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Members of the
community living alongside elephants in Kenya play a key role in the success of calf rehabiliation projects.
The Power of Community
Elyan Shor, Ph.D., looks at community-based conservation, a sustainable approach that integrates the well-being of both wildlife and people.
Humans and wildlife have coexisted in the same landscapes for thousands of years, but our rapidly changing world has shifted the dynamics of human-wildlife interactions. At this modern interface between wildlife and people, there is an ever-growing need for sustainable conservation approaches that address both the protection of animals and respect for the heritage, values, and livelihoods of communities.
Within the last three decades, community-based conservation (CBC) has emerged as an effective approach to sustainable conservation. CBC embraces the notion that the well-being of humans and wildlife are interconnected, and that since people and wildlife share landscapes, conservation should be approached with coexistence in mind. Further, CBC recognizes that conservation is a human activity, and accordingly, should be inclusive of the people most impacted by conservation decisions: the local communities.
“It’s important to acknowledge that the protection of wildlife often depends on the people who are living with them,” says Kirstie Ruppert, Ph.D., community engagement scientist at San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (SDWZA). “CBC prioritizes participation and empowers local leadership to make decisions about conservation management.”
Kirstie studies the human dimensions of conservation science, with a focus on CBC initiatives in Kenya. She explains that since up to 70 percent of
wildlife in Kenya lives outside of government-managed protected areas, there is regular contact between pastoralist communities, their livestock, and wildlife. As such, conservation strategies in the region should address wildlife protection while also reflecting the needs and relationships of local communities. “The local focus of CBC ensures that community voices are elevated when broader conservation plans are developed with NGOs, wildlife and governmental agencies, and other partners,” adds Kirstie. This underscores the key CBC tenet to empower local people to lead and manage local conservation activity, so that not only are conservation decisions made by trusted members of the community, but also so that conservation outputs reflect the community goals.
In northern Kenya, Reteti Elephant Sanctuary is a CBC success story. Reteti is a grassroots conservation organization that rehabilitates orphaned elephant calves and releases them back into their home landscapes to be reunited with their family herds. Reteti was officially established in 2016 by members of the local Samburu community, who envisioned it as an opportunity to safeguard elephants while also respecting traditional cultural values and creating opportunities for the community to thrive. Along with caring for and protecting elephants, Reteti provides benefits in the form of employment and training opportunities for their staff, and educational opportunities for community members. Reteti also fosters a sense of pride in their local community and in their local wildlife, both of which are foundational elements in promoting human-wildlife coexistence. In 2020 alone, Reteti rescued 17 orphaned calves, released 10 rehabilitated calves, employed 61 community members, and contributed
significantly in raising regional conservation awareness and in preserving the greater elephant population. SDZWA partners with several CBC initiatives around the world, including Reteti Elephant Sanctuary. SDZWA supports Reteti with technical and scientific capacity enhancement opportunities, including veterinary and wildlife care training, and in the development of hospital and laboratory infrastructure. One of our ongoing collaborations is a study on elephant milk composition; “The results will be applied in protection developing a more nutriof wildlife often tious and affordable milk depends on the people who are formula for orphaned elephants. Another is a study of elephant living with behavior, aimed at unthem.” derstanding the social and behavioral development of orphaned calves and what they need to thrive after reintroduction to native habitat. There is a mutual support network established as SDZWA and Reteti staff learn and exchange knowledge about elephant care and conservation together. “We highly value the investment in relationships with community members,” says Kirstie. “Reteti shows the success of establishing a conservation initiative based on community desire and community leadership, and shows how organizations like ours can support their goals.”
To learn more about Reteti Elephant Sanctuary, visit sdzwa.org/savanna.
Show your support for our conservation efforts in Northern Kenya by purchasing Reteti gear at shopzoo.com.
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reasons why elephants matter
Elephant conservation is a top priority because elephants are a keystone species, meaning they play a critical role in maintaining the health and stability of their entire ecosystem. In fact, elephants do so much for their habitat that they are nicknamed “engineers of the ecosystem.”
