Magic Mirror on the Wall, Who is the Most Feminist One of All? by Ying Xu

Magic Mirror on the Wall, Who is the Most Feminist One of All? The Illusion of Feminism in Disney Princesses

Contents

5 Introduction 6 Research Report 9 Case Study One 16 Case Study Two 26 Case Study Three 33 Analysis 48 Conclusion 50 Bibliography

Unit 9 Context Dissertation Ying Xu XU_12373642

Dissertation Tutor: David Hendley Central Saint Martins College of Arts and Design University of the Arts London BA Graphic Design

January 2015

I ntroduction The popularity of the ‘Disney Princess’ as a figure of feature animation, merchandise, theme parks and ice shows is essentially the best-known business model in the world. However, the princesses have become increasingly differentiated, showing a growth from the original Disney Princess, Snow White, to the latest additions of Anna and Elsa. One can see a movement towards sophistication and independence prompting many discourses about Disney’s acuity to feminist issues. This project is to answer the question of what is the development of feminism in Disney’s Princess animation, and will explore the change across Disney’s thirteen princesses, citing the introduction and investigating the depth of feminist considerations as they occur in the franchise’s over seventy-eight years of production. Three case studies will be used to explore the direction of Disney’s animation, within which the roles of the princesses, major male characters and villains will be deconstructed and assessed. The essay will consider social and historical context as well as critical and feminist responses as source of possible explanation for the change. Furthermore, the essay will explore and consider Walt Disney’s personal feelings about women and family life as well as the business decisions made by the Corporation. 7

Research Report Disney Studios has been producing stories about princesses since 1937 but the concept of a Disney Princess franchise was not actualised until January 2000. Andy Mooney, the Chairman of Consumer Products Division of the company realised the branding opportunity while attending a ‘Disney On Ice’ show (Orenstein, 2011) and in the seventy-gight years of the ‘Disney princess’ the gender issues have been evident in the marketing as well as the feature films but this dissertation will focus predominantly on the animated fairy tale films of the thirteen Princesses in the Disney Princess media franchise. In order to study the emergence of feminism in Disney depictions, twelve Disney Princess animations and the thirteen princess figures will be examined. As gender is a binary social construct, it is also important to study the major male characters. The construction of the feminine identity of the princesses is evident by comparison to their male counterparts. Similarly, we must pay attention to the villains, as by antithesis they also reveal the concept of identity of Disney’s princesses. I will compare the original fairy tale sources with their Disney narratives to cite how Disney has constructed the idea of the feminine heroine. I will also be looking at feminist movements alongside the animations, 8

as they will provide social and historical context to the princesses. Furthermore, I will be looking at Walt Disney, the founder of the Disney Empire, using the research of Jack Zipes to uncover Walt Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own perception of women and his family life, the point of which is to discover how deeply these might have influenced the content of the films. My objective is an extensive reading of the Disney princess films, exploring an evolution of their feminine identity. I will also investigate the ramifications of this change on current marketing strategies of the Disney princesses.

Case Study One: Damsel in Distress Princesses in Walt Disney’s lifetime

The earliest Disney princess films of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Cinderella (1950) Sleeping Beauty (1959) were the only ones to be produced within Walt Disney’s lifetime. Their narratives exemplify the trope of the ‘damsel in distress’. Disregarding their peculiar yet inconsequential singing talents and their ability to befriend small woodland creatures, these three princesses have come to be considered negative role models for the ideas they embody: First of all, that beauty always triumphs. Disney’s first princess conception of Snow White is based on the exemplary, incomparable beauty. Her stepmother is so jealous of her beauty that she makes several attempts to kill her. While Snow White’s beauty but her under threat from malicious evil, it is also this beauty that saves her when the huntsman finds it impossible to murder her as instructed due to her innocence and beauty. The seven dwarfs are prepared to kill the intruder in their house but lose their resolve upon seeing Snow White’s face. The Prince is no exception. Only having seen Snow White singing at the beginning of the film, he falls in love with her without the benefit of a conversation to support his affections and heroically comes to her rescue with a 11

