ATLANTIS MAGAZINE FOR URBANISM & LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
#27.4 JUNE 2017
DIALOGUES TOWARDS UNCERTAINTY
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When the AI takes the wheel Contemplating Urban Policy for a new era of Mobility
“Like the elevator, each technological invention is pregnant with a double image: contained in its success is the specter of its possible failure. The means of averting that phantom disaster are almost as important as the original invention itself.� (Koolhaas, 2014, p. 27) 17
by
Selina Abraham
MSc student, Urbanism TU Delft
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Occasionally an invention or a technology has the potential to transform our cities in an unimaginable manner. For instance, Otis’ apparatus in 1852, gave new meaning to planes beyond the second floor (Koolhaas, 2014). His invention coupled with the steel frame gave rise to the skyscraper. Today, so many metropolitan cities identify themselves through the steep elevations of their skyline.
Now, two new trends have the potential to change the urban fabric, with similar consequences. Firstly, Automated Driving Systems (ADS, also known self-driving cars) are no longer a thing of science fiction. Secondly, this technology coupled with the common usage of goods and services, known as shared economy could have many positive outcomes. For instance, less space required for street-parking, but it could also mean more car users, adding to more congestion. The ideals of Responsible Innovation and Value Sensitive Design require that as urban planners and designers, we must anticipate value conflicts that can possibly be overcome through means of design (Santoni de Sio, 2016). The Car and its re-invention
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Cars were conceived as a neutral technology, if anything it was the conveyor that permitted social patterns, permitting mobility. In the 1960s, they were marketed by emphasizing a relationship between the car and the driver. Car ownership was equated with status and freedom (The-National, 2016). The invention of the car, not unlike the elevator, reconfigured urban life. The manner of dwellings that we build, means of travel, socializing all now occur in an “automobilized time-space” frame (Sheller and Urry, 2000). Mass production of cars has made it more affordable and seemingly convenient, but an excess in mobility has resulted in disruption within public space and the quality of the built environment. Personal vehicles occupy most of our street space , yet they remain unused for 95% of its lifetime consuming precious surface area suitable for 18
1. A New Electric Way of Living. Artist Rendering of Automated Electric Cars, originally appeared in a newspaper article in The Victoria Advocate on 24 March, 1957. Google Newspaper Archive. Available: https://news.google.com/ newspapers 2. Cars occupy most of our street space. Before 1903, anyone could use the street and everyone did. With the streamlining of the manufacturing process, cars and trucks began to fill the streets. At first attempts were made to preserve the shared use of the street. But drivers joined with automobile dealers to redefine the right of way. “They wanted to go faster”. People were convinced that road safety lay in controlling pedestrians as opposed to controlling cars. The “freedom” that the automobile offered was superficial at best (Montgomery, 2013) Image Source - Detroit Publishing Company (1917), Detroit Woodward Avenue [Online Image] Available at: http://www.shorpy.com/ node/7136 3. 'Rulers over space and time.' 1930 Mercedes-Benz multicolor advertising poster by E. von Offelsmeyer Cucuel
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pedestrian and public appropriation (Kost, 2015). However, a new auto industry emerges today, one that seeks to disconnect the human driver from the car. Both traditional automakers and tech companies have invested heavily in the design of such systems . We must consider the impact this new system could have on the built environment. A Shared Economy, A Shared Automobile Shared economy implies common usage of goods and services. Sharing economy activities can be understood as four basic categories: “recirculation of goods, increased utilization of durable assets, exchange of services, and sharing of productive assets” (Schor, 2016). In the context of this essay, shared economy implies the “increased utilization of durable assets”. It facilitates and intensifies the use of durable goods and services. The flexibility and convenience of this service is enabled through apps and the smartphone (Arieff, 2013). Under this model, companies like uber and Lyft increase the capacity of a single vehicle trip by allowing users to share rides. Thereby increasing the efficiency of a single car trip. The benefits of the ADS vehicles can be accentuated under such a model. The Fine Print: Limitations and Concerns Automated Driving Systems however, are far from flawless. For instance, resistance to change and reluctance to let go of the car as the image of mobility and social-standing can lead to the failure of this model. Other present-day concerns are the ability of the AI (Aritificial Intelligence) to cope with complex urban conditions. Automated driving in traffic and on populated roads is an enormously difficult task, but there have been significant strides in the advancement of digital pattern recognition technologies. The loss of control or the act of disconnecting the car from the human driver to a smart grid reflects a darker scenario of loss in autonomy. Governments today are struggling with hacking and cyber terrorism. ADS needs to be associated with a safe space, without contributing to psychological fears and unrest. Also, governments and private enterprisers need to be held accountable for any improper use of the data collected in association with the ADS. The right context for implementation of ADS needs to be considered. In developing countries like India and China, the urban complexity is much higher than in Western cities. But the AI’s (un)suitability aside, there is a pressing concern of the machine monopolizing jobs from the poor, creating an economic rift in the social fabric.