1. Elephants extract water Elephants use their tusks and massive feet to dig water holes, providing access to water that many other animals depend on during the dry season.
2. Elephants boost plant growth Their nutrient-rich dung fertilizes the soil—and as they digest, elephants disperse seeds up to 40 miles away, leading to new plant growth and sustaining plant genetic diversity across the landscape.
3. Elephants clear new paths Their sheer size means elephants can easily trample and bulldoze trees. This keeps the savannas clear for grasses to grow, opens gaps in the forest for sunlight to reach vegetation on the forest floor, and flattens pathways that other animals use as movement corridors.
Standing Tall
Saving the Stately Giraffe
BY JENNA STACY-DAWES, M.A., AND KIRSTIE RUPPERT, PH.D.
iraffes are an iconic species on the savanna. Due to their towering
Gstature, beautiful patterning, and general uniqueness, they have been the inspiration for countless mascots and paintings across the world. It’s hard to go to any store and not see something with a giraffe on it! Yet sadly, and unbeknownst to many, giraffes are in trouble.
Across their range in sub-Saharan Africa, giraffe populations have declined by roughly 40 percent just within the last 30 years. In fact, there are an estimated four elephants for every one giraffe left in the wild. However, their decline has gone widely unnoticed. Similar to many other species, habitat loss and degradation, poaching, and climate change have all contributed to the decline in giraffe populations. This quiet, yet alarming loss has been termed by many as a “silent extinction.” But there is hope!
DID YOU KNOW?
In many African countries, giraffe populations are steadily decreasing due to habitat loss.
DID YOU KNOW?
Kenya is the only country home to three giraffe subspecies: reticulated (below), Masai, and Nubian.
Twiga Walinzi
n 2016, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, in collaboration with Northern Rangelands Trust, Giraffe Conservation Foundation, Loisaba Conservancy, Kenya Wildlife Service, and The Nature Conservancy, launched the Twiga Walinzi Initiative, aimed at reversing the decline in giraffe populations and bolstering local conservation efforts in the rangelands of northern Kenya. Giving the initiative its name is the Twiga Walinzi (which means “Giraffe Guards” in Swahili) research team. Since its inception just 5 years ago, the team has grown from 5 research associates at 2 conservancies to 16 Twiga Walinzi research associates and 10 conservancy rangers working with over 10 conservancies in northern Kenya. I The team, all from their local conservancies, are leaders in wildlife conservation and working with their communities. The Twiga Walinzi conduct all the field studies on giraffes, monitor individual animals, engage with communities and local governments, and assist with giraffe orphan rescues, when possible and needed. Our work in Kenya is vital to the conservation of giraffes, as Kenya is the only country where you can find three distinct giraffe subspecies: Masai (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), reticulated (G.c. reticulata), and Nubian (G.c. camelopardalis). Unfortunately, all of these giraffe populations are under threat. Masai and reticulated giraffes are listed as Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species, and Nubian giraffes are listed as Critically Endangered. Through the Twiga Walinzi’s work, we work closely with communities to better understand these giraffe populations, so we can develop and guide targeted conservation measures that will safeguard these populations for future generations. For the past five years, the project focused mainly on protecting and understanding reticulated giraffe populations in these rangelands. Last November, we were also excited to begin collaborating with conservancy rangers in western Kenya, where a group of Nubian giraffes was reintroduced back into an area where they hadn’t lived for about 70 years. Reintroductions of species are complex, and require time and commitment to ensure the animals adjust well once they are in their new home. Working closely with these conservancy rangers, the Twiga Walinzi are helping implement long-term monitoring plans, as well as community awareness and outreach activities to ensure these giraffes thrive in their new home.
