Interactive Media Theory and Audience Analysis Final Exam Composition by Sean Smith

Interactive Media Theory and Audience Analysis Final Composition Sean H. Smith

The Future Outlook of Serious Games and Interface Design

Sean Smith

Abstract. The serious game industry offers unique opportunities to institutions such as schools and business and how they educate their students or employees. However, they have faced significant challenges inhibiting them from reaching their full potential. Research within today’s technology and interface design hopes to turn this around. This paper’s main focus is on the interface design of serious games, which has contributed to making them an effective tool that can be used to enhance children’s ability to learn in a classroom setting. There has been very few studies to date pertaining to this topic, especially those resulting in quantitative data that would give insight into the effectiveness of serious games being used in a classroom setting. Despite this, the following pages will discuss some of the theories in communication and education that affect the design of interfaces from a pedagogical perspective. In addition we cover the past, present, and future or serious games, the practice of interface design, and the roles interfaces play in the development and advancement of serious games. Finally, other aspects of serious game development such as usability testing and user-centered design involving young children will be covered as well as some psychology will be reviewed. Keywords: Serious games, Interface design, User interface, Education, Learning, Children, Usability Testing, User-Centered Design, Learner Centered design.

Introduction It has been well documented over the years that American students’ scores in science and mathematics have been on downturn and well below the scores of other countries. In 1998 the reported that U.S. student performance in Advanced Mathematics and Physics was among the lowest of countries that participated in the testing. Of the 15 countries included in the assessment, U.S. students were outperformed by 11 other countries and did not perform better than any other country in mathematics. In physics, 14 other countries averaged better scores than U.S. students with only 1 country sharing the same average (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1998). A 2008 report by the U.S. Department of Education indicated that scores in science has shown no change since 1990 (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009) for students in grades 4, 8, and 12. The average score in 2005 for these students was 147, measured on a 500 point scale.

(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009) With the increase in school class sizes across this country as well as decreased budgets and teacher salaries, these trends in science and math comprehension are not going to change anytime soon. With a higher number of students per class it becomes more difficult to structure a course that can reach out and engage all students. The logistics to organizing activities or assignments that would normally engage and enlighten students, such as field trips are near impossible. Students are usually relegated to reading the usual

texts and listening to lectures. They are forced to read texts with little or no social experience in the topics they cover (Gee, 2003). Public schools in particular have a difficult time engaging students and providing new and effective means of educating. Because of the lack of budgeting for schools many cannot provide or replace the necessary technological tools that could increase studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning potential and provide a higher education. The victims of these problems in public education systems across the United States are the children. They are not getting the quality education that they deserve. One tool that could be very effective in the education of elementary and secondary school students is the video game. There are many advantages that video games offer that help enlighten and teach students. The most important one is that they are extremely engaging. Video games could be the most engaging activity people can do in this day and age (Prensky, 2001). Psychologist, Jean Piaget believed that play performs an important role in a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cognitive development. Piaget modernized the constructivist theory, one of the betterknown developmental psychology theories that focus on the acquisition of knowledge. Constructivism describes how humans build knowledge through experiences and sort it such a way that they compare experience with knowledge they already possess without having to retain all the information provided by the experience. In regards to children, through play they are experiencing new things, comparing the new experiences to existing knowledge. This existing knowledge or cognitive structures for understanding the world then stores the new experiences thus slowly mature into the complex reasoning abilities that typify adult thought (Kurland and Kurland, 1987). Video games are, by definition, a form of play that have a deep biological and evolutionary purpose for human beings specifically having to do with learning. This is the same as young lion cubs playing with each other, learning effective hunting behaviors and methods. A gameâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary function is to be an education tool. When a child participates in a game they use that tool to learn various values and skills. Play is something that one chooses to do. Therefore it provides a relaxed state in the player that allows them to be completely immersed in a game and absorb the information it provides (Prensky, 2001). Games give users pleasure and enjoyment enticing participants to return to the games over and over again. They also have rules that give players structure, and goals that motivate. In video games players have to find solutions to problems in order to advance through a game. They face challenges and conflict that build confidence when resolved. A lot of current games even have elaborate stories, giving players a need to care and feel emotion. Video games are also inherently interactive. They allow players to socialize with both the computer itself and with other players. These intrinsic characteristics of video games that can aid in child development have led some to focus on developing games with the intent of educating children, not just for

their entertainment. The term given to this genre of video games is Edutainment. Unfortunately, many of these games have been very unsuccessful and there are a number of reasons that contribute to this. One glaring reason is the content of these games themselves. Most were mere tests or study lessons candy coated with a little entertainment (Bergeron, 2006). Another reason for edutainment’s failure, and maybe the most important one, was that of user-interface design. The interface of these games usually weren’t designed with children in mind. Many designers forget that children are a lot different from adults in that they see, process and handle situations and objects in their own way (Druin, 2002; Berman, 1997), different from adult. Little usability testing involving children was done, so it was unknown what types of interface designs were most appropriate for children of different age groups. The coming chapters will cover: the past, present and future of educational video games as well as their interface design; forecast the possibilities in the educational video game industry; and elaborate on ideas and technologies that could lead to the design of highly engaging and enlightening tools that could have a positive impact on a child’s education. However, before looking forward let’s take a look back. Determining the future of serious games requires an observation and an appreciation of the history of video games (Bergeron, 2006).

Video Games Video games have become intertwined in the culture of western civilization ever since the first personal video game, Pong, was introduced to the world in 1972. From that moment on, video games have fascinated and excited users with the ability to interact with an electronic device like never before. In 2007, video games were being played by 65 percent of Americans (McDaniel, 2009; Entertainment Software Association, 2008). Video games converted our televisions into an alternate reality. They became a place where we can take the form of something or someone other than ourselves. They were a new and aesthetically pleasing form of art that allowed us to experience new and exotic things without having to leave our living rooms. Over the years video games have advanced and developed in a number areas including visual graphics, user interface design, and functionality. In the beginning, Pong’s visual graphics consisted of two white rectangles called “paddles” on each side of the screen, a white line in the middle, and a square dot that represented ping-pong ball. The game was controlled with the use of a handheld unit with a knob, which was turned to manipulate the paddles up and down in attempts of blocking the ball. From Pong, came Atari and other game systems such as Intellivision, that were more advanced in their design and graphics. When Nintendo released its first, 8-bit console in

1981, it was the beginning of a boom in the video game industry. The popularity of the Nintendo Entertainment System led to the emergence of new video game companies putting out new systems such as the Sony PlayStation and Sega Genesis, which offered better controls and a larger variety games with improved graphics. With the rapid advancement and growth in the technology and design of video games, today’s consoles like Microsoft’s Xbox 360, the Sony PlayStation, and Nintendo Wii are more than just video games they are multimedia platforms. These state of the art consoles not only give users the ability to play video games with incredibly life-like graphics and highly advanced wireless controllers, they can also play music, movies, and connect us to the Internet enhancing gameplay and providing players with options. In just over thirty years the technological advancements of video games has influenced the way the a large number of people in the United States, Europe, and Asia now live their lives. Video games are having a profound affect in changing our social structure and behaviors. They are not just games that users find entertaining, they also provide a player with information and social connections from all around the world. When those who participate in the use of video games gather and share this knowledge to inform others, it allows for new ideas and advancements to occur in a society, thus shaping our world. An example of this theory is Nintendo’s Wii Fit, an exercise game that promotes and encourages physical activity and maintaining a healthier lifestyle through its play. If a number of people in a given area all played this game and obtained the same knowledge and skill sets, this in turn would make a community as a whole healthier. The entertainment value is what makes video games so appealing and popular. The majority of video games available on the market today are designed for the sole purpose of entertaining users (Bergeron, 2006). The satisfaction that users get from playing video games and their desire for more is what has made the video game industry so successful. In 2008 alone, video games generated more than $21 million in revenue (Ortutay, 2009).

Serious Games From within the realm of video games there is a genre of games that are designed and developed for the primary function of educating. These are commonly known in the industry (for now), as serious games. The name for this genre has evolved over the years and is sure to change again in the near future as the designs and interfaces of games advance and provide more than just knowledge. It is now common practice in the educational game community to avoid the label edutainment because of a bad reputation the genre has earned with educators because of the poor products of the past (Bergeron, 2006). Despite this reputation there have been a few rather successful serious computer games developed in the 70’s and 80’s that were rather effective at both entertaining students and

providing them with knowledge. The most popular of these games were The Oregon Trail and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? The former educated students about history and life on the trail in the western frontier of the 19th century while the latter taught children about world geography, languages, and cultures. Both of these games were very effective at attracting and maintaining the attention of children while still getting users to absorb the educational content. The idea and practice of designing games that were entertaining but still effectively educated children is not new. As soon as video games arrived people began looking into how to do just this. Psychologists, educators and game developers could immediately see the potential that video games possessed from both an educational standpoint and a commercial one (Bergeron, 2006). For starters serious games allow players to examine complicated or dangerous scenarios by grounding ideas to specific, yet virtual, examples (McDaniel, 2009). Video games simulate real life circumstances or they can designed to created altered realities. For example a game such as Crayon Physics Deluxe (Koonigames, 2008; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avkacGQKWec), can be designed to offer different interfaces and gameplay mechanics for simulating scientific principles. These games have the possibility being used as tools for teaching physics concepts (2009). In addition, Dr. Rudy McDaniel (personal communication, December 1, 2009), Assistant Professor of Digital Media at the University of Central Florida says, “serious games offer a safe place for students to explore and fantasize”. This is what James Gee (2003) calls the “psychosocial moratorium principle” in which students are actually encouraged to take risks that they would not take in the real world because the consequences of their actions are less severe. As early as the late seventies, the first studies about serious games were published. These helped to establish fields of research that were related to the motivation for learning and cognitive development through video games. A number of studies indicate that many video games are helpful in the development of skills such as attention, spatial concentration, problem-solving, decision-making, collaborative work, and creativity (De Aguilera and Méndiz, 2003). One of the leading researchers in this field is Seymour Papert, an educational technologist from MIT. He, like Piaget, believes that video games have the ability to promote cognitive development, yet he does express the difficulties in finding a proper balance between educational and entertaining content put into a game that will make it a valuable serious game (Brown, 2008). In the 1980’s Papert had a personal vision to completely change the education system by putting control of computers into the hands of children and teachers. This vision contrasted with the prior belief of using a network of a computer-based instructional delivery system using a practice and drill style of education. This prior system did not intend to change what was taught, but simply teach it more efficiently

(Kurland and Kurland, 1987). One of his contributions to interface design in educational games was with the Logo programming language that encouraged a new philosophy of learning and education. Rather than prescriptive-lessons delivered by computers, Papert believed that computers should be used to create “microworlds” or environments in which the properties of the computer system can be discovered by the student though exploration (1987). For Logo, he and other researchers at MIT designed an electronic turtle, an interface that children could relate to and enjoy. The turtle was a robot that held a pen and would travel along a large piece of paper creating different designs based on how it travelled across the paper. Papert claimed that children could develop fundamental insights into the nature of mathematics by manipulating the turtle (give it commands) to create interesting designs and constructions (Kurland and Kurland, 1987). Serious games, by virtue of their entertainment qualities have a potentially unlimited market value. There is no reason why serious games can’t get a good size slice of the video game industry pie. They possess the same basic qualities that make entertainment or commercial games so successful. However, the success of entertainment games is one of the main factors inhibiting the popularity of serious games. The quality of serious games that have come out in the past cannot compete with commercial games on an entertainment standpoint. Regardless of how entertaining a serious game may have been, it still couldn’t attract users as effectively as a commercial game because it still maintained content based on education (Kirriemuir, 2002). Educators have had a hard time accepting serious games into a classroom setting because most teachers in today’s schools don’t possess the necessary knowledge or understanding the games themselves. They find it difficult and time consuming to learn the games themselves so they can include it into their curriculum in a way that is constructive. Teachers also don’t understand the role they play in teaching with serious games (Bruckman and Bandlow, 2002). Because serious games fall under the category of video games, they were subjected to the same scrutiny and stigma given to commercial games by lobbyists and members of congress in the 1990’s and early 2000’s. This was especially true following the Columbine shootings of 2001. The majority of studies during this time concentrated on the assumed negative effects of video games. It was believed that games had a negative influence on users causing them to act out aggressively and commit violent crimes. In the wake of the negative light that was cast on video games as a whole, they lost some of their credibility and were often judged as only a useless form of entertainment (De Aguilera and Méndiz, 2003). It’s not difficult to understand why serious games have not become more popular and an integral part of our communities. They may possess all the qualities and characteristics that could make video games an effective tool to enhance education systems and school function, but they have run into numerous roadblocks along the way.

In addition to all the other drawbacks, interface design was a major setback to serious games’ popularity. In the past many games were poorly designed and not accommodating to the cognitive and physical abilities of young students (Shneiderman, 1998). Most designers were male adults who typically wanted to design games that they would find enjoyable. They were inclined to assume that children are creative, intelligent, and capable of using games that they could play. Most likely the designers had good intensions in that they believed in children and what they could accomplish. However, in reality they could not possibly relate to what it’s like being a child and what kids are and are not capable of (Bruckman and Bandlow, 2002). In contrast to most of the other downfalls and shortcomings to serious games of the past, interface design is an aspect that can be controlled and improved. In order for serious games to be become a viable educational tool, a focus on new techniques and practices in interface design will have to be established. Interface design plays a significant role in determining whether a serious game is entertaining and captivating while fulfilling the task of educating students. The most successful serious games will include user interfaces that are developed with the user and the serious content in mind (Bergeron, 2006).

Interface The user interface (UI) is the portal through which video games provide the values and skills that aid in children’s development. Also known as the human-computer interface (HCI), it can be defined at as the connection or communication between a video game or computer and human user. The original interface for computers was first demonstrated in 1968 with Doug Engelhart’s famous “Mother of All Demos”. It introduced the idea of using a graphic interface to represent data in the form of icons or symbols. Data that was once stored in the form of a bunch of 0’s and 1’s, was now displayed on the computer screen as an image, giving the data a location (Johnson, 1997). Previously, organizing data within the computer required the typing of various line commands into the computer to get a desired result. With Engelhart’s new interface, the idea was that a user could simply point at the data, now that it was an image, and drag it, open it, or manipulate it in any number of ways (Johnson, 1997). In addition to Engelhart’s new graphic interface, he also made a large contribution to computers’ physical interface. The tool he devised to point and direct files on his graphic interface would develop into one of the most important computer devices ever created…the mouse. By converting the data into images that could be seen and manipulated users gained control over the information. A user could now directly command the data instead of telling the computer to do it (Johnson, 1997). The idea of

using files was a way to represent data in a form that users could recognize and relate to, giving them a sense of ownership over the information. Over the years, interfaces have developed in ways that now allow computers and video games to communicate physically, visually, emotionally, intelligently with their human counterparts. A good interface design will allow users to completely immerse themselves into exciting and exotic worlds, known as being “plugged in”. This is the result of the design principles put into these interfaces that provide the most optimal way of affecting users. Although there are no formal guidelines to the design of game interfaces, developers do rely on the past failures and successes of serious games to draw insight from (Bergeron, 2006). From these heuristics, a general list of best practices has emerged guiding future designers in developing effective user interfaces. Ben Shneiderman (1998), of the University of Maryland’s Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory, is one of the leading researchers in the field of interface design. From these heuristics and his own research and practice, he has compiled a list of basic principles he calls the eight golden rules of interface design: 1.

Strive for consistency: When designing the interface of a game, things like actions, icons, layout, and fonts should remain constant throughout.

Enable frequent users to use shortcuts: More advanced players require shortcuts so they may move through the game at an increased pace. Without this consideration advanced users get bored and disengaged.

Offer informative feedback: For every command given to the game by a user, it should be reciprocated with a form of feedback. Provide minor feedback for minor actions and more significant feedback for major actions.

Design dialogs to yield closure: A game should have a sequence of actions grouped into a beginning, middle, and end. As a user completes tasks they feel a sense of accomplishment and relief.

Offer error prevention and simple error handling: Try to design a system where users cannot make a serious mistake. If errors are encountered offer simple yet specific instructions to correct the error.

Permit easy reversal of actions: A user’s actions should always be reversible. This relieves anxiety and lets the user feel safe to explore.

Support internal locus of control: Give the user a sense of control. Keep actions, data entry, and ability to acquire necessary information uncomplicated. More complexity built in than necessary causes the player to become annoyed and dissatisfied.

Reduce short-term memory load: Organize and present information to a user in a minimalist form. Provide only necessary information for that given moment.

By following these eight rules, designers have the best chance of developing interfaces that are playful and bring out the human values inherent in games as well as develop the cognitive abilities in children. Interface design of serious games is an art and a science that requires the knowledge of multiple disciplines. There are many theories from the fields of psychology, pedagogy, sociology, and art that go into the development of useful serious game interfaces. It is a definite advantage for designers have a firm grasp of all these disciplines, though not necessary. Some are turning to the idea of involving children and teachers in the design process. Knowing that in order to create a good serious game, a designer must know and understand his/her intended user, their capabilities, and what they intend on learning through a serious game.

