains, Iridescent, Aodhdubh, JustAGal, Nick Number, Floridasand, Dawnseeker2000, KConWiki, Belgrade18, R'n'B, Piperh, AusJeb, Ks0stm, Niceguyedc, MarmadukePercy, CanadianLinuxUser, Yobot, Magicpiano, Cdamgen, LilHelpa, Coretheapple, Tobby72, M2545, Pinethicket, Aoidh, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, SpencerM, Chess, The Illusive Man, Khazar2, UsefulWikipedia, Telfordbuck, Libertarian12111971, Leighhandal and Anonymous: 31 • William Moultrie Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Moultrie?oldid=694218670 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Docu, LouI, Samw, Jengod, Postdlf, Merovingian, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Kwamikagami, Remuel, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Hargrimm, Amorymeltzer, Kazvorpal, Karnesky, JonathanFreed, RussBot, Rjensen, Howcheng, Superslum, Carabinieri, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Thaagenson, Fluri, GoodDay, Michael David, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Neddyseagoon, Eastfrisian, Cydebot, Gamecock, Doug Weller, LarryQ, Deflective, Nthep, Connormah, Waacstats, Serkul, Ebudae, Thismightbezach, WOSlinker, Gamehope, Nsk92, Drmies, Parkwells, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Bob Burkhardt, AbigailAbernathy, ProfReader, Full-date unlinking bot, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, John of Reading, Olekinderhook, PBS-AWB, Former user 20140220, Fdiamond, SD5bot, VIAFbot, Valetude, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, American Starkiller, Odinsburgh14, Ilovepugs5415, KasparBot, SillySillySilly1000 and Anonymous: 17 • John Rutledge Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rutledge?oldid=699278799 Contributors: Sannse, Stan Shebs, Docu, LouI, Jiang, John K, Jengod, Smith03, RickK, Jwrosenzweig, Lord Emsworth, Dcsohl, Huangdi, Dimadick, RedWolf, Calmypal, Postdlf, Rholton, Ydorb, Philwelch, Everyking, Chowbok, Antandrus, Vina, Adamsan, Anythingyouwant, Chrisn4255, Gscshoyru, Mike Rosoft, D6, DanielCD, Bender235, ESkog, Mateo SA, MBisanz, Tom, Bobo192, Kevin Myers, Rajah, PaulHanson, DLJessup, TommyBoy, Bbsrock, Dbrett480, Yuckfoo, Msclguru, RainbowOfLight, Djsasso, Woohookitty, Jersyko, Velvetsmog, JustDerek, Tabletop, Bluemoose, Macaddct1984, OCNative, Skywriter, Mb1000, Kralizec!, Mandarax, Jack Cox, BD2412, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Coemgenus, Vary, MZMcBride, Boccobrock, Krash, Teddythetank, WillC, Choess, Captain Scotch, YurikBot, Carolynparrishfan, RussBot, Pigman, Chaser, Gaius Cornelius, Dhwani1989, Deskana, Dureo, Dlyons493, Wknight94, Homagetocatalonia, Iwalters, Mais oui!, Kungfuadam, Philip Stevens, Elliskev, Krótki, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Cdogsimmons, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Rmt2m, Tree Biting Conspiracy, EncMstr, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Slackermonkey, Solomon Taibi, Stevenmitchell, Samuel 69105, Tiki2099, DMacks, Ericl, Johnor, Ohconfucius, Cyberevil, Ameliejane, Esrever, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Jmcneill2, IronGargoyle, Lampman, Iridescent, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Blehfu, Supertigerman, Jontomkittredge, Briancua, JForget, CmdrObot, Wooyi, Yarnalgo, Eggy49er, American Saga, Cydebot, Gamecock, Bellerophon5685, MWaller, DumbBOT, Rougher07, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, C-Star, Bobblehead, Mattfrye, Therequiembellishere, Floridasand, AntiVandalBot, North Shoreman, RedCoat10, DuncanHill, MER-C, RedZebra, Richrobison, Tedickey, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, DerHexer, PhantomS, Poeloq, Anaxial, Tadpole9, J.delanoy, BigrTex, Rrostrom, Thugmoavation, Dirtymoney101, Burzmali, Jamesontai, Foofighter20x, UnitedStatesIndia, Al.locke, Philip Trueman, Ryuhaku, Raymondwinn, McM.bot, Snowbot, J. J. in PA, Why Not A Duck, Qblik, Tiptoety, Parttaker, Monegasque, Android Mouse Bot 3, Polbot, Fratrep, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, TaerkastUA, Yair rand, Florentino floro, Duffy2032, Danicalove79, Sokari, ClueBot, DFRussia, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, CounterVandalismBot, Jmn100, Savage23man, Excirial, Papassaudi, NuclearWarfare, 7&6=thirteen, Jaob, Life of Riley, Tealwisp, Otr500, AlanM1, Pichpich, Avoided, Rreagan007, PL290, Noctibus, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Cbrown285, Gshaunm, Addbot, Pkgoldberg, Some jerk on the Internet, Fieldday-sunday, Krano, Dimitris, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Magicliz33, EchetusXe, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Jim1138, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Jayarathina, Raprchju, J04n, Zipotur, Krscal, Drdpw, Recognizance, TheVirginiaHistorian, Americus55, Jun Nijo, DrilBot, Plucas58, Reconsider the static, AHeneen, SeoMac, Canuckian89, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, NerdyScienceDude, Ddrichman, Ebe123, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Olekinderhook, John Cline, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, ClueBot NG, Kuffers, Rmwwalker, Snotbot, O.Koslowski, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatfish2, WikiTryHardDieHard, Quarkgluonsoup, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Altaïr, J R Gainey, Mrt3366, Khazar2, Bulba2036, Verifirs, Marxistfounder, Monkbot, Vieque, Mr.gangsta, Dr.Cocktor, SCHistographer, Tuckerjameschelsea, Tracegingerich12, KasparBot, Watwat112 and Anonymous: 241 • Fort Moultrie Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Moultrie?oldid=699086417 Contributors: Rbraunwa, Pollinator, Hlj, DocWatson42, MPF, JimWae, Amesville, Rich Farmbrough, User2004, CanisRufus, Darwinek, Alansohn, Bart133, Kazvorpal, MONGO, Prashanthns, Graham87, Eoghanacht, WillC, NekoDaemon, Scott Mingus, Jaraalbe, Hede2000, SpuriousQ, THB, Superslum, SamuelRiv, Mainstreetmark, Nationalparks, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Droll, Darth Panda, Backspace, DDima, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Noah Salzman, CmdrObot, ZICO, Reywas92, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, N5iln, RobotG, McGhiever, Midnightdreary, Henning M, Appraiser, CattleGirl, Jllm06, Vstar3000, Revwarboy, KudzuVine, VolkovBot, Jameslwoodward, Bms4880, Rontrigger, Pubdog, RSStockdale, Twinsday, Parkwells, Excirial, JimBobUSA, BOTarate, SJMNY, Thingg, Berean Hunter, Addbot, Mmuroya, Ronhjones, Jfknrh, Lightbot, KFPKFP, The Bushranger, Brian in denver, Damzow, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Az81964444, Gwillhickers, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Former user 20140220, Fdiamond, ClueBot NG, Anmccaff, Khazar2, Valetude, RobDuch, JaconaFrere, Cloudchased, Ethoes and Anonymous: 51 • Columbia, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=699358125 Contributors: Mav, Zoe, Ram-Man, Edward, Rambot, Ahoerstemeier, Andres, Jiang, Jerryb1961, Jengod, Redjar, Charles Matthews, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, SatyrTN, Tpbradbury, Ed g2s, Philopp, Mackensen, Jerzy, Pollinator, Carlossuarez46, Gentgeen, Robbot, Fredrik, Chris 73,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Angilbas, Carnildo, HangingCurve, Bkonrad, Wouterhagens, Rick Block, Robert Bruce Livingston, Duncharris, Yekrats, Allstar86, Bobblewik, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Yardcock, Bart Versieck, Quarl, Balcer, Kevin Rector, TheCustomOfLife, D6, Discospinster, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Bender235, Mwanner, Spearhead, Dennis Brown, MPS, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Robotje, Acntx, Thanos6, Giraffedata, Darwinek, StuartCarter, SPUI, Ommnomnomgulp, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Buaidh, Ayechaw, Lightdarkness, TommyBoy, Paradigmbuff, Wdfarmer, Metron4, Binabik80, Redvers, Ttownfeen, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Deeahbz, Zzyzx11, Kralizec!, Palica, Tslocum, BD2412, Kbdank71, Pentawing, Search4Lancer, Rjwilmsi, BobbyAFC, Attitude2000, Ligulem, Florencebballer, Daderot, RobertG, WillC, SouthernNights, Gurch, Tedder, Bedford, Irregulargalaxies, Scott Mingus, Chobot, Sherool, Evilphoenix, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, HG1, Eding10, RussBot, King Shadeed, Danaimband, Fabricationary, SoundGod3, Gaius Cornelius, EspressoMachine, Chick Bowen, Badagnani, Welsh, ONEder Boy, A1%, HowardDean, Zagalejo, Zwobot, Ospalh, Cheeser1, Gadget850, Asarelah, Matthillnc, Derek.cashman, AjaxSmack, Mehudson1, Deville, Brymc81, Marquita188, Dark Tichondrias, LeonardoRob0t, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, Eptin, Jackturner3, Vanka5, SmackBot, Davepape, Phorteetoo, Criticalthinker, Chairman S., Zyxw, Dmp348, Eskimbot, Commander Keane bot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Smithc5, Vechs, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jon davidson, MalafayaBot, Robth, Raymie, Dual Freq, Para, D-Rock, Akhenaton06, Muboshgu, Harpchad, OrphanBot, Kanabekobaton, Tim Pierce, Nixeagle, MJCdetroit, Biggsteve81, Uviolet, Rrburke, Badbadb, RFD, Nakon, RJN, Hoof Hearted, RolandR, Miniontotheman, Freemarket, Lesmizz@bellsouth.net, Shmuliko, Sonofaque86, Tim Ross, John Reid, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius, Akubra, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mouse Nightshirt, TheStripèdOne, AmeriCan, Nobunaga24, UP Spartan, RandomCritic, JHunterJ, BigMacSC99, Fuzzy510, Beetstra, Marc3702, TastyPoutine, Rhodenr, Andrwsc, BigT2006, Goddess of War, OnBeyondZebrax, WilliamJE, Lucio Di Madaura, Peecee1978, Canadaolympic989, Theoldanarchist, Michaelwescott, Montybarker, Josh a brewer, Courcelles, Uva185, Billy Hathorn, JoannaSerah, FairuseBot, Pi, Totalcatharsis, ChrisCork, Eastlaw, Kingdom Of Rap, SkyWalker, Mellery, CmdrObot, Zosimus, Dereye, Ken Gallager, Susannah Mills, Cydebot, Dst104, Grahamec, MC10, Devbev, Gogo Dodo, John Foxe, Inhumer, Ebyabe, Mattsteady, Mathpianist93, Thijs!bot, Cola1985, Magiddens, Bolman Deal, Marek69, Missvain, James086, DanTD, AntiVandalBot, Freddiem, Kevadian, Hybrid0NE, Just Chilling, Nelliebellie, Expligatory, Zchris87v, Altamel, Doublethought84, Mikevegas40, Chicken Parm, NE2, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Instinct, MelanieN, Fetchcomms, Jrhoadley, Hotice919, MegX, KyleAndMelissa22, VoABot II, Scanlan, Jllm06, Ling.Nut, Jim Douglas, Nyttend, Balloonguy, The Anomebot2, Avicennasis, MetsBot, Wikiwatch, Lethaniol, Gerry D, Islandisee, 3party, Novacoach, Fishmonkey, Millenium man, MartinBot, Pyriform, Keith D, Mazerunner, CommonsDelinker, Johnpacklambert, Lilac Soul, Waccamatt, ArcHammer, Adam79, Numbo3, Violask81976, 8th Ohio Volunteers, Eliz81, Paris1127, Darkspots, NuWildcat03, CzarNick, ReMerika, Alphapeta, Colaman2, AntiSpamBot, Garnetandblackattack, Loohcsnuf, Spiesr, KudzuVine, Assuntalit, Speciate, Aigrette, VolkovBot, Shortride, Ashdog137, Jeff G., AlnoktaBOT, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, ClemsonTiger, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Comforta, Rei-bot, Mosmof, Johnnysast, Synthebot, Drase, The Devil’s Advocate, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Struway, Jirt, Trenmedia, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Da Joe, Barronkrjr, Pubdog, Carolinaliving, Flyer22 Reborn, Wedg~enwiki, JACKSONVILLE, Ziggygirl74, Aspects, Lightmouse, Techman224, OKBot, Burntorange72, DAP384, Mygerardromance, Realm of Shadows, Columbia1, ImageRemovalBot, CheepnisAroma, ClueBot, Hamiltbt, Worldtraveler1, Plastikspork, Unbuttered Parsnip, Niceguyedc, ColaPorter, Parkwells, Fee Fi Foe Fum, Happeningcake, TunaWuna, Vpuliva, Detroiterbot, Ktr101, Phileasson, Excirial, CapitalBot, Canis Lupus, Alex354, Sun Creator, Spock of Vulcan, Cjames728, Promethean, Musician44, SchreiberBike, Polly, Bald Zebra, Berean Hunter, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Amitpalshikar, Gnowor, Reezy, Cliff1911, Good Olfactory, Shoemaker’s Holiday, Aemc1967, Jhendin, Addbot, Billtodd47, Stuffwhitepeoplelike, Jhnhth, AkhtaBot, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Dgood3001, NjardarBot, Cst17, LaaknorBot, Epicadam, 803pimp, Getmoreatp, Mdnavman, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Bfigura’s puppy, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Bigjobenjamin, Zorrobot, MuZemike, Xenobot, Mapperson, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Nandlbushy, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, DJGristle, Columbiablues, Plmzaqtybn, Collegesitter, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Winterface, Bacondero, 90, Materialscientist, HonchoGrande, Giles Martin, RadioBroadcast, RockJuno, Xqbot, Ernmitch, TechBot, Learningluvr, GrouchoBot, SteelyAdam, ProtectionTaggingBot, RibotBOT, Methcub, Floute, Erik9, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Jmfootball4190021, Nedharkey, Dnllnd, Computergeek93, Midageman, Ben76266, M2545, Biggboom, Diwas, AliCeleste, JIK1975, DrilBot, Pinethicket, Abductive, ImageTagBot, Triplestop, Columbia92, Full-date unlinking bot, Carolina cotton, Corinne68, Kgrad, FoxBot, Carynm, Jaycub912, Lime in the Coconut, Cerkit, GarnetAndBlack, Rupert1904, Cowlibob, LabradorRetrieverWoof, Rossdegenstein, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, AXRL, Onel5969, Hlecroy, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, JB50000, EmausBot, John of Reading, Wikibot 2135, Artystyk386, Dreamlift, Kyle andrew, AvicBot, H3llBot, SporkBot, Erianna, Rcsprinter123, Jkuenzie, Harleyhunterr, ChuispastonBot, Peter Karlsen, DASHBotAV, Wdot53, E. Fokker, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, HaloMasterMind, Movses-bot, Ezilla5, Johnmorrissey11, Snotbot, Dshun, CaroleHenson, CopperSquare, SmithMorgan2010, EarthShip11, Weatherman78, NCSCTravel, BZTMPS, Marrowlight, BG19bot, Tarheeler1, ElphiBot, DreamMcQueen, Compfreak7, Mottengott, Johnfinn68, Thompsjc, Michael157, Lostandfound2000, Aresceo, Lieutenant of Melkor, Jordanbyrne19, JaneOlds, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, JOHNSON19, Justincheng12345bot, Donmaps, Dereistic, Harperj86, CampWalterJohnson, Cyberbot II, Keithkale, John from Idegon, Jlyrix, Makecat-bot, Crunyan01, Kamsc83, Ipull4usc, Tours12travel, Uwatch310, Epicgenius, Kwr.1989, Magnolia677, Surfer43, PHNorth84, DavidLeighEllis, ClroseRN, Glaisher, Shymbeebymbee, AddWittyNameHere, Noyster, Kgartm1185, TomahawkBRAWL, Coopersullivan, ProudGamecock, Merlin the 2nd, ColRad85, Doc1899, Scarlettail, Keshawn Bluestar, Calvingabor, WikiOriginal-9, Wrgharshsdh, Mikephatkins, Brcox22, GLG GLG, KH-1, Pimpbro, CookieMonster755, 325 Crescent, Jadeeack, Pkibur1, Drich247, Triviaguy8, BryNat93, Zarnacle and Anonymous: 745 • Piedmont (United States) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont_(United_States)?oldid=688722563 Contributors: Darkwind, Cherkash, Jengod, WhisperToMe, Pollinator, Dale Arnett, RedWolf, Benc, Angilbas, Mboverload, Antandrus, AlexanderWinston, Bumm13, Ary29, Ukexpat, Famartin, CALR, Discospinster, Guanabot, Vsmith, Bender235, Seanose, CanisRufus, Dennis Brown, Foobaz, Maurreen, Colin Douglas Howell, Thanos6, Grutness, Spangineer, Pytheas, Fingers-of-Pyrex, GregorB, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Ian Pitchford, DVdm, Wbfergus, TimK MSI, Kmusser, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Pfly, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Cazort, Hmains, Roscelese, Vanis314, JesseRafe, Davecampbell, Pgc512, Mr. Vernon, Optakeover, Ryulong, Iridescent, Gooday.1, Cotinis, Blehfu, LadyofShalott, JoannaSerah, Lahiru k, Brillemeister, Edward Vielmetti, Ken Gallager, Chantessy, SquareWave, FastLizard4, Jstuby, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, N5iln, CharlotteWebb, AntiVandalBot, PhilKnight, CrankyScorpion, Magioladitis, LeVoyageur, OHFM~enwiki, Sylfred1977, Angleofrepose, Bgtgwazi, Idioma-bot, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Amikake3, McM.bot, SieBot, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, Triadian, Tiptoety, Hubertfarnsworth, Motthoangwehuong, Dabomb87, ClueBot, Jbening, The Thing That Should Not Be, Parkwells, Dylan620, Arunsingh16, Excirial, Geo0910, 7, Oskar71, Poolparty 89, Corker1, Addbot, Bassbonerocks, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Nuberger13, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, Bacondero, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, Frukko, Xqbot, Smurdah, D'ohBot, Pinethicket, Hlecroy, DASHBot, Toneythegreat, Academmic, Mordgier, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, K6ka, ZéroBot, Wayne Slam, Thine Antique Pen, Orange Suede Sofa, Frozen Wind, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Widr, Wiki13, TheJJJunk, Stephenmx, Lugia2453, Legoman 86, GHSdyuagsk, Laberinto16, Amortias, Wildcatlax12, Sonicwave32, Parrottmep and Anonymous: 157 • Charleston, South Carolina in the American Civil War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina_in_the_ American_Civil_War?oldid=690360881 Contributors: Deisenbe, Stevietheman, Neutrality, Discospinster, LtNOWIS, Bellhalla, Rjwilmsi, Scott Mingus, Jaraalbe, Manxruler, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Pustelnik, PKT, Floridasand, RobotG, North Shoreman, Mkdw, 8th Ohio