Worth 1,000 Words
One of the most exciting and innovative ways the Twiga Walinzi are monitoring giraffe populations is by taking pictures of every giraffe they come across. Just like our fingerprints, giraffes can be identified by their unique coat patterns—making this a simple and noninvasive way to study and track individuals over time. So, every
Keeping Track: Twiga Walinzi monitor giraffe populations by photographing every giraffe encountered.
time the Twiga Walinzi team encounters a giraffe, or a tower of giraffes (as groups are often called), they will take a picture of the right side of each giraffe as well as recording important information, including the age, sex, and location of the individual. We can then use advanced pattern recognition software, developed in partnership with WildMe and Giraffe Conservation Foundation, to identify individuals and keep track of them as they move throughout the landscape.
In addition to the Twiga Walinzi’s vital research and monitoring, community involvement and education are foundational to our approach. Where we work, giraffes, livestock, and people all occupy the same spaces. Recently, our team contributed to a study outlining that over 95 percent of reticulated giraffes occur outside of formally protected areas like national parks. So, protecting giraffes into the future largely depends on our ability to design conservation for and with communities that live alongside giraffes. As leaders in their communities, the Twiga Walinzi are influencing how their families and neighbors join them as part of wildlife conservation efforts. “This project has been great to create awareness about giraffes, and has really changed the community’s perception of giraffes,” explains Twiga Walinzi research associate Joseph Lemisrkishan. Another aspect of our work focuses on understanding how people view and interact with giraffes, showing that since the Twiga Walinzi have been active, attitudes toward giraffes are more positive, support for their protection has increased, and levels of giraffe meat consumption have significantly declined. Engaging with the communities where we work increases protections for giraffes, while ensuring that our conservation work reflects community goals. You can be a conservation ally by helping the Twiga Walinzi Initiative! As part of the initiative, we place motion-activated trail cameras throughout the conservancies to monitor and track giraffes and other wildlife. These cameras are amazing at capturing images of all types of animals, but they are great at capturing images of vegetation as well—leaving us with millions of images to sort through each year. That’s where you come in! Thanks to the citizen science platform Zooniverse, anyone from anywhere in the world can log on to WildwatchKenya. org and help our research team sort through these images. Every photo classification helps contribute directly to the conservation of giraffes in Kenya!
Together with the Twiga Walinzi team, and you, we are hopeful for the future of giraffes in the northern rangelands.
Jenna Stacy-Dawes, M.A., is a population sustainability researcher for SDZWA; Kirstie Ruppert, Ph.D., is a community engagement scientist for SDZWA.
Shifting Perspectives
Leopard conservation requires a strategy as multifaceted as the species itself.
BY NICHOLAS PILFOLD, PH.D., AND KIRSTIE RUPPERT, PH.D.
M
ajestic and highly adaptable, African leopards Panthera pardus pardus represent different things to different people. Some savanna communities may regard these charismatic big cats as nuisance predators, raiding livestock corrals for an easy meal. To others, they are a fashion muse, their stunning coat a continual source of inspiration for the runway. And the world of wildlife conservation considers the species an icon—the embodiment of the threats faced by all large carnivores in an environment of ever-increasing human encroachment. What a leopard is depends on one’s perspective, and in reality, each one of these multifaceted views plays a role in determining whether we save leopards from extinction.
DID YOU KNOW?
The rosette patterns of a leopard coat are as individual as our fingerprints, and allow scientists to track populations.
Losing Ground, Gaining Support
Over the past three years, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance’s Uhifadhi Wa Chui (Swahili for “conservation of leopards”) program has been working with our partners in Kenya at the forefront of a new wave of scientific inquiry to understand the enigmatic and, at times, maligned big cat. The conservation need for leopards is clear: in Africa, leopards have lost two-thirds of their historic range and are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Yet, little is known about their population numbers, as leopards have not received the same conservation attention garnered by the other large carnivores they live with. In Kenya, lions, hyenas, wild dogs, and cheetahs all have government-backed conservation action plans, while leopards do not.
The lack of conservation effort for leopards is not limited to Kenya; it spans across Africa, as leopards are thought to be highly adaptable, and thus not in need of conservation. Leopards can be found in a variety of environments, from deserts to thick tropical forests, from city streets to the most remote and rugged areas of the African continent. This ability to adapt is also supported by genetics, with a recent scientific paper suggesting African leopards have the most diverse genome
Flexible, not invincible:
Although the leopard is an adaptable cat, able to live in various habitats, some leopard subspecies are at critical risk.
of any of the big cats, as a result of not suffering historically from inbreeding or genetic bottlenecks as other big cats have. Historically, it seems leopards have always found a way to survive.