User-centered Design Researchers like James Gee and Kurt Squire are starting to take a serious look at new game development processes that will improve the effectiveness of serious games through their project, Education Arcade (Brown, 2008). They are part of a team of education and game developers from MIT and the University of Wisconsin that is designing serious games and looking to prove that they can be an effective teaching and learning tool (Barr, P. et al., 2007). The Education Arcade arose from MIT and Microsoftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collaboration to develop game concepts that merge math, science, and engineering with the latest in gameplay (Bergeron, 2006). They and other researchers in these fields, like Allison Druin are looking at the concept of user-centered design (UCD), or in the case of serious games, learner-center design (LCD). Using the techniques of Creative Inquiry and Participatory Design (Druin, 2002; Bruckman and Bandlow, 2002), this concept includes a productâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intended audience into the design process. In the serious game field, the intended audience or users are children. Children work side-by-side with the designers providing pertinent feedback and thoughts on a gameâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interface design. As a result, the designers gain a new insight into the capabilities and limitations of a younger user. At different times throughout the process of UCD, children can be included in a number of ways that will be explained shortly (Druin, 2002). In addition to including children in design research it is also vitally important to involve both subject experts and teachers. Experts bring insight and knowledge to the project that make game as realistic, valid, and meaningful as possible (Hartveveld et al., 2009).

Experts can provide specific knowledge in their fields of expertise, allowing designers to include this into the designs of interfaces, thus providing realism. Because serious games are ultimately designed for use in the classroom, input from educators and educational theorists is essential. They provide appropriate pedagogy, or approach to teaching and learning, for a game and the educational content it’s intended to present (Bruckman and Bandlow, 2002). In addition, involving teachers in the design allows developers to gain insight into the challenges teachers face when using games in the classroom. With this feedback developers can consider designs that help teachers incorporate the game into their curriculum and work with the game to facilitate learning. Teachers aid a serious game’s effectiveness by assisting students with the complex tasks of interpretation and critical reflection (Brown, 2008). When teachers are involved in the development of serious games they can gain a better understanding of the pedagogy delivered by a game and construct better lesson plans that incorporate the game (McDaniel, 2009). Another reason to include teachers is that a rapport and understanding can be created between the serious game industry and teachers, dispelling the negative views of the past. Including them in the design empowers teachers with knowledge of a serious game and how it works and a better understanding how teaching can benefit from them (Druin, 2002). When working with children in UCD, the first role a child can play in the design process is that of user. The studying of a user's interaction with a game to determine its functionality is called usability testing. The military has been using this concept for decades with the development of simulators used for flight and tank training. The role of user is the oldest and most common use of children in design. In the process of usability testing, one of the most important but typically overlooked aspects of the design process, children are observed, surveyed, and tested before and after game use. Dr. Natalie Underberg (personal communication, December 1, 2009), Assistant Professor of Digital Media at the University of Central Florida says that “usability testing is very helpful in understanding users and how they interact with a game.” She emphasized the importance of developers to use an objective third party, such as children, to participate in the usability testing who have not been involved in the game development. Content designers can easily end up designing an interface that they are comfortable with and forget that it needs to be designed solely with the user in mind. Children are tested on a topic that pertains to the content of a game before their use and then after to determine if the game had any affect on their learning ability (Druin, 2002). In addition, the usability testing determines the effectiveness of particular interfaces and how well children relate to or are affected by the interfaces. For information on guidelines for usability testing with children see the research of Allison Druin (2002) as well as Amy Bruckman and Alisa Bandlow (2002).

In the role of tester, children test prototypes of the newest technologies (Druin, 2002). These are the latest breakthrough ideas that may be included in future serious games. A child can also play the role of informant. In this role children give input on anything from new technologies to simple idea sketches. Once a prototype is developed they can be asked for their input and feedback again allowing adjustments to be made before getting to far into the development stages. In this role children can be used at any stage of the design process (Druin, 2002). The final role a child can play in the design of serious games is that of design partner. This role is similar to that of informant but as design partner children can be involved in research and design throughout the entire process of development (Druin, 2002). Only in recent years have these qualitative studies of usability testing with children become an important and accepted process of the design of serious games. There is still a lot of research that needs to be done in the study of interface design in order to ensure a future for serious games.

Activity Theory Prior to looking into the different types of interfaces that a serious game consists of and the theories involved in their effectiveness we want to briefly touch on one theory that encompasses video games as a whole. Activity Theory (AT) has evolved from the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. His research focused on development and how a person shapes and is shaped by their experiences. His colleague Alexei Leont’ev used these ideas to develop a description of acitivity (Barr, 2007). Leont’ev defines activity as a process by which people obtain their goals and achieve their expectations by taking actions to transform the cultural and social world in which they exist. One of the key components to Leont’ev’s approach was the theory of mediated action. This is a model developed by Vygotsky to explain the motives of an individual or social community to facilitate change with the creation, use, and modification of tools that mediate this process. This is why Activity Theory has become so popular in this age of interactivity and technology. It has become especially important theory in HCI research and development. In respect to video game design, this theory works on a number of levels because it functions on both an individual and social level as well a fitting in with other concepts of HCI like cognitive modeling. On the social level, Activity Theory uncovers how actions and processes are shaped and shared by communities when involved in accomplishing a goal. It describes how

knowledge and symbols evolve as a result of feedback through interaction. This explains how online games could help students learn by interacting with other players to accomplish goals.

Activity Theory Communications Model (Kuutti, 2005)

Activity Theory Model (Education)

Pippin Barr et al. (2007) have added to the mediated action model by looking at the individual parts in which a subject has a motive to affect an object with the use of tools in order to reach an outcome. On an individual level, Activity Theory can explain how one can learn through playing a serious game. This too can be looked a on a couple of different levels. First, on the level of game play itself, the subject (gameâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main character) has a motive (a desire based on the game objective) to have an effect on an object (i.e. villain) with the use of tools (i.e. weapons) in order to reach an outcome (beat the level/game). The second level focuses on the design of games and how they assist in learning. In this case, in order for a subject (student) to effectively change an object (education) through a game, they must have a strong motive or need (playing a video game) to accomplish this. The tools that help accomplish this are the interfaces. They are what make the outcome (learning/well being) possible.

Concepts of Interface Design In this section we will bring together the ideas of interface design, usability, UCD, and theories to explain how interfaces can be engaging and educational for children. A userinterface is built of an interface hierarchy between the computer and player (Bergeron, 2006). Each level is one of six types of interfaces that work in conjunction with one another to make up the user-interface: physical interface, graphical interface, logical interface, emotional interface, intelligent interface, and emotionally intelligent interface. Each interface has a different function and role as to how it affects a child and their perceptions (2006).

Physical interface. The first interface that most are familiar with is the physical interface. This is the actual hardware communication link between the computer and player that transmits the user’s commands and game’s feedback between one another. In the past some physical interfaces have consisted of a mouse, joystick, knob, and stylus (Bergeron, 2006). In the case of most serious games today, the physical interface would be the controller. The controller is used by the player to give action commands to the computer with the result of getting feedback of some sort. This is the essence of interactivity and the reason it is an important rule in interface design. A current example of feedback is haptic feedback in which game controller vibrates in response to an action. An example of an application of this would be in a game where a player is piloting a starfighter and is hit by a photon torpedo. Not only does the player see the explosion on the screen but they also feel the impact physically in their bodies through the vibrations of the controller. The haptic feedback makes the game more life-like and exciting. It immerses the player into the reality of the game. The feedback lets a player know immediately whether they’ve done something that has positively or negatively affected them (Prensky, 2001). It’s a means of teaching a player how to distinguish right form wrong in order to accomplish a goal. Haptics is already being used in medical training games where students can feel objects, such as organs or blood vessels in a virtual environment. In the future as the prices of haptic technologies decrease it will enable designers to use this technology in serious game applications (Derryberry, 2007). There are a couple of things to consider when designing controllers for use with serious games. One is that children are inherently different than other players in that they are smaller and can find it difficult to operate a controller. They don’t possess the necessary dexterity or motor skills to hold and manipulate it. In addition, overly complicated controllers with a multitude of buttons can be confusing and cumbersome to younger children as they have yet to develop the mental abilities to recall all the functions of the buttons. UCD and usability testing play an especially important role in developing physical interfaces. By working with and observing children, any shortcoming a controller may have can be immediately recognized and fixed making it more intuitive for the player to use. The latest way video game designers have made controllers more intuitive is with the use of infrared (IR) sensors and haptics. Infrared allows remotes to be wireless. Players are no longer physically bound to the computer by a cord. There is no longer a physical association with the machine. Another way physical interface design has made IR an effective tool is with motion sensors. Controllers like the Nintendo Wiimote, use triangulation via the sensors to sense

a player’s body movements. Instead of having to manipulate buttons on a pad, the player needs only to move the controller to command actions in a game. For example, when playing a baseball game on a traditional controller one has to manipulate one or more torque sensitive buttons simultaneously in order to make a game’s character swing a bat. With controllers like the Wiimote, a player need only hold the controller and make a swinging motion with their arm. This is a much more natural and understood way of accomplishing the same task. Seymour Papert finds it unfortunate that in most computer-aided instruction games the computer is it determining what a student learns. Instead, a child should be given control so they can make the computer do what they want in order to obtain a goal (Bruckman and Bandlow 2002; Druin, 2002). A child can learn in ways that are most efficient for that particular individual, following the constructivist idea of learning. In the very near future the term physical interface will no longer apply. There are developments in technology that take controller completely out of the player’s hand. Microsoft is developing a new video game system called Project Natal for their Xbox system, which senses players’ movements with the use of a sophisticated motion-sensing camera. A player can simply just move their hand to create an action. As explained by Shneiderman (1998), with his rule for supporting internal locus of control, when a player is given control and ease of use, they can concentrate more of their attention on the content within a game. In addition to Natal technologies, there is research going into the use of haptic holography. Researchers from the University of Tokyo and Provision Interactive Technologies, Inc. are developing a tactile hologram in which a user can physically feel digital images such as a ball or even raindrops (Takayuki, 2008). As a result of the 3D technology in holograms, players could engross themselves into serious game worlds like never before.

Graphical Interface. This is interface in which visual information is presented to the user by the computer. It consists of the menus, icons, and controls that connect what the player is seeing and doing on the screen to what he/she is inputting into the controller. A typical example of this type of interface would be a Heads Up Display or HUD. HUDs were developed by the military as way to display important information to a pilot. The information is displayed directly in front of the pilot on the canopy, removing the need for the pilot to look down to see the instrument panel. An example of the use of a HUD in a serious game is in Ben’s Game, made for the MakeA-Wish Foundation (www.makewish.org). It teaches children about particular illnesses and the importance medication play (Bergeron, 2006). In the game players combat illnesses by firing medications at them. The player views the action through a HUD, which has a crosshair and icons indicating ammunition levels right on the screen in easy view.

Like the physical interface, the graphical interface provides the player with feedback, teaching them, through trial and error, how to succeed in the game and in life. However, the graphical interface has the distinct advantage of being aesthetically pleasing to a player. The visual aspects of a graphic interface, the color, layout, texture, and overall design have an incredible way of captivating a player. Graphical interfaces are art, and by definition they are a non-rigid, scientific way of expressing and imparting emotions and knowledge. The ability of this interface to have such a strong emotional effect on players is what arguably, makes it the most engaging aspect of a video game. A theory that helps explain how this interface induces such strong emotions is the Imageperception Theory. It plays a role in graphical interface design in that they are a way of explaining how people perceive and interpret images, symbols, and messages to give meaning to their world. If a graphic interface can be designed in a way that a child could easily perceive as real, it would motivate a player to want to learn because they feel an emotional connection to the content of the game. By improving the tools or interfaces within a game, it can enhance a child’s motive to want to learn. When symbols and images from an interface are arranged in a certain way, the educational content becomes a “trope” in which the content is presented in a creative way that engages a player. Designers still have to keep in mind however, is that children’s perceptions develop over time. Symbols or icons put into a graphical interface that make sense to a nine year old, may not be understood by a five year old (Bruckman and Bandlow, 2002). For example, a five year old most likely would not recognize the folder/file metaphor of a desktop system. However a child having to control an illness can easily relate to Make-A-Wish foundation’s Ben’s Game and its age and context appropriate metaphors, pills (Bergeron 2006). The use of specific and appropriate metaphors and symbols to communicate with users and how to determine which are the best and most effective ones to use based on user personas is the main question that Dr. Underberg (personal communication, 2009) and her colleagues are trying to answer with their PeruVine (http://digitalethnography.dm.ucf.edu/pv/home.html) research project. In addition to designing metaphors that different ages can interpret, it’s important to remember to reduce a player’s memory load, as stated in Shneiderman’s rule. Even if the child can interpret a metaphor or symbol, they still cannot process an endless number of them. Children can only process a certain amount of information by means of schemas. A schema is a cognitive structure of organized information about a person’s world, which is based on a their experiences. If too much information is presented to a player in a process called information overload, they will most likely get confused and frustrated resulting in a disconnect. As long as a game provides only the most vital information then the child will be able process and retain the knowledge and use it to interpret new images. This is why it is so challenging to develop interfaces that effectively convert imagery and symbols into concrete special relationships or numerical qualities (Bergeron, 2006).

Possibly one of the most important developments in video games in the past decade is the television. HDTV has allowed games to show off their graphical interface like never before and HDTV is still evolving and improving. Just recently work has gone into developing 3D games that attempt to bring the game out of the 2D television screen. Taking this concept one step further, it is likely that future games will take place within augmented realities. A player’s actual reality will be seamlessly blended with the realities of a game through the use of projections through an optical system or a HUD as mentioned above. Because the graphical interface can do so many things to influence a player and has so many different design options, its effectiveness will benefit greatly from more user-centered design and usability testing.

Logical Interface. The logical interface involves the rules, guidelines, and restrictions within a game. For example, it determines how a game reacts to the pressing of a controller button in different situations (Bergeron, 2006). It communicates primarily with the physical interface telling it how to operate. The logical interface doesn’t offer much in the way of interaction with users without the use of high-level interfaces such as the emotional interface, so we will move on.

Emotional Interface. This is the interface that is intended to draw emotions from its user. This emotion is what separates serious games from the drill and quiz-based educational games of the past. Inducing emotional responses from players is accomplished by including a risk/reward system (Bergeron, 2006) put in place with the use of narrative, which gives the user a vested interest and reason to care about the game. The emotional interface is usually tightly associated with the graphic interface. The two interfaces work in conjunction to provide narrative or a story to a game. These interfaces can persuade a user into perceiving things a certain way. Persuasion Theory, and the approach to attitude change that falls under it, are ways to describe how an emotional interface can encourage a student to want to learn. It suggests that humans are intelligent beings, who make wise decisions but are also influenced by others. Because humans are both rational and irrational it makes it hard to interpret one’s given attitude about a particular topic or thing. One of the functions that attitudes serve for a personality is the knowledge function. People, or in this case, children hold certain attitudes because they satisfy a need for knowledge in addition to providing structure and meaning to their world. Video games in general are very persuasive and have the ability to change children’s attitudes. This of course has been the source of a lot of controversy in the past when dealing with the past studies that focused on the affect of games on children’s violent tendencies. In the case of serious games it would probably be unlikely to find much

violence or aggression in the narrative. However, there was the Brothers in Arms series of commercial games. Brothers in Arms was a World War II single-shooter video game series developed by Gearbox based on actual events that occurred during the war. This series is a rare example of a commercial game that can effectively include historical information in a way that unexpectedly teaches a player (Brown, 2008). This is because of its detailed narrative developed from the actual “after-action-reports” of battles, compiled by battlefield historians who where embedded with the troops (2008). Games such as the Brothers in Arms series, have designed emotional interfaces that make a user feel as if they exist in the video game’s world. Because of the danger involved in the story it bonds the user with the characters and gives them a reason to care and be interested in the historical content. These games along with other genres teach players about conflict and competition through the story (Prensky, 2001). The problems designed into a game teach a player how to overcome challenges and force players to solve problems. This conflict and opposition is what makes a player feel a rush of adrenaline and enters into a flow state. This is the state in which a player loses their sense of self-consciousness and become engaged in a goal driven activity for no reason other that that joy of doing it (Squire, 2003). In the sports industry this is know as being “in the zone”. Current research at Kansas State University is studying flow by having students play the popular commercial video game, Rock Band. To date their finding indicate that the types of work that lead people to achieve flow have some common traits, including being goal directed, providing feedback, and giving a sense of meaning to the worker or student. In addition, flow occurs only when the person feels in control of the process (BarcombPeterson, 2009). These are all important traits of serious games. As their research progresses, KSU psychologists hope to determine whether there is a group effect to flow and the mental processes that occur when a player is in a flow state (2009). From a emotional interface perspective, in modern games players can from bonds and understanding with the characters they control and the characters of other players, that would have been unimaginable a decade ago. This bonding is enhanced as result of designing interfaces that give players full control to create game characters, or avatars as they are known, that represent the players in the most convincing and life-like ways possible. By making avatars realistic increases a players ability to form a bond and liking of the character that helps to engage a student but only to a certain extent. Elon University Associate Professor of Physics, Anthony Crider (personal communication, November 30, 2009) says that when designing virtual characters there is a limit to how life-like a character can be. In computer generated design there is a theory called the “uncanny valley”. The hypothesis states that when computer generated human characters or robots look too human, it causes a response of revulsion among human players or viewers. At a point between a character being cartoonish and being

completely human, players no longer want to interact or bond with the character. This phenomenon is described in the diagram below.

