From Grey to Green Alisha and Hafsa Rafi Aligarh Muslim University, alishakafeel@gmail.com, hafsa.rafi@outlook.com Abstract - During the modern era of human development, growth of towns and cities has displayed a separation between nature and human activities. This high rate of global population increase has caused the problems of climate change, deforestation and global warming. In order to address these challenges, specific tools and strategies of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture are adopted. These practices have been known to reduce urban heat island effect. Moreover, these practices can make cities more habitable. The rejuvenation of different types of areas, is exemplified in case study of Bologna, Italy. Different typologies of vacant lands that could be rejuvenated as urban horticulture spaces are identified such as, flower beds along streets, abandoned buildings, balconies, rooftops etc. such activities also empower citizens to take care of derelict sites. This paper aims to analyse such current practices in the remediation of degenerated urban areas and deteriorated buildings and to rejuvenate derelict sites as urban gardens. Keywords- Derelict sites, Rejuvenation, Remediation, Urban Horticulture, Vegetative Architecture INTRODUCTION TO THE ISSUE Gradual increase in population density of urban cities and the subsequent decrease in the population of rural densities due to migration has led to non-uniform population density in urban cities. This, in turn, has created two different scenarios –a site which is overly populated and the other which is vacant and has been neglected and left to rot. In the case of abandoned sites, the land is not being used to its potential. Whereas, the intensely populated areas are being overburdened by heavy land use activity. These two contrasting situations have emerged to some extent as a consequence of one another. These sites are facing land degradation as a result of decades of negligence towards the land as a resource. Mindless construction activity, heavy land use activity, disposal of soil contaminating chemicals, soil erosion in barren lands, have either interrupted or completely impeded the natural process of land remediation. ORIGIN The change in population density of these areas, surely didn’t take place in a day. A pattern of migration has been formulated on the basis of several social, political and economic factors which states the key reasons for migration of people.
I. ‘The push and pull factors of migration’ The push factors refer to people migrating as a necessity and due to the absence of any other alternative. Whereas, the pull factors refer to the characteristics of a place which draws the interest of people to settle in that area. Economic factors such as lack of employment opportunities, failure of crops in agriculture are major push factors of migration. II. Agriculture: A cycle of debt Agriculture being the prime occupation in rural areas serves as the only source of income for people. But due to seasonal variations leading to crop failure, the people are mounded by huge debts. Ultimately, they are left with two options- either suffer the consequences of the vicious cycle of debt or sell their land and move to cities for starting a new life. Thus, Lack of employment opportunities is a push factor which compels people to move to urban settlements to start up new businesses other than cultivating crops. Due to this, people migrate from rural to urban settlements for better prospects in terms of employment opportunities and job security. (Crow, 2010) III. Infrastructure and facilities Another push factor is the lack of infrastructure and public services in rural areas, such as proper health care facilities, schools, roads and transportation facilities. Due to the absence of good institutions, the younger generation travels to the cities for acquiring higher education. Infrastructure, on the other hand is the pull factor for settling in cities due to their appealing modern lifestyle and good public services such as transport, education and health care facilities. (Kainth, 2009) In this way, the migration of people from rural to urban areas leaves cultivable land behind, causing erosion of the topmost fertile layer of soil. This abandoned site is rendered to undergo degradation. On the other hand, the cities have to accommodate the steadily growing population and is being extensively used. In this way, the creation of vacant lands is due to the migration to densely populated cities. However, migration is not the only cause to increasing number of abandoned sites in a country. Mills and industries shutdown due to outdated technology or immense soil contamination and hence they lead to generation of derelict sites.