Integrating Disciplines
While African leopards’ adaptation to change is impressive, their capacity to endure in modern times is ultimately limited by the threshold to which people are willing to live with them. Sharing the landscape with leopards is intertwined with both costs, including the losses of time, energy, and income enmeshed with livestock depredation; as well as benefits, derived from the role of leopards as part of functioning ecosystems and as a draw for wildlife-based tourism. Recognizing this spectrum of values and finding ways to practice conservation that reflects the needs of both people and wildlife will help us ensure that leopards persist into the future, and it is in this confluence that the Uhifadhi Wa Chui program pursues its conservation goals.
Those goals are twofold. First, to provide the information on the status of the leopard population in northern Kenya, while simultaneously advancing the science of population tracking. Second, to increase the human tolerance to coexisting with leopards by addressing livestock loss with local communities. To realize these goals, Uhifadhi Wa Chui is integrating ecological and social science with communities as our partners in conservation.
Tracking and counting leopards comes with challenges. The first is simply finding leopards, and this proved not an easy task, as leopards have survived in large part due to their ability to hide in plain sight. However, over the past three years, we have become very good at photographing leopards on remote cameras. As these cameras only view a tiny fraction of the study area, we have learned to see the landscape from the perspective of the leopard, focusing in on trees that leopards like to use to mark their territory, eat a meal or catch a catnap. Honing this ability has not only allowed us to track the population, which will soon result in the first-ever multi-year population assessment of leopards in Kenya; it has also revealed some incredibly rare black leopards living in our population. These melanistic individuals have become a source of inspiration, and garnered the attention of news media and documentary filmmakers alike.
Cooperation on Track
In an effort to improve the tracking of leopards, we are embarking on a new study of leopard genetics. We are examining ways in which we can gather DNA samples from leopards in a passive manner, and use these samples to identify and count individuals. Our investigation so far focuses on collecting hairs left behind when leopards scent-mark trees. If the approach works, we can expand our population counts from local to regional areas, improving our understanding of leopard population dynamics.
Combined with efforts to find and track leopards, our pursuit for coexistence involves understanding the lived experiences of communities on the landscape. As herding families keep and move their sheep and goats, we needed to know when and where their livestock are most vulnerable to depredation, so we could start to work together to find solutions. Equally important is understanding what comprises tolerance for leopards, based on how local communities are interacting with them. Our early results suggest that the process of working together with communities on this problem increases tolerance for and participation in the conservation of leopards locally. We regularly receive feedback from community elders about the value of building this program with a commitment to listening in our search for sustainable solutions. The work in the communities has been a source of inspiration, even leading to the formation of one group, led by women who carry the leopard name as ambassadors for their conservation: the Chui Mamas.
LOCATION: LEWA WILDLIFE CONSERVANCY
Planning for the Future
Understanding what is needed to conserve leopards has been a journey of perspectives. It has led us into the homes of community members and into the steep and rugged landscapes leopards inhabit. The important work of combining the information to formulate a conservation action plan for leopards lies ahead. We have confidence that by including all perspectives gained through our cultivated relationships with Kenyan colleagues and community members, our science-based recommendations will be enacted and used to protect leopards into the future.
Nicholas Pilfold, Ph.D., is a population sustainability scientist for SDZWA; Kirstie Ruppert, Ph.D., is a community engagement scientist for SDZWA.
DID YOU KNOW?
Tapirs help with ecosystem diversity. A study of lowland tapirs in Peru revealed 122 different seeds in their dung.