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An example of this character generation is in virtual worlds such as Second Life, users build representations of themselves, homes, office spaces, or other entities within an Internet based world. Second Life is an online community that consists of millions of users called “residents” who interact with each other to complete tasks such as selling wares or offering services, just as in the real world. Through these interaction users gain a better understanding of materials or situations that exist in Second Life, or life in general. The idea that users are motivated to contribute information in exchange for information and assistance, in return, is a main idea within the online communities theory. Although Second Life is not a video game, it does have “game-like” qualities in that it includes virtual avatars, interactive characters, and immersive environments. Many have tried to use Second Life as a tool for educating with limited success. Many schools, colleges, and universities around the world have attempted to use Second Life to establish virtual classrooms but most were ineffective. One of the few successful examples of using Second Life at a learning tool is in the field of architecture. Second Life users design and construct homes and office spaces in which they dwell or work. As a result, architecture students can build and observe structures of their design and examine the engineering and aesthetic qualities of it in a virtual world before actually creating it in reality (Brown 2008). One of the primary limitations to Second Life being a useful learning tool according to Associate Professor at Elon University, Michelle Ferrier (personal communication,

October 7, 2009) is that “it does not allow for controlled events” which would permit learning activities such as research and data collection. Despite this, Crider (personal communication, Novermber 30, 2009) says that “Second Life is effective in that it provides students with a ‘learning experience’, something that people within the world want. They a want to wonder through the virtual to discover and experience things through their avatar, that they are unable to experience in the real world.” Games or virtual worlds allow procedural rhetoric as purposed by Ian Bogust (2007), in which human processes are represented by computer processes. Being able to move one’s avatar around a virtual world and experience it is an continuous interactive process, whereas reading about a character walking around is mediated by language, not process (McDaniel, 2009). This is a “much more effective teaching method than going to your local library and reading about experiences in a book” (Crider, personal communication, November 30, 2009).

Intelligent Interface. This interface level is the artificial intelligence of a game giving it the ability to adapt (Bergeron, 2006). As players become more experienced with a game, tasks become easier to accomplish thus making the gameplay boring. It is necessary for a game to be able to react to the player’s skill level and give them either shortcuts, as suggested by Shneiderman, or alter the game’s difficulty and increase the challenge. Adaptability and other forms of artificial intelligence (AI) are going to play a large role in the future developments in serious interface and game design. Artificial intelligence will allow developers to design interfaces that result in life-like and understandable characters, scenes, and experiences that a player can connect with. When a character reacts more appropriately to a given situation it gives the player a feeling of trust. When characters act just like us, we assume they are us, therefore we relate to them and confide in them. Contrary to being able to create life-like worlds and characters, intelligent interfaces can also be designed so they alter the reality of worlds. The physics that control how things behave in a video game’s world are designed into the intelligent interface. By altering the designs and physics, these interfaces can speed up time, make a ball float in midair, travel through space, and do many other things. A benefit of this intelligence lies within the fields of science. When studying topics such as evolution, cell replication, or botany, an intelligent interface can enhance learning unlike any teaching technique of the past. For example, a student studying botany can observe how a plant develops and control the rate of plant growth within a serious game world. This is something that cannot be done in the real world, at least for now. On a social level, the intelligent interface aids in bringing people together. With an online serious game students can interact and play the same game from different parts of

the country. One classroom could collaborate with another halfway around the world to accomplish tasks of a particular game. The future success of serious games will rely heavily on in-game communications to promote team learning. Not only will chatting via microphone or text during gameplay be the norm, but game blogs, team wikis, and other Web 2.0+ communications technologies will quickly find their place in serious games (Derryberry, 2007), allowing students to share and gather knowledge with each other. Moreover, with enhanced communications within serious games, these capabilities can promote mentorship opportunities and facilitate access to subject matter experts (2007). Emotionally Intelligent Interface. According to Bergeron (2006), the emotionally intelligent interface is designed to modify a player’s behavior by forming a union between the game and the player. As mentioned above, non-player characters can have a significant influence on a player and the choices they make. They not only express emotions but they do so in a way that is appropriate and relatable to a particular situation. This realistic action results in a modification of the player’s behavior. The characters, either artificially generated or other online users, can provide information and advice to a player, assisting them in accomplishing goals. As the name suggests this is the most complex of the interfaces because it combines both logical and emotional factors that don’t necessarily coincide with each other. Future developments in emotionally intelligent interface design will have the greatest impact on the success of serious games. Obviously, user-centered design and usability testing will be a key factor in directing the design of interfaces that support education and entertainment. A game yet to be released that may be the most advanced in emotionally intelligent interface design is Lionhead’s, Milo (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CvjEJkZi8bw). It was introduced at the 2009 Electronics Entertainment Expo along with Microsoft’s Project Natal and represents the first time game characters truly express emotions. Mylo is a boy who lives in a virtual yet life-like world within the game who interacts with a user in our world. The fascinating aspect of the game is that Mylo interacts with a player in a way that seems unprovoked. It can even recognize individuals and their expressions. Likewise, Mylo has the ability to express his emotions in ways that are easily recognizable, making the interaction incredibly lifelike. Technologies like this will immerse players into serious games like never before. Perhaps in future serious games a player will literally walk the Oregon Trail or travel the world virtually, experiencing and learning new things.

Conclusion

Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s apparent that video games thrive on their interactivity. Players interact with the console, the gameâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reality and characters, as well as other players. This interactivity is what makes all games, electronic or not, attract users. Social games are naturally more fun and inviting. This interactivity will allow students to connect and learn from others not only in the classroom, but from anywhere in the world. Serious games can educate students about a particular subject and at the same time expose them to different cultures and ways of looking at things. All video games revolve around the theory of Uses and Gratifications (U&G). U&G explores how people use media (serious games) to achieve certain needs, even achieving self-actualization, resulting in confidence and a sense of worth. Worth is a quality that drives social interaction in that it is something we share and receive from others. When we give to a community we hope to receive reciprocity, acknowledgement, and praise. These all give us a sense of worth. By interacting through serious games and sharing with others, students can fulfill their cognitive needs by increasing their knowledge and understanding of their world. Knowledge of such theories in communication and education will aid designers in understanding the complex relationships that young students have with interactive media and how it can enhance their view of the world. As this paper has mentioned throughout, serious games could benefit greatly from future user-interface design. Future advances in creating graphics that are visually and emotionally pleasing and making serious games as realistic as possible will enhance their ability to engage students and make them want to care about the game and the educational content within it. Improving serious gamesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; communication capabilities will enhance their effectiveness as they bring students closer to other players and subject experts to share and gain more knowledge. Designing improved intelligence and proper emotional character responses within a game will lead to games that mimic reality and entertain and enlighten students in ways they would never be in a normal classroom setting. It will be important that designers continue to work collaboratively with children, teachers, and experts to design games that work well for both the student and the classroom. The practice of usability testing will have to be made a priority in interface design in the future. Although time consuming, it is worth the time to develop a game that will be effective in the classroom and homes for years to come. By following design best practices, employing UCD, and utilizing future advancements in technology, serious games have the potential to change the education process for the benefit of children, schools, and communities.

Annotated Bibliography Barcomb‐Peterson, E. (2009, November 24). KState Organizational Psychologists Use the Video Game Rock Band to Study How People Achieve Flow While at Work, Performing Skilled Tasks [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.k‐state.edu/media/newsreleases/nov09/wrkflow112409.html Bergeron, B.P. (2006). Developing serious games. Hingham, Mass.: Charles River Media. Abstract: Book covers the topic of serious game design for both education and business purposes. It discusses the history and current state of serious games. A focus is on the design of the different levels of interfaces. It covers social, personal, and augmented reality games. All this accumulating in designing a game that is both entertaining and educational. Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive Games: The expressive power of videogames. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Abstract: This book discusses how video games make arguments and influence players. It focuses on rhetoric and it’s function in video game software. Video games offer a new form of rhetoric the offer refers to as “procedural rhetoric” in that video games represent rules and interactions. Brown, H.J. (2008). Video Games and Education. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe Abrstract: The chapters of this book discuss edutainment of the past and serious games of today. It focuses on the past a current types of serious games and how each one is effective at educating students. Bruckman, A., Bandlow, A. (2002). Human‐computer interaction for kids. The humancomputer interaction handbook: fundamentals, evolving technologies and emerging applications. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Abstract:

Covers the topic of User‐centered Design with the use of children. Children a different from adults physically and mental which requires design to occur with children’s input to accommodate for these differences. Usability testing is an essential part in this process. Computers are used to entertain and educate children as a tutor, tool, or tutee. Ceangal, J.K. (2002). Video Gaming, Education and Digital Learning Technologies. DLib Magazine, 8(2). Abstract: Reports on video games and their use in the United Kingdom. It covers the major game consoles available at the time of its publication; PC use, online gaming, and networking. Covers the educational applications that video games have in current and future classrooms in the U.K. Ceangal, J.K. (2003). The relevance of video games and gaming consoles to the Higher and Further Education learning experience. JISC, 3(1). Abstract: Reports on video games and their use in the United Kingdom. It covers the major game consoles available at the time of its publication; PC use, online gaming, and networking. Covers the educational applications that video games have in current and future classrooms in the U.K. De Aguilera, M., Méndiz, A. (2003). Video Games and Education (Education in the Face of a “Parallel School”). ACM Computers and Entertainment, 1(1), 1‐14. Abstract: This paper is a look into the use of video games to educate children. It covers past studies in this field and the also the changes that need to take place within education systems reversing the negative stereotypes of video games. Derryberry, A. (2007). Serious Games: Online Games for Learning. Adobe Systems. Retreived October 3, 2009, from www.adobe.com/resources/elearning/pdfs/serious_games_wp.pdf/. Abstract: Paper discusses the use and future of serious online games in education of students and employees. The author is an advisor and consultant to organizations about serious games and virtual worlds. She was commissioned by Adobe Systems to write this article.

Druin, A., (2002). The role of children in the design of new technology. Behaviour and Information Technology, 21(1), 1‐25. Abstract: Paper discusses the concept of User‐centered Design (UCD) and usability‐testing with children. It describes the roles children can play during the design of technologies that facilitate learning. With this process designers can gain insight into children’s physical and mental abilities. They can design games that and more intuitive and accommodating to young students. Druin, A., Hourcade, J.P. (2005). Interaction design and children. Communitcations of the ACM, 48(1), 33‐34. Abstract: The article discuss the topic of User‐center Design when including young children. These approaches will help game makers design games that are easy to use and age‐appropriate to children. Entertainment Software Association (ESA). (2008). Industry facts. Retreived December 1, 2009 from http://theesa.com/facts/index.asp. Abstract: Online list of video game industry facts including sales, household usage and age of users. Gee, J.P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave/Macmillan. Abstract: This book explains the human values that video games help to develop in humans. It primarily focuses on games being semiotic domain made up of symbols that players interpret and learn from. Graham, J., Zheng, L., Gonzalez, C. (2006). A Cognitive Approad to Game Usability and Design: Mental Model Development in Novice Real‐Time Strategy Gamers. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 9(3), 361‐366. Abstract: Reports on a study of a video game player’s mental model and how they shift throughout gameplay. This research will help video game designers engage and hold a player’s interest.

Guha, M.L., Druin, A., Chipman, G., Fails, J.A., Simms, S., Farber, A. (2005). Working with Young Children as Technology Design Partners. Communications of the ACM, 48(1), 39‐42. Abstract: Article discusses the idea of Cooperative Inquiry. These are the design methods for working with children in the development of serious games. It studies how designers and children work together and techniques that can be used to help with the communication of ideas between the two. Harteveld, C., Lukosch, S., Kortmann, R. (2009). Improving Serious Game Design with Collaborative Storytelling. 8th International Conference on Webbased Learning (ICWL ). Abstract: The challenge to designing a serious game is that in addition to being fun the also have to be valid and meaningful. A successful serious game can be developed by using collaborative storytelling in the design process. This suggest designers should collaborate with experts in the subject that a game is designed around in order to make them as realistic as possible. Johnson, S. (1997). Interface Culture: How New Technology Transforms the Way We Create and Communicate. . New York: Basic Books. Abstract: This book is a historical look at user‐interfaces. Chapters covered for this paper discuss Doug Engelhart’s “Mother of all demos” intruding the first computer graphical interface and mouse. Kloonigames. (2008). Crayon Physics Deluxe. Retrieved December 1, 2009, from http://www.kloonigames.com/crayon/. Kurland, D.M., Kurland, L.C. (1987). Computer Applications in Education: A Historical Overview. Annual Review of Computer Science, 2, 317‐358. Abstract: This journal article gives a historical overview of the use of computers in a school setting. It discusses some of the development psychologies used in education and how the evolution of use and design of educational video games evolved along with these psychologies. The paper also discusses the role of teachers in the

design of games as well as curriculum to use with these educational games. Laurel, B. (1993). Computers as Theatre. Reading, Mass.: Addison‐Wesley. Abstract: This book uses theatre to explain interface design. Discuss the importance of psychology in interface design. Microsoft Xbox. (2009). Lionhead Studio’s Milo. Retrieved October 30, 2009, from http://xbox360.ign.com/. McDaniel, R. (2009). Best Practices for Integrating Game‐Based Learning into Online Teaching. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 5(2), 1‐14. Abstract: The article describes the history of the use of video games in education and also provides 10 guidelines fro the effective use of video games in online teaching environments for post‐secondary instructors. National Center for Education Statistics. (1998). The Release of U.S. Report on Grade 12 Results From the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) February 24, 1998. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pressrelease/timssrelease.asp Abstract: Preliminary statement of the findings from the U.S. Dept. of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics 1998 TIMSS report written by Pascal D. Forglone, Jr., Ph.D., U.S. Commissioner of Education Statistics. National Center for Educational Statistics, (2009). Digest of Education Statistics (NCES 2009‐020). Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/index.asp Abstract: Report drawn from the National Assessment of Educatoinal Progress (NAEP) educational assessment of 25 participating countries. Statistics include enrollment, teacher employment numbers, student performance, international comparisons, drop‐out rates, educational technology, and educational expenditures.

Norman, D.A. (2002). Psychology of everyday things. New York : Basic Books. Abstract: Book covers the different ideas of psychology that are applied to interface design. Explains the importance of designers to understand how children develop mentally so they can design age‐appropriate games. Olsen, D.R., Klemmer, S.R. (2005). The Future of User Interface Design Tools. Proceedings of the ACM CHI 2005 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2134‐2135. Abstract: Writing on a workshop created to share ideas on interface design tools and the future of interfaces. Some of these tools include interface builders, development environments for writing code, and toolkits providing architecture. Ortutay, B. (2009) Video game sales top $21 billion in 2008. Retrieved October 3, 2009 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28682836/ Prensky, M. (2001). Fun, Play, and Games: What Makes Games Engaging. Digital GameBased Learning. McGraw‐Hill. Abstract: Reports how games and play affects children’s cognitive abilities. Defines what constitutes fun, games, and play and these explain why video games are so engaging. The author reports on what values videos games as well as non‐digital games instill in children as well as covering different types of video games available to children. Raffle, H. The future of interface design, through a child’s eyes. www.cs.tufts.edu/~jacob/workshop/papers/raffle.pdf Abstract: Paper focuses on designing interfaces for children’s toys and games by including children in the design process. Explains how this collaboration encourages children to become designers themselves. It also cover interactivity and interactive toys. Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the User Interface: Strategies For Effective HumancomputerInteraction. Reading, Mass : Addison Wesley Longman.

Abstract: This book covers the topic of user‐interface design. It describes the eight primary rules to design good interfaces. Also discusses the importance of accommodating different types of users. Sorensen, B.H. (2009). Concept of Educational Design for Serious Games. Research, Reflections and Innovations in Integrating ICT in Education, 1, 278‐282. Abstract: Reports on the challenges of incorporate an educational design into a serious game. Educational design is a concept that combines theories from education, ludology, , communications, and pedagogy. The idea also focuses on involving teachers during the design process as they provide in important function in a serious games effectiveness. Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2(1). Abstract: The author examines the history of games in education and explains the cognitive potential they have for young learners. The paper discusses why games are so engaging for children as well as providing examples of strategy and drill games of the past. Finally, it discusses the future of video games in the future. Strommen, E., Alexander, K. (1999). Emotional Interfaces for Interactive Aardvarks: Designing Affect into Social Interfaces for Children. Proceedings of the ACM CHI ’99 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 528‐535. Abstract: Authors discuss the design and development of interactive dolls. They focus on the emotional interface and report on the use of three emotional interactions humor, praise, and affection and how children respond to each. Takayuki Iwamoto, Mari Tatezono, and Hiroyuki Shinoda, Non‐Contact Method for Producing Tactile Sensation Using Airborne Ultrasound. Proc. EuroHaptics 2008, 504‐513. Abstract: Paper reports on studies involving touchable holography. With the use of ultrasound waves scientists have devised a way to apply pressure on an object that is interacting with a 3D hologram.

Wallace, Richard (2004). Game design gets serious for real‐world apps. Electronic Engineering Times, 1(2). Abstract: Reports on the development of realistic game‐based simulation to deliver educational programs, military training and tools for health maintenance and therapy. Advances in computer graphics and communications; Emergence of non‐ entertainment applications developed by public‐policy advocates, educators, corporate management, the health care industry and nonprofit foundations.