sprawl (Sheller and Urry, 2000). But the allusion that the car represents mobility has not diminished. The problems associated with the automobile, can only be solved through an “alternative” to the car (Gorz, 1973). Mobility can only be re-defined if civil society is offered an alternative that is more comfortable than public transport. Could the ADS vehicle be that alternative? Different scenarios need to be postulated to address this new technology. This essay assumes that Automated Driving Systems, under legislation by governments and the reinvention of the automobile industry, have replaced the traditional car as we now know it. Mass-market production has made the ADS vehicles affordable for many. Two scenarios can be anticipated as a result. Firstly, a single-ownership model where the car is a bubble of leisure, a comfortable form of transport that makes commute more pleasurable and convenient. And secondly, as a comfortable alternative to public transport. It is assumed in both scenarios, hacking or terrorism, safety concerns for cyclists and/or pedestrians have been addressed by the manufacturers of the technology. Scenario 1 – Automated Driving Systems have entered the market accessible to everyone. This scenario assumes a single-ownership model. Automated Driving Systems, as estimated, provide significant user convenience, safety, congestion reductions, fuel savings, and pollution reduction benefits. However, ease in traveling may induce some motorists to choose vehicles that could serve as mobile offices
4. Mobile Offices and houses. Image Source - Johnson S. M. [Online Image] Available at: https://static01.nyt.com/ images/2013/07/16/ opinion/16arieffsleepyimg/16arieff-sleepyimgblog427.jpg 5. Urban Sprawl - A visualisation extracted from a city simulator game. Edited by Author. Original Image Available at: http:// community.simtropolis.com/ forums/topic/66198-theprincipality-of-gabtoriaentry-27-complex-roads-arecomplex
“After killing the city, the car is killing the car.”
The Built Environment and the Self-Driving Car
Gorz (1973)
The automobile, with the promise of freedom and mobility, has resulted in a system with bottlenecks, risks, unreliability, discomfort and un-checked urban
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and bedrooms, driving additional kilometers. Market conditions require that the ADS vehicles become larger instead (Litman, 2014). Though there might be users who are interested in sharing rides, they are a minority in this scenario. The convenience and the ease of the self-driving vehicle, trumps the disadvantages associated with sharing vehicles such as co-riders playing loud music or attempting ‘pleasant’ conversation (Tillema et al., 2015). If driving is more pleasurable, a long commute away from the congestion of the city may no longer be a disincentive (Arieff, 2013). ADS vehicles also boast social inclusivity and accessibility for all. Self-driving vehicles provide mobility to the disabled, seniors, even children and perhaps even drunk drivers (Arieff, 2013). But this additional spectrum of users could also mean more vehicles on the road. Tens of thousands more cars could be added to the roadway because of this
development. This would add to congestion and reduce the positive impacts that self-driving cars promise (Tillema et al., 2015).
"...[self-driving cars] could result in more urban sprawl that the original automobile was complicit in creating and in breaking down of public transport systems..." Cities like Amsterdam will require to update the existing infrastructure to accommodate Automated Driving Systems (Pieters, 2016). But will this new infrastructure be at the cost of public services? Autonomous vehicles may also reduce public transit travel demand, leading to reduced service and investment in public transport services adding to additional vehicle travel (Litman, 2014).
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This could result in more urban sprawl that the original automobile was complicit in creating and a break-down of public transport systems. It would also result in an ecological imbalance in the region, destroying natural landscape systems around the city with new suburban projects.
of these parking lots be undertaken without vested economic appropriation. Replacement of parking lots and off-street parking should be with natural vegetated surfaces. Regulations are recommended to avoid the improper re-allocation of the additional surface area.
Scenario 2 – Automated Driving Systems only available under a Shared Economy Model
"Under a centralized model of a shared economy [...] less road space would be required to accommodate more people on the road. This gives an opportunity for streets to revert back to the people."