CASES IN INDIA I. Derelict sites Mills in Mumbai were shutdown long time back during the great strike of Bombay textile mills. Till now their future is uncertain as some are tangled in lawsuits, others in hope of initiation of some restoration projects, possibly in the next decade. The Western India Mill and the New city Bombay Mill are living examples of abandoned buildings. (Mandlik, 2012) which are too big to be auctioned as a whole or are denied funds from the government to undergo restoration. These structures stand dilapidated and without a purpose. II. Densely populated areas Many residential areas are denied government sanctions. Hence people are forced to carry out heavy construction activities in unauthorised lands, leading to the formation of closely built spaces. Shaheen Bagh in New Delhi is facing environmental degradation due to the lack of green spaces and unplanned character of the place. The high population density has contributed to the demand of physical infrastructure such as roads and various public amenities. Moreover, this has resulted in poor maintenance of existing services of drainage and parking. This has caused shortage of land which in turn has led to encroachment of land allotted for recreational parks and other green spaces. People are using these land resources recklessly and polluting the environment thoughtlessly. This mindless exploitation of resources by people in the name of rebelling against the administration is eventually stifling their own future generations. Seeking redressal for these problems a stoppage towards these practices are required. IMPLICATIONS I. Densely populated areas Due to unplanned construction by private contractors in unsanctioned land, the area allotted for green spaces is being used to build houses to maximise profits. As a result, the urban settlements are converted into perplexing cascades of concrete blocks. Also, due to the lack of pre-planned notion of placement of buildings, the area experiences shortage of space. Hence, the buildings are built too close to one another, leaving a very narrow path in between, the so-called road. This road is heavily congested with traffic most of the time. Moreover, the closeness of the buildings creates privacy issues and security issues. Many facilities like sanitation, proper sewage facilities, electricity also are being compromised with to some extent due to shortage of funds and neglect by government for the provision of these. Extensive concreting of natural ground has decreased the seepage of rainwater into the ground, further leading to drop in the underground water table. Moreover, owing to the nonexistent or outdated sewage and garbage disposal systems, the seepage of polluted water takes place, contaminating the
ground water and reducing the permeability of soil. The major water supplies of these area are recharged through underground water tables. As a result of this soil and water pollution, an increase has been observed in the number of water borne diseases in the residents of this area. Most importantly, in these areas, the percentage of green space is compromised with to construct houses. Due to this extreme deficiency of green cover in densely populated metropolitans, in the past decade, a drastic rise has been recorded in the number of people suffering from respiratory disorders. The key reason to this is the severely degenerated air quality. Therefore, the unplanned construction activity has hampered circulation in these areas, spoiled the air quality and the overburdening construction activity has caused land degradation to the extent that natural process remediation of land resource is unable to resolve these issues further. These issues are not only causing damage to the environment but also pose potential threats to human health. II. Derelict sites The unoccupied land in cities is used either as dumping ground or in some cases as a wasteland on which weeds grow. Both of these ruins the potentiality of that land. The agricultural land, left behind due to migration undergoes erosion of the fertile soil layer, rendering the land barren for all sorts of vegetation. Besides this, the empty plot is often used as a ground for setup of stalls and weekly markets or is utilised by daily wage workers as their dwelling place. The abandoned sites such as shutdown industries, closed mills and sites under legal issues are major areas of concern. Deserted buildings pose a threat of becoming a hideout for criminals. Besides this, the land on which industries were functional, is contaminated with chemicals. This land needs to be treated before it can be used for any other purpose. Moreover, if left untreated, these contaminants pollute the groundwater reservoirs. Areas in close proximity to shutdown chemical industries often experience skin diseases and endure harmful diseases like cancer due to the exposure to harmful chemicals. On a larger scale, the earth as a whole is undergoing severe climatic changes due to critical change in its landscaping. The impression of grey over green is causing global warming and sudden climatic changes which haven’t been recorded in the past decades of the climatic history of the region. These areas undergoing sudden climatic changes pose threats of undergoing the extremities of desertification. EXISTING APPROACH Several initiatives have been taken to regenerate air quality in India. The initiative taken at individual level consists of rooftop gardening. But this practice hasn’t been purely functional on a greater scale due to several reasons. Firstly, the initial investment of setting up the garden is very high. Even after setup, the maintenance of the garden becomes a cumbersome and a time-consuming process for one person to