Top Ten Lists Thinkers 1. Tim Berners‐Lee The British engineer and computer scientist is the creator of the World Wide Web back in 1989. For those familiar with the Web there is really nothing more to say, but for those not familiar with it, his contribution to this world as arguably the most important technological advancement since the invention of the Atom bomb. However, Berners‐Lee’s creation has become much more useful to mankind. The World Wide Web has allowed people to connect and bond with each other as well as gather and share information and knowledge at rate unimaginable 25 years ago. 2. Ben Shneiderman He is one of the leading authorities on interface design. The University of Maryland professor of Computer Science is most famous for his 8 Golden Rules of Interface Design, which should be followed when creating interactive media such as websites or video games in order to make them user friendly and interactive. He also defined the field of universal usability, which refers to the design of information and communications products and services that are usable for every citizen. He is one of the future thinkers that understands the importance of communicating information and having it available to all throughout the world. 3. Donald Norman Norman is an advocator of human‐centered design. As a professor of cognitive science at The University of California, San Diego and professor of computer science at Northwestern University, he is the leading expert in understanding how humans and computers interact and the psychology that drives that interaction. The majority of is work deals mostly with usability or with cognitive psychology. He believes that designing with the use of emotion is what helps users bond to technology and learn from it. In his book The Design of Everyday Things, Norman describes the psychology behind what he deems 'good' and 'bad' design, through case studies, and proposes design principles. 4. James Gee James Gee is the leading thinker in using video games to educate people. The Arizona State University professor foresees a revolution in the education system and what processes and teaching styles that are best suited to engage and educate children. He believe that in order for America to compete in the global knowledge race schools will have to realize their past and current

limitations and change their ways of thinking in how they are run and how they pass on knowledge to the younger generations. Below is a link that sums up my research into serious games and other topics I have been learning in the iMedia program. http://www.edutopia.org/james‐gee‐games‐learning‐video 5. Jakob Neilson His the foremost authority on usability, which in computer science and communications, refers to the elegance and clarity with which the interaction with a computer program or a web site is designed. Usability involves the study of user personas and involving users in the evaluation of different forms of multimedia such as Websites and video games. Neilson has worked closely with Donald Norman and together they formed the Nielsen Norman Group, a consulting group on matters of usability. Usability is probably the most important aspect of interactive design and development, yet it is under appreciated and is rarely taken advantage in the field of interactive media. 6. Chris Crawford

He is one of the most influential people in the field of video games. As a game designer and writer he has helped to advance video games to the complex and informative tools that they are today and will be in the futures. He began working with Atari in 1979 and helped them create the most successful games of their time and make Atari the leader video games in the 1980’s. Upon leaving Atari he decided to leave the video game industry and began to concentrate on people games, which as he describes them are games where the goals are of a social nature and focus on interactions with well‐defined characters. He is yet another thinker that interactivity and social connection is the future of human existence. 7. Marc Andreessen Andreessen is most famous for being the co‐author of Mosaic, the first widely‐used web browser. He then founded Netscape Communications Corporation. Netscape is very near and dear to my heart as I was a frequent user back in my undergraduate days and Elon College in the early 1990’s. I still miss seeing their logo whenever I log on to the Internet. As an entrepreneur, investor, startup coach, Andreessen has been involved in the creation of Ning, and social networks platform and has served on the boards of Facebook, eBay, and Hewlett‐Packard. His influence within the Internet community has helped drive interactivity and computer communications over the past 15 year to where it is today. 8. Brian Storm

He is the founder of MediaStorm, a multimedia and publishing company. MediaStorm produces state‐of‐the‐art online news stories using high‐quality photography, video, audio, and interactivity to tell each story in compelling and very emotional ways. The site uses traditional photojournalism and social commentary to inform and educate users through emotion. Some of the more notable stories found on the site include Marlboro Marine, an in depth look at the struggles in a Marine’s life after returning home from combat in the middle east. 9. Steve Jobs The founder of Apple computers revolutionized the personal computer and by making it not only aesthetically pleasing but also incredibly intuitive. Most of the design and tools of all of today’s personal computers such as windows and widgets can be traced back to Apple and Steve Jobs. 10. Neil Postman

Postman can be looked at as the computer age’s devil’s advocate. A theorist, cultural critic, and writer, Postman is an adamant challenger to today’s use of images and multimedia to spread knowledge. He is most famous for his book Amusing Ourselves to Death, in which he deplores the decline of communication as television and the use of images has replaced the written word which he feels is the most efficient way of passing on knowledge in that it is technical and cannot be expressed in simplified form.

Readings 1. Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective HumanComputer Interaction, Ben Schneiderman This book lays the foundation and best practices for creating user‐friendly and interactive interfaces to engage users. 2. Designing Web Usability: The Practice of Simplicity, Jakob Nielson This book informs of the timeless guidelines of using simplicity in page, content, site, and intranet design to create user friendly and efficient Web pages. 3. Groundswell, Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff

The authors of this within it he importance of businesses being aware of the power of the internet in that the public now controls brands and how they are marketed and advertised. It is important that companies embrace the

Internet in that their customers and can make or break them by easily sharing information, good and bad, about their products or services. 4. Information Design Handbook, Jenn and Ken Visocky O’Grady This is a very helpful book in teaching readers how to create visually aesthetic and easily used Websites through information design. Meaning that arranging images and text in certain ways allows users to easily acquire the information present. 5. Born Digital, John Palfrey and Urs Gasser

This book covers how children who are born into the digital world are reacting to, using, and learning from use of computers and the Internet. 6. Technopoly, Neil Postman

Postman’s book describes how America is the only country to have evolved into an overly efficient society and rely on the newest technology to obtain an overabundance of information. This ever‐increasing amount of information that is available has become garbage and has lost its value. 7. Information Visualization Manifesto, Manuel Lima The book argues that much in the form of multimedia has become to rely too heavily on graphics and images instead of the underlying information. Basically they use visualizations for the sake of visualizations or eye candy. 8. FREE: A Future of a Radical Price, Chris Anderson This book discusses the current and future trends of giving away freebies that businesses use to attract customers and how gift giving can be a useful tactic to entice consumers to form bonds and loyalty to brands. 9. TorrentFreak, Blog‐“Ernesto Van Der Sar” A blog that reports on the latest in filesharing and BitTorrents. Informs readers of the best places to find freeware. 10. Socialnomics: How social media transforms the way we live and do business, Erik Qualman This book written by blogger Erik Qualman discusses how companies need to wake up to the times and take advantage of social media as apposed to fighting it in order for their companies to succeed in this age of consumer controlled marketing and advertising.

Issues 1. Usability The elegance and clarity with which the interaction with a computer program or a Website is designed. Usability involves the study of user personas and involving users in the evaluation of different forms of multimedia such as Websites and video games to improve their ease of use thus making these media available more people. 2. Interface design From usability comes better interface design. Improved interfaces will increase usage around the world as more and more people have access and the knowledge to use these technologies. 3. The Groundswell Businesses needed to embrace interactivity to be successful. They need to use social media to get positive information about their products or services out to potential consumers. 4. Privacy Aside from all the increase in knowledge that is generated by interactivity, one of the main downfalls is privacy. As we all become more interconnected with each other and anything else out there, there are those that can harness the same technology by using third‐party servers or taking advantage of HTTP header leaks to pry into our private lives and identities. 5. Security As a result of the invasion of privacy by the use of interactive media, many have taken a close look into Internet security and how we can protects ourselves more effectively. Some of the future trends may be in creating national ID cards, single online IDs for use on all sites one visits on the Internet, and identity layers allowing users to see you they are connecting with and who is connecting with them at any given time. 6. User‐control By definition interactivity involves giving users/audience control of the content. The control gives users the power to shape or create the content

themselves, which in turn enforces a bond between them, the content, and the interactivity. 7. Interactive design This is the study of devices with which a user can interact, specifically computer users. The design defines the behavior of a computer in response to its user. Designing computers that increase interactivity by making their use easier, increases connectedness between people, content, and computers. 8. Spreadability/Stickiness In the past Websites, particularly commercial ones were designed to attract customers/users and keep them there. Information was force‐fed to users and that information was static and unchangeable. What a user saw is what they got. The current and future trend in web design by companies is create sites that still attract users but encourages them to share information found within the site to others such as their friends and family thus freely promoting the product or service thus giving said users control of the information. This helps create a bond and loyalty between the user and the brand. 9. Energy This is becoming a huge concern in the interactive world in that, as availability and access to Internet technology increases so does the number of servers and computers to use it. This is increasing using up Earth’s resources. New and creative ways of creating clean and sustainable energy will have to be discovered in order to avoid destroy the planet on which we live. One of these future trends will be the use of cloud computing which will reduce the number of servers required to store the same information. Information that was once redundantly stored will be stored in on central location that people can access at any time from anywhere. 10. Ease of use

As stated above, increasing the ease of use with increase accessibility of the Internet to all throughout the world. Those with limit knowledge of the Internet will easily be able to learn and use it, thus increasing their own knowledge. Theories 1. Use and Gratification Theory

‐Identifies how people are motivated to use particular communication tools to meet particular needs. When users get gratification from their use of interactive media they form bonds with the content and creators of the media.

2. Activity Theory ‐A way to assess the developmental processes by which a person is shaped by and shapes experiences through his or her actions. In interactivity and HCI, it reveals how tools are created then critiqued and given feedback, then refined/remade and revealed again, in an ongoing loop 3. Powerful Effects Theory ‐ Media has powerful effect of changing an audience if: 1. They spell out extremely specific, reasonable campaign objectives clearly 2. They pinpoint the target audience 3. They work to overcome indifference of the audience to the particular issue 4. They find relevant themes to stress in the messages

4. Perception Theory ‐Process by which we interpret sensory data through structural (physical/physiological) and functional (psychological) influences from within us and from society as a whole. 5. Image‐perception Theory ‐Images convey affective and emotional appeal. Combining symbols create rhetorical arguments or “visual tropes” which breaks down information that can be easily process by users regardless of skepticism, boredom, or resistance. 6. Media Richness Theory ‐Richer, more personal means of communication are generally the most effective way to share messages. 7. Media Ecology ‐Looks into the matter of how media and communications affect human perception, understanding, feeling and value and how our interaction w/ media facilitates or impedes our chances of survival. Concerns that computers, media and information will take control over humans.

8. Critical Theory ‐Critical theory is a social theory in communications is oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole through interactivity, in addition to traditional theory that only to understanding or explaining it.

9. Social Network Theory ‐Assesses how the structure of ties influences individuals, their relationships and the results of these relationships. Social network analysis attempts to composition of ties affect norms ‐Smaller, closer networks with “strong ties” can be less useful that large networks with “weak ties”, as proven in the “6 degrees of seperation.”

10. Knowledge Gap ‐Gap between the “information‐rich” and the “info‐poor” widens with each new medium. The “info‐poor” can keep up because they don’t have the means to acquire the newest in technology and therefore the access to interactive media and fall behind and don’t access the knowledge that others do have. Info Visualizations 1. The MeModel ‐The different types of media users (audience, lurkers, responders, and creators) revolve around the different levels of media (cool, cold, warm, and hot) and each user responds differently to each level searching out and contributing to only the information they want.

http://paulrwagner.wordpress.com/2009/09/24/the‐me‐model‐ready‐for‐ its‐close‐up/ 2. Media Diet Pryamid ‐Describes a diet plan for interacting with media in order to avoid information overload and maintaining a balance between your real and virtual life.

http://flowingdata.com/2009/08/14/balance‐life‐with‐the‐media‐diet‐ pyramid/ 3. Resume infographic ‐A visual representation of someone’s with the use of wave graphs, pie graphs, and color coding which creates a timeline of work experiences and emphasizes the amount of ones experience in particular areas.

http://theportfolio.ofmichaelanderson.com/portfolio/resume‐infographics/ 4. American Dream/Nightmare ‐this graphic points out the amount of debt of the average American and how it is outpacing their income.

http://www.coolinfographics.com/2009/07/american‐ dreamnightmare.html 5. The conversation prism ‐Describes the different tools used in the social web with the use of metaphorical flower pedals.

http://www.briansolis.com/2009/03/conversation‐prism‐v20/ 6. Google Earth ‐Interactive global map of the Earth including the oceans which was generated by satellite images.

earth.google.com

7. Faces of the Dead (NY Times) ‐A representation of all those KIA during the Iraq and Afghan Wars this the use of small squares that create a larger image of a fallen soldier. Clicking each individual square will pull up information about that soldier. Very emotional and gripping way of informing the public about the cost of war and reminding viewers to keep these men and women in our hearts.

http://www.nytimes.com/ref/us/20061228_3000FACES_TAB1.html

8. Internet memes timeline ‐An interactive timeline of all the memes that have swept across the internet. http://www.dipity.com/tatercakes/Internet_Memes 9. Failed Space Missions to Mars ‐Effective graphic illustrating the number of Mars exploration failures compared the very few successful mission that have occurred.

http://flowingdata.com/2009/10/26/failed‐space‐missions‐to‐mars/ 10. Possible Futures of Twitter Visualized ‐Interesting visualization of where Twitter can go into the future and its effectiveness in different industries.

http://flowingdata.com/2009/06/02/possible‐futures‐of‐twitter‐ visualized/ Resources 1. reMap ‐Very cool Website of infographics with fun and interactive navigation and movement. http://www.bestiario.org/research/remap/ 2. Wired.com ‐Website of Wired Magazine which reports on how technology affects culture, the economy, and politics. It looks into the future of interactive technologies and how they will shape our world. It is full of fascinating and novel ideas in the world of interactive media. http://www.wired.com

3. TED ‐Annual conference and Website devoted to “ideas worth spreading”. It promotes interactivity and the sharing of knowledge to help advance human civilization. http://www.ted.com 4. Google ‐An online company that offers Internet search, e‐mail, online mapping, office productivity tools such as Google Docs, social networking, and video sharing. It is the leading source for information on the Internet today. http://www.google.com 5. Mashable.com ‐An Internet news blog that writes about YouTube, Google, Twitter, Facebook, MySpace, Apple, and up and coming online sources. It keeps us up to date on what is hot and what is not on the Internet. http://mashable.com/ 6. Yahoo ‐Another online organization that offers internet search, e‐mail, online maps, video sharing and social networking. http://www.yahoo.com 7. Gizmodo.com ‐A blog that revolves around electronics. A great site for those interested in the current and future gadgets that are available to the public. Who doesn’t like toys. ‐http://www.gizmodo.com 8. Techcrunch ‐A blog that keeps up with startup companies, products, and Websites. http://www.techcrunch.com 9. Facebook ‐The leading social network site that is currently connecting over 350,000,000 members. It offers instant messaging, e‐mail, picture sharing, video sharing, and photo sharing. It has reconnected millions of people that may never have reconnect otherwise. It has made the world a whole lot smaller. http://www.facebook.com 10. Adobe Flash ‐The leading tool to create animated and interactive Websites. It is the tool primarily used to create banner and pop‐up add found on Websites. http://www.adobeflash.com

In‐Class Group Work

Theory Definitions/Collective Intelligence Exercise Create by Matt Hunter, David Kennedy, David Parsons, Sean Smith and Kathryn Williams

The Cloud Model

1: Interactivity: the ability to control aspects of communication between two or more parties. Interactivity is not only limited to human or technological dimensions. 2: user, interacticons, reproacters, specticipants, interbots 3: Audience: a target participant of interactive information 4: Activity Theory: designing specific interfaces for the wide range of participants User and Gratification Theory: users will always have desires and needs Perception Theory: users will always have their own factors in interacting with information Powerful Effect Theory: communicating messages with multiple layers and methods will always be a part of interactive media Image Perception Theory: Interactive media combines various types of images to communicate Media Richness Theory: personalizing messages and interactivity make the most compelling content

The Feedback Model

Created by Alex Traboulsi, Kevin Burrows, Sean Smith, Bahar Rostami & David Parsons Copyright, 2009

Feedback

Adaptation Trust Security Design/Function Spectipant Choice Uer Persona

Adaptation In order to structure a successful accomplishment of interactive communication, message senders must embrace the need for adaptation. Quite possibly the most vital component to staying ahead of the game, the ability to change can mean life and death in the ever‐turbulent world marketplace. The days of simply putting out a message (The magic bullet theory) and expecting the audience to accept it as fact are long gone. Instead, media companies today must be able to adjust their message delivery system to better accommodate their audience. Frankly, audiences are fickle, with an attention span that seems to shrink by the second. With new and evolving tools, audiences are becoming more adept at cutting away the fat and getting to the heart of a story. Consequently, those trying to reach new eyes and ears must find new ways to alter, not their message, but their way of sending that message. New tools like social media give companies an opportunity to reach these audiences like never before, but because technology can change on a dime, so too must message senders. Those who fear change will be left behind and those that try to stop the inevitable will simply be run over. But those who adapt to the possibilities will be the successful message senders in the new world of interactive media.

Trust and Security As technology continues to develop rapidly, audiences are interacting more and contributing more personal information to customize their experiences. Because of the increased transparency of information, addressing issues of trust and security is becoming increasingly critical for reassuring these audiences. Interactive audiences, or specticipants, need to know that their information, and by extension their identities, are safe. Their level of trust in new technologies directly affects their level of interaction. Creating a secure environment promotes the adoption of new technologies and forms of communication. Design and Function DESIGN AND FUNCTION AS IMPORTANT MEANS OF IMPROVING INTERACTIVITY AND WHAT THIS MEANS FOR FEEDBACK AS A WHOLE: Although fairly obvious, something cannot function if it is not designed properly. Unfortunately many of us, as well as many users and specticipants all over the world continue to use technology, both static and interactive that is poorly designed and does not function beneficially. A website for displaying a product for example must first draw a user in (graphic design elements), allow the product to be seen and understood, (functionality), and keep them interested and coming back (interactivity) for a final pleasant experience (feedback). Simply put: If one of these links in the chain to feedback is broken, then positive feedback is not reached. A designer must understand key elements and best practices in their specific situation in order to properly and effectively hinder their users’ experience a positive one. Again, referencing the links in the chain, each link is created differently in different situations. There are no specific rules that govern all links in all situations except for a few very important key points: *Allow a user a way out *Allow the user options If a designer keeps all of this information in mind, as well as keeps up with what is on the forefront of design and aesthetics than function and design will flourish and feedback will become positive if other aspects work correctly.