362

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

Volunteers, Smsarmad, Flmason, Deanlaw, The Thing That Should Not Be, MarmadukePercy, Lightbot, Yobot, HieronymousCrowley, Fulldate unlinking bot, Vrenator, Gwillhickers, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Magnolia677, Bgraves0575, Biggie cx, TomasThumb and Anonymous: 31 • McClellanville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McClellanville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=686728676 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Pollinator, Seth Ilys, Rich Farmbrough, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, John Cardinal, CrazyC83, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, MJCdetroit, Runningonbrains, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Spyder Monkey, Thijs!bot, AntiVandalBot, Scanlan, Jllm06, Windhamdavid, Nyttend, MetsBot, RoboMaxCyberSem, Rei-bot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Realist2, Mild Bill Hiccup, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Cmr08, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Rotlor, Xqbot, Ammodramus, EmausBot, RA0808, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Bubbag11, Glimenh, DarafshBot, Makecat-bot, AlanBOT, American Money, KH-1, BryNat93 and Anonymous: 16 • Spoleto Festival USA Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoleto_Festival_USA?oldid=673168707 Contributors: Alansohn, Mahanga, Bluemoose, Missmarple, Eubot, Terrace4, Badagnani, Ringlord, Kleinzach, Dtremit, Viva-Verdi, Uviolet, Quatloo, TPO-bot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, JoeBot, Musicmaker, Trident13, Alaibot, In Synth, Jllm06, Nrswanson, Ulrika F.~enwiki, Charleston George, Blueion, WikiLaurent, JL-Bot, GorillaWarfare, Mr Arts, DragonflyDC, BwayKrischen, Addbot, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, LiteraryMaven, J04n, Michael93555, ProfReader, Spoletousa, Spoleto, Syncategoremata, SpencerM, BizarreLoveTriangle, BattyBot, Earflaps and Anonymous: 12 • Cooper River Bridge Run Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper_River_Bridge_Run?oldid=653939738 Contributors: Edward, Choster, Zoicon5, Kainaw, Yamla, Giantsrule, Rjwilmsi, Jaraalbe, DanielVonFange, SmackBot, Gjs238, Chazzerguy, Julius Sahara, Khazar, SilkTork, Tye101, JoeBot, Cydebot, TheDaan, Jakohler, Masilver, Philip Trueman, Scgatorfan, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Laudak, Citm2000, Chasnet, Sillyfolkboy, Computermadgeek, Lightbot, Charleston85, Cdamgen, Neurolysis, Xqbot, Snadav, Shappens, PabloFaja, Jtnewtoniii, Abrumme and Anonymous: 42 • Music in Charleston Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_in_Charleston?oldid=600521906 Contributors: Bearcat, Malcolma, JustAGal, Flyer22 Reborn, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Buddeism and Anonymous: 1 • Gullah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah?oldid=700147069 Contributors: Montrealais, Michael Hardy, SebastianHelm, Radicalsubversiv, Jptwo, Lukobe, WhisperToMe, Topbanana, Pollinator, Francs2000, RedWolf, Ashlar, Tom Radulovich, Jorge Stolfi, Kainaw, Node ue, Pne, Bobblewik, Bumm13, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, J d noonan, Deeceevoice, Esperant, Guppyfinsoup, CALR, Bobo192, NotAbel, JW1805, Alan Isherwood, Davidweman, Ifny, ThePedanticPrick, Abstrakt, Tobyc75, Tainter, Angr, Woohookitty, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Lapsed Pacifist, Toussaint, Cuchullain, Koavf, Dewrad, Bubba73, Draktorn, RexNL, Ben-w, Narvalo, Reggaedelgado, RussBot, Briaboru, Pigman, Raquel Baranow, Aristus, Dialectric, Grafen, Badagnani, SigPig, Jndrline, Awiseman, BirgitteSB, Historymike, Spikyrat, Ochiwar, Maunus, Pawyilee, Cspalletta, 4shizzal, KNHaw, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, DTM, Eike Welk, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Psiphiorg, Kkhemet, Philipvanlidth, Ushi5, Neo139, Seduisant, Grover cleveland, Tapered, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Risssa, Dane Sorensen, Kuru, SQGibbon, Thoscsii, Ryulong, Peyre, Jd213, Royalearth, Wolfdog, Picaroon, Georgiascoast, Joelycat, Qrc2006, Cydebot, Pais, Thijs!bot, Willyboo92, Leondegrance, N5iln, Xfpisher, AntiVandalBot, Kckempf, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, T@nn, Twisted86, Tedickey, Nyttend, Davebraze, Froid, Sorie, BYF, Henri6602, MartinBot, J.delanoy, Stompin' Tom, Survivorjan, Cometstyles, Tesscass, Pumpkinhead 88, Mrcstig, Myiti, Elliotthedunk, Fourinthemourning, Vchimpanzee, Why Not A Duck, S A Mayer, Ode2scribblers, Caltas, FunkMonk, RemoTheDog, Documentary film, WordyGirl90, ClueBot, FieldMarine, Niceguyedc, Parkwells, Zetud, Caseysdone, Skier784, Littleteddy, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Wikiuser100, Ost316, Draghi, Duffbeerforme, SpellingBot, Cohee, Eaberry, Glane23, 5 albert square, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Jarble, History press, Drpickem, Themfromspace, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Cdamgen, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Pokeronskis, Rubinbot, Shambalala, Dhidalgo, LilHelpa, Elizabethhhi, Omnipaedista, Kyng, Cresix, Spongefrog, FrescoBot, Sapelosites, FredKattenKatie, VegasScorpion, GullahGeechee, Klpvictor, Carolina cotton, HaiHaiRakuen, Dewritech, 13Peewit, Winner 42, Susfele, Kreneeandco, Isinbill, Wikignome0530, Gz33, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Jodicompton, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, Registreernu, Buttercat09, PumpkinSky, Palmettobug, Carlstak, Great50, Duckbilldanny, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Rogue Apostrophe Killer, Oshumara, Sosure1, ReneePrince, Samoystein, Mattstone911, Phillipjacobs67, JamillahGabriel, Omo Obatalá, Maatprinciples*, ProprioMe OW, Philmonte101, Labalaba26, Gullahchile and Anonymous: 197 • Charleston Historic District Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Historic_District?oldid=694240607 Contributors: Bearcat, RossPatterson, Rjwilmsi, Doncram, NeilN, Hmains, Uviolet, Hu12, Iridescent, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Waacstats, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, KudzuVine, Auntof6, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, NameIsRon, BattyBot, Lkeadle, Monkbot, Tmquinn2 and Anonymous: 1 • Patriots Point Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriots_Point?oldid=661866078 Contributors: Sertrel, Dmadeo, Plasma east, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Kross, Xhin, Bluemoose, Vegaswikian, Bubba73, Saberwyn, Elkman, JGoodman, Easter Monkey, SmackBot, Gjs238, Hmains, Daysleeper47, Bluebot, Bluquail, Rcbutcher, Zvar, Catapult, BillFlis, Amakuru, Usgnus, Cydebot, Ebyabe, PaulLambert, J Clear, Appraiser, Jllm06, Proctorg76, Something Original, LanceBarber, Pubdog, Cobatfor, Dravecky, YSSYguy, MBK004, Alexbot, Addbot, Eagle4000, DrilBot, Ryan.opel, Coderedge, MauchoEagle, Patriots Point and Anonymous: 10 • Calhoun Mansion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calhoun_Mansion?oldid=697335956 Contributors: Jllm06, Niceguyedc, ProfReader, Serols, ClueBot NG, Hmainsbot1, Loraof and Anonymous: 3 • Charleston Museum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Museum?oldid=696723843 Contributors: Dmadeo, Xezbeth, Tim!, Jo Bo, Heaviestcat, SmackBot, Elonka, Hmains, Chris the speller, Cal.webster, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Deor, Yobot, Materialscientist, SpencerM, KLBot2, BG19bot, DavidLeighEllis, Coopersullivan and Anonymous: 8 • Warren Lasch Conservation Center Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Lasch_Conservation_Center?oldid=648462413 Contributors: Splamo, Dialectric, MaxVeers, Carabinieri, Crystallina, Bluebot, Wild Wolf, Amalas, Spyder Monkey, Floridasand, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Ycaleb24, Cindamuse, AnomieBOT, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, Kendall-K1 and Anonymous: 3 • Exchange and Provost Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_and_Provost?oldid=695792831 Contributors: Dmadeo, Vegaswikian, Jaraalbe, Doncram, Smallbones, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Nick Number, Appraiser, Jllm06, Waacstats, Emeraude, Johnpacklambert, KudzuVine, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jfknrh, Yobot, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, ProfReader, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, Dewritech, BattyBot and Anonymous: 7 • George Washington Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington?oldid=700155778 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, The Epopt, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Eloquence, H.J., Vicki Rosenzweig, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, RobLa, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, RK, Zunbot, Andre Engels, Danny, Shsilver, Chris_mahan, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, 0, SimonP, Shii, DavidLevinson, Zoe, Heron, Camembert, Blue~enwiki, Jaknouse, Q~enwiki, Mintguy, Isis~enwiki, Branko, Hephaestos, Someone

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

363

else, Rickyrab, Stevertigo, Mrwojo, Edward, Lorenzarius, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, GABaker, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Oliver Pereira, Jtdirl, Dominus, Gabbe, Chuck SMITH, CORNELIUSSEON, Ixfd64, Two16, Dcljr, Cyde, Sannse, Shoaler, Gbleem, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Goatasaur, Looxix~enwiki, Ronabop, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Docu, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, Plop, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, JWSchmidt, Kingturtle, DropDeadGorgias, Ugen64, LouI, Vzbs34, Jiang, Evercat, JamesReyes, Efghij, Rl, Chelman, Wfeidt, Skyfaller, Prawn, Vargenau, Seth ze, Hashar, Jengod, Feedmecereal, Emperorbma, Invalid username 12583~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Timwi, RickK, Reddi, CTSWyneken, Choster, Paul Stansifer, Tedius Zanarukando, Radgeek, Daniel Quinlan, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, CBDunkerson, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Zeiden, Maximus Rex, Morwen, Itai, Nv8200pa, Publius~enwiki, MiLo28, Thue, Mackensen, Fvw, Raul654, Scott Sanchez, Hawstom, Wetman, Gakrivas, Bcorr, Johnleemk, Camerong, Eugene van der Pijll, Flockmeal, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Frazzydee, Francs2000, RadicalBender, KuatofKDY, Dimadick, Aenar, Gentgeen, Nufy8, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik, PBS, Schutz, Jredmond, Donreed, Jmabel, Fifelfoo, Goethean, Netizen, Yelyos, Modulatum, Calmypal, Lowellian, Mirv, Postdlf, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Nach0king, Hemanshu, Texture, ZekeMacNeil, Meelar, DHN, Davodd, Sunray, Moink, Hadal, UtherSRG, Modeha, JackofOz, David3565, Mushroom, Ruakh, Mandel, Lupo, Zaui, Seth Ilys, Mattflaschen, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Alan Liefting, Vaoverland, Clementi, Decumanus, Centrx, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Jacoplane, MPF, Fennec, Oberiko, Wikilibrarian, Barry21, Nat Krause, Nichalp, Inter, Nunh-huh, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Lupin, IRelayer, Obli, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Curps, Michael Devore, Tim Schmidt, Cantus, Guanaco, Per Honor et Gloria, Prosfilaes, Gugilymugily, JillandJack, ElfMage, Jackol, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Golbez, Sesel, Ryanaxp, ALargeElk, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Gadfium, Utcursch, SoWhy, Andycjp, Tim706, DavidBrooks, Ruy Lopez, Telso, Geni, CryptoDerk, Opera hat, Ran, Antandrus, BozMo, DevINE, Doops, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Scottperry, Kaldari, Incka, Jossi, CaribDigita, Rdsmith4, Mikko Paananen, JimWae, Anythingyouwant, DragonflySixtyseven, Mpiff, Zerbey, Kevin B12, Husnock, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, Icairns, Hammersfan, Sam Hocevar, Sycocowz, Smartypants~enwiki, B.d.mills, TiMike, K-squire, Asbestos, Neutrality, Sam, Coburnpharr04, Marcus2, Joyous!, Jh51681, Klemen Kocjancic, Syvanen, J d noonan, BeakerK44, Grm wnr, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Kasreyn, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Grunt, The stuart, Gazpacho, Mr.President~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, ThaddeusFrye, Rfl, Dufekin, Freakofnurture, Spiffy sperry, DanielCD, Mindspillage, Plexust, Discospinster, Themadmac, ElTyrant, Solitude, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Brutannica, Supercoop, Kdammers, ThomasK, TomPreuss, Rupertslander, Ardonik, Jetfire85, Mjpieters, Rummey, Alistair1978, Paul August, Indrian, Bender235, ESkog, Khalid, Android79, BruceJohnson, Andrejj, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, BookWorm, Evice, Wolfman, Brian0918, Aranel, Appleboy, Ylee, CanisRufus, PedanticallySpeaking, JustPhil, Sfahey, Fenevad, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Kross, Chairboy, Aude, PhilHibbs, Shanes, Tom, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Mike Garcia, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Kompas, JRM, Bobo192, Valentino, Janna Isabot, Vanished user sdfkjertiwoi1212u5mcake, BW, TomStar81, NetBot, Dr.Quidam, Dystopos, Clawson, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, .:Ajvol:., AllyUnion, Silver Proxy, Kevin Myers, Maurreen, Runnerupnj, JW1805, Alberuni, Rockhopper10r, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, Nk, Gunnernett, Rje, Kbir1, Ardric47, DCEdwards1966, Lokifer, Obradovic Goran, Sam Korn, Pharos, Sss4r, Chicago god, JesseHogan, SPUI, Perceval, Tom Yates, Jumbuck, Cyrloc, Mrzaius, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Ocean57, ChrisGlew, Sherurcij, Mo0, Polarscribe, Jordan117, Interiot, Mharo, Philip Cross, Mr Adequate, Jeltz, Andrewpmk, M7, Craigy144, Fornadan, Wrinkles, Andrew Gray, Monado, ABCD, Anittas, Jnothman, Yamla, Great Scott, SHIMONSHA, Derumi, Lectonar, MarkGallagher, Gaytan, SlimVirgin, Fat pig73, Ddlamb, Lightdarkness, DLJessup, AldenWeer, Mailer diablo, TommyBoy, Batmanand, InShaneee, Gblaz, Cdc, Kingbob~enwiki, CJ, Plange, Spangineer, Hu, Malo, Katefan0, Bart133, MattWade, Hohum, Ksnow, Cookiemobsta, Ginkgo~enwiki, Ashlux, Bbsrock, Benson85, Binabik80, Hygraed, BanyanTree, Fordan, ClockworkSoul, RPH, Rebroad, Evil Monkey, Closeinch, Harej, Grenavitar, Randy Johnston, TenOfAllTrades, Sciurinæ, Frapster, AN(Ger), Kaiser matias, Computerjoe, Kusma, Jguk, Itsmine, Freyr, Versageek, Pwqn, Stepheno, Redvers, Dan East, Jshayden, Johntex, Avram Fawcett, Martian, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Markaci, Pennywisefan, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Ekedolphin, Gmaxwell, Duoraven, Weyes, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Rorschach, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Henrik, FeanorStar7, Georgia guy, TigerShark, Scriberius, LOL, MamaGeek, Uncle G, Thivierr, Mfields1, Bratsche, Benbest, Bonus Onus, Mms, Jamehec, Chochopk, MONGO, Sdgjake, Tabletop, Jeremy Bentham, Schzmo, Grika, Firien, Jleon, Ledouche, Bbatsell, Damicatz, Terence, Thebogusman, Mangojuice, Bluemoose, GregorB, OCNative, Skywriter, Zzyzx11, Wayward, Ghjffg, Toussaint, Gimboid13, DESiegel, Stefanomione, Benuski, Csberger, Dysepsion, Rtcpenguin, MrSomeone, Youngamerican, Paxsimius, Tslocum, RichardWeiss, Ashmoo, Graham87, DavidLambert, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, GoldRingChip, A Train, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, Lanoitarus, FreplySpang, Bardnet, RxS, Davogones, Jitsuman, Ryan Norton, Canderson7, Drbogdan, Akubhai, Coneslayer, Stmoose, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Fahrenheit451, Coemgenus, Koavf, Rogerd, Gryffindor, Wikibofh, 1wheel, Commander, Vary, Ikh, PinchasC, Amire80, Bert-25, Josiah Rowe, Linuxbeak, JHMM13, Tangotango, MZMcBride, Tawker, BCV, Funnyhat, ElKevbo, Merrilee, BBabe223, Durin, Oscar Sanchez, The wub, Bhadani, Keimzelle, The Bob Talbot, Hermione1980, MikeJ9919, GregAsche, Sango123, HughJorgan, Oo64eva, Yamamoto Ichiro, Nam, FayssalF, FuelWagon, Titoxd, FlaBot, Ageo020, Eddiekuns, Bobber1, G Clark, RobertG, Dowlingm, WillC, Doc glasgow, Red Deadeye, Winhunter, Crazycomputers, Alhutch, Hiding, Harmil, Who, AI, Hottentot, Kerowyn, Mark83, SportsMaster, Pathoschild, RexNL, Ivymike21, Gurch, Pcj, Billybobfred, Kertrats, TheDJ, NoSeptember, Str1977, Brendan Moody, Fosnez, OrbitOne, Ben2umbc, CoolFox, TeaDrinker, Maltmomma, EronMain, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Tysto, Ej0c, Jdurbach, Srleffler, Akhenaten0, Spikebrennan, Physchim62, Idaltu, Dsewell, Butros, King of Hearts, DougOfDoom, Guanxi, Chobot, Glamphere, Nagytibi, Citizen Premier, Gdrbot, Billybobjoehik, VolatileChemical, 334a, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, WriterHound, Gwernol, Dúnadan, Wingchi, Flcelloguy, Banaticus, Jpfagerback, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Aleahey, Radishes, RobotE, Taneya, Extraordinary Machine, Kinneyboy90, Sceptre, Wester, Taurrandir, Hairy Dude, Davehatcher911, Brandmeister (old), Anglius, RussBot, Sputnikcccp, Dimimimon7, Crazytales, Tjss, Kauffner, Mdsmedia, Jtkiefer, EDM, WAvegetarian, Saucy Intruder, BrewBelly, Anonymous editor, KamuiShirou, Acefox, Splash, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin, Tonywiki, RadioFan, Akamad, Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Hyperbole, Gaius Cornelius, OneGyT, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, ConeyCyclone, Tungsten, Salsb, Wimt, Arwesterdale, Ritchy, Lusanaherandraton, Ugur Basak, TopAce~enwiki, Nis81, Shanel, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Magicmonster, Skritek, Madcoverboy, Cryptoid, Robertvan1, Veledan, LaszloWalrus, Joshdboz, Arichnad, Deskana, Jaxl, SpeDIt, Johann Wolfgang, Proyster, Rjensen, MDolson22, Valhallia, Sylvain1972, Nightmare X, Howcheng, Adamn, Robchurch, Joelr31, Tcorell~enwiki, SCZenz, Tearlach, Cleared as filed, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Retired username, Anetode, Banes, Dppowell, Cynj, Edwardlalone, Darkmeerkat, CPColin, StrykerJ, PhilipO, ScottyWZ, Ezeu, Misza13, Tony1, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, Roche-Kerr, Lockesdonkey, Roy Brumback, Gadget850, Duncan Delp, DeadEyeArrow, Robby159, Psy guy, Bota47, Supspirit, DRosenbach, ObiWanKenobi-2005, Tachyon01, Essexmutant, Thestegasarus, Abrio, CLW, Bronks, Gohiking, Nick123, Wknight94, Daverd, Avraham, Ke6jjj, WAS 4.250, FF2010, Pastricide, 21655, Preczewski, Homagetocatalonia, Pinikas, TheKoG, Marketdiamond, Gtdp, Joshmaul, Hager jeff, Bayerischermann, Silverhorse, Nikkimaria, Theda, Jwissick, Spondoolicks, Esprit15d, David Justin, LordJumper, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Aeon1006, Kestenbaum, JoanneB, TBadger, SyntaxPC, Heathhunnicutt, Ajpisharodi, HereToHelp, Whobot, Willtron, JLaTondre, Paul White, Mais oui!, GinaDana, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Spliffy, Pádraic MacUidhir, Fourohfour, Easter Monkey, Curpsbotunicodify, Garion96, Katieh5584, Sam Diener, Kungfuadam, Bdve, RG2, DATeymer, Lawyer2b, Paul Erik, Philip Stevens, Airconswitch, Roke, Elliskev, Bill, Wallie, DVD R W, One, Jimerb, Eenu, WesleyDodds, Bibliomaniac15, Matt Heard, Arcadie, Dupz, West Virginian,