handle. With nuclear families being in trend nobody has the time or the energy to devote to a recreational activity such as a garden. Along with this, many factors regarding the stability and the load bearing capability of the existing structure have to be considered. If the building isn’t structurally capable of withstanding the load of the soil, the pots etc. the practice cannot be initiated by compromising the structure of building. In India, the construction managers often violate the building protocols. Due to this, the buildings are not able to withstand the existing loads on them. Therefore, adding roof gardens on the old, dilapidated or the structurally weak buildings would add to the existing set of problems instead of solving it. Moreover, in housing societies, permissions are required to setup gardens on roofs. Therefore, the existing approach of rooftop gardening failed to function at individual level, but has the potentiality to serve as a beneficial practice to be introduced as planned feature in the upcoming societies. Also, in the existing structures the practice can be beneficial if done at a community level and by the consultation of an expert in the field. Emerging companies and the new industries are to follow the standard construction protocols provided by LEED. An association called GBCI has been set up in association with LEED to monitor buildings so that the newly constructed buildings have planned vegetative architecture incorporated in it. As far as the abandoned buildings are concerned, like the example of mills. They usually are transformed into housing facilities. The Mumbai mills are headed towards accommodating houses for the mill workers. Several other projects of restoration of these closed down mills have been initiated but these haven’t seen the implementation yet. The progress and utilisation of these projects are completely dependent on sanction of the government and no public participation is incorporated in these practices. Due to this, there is often delay or subsequent drop of the project due to the absence of public pressure. CASE STUDY: BOLOGNA For the case study the city of Bologna, Italy has been selected. Here, numerous forms of vacant areas are identified for urban horticulture and vegetative architecture practices. The vacant areas are being converted into urban green gardens along with this; innovative methods are used for turning concrete into green infrastructure. This brings out the idea of mixed used buildings. (Yeang, 2007) Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-romanga which is the part of northern Italy. Bologna is the agriculture powerhouse of the region. Moreover, it is the financial, industrial and transportation hub of Italy. Bologna is also considered as one of the wealthiest city of province. (wikipedia, n.d.) For the purpose of protection and replenishment of environment city council is responsible. It has been observed that percentage of land used has increased from 30.7% in 1989 to 36.5% in 2011, but the percentage of green public
spaces remained constant i.e. about 8%. (Mirabile & Chiesura, 2007) Bologna has always been an inventor of new and ingenious practice of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture. This has resulted in vast amount of urban initiatives that started from 1970s. In the present scenario, around 2700 urban gardens are available for citizens of all age groups. The maintenance and management responsibility of these urban gardens is undertaken by both public and municipality. Moreover, the first rooftop development was supported by city council. In the year 2000 bologna was among the first Italian countries to join urban green plan. (Orsini, Kahane, Nono-Womdim, & Gianquinto, 2013) (Djalali) (Orsini, et al., 2014). Along with this, Bologna has also signed the Milan urban food policy act, which embodies sustainable food policies. (Smith, Lang, Vorley, & Barling, 2016) Concerning the condition of derelict sites and vacant lands Italian polices have been made. These policies encompass the development of public participation activities for the development and maintenance of urban lands and vacant sites. Moreover, city council sanctioned operational programme for urban regeneration in 2014. This programme contains 30 initiatives for regeneration and remediation of urban lands and vacant sites. (Comune di Bologna., 2014) In this city, four types of vacant space have been identified for implementation of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture. These are spaces along the streets, neglected and derelict neighbourhoods. (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016) Additionally, terraces, galleries and balconies of abandoned buildings are also counted. BENEFITS Spaces along streets and squares often appear abandoned and degraded. But the strategies of guerrilla gardening have improved the image of streets and squares. This is achieved by providing flower beds and a touch of greenery. Moreover, urban open air flat surfaces can be used for rooftop farming and vertical farming. Even though each rooftop covers a minimal area but when taken as whole, they contribute a lot to the city. Also, these rooftops and urban open flat surfaces when done with horticulture and vertical farming remain unaffected by human activities, as these vertical faces are in minimal contact to humans. Thus, resulting in less damage to the vegetative system. These pragmatic soilless systems have reduced manual labour, has provided food security, and has intensified the production. (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016). Additionally, this has resulted in reduction in environmental pollution. In Bologna, about 82 hectares of flat rooftops has generated more than three quarters of urban food needs. (Antisari, Orsini, Marchetti, Vianello, & Gianquinto, 2015) The same can be done with abandoned buildings. Green roofs in addition can minimise the electricity bills by lowering the cost of heating in winter and keeping rooms cool during summers. Other benefits include improving the property value. These activities have also resulted in increased employment rate. Thus, helping the city to prosper.