Specticipant Control In the world of interactivity there are a number of theories out there that explain how and why we communicate with others. They range from people’s inherent need to socialize and be a part of a group, our need to obtain more information and improve our cognitive processes, to persuasion from others that affect our attitudes toward certain experience in life. Within these theories there are practices that improve how we all interact with each other. Websites, for example, can look for trends in use by their audience, design their site that is more attractive and appealing (sticky), or includes elements to a site such as viral videos or other products that can be shared (spread) within a community and outside of it. One of the main ideas behind improving interactivity is specticipant control. The current definition of the evolving term interactivity is “the two‐way communication between two or more computers and/or users (humans) in which the user has the ability to choose, create, modify, or control content”. Control is one of the main driving forces behind interactivity as stated in the definition. Control, as implied by the definition of interactivity, is giving the power to a specticipant to take information and transform it in anyway they feel appropriate and then share this new information with others. Specticipant is another term used to describe the ever‐changing viewer or audience member. By giving control to a specticipant, you give them power and a bond to a given Website, video/computer game, or any other type of interactive media. Because in interactivity the user can also be the creator, it is misguided to refer to them as merely an audience, viewer, or user. This bond is what draws specticipants to the site as well as them spreading the word about via the Internet or word of mouth. Think of it in the terms of family. In essence it becomes a family member that you trust, believe, care for, and confide in. When this bond occurs speciticipants become loyal and return to the site again and again and brings new members to the community, resulting in more information and knowledge that can be shared within the community. One example is in the use of video games. In the 2D games of the past, players had limited control of the content of the game. They could only control the main character. And by control I mean limited control such as jump, duck, and sprint in order to complete a level without dying. In today’s video games players can communicate with a number of characters within the game. They can make different choices that lead them in different directions within a game to accomplish the goal of winning.

In the business world, control could be viewed as giving a potential customer the ability to control how they navigate through a Website, which pages they need to visit and which they do not. By doing this it gives a customer a vested interest in a company and it’s brand, resulting in increased sales and advertisement. User Persona It is only by allowing for and listening to feedback that a user persona can be properly identified. In this new age of interactive media, determining user persona is synonymous with identifying with a target audience. By successfully identifying the user persona in the communications cycle, a message can be customized to effectively reach the intended specticipants. With the recent rise of interactivity within current media and communication models, interaction between senders and receivers of messages has become a two‐ way street. This has opened the door for massive message feedback, allowing the sender to better determine the user persona. Message creators and senders that understand the power of tailoring their messages according to their user personas will find themselves on the forefront of the current communications revolution. Characteristics of Influential Interactivity Created by Brook Corwin, Emily Doelling, David Kennedy, Megan Lee, and Sean Smith

What qualities makes a video most spreadable? ‐humor: Everyone can relate to humor. Everyone enjoys laughing as it is a biological/chemical response that we all experience. ‐relatable: The more the masses can relate to the video the more successful it’s spreadability will be. Relatable content forms bond between creator and viewer and in turn more bonds are formed with gift economy as the video is then shared (given as a gift) to others in a social network. ‐shock/awe: It’s not expected. It’s out of the norm. We are intrigued as viewers when we don’t expect something that is out of the norm. We seem to find interest in why some people do the things they do. ‐unique: Something that is original and never been seen before. It makes us as viewers curious.

‐story telling/narrative: Most spreadable video tell a story of some sort. Even the kid jumping to try to grab the balcony is a story of stupidity and even a lesson in physics. ‐length: Any videos longer than a few minutes will lose the attention of viewers or viewers may get bored and lose appreciation for the content. ‐simplicity: Even laymen can get it. You don’t have to think about it to understand it. ‐characters: Stereotypes are taking advantage of. Certain characters or type of people stand out and can be easy to make fun of or find humor in. For example‐the obese woman on the treadmill. It is both shocking and humorous.

Overarching Concepts of Theory and Audience Analysis Specticipant Control In the world of interactivity there are a number of theories out there that explain how and why we communicate with others. They range from people’s inherent need to socialize and be a part of a group, our need to obtain more information and improve our cognitive processes, to persuasion from others that affect our attitudes toward certain experience in life. Within these theories there are practices that improve how we all interact with each other. Websites, for example, can look for trends in use by their audience, design their site that is more attractive and appealing (sticky), or includes elements to a site such as viral videos or other products that can be shared (spread) within a community and outside of it. One of the main ideas behind improving interactivity is specticipant control. The current definition of the evolving term interactivity is “the two‐way communication between two or more computers and/or users (humans) in which the user has the ability to choose, create, modify, or control content”. Control is one of the main driving forces behind interactivity as stated in the definition. Control, as implied ibythe definition of interactivity, is giving the power to a specticipant to take information and transform it in anyway they feel appropriate and then share this new information with others. Specticipant is another term used to describe the ever‐changing viewer or audience member. By giving control to a specticipant, you give them power and a bond to a given Website, video/computer game, or any other type of interactive media. Because in interactivity the user can also be the creator, it is misguided to refer to them as merely an audience, viewer, or user. This bond is what draws specticipants to the site as well as them spreading the word about via the Internet or word of mouth. Think of it in the terms of family. In essence it becomes a family member that you trust, believe, care for, and confide in. When this bond occurs speciticipants become loyal and return to the site again and again and brings new members to the community, resulting in more information and knowledge that can be shared within the community. One example is in the use of video games. In the 2D games of the past, players had limited control of the content of the game. They could only control the main character. And by control I mean limited control such as jump, duck, and sprint in order to complete a level without dying. In today’s video games players can communicate with a number of characters within the game. They can make

different choices that lead them in different directions within a game to accomplish the goal of winning. In the business world, control could be viewed as giving a potential customer the ability to control how they navigate through a Website, which pages they need to visit and which they do not. By doing this it gives a customer a vested interest in a company and it’s brand, resulting in increased sales and advertisement.

Sean H. Smith’s Blog Posts

Sean H. Smith Writes Back http://seansmith76.wordpress.com Darwin’s New Best Friend November 18, 2009, 23:58 Tags: biology, catalog, Charles Darwin, conservation, E.O. Wilson, ecology, Encyclopedia of Life, species, wiki Charles Darwin could only imagine the vastness of information that now exists about species of plants, animals, and insects that have been compiled in the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL).

Homepage of the Encyclopedia of Life The Encyclopedia of Life is a biological wiki that was launched in 2007. It is a catalog of all the known and soon to be discovered organisms of Earth. It was the idea of biologist E.O. Wilson when he presented the notion of harnessing the power of the Internet at a TED conference in March of 2007.

His vision was to create an endless record of the 1.8 million known species of plants, animals, and insects that can be used to serve students, scientists, and general public. The TED conference was his platform to get the attention of the scientific community to help fund the project which is expected to cost $110.5 million. Within two months of his appearance at the conference, 5 science foundations announced a $50 million initial grant to get the project rolling. The website is a wiki-based platform who’s content is created by both experts in the fields of biology and ecology as well a amateur naturalists. The wiki is overseen by a handful of scientists that examine the content for accuracy. A wiki, for those of you who don’t know, is a website that allows easy creation and editing of content of any number of interlinked Web pages by anyone with access to the Internet. The Encyclopedia of Life is not just a list of all the species known to man, each species is given its own page to allow for the maximum amount of information on that species to be provided.

The Twig Girdling Beetle page. The site is a way of educating us on the importance of conservation and sustainability and how every organism on Earth has a direct or indirect affect on human life. The need to understand the symbiosis between us and other creatures that share this world with us is so important for the survival of the human race. The fact that the site is a wiki it allows the general public to participate in it’s creation giving them the power to influence and inform others. It empowers people to care about the content the message being

conveyed. Because of this the public can educate themselves of the importance of conservation and encourage them to act in a responsible manner when it comes to saving this amazing planet we live on. If we continue to be careless and abuse Mother Earth we could be destroying organisms that could provide medications that could possibly eradicate all known human diseases. What a waste that would be. I hope in Darwin’s honor, the first EOL page created was for Darwin’s Finches?

Message Received, Zero Distortion September 20, 2009, 17:59 Last night as I was out on the town with some friends and some people I just met and we got to talking about Kanye West and his behavior last week at the MTV video music awards. (Excuse me for this link but I do feel it is prudent as this is a blog and just in case you are living under a rock and somehow missed it). We were talking about how amazing or stupid it is that everyone is blogging about the incident. I then remembered that I’m now a blogger as well. However this is the last thing I would want to blog about. I’ve officially been a blogger for about six weeks now and I’ve had to concentrate on blogging about interactivity as this blog is for my graduate classes. I’ve felt like my hands have been tied and I’ve been forced to blog about things that don’t necessarily truly interest me. Because of these constraints I feel like I’ve been writing just to fulfill word counts and deadlines. This has really inhibited me from finding my “voice” in my blogs. I’ve been seeing the negative side of things more than not, just out of frustration. Well, I think I reached a turning point to some degree just the other day. Like the many bloggers commenting on the Kanye West/Taylor Swift incident, my inspiration came from music artists. I received Pearl Jam’s new album “Backspacer” in the mail the other day and instantly started to listen to it. I starting thinking about music and history of music from the beginning of mankind and how music is and always has been interactive. I blogged about this for one of my other classes and realized I had found a “voice” that I want myself and others to hear. I was writing about something that is really important to me (music, Pearl Jam) and figured out a way to correlate it with interactivity. The words flowed from my fingers easily fulfilling the necessary word count. By the way, the minimum count for this blog is 200 words. I think you can say I’ve easily met that requirement. I started thinking philosophically and intellectually and transferred those thoughts into words and expressing my new-found “voice”. These aren’t the only voices I want heard there are others, especially humor that I soon hope to find and am sure I will. It’s so much better blogging about things that really interest you. It’s the essence of blogging if you ask me. It’s the only way for you to get your true voice out. Regardless of the fact that I could have cared less about the Kanye situation, it was something that a lot of people had an interest in and they felt the need to get their true voices out. I, like them, am now starting to get my true voice out and am starting to finally enjoy this new world of blogging.

Jim and Pam’s Spreading November 4, 2009, 01:41 Alright, I know this is a couple of weeks late, but I still feel compelled to talk about it. You’re not going to believe this, but I saw a viral video get spread back to TV.

On a recent episode of The Office, Jim and Pam were getting married. Big mistake. This might be the beginning of the end for the show. It’s less dynamic when their married. But I digress. Towards the end of the episode, I saw something that I know I had seen before. The wedding party dancing down the isle. Just a few months earlier, I had a friend send me an email with a wedding video attached…oh joy. So, I hesitantly clicked play and watched as the entire wedding party, two-by-two danced (I guess you can call it dancing) down the isle. The JK Wedding Dance was the most viewed viral video for weeks. Everyone was sharing it through the Internet. Heck, you’ve probably recieved it from over 100 people by now. As of right now, it’s had 30, 964, 909 hits. Wait…make that 30, 971,738, I refreshed the page. Think about it, 1/10 of the U.S. population has peered into these people’s lives. A little spooky, but that’s for a different blog. Then two weeks later and I’m watching the Cleveland Show (meh) and all of sudden Cleveland is rapping in the middle of what seems to be a furniture store. Incredibly I had just seen a viral video of this exact event in one of my classes not even a week before. It’s called the Mini Mall Rap, and it’s pretty damn funny. It’s a commercial for an Alabama flea market that features a middle-aged man in a gold suit groovin’ and rapping about the store. I’m sure it wasn’t the most effective commercial in the traditional sense, but I’ll bet you the change in your couch that furniture store did better than alright after the video of that commercial went viral. Typically, entertainment such as television shows, movies, and videos are fodder for users of the World Wide Web. Instead, The Office and The Cleveland Show spoofed and spread these video back to TV. I’ve been trying to think of an example of this full circle event happening in the past, and can’t . Let me know if you do. I find it so odd yet extremely interesting that this is happening. I wonder what it means and if it will lead to a new theory of communication that has taken over some of our lives. I might even be the one to come with it.

Electronic Botanical Field Guide October 22, 2009, 01:26 Within the past couple of years, technology and interactivity have started to make a huge impact on our ability to discover and study the amazing organisms and ecosystems that inhabit this Earth. Scientists are now able to essentially bring all the resources they need with them into the field with the use of new portable electronic devices and the Internet. Over the past few centuries scientists have identified and described 1.8 million species of plants, animals , and microorganisms found on Earth. However, it is estimated that there are well over 8.5 million species that have yet to be discovered. That’s 8.5 species of organisms that could be the source of medicinal chemicals that could cure or eradicate all human diseases. While 1.8 million is an impressive number, realize that it did take hundreds of years to identify all the known species. That is an amount of time that we as humans can no longer afford. With that pace of discovery and the rate at which species of plants, animals, and microorganisms are disappearing from our Earth, there will be nothing left for us to find. In a few hundreds years we may no longer exist as well. Technology however, can help keep this from happening. In fields such as botany, there are new advancements in portable devices that are changing the way and speed at which science occurs. In the past botanists had to collect specimens by hand (which can disturb the ecosystem) and take them back to the lab, study their structure and then thumb through an endless number of books or examine

cataloged specimens in herbaria or museums. They was a very time consuming process. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the reason why itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s taken so long to discover what we have up to now. This is no longer the case for botanists. Currently scientists from the University of Maryland, Columbia University, and the Smithsonian Institute are developing a new database and field guide system to help identify and catalog new and existing plant species. They call it, surprisingly enough, the Electronic Field Guide. The scientists started by creating a photographic registry of available plant specimens. They are taking detailed photos of the 85,000 plant species kept at the Smithonian Herbarium and in the future they will add specimens from other herbaria around the world. Images are taken with state of the art cameras producing HD images with a 3600 x 5000 pixel resolution. In the near future laser range scanning can be used to create 3D images. These images can then be accessed with the Electronic Field Guide. These guides incorporate the use of the latest portable devices that allow the use of a touchable interface. The field guide will allow botanists to have access to thousands of images instantly while they are in the field. They can immediately identify if they are looking at an existing species or have discovered an entirely new species.

One of the protypes of the Electronic Field Guide The scientists can then take an photograph of a specimen and send it back to the registry which may provide more information about the species it belongs to. There is not longer bagging and bringing back specimens to the lab. No more thumbing through dusty books and scouring through warehouses to identify specimens.

In the future, botanists will be able to access 3D images and with use of the touchable screens, will be able to rotate and view the images from different angles to help ensure proper identification. In addition to the use of smaller devices such as smartphones to run the application the scientists behind the development of this system are hoping to develop an augmented reality interface. Instead of a hand-held device this system would involve the use of a heads-up-display (HUD) in the form of eyeglasses which would free up a user’s hands and work more efficiently. All this technology allows botanists to reduce the amount of time and resources spent discovering as many new species as possible. In addition to this, science no longer has to be reserved only for the experts. With the use of smaller and more available portable devices, anyone can help identify and catalog species of plants. One could be on vacation and take pictures of the local plants and send those images to the registry.

Electronic Field Guide using a smartphone interface. By decreasing the amount of time it takes to discovery new species, we increase our chance of discovering a plant that could be the cure to the world’s deadliest diseases such as Cancer or AIDS. We also increase our understanding of ecosystems and how their existence and ours intertwine and why it is so important that we help maintain these habitats. There is much in our world that we have yet to discover but with the use of technologies such as the Electronic Field Guide, the next discovery may change our world forever.

May the Acoustic Radiation Pressure Be With You October 9, 2009, 21:29 Even George Lucas had no idea what would come of holography when he made Star Wars. Remember when Princess Leia’s image beamed out of R2-D2’s dome in Star Wars: A New Hope, asking Obi-Wan Kenobi for his help? Or when the image of the first Death Star engulfed the briefing room where the Rebel Alliance was planning their attack? I remember…of course. I’ve seen the movie at least a hundred times. Ever since seeing those 3D images I’ve always wondered if holographic technology would ever be involved in our daily lives. And no, I don’t mean Wolf Blitzer using it on CNN. Here’s a video parodying his use of the hologram. Well, it hasn’t yet even though holographs have been around since 1947 when Hungarian physicist, Dennis Gabor stumbled upon the effect while trying to improve the technology of electron microscopes. Holography has yet to become intertwined with our lives, as I’m sure Lucas had probably dreamed it would. Yet I’m sure Lucas had no idea what has come of holography within the past year. Touchable holography. This could quite possibly be the springboard that holography has needed to become mainstream in society. How cool would it be it Wolf could reach out and shake hands with the person in holographic form and sense the hologram’s hand. Touchable holography is the term given to a new holographic technique developed by scientist from the University of Tokyo and Provision Interactive Technologies, Inc. The hologram itself was developed by Provision Interactive Technologies, which has been a leader in the development of 3D interactive display technologies since 2001. The one used in this research is “Holo”, PIT’s 2009 version of their hologram. The important breakthrough of touchable holography is the ability to create tactile feel for users without dressing the holographic image, which has been the problem in the past. The solution to this is what the University of Tokyo has called the Airborne Ultrasound Tactile Display. This a display that emits ultrasound and acoustic radiation pressure. When an object, such as a person’s hand interrupts the ultrasound waves, a pressure is exerted on the object. This gives the sensation of touch. This system works with the combination of the hologram, tactile display, and Wiimotes, the controllers from Nintendo’s popular Wii gaming system. The Wiimotes are used to track the movement of objects interacting with the holographic images via infrared sensors. As shown in this video, a user can interact with the hologram and physically touch it. A ball can be bounced, raindrops can be felt dripping onto a hand, or even a miniature elephant can be sensed running in the palm of someone’s hand. This could propel holography into the mainstream because the ability to feel the images allow for multiple applications. This technology could lead to holographic computer interfaces or video games. Hospitals could benefit from this technology by having virtual switches which would minimize contamination. And yes, one day we may even have virtual girlfriends and boyfriends. Now that leads to a whole new type of movie, probably not the kind George Lucas would be interested in making.