364

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

Luk, Chaostails, Trevorloflin, Kalsermar, Schizobullet, Sardanaphalus, Sarah, Joshbuddy, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Pwt898, Amcbride, Wikiman13, YellowMonkey, DannyBoy7783, Nofitty376, Elonka, Sprocket, Yellowfeverlime, Mangoe, Oxford Comma, Tastyflesh, Peckerwood, Pfly, Reedy, Burroughsks88, Prodego, Anarchist42, Griot~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, K-UNIT, McGeddon, Grazon, Kimon, Pgk, Grye, AndyZ, Rrius, Jacek Kendysz, KocjoBot~enwiki, Allixpeeke, Thunderboltz, Setanta747 (locked), IainP, Mattvargo, Gregory j, DanielPenfield, Anastrophe, Delldot, Dominic.sedghi, Niehaus~enwiki, Trevdna, Daren, Televators, Mdd4696, PJM, Frymaster, Brossow, Arniep, Vilerage, Wildbassplayer, Warfvinge, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Mauls, Flux.books, Alexisrael, ElAmericano, Neville Longbottom, Xaosflux, Cool3, Marktreut, Macintosh User, Sloman, Gilliam, 1337pwn, Ohnoitsjamie, Wlmg, DividedByNegativeZero, Hmains, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Arash red, ERcheck, Benyielding, Dark jedi requiem, Psiphiorg, Durova, Marc Kupper, Poulsen, Anwar saadat, Izehar, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Kurykh, Useradmin, Audacity, Thurifer, SlimJim, Samosa Poderosa, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Jprg1966, Jordanhurley, Master of Puppets, Bonesiii, Liamdaly620, Kwleslie, Miquonranger03, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, LaggedOnUser, SchfiftyThree, JoeBlogsDord, Deli nk, Ryecatcher773, Tito2000, Oni Ookami Alfador, Calebegg, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Leoni2, Dustimagic, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Krsnajinana, Colonies Chris, Mkamensek, Angliciste, Antonrojo, GoodDay, Forehand, MaxSem, Wasp2020, Seifip, Asiddons, Meatboy3, Snk 444, Brideshead, Modest Genius, Royboycrashfan, PeRshGo, Zsinj, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Scott3, Brandonspangler, Chile, Frog on a log, Bsd987, Jumonville, AP1787, Quake20044, Onorem, KaiserbBot, DanDanRevolution, RebelAt, Amoi~enwiki, William percy, Ww2censor, TheKMan, RHJesusFreak40, Xiner, Jajhill, TonySt, Pevarnj, Xyzzyplugh, Lapisphil, Andy120290, Ilcantar, Tyche151, Flubbit, Alexmsoto, Yalto, Shannen~enwiki, SundarBot, Phaedriel, Elendil’s Heir, Blueboar, Grover cleveland, Estephan500, Nshaver, Rbdevman, Khoikhoi, Dharmabum420, Amazon10x, Pepsidrinka, YankeeDoodle14, Krich, Zrulli, Flyguy649, Mildew93, Warhol13, Radagast83, Khukri, Otomshank, Bowlhover, Nakon, Savidan, Astrogeek, Johnhu 2005, VegaDark, Jiddisch~enwiki, JJstroker, Nick125, Jpg3722, MikeRaz212, Dream out loud, SnappingTurtle, Dreadstar, Articuno~enwiki, WookMuff, Black Butterfly, A.R., Vedek Dukat, Dcamp314, Thegraham, Bwyche, ShaunES, Mini-Geek, Tomtom9041, Hgilbert, Jan.Kamenicek, Joemeuser, Jbergquist, YummyGum, The PIPE, DMacks, Bobby1005, Wizardman, 953332, DragonFlySpirit, Kotjze, Kendrick7, Ericl, Shawn2082, Mitchumch, Trappy77, KHK009, DDima, Tyar, Pilotguy, Kukini, LanternLight, Zoolfoos, Andrei Stroe, Clicketyclack, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Thejerm, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Esrever, Nishkid64, Tbbooher~enwiki, Rory096, Producercunningham, Krashlandon, Xenaphon, Swatjester, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, SilverStar, Dlz28, Rklawton, Theazianho, Rayonne, Mouse Nightshirt, Srikeit, Epstein.Mark, Deborahdotk, Kuru, Akendall, John, Buchanan-Hermit, Mathiasrex, Mugsywwiii, AnonEMouse, SilkTork, MikeyChalupaUSN, Calum MacÙisdean, CPMcE, Pat Payne, SabreMau, DWillis44, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Neovu79, Edwy, Chodorkovskiy, Joe31187, Coredesat, Minna Sora no Shita, Dumelow, Drek258, Tillalb, Mgiganteus1, ManiF, Jeromealden 85, Boven, Joshua Scott, IronGargoyle, Trosk, Don't fear the reaper, Syrcatbot, PseudoSudo, Babygrand1, Danyealle, XFlame2, Thomas Gilling, Wikipedialuva, Ekrub-ntyh, Falstaff85, Nosehairshaver, The Man in Question, 2sexy4u~enwiki, Omnedon, Blayton, Congo23, Comicist, JHunterJ, MarkSutton, BillFlis, Agathoclea, Willy turner, Ultrmrns, Astuishin, 2562, Sivius, Beetstra, Martinp23, StanBrinkerhoff, SimonATL, Freyr35, Grandpafootsoldier, Jayus, Kyoko, Sumolddude, Redskins0756, Clq, Mets501, Neddyseagoon, Funnybunny, Dcflyer, Tuspm, Mattabat, Midnightblueowl, Davesilvan, Magere Hein, Ryulong, RichardF, Andrwsc, Jrt989, Dodo bird, LaMenta3, Galactor213, Tonster, Impm, Haveronjones, Gasparovic, MrDolomite, Eastfrisian, PDXblazers, ShakingSpirit, Christian Historybuff, Iluvcole711, DryvBy, Mkoyle, Norm mit, Chephyr, General Eisenhower, Levineps, Mrguy122887, Nick030~enwiki, Nehrams2020, Wizard191, Phreaknite, Guszy, Harrison888, NEMT, Hookup buddy, AlexHarris, Xinyu, MFago, Clarityfiend, Judgesurreal777, DoggieStyle, Rufusgriffin, Ehrb, Shoeofdeath, Newone, Tmac2419, Papa McDaddy, J Di, JamesMaxwell, JamesGrant, Temerson, Kerigirl, Twas Now, MJO, Phantom920, NETTKNUT, Fsotrain09, Andyjay729, Sadf, RekishiEJ, Shoreranger, Lenoxus, Dp462090, Hedpeguyuk, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Kingsoham159, Mepat111, Ewulp, Color probe, AGK, Ytny, Maelor, Civil Engineer III, W123, Ratnipintar, Matcreg, Tubezone, Jack Expo, Eluchil404, N8tivVA, Fdp, 012345, Oblongpoo, PenialFetish, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, RCMorris, Dlohcierekim, Hum richard, The Letter J, MOOSEOFDOOM, Lakashvin, Ryt, Gnosbush, Pink Fae, Hihi123, MightyWarrior, Cdizzle~enwiki, Sk8erpunk3102, Greg the main man, Swordman182, Tachi, Bigbenwallace, Spacini, JForget, Jsmlw, Thedemonhog, TORR, Anthony22, GregaR89, Catch22 moviegoer, DDawg, S ried, CmdrObot, Timothy Chavis, Badaffinity, Ale jrb, Bobisfat, Zarex, Dycedarg, Kevin j, Blueski, Xzas4, Van helsing, Comrade42, Scohoust, Iced Kola, Avanu, Thebandman, False Prophet, Sky jets, Coyle022, Nunquam Dormio, R9tgokunks, TVC 15, MegZilla, Caitie0210, GHe, Harej bot, Pastor Kam, Agoodperson, Jsmaye, Kylu, Ibadibam, Jesse Viviano, Sinalco, Opblaaskrokodil, Cumulus Clouds, Mctaviix, Timothylord, WeggeBot, Old Guard, Fatalbert, Casper2k3, Neelix, Rnedbal, StayinAnon, BigBang19, Andkore, Chicheley, MrFish, Trunks6, Mmace91, Thomas Hale, AndrewHowse, Rakwiki, Yaris678, Themightyquill, Doctormatt, Dvk!!!, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, RJo625, Justinnizza, Conversion script, The Librarian at Terminus, Red4tribe, Ejpointguard, Treybien, Eljackso, Bulgary16, Bentleymrk, Sammy Houston, MC10, Steel, Zeppelin462, Shortysmall, Gogo Dodo, Wordbuilder, Red Director, Llort, ST47, Proberton, Redxiii121, Olz06, ANTIcarrot, Redsox00002, Studerby, Jlmorgan, Airviper, Dancter, Krator, Tawkerbot4, Sparkhurst17, Doogo~enwiki, DumbBOT, Gtva2413, Ddanna13, JCO312, RGorman, BulldogPete, GoLeafsGo2626, Kygr89, Rtsmithiv, Plasticbadge, Jay32183, Thenewestdoctorwho, 10sion, Narayanese, FastLizard4, Optimist on the run, Robert.j.oppenheimer, Robert oppenheimer, Pauljeffersonks, Aftershock89, Kozuch, Daven200520, Brad101, A Musing, Omicronpersei8, Urmomsmom, Victoriaedwards, Softballangie12, Daniel Olsen, Lunarian, Familyguy2007, Johndoe316, Longhorn966, JuliaJulia, Jack-a-wack, Adfsfdasdfdsfads, Cubfanpgh, TAIWAN, Gimmetrow, Corlen, Byronsalty, D Bentley, Centuriono, Mamalujo, Cquacks77, Rougher07, Casliber, TimFrisbie, FrancoGG, Rjm656s, Canute, Thijs!bot, Daa89563, Biruitorul, Valedc03ls, Fourchette, Willworkforicecream, Andypham3000, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, Sagaciousuk, Wonkothesane42, Smokeythecat, Minutiaman, Eaglejon67, ClosedEyesSeeing, Figgles49, Headbomb, Id447, Newton2, Hamsterman, Mdb1370, Dtgriscom, West Brom 4ever, John254, Fame, Tapir Terrific, A3RO, Welzen, Astynax, Hoonoseme, Top.Squark, Sexypig, Keelm, Wolverine456, Chcklatboy, Dmws, Psycholilbunny, Easter rising, Pavsing, NigelR, Scottmsg, Warfwar3, Jimhoward72, Colicor, Jw91, Purplemartlet, Therequiembellishere, Michael A. White, Sir Robert Castellano, Signaleer, Srose, Binarybits, JugglaTweek, Bulldogclip101, Eal~enwiki, Natalie Erin, Eiffelle, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Libs23, Lizzleguy, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luedhup2, Majorly, Luna Santin, Kramden4700, Takethisandshoveit, Javb33, Sparkhurst, Opelio, SummerPhD, Bigtimepeace, Lilaznpookid, Fyunck(click), Wecklenator, CharlieNJ, Hagrinas, Dr who1975, Zeven90, LinaMishima, Matt Thorn, Tmopkisn, Lordmetroid, Scepia, Remi1992, Sprite89, Turnip Wars, Modernist, North Shoreman, Hoponpop69, David Shankbone, Davidlondon~enwiki, Kuzco391, BALCK, TorynHill, Aaronhumes, Janepuke, Cbrodersen, RisingJapaneseSun, Dmerrill, Eleos, Canadian-Bacon, Si50325, Darrenhusted, Res2216firestar, HolyT, Kariteh, Mad Pierrot, Erxnmedia, Bsabresfan18, JAnDbot, Jimerl, Gbdill, Thaimoss, Gcoop20, Sjzukrow, Parsnip13, MER-C, CosineKitty, Kedi the tramp, Stevewk, Stellmach, Forkzzile, Fetchcomms, Robertjohnsonrj, Db099221, Midnightdreary, Altitude balloon company ltd., Dheller, LongBay, Nevermore27, Andonic, SteveMetsker, Wolverine458, Leolaursen, Helge Skjeveland, Rothorpe, Vaylance, Pinosh, Taksen, Lyphard Melody, McRowdy, Georgewienbarg, Nevereatsoggywheat, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Henry Corvel, Freshacconci, Magioladitis, I LIKE BOYZ, Connormah, Akhenaten521, Pedro, Washingtoncollege, Bennybp, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Khan singh, AuburnPilot, Professor marginalia, MastCell, Stephencolbert, Tireddriftin, Mpbosco11, Thrashmasterd, GearedBull, Mbc362, UnusedAccount, Yappa, Downwithbush, MinusRJ, Caymon, Lord khadgar05, Stephen M. Colbert, Mattkopera, Doug Coldwell, SineWave, Tedickey, Coolnumber1dude, Destroy101, Applebirthday, Jacobo0789, Skibum475, Pvmoutside, Pip1776, Sebben76, WODUP, Miccola, Marcmal856, Avicennasis,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