Urban horticulture and vegetative architecture can also become a solution of re-ruralisation of abandoned neighbourhoods. These abandoned neighbourhoods can be converted into agricultural powerhouse, to pursue food security and environmental security. Moreover, it helps in preventing soil erosion and stops the phenomena of top soil removal. (Palmer, Santo, & Kin, 2016).These practices increase the food growth; meanwhile they also decrease the carbon footprint of the city. These practices are sustainable in nature as they make use of biodegradable compost. Moreover, these practices save the transportation cost of food from rural to urban areas. In this way both physically and culturally, these tools and practices has regenerated the derelict sites and abandoned neighbourhood. (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016). Moreover, these practices empower citizens by increasing the desire to take care of vacant areas that are usable for whole community. From this point of view, every void or unused space and urban fabric can be considered a vacant area and can be turned into a community garden and an abandoned public building can become a place of urban renewal. (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016)
The spaces are: • Flowerbeds along streets and square • Balconies and rooftops • Abandoned building • Abandoned neighbourhood Remediation of these four types of spaces have resulted in improving image of the city. (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016)
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY The methodological scheme for the process is categorised into three main steps: • Identification of areas • Data Collection • Categorisation of areas I. Identification of areas Different categories of lands have been identified in the case study of Bologna, Italy. The city has been assessed and various kinds of spaces have been recognized where urban horticulture and vegetative architecture can be implemented. These spaces can vary from macro scale neighbourhood to micro scale flowerbeds. Four types of spaces are considered for implementing green practices.
FIGURE 1 LOCATION OF THE CASE STUDIES (CITY CENTRE IDENTIFIED IN LIGHT BLUE). (1) FLOWERBEDS ALONG STREETS AND SQUARES: (1A) “I COLORI DELL’ORTO”, PIAZZA DEI COLORI, 27; (1B) “GLI ORTI DELLA FORNACE”, VIA DELLA BEVERARA, 123; (1C) “AIUOLA DONATA”, PIAZZA DI PORTA SAN DONATO, 1; (2) BALCONIES AND ROOFTOPS: “GREENHOUSING”, VIA ANTONIO GANDUSIO, 12; (3) ABANDONED BUILDINGS: “LÀBAS”, VIA ORFEO, 46; (4) ABANDONED NEIGHBOURHOODS: “ORTOCIRCUITO”, VIA DEL BATTIRAME, (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016)
II. Data Collection
III. Categorisation of spaces
For the purpose of assessing the case study of Bologna, data has been collected from various sources. Moreover, various stakeholders and their role have been identified.
Coincidently, just as much as urban landforms have affected the society, the society too has conversely affected urban landforms. Various elements like management, urbanism, society, education and culture have shaped the identity of the city.