A Bright SpotNew Calf Boosts Malayan Tapir Population
BY PEGGY SCOTT
PHOTOS BY KEN BOHN
eighing just over 17 pounds at birth and sporting the characteristic tapir neonate coat pattern, the Malayan tapir calf born at the San Diego Zoo on March 16, 2021 resembled a spotted-and-striped watermelon on four legs. But the truth is, the prehensile-snouted little male represents hope for his kind, which face declining population W numbers. As is the case with all endangered species, the importance of every individual addition is multiplied. And San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance is dedicated to helping the numbers work in the tapirs’ favor. For the first time in more than a decade, the birth of a Malayan tapir calf at the Zoo gives our wildlife care specialists the opportunity to observe the maternal behavior and development process of a species that has existed for millions of years.
Gift of Grab:
A tapir’s prehensile snout can move in any direction—and even serve as a snorkel in water. Like an elephant’s trunk, it is actually a combination nose and an upper lip.
A Living Fossil
Also called the Asian or Indian tapir, the Malayan tapir Tapirus indicus is the largest of the four species of tapir (the other three are the Baird’s tapir, lowland tapir, and mountain tapir), and the only one native to Asia. Tapirs are regarded by some as living fossils, having been around since the Eocene Epoch (56 to 33.9 million years ago). Their prehensile nose has led many people to mistake them for anteaters, pigs, or elephants, but they are odd-toed ungulates—a group that includes horses and rhinoceroses.
Adult Malayan tapirs are easily identified by their markings—unlike their brownish relatives, this subspecies is black top and bottom, with a light-colored, saddle-type patch that runs from the shoulder to hind legs. The pattern is believed to act as camouflage, with the disrupted coloration breaking up the tapir’s outline and making it more difficult to recognize in a dark forest; predators may mistake it for a large rock, rather than a potential meal. In contrast, tapir calves—regardless of species—are born with a similar mottled watermelon pattern on their hide, which may mimic the dappled sunlight of a forest. They blend right in. Malayan tapirs measure 6 to 8 feet long at adulthood and weigh from 550 to 700 pounds, with females larger than males. They stand 3.5 feet tall at the shoulder of their large, barrel-shaped bodies.
Gardeners of the Forest
With a range that includes Myanmar and Thailand south to Malaysia and Sumatra, Malayan tapirs inhabit tropical lowland swamps and montane and hill forests, preferring dense, primary forests. There are fewer than 2,500 adult Malayan tapirs left in their native range, and it’s hard to overstate the ancillary effects of their shrinking numbers on their ecosystems. Tapirs are referred to as “gardeners of the forest” because of how much they influence their native landscape. Their major role is that of seed disperser. Tapirs eat a variety of seasonal fruits; when fig or mango trees come into season, tapirs can often be found underneath these trees, eating fruit that falls or is dropped by monkeys. The seeds of the fruits they eat are dispersed when they move to a new location to deposit scat, and some of those seeds will later sprout and grow new trees, helping the forest to regenerate.
Types of Tapirs
There are four species of tapir. With an odd number of toes (four on each front foot, three on each back foot), they are most closely related to horses and rhinos.
1Mountain or woolly tapir Tapirus pinchaque Living in the Andes Mountains of northern South America, it has a longer, thick coat and undercoat to keep warm in its cool mountain home. It is one of the most endangered mammals in the world. 2 Lowland or Brazilian tapir Tapirus terrestris Native to South America from Colombia to Paraguay and Brazil, its coat is dark on the back and lighter on the underside. It prefers living where it’s warm, rainy, and humid. Crocodilians as well as jaguars are its natural predators.
Stay Cool:
Tapirs are primarily crepuscular, meaning they are active at dawn and dusk, when it’s cooler; but afterdark foraging isn’t out of the question.
Along with spreading seeds, tapirs affect the biodiversity of tropical ecosystems. These large herbivores require a sizeable range in order to thrive, and they are known as an “umbrella species,” because their wide-ranging habitat also includes monkeys, deer, wild cats, and numerous species of reptiles and birds. All the wildlife in the tapirs’ range benefits when we protect tapirs. As is the case around the globe, habitat destruction and fragmentation tops the list of challenges faced by Malayan tapirs. People, as well as tigers, hunt them for meat. The loss of tapirs in a local area can lead to disruptions of some key ecological processes (such as seed dispersal and nutrient recycling), and eventually compromise the long-term biodiversity of the ecosystem. This illustrates the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance concept of “when wildlife thrives, all life thrives.”