365

DXRAW, Mgroop, BertieBasset, Isaiahcambron, Notary137, KConWiki, Kazao, Catgut, Animum, Blingbling1000, D.Kurdistani, Stiny91, KBtoys09, Blackthunder326, The Mystery Man, Sesesq, Ormaaj, Emw, Gomm, As3id, Anthonykern, Jtl6713, Glen, DerHexer, Philg88, Matt B., Grunge6910, Edward321, Pan Dan, Strider01, Lynx Austin, Steveywonder1, TrebloCnehpetS, Wi-king, WLU, Swegam, Patstuart, Atlantic Gateways, Tonymessina, Shiznits123, Tejindermangat, Al-Nofi, Dwp2000, RokinRyan, I I K I I, Donaldlogue, Flowanda, Randyfurlong, Ilovepinkelefant, Pacemaster, Kids4jesus, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Jondaman21, Firespread3, Tvoz, Robin63, Timothy Titus, Goiobre, UnfriendlyFire, Braningillespie, Aladdin Sane, Charles Edward, Centpacrr, Jay Litman, Uriel8, Cinnamonntoast4, Mschel, Kostisl, R'n'B, Hilltoppers, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Irisheagle, Maxdemian1968, Stagcorpe, Chaz1dave, Maulth, Ultimablah, Wiki Raja, Bondman100, Crazyjo157, Chipdukes, Slash, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, FANSTARbot, DrKay, Lucky Lukey, Oonil2, Sholt8, Rgoodermote, Jediforce, Kyubi23, Osakadan, Reshefthedarkbeing123, Adavidb, UBeR, Matt15301, ChrisfromHouston, Xandrodas, Mithman, Dswim279, Lwafler, Nacanacoo1, Cocoaguy, Vanished user 342562, Robospider, LosAngelesT, Alex2706, Mhstebbi, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Jpisqma, Pheadxdll, Katalaveno, Icurok, Clerks, Cbsteven, Parrotman, Dfoofnik, Xcbluedevil, Zenscifi, HeadBytor, Tony360X, Publicopinion, Festivaone, JayJasper, Robertson-Glasgow, Plasticup, LeroyVJunker, Alexb102072, Pimper~enwiki, Richard D. LeCour, BandG992, Rbakker99, Themoodyblue, Anabate, Kraftlos, Jakdax, Flatterworld, Aatomic1, Robertgreer, Charlesblack, Johndoe1225, Brendan19, Rextrim, Mkluge, Mat 1029, Jrcla2, Glacious, Dpm12, Cluten, Funnyguy123, Eaglestrike7339, Wesleycool, Sleeksleeksleek, Bobbizzle, Shentok, Foofighter20x, SBKT, Sjwk, HiEv, Trip Johnson, Gtg204y, DoubleEagle32, Kckid2599, Namekal, Knikster91, Darkfrog24, Scott Illini, Packerfansam, Andy Marchbanks, The first nobody, Schmidttyschmidtersen, UnitedStatesIndia, Bricology, Naturalog, Pnoble805, Halmstad, Scewing, Dpopnfreshw, Fbarton, Led Head 666, Brynulf, Idioma-bot, Mad1andchili, Will Bates, Funandtrvl, Ttothemac, Lookout rX, Bpplowman, Fharper1961, Fredd218, X!, Sam Blacketer, Dckymt86, Netmonger, Domous, ModRocker86, VolkovBot, Treldonman, Delma1, TreasuryTag, Milnivlek, Metallicaman2112, The deathmonkey, Orphic, Ssiegmund, Science4sail, Neohysterix, Taysonegbert, The Duke of Waltham, Jeff G., Jmrowland, X1starx, Tesscass, Firstorm, Butwhatdoiknow, AlnoktaBOT, Elbarto1193, PlaysInPeoria, Tmohr, Kyriosity, Grammarmonger, Flyingtoaster1337, Randomator, Joey Umbatz, Dkceaser, Dougie monty, Philip Trueman, Hrking, Teg4reven, Iginsberg08, TXiKiBoT, XavierGreen, Jeaniefur, Jakedaniel, Tavix, Zamphuor, BuickCenturyDriver, Xaedra, Tricky Victoria, Muddypuddles, MasterGundo, Jeremy221, Curiouscdngeorge, Miguel Chong, Mgard7331, Homerdudeasd, Razrboy, Maxkin, GcSwRhIc, Gerrish, Rashadara, Ptaul, Qxz, Someguy1221, X1a4muse, Acrostoa, Piperh, Andreas Kaganov, Theavgjoe, Aznshark4, John Carter, Nightnymph100, Tsmall2231, Danielc192, Alex1100, Adambear8888, Dereks1x, Pedvi, TorridTitan, RedAndr, Broadbot, Horselover90909, Supertask, Abdullais4u, CKeelty, Ehttamway, Manchurian candidate, Inventis, Mkpumphrey, Wassermann~enwiki, Thekey147, Rjm at sleepers, Singxmex2xsleep, Snowbot, Sexecutioner, Zmarquar13, Cerberus2007, Josephabradshaw, Gonçalo-Manuel, Iswan, Joewashere, Faliahdahn, Mimswheaties, 1fingerwillie, MearsMan, RadiantRay, Mesh920, Monsieurdl, Peterguy63, Eubulides, Sararaye, 88wolfmaster, Bigshotbeast, Billinghurst, Hoopsam, Patcong, Lerdthenerd, Amyford, Petero9, KurtKotzur, Tribulation725, Michelle192837, BobTheTomato, DrVerlucci, Happyme22, Fearlessfool, Walter p7, Redacteur, Александр Мотин, Jadine, Stephanolmedo, Batman082070, BobJhonson91, Falcon8765, Jake12109222, Bahamut0013, Burntsauce, K out14, MCTales, Seresin, Eclectic and Eccentric, Kakizaki, Coltman61, DL79OL, Littleweb1, The Devil’s Advocate, Justinh456, Entirelybs, Somepersonguy, Skittyboy, Mudora hoshi, Markmark28, Showers, Robbiedrobertson, AlleborgoBot, DiRocco, Symane, Hrishikes, Logan, Wizkid007freek, Purpl3spaz, Solicitr, CT Cooper, Brandon97, PAntoni, IndulgentReader, Thatswhatshesaid290, Axel--kh2, Teh C b0x, T5593, Bittertea~enwiki, EmxBot, Majensk, Beaster77, Travis12, Maysballa7, BartLIV, Rainbowkage, Zagnut15, The Random Editor, Trouble982, SieBot, Sgerrard08, Shyjayb, StAnselm, Bobkauss07, Madman, Jarebear23, Zeroman0923, Waldhorn, OberRanks, RockRNC, Tiddly Tom, Trumpetwalrus, Kernel Saunters, BotMultichill, Oldag07, Vicki75, Pcmacman11, Gerakibot, Mungo Kitsch, Dawn Bard, Bradjoe96, Chonniem, Td72777, Leatherwing, Wideeyedraven, Slim lizard, JohnWinterMadisonSouthDakota, Moose1794, Wscttwolfe, Bscwik, Dragonfis107, Srushe, Nowherenear1313, Merotoker1, Purbo T, Pi is 3.14159, Bloodobsession, Magicsprite, Scott147, Bobcrankins, McGrupp10799, Quest for Truth, Underpants x, Azzjiggla, The Evil Spartan, Sheeny567, SweetCarmen, Thehobbit19954, Socal gal at heart, Arbor to SJ, Terper, Blackhawk5000, Monegasque, Michael Blohm, CutOffTies, Darth Kalwejt, Dacheatcode, Clarkdude7, Sonicfan01, Ch10023, Shared Thought, Dumkoolman6121990, Antonio Lopez, Henry Delforn (old), Ekocekoc, SkyBlue eagle, Ninjasshoulddie, Smilesfozwood, Yluk, Vincentsharma, Baseball Bugs, 1.21 jigwatts, Davidxcookie, Yellowduck321, Zettlemoyer1, William Henry Harrison, Fearedhallmonitor, Jinix16, Lightmouse, Benvalle21, RSStockdale, Coolbro545, BreakTheEarth8263, Alex.muller, Lynntoniolondon, Kumioko (renamed), AuburnPiIot, G.-M. Cupertino, Reason turns rancid, Dimedude, Videmus Omnia, Lafuzion, Tom297, Rumbledog, Gwyncann, Andyknelson, Anchor Link Bot, Chilihead7, The Four Deuces, Doggy467, Jacob.jose, BradMajors, William Saturn, TaerkastUA, Jackf314, Florentino floro, Duffy2032, Brendel94, Doktorschley, Pinkadelica, Micov, Shinerunner, Iamwisesun, Tom Reedy, H1nkles, Jmesches, Finetooth, A21sauce, Randy Kryn, Mankind07, Myrvin, Peanutbtter11, Troy 07, Ermcki, ImageRemovalBot, MenoBot, Sfan00 IMG, Beeblebrox, MBK004, Renaculas, ClueBot, Volcom5347, MBD123, Fresh2def849, Avenged Eightfold, Binksternet, Mark Heiden, Milligan333, Kennvido, Cab.jones, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Leenunes, Fotoshop, Dudemanpeace, Butthead1031, Hult041956, Mx3, Cheetomuncher212, Redd Baron1, Boo1210, Grawp~enwiki, Grawp the Giant~enwiki, NolanCho, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Frmorrison, Higherededitor2, Hafspajen, DragonflyDC, Iconoclast.horizon, Hjaskater, Peanut4, Billyfutile, Harland1, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, Gerken918, Tsvb911, Grandgrawper~enwiki, Grandmastergrawp, Neverquick, Pedrofb19, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, Ujm90, Auntof6, CrazyLuca, Dillon262, Aua, DragonBot, Jfrager, Spindletree, Ktr101, Excirial, CrazyChemGuy, Congolese fufu, Brendan.Coffey, Cutsman3200, Bmckee13, Dertwev, V Verweij, Optiquest147, Phnxgurl20, Gtstricky, Leonard^Bloom, Nbrad3, Bchaosf, Ultimategamer44, The Founders Intent, Brochill17, Tmoney2677, Echion2, CAVincent, NuclearWarfare, Shadygrove95, Hoffmaz, Jeffschefke, Lawyer2056, Plasticmikey, Ybin94, JamieS93, Iohannes Animosus, 7&6=thirteen, Zamiel69, Durindaljb, M.O.X, Thekattlover, Premoslide, Alannikolai, Bentu, Epiphone324, JasonAQuest, Farternity, La Pianista, Wellsywuzhere13, Ldgunn1, Randolph Hutchins, John Paul Parks, Jfioeawfjdls453, Dumdog101, Clint0601, Thingg, Mprep18, Ben5467718, Nickkid218, Aitias, Cbb0912, Lord Cornwallis, Bigapple35, Moonlit Knight, Burner0718, Berean Hunter, Vybr8, StatesManship, Daniel1212, EstherLois, CODchess098, Jacksonkurtz, Pitt, Ender108, Superdbzfan123456, Mrsticky005, AgnosticPreachersKid, Fastily, Pichpich, GordonUS, Darth Anne Jaclyn Sincoff, Imagine Reason, Sherreyes, Wehsbandgeek09, Feinoha, Ay nako, Gotwot, Facts707, Skarebo, Corker1, SilvonenBot, Sam Chase, Bucsfan1423, MarmadukePercy, Mm40, Da stooges, Intel95, Gaga654, Soriaku234, Ammo amo, Superturtle3, Good Olfactory, Rhino93, TFBCT1, Spynder42, Primarypenguin, Bor25, Kbdankbot, HexaChord, Nxixnxjxa, Jhendin, Ryan-McCulloch, Chris1299, Jmgott, Brad the Raven, Abc Zc, Bazj, Fd1997, Hsuehc, Addbot, Paper Luigi, Stupidtree, Mr0t1633, Bleehmeeh, 321results, Willking1979, Brickbeard, RandySavageFTW, Babygirl4, Offenbach, Seipjere, Pres-scholar, Jojo99221, Jojhutton, The Twenty Thousand Tonne Bomb, Jaliren, Seantobin5, WilliamMThompson, Boston Collage ' 84, Drag9955, Pumpkinx0, Tromatical, Bkmays, Rklear, TutterMouse, Mukmak, KevinnNnNnNn, CanadianLinuxUser, Groundsquirrel13, Musdan77, Hockey2008, NjardarBot, Dtm824, Drlove436, Proxima Centauri, Tamr007, Thom443, AmericanAgrarian, Pie142, Souletrain, Bobeisman, AndersBot, Chzz, Roux, XRK, Favonian, Elite 34, Jfknrh, Hubub123, SamatBot, LinkFA-Bot, William (The Bill) Blackstone, Rosebuds25, Stevensettle, Squandermania, Goodoldgerda, Sklaye, Tassedethe, FlagFreak, Numbo3-bot, EricCable, Konstantinos~enwiki, Alanscottwalker, SDJ, Krano, Jafd88, Zorrobot, Swarm, Callie351, Galljoh, Yobot, VengeancePrime, Themfromspace, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, Rsquire3, Rmsmcd, Think-