FIGURE 2 VACANT AREAS EMPLOYING URBAN HORTICULTURE
(ACE) (htt) (htt1) (htt2) (htt3) (htt4) (htt5) (htt6) (FBG)
FIGURE 3 ASPECTS OF SOCIETY INFLUENCING URBAN LANDFORMS (Daniela Gasperi 1, et al., 2016)
LEARNING Through this case study various inferences are made. In this city urban regeneration and rejuvenation is carried out within a viable economic and legislative framework. Moreover, these tools have been used physically and culturally to regenerate urban spaces and derelict sites. Various areas have been identified and are converted into urban gardens. Adoptions of these practices have resulted in better economy of the city. Moreover, this has also resulted in environmental remediation which has reduced the health issues. CASE STUDY: INDIA I. Green terraces in Kerela Agricultural practices in Kerela were impeded due to water logging conditions of land. Thus, the horticulture department of Kerela proposed the practices of vegetative architecture for practicing for the area. A training programme was conducted for the farmers of Kerela. Techniques of rooftop gardening were introduced which also includes growing vegetables on poles and sticks too. Two Framer interest groups of 25 members each are registered under Vegetable and Food Promotion Council of Kerela. This VFPCK has exposed them to market which enables them to sell their produce at a good price. (Agarwal & Sinha, 2017) Moreover, this practice has also flourished the food production in Kerela. II. Kolkata: From dumping grounds to farms Kolkata in India has converted its biggest dumping ground into farming land. Municipal corporation leases about 800 hectares of dumping site for agricultural purpose. (Agarwal & Sinha, 2017) Inorganic waste from the site was removed by informal recycling industry and the rich organic compost was used for intensive farming. It has been estimated that around 150 to 300 tonnes of vegetables are produced per day. Moreover, this intensive farming generates 20000 employment opportunities. (Agarwal & Sinha, 2017) Farmers provide their own night duty to the site and also perform traditional farming practices on land. These activities produce safe food and are sustainable in nature. CHALLENGES TO THE INTRODUCTION OF A NEW PRACTICE In the case study of Bologna, the consciousness of people realised the seriousness of the issue of land degradation a lot earlier. Hence, the damage caused then was much easier to remediate than it is in India at this critical time. Moreover, the implementation through laws and awareness, maintenance and management of a new practice in Italy was easier than in India due to its smaller average population density. Also, the huge public participation in the form of communities which looked after the green spaces, aided their situation and helped in the successful implementation of the practices introduced.
Whenever a change in the mundane life is brought up, there are reactions to these changes. Reactions may be concerning economic, social and environmental factors. I. Economic factors Bologna, being a part of a developed country, is substantiated with ample amount of funds. Whereas, India being a developing country, has its funds directed in the direction of removing poverty or in coping with the technological advancements of the world. Thus, the provision of funds for the green practices might pose a difficulty in the initial stage. Moreover, the land available has higher probability of being approved for a housing or a commercial complex project than being approved for urban horticulture. Also, the practice of vegetative architecture cannot be cultured on the old dilapidated structures which cover most parts of metropolitans till now, like the structures which traverse the Chandni Chowk Area of Old Delhi. II. Social factors The introduction of new practice divides the opinion of people into those of mutual agreement, conflict or indifference. The success of these green initiatives depends on the degree of public participation. These practices can be beneficial only if the people contribute their services and help in the initiation of these practices by putting pressure on the authorities to provide the necessary permissions. The participation of the community as a whole in maintaining the gardens and the cultured lands would eventually ease the load of maintaining these green spaces on the government. But this practice might face a problem in the implementation stage as a result of resistance by people on the grounds of development of those lands which were to eventually develop into houses. The resentment is most probable from the associations of builders, industrialists and the slum dwellers who lived on these lands. Also, due to lack of awareness about the current situation, the general public might resent the flow of funds to another insignificant practice (as it is in their perspective). These funds were meant for technological advancements and development of the infrastructure and not for incorporating green culture in their lifestyles. III. Environmental factors When the cultivable agricultural lands are left barren for a significant amount of time, erosion of the top fertile layer takes place. This eventually leads to the loss of nutrients in the soil and degraded soil productivity. Moreover, the land on which industries were established is contaminated with harmful chemicals and the soil neutrality is disturbed. The cultivation of fruit crops or food crops for urban horticulture cannot be done in these areas. Therefore, the replenishment of nutrients and treatment of chemicals in this soil is necessary before cultivation of crops.