Sports Chat a la Video Chat October 8, 2009, 14:14 Tags: COM530, COM540, interactivity, sports, sports talk, SportsNation Welcome sports fans! It’s a great day for a ballgame or a new interactive show on ESPN. ESPN’s SportsNation debuted on June 6, 2009 bringing the world of the Internet to sports television. If there is a genre of television that would thrive off of being social, it’s sports TV. With the popularity of sports talk radio across the country, ESPN has brought a similar format to the flat screen (although your old tube TV will work just fine as well). This daily live show, hosted by sports radio personalities Colin Cowherd and Michelle Beadle, allows viewers to interact with the show before, during, and after a broadcast. The show has incorporated the latest in social networking, technology, and interfaces to allow fans to be more involved in the creation of the show. Viewers can contact the show via a number of channels including, email, Facebook, Twitter, or a simple phone call. The topics of each broadcast are determined by viewers and their comments posted to ESPN’s SportsNation website. In addition to interactivity, the show takes advantage of the latest in technologies including the use of touch-screen flat screens to present poll results to questions such as “What is today’s more intriguing story from the NFL, Michael Crabtree finally signing with the 49ers, or Braylon Edwards being traded to the Jets?” or “Is punching someone a big deal?” (which Braylon Edwards did to a friend of Labron James this past weekend, resulting in speculation that is the reason for the trade). A segment of the show called “Fake Call From Real Fans” involves viewers calling in to do impressions (usually poor impressions) of athletes asking questions or talking about what they have been up to. Another popular segment is “Fannish or Foolish” where the hosts read and respond to viewer comments sent to the show via Twitter. On top of this, the show also embraces the power of viral or “spreadable” video and shows Internet videos of amazing athletic feats or events. The majority of these videos are those of people making incredible and possible doctored basketball shots. Is this interactive format the future and savior of television? Perhaps. The idea is also being embraced by ESPN rival network Versus and their interactive show Fanarchy which involves viewers responding to questions on air via video chat. This type of television seems somewhat gimmicky at this point but it could lead to a revolution in television. In the near future TVs are expected to be connected to the Internet directly. It is possible that viewers could interact with shows like this directly from their TVs. As multitouch technology becomes more popular and available to consumers, they could respond to questions by touching their screens or even in this age of portability, watch and respond to the show by means of their smartphones. Ironically, the Internet could be the solution to what many people think could be television’s possible demise as a mainstream media. Allowing viewers to interact and control the content of shows creates loyalty amongst viewers, therefore increasing viewership and ratings. So, is this interactive format just a fad or the beginning of a television revolution? Of course, as is with technology and the Internet only time will tell.

Happy Birthday G. October 1, 2009, 15:25 Happy birthday Google! That’s right everyone’s favorite search engine turn 11 this past Sunday.

Google's play on it's name in celebration of it's 11th birthday.

The company founded, by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in September of 1998, apparently has finally decided on a birthday of September 27. There has been a lot of speculation over the years about the exact date of Google’s birth and what determines the first day of life for a website. Some think a website is born when it’s domain was registered. For Google that was September 15, 1997. Some feel it should be determined by the date the company was incorporated as a privately held company, which was September 4, 1998. Regardless, Google itself says it was born sometime in September. Like they care. They are taking over the Internet and making billions doing so. Would you care when your exact birthday was if you were taking over the world and making endless amounts of money? I didn’t think so. Besides, being that Google is part of the Internet community, they would probably prefer that it’s users determine its date of birth. That would be the social thing to do. Google’s name is a play on the word “googol” which is a number equal to 10 to the 100th power, or 1 followed by 100 zeros. The name represents the amount of information found by Google. Google has brought us so many applications that we rely on everyday. First and foremost, the search engine which gives us access to seemingly endless amounts of information. Then they shrunk the world and put in our computers via Google Earth and Google Maps. Once upon a time, Mapquest was THE site to go to for directions, that is until Google put the world at the tip of our clicking fingers. They came up with Google Docs which allows multiple people to collaborate on the writing of documents for either in business or school. Recently, Google just launched its Fast Flip application making the viewing of online magazines and newspapers a lot easier and faster.

Personally, I’m glad Google’s made it 11 years. Without all the things it has given us as Internet users, where would we be getting our information from? So, happy birthday Google. May there be many more. However, by the end of the next 11 years you may have to start playing on your new name, Googleplex.

A Dark Night for the Internet September 29, 2009, 14:19 It’s dark. Well, except for the two pathetic candles burning in the living room. I’m writing this blog with the use of pen, paper, and a flashlight. Dedication. I came home last night to an apartment with no power. Apparently the area of Greensboro that I live in took the brunt of a powerful storm that blew threw last yesterday afternoon. Great! How am I supposed to do my homework for classes considering it’s interactive media that I’m studying. Power is somewhat essential for being able to do my studies. So, I sat there for a bit, bored, wondering what to do. I decided to give my parents a call since I hadn’t talked to them in a few weeks. Same old conversation with Dad, “How’s school”? “How’s everything else”? Not a long conversation. However he did remind me that it was my Grandfather’s birthday, which I was already informed of yesterday by my friend(s), Facebook. In fact when my Grandfather answered he said he assumed someone reminded me. I informed him of the wonders of social networking and told him how Facebook had informed me. I told him I was going to send him a message via Facebook, but had to resort to an older form of media to contact him, the phone. He was pretty impressed with that. He is somewhat new to Facebook, and according to the lack of a profile picture he doesn’t use it very much. He really didn’t realize that social network sites provided information such as that. I began to tell him about all the things sites like Facebook can do and how they connect people like we’ve never been connected before. Social networks rely heavily on the act of “gift giving” which helps users bond with each other as these gifts are exchanged. Typically they included e-cards, e-gifts, or other electronic items. However, this time my gift was a little more old fashioned in the form of a phone call. A gift indeed for Grandpa. We started talking about my studies and what I’ve been learning and his use of the computer and the internet. He tells me that he has mastered iPhoto on his Mac but that was it. Everything else was foreign. This is a result of the Knowledge Gap. This is a communications theory that was stated by Tichenor, Donahue, and Olien in 1970. They believe that with each new medium that is introduced to society, the gap between the information-rich and the information-poor widens because of the differences in access to the new medium and the individuals’ capacity to it effectively. Grandpa has the access to a computer and the Internet, yet he does really have the capacity to know very much about them. So, I told him I would be glad to be the bridge to help him cross that gap if he so desired.

After the phone calls and playing my guitar for a while, I wonder what I can do. Then it donned on me. I may not have access to the Internet right now but I do have access to the old form of communication, the trusty pen and paper.

L. Communication September 24, 2009, 03:52 I’m sure like the most people, you communicate with your friends, family, or colleagues in a variety of ways. You speak with others in person sharing stories about the Hannah Montana concert the night before (OMG!), or perhaps you reenact tonight’s human cock-fight they call MMA. Introducing your knee to your buddy’s skull (Cause of course beer is involved). You use your cell phone to make calls or send texts. Most likely texts…especially while you’re driving. And yes, I know, you can watch videos and listen to music on them too. I’ve got one as well. Anybody who doesn’t have a Crackberry, is a Neanderthal. I’m just saying. You probably own a computer and have internet access. Big woopty doo! So do 74% of Americans, according to Neilson Online. You know how to use email, instant message, blog, and post videos online and maybe, if you’re “really cool”, you might even video chat. So, you think you got this whole “communication” thing down. You got it all figured out, right? well… WRONG. (and yes, I did the finger pointing thing as I typed this, a la Lewis Black) You along with 1000 other communications theorists that came before you don’t know squat. In fact no one does. There you feel better now. The first communications model in the mass media age was Harlod Lasswell’s model in 1948. He thought he had it all figured out. Then BAM!, Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver had to go and steal his thunder the very next year. Introducing their Shannon-Weaver model. That’s just cold. One of the most current models taking into account all current media is the Foulger model. This ecological model introduced by Davis Foulger in 2004. It includes the idea of interactivity between humans and machines alike. Now he thinks he’s the king of the comms. Well, he’s in for a shock. Apparently it hasn’t really caught on. When I Googled this model, the second related hit was the blog of one my classmates. As we become more and more reliant on technology, we will be communicating with a variety of things…like our dogs, when they finally finish making that collar that allows our pets to talk to us. Who doesn’t want one of those. Because of all of this back and forth communicating between everything, it’s hard to determine from where and what we will give and receive information and when it will happen. Kind of like flatulence. This makes producing current communications models more difficult and cloudy. Fortunately some brilliant iMedia students have decided to take 40 minutes out of their life to solve this problem. That’s all it really took, it was pretty simple for this group of geniuses.

One team team which I cannot name until I can find the copyright and trademark symbols on this blog site, successfully developed a new model in less than the allotted 40 minutes, allowing them a couple of minutes to check their Facebook accounts. Included in this team is the aforementioned classmate that is screaming up the Google charts with her hit, Foulger Model. The diagram below is of their secret model. The outer ring of the diagram is in constant motion as our roles and the roles of everything else in the communication process change.

Latest communication model develped by **** *******

Yes, this may look like a very complex model, but it pales in comparison to what you are about to see. This new model is so complex it won’t even make sense to you, unless you’re one of us. In fact our model is so complex that it would be useless with the limitation of this mere two-dimensional screen website. Even if i were a master of Adobe Flash, which I am. I can even make a car jump across a screen. Had I even attempted to recreate this model using Flash, the software program would quit unexpectedly. Shocker, right?! This Cloud Model developed by 5 brilliant students, including myself, would be much easier if presented in 4 dimensions but since physicists at taking their sweet time to discover the Fourth Dimension, we will have to suffice.

The latest and greatest communication model.

Picture all of these bubbles moving around within the clouds, connecting with each other then releasing, connecting again with one or more simultaneously sharing information, knowledge, etc. which makes up the cloud. Information and knowledge is everywhere, you just need bubbles in order to acquire it. The interacticons and specticipants are not a alien race of robots as one might think, but instead are the creators and collectors of interactive media. Both of which are creators and collectors at the same time. It’s difficult to distinguish between them. These creators and collectors, along with UIO’s (Unidentified Interactive Objects) will be the gatherers, makers, and dispersers of cloud. These UIO’s could be anything from a bed that reacts to your body temperature and self-adjusts itself to keep you at an optimal temperate while you sleep, to that dog of yours that speaks. As all these parts within the cloud move as they gather information, process it into messages, and send them out to others which receive them and do the same. With technology continuing to rapidly advance and new communication devices become more common place, the number and variety of the these bubbles will increase as well as the speed in which they interact with each other. This complexity is what what makes communication theory an ever-evolving field. One must always be theorizing in order to stay ahead of the game. In fact just as this blog was being completed, it was announced that David Parsons has decided to branch out on his own in the world of communication. He has developed a hybrid of the Cloud Model, which he calls the Communication Solar System.

Don’t go thinking your so hot David, you may have the coolest model now, but someone is bound to come along and Shannon-Weaver you too.

Music Of Man September 18, 2009, 23:31 I’m sitting here listening to Pearl Jam’s new album Backspacer which I just got in the mail 45 minutes ago. I’ve listened to it through The End and of course listening to it again. By the way it’s AWESOME!! Halfway through this first binaural orgasm, I realized something about music. Well, maybe not just realized, but got to thinking about music and it’s power to touch, drive, encourage, and communicate to the human race. From the beginning of man, there is no doubt we have been making music. Man picks up a stick or a rock and hits them together creating a sound. Then tries it with another object, creating a completely different sound. Then has his someone else, maybe even his enemy try it. They then create these sounds together creating a beat, a rhythm, a mood, a story. And at least in that moment, they are friends. Brought together by music and their interaction with each other. They would then get more people to gather around the fire as they all take turns making sounds, music and sharing stories, listening to stories, and changing stories. All through the power of music. What a pure way of interacting with other human beings. And it still hold true today. As I listen to the combination of perfect notes creating catchy melodies and the lyrics that rolled off of Eddie Vedder’s tongue with endless meanings, I think about the interaction between the band and myself. This is an interaction that has lasted for 19 years now. Every time they put out a new album it speaks to me. It always seem to relate to whatever is going on in my life. As if the song were written just for me. As if they are there to guide me and let me know everything is alright. This album is no different. I have complete control over the information being presented to me. I can flip through the tracks as I see fit. If I want to listen to the same track a million times in a row, that’s my choice. I have control in deciphering the message behind the words and music. I make it what I want it to be. I interpret the meanings and think about what it means to me and also think what it means to them as the creators, as if we are one and the same. As a result of this throughout the years, we’ve formed a bond that has yet to be outmatched by friends or lovers. What can be more powerful than that. To me, that’s what interacting is all about. Check out this link. It was a way that fans could physically interact with their music.

Future of Interactivity Synthesis

COM 530: Past & Future: An Interactive Media Chronology. 1. Studying past, present to project the future

Nicholas Negroponte, 1995, MIT. ‐predicted being digital would globalize society. ‐ http://www.imaginingtheInternet.org- People’s forecasts about future of network comm. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) -one of the first computers. 1946, U. of Penn -1946, Financed by Army and Navy -University of Penn

The evolution of the internet Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) -initiated by Pres. Eisenhower in 1957 -began investigating idea of networked computers when J.C.R. Licklider arrived -became DARPA (D-Defense) in 1972

Early 1960’s Licklider } Leonard Kleinrock,} -first dreamt to interconnect a set of computers Paul Baran } Laerence Roberts }

1969 Requests for Comments (RFCs) -Steve Crocker first to make one ARPANET -connecting UCLA, SRI at Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, and Utah.

1970-75 -ARPANET had machines across the country -File Transfer Protocol (FTP) –allows computers to exchange files is developed July 1972 -Ray Tomlinson first to deliver mail engaging two machines in 1972 Also originate the use of the “@” in indicate email address.

-Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Robert Kahn -ARPA Vinton Cert-UCLA/Stanford -allowed diverse comp. networks to interconnect and comm..not matter the network the were on. -made internet faster, fueling it’s growth. Internet -a network of networks that over time developed by international grp of eng., scien., tech dev., vol. of Internet Society sub-orgs including Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

1976-79 -Ethernet developed by Robert Metcalfe in 1976-speeding up data transfer using coacial cables. -SATNET -Emoticons  developed by Kevin MacKenzie in 1979 to make emails more expressive.

1980-89 -Computer Science Research Network (CSNET) started -Internet Activities Board-centralized networking efforts. -split into: Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) -Tim Berners-Lee of CERN, the particles lab in Geneva -first to suggest worldwide network

1990-95 -“World Wide Web” brought to life by Berners-Lee in 1990 -wrote first html source code -ARPANET decommissioned in 1990 after 20 yrs of operation. NSFNET takes over -25 times faster -Internet Service Providers (ISPs) gain popularity -Mosaic (Netscape) launched in 1993 by Mark Andreessen -White House has its first Web page in 1994. -16 million users by 1995

CNET UK’s 50 top moments in Internet history Beginnings Feb 1966-ARPANET founded May 1974-TP/IP proposed

Packet switching tech. that get data from A to Z even if most in net implodes. Oct 1984-The GIF image\ Nov 1980-WWW proposed WWW Feb 1993-Mosaic is first web browser Apr 1995-Apache released -open source HTTP server software -dishes out Web pages Dec 1996-Flash I.O. -Macromedia Flash-originally FutureSplash Aimator Flash is essential to web-page design and HCI development. What is the future of Flash? Dec 1997-RSS created -led to accessibility of blogs and podcasts Email Social Networking Aug 1988-IRC created -Jarkko Oikarinen developed it to facilitate real-time chat. 1991-AOL begins development of AIM and launches it in 1998 Chat could be used to instantly interact with students in a classroom and answer questions directly to give them a more hands on education Feb 1995-First internet phone -VocalTec of Isreal released InternetPhone Predecessor to video chat. How does this and video chat relate and differ. Jun 1996-ICQ released -first global, GUI-based IM client. -Mirabilis of Isreal -bought by AOL in 1998 for $400m Online Media 1991-First networked webcam set up inside Cambridge Univ. Web Property SourceForge.net opens -free repository for open-source code, proj., and apps. Web 1.0 1996-Jennicam goes live Web 2.0

Sep 1995-Javascript -founded by: Berndan Eich -enabled interactivity within Web sites. Law and Order Most Epic Fails -

2. From Imagining the Internet Developmental years of print, telegraph, radio, TV, and the Internet followed identical plotlines 1. Innovators 2. The entrepreneurs and/or political backers 3. The establishment of common structures, rules, and governing bodies.

Television: 1920s-1960s Charles Francis Jenkins -Radiovision, 1925 Philo Taylor Farnsworth -“Image Dissector”, 1927-first fully electronic TV system Vladimir Zworykin-“Inconoscope”, 1933-identical to mage dissector World Changes Due to TV -made entertainment nation’s most lucrative and influential exports. -let to U.S. success around the world Can the viewing of TV be considered a HCI? If so, how?