366

CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

ingTwice, Evans1982, Victoriaearle, Mailer Daemons, 12george1, Pohick2, Magicpiano, Plasticbot, BoringHistoryGuy, Manzach, Dmarquard, Gunjones, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, PonileExpress, Floquenbeam, Bsimmons666, Galoubet, Jacinto-Miróbriga, HotHistoryBuff69, Xcollinsx24, Jopie78, Nemesis63, Materialscientist, Josephjames21, RadioBroadcast, Citation bot, Kieran4, Ruby2010, Guersk, GB fan, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Chip34254221, მოცარტი, Luuvabot, Connerite false mythology, Eivindsol, Capricorn42, Assassin60, GrandMattster, Purplebackpack89, Fishman343, Tad Lincoln, Tomwsulcer, BritishWatcher, Srich32977, Dcsheeran, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Coingeek, ProtectionTaggingBot, Ten-pint, Speednat, Factchecker1209, Lizardking009, Mychemicalprincess, B4llin4elves, Personrules, Krscal, A Quest For Knowledge, Drdpw, GhalyBot, DITWIN GRIM, Kiwan6750, Misortie, Earwax09, Green Cardamom, Tktru, FrescoBot, Amsterdam360, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Krj373, Esamhk, Dragonmooero, LavenhamHistorian, FkpCascais, Cdw1952, Comder, TheVirginiaHistorian, Unitanode, Erondites, Henswick, HJ Mitchell, Diabo147, Marmzok, Ben76266, PasswordUsername, Strangways, Freebirds, Cannolis, Jun Nijo, Failofbeener, Citation bot 1, Nyctc7, TJ13090, AstaBOTh15, Master Sima Yi, Videogeek32, I dream of horses, Spenaust, HRoestBot, PeteHastings, Martin Raybourne, Kingnickslick, Tinton5, 95j, Fat&Happy, GrapedApe, Lars Washington, Labrynthia9856, Motorizer, Cmguy777, Amthernandez, AKD157, Hessamnia, Ravensburg13, December21st2012Freak, Kgrad, FoxBot, Chachap, Meow77, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Bostonian Mike, NortyNort, Lotje, Drpvfx, Clarkcj12, Begoon, Chnou, DelLeslie, Specs112, WCCasey, Canuckian89, Diannaa, Racing18b, Romanlopez2011, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Jdshiznit, AYE R, Mean as custard, Arathjp, The Utahraptor, Ebanony, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Myownworst, Salvio giuliano, CalicoCatLover, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading, Adherent of the Enlightenment 10.0, Sky4t0k, Herbie290, Nima1024, GA bot, Pradhankk, Hantsheroes, Guyinsb, Gored82, Faolin42, GoingBatty, Active Banana, Bull Market, Gwillhickers, Not Accessible, Unklscrufy, The Mysterious El Willstro, Soccermom98, Shearonink, Evanh2008, TheGGoose, NearTheZoo, TheCarterVI, Thesituation32, Illegitimate Barrister, Rafandalucia, Davykamanzi, Usersame, Jenks24, Rhetoricus, Carsbrown1, Other Choices, 1234r00t, AndrewOne, Cymru.lass, Inniverse, UltimaRatio, Jess567, Seattle, Jpcase, Intelligentsock, MeriwetherLewis, Shaejustine, Τασουλα, CN3777, Sahimrobot, Dcn8943, Hoppyh, Accotink2, Alborzagros, Donner60, BBrad31, 2tuntony, Orange Suede Sofa, Adelson Velsky Landis, ChuispastonBot, Jordan3706, Llightex, Batmannanana, Oriolesfan8, Lord Gorbachev, Mankarse, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, TucsonDavid, CreatureKawa, C Saretto, Suid-Afrikaanse, Alexcoldcasefan, Tanbircdq, Lampoonsvacation, Jacksoncw, Nparm16, Jakeking12, Cassandrapybus, Wjjefferies, Themane2, Spartan7W, Slowking4, Frietjes, Corusant, Ndovu, Hazhk, Porkloinson, Auchansa, Runehelmet, Morgan Riley, Drewhunter14, Godwhale, Dibbun, WilliamJustinM, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Oklahoma3477, Jcwiki104, Sam-Tap, Calidum, Ryantang20, Theoldsparkle, Technical 13, Mochblu, BG19bot, MarkSonntag, TheLoverofLove, Quarkgluonsoup, Camott14, Richskim, Brade900, Wiki-art-name, Gallina3795, SugarRat, Jackie d. alarcón, Melotown, Cadiomals, 123pigs, Mottengott, Wikkicow, GMA7 Powers 2008, Lordmarmont, Nultiaaliyah1, Bokmanrocks01, Medo4, Zedshort, LFevas, Oct13, Matthew David González, Dezastru, REfreakk55, DrKilleMoff, Thecliffhanger64, Picojr, BattyBot, Plmnji, Dav subrajathan.357, HankW512, Ziggypowe, DemirBajraktarevic, ChrisGualtieri, Medo9, Khazar2, Esszet, EditorE, 23 editor, Winkelvi, Qexigator, Rubenplayer105, AutomaticStrikeout, All Worlds, Dexbot, Br'er Rabbit, Hmainsbot1, DaltonCastle, Texas123g, Cdctmom6712, Kennywood fan, Spicysenor, Zenkai5, Audiluver, Teerapap86, Pwoodfor, Bluebasket, Newsailormon, IngagedRedBird, TeriEmbrey, Zziccardi, REfreakk5555, Sureshkumarmalayil, Ashbeckjonathan, Captain Jake Smith, NathanWubs, Oude38Hond, Godot13, Londomollari42, Sengbe7, Sdetwiler, AmeliaMorgan, Msundqvist, Lindenhurst Liberty, RaphaelQS, CensoredScribe, Duane E. Tressler, Kuyi123w, Murus, Billybob2002, Wait4it, Hulkster1, Mandruss, Tracield, The Maigne Event, SNUGGUMS, AlexanderYuanata, MagicatthemovieS, Thecitizen1, Meteor sandwich yum, Vpilato, Rabdill, Jonas Vinther, CatcherStorm, Monkbot, Greedo8, Zacwill, Ephemeratta, Marcelo Armando, Erik L'Ensle, Malymilo, Ryanok23, Queenbwest, ChamithN, Tjdunn1979, Thegodwin, Aedokpayi, Navin98765, Apache107, Godsy, Zwaertje, Enoels, Khalid Nezami, Oldnewnew, Popish Plot, ElisonSeg, Wood24601, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, Dominator1453, Pixarfan192, Compassionate727, Dharahara, Neve-selbert, Kingshowman, Imzadi1979 (public), Hop on Bananas, Barbara (WVS) and Anonymous: 2261 • Gibbes Museum of Art Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbes_Museum_of_Art?oldid=699490149 Contributors: Dmadeo, Xezbeth, Fram, West Virginian, Bluebot, AlbertHerring, Rigadoun, Spyder Monkey, Tirkfl, Josephhubbard, Acroterion, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, KudzuVine, TheMindsEye, Strangerer, Laoris, Onesimus17, Leontios, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, ProfReader, Lotje, Doug Haynes, Coopersullivan, Kattia68, Handylane and Anonymous: 4 • Fireproof Building Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireproof_Building?oldid=690356099 Contributors: Topbanana, Orlady, Vegaswikian, Jaraalbe, Doncram, SmackBot, Gilliam, Hmains, Spazm, Ahering@cogeco.ca, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Alaibot, Spyder Monkey, Acroterion, Appraiser, KudzuVine, Hugo999, Kumioko (renamed), Old House Nut, Jfknrh, Vegaswikian1, Yobot, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, SCHS Vol, Elizabeth Linden Rahway, FrescoBot, ProfReader, Citation bot 1, Trappist the monk, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 4 • Nathaniel Russell House Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Russell_House?oldid=694246729 Contributors: Topbanana, Dmadeo, Shenme, Vegaswikian, Jaraalbe, Doncram, SmackBot, Hmains, DDima, Dogears, Mcginnly, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Wikid77, Appraiser, Jllm06, Doug Coldwell, KudzuVine, Pubdog, Cyfal, Medigosh, 7&6=thirteen, MelonBot, Lvklock, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Elizabeth Linden Rahway, ProfReader, Onel5969, Mahensingha, BattyBot, Monkbot, Landry76 and Anonymous: 2 • Gov. William Aiken House Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gov._William_Aiken_House?oldid=686407895 Contributors: Dmadeo, Vegaswikian, Jaraalbe, Doncram, Od Mishehu, Cydebot, Spyder Monkey, Appraiser, Jllm06, Nyttend, KudzuVine, Jameslwoodward, Pubdog, AnomieBOT, Elizabeth Linden Rahway, Bigweeboy, ProfReader, Full-date unlinking bot, Look2See1 and Anonymous: 3 • Heyward-Washington House Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyward-Washington_House?oldid=690527905 Contributors: Jaraalbe, Doncram, Od Mishehu, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Appraiser, Jllm06, Doug Coldwell, Waacstats, KudzuVine, Stepshep, Dudemanfellabra, Drpickem, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, ProfReader, Citation bot 1, Trappist the monk, DavidLeighEllis and Anonymous: 4 • Joseph Manigault House Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Manigault_House?oldid=691288508 Contributors: Doncram, Od Mishehu, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Appraiser, Jllm06, Waacstats, KudzuVine, Pubdog, Star Mississippi, Dudemanfellabra, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, ProfReader, Citation bot 1, Trappist the monk, Kind Tennis Fan, Vesuvius Dogg and Anonymous: 2 • City Market (Charleston, South Carolina) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Market_(Charleston%2C_South_Carolina) ?oldid=696227959 Contributors: Jaraalbe, Doncram, JonathanLamb, Exit2DOS2000, Hydrogen Iodide, Hmains, Chris the speller, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Alaibot, Spyder Monkey, Appraiser, Jllm06, Nyttend, KudzuVine, Bms4880, Old House Nut, Jfknrh, Vegaswikian1, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Purplebackpack89, ProfReader, Ufos8mycow00, BattyBot, Jkoa, Mattstone911, Coopersullivan and Anonymous: 1 • South Carolina Aquarium Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina_Aquarium?oldid=700051888 Contributors: Dan Koehl, Bearcat, Pearle, Cburnett, Kralizec!, Rjwilmsi, Eclipsael, RadioFan, JonathanLamb, Abune, Melchoir, Choalbaton, Akhenaton06, Ginkgo100, Brad101, Spyder Monkey, Barek, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Lightmouse, MattKeegan, Randy Kryn, Sun Creator,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

367

SchreiberBike, DumZiBoT, AnomieBOT, Sension, Donlammers, SCAquarium, GoingBatty, Bamyers99, Kdittloff, DoctorKubla, Agn106, JonathanThePrettiestPrincess and Anonymous: 10 • Fort Sumter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sumter?oldid=699835899 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, -- April, Lorax, Rgamble, JeLuF, Rmhermen, SimonP, Zoe, Isis~enwiki, Leandrod, Infrogmation, D, Ixfd64, Sannse, Darkwind, Jeandré du Toit, Samw, PaulinSaudi, Viajero, Choster, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Itai, VeryVerily, Topbanana, Pollinator, Hajor, Owen, Chuunen Baka, Bearcat, AlexPlank, Dmadeo, DarkHorizon, Hlj, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Lupin, Everyking, LockeShocke, Tagishsimon, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Daniel,levine, JimWae, Balcer, Husnock, Icairns, Acad Ronin, Flyhighplato, Jacooks, SYSS Mouse, Mike Rosoft, D6, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, User2004, Bender235, Rubicon, ESkog, Brian0918, Dpotter, ThierryVignaud, Aude, Jlin, Adambro, Bobo192, Stesmo, Whosyourjudas, Smalljim, TheProject, Darwinek, Pschemp, Lokifer, Jjron, Conny, Patsw, Alansohn, Gary, LtNOWIS, Andrewpmk, Hinotori, Mailer diablo, Bart133, Snowolf, Mário, Jason Palpatine, Nuggetboy, Before My Ken, MONGO, Tabletop, Xiong Chiamiov, Prashanthns, Theo F, Jbarta, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, DePiep, Jclemens, Rjwilmsi, Eoghanacht, Vary, RobAtSGH, Feydey, Gareth McCaughan, Bubba73, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, EvanSeeds, WillC, Godlord2, NekoDaemon, Leslie Mateus, ViriiK, King of Hearts, Scott Mingus, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Elfguy, Sceptre, Xoloz, DanMS, C777, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Cryptic, Cpuwhiz11, Kimchi.sg, NawlinWiki, Astral, Rjensen, THB, ToddC4176, Semperf, MaxVeers, Gadget850, Psy guy, Bota47, BusterD, Elkman, Yabbadab, FF2010, Calcwatch, Mainstreetmark, Petri Krohn, Whobot, Ilmari Karonen, Moomoomoo, NeilN, Preschooler.at.heart, Luk, TravisTX, SmackBot, Haza-w, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kimon, Vald, Jacek Kendysz, Delldot, HalfShadow, Aksi great, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Ppntori, Durova, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Master of Puppets, SchfiftyThree, Droll, The Rogue Penguin, Jfsamper, Ctbolt, Baa, Locriani, Darth Panda, Nigel of the North, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tamfang, OrphanBot, Xeeron, Araker, Backspace, Addshore, Elendil’s Heir, Crboyer, Aldaron, Kobe808lak, Dreadstar, DMacks, Drc79, DDima, Pilotguy, ArglebargleIV, Winternest, Cbaer, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle, CPAScott, RandomCritic, Slakr, Peterbr~enwiki, Optakeover, Funnybunny, Dymaxionpete, Hu12, BranStark, Iridescent, Theone00, Tmangray, Bafu1234, Octane, Dp462090, CapitalR, Richard75, Geeman, Tawkerbot2, Jh12, Kevin Murray, SkyWalker, HennessyC, JForget, Mattbr, Dycedarg, Unionhawk, KyraVixen, Benwildeboer, FlyingToaster, Mcdonis, Yopienso, Hydraton31, Nebular110, Roger3b, DrunkenSmurf, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, Flowerpotman, Corpx, Bazzargh, DumbBOT, Stealth shade, Jporteous, Ebyabe, Spyder Monkey, Epbr123, Wikid77, O, A3RO, Sinn, Philippe, Dpenguinman, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Widefox, Seaphoto, Nipisiquit, Bakabaka, North Shoreman, Spartaz, Jaredroberts, Kresock, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Skomorokh, Epeefleche, Nthep, Instinct, Stonnman, RastaKins, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Rick.Wicks, Desertsky85451, PhilKnight, WolfmanSF, Staib, VoABot II, JNW, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Jllm06, Singularity, Aka042, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, DerHexer, JaGa, Gjd001, S3000, Hdt83, MartinBot, Poeloq, GeorgHH, Tholly, Anaxial, Sm8900, Johnpacklambert, Methaz, Tgeairn, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, Ali, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, SU Linguist, Brother Officer, Darkspots, Ncmvocalist, Janus Shadowsong, Dskluz, Richardlender, Jayden54, Luckyme5889, NewEnglandYankee, Brian Pearson, Olegwiki, Juliancolton, Jamesontai, KudzuVine, Useight, Gertrudethetramp, Idiomabot, Deor, King Lopez, Philip Trueman, SamMichaels, BWMSDogs, Jdcrutch, Ann Stouter, JayC, Lradrama, Clarince63, Leafyplant, Justintime516, Ninkendo, Broadbot, Omar12345678, LeaveSleaves, Cremepuff222, CO, Alosta~enwiki, Cooley5758, Packerdude29, Why Not A Duck, Fischer.sebastian, Logan, Jehorn, Allen Info, Nicvaroce, SieBot, Hertz1888, Samuel14, Caltas, Yintan, Snowy135, Keilana, Phasmophage, Flyer22 Reborn, Dan knigge, Radon210, Oda Mari, Sf46, Six3rd, Tlc356, Granf, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Alex.muller, Bobman100, Japman5, Kumioko (renamed), Dadshouse9230, HaploTR, Hamiltondaniel, Maralia, Dabomb87, Pinkadelica, Explicit, SallyForth123, ClueBot, LAX, Binksternet, Care Alto, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Pi zero, Arakunem, Jimstudt, Niceguyedc, Parkwells, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Neverquick, I am a violinist, Gakusha, Excirial, Quercus basaseachicensis, Jusdafax, Neuenglander, Noneforall, Monobi, Junglerot56, PaulSacia, The Red, Froogle62, Stepheng3, Remark knights, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Pzoxicuvybtnrm, Durtball, Berean Hunter, Johnuniq, Robshenk, Tuxlie, Mstuczynski, Aaronrocks1993, Gerhardvalentin, Yobozo, Mifter, Chiweenershnitzel, Noctibus, MarmadukePercy, Iloveteach, Vianello, RedHand777, Yah, Trick, Yah, HexaChord, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The, Addbot, Dicforeabe, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, XDXDDXDXD, G J Lee, Friginator, Binary TSO, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Atmndz1993, Ka Faraq Gatri, Doomboy29, Jacksh12, Favonian, Jfknrh, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Mdnavman, DJdashSecret, Tassedethe, Hcquest, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Teles, Zorrobot, PennySpender1983, LuK3, Luckasbot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Arla, Troymacgill, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Healthycarpets, DemocraticLuntz, IRP, Piano non troppo, Ismashed, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, MauritsBot, Sketchmoose, Wikiman208, Capricorn42, Jsharpminor, Tyrol5, -Lt.Frag-, Mathonius, N419BH, FrescoBot, Lightning12, Midnight skunk, Recognizance, ProfReader, Hater1522, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Baseball9164, Σ, Admiral capn, Vrenator, Run4w4y, Phil A. Fry, Volga2, Canuckian89, Ob92gy, Hlecroy, Beyond My Ken, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Mtirrell38, Immunize, Apaleutos25, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, K6ka, Godhatesyou, ZéroBot, John Cline, Daonguyen95, Josve05a, Cesorteils, Dilln321, Cyberdog958, MALLUS, Ibanezrp55, Palaeozoic99, DASHBotAV, USAFPilot83, USAFzoo94, ClueBot NG, WJFJ, MelbourneStar, Adville, Tcordero42, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Blueluke234, Twilightlover22, Lowercase sigmabot, Afeen1315, Alfred899, Bman210, MusikAnimal, JReedy93, AwamerT, Joydeep, Snow Blizzard, Hjkff, Baby pig 10101, Teammm, ChrisGualtieri, Mrskull1113, Noobocalypse, Tedman79, Dexbot, Webclient101, Makecat-bot, Lugia2453, Frosty, Fox2k11, The Triple M, Thechanger1010, BananaKing123, Tanman5, Tirubixninja314, Acetotyce, Eyesnore, Duane E. Tressler, Kodman21, Gofinsc, WikiTroller Swagger, JacobTyler636, Lchski, Valetude, MSD55, Ginsuloft, RobDuch, AlysonMansfield, Ilovepuppies10000, Rightman529, Jdoss46, Vieque, BethNaught, Monopoly31121993, Mark rocka, FartDragon111, ISpeakThereforeIAm, Amortias, AJ4412, Madrocker15, Dgdgdgdgdgdgdgdgdgdg, Sarr Cat, Omggeorge777, Travelfilms1, DevDoge, Notlynnr, Shhsshhsshhshshshshshshs, Hermionedidallthework, Scduiatty, Asdfghjkl sami and Anonymous: 943 • The Battery (Charleston) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battery_(Charleston)?oldid=686052884 Contributors: SimonP, Sj, AlistairMcMillan, Alansohn, Eubot, Scott Mingus, RussBot, Gjs238, Ohnoitsjamie, Rcbutcher, Uviolet, DDima, Hu12, A Softer Answer, RobotG, Arch dude, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Vanished user 342562, Piratedan, Evan72284, Berean Hunter, Ost316, MarmadukePercy, GeckoRoamin, Vishnava, Alanscottwalker, Lightbot, Yngvadottir, AnomieBOT, ProfReader, DrilBot, SpencerM, BattyBot and Anonymous: 20 • Rainbow Row Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_Row?oldid=665525046 Contributors: Edward, Bearcat, Remember, Stemonitis, SmackBot, EdGl, Rigadoun, Spyder Monkey, Kathovo, Niagara, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Fabrictramp, WarthogDemon, Something Original, Philip Trueman, MarmadukePercy, LilHelpa, ProfReader, Esirwin, ClueBot NG, SpencerM, BattyBot, 069952497a, Bhapgood, Jeffr8306 and Anonymous: 17 • Charleston Battery Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Battery?oldid=700004292 Contributors: Rmhermen, Secretlondon, JB82, Guanaco, Chris Edgemon, Dryazan, LindsayH, MPerel, Walter Görlitz, Kitch, Camw, Trödel, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, BobbyAFC, JdforresterBot, NekoDaemon, Chobot, RussBot, Gateman1997, Awiseman, Red Jay, Fram, Elliskev, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Djln, Muboshgu, ChrisTheDude, Dancreel, Otav347, Iridescent, JaMikePA, GiantSnowman, Theasfl, Jogurney, Jstein16, Cydebot, Hebrides, ST47, JonBroxton, Thijs!bot, Christfollower2486, Littlefatboy, Bill Oaf, Thegoz, Tom Danson, GaryVH, Gruesome Gary, Henryong, ClubO-