PROPOSALS Various proposals are made in order to introduce these practices of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture to India. For this purpose, possible solution to the challenges are provided. Countering these challenges will ultimately result in execution of these practices in India. I. Soil improvement In order to improve soil quality to perform urban horticulture numerous practices can be performed from micro level i.e. Individual backyards to macro level i.e. large abandoned sites. At macro level crop rotation technique and practices like conservation agriculture technique can be adopted. This practice does not promote ploughing as this will result in soil disturbance. (European Comission, 2015). Moreover, these practices maintain the soil cover by the help of cover crops and organic matter. (European Comission, 2015)At individual level backyard composting can be performed. Food leftovers and yard debris can be transformed into a valuable product for soil replenishment. Moreover, to reduce soil contamination various methods can be adopted. Soil washing techniques can be implemented on the contaminated soil for its remediation. These techniques include bioremediation, air sparging, and encapsulation. (2014) Bioremediation involves mixing of soil with organic matter which will stimulate the growth of bacteria into the soil. The bacteria will break down all contaminants in the form of hydrocarbons into simpler compounds. Hence, they will reduce soil contamination. The biggest advantage of this practice is that once all contamination from the soil is removed the bacterium dies off. Another practice to remove soil contamination is air sparging where air is pushed into the soil to bring out organic vapour. Once this vapour came out at the upper strata of the soil is treated by carbon filtering. Encapsulation is another method to bring out soil rejuvenation. The approach of this method is different from others. This technique does not focus on removing contaminants rather it focuses more on preventing further contamination. In this method soil is mixed with lime, cement and also concrete to stop the growing diffusion of contaminants. (2014) II. Public participation Moreover, for proper maintenance and growth of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture community participation is required. Critical urban gardening can demonstrate the use of different abandoned areas for food production. Critical urban gardening also known as political or radical gardening can empower citizens to reclaim their open spaces for public use and practice local food production techniques. (Certoma, 2015) A number of awareness programmes can be conducted to encourage and inspire citizens. These programmes will demonstrate people the
benefits of generating green spaces. Thereby, it would generate consciousness in people and make them to hold on the responsibility for managing the urban green spaces. This can be done by uprooting the unsustainable living patterns and replacing them with sustainable living techniques. III. Economic factors For the implementation and further maintenance of these services proper funding is required. This support can help in revitalisation of green spaces and public parks. The local bodies of the area along with the support of public and private sector can help in rejuvenation of the spaces. Moreover, voluntary action of people can alleviate the prevailing mutilation. There is a need of providing innovative practices which could make better use of money and allow increased development. A local authority can be employed for the purpose of collecting revenue and funds from public sector and private sector of the area. Moreover, this local body will also manage the funds collected from government agencies. This will ensure long term serviceability and proper utilization of funds for the maintenance of green space in the cities. (PwCLLP; CABE Space and Groundwork, 2006) The adoption of these practices will ultimately result in emergence of now income opportunities. Local body development in the city for the purpose of maintenance of green practices will give rise to new income prospects. Moreover, these practices will attract new business agencies for investment in the city. In this way these practices will generate economy of the place. This increased economy of the city in turn has balanced the cost of initial investment for adoption of green practices. (PwCLLP; CABE Space and Groundwork, 2006) OUTCOMES OF THE PRACTICES The implementation of vegetative architecture in densely populated areas helped in rejuvenating the air quality of these areas by absorbing particulate matter in air. The introduction of green spaces to these areas relived the land use of the heavy construction activity. Moreover, due to increased soil cover on land, infiltration of rainwater increased, thus rejuvenating the ground water level by decreasing the concentration of contaminants. The conversion of derelict sites to urban spaces prevented soil erosion, improved soil permeability, soil quality and increased food security. Thus, the adoption of urban horticulture and vegetative architecture lead to an increase in green cover over the carbon grey footprint. This would eventually lead to remediation and rejuvenation of the degraded land.
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