kiss at the end of the film. Cinderella and Aurora’s stories are much the same. Cinderella’s stepfamily mistreats her because they are ‘Cold, cruel and bitterly jealous of Cinderella’s charm and beauty’. And like in Snow White’s tale, it is her pretty face that catches the prince’s attention at the ball. Aurora’s beauty is set up with the words of her fairy godmother that bestows the first blessing ‘little princess, my gift shall be the gift of beauty’. Her beauty is given providential authority as a gift and being the first given it is attributed a sense of predominant importance. Because of their exceptional beauty, the princes fall in love with them and offer them protection in return for their love. The portrayal of beauty in these original Disney narratives suggests that beauty is a woman’s passport. It certainly is the precursor to the salvation of all three heroines. According to these depictions beauty means that, with the exception of jealous old women, whose own beauty is waning, everyone will adore you. While beauty capitulates the idyllic representations of men that is the Disney’s prince, ambiguously called ‘Prince Charming’, the women who embody this perfect beauty are without any agency of their own. Snow White in particular passes from the mercies of the huntsman, to the domestic situation with the dwarfs and then final acquiescence to the prince who is her saviour. The princes’ use the beauty of the princesses as currency, exchanging 12

his heroism and love for their reciprocation. They are chosen for their appearance rather than their substance or any mutual understanding that exists between them. Secondly, these first three films breed passivity putting forward the idea that if you keep dreaming salvation will eventually arrive. Being unjustly persecuted by her stepmother and nearly killed by the huntsman, Snow White remains passive to the antagonism with which she is faced, running away rather than taking progressive action. We must note the callous action of settling in the dwarf ’s home, unknown to her. The eventual haven she finds there is not by her own wit but narratively driven happenstance. She applies none of the wit she uses in befriending Grumpy as a weapon against the Queen. Even in her desperation in the woods she sings, ‘What do you do when things go wrong…oh you sing a song. With a smile and a song, life is just a bright sunny day…’ She is not only a passive character; she is also one that celebrates her lack of agency and frustrated situation with blind optimism. Afterwards, she exclaims, ‘I really feel quite happy now. I’m sure I’ll get along somehow’. She transforms her mind set rather than her situation, showing a marked lack of power. We can imagine that if it weren’t for the prince’s kiss, she may still be lying in a coffin. The narrative of Cinderella is similar; she submissively accepts the ill treatment of her stepfamily without seeking opportunities for change. The only time she glimpses beyond her circumstances 13

is in her dream to go to the Princes’ ball, hoping to meet someone who can help her out of her misery. Disney portrays a heroine who is unable to help herself and is even aware of her helplessness, putting hope of salvation in the intangible fantasy of a stranger. But her foolish hoping is commended as help comes in the form of her fairy godmother and Prince Charming, without whom she would remain immobile as an unhappy maid. Aurora’s character is hardly a heroine, only being awake for eighteen out of the seventy-five minutes of the film. She is a marginalised character used as the focal point of the heroism of the prince who saves her and the villainy of the witch who curses her. Her agency is minimal and her idyllic representation is as that of a ‘sleeping beauty’ who lies asleep waiting to be kissed. Just as Snow White sings, ‘Someday my prince will come. Someday we’ll meet again. And away to his castle we’ll go to be happy forever I know.’ Her dream came true at the end. The music of Cinderella also carries a message to ‘have faith in dreams and someday your rainbow will come smiling through, no matter how your heart is grieving. If you keep on believing, the dream that you wish will come true.’ Disney’s first three princess films stress the importance of having a dream and having faith in it and while that might seem commendable, the idea, as explored by the princesses, who embrace passivity in wait for external salvation, shockingly commends the immobility of women in society. 14

Thirdly, as Rozario points out that ‘house keeping was al-

ways imposed on the princess of this period’ (2004 : 37), noting how the early princesses of 1930s and 1950s are also emphatically domesticated.