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CHAPTER 89. OLD SLAVE MART

ranje, Johnpacklambert, Stew jones, Jonesy702, A18919, Mohrflies, VolkovBot, Dj nix, Happy5214, Bernstein2291, Cocoa68, PSHSSoccerDog3, Maza1987, C. Gerstle, GrouchoPython, Melkahb, A1ninon27, Hcooper1, Monkee102, Niceguyedc, Peanut4, 718 Bot, Excirial, Gialloneri, Zombie433, Berean Hunter, Naenia42, Addbot, AttoRenato, MartinezMD, Chasnet, LaaknorBot, Mikemor92, Chemtiger05, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, Bort08, AnomieBOT, Digthetruth, LilHelpa, Spider68, Purplebackpack89, Fhurion, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Seabear84, Fixer88, B2project, BuckeyeTony, Rupert1904, Diannaa, Hollywouldz, WildBot, ZéroBot, IncredibleSE, ClueBot NG, Bubbagump24, Simione001, Delusion23, Quidster4040, UncleTupelo1, Joeykai, Cf32, BattyBot, Atban3000, Chillstep89, Savvyjack23, Bmf 051, Patrick O'Canada, Chaloagarcia, NewMindcracker, CUA 27, Dsm mls, Watanabe770 and Anonymous: 126 • Charleston Southern University Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Southern_University?oldid=694521498 Contributors: Tregoweth, Choster, SEWilco, Danaman5, Kamezuki, ElKevbo, Naraht, WillC, Jaraalbe, Mrainwater, RussBot, Icarus3, UNCCTF, Moe Epsilon, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, Masonpatriot, Coolsc81, Muboshgu, OrphanBot, DMacks, IronGargoyle, Fuzzy510, Peter Horn, Hu12, Billy Hathorn, CmdrObot, THF, Cydebot, Dynaflow, DumbBOT, Spyder Monkey, JustAGal, Freddiem, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Jessicapierce, Animum, Grey Wanderer, Absolon, Mikenucklesii, CommonsDelinker, Johnpacklambert, Johnluisocasio, Geologik, AntiSpamBot, Funandtrvl, Hammersoft, Jrborchik, John Carter, Broadbot, Madaretnuh40, Jeffyoung007, Lightmouse, Lauracs, Mr. Stradivarius, ClueBot, Arjayay, Lord Butler, Csubuccaneers, XLinkBot, KingRaven44, Cmr08, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The, Addbot, JaredFox58, Kithira, Ditwwildw, YellowFives, Crazytrain1000, John of Reading, Photoguy007, DKHardee, Dcw199, Fæ, Donner60, Kevbodavidson, Coolnights, Mydogtryed, Scudder1205, ClueBot NG, Sonya10010, Widr, Sheikahob, Roghue, Fille liberté, CharlestonSouthern, Mogism, Corkythehornetfan, 1Icedmocha, NC4PK, Siegestaiddrip, Esquivalience, Anonymousotwp and Anonymous: 60 • Charleston School of Law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_School_of_Law?oldid=694231806 Contributors: Neutrality, Ukexpat, Xezbeth, Kbh3rd, Stesmo, TommyBoy, Tabletop, Mandarax, BD2412, Tarfu92, Taco325i, DeadEyeArrow, Goose1011a, SmackBot, Masonpatriot, Thunder8, Bluebot, Fuhghettaboutit, Ballpointzen, Eastlaw, TRPhillips, Rudjek, Cydebot, Spyder Monkey, Bolman Deal, Bobblehead, Minronnee, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Mysteryquest, Keith D, Johnpacklambert, Autolykos2, J.delanoy, Uncle Dick, KudzuVine, Ja 62, Dabomb87, Fyyer, Drmies, Rockfang, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Favonian, Tassedethe, Drpickem, Yobot, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Srich32977, E0steven, Griffinofwales, ProfReader, Caljohnston, Gamecock84, Merongb10, Charlestonlawprof, Thecheesykid, Fæ, H3llBot, Charlestonbarrister2009, Manchild842002, Jchou69, Mark Arsten, Audrebecca, EasyDZ, Lmmilton, BattyBot, Melonkelon, Stamptrader, KTChs and Anonymous: 108 • Bed and breakfast Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_and_breakfast?oldid=694693903 Contributors: Rmhermen, SimonP, Hephaestos, Edward, Modster, Fred Bauder, SGBailey, Stan Shebs, Dysprosia, Wik, Scott Sanchez, Robbot, Moondyne, Nurg, Gidonb, Pdxgoat, Dmmaus, Zoney, Stevietheman, CryptoDerk, Sonjaaa, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Canterbury Tail, Shiftchange, Quill, Discospinster, Brianhe, Pavel Vozenilek, Mwanner, Deathawk, Firespeaker, Luckyluke, Alansohn, Keepsleeping, Stephan Leeds, SteinbDJ, Ingrid-bakker, Simetrical, Woohookitty, Dowew, Dmol, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Vegaswikian, Tbone, DirkvdM, SchuminWeb, Florian Huber, Redwolf24, Scimitar, DaGizza, Guliolopez, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Slucas, RussBot, LeftSideWays, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, Baijupaul, Elkman, Stoptheright, Magister, GraemeL, Jpavery, Argos’Dad, Captain Proton, Veinor, Amalthea, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, David.Mestel, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, Ctbolt, Da Vynci, Jahiegel, Shalom Yechiel, Jameslove, Threeafterthree, Kntrabssi, EVula, Ctreddy, Nishkid64, Mouse Nightshirt, Kuru, Khazar, Phoebusapollo, Vanished user ih3rjk324jdei2, Beefyt, Iridescent, J Di, Gilabrand, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Reservedforgreatness, Steel, Gogo Dodo, Wordbuilder, JFreeman, Torc2, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Ken Pope, X201, M0ffx, Gaimhreadhan, Quackenbush, AntiVandalBot, Format, Quintote, JackTheTrader, Maison DuBois, Martinv, Innhost, Dreaded Walrus, Barek, Albany NY, Ipoellet, Appraiser, Mxs, Nyttend, Theroadislong, Jonnyfarley, Hillcrest, Marieprecious, Siswrn, Arjun01, Jim.henderson, Emeraude, Orchid1SN, Herbythyme, TeresaSz, Cheryl verstrate, Johnbod, Gliebe, Sebwite, Warut, Mali1969, Jankon, Philbrumby, W. Frank, Funandtrvl, Bovineboy2008, Kakoui, DancingMan, GDonato, Wikidemon, Sintaku, Bumblerbee13, SchumiChamp, SieBot, Crcaudle, EwokiWiki, Caffm8, Hismightiness, GlassCobra, Keilana, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, RW Marloe, SimonTrew, Sanya3, Bgarvan, OKBot, Ken123BOT, Rohitashwam, Gnew18, Denisarona, Quoth nevermore~enwiki, Quick Reference, Escape Orbit, Bee and bee, Invertzoo, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, B1atv, Hadrianheugh, Raeyos, GarryMann, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Jbanczak, Jusdafax, PixelBot, Travelegia, Vamshi 12345, Alistair.macgregor, IJA, Apparition11, Dubositive, Boleyn, BarretB, TimTay, XLinkBot, Iambbl, Pichpich, Bobobriggs, Dreiners~enwiki, Vianello, Riddick303, Websi7, Everydayidiot, Addbot, Hermanfrog, Atethnekos, Mfullenkamp, Ehrenkater, Peridon, Tide rolls, Belozan, Cardabelle, Luckasbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, RonelleLaetitia, Jim1138, Traveling botanist, Jeff Muscato, Jkarennj, Materialscientist, Quebec99, Innkeeper1955, Mlevitt1, Waffle32, Plumbernick, RibotBOT, OBO7, Eugene-elgato, Cscheney, AtelierCentrum, Knowalll, Waterfles16, Rosemetijs, Louperibot, Czarpon, Bluefish1960, Myfakename, Full-date unlinking bot, Twiggaland, Ronaatje, Trappist the monk, Sweet xx, AHeneen, Lotje, Vrenator, Fastilysock, BBFAA, RjwilmsiBot, Skamecrazy123, DASHBot, Travelbed, John of Reading, Bnb4delhi, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Mar4d, Xxitsjustme, Erianna, Bbasar, Wikiloes, Mad137, EdoBot, ClueBot NG, DavidStewart85, Rich Smith, Xena0087, Vibhijain, Bluebellsandseashells, Desnobo, Engel.roi, Joando, Snow Blizzard, Giuliano giannone, Aliwal2012, Khazar2, K7L, Mogism, Lubnaalmas, Lugia2453, SFK2, Tomato expert1, Sztigu, Jodosma, Michael-bnb, Blessings.Jaipur, Robertsarner, JaconaFrere, Thatkitten, Hel0000001, MP3 BOY, KH-1, Drmrc, Aninaj13, Kenschutz and Anonymous: 265 • Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Ravenel_Jr._Bridge?oldid=694502467 Contributors: Edward, Nv8200pa, Bearcat, Dale Arnett, Bobblewik, Qui1che, ChrisRuvolo, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, TMC1982, Remuel, Zippanova, JeremyA, Uris, BD2412, Attitude2000, Wahkeenah, The wub, Elminster~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, DanKohn, Jo Bo, Brymc81, GraemeL, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kungfuadam, West Virginian, C.Fred, Zyxw, Gjs238, Cheesy mike, Hmains, Chris the speller, Dual Freq, Egsan Bacon, Dream out loud, Brando03, Starmerf, Rossodio, VerruckteDan, BigMacSC99, 10ta, Tawkerbot2, Confusedbee, Gregory Arkadin, Cydebot, Teratornis, DanTD, Dawnseeker2000, NE2, LongBay, Nyttend, LorenzoB, Patriarca12, GeorgHH, CommonsDelinker, DH85868993, Philip Trueman, Hqb, Drappel, Tward2010, Rontrigger, Scgatorfan, MunkyJuce69, Lightmouse, Vizzini101, Jusdafax, Connah0047, Tgbotg, XLinkBot, Addbot, Morriswa, Lightbot, PennySpender1983, Lemonsquares, Kansas59, AnomieBOT, Ncpd727, Addihockey10, FrescoBot, Lexandalf, Imgaril, AvocatoBot, Surfer43, ArmbrustBot, OccultZone, 360heels, Colby Gleason, Pdgabriel, Filedelinkerbot, John T. McF. Mood, Lizziebeth10, RosemaryCatherine, Misternails and Anonymous: 73 • John P. Grace Memorial Bridge Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_P._Grace_Memorial_Bridge?oldid=675534248 Contributors: Samw, Dina, Nickptar, D6, DS1953, Cacophony, Darwinek, Jonathunder, Grutness, KrisW6, Mark Sublette, Jaraalbe, Howcheng, Jo Bo, Gjs238, Hmains, MPD01605, B00P, OOODDD, Starmerf, VerruckteDan, CmdrObot, Cydebot, DanTD, Joe Schmedley, NE2, Jllm06, Animum, Sawblade5, Patriarca12, Hqb, Templetonbennett, Scgatorfan, MunkyJuce69, Xnatedawgx, ImageRemovalBot, Auntof6, Morriswa, Lightbot, PennySpender1983, AnomieBOT, ProfReader, DReifGalaxyM31, Full-date unlinking bot, Kobepedia, BattyBot, Monkbot, Colby Gleason, Tebvette and Anonymous: 21 • Port of Charleston Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Charleston?oldid=693599597 Contributors: Uviolet, Spyder Monkey, The Anomebot2, Funandtrvl, AnomieBOT, K6ka, Nallisonskipper, Scsu76 and Anonymous: 6

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• Awendaw, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awendaw%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=670372975 Contributors: RamMan, Rambot, Pollinator, Seth Ilys, Klemen Kocjancic, KevinBot, Art LaPella, Acntx, Pearle, John Cardinal, Jo Bo, Gadget850, Fang Aili, Ward99, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, MJCdetroit, Uviolet, New World Man, BayRadioDJ, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, WilliamJE, CmdrObot, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Bechaboo, Spyder Monkey, Thijs!bot, JustAGal, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, LongBay, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, CommonsDelinker, RoboMaxCyberSem, SieBot, DJ Jones74, BotMultichill, Pubdog, PipepBot, Ottawahitech, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, GFHandel, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Cmr08, Addbot, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, DemocraticLuntz, RibotBOT, PluffMudd, Abductive, Ammodramus, Bossanoven, SporkBot, BG19bot, JYBot, Makecat-bot, Btcsc, American Money and Anonymous: 33 • Cottageville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottageville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=670373238 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Seth Ilys, KevinBot, Pearle, John Cardinal, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Droll, Ken Gallager, Jllm06, Nyttend, Islandisee, VolkovBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, DemocraticLuntz, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, Tinton5, Beyond My Ken, SporkBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 2 • Folly Beach, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folly_Beach%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=698285349 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, John K, Seth Ilys, Trafton, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, John Cardinal, Wrh2, Lincolnite, Syrthiss, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, MJCdetroit, JHunterJ, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Pajz, Floridasand, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, Mattloda, CommonsDelinker, Johnpacklambert, NC Ranger, 8th Ohio Volunteers, Eliz81, RoboMaxCyberSem, Bms4880, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Cmr08, Addbot, Tyw7, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, DemocraticLuntz, Nasnema, Justthefacts92, MGA73bot, Tbhotch, EmausBot, FaceMash, ZéroBot, SporkBot, Taueres, Mydogtryed, Iceman1978, BG19bot, Follitics, JYBot, Makecat-bot, Lkeadle, Sparky696969 and Anonymous: 30 • Hanahan, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanahan%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=699306401 Contributors: RamMan, Rambot, John K, WhisperToMe, Rich Farmbrough, KevinBot, Acntx, Giraffedata, Pearle, Compo, Tedder, Gwernol, Wavelength, Phantomsteve, Alex Bakharev, Wimt, Gadget850, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Rlevse, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Shizane, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, AntiVandalBot, Guy Macon, NE2, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, Inkan1969, Islandisee, Johnpacklambert, PlanitTide, Rei-bot, Saber girl08, Leafyplant, Thefairclarinetistofhanahan, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Hubertfarnsworth, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, DemocraticLuntz, JackieBot, Gamera1123, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, Hillarin, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, BG19bot, Mifter Public, JYBot, Makecat-bot, Bspearman, MAC29410, Scsu76, Srednuas Lenoroc and Anonymous: 30 • Goose Creek, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goose_Creek%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=696949425 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Jschwa1, John K, WhisperToMe, Seth Ilys, Everyking, Gzornenplatz, Kate, MikesLogic, Drmagic, Acntx, Grutness, BD2412, DzCepheus, Tedder, Alex Bakharev, Big Brother 1984, Gadget850, SmackBot, Pfly, Edgar181, Müslimix, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, MTBradley, General Ization, Djharrity, WilliamJE, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, DBaba, Thijs!bot, JustAGal, Barek, Farful, LongBay, Jllm06, Tedickey, Jim Douglas, Nyttend, Islandisee, Johnpacklambert, Omnipotence407, J.delanoy, RoboMaxCyberSem, Bonadea, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, EoGuy, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Thingg, Rl81566, Addbot, Maneec, Lightbot, Xenobot, History press, Legobot, Luckas-bot, PMLawrence, DemocraticLuntz, Sunnychiva, Materialscientist, Gamera1123, RibotBOT, Hushpuckena, Hillarin, RjwilmsiBot, SporkBot, ChuispastonBot, Mydogtryed, Simpsonsfan127, Ganthiger, Corbinellington, DarafshBot, Magic.towers, Makecat-bot, Magnolia677, JaconaFrere, Wheelman818, SCDiva101, Charestonscnative, 69boats, Scsu76, Ellis1960, Tndadet and Anonymous: 52 • Harleyville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harleyville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=698393845 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Seth Ilys, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, John Cardinal, Rjwilmsi, SmackBot, Gilliam, Hmains, Bluebot, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Jllm06, Nyttend, Islandisee, RoboMaxCyberSem, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Breezensc, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, DemocraticLuntz, RibotBOT, Ebrambot, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, JYBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 6 • Hollywood, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=671416376 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Seth Ilys, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, Supersaiyanplough, Cryptic, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Droll, MJCdetroit, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, N5iln, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, Islandisee, SieBot, BotMultichill, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, DemocraticLuntz, RibotBOT, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, DarafshBot, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 13 • Isle of Palms, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Palms%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=696590249 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, John K, Seth Ilys, Kainaw, Trafton, KevinBot, CanisRufus, Remember, Acntx, Pearle, Derondantzler, Nuggetboy, Rtdrury, Bluemoose, Tydaj, Wrh2, DJ Silverfish, Rjwilmsi, Tedder, Sharkface217, Tadanisakari, Wavelength, RussBot, Ray Yallop, Kookykman, Zav, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, MJCdetroit, Seduisant, DDima, Civil Engineer III, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, Islandisee, Seba5618, MoodyGroove, VolkovBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Hubertfarnsworth, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Cybersprocket~enwiki, Tiburon2674, Beth3004, Cmr08, Lauren74irmo, Addbot, Morriswa, Lightbot, Xenobot, Legobot, Islandeye, DemocraticLuntz, Bettelli, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, Ammodramus, Islander843, Bossanoven, ZéroBot, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, Carlstak, Clarkhills93, IOPtoday, JYBot, Makecat-bot, Lkeadle, Coopersullivan, Gronk Oz, Brookebc and Anonymous: 34 • James Island, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=694911173 Contributors: LouI, Zeimusu, Rich Farmbrough, Acntx, ClementSeveillac, Wtmitchell, SmackBot, C.Fred, Allixpeeke, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Jnelson09, CmdrObot, DeLarge, Cydebot, Chasingsol, Spyder Monkey, JamesAM, A3RO, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, Seaphoto, Sthenbelle, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, Emeraude, CommonsDelinker, Headinthedoor, Madcrasher, MoodyGroove, Pubdog, Connah0047, Cmr08, Addbot, Morriswa, LAAFan, Nolelover, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Carolina wren, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Everwatchful, Streetlaw, Wiki Ed 539, Wiki Ed 544, Wiki Ed 315, MrKnozit, Eugene-elgato, Gamecockfan2001, JIResident, Full-date unlinking bot, John of Reading, GoingBatty, Midas02, Xj220sc, Mydogtryed, JIslander, ClueBot NG, WHOKNOWSALL, Tutelary, Lkeadle, Vycl1994, Kahtar, Coopersullivan, ToonLucas22, Zagmaggie, Johnh71711 and Anonymous: 44 • Meggett, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meggett%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=670373880 Contributors: RamMan, Rambot, Seth Ilys, Bender235, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, RainbowOfLight, John Cardinal, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, MJCdetroit, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Worker31b, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, CommonsDelinker, RoboMaxCyberSem, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Pubdog, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Bunnyhop11, DemocraticLuntz, EmausBot, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, BG19bot, Makecat-bot, American Money and Anonymous: 5