Internet: 1960s-1990s J.C.R. Licklider-one of the founders of the Internet ARPANET (Advanced Projects Research Agency Network-first network of computers Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn-came up with Internet Protocoal (IP). Domain-name service created, 1984 WWW-developed by Bernerts-Lee, 1991 Mosiac (Netscape)-March Andreessen, 1993

Future of Networks

Internet will become a collective consciousness, -a Godmind Wearable technology, implants into humans, and other advancements to change the way we think of HCI Computers/robots will outpace human in growth Asimov predicted robots would take over via artificial intelligence Web technology and Biology with combine to create what is known as -Gaia theory -theory of complexity -network dynamics -dynamical systems theory -the web of life Web techs, biologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, mathematicians, engineers, and social scientists will have to work closely to develop new forms of HCI and how they can be successfully applied to human biology and determine what will or won’t be morally acceptable to society. -Will it be okay or even common for humans to become “Cyborgs”? -Can human biology and physiology change as a result? -Would people with new biological HCIs still be considered human, or will we have developed a new human species all together? Philip Tetlow-says Web should be considered living organism Semantic Web (Web 3.0)-data about data, and data about that data and so on. -computers teach themselves -computers behave more like humans

3. Interactive Design is a New Field Mitch Kapor’s “Software Design Manifest” -says that good software should offer: -Firmness-have no bugs that inhibits its function -Commodity-program should be suitable for purposes it was intended for -Delight-experience of using program should be enjoyable Marc Rettig -Interaction design’s layers of concern: -strategy-does the product connect w/ goals -experience-repeated interaction and activities in context -interaction-interface in use over time by different people -interface-presentation of info and controls Look into the multitude of controls that could be available in the future -information and functionality-categories, types, attributes and relationships of users. Interaction Design Association (IxDA) founded in 2003 by Rick Cecil, David Heller, Challis Hodge, and Jim Jarrett.

-good info and discussion boards at their website

‘Future of the Internet III’: Selection 1 Virtual Reality (VR)-a created reality within the internet (i.e: Second Life) Augmented Reality (AR)-using internet and Web to blend VR into our reality. -i.e.: Smartphones, GPS, Human use and skillsets of users is driving the advancement of AR and VR -more important than the hard/software tech. Reed’s Law-David P. Reed-the utility of large networks can scale exponentially with the size of the network. -users are forming network, expressing ideas -i.e: Facebook VR avatar-based worlds not as popular as social networking sites cause they are still too complicated to operate. VR worlds are becoming popular in business (marketing, advert., etc.) “Mirror Worlds”-models of real human environments -i.e: Google Earth, NASA’s World Wind How are these interfaces popular with users? Web 4.0-“always-on” world. We’ll be more plugged in. What are the positive or negative implications being “always-on” for human civilization.

‘Future of the Internet III’: Selection 2 Future of Human-computer Interfaces WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointing) -current mouse-keyboard-display interface Two important factors driving interface innovation: 1. Move toward the mobile Internet 2. Embedded, networked computing devices -in cars, home appliances, etc. Technologies will even be “embedding” into the human brain and body “The Internet of Things”-when networked devices are woven into the world -also known as: -“ubiquitous computing” -“pervasive computing” -“ambient intelligence” New forms of interfaces, no more computer screens on desks, etc. -Gesture control, touch capabilities in mobile phones and touch screens -Accelerometers and optics that control devices like Wiimote and iPhone. What is being done with the Wiimote technology to improve HCI?

-Infrared sensors that can project virtual keyboad -Speech recognition -use statistical info about word patterns to model how people speak. -Handwriting-recognition -i.e.: LIveScribe digital pen Look into the LiveScribe and other digital pen. Talk to Andy about his use of the pen and how it has helped him at Epic games. -E-paper -Thin-film-transistor –allowing for folding screens for mobile phones and e-readers. -Haptics-delivery of tactile sensation from a device to a user. -Brain-computer interfaces -i.e.: Emotiv System’s headset.

‘Future of the Internet III’: Selection 3 Hyperconnectivity-where will “always-on” take us Hyperconnectivity-always on state in which humans are constantly using Internet-based tool to communicate with others and express themselves. Users using internet for both business and personal use -loss of productivity because there are too many distractions Will loss of productivity continue or will we reach a turn where it will make us more productive as humans? Multitasking is becoming uncontrollable. -humans unable to multitask, then only change where their attention goes and work on only one thing at a time and rotate tasks. “Continuous partial attention” -when most of individual’s attention is focused on a primary task while also monitoring one or more background tasks and shifting between them Will we become a “work 24/7” society? Good does come from being hyperconnected: -“collective intelligence”-sharing of knowledge to collaborate, create projects and other material of value -it is therapeutic to express yourself online. Reading: http://googleblog.blogspot.com/search/label/Google%20at%2010

Everyware -ubiquitous computing (hyperconnectivity) will bombard us with info at

any time and any place. Good: -we’ll always have info -always be able to connect with others Bad: -no privacy -we can always be watched/tracked …Something as simple as a hike in the wilderness becomes almost unrecognizable when overlaid with GPS location, sophisticated visual pattern-recognition algorithms and the content of networked geological, botanical and zoological databases…

4. Looking Ahead 150 Years 2010-2014 Global Environment for Networking Investigations (GENI) -the Internet being created now for the future demand and functionality Radio-frequency identification detectors (RFID) -used at toll booths, etc. GPS IP on everything

2015 Genetic profiling Human Cloning Autopilot vehicles Smart, adaptable materials

2016-2025 Immersive computer-generated environments. Ubiquitous Robots Holographic TV

2026-2045 Biostasis in space Singularity-a time a which the simultaneous acceleration of. nanotechnology, robotics and genetics change our envir. beyond the ability of humans to comprehend or predict. -at this point new realities prevail and there will be a new norm. -“hard takeoff” -“soft takeoff”

2046-2050 Brain downloading, digital immortality “Biocaosm”, James Gardner, 2003 “Cosmic Evolution: The Rise of Compexity in Nature”, Eric Chaisson, 2002

“Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age “, Duncan Watts, 2003 “Digital Biology”, Peter Bentley, 2000

5. Futures Thinking-In Business Preparing mentally for the future -Looking ahead and seeing what possible changes may occur in the future; types of surprises; -Preparing and engaging all stakeholders of co. to look ahead. Where are we now and what do we have to change to get to where we want to be. -Futures Preferable Probable Possible Plausible

Future challenges Market economy-Societal-how will family life change?; how will they live their lives that affect our business. How will people accept the idea of future HCIs? -Environmental-increasing turbulence, new risks, accelerating innovation, increasing surprise Response: -Horizon Scanning -Strategic thinking -Action planning -collaborative foresight

Starting futuring Ask “what if” questions-“what if this happened?”, “what does it mean for us?”, “What do we do next?”

Imagining the future Foresight -Projecting current trends (s)ocial (t)echnological (e)conomical (p)olitical -Considering potential events potential trends surprises -Choosing among the options

Future practices Manage uncertainty -trend assessment-ability to understand trend directions, their impact, and respond -pattern recognition-ability to see patterns rather than individual factors.

-systems perspective-envision the entire system rather than the isolated components. -anticipation-anticipate short and long term consequences. -analysis and logic-rely on both analysis and logic rather than repeating the past or gut feel

Future assumptions Philosophy Risk assessment Need for integration-combine scanning with managing risk, and/or strategic thinking and planning, and/or policy development. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t concentrate on just on.

Strategic Thinking Strategic Foresight -ability to systematically think about and develop alternative futures -planning that results when future methods are applied to real-world situations -theory and practice of envisioning alternative future scenarios -uses emerging signals from political, economic, social, and tech. environments

Assessing trends -trends donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t exist in isolation -trends are extrapolations of the past and present, not future facts -trends have uncertain future trajectories How do trends evolve over time? See how then connect or operate in isolation -watch out for wild cards and other discontinuities that might derail a trend trajectory

Selecting trends Tier 4-Unselected trends -filter out extraneous, non-interesting themes. Tier 3-Selected trends -combine urgency, likelihood, and impact rating to narrow down the most important trends even further Tier 2-More alerts -Execs, strategists and policy makers determine the most important through in-depth discussion Tier 1-Key Alerts

Classifying trends Quantify and qualify and trendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s impact -Quantitative evaluation-trends database External assessment-signal strength, timing and likely public response. Internal assessment-team should complete and internal assessment of Opportunities and threats face by org. Stimulus and evidence-how inspired, engaged, etc. do employees Feel they are -Qualitative evaluation-relevance, controversy, credibility, and stimulus value

Reporting trends

Trend reports-trend summary, assessment, and implications (questions) Strategy reports-what options should we pursue and how should we do it

An Introduction to Interactive Media Theory 1. Defining “interactivity” Downes and McMillan, 2000

‐Two levels of interactivity 1. Message dimensions (low‐values) ‐direction ‐time ‐place 2. Participant dimensions (high‐values) ‐control most frequently mentioned aspects of interactivity 1. timing flexibility 2. control over content ‐responsiveness ‐perceived goals Well‐designed interactivity combining these dimensions attract users and results in higher search rankings. Interactivity Koolstra and Bos, 2009 ‐the degree to which two or more communications parties (human or computer) act on each other in an interrelated matter. Nathan Shedroff. Information Interaction Design: A Unified Field Theory of Design, 1994 ‐must learn existing ways of organizing and presenting date and info and develop new ones ‐http://www.nathan.com/thoughts/unified/index.html Lev Manovich. The Language of New Media, 2001 Five Priciples of new media

1. Numerical representation‐all new media objects are programmable digital code, image and text are programmed. Manipulated mathematically. 2. Modularity‐independent elements (pix, sound, frames, code) are combined to form a new media object 3. Automation‐author can focus creative energy on the selection and sequencing of elements 4. Variability‐new media object can exist in potentially infinite version 5. Transcoding‐media and culture are reshaped and transformed by the logic of the computer

Interaction design (IxD)‐discipline of defining the behavior of products and systems that a user can interact with…centers around software, mobile and other electronic devices, but also to other types of products and services and even to organizations themselves. IxD proposed in 1980’s by Bill Verplank and Bill Moggridge Six major steps in interaction design 1. Design research‐observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc. of users and their environment 2. Research analysis and concept generation‐create concepts for new software, products, services, or systems. ‐create storyboards and scenarios to imagine workflow of user 3. Alternative design and evaluation ‐wireframing (schematics)‐doc. that outlines the features and functionality of a product or service. ‐flow diagrams‐outline the logic and steps of the system or an individual feature. 4. Prototyping and usability testing 5. Implementation 6. System testing Two keys aspects of interaction design Social interaction design (SxD)‐accounts for the dynamics of interpersonal communications, speech and writing, the pragmatics of talk and interaction. Affective (emotional) interaction design‐products must convey positive emotions and avoid negative ones in order for then to be successful ‐aesthetically pleasing things are perceived in a positive light ‐Emotional design visceral behavioral reflective Interaction designer

‐Must have the ability to invent and visualize a coherent solution and be able effectively communicate it to others. 1. ability to conceive ideas 2. ability to communicate the ideas 3. ability to critique, analyze and judge ‐Must be effective in the following: ‐core skills‐research, Ethnography and discovery ‐business skills ‐interpersonal skills ‐usability skills ‐media skills ‐technical skills ‐personal skills Best interaction designers know tech. science and art but also understand people. ‐They have the combination of creative insight and analytical thinking.

2. Theories and Interactivity

Quantitative research‐employs mathematical models, theories or hypotheses, specific measurement is its fundamental basis. ‐statistics Qualitative research‐investigation of underlying meanings and the patterns of relationships‐focused on language symbols, signs and meaning. ‐Interviewing, content study and observation are key forms of data collection ‐ethnography‐study of culture (bikers, 12‐year old boys, video gamers) ‐content analysis‐content assessment of recorded material such as books, mags, online chat, e‐mails, or videos. ‐focus groups ‐case studies Communication‐when a transmitter (person) sends a message (language) through a channel or medium (air) which is then received by a receiver (another person) and has an effect on said receiver. Seven traditions of communication theory Robert Craig, 1999: Rhetorical‐practical art of discourse Semiotic‐communication by signs Phenomenological‐experiencing “otherness” Cybernetic‐the information systems approach Sociopsychological‐expression, interaction and influence Sociocultural‐reflection of social order

Information theoryfrom elect. engineering/applied mathematics

Field founded in 1948 when Claude Shannon published “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” ‐incorporates information entropy, redundancy of a source, the channel capacity of a noisy channel, and the “bit”. ‐established the source‐encoder‐channel‐decoder‐destination pattern. Basic to communication. Random messages (entropy) encounter noise which increases uncertainty which is offset by redundancy thus reducing the amount of info carried in the message. Communication needs the right balance of entropy and redundancy

Activity theory (AT)

In psychology it’s a way to assess the developmental processes by which a person is shaped by and shapes experiences through his or her actions. ‐all human activities are mediated by culturally created tools or signs which transforms the psychology of the individual. Activity theory and help change human‐computer interfaces (HCI). They influence how tools are created, used and accepted/rejected. ‐reveals how tools are created then critiqued and given feedback, then refined/remade and revealed again, in an ongoing loop. ‐expresses the importance of getting feedback from a target community.

Symbolic interactionismfrom sociology, information science Herbert Blumer, 1969‐coined the term “symbolic interactionism”

1. Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things. 2. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society. 3. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an Interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters.

Symbolic interactionist researchers investigate how people create meaning during social interaction, how they present and construct the self (or "identity"), and how they define situations of co‐presence with others. One of the perspective's central ideas is that people act as they do because of how they define situations.

Social network theoryfrom sociology, information science

Smaller, closer networks with “strong ties” can be less useful that large networks with “weak ties”.

Social network theory field: ‐ assesses how the structure of ties influences individuals, their relationships and the results of these relationships. Social network analysis attempts to expose how ties develop and illuminate the ways in which structure and composition of ties affect norms. ‐i.e.: Six Degrees of Separation (Small world phenomenon) Duncan Watts/Steven Strogatz‐Six Degrees, 2003 Scale‐free networks‐the majority of networks are like this ‐have a few highly connected “super nodes” or “hubs” ‐but many weakly connected hubs. Diffusion of innovations‐the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. ‐how, why and at what rate are new concepts and tools adopted and implemented. Meme‐self‐propagating unit of cultural evolution. Richard Dawkins, 1976 ‐a unit of information that is passed along to the next generation. Much like a gene. ‐it can evolve like a gene

Online communities theory

Virtual online communities are groups that communicate primarily through media such as blogs, email lists, synthetic online worlds and other digital form rather that face‐to‐face. Motivations for people wanting to contribute to online communities: ‐Anticipated reciprocity‐people will contribute in exchange for useful info and help in return. ‐Increased recognition‐desire prestige. Recognition leads to more posting ‐Sense of efficacy‐feeling as if they have an influence on the envir. Supports their self‐image. ‐Sense of community‐people enjoy getting feedback and motivated them

3. Other major theories from communications scholars Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G)

‐identifies how people are motivated to use particular comm.. tools to meet particular needs. ‐what types of gratifications are people getting from certain forms of use. Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) Media users have the same 5 categories of needs. 1. Cognitive needs‐strengthening of info. knowledge and

understanding of our envir. 2. Affective needs‐strengthening pleasurable and emotional experiences. 3. Personal integrative needs‐strengthens credibility, confidence and status of the individual. 4. Social integrative need‐needs to strengthen contact w/ fam, frnds, and the world. 5. Escapist needs‐related to escape, tension release, and desire for diversion.

User‐oriented dimensions of interactivity ‐benefits, threats, inconvenience, sociability, and isolation 5 dimensions of interactivity: ‐Playfulness ‐Choice ‐Connectedness ‐Information collection ‐Reciprocal communication

Knowledge gap theory Gap between the “information‐rich” and the “info‐poor” widens with each new medium. ‐“info rich”‐wealthy, young ‐“info‐poor”‐poor, elderly

Social construction vs. Technological determinism

Social construction of reality ‐social factors and the features of tech. tools are intertwined and influence the use of ICT’s together. 1. Objective reality 2. Symbolic reality 3. Subjective reality Cultivation theory ‐looks at the cumulative effects of media exposure on users. ‐exposure to messages “cultivates” long‐term teachings of common worldview, common roles, and common values Technological determinsim ‐believes that tech. advances are the central causal element in the processes social change. ‐“the medium is the message”

Diffusion of innovations theory

The study of the social process of how innovations become known throughout a social system.

4 main elements of diffusion Ryan and Gross (1943): 1) Innoviation; 2) Communicated through certain channels; 3) Over time; and 4) Among the members of a social system ‐innovations perceived by receivers as having a great advantage, compat., trialability, observability, and less complexity will be adopted more rapidly than other innovations. 5 innovation design process stages, Everett Rogers (2003): 1. Knowledge 2. Persuasion 3. Decision 4. Implementation 5. Confirmation 4 adopter categories classifying those making decision on rate of adoption: 1. Innovators 2. Early adopters 3. Early majority 4. Late majority 5. Laggards 3 classifications of consequences 1. Desirable v. undesirable 2. Direct v. indirect 3. Anticipated v. unanticipated

Spiral of silence theory When people’s opinions differ from the majority they tend to keep quiet and don’t express their opinion in fear of isolation or reprisal.

Powerful effects theory

Media has powerful effect of changing an audience if, Mendelsohn (1973): 5. They spell out extremely specific, reasonable campaign objectives clearly 6. They pinpoint the target audience 7. They work to overcome indifference of the audience to the particular issue 8. They find relevant themes to stress in the messages

Power law effect

Users are influenced by the seeing the “most‐clicked‐on” items (i.e.: top searches) and they click on them driving the effect ahead.

Agendasetting and Media framing theories Max McCombs and Donald Shaw (70’s‐90’s)

‐the media we consumer tell us what to think about, and how to think about it. Frame‐a central organizing idea for new content that supplies a context and suggests what issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion and elaboration. ‐helps us understand how audiences process news. ‐can be suggested by visual imagery, headlines, leads, pull quotes, and nut graphs. ‐agenda‐setting

Perception theory

Perception‐starting point for processing messages ‐process by which we interpret sensory data 2 types of influences on our perception: ‐Structural‐those that come from the physical aspects of the stimuli ‐Functional‐psychological factors that influence how we see things, introducing subjectivity to the process. Decoding‐process of receiving and interpreting a message Vidmar and Rokeach (1974) Influences on perception: ‐Selective perception‐tendency for people to be influenced by wants, attitudes, needs and other psychological factors. ‐Selective exposure ‐Selective attention ‐Selective retention These are thought of as 4 rings of defenses, with sel. Exposure on the outside ring, then sel. Attention, then sel. Perception, and sel. retention.