Still from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)

The original Grimm’s fairy tale of Snow White does not fea-

ture any of the domestic ideas that the Disney does. The princess was not a scullery maid before running away from the Queen; neither did she acquiesce to domestic life with the dwarfs. We must note that Snow White was first full length feature animation in history and depicting the princess happily and voluntarily engaging in housework is notable as a patriarchal representation 15

of womanhood. Garcia also comments of the domesticity of Snow White. The author points out that ‘Snow White, a princess, upon first entering the dwarves’ cottage only notices the problems that she believes a lack of woman’s presence has created in the home. She immediately connects the idea of a disorderly home with that of a home lacking a woman’s touch’ (2014). The home is related to the responsibilities of a woman. This indicates a clear patriarchal value present in the film. While these Disney Princesses have been labelled ‘boring’, ‘passive’ and ‘brainless’, they show more complexity in the conformity to the representation of femininity of the time in which they were conceived. Beauty, passivity and constantly good temperament, optimism and good domestic values were traits that underlined their creative constructions. Noting that, as heroine of the animations in which they feature, they are meant to embody an idyll, we can conclude that these traits where put forward as an archetypal femininity. In hindsight we look at them as borne of a patriarchal society. And these representations of women might teach young girls the unhealthy expectations for how they should behave in real life.

Case Study Two: The Braver New Princesses Princesses in Post-Walt Disney Age

In the article Things Walt Disney Never Told Us (1975), folklorist Kay Stone commented on the Grimm tales and Disney stating that the ‘heroines are not allowed any defects, nor are they required to develop, since they are already perfect. The only tests of most heroines require nothing beyond what they are born with: a beautiful face, tiny feet, or a pleasing temperament’ (Stone, 1975). Because of this hopeless passivity of the princesses and the fact that their characters do not develop, Disney has long been regarded as anti-feminist, endorsing subservience to traditional gender roles. In response to feminist critics, Disney Studios has been trying to change anti-feminist labelling by creating character depth and complexity in their heroines. The Little Mermaid (1989) brought a rebellious and daring princess. Compared to her passive predecessors, Ariel is adventurous and curious. She is also outspoken about her love for the prince and takes action to win his love. The inversion of ‘love at first sight’ trope, which we saw with Snow White and Prince Charming marks her disrobing of patriarchal immobility and acquiring greater agency as a character. 18

Beauty and The Beast (1991) was the first Disney animated fairy tale to be written by a woman, and it has been praised as the first major step to create a feminist princess. From the beginning of the film, Belle is portrayed differently from the domesticated girls in her town. She has her own intellectual pursuits claimed in song aspiring for ‘more than provincial life’. She rejects the idea of marrying Gaston who is the most handsome in town or being trapped in domestic matrimony with him. Belle is set up as a character that rejects subservience as well as the admiration of beauty and aesthetic evident in the first three Disney films. With her, ideas of love are inversed as she actively chooses the object of her affection. Faced with the fearing of losing her father, she sets out to find him and make volitive decision of sacrificing herself in servitude for his freedom. We know from the first time they meet, that Belle is scared of the Beast but even in her state of thraldom in his castle she acts with authority rather than as a victim asking him to ‘come into the light’. This alone disposes of the ideas of ignorance Snow White’s song endorses. She is also not afraid to speak her mind and defy his will. This conception of an independent free-willed feminine figure opposing male authority is also present in The Little Mermaid with Ariel defying her father’s instructions. Moreover, Belle is not the one being saved as with previous films, but she herself saves the Beast’s life by her devotion to him, which restores him as a Prince. Although it has 19

the same clichĂŠ happy ending, we know Belle marries the prince for love and mutual understanding and will take an active role in their relationship. Jasmine of Aladdin (1992) and the heroine of Pocahontas (1995) are also rebellious and independent females of evident self-governance. Where the narratives from 1989 to 1995 remain centred on romances, the protagonists, here, begin to strive towards non-romantic fulfilment. A developing romantic relationship is no longer the main drive of the narrative and unlike their infallible predecessors the princesses from 1998 are allowed imperfections and the space to grow and explore their identity.