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• Ridgeville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridgeville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=698491909 Contributors: RamMan, Rambot, WhisperToMe, Seth Ilys, KevinBot, Acntx, Mysdaao, John Cardinal, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Jllm06, Nyttend, RoboMaxCyberSem, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Pubdog, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Vini 17bot5, DemocraticLuntz, EmausBot, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, Makecat-bot and Anonymous: 4 • Rockville, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockville%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=670374181 Contributors: RamMan, Rambot, Seth Ilys, Trafton, Rich Farmbrough, KevinBot, Acntx, John Cardinal, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Quinsareth, Syrcatbot, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, Islandisee, RoboMaxCyberSem, SieBot, Pubdog, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Efy96001, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, DemocraticLuntz, EmausBot, Jorge c2010, SporkBot, Mydogtryed, BG19bot, Nrholt, JYBot, Makecat-bot and American Money • Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullivan’{}s_Island%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=699250334 Contributors: Wheat, Ram-Man, Rambot, Tusixoh, Dino, WhisperToMe, Pollinator, DocWatson42, Kainaw, Dvavasour, Trafton, Rich Farmbrough, Dour High Arch, KevinBot, Acntx, Intelligence3, TommyBoy, Skyring, Kazvorpal, Robballan, John Cardinal, Tydaj, Graham87, Wars, Tedder, DanMS, Welsh, Howcheng, JonathanLamb, Pawyilee, Ray Yallop, SmackBot, C.Fred, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jutta234, Nbarth, Srsjones, Thomson200, MJCdetroit, Backspace, Mitchumch, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Syrcatbot, EdK, Iridescent, Jonathanjohnson, Andkore, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, AntiVandalBot, Worker31b, Midnightdreary, Magioladitis, Jllm06, Nyttend, MetsBot, Islandisee, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Danalpha, KudzuVine, Ehop, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, BotMultichill, SuzanneIAM, Pubdog, RaysFan31, Parkwells, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, Sun Creator, 7&6=thirteen, Cmr08, Lauren74irmo, Addbot, Morriswa, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Islandeye, Yobot, Amirobot, DemocraticLuntz, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Cresix, Hoopsman40, Lotje, Islander843, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Mcoste, SporkBot, Tarheel 2010, ChuispastonBot, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, GnudiRicotta, TheSinator, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Candleabracadabra, Clarkhills93, JaneOlds, Khazar2, Makecat-bot, Archiebunker2013, Lkeadle, Steveindazone, Jamesincalifornia, Julmardon and Anonymous: 66 • Walterboro, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walterboro%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=689036405 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, John K, Topbanana, Seth Ilys, Michael Devore, Bumm13, KevinBot, Acntx, Mindmatrix, John Cardinal, Koavf, NawlinWiki, Gadget850, JLaTondre, Aoa8212, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Miquonranger03, Addshore, Dstep357, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Bwmoll3, IronGargoyle, WilliamJE, Billy Hathorn, Anthony22, Ken Gallager, Semaj843, Thijs!bot, Eastmain, DanTD, NE2, Worker31b, Acroterion, Jllm06, Tedickey, Nyttend, Islandisee, PrestonH, J.delanoy, Athaenara, Leslyek115, RoboMaxCyberSem, Jrcla2, Pdcook, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, DJ Jones74, Dough4872, BotMultichill, Cmerioles, Lightmouse, StaticGull, Hubertfarnsworth, Gloss, Detroiterbot, CapitalBot, BOTarate, Dark Mage, Cmr08, Addbot, Truthunter, CanadianLinuxUser, Lightbot, Ellenfender, Theo Jeffries, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Cdamgen, DemocraticLuntz, WilliamWQuick, Xqbot, Luckyhat92, Talk2mejjv, RibotBOT, Hushpuckena, Recognizance, Calmer Waters, Bmclaughlin9, Sobriant74, Dfitch16, Yameka, Bollyjeff, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, BG19bot, Ymblanter, 2Flows, JYBot, Makecat-bot, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Tentinator, William Jeffries, Javajuice225 and Anonymous: 51 • Cross, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=654705961 Contributors: Hmains, RFD, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Woodshed, Ken Gallager, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Katharineamy, Pubdog, TheCatalyst31, The Blade of the Northern Lights, AvicAWB, SporkBot, Chente1989, Shire Reeve and Anonymous: 2 • Dewees Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewees_Island?oldid=697550708 Contributors: Geary, Bearcat, Bobblewik, Jonathunder, Miserlou, Briaboru, CambridgeBayWeather, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Backspace, Mini-Geek, CmdrObot, MarshBot, AntiVandalBot, Jllm06, Islandguy275, Peter K Burian, Podsednik22, AirDan20, BrainMarble, Leszek Jańczuk, Xqbot, Bossanoven, RebaLee74, Dorhout, BG19bot, PaintedCarpet, RscprinterBot, Deweesislander, Reggie Fairchild and Anonymous: 14 • Edisto Island, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edisto_Island%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=672926227 Contributors: Ram-Man, Rambot, Rich Farmbrough, KevinBot, Acntx, Pearle, Aranae, John Cardinal, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Backspace, Seduisant, Lambiam, TastyPoutine, WilliamJE, Fogdog59, Ken Gallager, Epbr123, JustAGal, Dougher, Jllm06, Andrewnpeters, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Jcm4, SieBot, Pubdog, Ken123BOT, Parkwells, Detroiterbot, Ktr101, CapitalBot, Kumachan, Cmr08, Addbot, Tjlynnjr, Qwrk, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Cdamgen, Materialscientist, Basvb, Chicagocubs17528, Ironben, EmausBot, ZéroBot, SporkBot, Joeturd, Donner60, Frietjes, Floating Boat, Buzzards-Watch Me Work, Edistowillie, American Money, Coopersullivan, RKleinNYC, Edisto869 and Anonymous: 30 • Morris Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Island?oldid=645468186 Contributors: Choster, Bearcat, RedWolf, Thehappysmith, Bobblewik, D6, Arcuras, Xezbeth, CanisRufus, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Before My Ken, OpenToppedBus, Scott Mingus, Bgwhite, UniReb, MaxVeers, JLaTondre, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, Bbq332, VMS Mosaic, Backspace, Akagi 2, Myasuda, Dr Zak, Born2flie, The Anomebot2, Rageousgtx, MartinBot, TennRebel19, Murali Dhanakoti, Lightmouse, ClueBot, Robshenk, MarmadukePercy, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Yobot, Amirobot, GrouchoBot, Sushinut, ProfReader, Full-date unlinking bot, ZéroBot, William Maury Morris II and Anonymous: 8 • Wadmalaw Island Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadmalaw_Island?oldid=661438551 Contributors: Edward, Klemen Kocjancic, Acntx, Firsfron, Rjwilmsi, Briaboru, Abune, Dnparker, Aelfthrytha, Hmains, Bluebot, Backspace, Seduisant, Hu12, Cydebot, Jllm06, Nyttend, The Anomebot2, The Thing That Should Not Be, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, Luckas-bot, ZéroBot, Like2GrowStuff, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 9 • List of schools in Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Charleston%2C_South_ Carolina?oldid=688146608 Contributors: HangingCurve, Niteowlneils, Tabletop, Vegaswikian, NawlinWiki, Derek.cashman, SmackBot, Jsrenau, BrownHairedGirl, Spyder Monkey, JustAGal, Jmwloup5110, Oshwah, Abyssadventurer, Moonriddengirl, Tiptoety, Sandlapper, LilRoddy, Bowmand, Msilgals, Ben Ben, WikiDan61, Ulric1313, Ltshiroamada, Jbcodysc, Crusoe8181, Some Wiki Editor, Leslimason, Mydogtryed, Charlestonbest, Charlestontruth, CharlestonSouthern, CarolAust, Thebigspur15, Lalaloopsy143 and Anonymous: 33 • Charleston County School District Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_County_School_District?oldid=694900607 Contributors: WhisperToMe, Niteowlneils, EurekaLott, R6MaY89, Ianblair23, Dpr, Bgwhite, Cornellrockey, Derek.cashman, Whitejay251, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, Chris the speller, Jllm06, Danblazer12, Keilana, LB2193, Emilyskinner, Another-anomaly, Tinton5, John of Reading, Charlestonian, Hdescopeland, ILoveWikipediaNC, Senator2029, Aaron Booth, ChaseJ589, Bdell2296, Kumioko and Anonymous: 9 • Berkeley County School District Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_County_School_District?oldid=461590525 Contributors: Jaraalbe, Jo Bo, SmackBot, No1lakersfan, Spyder Monkey, Jamescola, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Mild Bill Hiccup, Erik9bot and Anonymous: 1 • Media in Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid= 687339660 Contributors: Bearcat, EurekaLott, Cmdrjameson, BD2412, Kbdank71, Bgwhite, Jo Bo, Ohnoitsjamie, Bluebot, Charivari,

89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

371

RobDe68, Jessicapierce, R'n'B, Cjmclark, Surfside, Peoria Pete, Robynwatts, Vchimpanzee, HkCaGu, Documentary film, Dravecky, Gettiton, MenoBot, Mlaffs, GardenInlet, Alexperonneau, Akerans, Mydogtryed, Charlestonbest, Bradley M. R., JonaLeon, Jeffreybjones, Coopersullivan and Anonymous: 20 • List of people from Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_from_Charleston%2C_South_ Carolina?oldid=698566273 Contributors: Bkonrad, Neutrality, Drmagic, TommyBoy, DoctorWho42, BD2412, WillC, RussBot, Jhlynes, Derek.cashman, Emperorchaos, Aelfthrytha, Hmains, Miquonranger03, Mark1512, Thekaleb, Badbilltucker, WilliamJE, Billy Hathorn, Fogdog59, Maybankr, Midnightdreary, Doug Coldwell, KConWiki, Jessicapierce, JaGa, UnitedStatesian, Softlavender, Pxma, Kumioko (renamed), Richard David Ramsey, ArmsAloftinAberdeen, ClueBot, Parkwells, Jusdafax, South61, Chicora at Charleston, Eyecantspel, MadiRae, Cliff1911, Ejosse1, Grayfell, Tassedethe, Jarble, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Vladimira1, Justthefacts92, Acrtbjjl, RjwilmsiBot, Pgraham5870, RA0808, PeterPiperPickles, Mydogtryed, ClueBot NG, GnudiRicotta, Maslauskas, Calabe1992, BG19bot, CharlestonFL, Tailormade80, Mark Arsten, Glacialfox, ChrisGualtieri, ACP2011, KWC843, Rich843, WikiOriginal-9, Drich247, SK3Round, DKWillye, Dsmith6302 and Anonymous: 63 • List of tallest buildings in Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Charleston% 2C_South_Carolina?oldid=687554368 Contributors: Remember, Vegaswikian, Hmains, BrownHairedGirl, KudzuVine, Addbot, LaaknorBot, ProfReader, Roberto4554, Cadetgray, RC711 and Anonymous: 6 • List of television shows and films in Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_television_shows_ and_films_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=680588625 Contributors: The Anome, Paul A, TUF-KAT, CanisRufus, 23skidoo, Aitch Eye, Rjwilmsi, The wub, TexasAndroid, Welsh, Derek.cashman, Pegship, Open2universe, Iwalters, Garion96, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, George Ho, Snowmanradio, Scarlet Lioness, ShelfSkewed, No1lakersfan, KConWiki, Kanyt701201, Jessicapierce, Belovedfreak, Donmike10, Saikokira, Bovineboy2008, Goustien, Fratrep, AMbot, Fuddle, Hatch3, NeoBatfreak, Yestyest2000, Reyps, Ma Swingle, J04n, Justthefacts92, FrescoBot, ChikeJ, Augen Zu, ProfReader, Taylor Trescott and Anonymous: 24 • National Register of Historic Places listings in Charleston, South Carolina Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_ Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Charleston%2C_South_Carolina?oldid=690539115 Contributors: Woohookitty, 25or6to4, Doncram, Smallbones, Agathoclea, Spyder Monkey, Niagara, Nyttend, KudzuVine, Bms4880, Sanfranman59, BotMultichill, Pubdog, TheCatalyst31, Dudemanfellabra, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, BotMultichillT, ProfReader, M2545, Ammodramus, Hous21, SporkBot and Thundersnow • 1886 Charleston earthquake Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886_Charleston_earthquake?oldid=697431168 Contributors: Samw, The Tom, Choster, Pollinator, Tom harrison, Jfdwolff, Ro4444, Prestonmarkstone, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Jolomo, Mrholybrain, *Kat*, Ardfern, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Nivix, NekoDaemon, Valermos, RegBarc, Jaraalbe, WiccaIrish, Paleok, Calsicol, Howcheng, JLaTondre, SmackBot, Pretendo, Hmains, Mirokado, Bluquail, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, John, Robofish, Firefox13, Iridescent, Tmangray, Cydebot, Victoriaedwards, Spyder Monkey, Dawnseeker2000, RapidR, Mikenorton, Volcanoguy, The Anomebot2, Hbent, MartinBot, Geogis, Shimaspawn, Noahcs, Ask123, Qxz, Piperh, Bass fishing physicist, Slappy Kong, Pubdog, Ermcki, Editorofthewiki, Dinnn, Addbot, Jojhutton, PennySpender1983, Arla, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Andrewmc123, Rushkid7, Snakespeaker, Pinethicket, Geogene, Carolina cotton, Medicalcdl, Racerx11, 15turnsm, ZéroBot, Coolme18, ClueBot NG, SSem313, Scotstout, UsefulWikipedia, Inglok, Dustin V. S., Jianhui67, American Money, Brraflor and Anonymous: 51 • Riverland Terrace Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverland_Terrace?oldid=642655536 Contributors: Bearcat, Tabletop, Ospalh, SmackBot, Alaibot, The Anomebot2, Oh Snap, Lightmouse, Cognetix, Parkwells, Addbot, ProfReader, Tim1357, ChrisGualtieri, Epicgenius and Anonymous: 2 • Old Slave Mart Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Slave_Mart?oldid=660668635 Contributors: Remember, Bobo192, Malcolma, SmackBot, Cydebot, Spyder Monkey, Floridasand, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, KudzuVine, Bms4880, Lauracs, Addbot, Jfknrh, Yobot, AnomieBOT, RevelationDirect, LilHelpa, Pjposullivan and Anonymous: 8

89.6.2

Images

• File:12-inch-in-casemate.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/12-inch-in-casemate.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:12-inch_Mortars_at_Battery_Meigs,_Fort_Washington,_MD.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/ 12-inch_Mortars_at_Battery_Meigs%2C_Fort_Washington%2C_MD.png License: PD Contributors: Battery Meigs Infoplaque at Fort Washington Park, MD Original artist: National Park Service • File:12_Bee.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/12_Bee.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader • File:14_Legare_St.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/14_Legare_St.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader • File:16_Meeting_Street_-_1875.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/16_Meeting_Street_-_1875.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Guide to Charleston - Illustrated Original artist: Mazyck, Arthur • File:1989_Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/1989_ Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: Created using Wikipedia:WikiProject Tropical cyclones/Tracks. The background image is from NASA [1]. The tracking data is from the National Hurricane Center's Atlantic hurricane database Original artist: Supportstorm • File:2008-0831-WashingtonandLeeUniversity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/ 2008-0831-WashingtonandLeeUniversity.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bobak Ha'Eri • File:2_Amherst_St.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/2_Amherst_St.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader

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Original artist: Jack Boucher • File:Charleston_Ironwork.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Charleston_Ironwork.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Charleston_Ironwork.jpg Original artist: Dan Carmichael Tupper Lake, NY • File:Charleston_King_Street_c1910_1920_LOC_4a24156u.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/ Charleston_King_Street_c1910_1920_LOC_4a24156u.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Charleston_Southern_University.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Charleston_Southern_ University.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CharlestonSouthern • File:Charleston_Southern_University_Sign,_City_of_North_Charleston.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/ba/Charleston_Southern_University_Sign%2C_City_of_North_Charleston.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mydogtryed • File:Charleston_gibbes_art_gallery.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Charleston_gibbes_art_ gallery.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aude • File:Charleston_historic_homes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Charleston_historic_homes.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Frank Buchalski from Dallas, United States • File:Charleston_ruins.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Charleston_ruins.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Charleston_ruins.jpg Original artist: Mathew Brady • File:Charleston_sc_1865.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Charleston_sc_1865.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Charleston_sc_1865.jpg http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ (direct image URL [1]) Original artist: George N. Barnard (1819 - 1902) • File:Charlestonbolt.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Charlestonbolt.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. RegBarc assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Charlestonearthquake.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Charlestonearthquake.gif License: Public domain Contributors: US Geological Survey Photographic Library Original artist: J.K. Hillers • File:Charlestonfd.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Charlestonfd.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. RegBarc assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Charlestonhome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Charlestonhome.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by IngerAlHaosului using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Diligent Terrier at English Wikipedia • File:Charlestonriversmap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Charlestonriversmap.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Kmusser assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Charlestownmap.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Charlestownmap.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/maps/charlestownmap/charlestownmap.jpeg Original artist: See above • File:Circular_Church_Parish_House_(Charleston).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Circular_ Church_Parish_House_%28Charleston%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/displayPhoto.pl? path=/pnp/habshaer/sc/sc0100/sc0157/photos&topImages=363804pr.jpg&topLinks=363804pv.jpg,363804pu.tif&title=HABS%20SC, 10-CHAR,90-5&displayProfile=0 Original artist: Historic American Buildings Survey • File:Citadel_Mall_West_Ashley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Citadel_Mall_West_Ashley.jpg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: http://www.searchforcharlestonrealestate.com/west-ashley-real-estate.php Original artist: Lee Keadle • File:City_of_North_Charleston_city_hall.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/City_of_North_ Charleston_city_hall.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Acquired from John Rutledge Smith Original artist: John Rutledge Smith