Schema theory

Schema‐a cognitive structure consisting of organized knowledge and about situations and individuals that has been abstracted from prior experiences. ‐used for processing new info and retrieving stored info. People use schemas to process news stories from papers or broadcasts. ‐people tend to store conclusions drawn from evidence, rather than storing the evidence itself. Process info through schemas

Imageperception theory

Linda Scott (1994) ‐3 ways of thinking about pics in mass media as: ‐Transparent representation of reality ‐Conveyors of affective or emotional appeal ‐Complex combinations of symbols put together to make up rhetorical arguments.

‐“Visual Tropes”‐arguments presented in a figurative form in in order to break through a viewer’s skepticism, boredom or resistance

Propaganda theory Harold Lasswells (1937) ‐“propaganda is the broadest sense is the technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representations. Roger Brown (1958) Devices of propaganda: 1. Name calling 2. Glittering generality‐act of associating something w/ a virtue (i.e.: Wonder Bread) 3. Transfer‐carries authority, prestige of something respected and revered over to something else in order to make the latter more acceptable. 4. Testimonial 5. “Plain folks”‐involves the selection and use of facts or falsehoods. 6. Band wagon

Persuasion theories

Persuasion‐attitude change resulting from exposure to info. from others. Fear appeal It’s effects are influenced by: 1. the magnitude of noxiousness of a depicted event 2. the probability of that event’s occurrence 3. the efficacy of a recommended reponse Funcitional approach to attitude change Daniel Katz ‐a combination of the “learning theory” and the “consistency theory”. Humans are both rational and irrational, depending on the situation. In order to change an attitude one must understand the functions the attitude is serving. Techniques of persuasion ‐Visuals ‐Humor ‐Sexual appeals ‐Repetition

Process models of persuasion theory

McGuire’s informationprocessing theory: ‐exposure; perception; comprehension; agreement; retention; retrieval; decision making; and action Norman Anderson’s information integration theory ‐To explain how people bring together different pieces of info.

‐involves averaging the scale values and the weights of each piece of info.

Media richness theory

‐Richer, more personal means of communication are generally the most effective way to share messages ‐Richard Daft and Robert Lengel (1986)

Human action cycle model

Don Norman developed model in book The Design of Everyday Things(1988) ‐cycle involves the ways humans pursue goals through a series of steps to to achieve that goal through the use of computing, thus includes both physical and cognitive activites

Media Ecology

‐Looks into the matter of how media of comm.. effect human perception, understanding, feeling and value and how our interaction w/ media facilitates or impedes our chances of survival. http://www.media-ecology.org/ Synthesis Interactivity gives children/users control of the content allowing them to be more engaged in learning. It also allow for goals to be established, empowering children/users. The interaction design of educational video games would have to allow for ease of use since it is dealing with children. Aesthetically pleasing graphics and effects would help to entertain and stimulate the user. Affective design is a must. Social design is also important to help improve child’s communication skills (speech, writing). Incorporate vocabulary, social interaction with game. ‐what child psychological factors should be taken into consideration when design a educational video game? What type of reinforcement could be I ncluded. ‐what type of favorable behaviors could be brought out in children by different interface/interactivity designs? What type of usability testing, observations. And ethnography have be done regarding interface design for children? ‐Military Activity theory would play a large role in the design of educational video games. You want to design an interface that positively changes the user’s psychology. Social network theory/Online community theory

‐designing games that could involve an online network of individuals playing the same games could enhance a child’s social behavior, teamwork, problem solving, and rewards. Theses along with Use and Gratification theories would fulfill: Cognitive needs, Affective needs, Personal integration needs, Social integration needs, and Escapist needs. Techniques of persuasion will help to engage students. ‐humor‐entertain ‐visuals‐stimulate ‐repetition‐reinforce Process models of persuasion theory ‐McGuire’s information‐processing theory: Expose new ideas and experiences to students. Encourage them to retrieve and retain more information. Design to allow for decision making. Media richness theory ‐make the game/interface personal to the user. Make the student feel special.

Reaching Interactive Media Audiences 1. Spreadable media in a digital age Henry Jenkin, MIT and USC expert on convergence culture

‐Building a new digital media approach to audience theory. ‐Spreadable Media‐model assumes that the repurposing and transformation of media contents adds value, allowing media content to be localized to diverse contexts of use. ‐consumer users are the “multipliers” (Mark McCracken, 2005). Redirecting info. http://henryjenkins.org/2009/02/if_it_doesnt_spread_its_dead_p.html)

If It Doesn’t Spread, It’s Dead Introduction: Media Viruses and Memes

Media viruses (Viral media) and memes are the structure within messages

that are sent out via the Internet and uses “catchy” things (i.e.: a song, a video, theory, scandal, pop hero, etc.) as a “Protein Shell” of media. Like a YouTube video that becomes popular. The “idea” of the message and it’s structure (humor, style, juxtaposition in/of the video). This is what can be manipulated, remixed, altered, replicated, etc. by others hence spreading the message to more and more users. Their dispersion is reliant on consumer/user’s opinions, beliefs, habits, rituals. Users “CHOOSE” W/W/W/W/W/H based on their values, which memes/viruses get spread. So “virus” is not an accurate term. Useful in marketing and advertising if right memes are used. ‐look at the popularity of the Mentos/Soda YouTube vids.

Sticky and SpreadableTwo Paradigms

Aren’t memes and “viral media” the inevitability of the Internet itself? Social networking has giving birth to them, nurtured them, and given them a niche. Connectivity is what keeps them alive and useful in marketing. Spreadable media as apposed to “viral media” suggests that the consumer acts as a “multiplier”. They can redistribute, repurpose, remix, find a new use for a brand image, and even disseminate it to new, unexpected audiences. ‐don’t use websites’ interfaces to just hold their attention, use them to encourage consumers to spread the word about your brand. Will there no longer be a need for a sales force with consumers themselves doing all the advertising through social networks? Will the products sell themselves? Media producers need to pay more attention to what motivates consumers to spread content, not to what motivates them to seek the circulation of their brands. ‐What type of interface will encourage users to spread my message? ‐How can my interface entertain my audience and inspire them? ‐What types of companies would my audience be interested or attached to? Ford, Sam, with Henry Jenkins, Grant McCracken, Parmesh Shahani, Ivan Askwith,  Geoffrey Long and Ilya Vedrashko (2006). Fanning the Audience's Flames: Ten Ways to Embrace and Cultivate Fan Communities, Report Prepared for the  Members of the MIT Convergence Culture Consortium, Cambridge.

The Gift Economy and Commodity Culture

Producers and consumers don’t see eye to eye on the topic of Spreadable media. ‐i.e.: File‐sharing vs. Piracy ‐producers and consumers have diff. motives, make diff. judgments about

value, follow diff. social obligations resulting in them operating in two separate worlds. ‐Commodity Culture‐places greater emphasis on economic motives and; ‐Gift Economy‐places emphasis on social motives ‐Could gift economy lead to communism? I think in the way info is shared, but on the economic side, no. Consumers are increasing the demand by spreading info of the brand which in turn entices others to use that brand.

Barbrook, Richard (1998). "The Hi‐Tech Gift Economy," First Monday, Vol. 3, No. 12  (December), accessed 30 March 2007.

Lewis Hyde: Thinking Through the Gift Economy

Gift economy goods are based on “worth”, not “value” as in commodity culture. Worth is more important to people. “can’t put a price on it..” ‐they cannot be bought or acquired, they are shared, or bestowed upon us. ‐they spread through a acts of gernerosity and reciprocity. ‐they are socially motivated ‐gives good worth, and make emotional ties with consumers. ‐status, prestige, or esteem take the place of cash Gift economy involves social cohesion and tradition Commodity culture involves freedom and individuality In a world of gift economy, who will be the consumers now that they are the one spreading my message?

Communities of UsersFormerly Known As the “Audience”

What should we call consumers or our audience now that they are involved in the spreading of media? Companies should let the use define the type of relationship they want with the company (fan, advocate, friend, coworker, etc.) Consumers are motivated to interact w/in a community by so many different things, causing them to behave different ways w/in different communities. ‐makes it hard for companies to target an audience, forces them to horizon scan, come up w/ new alternatives, open their world. Yochai Benkler (2007) The shift into a networked information culture improves the practical capacities of individuals in that: ‐it improves their capacity to do for and by themselves

‐it enhances their capacity to do more in loose commonality w/ others ‐it improves the capacity of individuals to do more in formal orgs. that operate outside the market sphere Rethinking Communities Paul Gee (2004)‐games scholar ‐he is interested in the kinds of informal learning that takes place in culture gamers. “Affinity spaces”‐affinity that is, for a common endeavor ‐notions of community don’t apply here as engaging w/ one another is a secondary objective, though it my be a primary objective. ‐they have to both work with each other to defeat each other. ‐they motivate production and circulation of information Lara Lee Social structures of diff. kinds of communities ‐Pools‐loose associations w/ each other, but strong association w/ a common endeavor or w/ values of the community. (i.e.: brand communities, political orgs. ‐Webs‐organized thru individual social connections, so ties w/ each member are stronger and operate in a decentralized manner ‐Hubs‐individuals form loose social association around a central figure (i.e.: fan clubs). Formed around dynamic figures like Bill Gates. Alternative kinds of communities: ‐Open‐no registration req. to participate. More anonymous posts resulting in short lived communal experiences. Little or not strong emotional ties. ‐Free registration‐most common. Represents majority of social networks, blogs and message boards. ‐Purchase‐Function w/ logic of sticky model. Spread is limited. Tend to be hubs w/ little interaction and lack of strong social ties. ‐Outside Selection‐closed spaces w/ a gatekeeper. Don’t encourage spread How do gamer’s goals affect the way they interact with each and the world around them? Spreadable Content Content is spread based on a perceived social value within a community. ‐it bosters camaraderie w/in a community, gathers information and establishes the boundaries of an “in‐group”. Mass culture (media) becomes popular culture when the active process of generating and circulating meanings and pleasures has occurred. ‐when consumers recognize it as potential vehicle for expressing their own meanings. Producerly Texts ‐Media that offers itself up to popular production…they have loose

ends that escape its control, their meanings are endless and open to interpretation, and their gaps are wide enough for whole new media to be produced w/in them by viewers. ‐i.e.: the VW Polo web commercial ‐this idea helps to turn a cultural commodity into a cultural resource. Advertising ‐when the media that produces commercials gives up control and allow the spreadable content to be producerly only then will the product have worth. If video is allowed to be altered, the template of the commercial that would be used in parodies still reminds consumers of original product. i.e.‐Mac v PC commercials. Spreadability: Aesthetic and Structural Strategies ‐openness and an abundance of meanings and uses may make some adv. material a potential gift, but it has to communicate something that is socially meaningful before it is given as a gift by someone i.e.‐Humor‐ ‐parody‐viewer bonds cause has to have cult. knowledge to get it. ‐shock/surprise ‐How do children react to humor? Do they become more engaged because of it? At the very least it gets their attention. ‐info. seeking‐viral content has ambiguity or confusion making people seek out further info via their network to get help problem solving. ‐This act is known as: ‐“crowdsourcing” or “collective intelligence”. ‐nostalgia and community: retro‐marketing give users solidarity and a sense of belonging.

2. Sampling audience approaches by experts Thought leaders:

‐Steve Rubel, Seth Godin, Brian Solis, Henry Jenkings, Cindy Chastain, Dana Chisnell, and Ross Mayfield.

Collective Intelligence‐users engage in low threshold participation(read,

favorite, tag and link. ‐strong communities, a lot of bonding. Collaborative intelligene‐high threshold part. (refractor, collaborate, moderate, and lead. ‐weak communities, small groups. Intent Index‐measure why people go online and what they seek. Can a similar index be used for reasons children use video games and what they are seeking from them? Or is there one already?

Analyzing your audience Statistical analysis: ‐Visitor loyalty, bounce rate, recency, time on site. ‐Visitor location. ‐Visitor search terms/keywords ‐Traffic source Data collection ‐Polls ‐Surveys ‐On‐site user features‐get more info by offering more user features ‐Audience feedback‐Google alerts, blogsearch. Personas‐representations of audience segments or user types They help designers: ‐Determine what a product should do and how it should behave ‐Communicate w/ stakeholders, develpers, and other designers. ‐Build consensus and commitment to the design ‐Measure the design’s effectiveness ‐Contribute to other product‐related efforts such as marketing/sales plans Research methods: ‐surveys ‐ethnographic research‐observe users’ behavior ‐interviews ‐contextual inquiries‐combines observation w/ interview ‐This would probably be the most effective method w/ children ‐Web analytics‐shows what happens to user when they use a site. ‐Could also apply to response of children to v. game interface. Data Reconciliation: 1. Don’t compare Web Logs v. JavaScript tags 2. Only use first party cookies data (no third party) 3. Imprecise website tags‐incorrectly or incompletely implemented tags 4. Torture your vendor: Check definitions of key metrics 5. Sessionization‐number of sessions by a visitor ‐session timeouts affect this 6. URL parameter configuration. 7. Campaign parameter configuration 8. Data sampling‐affects large companies only ‐at source‐ ‐at “run time” 9. Order of the tags‐ Realtime search What info is being passed now. ‐searching taps into memory. Searching through Elsewhere tapped into our

memories. I was experience my world and my life in real‐time while finding these objects.

5. Conducting usability research Establishes whether a product meets expected standards by means of surveys, interviews w/ users and brainstorming by design team. Develop a matrix ‐minimum of 5 people per type or matrix cell. Get user impressions before they test product‐used a control. Children in usability testing for military vehicles cockpit layouts. Are there usability tests from the past involving children and v. games? Why is there no mention of usability testing w/ children?

6. Audience, participants, creatorconsumers Users want a product to have good usability, appealing aesthetics, and emotionl.

‐What type of emotions do we want to elicit to engage children by means of a serious game? Joy, competition, success, … ‐What do children find visually appealing? ‐animation, real‐life.. ‐Does usability differ between a 6 yr old and a 60 yr old? User Centered Design (UCD)‐places end user in the heart of the development process. ‐This would be ideal for design children’s serious game. It would be fun and exciting for both children involved and design team #1‐Define audience/create personas (children) #2‐User task analysis‐determine users task and goals #3‐Create a prototype #4‐Test prototype w/ real users #5‐Beta release‐pre‐release version. Still working out kinks. #6‐Ongoing evaluation. All this testing seems moot as most of it (except alternative user testing) is biased as is has to be because you are trying to target a specific audience. ‐this testing needs to be more scientific. Less biased. Less controlled. ‐could we/should we use chimps for usability testing. How easy is it for a chimp to interact w/ a interface. If a chimp can do it, anyone can. 9. Visual design fro the modern web Four factors that promote audience usability: ‐self‐evidence‐ease of use which builds user presence and loyalty ‐speed ‐feedback ‐accuracy

Top‐rate interactive product most be: ‐easy to maintain ‐aesthetically pleasing ‐easy to use ‐technically solid (predictable and has no errors or glitches) User characteristics to address ‐physical demographics ‐location of access ‐cultural demographics ‐competing sites ‐computer experience ‐internal or external audience ‐findability (inter‐ or intra‐net) ‐computer equipment profile ‐design expections ‐frequency of visits Jakob Nielse’s Usabilty Heuristics

11. First principles of interaction design Anticipation

Autonomy‐put the user “in charge”. Use status mechanisms to keep users aware and informed‐ Keep status info up to date and within easy view Consistency‐the look, icons, button functions remain the same throughout Avoid uniformity Defaults User Efficiency‐1:11 sec. to microwave water is faster that 1:10 Keep the user occupied Explorable interfaces Make actions reversible Learnability‐make it easy to learn. Mindless. Donald Norman ‐people process input at three levels: ‐Visceral level‐preconsciousness, prethought. Where 1st impressions form. ‐Behavioral level‐use, experience w/ the product. ‐Reflective level‐full impact of thought and emotions are experienced. 12. Tagging Keywords added by users to help identify a “resource” (vid, site, book, etc) ‐provides metadata about the resource. Metadata‐structured info that describes, explains, locates or makes it easier to retrieve, use or manage an info resource. ‐it’s data about data elements or attributes, records or stucture

Folksonomies‐user generated keywords 7 types of tags (metadata) ‐Descriptive ‐Resource (blog, book, video, photo) ‐Ownership/Source (nytimes, newriders, authors) ‐Opinion ‐Self‐reference (mystuff, mine, me) ‐Task Organizing (toread, todo, work) ‐Play and Performance Tags, because they can change quickly to keep up with the times assist is strengthening the ecology of a system. They quickly evolve. Geotagging‐locate resources in a particular place by adding a coordinate marker. 13. Search Engine optimization (SEO) The process of improving the amount or quality of traffic to a site. Factors include: ‐webpage layout‐do not place important info/icons on right‐hand side of a page. ‐page title ‐meta description‐tag that gives search engines and users an idea of what page is about. ‐a tag in a brief summary form (160 characters or less) ‐URL structure ‐website navigation ‐unique content ‐anchor text‐links that direct visitors to the internal pages of a website or to an external page/website. ‐heading tags (h1, h2) ‐alt tag optimization‐tags on images 17. Excelling as a interactive professional Qualities of a top job candidate; ‐interviewing and ethnography ‐quantitative wisdom‐applying numbers ‐cognitive biases