Poster for Mulan (1998)

Mulan (1998), based on the Chinese poem Ballad of Mulan is perhaps the most indignant of patriarchy. Mulan disguises as a 20

man to replace her old and injured father who is forced to join the army. Like Belle, she is of decided autonomy and makes the self-determined decision to defy society, threatened with the loss of her face. The androgyny and role reversal is the most evidently rebellious of gender roles. The film shows Mulan not to fit the gender role of her culture, unable to perform femininity as she is expected and uninterested in the traditional beauty and prospect of marriage. She screws up the meeting with the matchmaker and is called a disgrace to her family but she does not fit in to the army easily either. To me, Mulan is by no means a perfect protagonist. Rather, she is awkward, indirect most of the time and lacks self-confidence. However, she does not give up easily in adversity and demonstrates tremendous courage and intelligence in solving crises. She is abandoned by her comrades when her identity is discovered but goes on to perform as a brave warrior, saving the Emperor of China and defeating the enemy Shan Yu on her own. We must note that she is not only a solitary hero but also one who exhibits the full potential of female power, gaining all her martial success after her identity is revealed. Despite the America values that have been imposed on the story and the historic inaccuracies, Mulan represents one of the most empowered images of womanhood Disney has produced. The imperfectly self-conscious yet feisty young woman is probably more adorable. Tiana of The Princess and the Frog (2008) is the first black 21

princess in Disney history and she is decidedly tough. She actively rejects the passive and wishful dreaming of Snow White and Cinderella and the extreme actual sleeping of Aurora. As a child she wishes on a star to make her dream come true but her dad teaches her ‘that odd star can only take you part away. You gotta help along with some hard work of your own… the only way to get what you want in this world is through hard work’. Disney seems to actively renege on the premises it sets up in the 30s and 50s, purporting hard work as a principle of life in place of constantly good temperance. Tiana is a self-determined dream chaser whose efforts pan out and perhaps better than she intended. For her, as with Mulan, Jasmine and Pocahontas, love is not a goal but an unforeseen and welcomed consequence. Rapunzel is Tangled (2010) is a princess kidnapped and locked up in high tower by Mother Gothel. She embodies a similar trope of age encroaching on beauty with Gothel greedily harvesting her hair’s restorative ability. Although frightened by the lies told to her about the outside world she bravely embraces it in pursuit of adventure with Flynn Rider in tow. Rapunzel is naïve and sheltered in the tower but upon self discovery in the outside world she becomes braver and embodies more independent and masculine ideas as the narrative progresses at times coming to the aid of Flynn, who progressively and comically also becomes more effeminate. Rapunzel, like her mid century predecessors, is con22

stricted to a life of domesticity. Note, the anti-patriarchy inherent in her transforming her frying pan from a symbol of domesticity into a weapon against her enemies (Garcia, 2014). Merida in Brave (2012) simply has no need for a prince. She is by no means a fragile process in need of rescuing. Unwilling to lose her freedom, Merida chooses to compete in archery against her suitors for marriage and wins. The narrative actually centres on her conflict with her mother and her self-development in correcting her own mistakes. She accidentally turns her mother into a bear, which she reverses by repairing their relationship and growing in courage and self-knowledge in the movie. She is not the stereotype Disney princes with a pretty face and unrealistic female figure. She disregards appearance and exhibits boyish traits and is more curious and fearless than elegant. She tells her mother, while she is a bear, ‘how do you know you don’t like it if you won’t try it?’ showing marked self-awareness and a keenness to experience new things. She also grows as the story progresses.

Still from Brave (2012), Merida ‘shooting for her own hand’

At the beginning of the movie, she tries to avoid her royal responsibility of marrying the allied clan lords’ sons by winning the competition herself, and unintentionally yet childishly turned her stubborn mother, who tries to instruct her as a princess should behave, into a bear. She eventually realizes the importance of royal responsibility but does not undertake it by passively, accepting a marriage without love (as she showed interest in none of her suitors). Instead, she tried to persuade the clan lords the importance of marrying someone you love, and agreement was finally reached by breaking the tradition while renewing and strengthening their alliance. Lastly, and most recently, grossing over $1.2 billion worldwide, Frozen (2013) has been a huge commercial success and making princesses Anna and Elsa particularly popular. Anna fell in love with Prince Hans, believing them to be of similar disposition. Later, she discovers he is an ambitious and manipulative social climber, with intentions on her sister’s kingdom. She becomes disillusioned with Prince Hans revealing the trope of ‘love at first sight’ as flawed and superficial as well as dispelling the ‘happily ever after’ thread also common in Disney animation. She outgrown her impractical fantasises to realise the true nature of love first and foremost with her sister, Elsa. She forsakes her ‘true loves kiss’, yet another clichéd trope that is dispelled, for the sake of sisterhood, which actually bring her salvation. Anna’s sister, 24