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• File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Florida.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Flag_of_Florida.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG based in this image Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Flag_of_Georgia_(U.S._state).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Flag_of_Georgia_%28U.S. _state%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ghana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Guadeloupe_(local).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Flag_of_Guadeloupe_ %28local%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: drawing by Pierre Gay, uploader User:Denelson83 • File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Coat of arms from: Coat of arms of Haiti.svg by Lokal_Profil and Myriam Thyes Original artist: (colours and size changes of the now deletied versions) Madden, Vzb83, Denelson83, Chanheigeorge, Zscout370 and Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Hawaii.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/america/united_states/usa_hawaii.svg Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Idaho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Flag_of_Idaho.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Illinois.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Illinois.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Indiana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Flag_of_Indiana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Iowa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Iowa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FFlag_of_ Jamaica.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>. • File:Flag_of_Kansas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Kansas.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kentucky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Flag_of_Kentucky.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Flag of Kentucky, from the xrmap flag collection 2.7 (ftp://ftp.ac-grenoble.fr/ge/geosciences/xrmap/data/) Original artist: Commonwealth of Kentucky • File:Flag_of_Kenya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.kenyarchives.go.ke/flag_specifications.htm Original artist: User:Pumbaa80 • File:Flag_of_Louisiana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Flag_of_Louisiana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From the xrmap flag collection 2.7. Original artist: User:.... • File:Flag_of_Maine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_Maine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Maryland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Maryland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/90175/usa-maryland Original artist: Michael Wheeler • File:Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg License: Public domain Contributors: from the xrmap flag collection 2.7. Original artist: State of Massachusetts • File:Flag_of_Michigan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Flag_of_Michigan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Minnesota.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_Minnesota.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Mississippi.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Flag_of_Mississippi.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Missouri.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Flag_of_Missouri.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Montana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_Montana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: domain Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco

Public

Moroccan royal decree (17 November 1915) Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Nebraska.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Flag_of_Nebraska.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Nevada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Flag_of_Nevada.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original vector image from OpenClipart: usa_nevada.svg. Original artist: Caleb Moore • File:Flag_of_New_Hampshire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Flag_of_New_Hampshire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_New_Mexico.svg Source: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Flag_of_New_Mexico.svg License:

• File:Flag_of_New_York.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg License: Public domain Contributors: xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: State of New York • File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_North_Carolina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Flag_of_North_Carolina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_North_Dakota.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Flag_of_North_Dakota.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_Ohio.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Ohio.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Construction sheet, also at [1] (see patent filing) Original artist: Designed by John Eisenmann, SVG code by <a href='//commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/User:SiBr4' title='User:SiBr4'>SiBr4 </a> • File:Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Oregon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_Oregon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From the xrmap flag collection 2.7. Colors derived from image at World Flag Database. Original artist: User:Denelson83 • File:Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: from the xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: Simtropolitan, Jean-Pierre Demailly (old version) • File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources) • File:Flag_of_Rhode_Island.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Rhode_Island.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users • File:Flag_of_South_Carolina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Flag_of_South_Carolina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_South_Dakota.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_South_Dakota.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Tennessee.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Flag_of_Tennessee.svg License: Public domain Contributors: according to [1], [2] Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi• File:Flag_of_Texas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Flag_of_Texas.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_ Tobago.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Utah.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Utah.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Utah.gov and [1] Original artist: This vector was made by <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Ali_Zifan' title='User: Ali Zifan'>Ali Zifan</a>

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• File:Flag_of_Vermont.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Vermont.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on Vermont Historical Society specimen: original from the xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: User:Simtropolitan • File:Flag_of_Virginia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Flag_of_Virginia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: It is from the xrmap flag collection, specifically “usa_virginia.svg” in flags-2.6-src.tar.bz2. The README file in that collection says of the SVG flags “We release them in the public domain”. The blue color has been redone based on vexilla-mundi. Original artist: Commonwealth of Virginia • File:Flag_of_Washington,_D.C..svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_Washington%2C_D.C. .svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code according to Construction Details (Government of the District of Columbia, untitled monograph, 1963, pp. 21-23. Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi• File:Flag_of_Washington.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Flag_of_Washington.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG generated from EPS file available from State of Washington website. Downloads listed here and file retrieved on 14:25, 2 March 2006 (UTC) from here. Original artist: WA Secretary of State • File:Flag_of_West_Virginia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Flag_of_West_Virginia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Militaryace & Denelson83, some elements used are from the xrmap flag collection 2.7. Original artist: Militaryace, Denelson83 • File:Flag_of_Wisconsin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Flag_of_Wisconsin.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Wyoming.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Wyoming.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work: It is from openclipart.org, specifically usa_wyoming.svg, by Caleb Moore. Original artist: User:Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_ of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: from the Open Clip Art website Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/28/Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File:VCSA Flag.jpg. Uses elements from File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Florence_Crittenton_Home_entrance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Florence_Crittenton_ Home_entrance.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ammodramus • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folly_Beach,_South_Carolina,_May_2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Folly_Beach% 2C_South_Carolina%2C_May_2007.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Bms4880) Original artist: Bms4880 at en.wikipedia • File:Folly_Beach_Pier.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Folly_Beach_Pier.jpg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: http://www.searchforcharlestonrealestate.com/folly-beach-real-estate.php Original artist: Lee Keadle • File:FortMoultrieCharleston.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/FortMoultrieCharleston.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File from The Photographic History of The Civil War in Ten Volumes: Volume Three, The Decisive Battles. The Review of Reviews Co., New York. 1911. p. 173. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:FortSumter2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/FortSumter2009.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I (Bubba73 (talk),) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Bubba73 (talk), (Jud McCranie) • File:Fort_Casey_07.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Fort_Casey_07.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photo by Joe Mabel Original artist: Joe Mabel • File:Fort_Moultrie1.3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Fort_Moultrie1.3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Tulane University Library (New Orleans/Louisiana) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

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• File:Fort_Moultrie_National_Monument.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Fort_Moultrie_ National_Monument.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: DDima • File:Fort_Moultrie_Visitor_Center_IMG_4548.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Fort_Moultrie_ Visitor_Center_IMG_4548.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:Fort_Moultrie_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Fort_Moultrie_flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; originally uploaded to en.wikipedia - Fort Moultrie flag.svg Original artist: K. Aainsqatsi • File:Fort_Sumter_Aerial_View.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Fort_Sumter_Aerial_View.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Methaz • File:Fort_Sumter_National_Monument_sign_IMG_4524.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Fort_ Sumter_National_Monument_sign_IMG_4524.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Fort Sumter National Monument Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:Fort_sumter_1861.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Fort_sumter_1861.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:FortsumterNM-welcome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/FortsumterNM-welcome.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Staib • File:Francis_Marion_Forest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Francis_Marion_Forest.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Kungfuadam at English Wikipedia • File:French_Huguenot_church.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/French_Huguenot_church.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader • File:FtSumterDrawing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/FtSumterDrawing.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Junglerot56 • File:Furman-Belltower2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Furman-Belltower2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: self-taken photo by the author Original artist: Anet12 of English Wikipedia • File:General_George_Washington_Resigning_his_Commission.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/ 75/General_George_Washington_Resigning_his_Commission.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Architect of the Capitol Original artist: John Trumbull • File:General_George_Washington_at_Trenton_by_John_Trumbull.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/41/General_George_Washington_at_Trenton_by_John_Trumbull.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Yale University Art Gallery [1] Original artist: John Trumbull • File:GeorgeWashington1775.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e5/GeorgeWashington1775.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:GeorgeWashingtonByRobertField.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/ GeorgeWashingtonByRobertField.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: unknown Original artist: Robert Field (1800) • File:George_A._Trenholm_Mansion,_172_Rutledge_Avenue,_Charleston_(Charleston_County,_South_Carolina).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/George_A._Trenholm_Mansion%2C_172_Rutledge_Avenue%2C_Charleston_ %28Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Charles N. Bayless • File:George_Washington’{}s_birthplace_(1856_engraving).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ George_Washington%27s_birthplace_%281856_engraving%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Digitized by Centpacrr Original artist: Benson J. Lossing & William Barritt for Harper & Brothers (publisher) • File:George_Washington,_1776.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/George_Washington%2C_1776. jpg License: No restrictions Contributors: Brooklyn Museum Original artist: Charles Willson Peale • File:George_Washington_Masonic_National_Memorial_from_King_Street_Washington_Metro_station.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/George_Washington_Masonic_National_Memorial_from_King_Street_ Washington_Metro_station.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Patricknoddy • File:George_Washington_funeral_processions,_New_York,_December_29,_1799.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/George_Washington_funeral_processions%2C_New_York%2C_December_29%2C_1799.png License: Public domain Contributors: Darlington Digital Library, University of Pittsburgh Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:George_Washington_signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/George_Washington_ signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raeky • File:Gibbes_Art_Gallery_c._1907.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Gibbes_Art_Gallery_c. _1907.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Postcards Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Gilbert_Stuart_-_George_Washington_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 9/98/Gilbert_Stuart_-_George_Washington_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: kQERa87syyG-sQ at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level Scaled down from second highest Original artist: Gilbert Stuart

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• File:Isle_of_Palms_Recreation_Department.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Isle_of_Palms_ Recreation_Department.jpg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: http://www.searchforcharlestonrealestate.com/isle-of-palms-real-estate. php Original artist: Lee Keadle • File:JM_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/JM_House.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader • File:James_Island_South_Carolina.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/James_Island_South_ Carolina.jpg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: http://www.searchforcharlestonrealestate.com/james-island-real-estate.php Original artist: Lee Keadle • File:James_Sparrow_House_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/James_Sparrow_House_1.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ammodramus • File:Jenkins_Mikell_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Jenkins_Mikell_House.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress - http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/hhh.sc0166.photos.149217p/?co=hh Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:John_Rutledge_House_(Charleston).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/John_Rutledge_House_ %28Charleston%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/displayPhoto.pl?path=/pnp/habshaer/sc/ sc0400/sc0455/photos&topImages=147964pr.jpg&topLinks=147964pv.jpg,147964pu.tif&title=1.%20%20GENERAL%20VIEW, %20NORTHWEST%20CORNER%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3cbr%3eHABS%20SC, 10-CHAR,218-1&displayProfile=0 Original artist: Charles N. Bayless, Photographer • File:John_Rutledge_color_painting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/John_Rutledge_color_ painting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.oyez.org/justices/john_rutledge/portrait/ Original artist: Robert Hinckley • File:John_Rutledge_gravestone,_Charleston,_SC_IMG_4577.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/ John_Rutledge_gravestone%2C_Charleston%2C_SC_IMG_4577.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:John_Rutledge_senate.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/John_Rutledge_senate.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: ? • File:John_Rutledge_sig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/John_Rutledge_sig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:John Rutledge sig.png, which was from Image:Constitution_signatures.jpg Original artist: Enhanced, modified, and vectorized by J.delanoy • File:Jonathan_Lucas_House,_286_Calhoun_Street,_Charleston_(Charleston_County,_South_Carolina).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Jonathan_Lucas_House%2C_286_Calhoun_Street%2C_Charleston_ %28Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Charles N. Bayless • File:Josiah-smith-tennent-house-sc1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/ Josiah-smith-tennent-house-sc1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brian Stansberry • File:Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim_Synagogue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Kahal_Kadosh_ Beth_Elohim_Synagogue.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID hhh.sc0007. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: John P. O'Neill • File:Kit_body.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Kit_body.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_body_blackstripes3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Kit_body_blackstripes3.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_left_arm.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Kit_left_arm.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image has been made or improved in the Polish project Graﬁki wektorowe (vector graphics). You can propose images to improve as well. Original artist: Yarl Talk • PL • File:Kit_left_arm_black_stripes.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Kit_left_arm_black_stripes.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_right_arm.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Kit_right_arm.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_right_arm_black_stripes.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Kit_right_arm_black_stripes. png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_shorts.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Kit_shorts.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kit_socks_blacktop.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Kit_socks_blacktop.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Heightwatcher at English Wikipedia • File:Kit_socks_long.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Kit_socks_long.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Modiﬁcation of File:Kit socks.svg, original football kit design by User:ed_g2s Original artist: User:Chandler from the English Wikipedia.

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• File:Lady_Street_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Lady_Street_edited.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Akhenaton06 (talk) • File:Lake_Wylie_in_autumn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Lake_Wylie_in_autumn.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Quadell using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Wikiwikicat at English Wikipedia • File:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Last_palmetto_Charleston_1865.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Last_palmetto_Charleston_ 1865.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cwpb/03000/03008v.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:List_of_exports_Charleston_South_Carolina_1787.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/List_ of_exports_Charleston_South_Carolina_1787.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/master/mss/mtj/mtj1/007/ 0400/0484.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata: Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Little_Langford_Farmhouse_Bed_and_Breakfast_-_geograph.org.uk_-_327034.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Little_Langford_Farmhouse_Bed_and_Breakfast_-_geograph.org.uk_-_327034.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Trish Steel • File:LookingdownMainSt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/LookingdownMainSt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Akhenaton06 • File:Lowndes_Grove_(House),_Saint_Margaret_Street_&_Sixth_Avenue,_Charleston_(Charleston_County,_South_Carolina) .jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Lowndes_Grove_%28House%29%2C_Saint_Margaret_Street_ %26_Sixth_Avenue%2C_Charleston_%28Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID hhh.sc0156. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: C.O. Greene • File:Magnolia_Cemetery,_Van_der_Horst_Mausoleum,_Cunningham_Avenue,_Charleston_(Charleston_County,_South_ Carolina).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Magnolia_Cemetery%2C_Van_der_Horst_Mausoleum% 2C_Cunningham_Avenue%2C_Charleston_%28Charleston_County%2C_South_Carolina%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Unknown, Photographer • File:MainStreetbanner.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/MainStreetbanner.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Akhenaton06 • File:Majoor_Stede_Bonnet_Gehangen_(bw).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Majoor_ Stede_Bonnet_Gehangen_%28bw%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/ JCB~{}1~{}1~{}1842~{}2850002:Majoor-Stede-Bonnet-Gehangen- Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/ Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/ f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Berkeley_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/ Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Berkeley_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Charleston_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d3/Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Charleston_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Colleton_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/ Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Colleton_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Dorchester_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/ 3c/Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Dorchester_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Lexington_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/ Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Lexington_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Richland_County.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/ Map_of_South_Carolina_highlighting_Richland_County.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The maps use data from nationalatlas.gov, specifically countyp020.tar.gz on the Raw Data Download page. The maps also use state outline data from statesp020.tar.gz. The Florida maps use hydrogm020.tar.gz to display Lake Okeechobee. Original artist: David Benbennick

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Original artist: Lewis Hine, 1874-1940, photographer. • File:Sound-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set

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• File:Unitarian_Church_(Charleston,_South_Carolina).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d2/Unitarian_Church_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc. gov/cgi-bin/displayPhoto.pl?path=/pnp/habshaer/sc/sc0500/sc0515/photos&topImages=147894pr.jpg&topLinks=147894pv.jpg, 147894pu.tif&title=1.%20%20GENERAL%20VIEW%20OF%20UNITARIAN%20CHURCH%20(in%20foreground),%20FROM% 20SOUTHWEST.%20The%20church%20in%20background%20is%20Lutheran%20Church,%2010%20Archdale%20Street.%20% 3cbr%3eHABS%20SC,10-CHAR,197-1&displayProfile=0 Original artist: Charles N. Bayless, Photographer • File:Usa_edcp_relief_location_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Usa_edcp_relief_location_ map.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uwe Dedering • File:Usc_horseshoe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Usc_horseshoe.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Totalcatharsis at en.wikipedia • File:W_Aiken_house.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/W_Aiken_house.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProfReader • File:Wade_Hampton_equestrian_statue,_Columbia,_SC_IMG_4747.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ec/Wade_Hampton_equestrian_statue%2C_Columbia%2C_SC_IMG_4747.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: State of South Carolina, erected 1906, no copyright remaining Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:Washington’{}s_Farewell_Address.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Washington%27s_ Farewell_Address.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html Original artist: George Washington • File:Washington’{}s_tomb_Mount_Vernon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Washington%27s_ tomb_Mount_Vernon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/va/va1200/va1238/photos/ 161668pv.jpg Original artist: Historic American Buildings Survey • File:WashingtonInsig1782.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3a/WashingtonInsig1782.jpg License: PD Contributors: U.S. National Archives Original artist: United States National Archives • File:Washington_1772.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Washington_1772.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Washington-Custis-Lee Collection, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia Original artist: Charles Willson Peale • File:Washington_Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Washington_ Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Diliﬀ • File:Washington_Pennsylvania_Mapb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Washington_ Pennsylvania_Mapb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This map is available from the United States Library of Congress's Geography & Map Division under the digital ID g3820.ct000361. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

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89.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:William_Blacklock_House_(Charleston).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/William_ Blacklock_House_%28Charleston%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/displayPhoto.pl?path= /pnp/habshaer/sc/sc0000/sc0058/photos&topImages=147328pr.jpg&topLinks=147328pv.jpg,147328pu.tif&title=2.%20%20Historic% 20American%20Buildings%20Survey,%20Louis%20I.%20Schwartz,%20Photographer%20June,%201958%20SOUTH%20(FRONT) %20FACADE.%3cbr%3eHABS%20SC,10-CHAR,130-2&displayProfile=0 Original artist: Louis I. Schwartz, Photographer • File:William_Enston_Home.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/William_Enston_Home.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Michael.Forman • File:William_H_Seward_Abraham_Lincoln_Fort_Sumter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/ William_H_Seward_Abraham_Lincoln_Fort_Sumter.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/mss/mal/mal1/ 081/0813900/001.jpg Original artist: William H. Seward • File:William_Moultrie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/William_Moultrie.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: image Original artist: Engraving by unspeciﬁed artist, from painting by Alonzo Chappel • File:William_Moultrie_Grave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/60/William_Moultrie_Grave.jpg License: CCBY-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The ﬁle was sent to me personally by email Original artist: Anonymous

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