Malayan Tapirs at the San Diego Zoo
3Baird’s or Central American tapir Tapirus bairdii Native to Mexico and Central America, its coat is dark red-brown to black as an adult, with a white chest and chin, and white ear fringes. The species is named for 19th-century American naturalist Spencer Fullerton Baird. 4 Malayan tapir Tapirus indicus The largest of the tapir species, Malayan tapirs can be found throughout the tropical lowland rainforests of Southeast Asia, including Sumatra in Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand.
The Zoo’s new, as-yet-unnamed male calf is the picture of young ungulate health. As Aimee Goldcamp, senior wildlife care specialist, reports, he is meeting—even surpassing—developmental milestones. “He was standing within an hour of birth, and nursing within two,” Aimee says. “And in his first two weeks of life, he more than doubled his size.”
This is tapir dam Amirah’s first calf, and she has cared well for him from the beginning. He learned from her example, mouthing solid food items within four days of birth and eating mashed banana at one week. By June 15, 2021, he was tipping the scale at 139 pounds. Aimee adds that the calf fully participates in his weekly weigh-ins, noting that the decision to stand on the scale is his choice. The Malayan tapir is on Tiger Trail at the Zoo, just up the path from the tiger habitat. The energetic youngster’s newest discovery is the habitat’s shallow pool, and he’s making quite the splash. Peggy Scott is a senior editor for SDZWA; Ken Bohn is an SDZWA photographer.
WINGING IT
More than 500 bird species are estimated to live in Africa’s savannas.
Endangered baobab trees store water in their thick trunk. Elephants sometimes eat the spongy, fireresistant bark when water is scarce.
Savannas in Focus
African savannas are large stretches of grass dotted with trees and shrubs. Life is tied to their alternating wet LARGER THAN LIFE and dry seasons.
Baobab trees can grow over 95 feet tall—about five times bigger than a giraffe!
By Abigail Karkenny
Grasses dominate the savanna, with more than 75 different species. Many have long roots to soak up hard-to-reach water and thick bulbs and stems to store moisture.
PHOTOS BY: NICOLAMARGARET/GETTY IMAGES; JACOBEUKMAN/GETTY IMAGES PLUS; KOBUSPECHE/ GETTY IMAGES PLUS; RYAN GREEN/GETTY IMAGES; HANA RICHTEROVA/GETTY IMAGES PLUS.
Ants feed on whistling thorn tree Vachellia drepanolobium nectar and use their hollow thorns as nests. In return, the ants defend the tree from grazing wildlife by stinging animals who try to take a bite.
How the Seasons Measure Up
Duration WET
6 to 8 months
DRY
4 to 6 months
Rainfall over season
Average temperature
~20 inches (50.8 cm)
78° to 86° F (25° to 30° C) ~4 inches (10.16 cm)
68° to 78° F (20° to 25° C)
~40- 45%
of Africa
is made up of savannas.
FEEL THE BURN Fires caused by lightning in the dry season are essential to a healthy savanna. When old plants burn, they make way for new growth and drive out insects for birds to feast on.
On the Move
Plants thrive in the wet season. Herbivores come to graze, and predators follow close behind to keep their populations in check. In the dry season, plants shrivel and burn. Herbivores migrate to greener areas, and the cycle repeats.
~ 2 million animals migrate through the Serengeti, one of Africa’s most famous savannas, in a clockwise direction. Way to Grow In the wet season, trees and shrubs blossom. Their flowers splash color onto the savanna landscape.
Impala lily Adenium multiflorum grows flashy, star-shaped pink flowers.
Umbrella thorn acacia Vachellia tortilis sprouts white puffball-like clusters.
Wild dagga Leonotis leonurus produces spiky orange blooms.
AROUND THE WORLD
Savannas aren’t just in Africa. Other major savannas are found in South America, India, and northern Australia.