Elsa is a more sophisticated character. Her abilities make her a recluse, fearing the consequences of her abilities considering her gift a curse. Although Elsa is not the main protagonist of the film, she embodies a marked self-knowledge when she eventually comes to embrace her herself and her powers. She is popular, perhaps, also for insight and sense of independence refusing to grant Annaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marriage, deeming it rash and imprudent. Frozen is a massively complex inversion of the Disney paradigm of female figures perhaps revelatory of a huge turn in feminism for society as a whole. There are many different tropes identifiable in the movie which perhaps mean that the movie is best regarded as a complete forsaking of past depiction of the heroism and perfection of the Disney princess and should be considered on it own merit. Although, we cannot ignore the satires the movie makes of its old concepts of femininity. In any case, this particular film animation has been particularly successful presenting a female-female relationship in a way never explored by Disney and by cherishing this bond predominately in the movie, it limits concepts of male reliance. In conclusion, Disney has made many attempts to create heroines with more depth and complexity to conceptually represent the real nature of the modern woman. The resulting model embodies female empowerment, a greater sense of autonomy, strength and self-knowledge. Love and romance have become 25

marginalised, no longer central to the objectives and direction of the heroineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s narratives they are given directionality outside of patriarchal subservience and embark on self-fulfilling adventures. As the boundary of masculinity and femininity blurs, the princesses are free to take on masculine qualities such as bravery and ambition. As they no longer seek personal fulfilment through romance, a modern Disney princess have the potential and ability to lead a life she wants, either as a warrior, an archer, an entrepreneur or even more than that!

Case Study Three: Major Male Characters and Villains

As previously mentioned, the early Disney princesses as one-dimensional and represent a subservience to patriarchy incongruent with modern society. However, the villains in the early Disney films are dramatic characters that liven the otherwise pale stories. The evil Queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is an ambitious woman who wants to be the most beautiful woman in the world, making several failed attempts to kill Snow White, the obstacle to her aspiration. Cinderella’s stepmother and stepsisters are also vain yet resourceful characters. In their jealousy, they belittle Cinderella’s character to subservience to them and prevent her social progression. Sleeping beauty’s evil godmother Maleficent is another strong-willed antagonist. Her hatred for the baby Aurora is unknown but it is lasting as shows in her resolve to find her where she is hidden by her fairy godmothers. After seeing her plan exacted with Aurora in deep sleep she ensures it issue and sets out against the prince. The more progressively feminist film of The Little Mermaid’s villain reflects the earlier biases with Ursula being a decidedly fat and ugly sea-witch who lures Ariel into ominous dealing with her. 28

By sabotaging Arielâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chance to become human, she aimed at destroying her father and take over the undersea Kingdom. Evidently, though early Disney characters tended to be either good or bad with little complexity, the performance of the wicked women is far better than the heroines.

Still from Cinderella (1950), Cinderellaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stepfamily

The earliest villains of the Disney princess animations were all female. To take a step forward they are female characters with feminist traits. Unlike the idle and passive princesses, the villains are capable women with their own ambitions. Moreover, they are resourceful and determined to take actions towards their goals. We can see the association of perfect female beauty and 29

evil temperament. Ursula is the most beastly but the stepmother and sisters certainly do not embody concepts of beauty with their exaggerated costumes. The evil queen is in the first place of beauty inferior to Snow White but she later disguises as an old lady to fool Snow White in biting the apple and died in this ugly form. These villains are unattractive and decidedly wicked. As Disney villainesses they are doomed to failure, not just because of their antithesis of the female protagonist but because they do not submit to male patriarchy. The idea of perfect femininity embodied in the princesses and villainy embodied in these antithetic females operates on a binary. Their autonomy is socially rebellious. Interestingly, their independence and self-determination would come to be the traits that underline Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s future feminist heroines.