In the scenario, Automated Driving Systems are only accessible under a centralized model of a shared economy. This scenario relies on present-day trends that show that there is a decrease in car ownership and the number of people obtaining driving license (Rosenthal, 2013). It is assumed that with the advent of the shared usage of ADS vehicles and these trends, there is a gradual decrease in the car ownership in the traditional sense. Less road space would be required to accommodate more people on the road. This gives an opportunity for streets to revert back to the people. The ADS model with less cars on the road will allow pedestrians and the public to regain the right to the road. A more balanced use of roadway can be achieved.
What about cars at night? Where do the AI systems rest? Cars could be parked in centralized locations like rental cars at airports (Arieff, 2013). The driverless cars could also be retrofitted at different times as service vehicles for postal and delivery services, optimizing their use and storage. The transition from day to night vehicles will have to be studied, evaluated and designed for, to ensure efficiency of the automobile.
A shared model would mean no worries with parking. But how would existing parking spaces be retrofitted? The ADS model in this scenario promises less congestion and additional space. But the re-appropriation must be meaningful with a good trade-off between economic and public concerns. Environmental interests require that the retrofitting
But shared vehicles have concerns of their own, that need to be addressed for the model to be adopted by society. As with the previous scenario, the adoption of this system could come at the cost of funding for public transportation systems. Instead, it should complement existing public transportation networks without deterring it.
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Conclusion
Eran, B. 2012. Rethinking a Lot. The Design and Culture of Parking. Cambridge (MA): The MIT Press.
While the scenario offers the individual user convenience and comfort, it is a double-edged sword that also exacerbates the ill-effects of the automobile. Hence, the solution might be that driverless cars should not be available as a mass-manufactured product. But instead as in the second scenario, only under a centralized system of a shared economy. The benefits of the shared model not only overshadow the single-ownership model, but also reduce the negative impact of the automobile. The idea of transitioning from single-ownership system to a centralized shared economy might seem extreme. However, such an extreme approach needs to be considered to not only negate the impact of the automobile on our cities, but also to make the most out of the ADS technology. •
Fehrenbacher, K. (2016) 'Future Cities Could Run On Shared Fleets of Electric Self-Driving Cars', Fortune, Available: Fortune.com. Available at: http://fortune.com/2016/10/11/shared-electric-self-driving-cars/ (Accessed 11-Feb-2017). Gorz, A. (1973) 'The Social Ideology of the Motorcar', Le Sauvage. Koolhaas, R. (2014) Delirious New York: a retroactive manifesto for Manhattan. The Monacelli Press, LLC. Kost, C. (2015) Parking Basics, New Delhi: ITDP. Litman, T. (2014) 'Autonomous vehicle implementation predictions', Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 28. Montgomery, C. (2013) Happy city: transforming our lives through urban design. Macmillan. Pieters, J. (2016) 'Amsterdam not ready to handle Self-driving cars: BCG', NLTimes.nl, Available: NLTimes. Available at: http://nltimes. nl/2016/10/11/amsterdam-ready-handle-self-driving-cars-bcg (Accessed 22 February 2017).
This essay was originally written for the Critical Reflection of Technology Course, compulsory under TU Delft’s Masters Honors Programme under the guidance of Filippo Santoni de Sio, TPM at TU Delft. It was re-written to fit ATLANTIS 27.4: Towards Uncertainty References
Rosenthal, E. (2013) 'The end of car culture', New York Times, 29. Santoni de Sio, F. (2016) Ethics and Self-Driving Cars: A white paper on responsible innovation in automated driving systems. . Schor, J. (2016) 'Debating the sharing economy', Journal of SelfGovernance and Management Economics, 4(3), pp. 7-22. Sheller, M. and Urry, J. (2000) 'The city and the car', International journal of urban and regional research, 24(4), pp. 737-757. The-National (2016) How driverless cars will change cities. Available
Arieff, A. (2013) 'Driving Sideways', The New York Times, Available:
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEebyt6G5kM (Accessed 10
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6. Third Space by Pensa. Original Image edited by Author 7. Meaningful appropriation of redundant parking lots. Parking lots today, produce 16 times more run off than from a similar sized meadow. Increased run off across parking lots results in increase in water temperature rises and multiple pollutants. Collage by Author Original Images - i) Disney Hotel Parking Lot (1961) [Online Image] Available at: http://gorillasdontblog. blogspot.nl/2013/01/parkinglots.html ii) BPDA - New Park in Fenway, [Online Image] Available at: http://www. bostonmagazine.com/news/ blog/2017/04/04/fenwaypark-landmark-center-expansion/
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