Still from Sleeping Beauty (1959), The Villainess Malificent

Interestingly enough, in contrast to the dramatically wicked villainesses, the male contemporaries are exceptionally good: 30

The huntsmen that spared Snow White’s life, the seven dwarfs welcome Snow White and took revenge on the Evil Queen, the prince that came and rescued Snow White with a kiss were all men. Cinderella’s father was a loving man who died too early to protect his daughter, but the prince and King managed to save Cinderella from her misery. With regards to Disney princes, their performance had long been criticized as limited yet their existence is vital in order to bring hope and save the beautiful, innocent girls.

Still from Beauty and the Beast (1991), Gaston talking to Belle, ‘It’s not right for a woman to read’

The early Disney princess films were criticised as ‘sexist’, pitting women against each other and casting male characters as saviours of the innocent damsels. Disney gradually began to adapt. Gaston of Beauty and the Beast is the first male, and an attractive one at that, not portrayed favourably. He is near akin to a villain 31

only offering Belle a domestic prison. In his arrogance, he sets up a wedding party before proposing to Belle, trying to make her ‘fit into his patriarchal world’ (Garcia, 2014). The Beast/Prince also inverts the paradigm of beauty and good. As the new ‘prince charming’, he is unlike his princely predecessors. He is ‘the guy with the problem’ (Cummins in Davis, 2013). Instead of being perfect, he is a spoiled prince turned into a hideous beast by an enchantress as a punishment for his selfishness and unkindness. He is flawed and imperfect, remedied by Belle’s incorruptible purity. The story of the film is very much about the Beast’s growth and transformation, about how he had learned to love and be loved. From this point on, the characters exhibit more depth and development. The binary of is disrupted and replaced with a less easily discern spectrum of character. Aladdin of Aladdin is a ‘street rat’ who steals, disguises and lies to gain Jasmine’s affection, John Smith of Pocahontas is a colonial adventure but considering the cultural historic significance and the animosity of the native Americans and his arrival, he arrives the villain switching sides for love of Pocahontas. Prince Naveen is of The Princess and the Frog ‘not terribly noble’ (Davis, 2013). He undergoes a transformation, as does the Beast as punishment for his imperfections. He also learns and grows in the course of the film with Tiana by his side, teaching her how to enjoy her success in return. There is perhaps the first instance of true mutuality in Disney animation 32

romances. Flynn Ryder is a blatant criminal and fugitive. Instead of being masculine and self-assured as classic Disney heroes do, Flynn is a sensitive and timid man and Rapunzel learns independence and self-reliance as she ahs to take the lead at times in their world-discovering adventure. The antagonistic characters are no longer only females. Jafar of Aladdin is the first decidedly evil male character threatening his tyranny on the kingdom using the Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s daughter. Interestingly, Prince Hans is the first princely antagonist. His pretences of romance and seeming to embody the old ideas of prince charming upsets the paradigm Disney sets up in its early films. The film has a lot to say, perhaps too much to be encapsulated in so limited a medium but it effectively dismisses the idea of the masculine perfection of the prince actively satirises the tropes the company itself had set up and upheld fifty years before.

Still from Frozen (2013)

Prince Hans and Anna asking Elsa for her permission of marriage.

Analysis

As the above case studies show, Disney makes a consciously step away from its patriarchy conceptions and immobile conceptions of character in its story telling. The Disney princess films have become increasingly feminist. I would like to investigate the major contributors to this development:

The change in American society. From case study one, we see how the first Disney princess animations followed the same problematic formula of a pretty, submissive young woman trapped in a miserable frustrated situation eventually rescued by her handsome prince. The princesses are perfect, infallible, passive and good tempered despite adversity inspiring subservience to patriarchy. Walt Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal views are probably to be blamed for these sexist overtones. But before investigating this we must look at other factors such as technical constrains. The appearance of the dwarfs and the perplexing trope of woodland creatures may be due to the fact that in these early films animating human figures was very difficult. The filmsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; narrative lines are often taken up by the action of little animals and Snow White also features the seven 35

dwarfs which would have been easier to animate. Besides this, the historical context of the American society in which they were created must be mentioned. The domesticity of the princesses of the 1930s and 1950s is easily noted. Produced and released during the Great Depression, Snow White’s dutiful housewife image is exactly the echo of the demand in the male-dominated society in the 1930s. ‘The 20s ended with a worldwide economic crash’ which ‘the Great Depression of the 30s deepened’ (Watkins, 1992: 95). Women, who had become increasingly active in society by necessity during the war, were being accused of ‘stealing’ jobs meant for men. It was a time of decreased job opportunities and growing competition. Society’s voice seemed to proclaim, ‘Women’s place is in bed, the kitchen and church!’ and ‘Stay home and breed soldiers!’ In a time of economic downturn, the optimistic, perpetually cheerful heroine was a psychologically necessity but American society also wanted to purport this idea of female domesticity, all of which are embodied in Disney’s first princesses. As suggested by Garcia, the song ‘Whistle While You Work’ (Lyrics: ‘Just whistle while you work and cheerfully together we can tidy up the place. So hum a merry tune. It won’t take long when there’s a song to help you set the pace’) from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs encourages women’s domestic responsibility but also ‘provided an uplifting idea that work could be pleasant to a nation 36

finding its way through the painful period of the Great Depression’ (2014). It sent out the message that by keeping on working hard and trying to find pleasure from work, things would turn out to be fine. The role of women was greatly expanded during World War II (1939-1945), and 7 million women started to take up jobs previously regarded as not manageable by women when men marched off to fight. However, 80% of the women were not willing to give their jobs back to men when the war ended. Therefore, as Watkins puts it, ‘job segregation returned with a vengeance’ (1992: 97). In order to persuade women to return to their households again, the image of American housewife had dominated popular culture of the fifties and homemaking being rushly repositioned as a profession (Rosen, 2006). In Cinderella (1950), Cinderella had a moment of peace and dream at the beginning of the film before the clock brought her back to the reality of domesticity. This dream is indicative of the temporary situation of women amongst the workforce. It is perhaps an escapist nostalgic moment. The clock that brings her back to reality is a symbolic reminder that her freedom has ended urging her to resume her domestic activities. Cinderella fits the same model of a perfectly obedient wife who was given the limited ambition of domestic excellence and matrimony to a good husband. Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique published in 1965 chal37

lenges the concept that women can only find fulfilment within the household. This has shown that a second wave of feminism began, and it continued until late 1980s. In this period, most of the movies were dealing with issues of women’s political rights but also women’s rights of social equality. The patriarchal sexist power structure that tied women to traditional feminine concepts such as homemaking had been criticized, and women began to fight for their rightful opportunities that previously belonged to men (Ebersol, 2014). Therefore, we see a change in the structure of the films after the beginning of this second wave. The princesses are not restricted to domestic chores and are often adventurous and curious about the world outside their home. In the later production of Tangled, Rapunzel actively rejects confinement to the home for wider considerations of the outside world. Characters such as Belle, Mulan, Pocahontas and Ariel have identifiable autonomy and are rebellious to the male authority of their fathers which manifests in a more balanced romantic relationship later on, if indeed they experience romantic fulfilment as Pocahontas does not, rather than a intangible coupling based on an imbalance exchange of beauty and protection. The heroes of the animation have also changed from the one-dimensional image of a salvation to a complex more humanlike figure with imperfections as well. The films produced during the time of Friedan’s ‘second wave’ 38

are not without their own problems. Although Ariel, Belle, and Jasmine had become more independent and feminist, their stories all end in a marriage or engagement. Allison Craven (in Pershing et al) had made an acute comment on this ‘Disney films sometimes inject elements of self-determination or empowerment into the portrayal of female protagonists, only to undermine them with narrative conclusions that inevitably equate the heroines’ fulfilment with heterosexual romance and marriage.’ (2010) From the 1990s, there was a third wave of feminism focusing on race and female sexuality, and these issues have not been dealt with by the second wave. In this period, most literature intended to ‘denounce the second wave for over-emphasizing the problems of straight, white, upper- and middle-class women while ignoring issues specific to different races, classes, and orientations.’(Ebersol, 2014) In response to societies new feminist considerations, Disney adapts its female heroine. Non-white princesses like Jasmine, Pocahontas, Mulan and Tiana are produced to embody the ‘third wave’s emphasis on the empowerment of racially and culturally diverse women’ (Ebersol, 2014). However, I believe that these minority princesses may have been created for other reasons, which will be explored later. Let us explore the 1990 Disney princess more closely by comparing them to those who come after them. Ariel is self-determined and independent girl who makes self-sacrifices in pursuit 39

Still from The Little Mermaid (1989)

of Eric’s love. However her struggle for independence and her pining after a handsome prince springs from an old Disney trope, ‘the more traditional, narrow goal of choosing a husband’ (Stover, 2013). She gives up her voice and her fins to be more like him. This can be read a loss of identity and individualism in pursuit of heterosexual romantic fulfilment. After all, he makes no similar sacrifices for her in return. Also, because she lost her voice, there is an underlying objectification - she has to draw the prince’s attention with her body. Although the story was written by Anderson, it is regarded as ‘an apt metaphor for many Disney heroines: No one listens to their words.’ (Towbin et al, 2008) I must point out here, that the original narrative, the mermaid undergoes this as trail in fulfilment of her own individual 40

aspiration of immortality, as mermaids traditionally have no soul. The Mer-kingdom described in the original story is a nonpatriarchal one, the sense of which is eroded in Disney’s omission of Ariel’s loving grandmother and her interactions with her sister. The Little Mermaid actively shifts the independent female individualism into an objectified matrimony-driven narrative. The character of Mulan is another good example. Mulan has become progressively stronger and more self-assured through the film. The concluding trope of her marriage maintains the idea that happiness rests in heterosexual relationship and marriage is posted as a reward for her journey. In Mulan (1998), after saving China and returned home with gifts to honour her family, Mulan’s grandma complained, ‘Great, she brings home a sword. If you ask me, she should’ve brought home a man.’ Although the film treats the words with humour, it nonetheless acts in fulfilment of it bringing about Mulan’s marriage to the Li Shang shortly afterwards. Having experienced similar sexual discrimination, I admired the strong resourceful heroine. However, the final minutes of the film erode the enormously progressive ideas of female strength explored before hand in the androgyny of Mulan, the inversion of the gender roles and her ability to perform as a solitary female figure in the role of a male warrior. All she accomplishes, such as performing like a man in the army, become inverted back into subservience into the expectations of her gen41

der. The film begins with her inability to fully consolidate with the idea of marriage and after her unconventional adventure, she comes back only to conform to exactly this idea. This treatment of the heroine, the first to truly cross gender classification, who had so much potential a figurehead of female empowerment, is disappointing showing in Disney an immobility of ideology.

Still from Mulan (1998) If only the story could end here, when Mulanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father throws away the gifts to honor his family and tells his girl that she is his greatest honor.

With the help of social media, issues faced by women worldwide have been made easier (Stover, 2013). And in the discussions of the so-called fourth wave of feminism, women came to see that the world is still not as fair as post-feminist culture claimed to be. Following this latest cultural phenomenon, Disney created Merida in Brave (2012), Anna and Elsa in Frozen (2013). 42

These animations are completely different from their predecessors, shifting romantically oriented narrative to an exploration of familial bonds. Merida simply have no romantic relationship in the movie and while Anna does, the dismissal of the superficial romantic tropes with Prince Hans establishes her later romantic experience in a more down to earth less, fantastical concept of love. The traditional cliché ‘true love’ does reappear in both films, but the exploration of it is marginalised, particularly in Brave as secondary to the personal journey of the heroines.

The Personal Influence of Walt Disney The majority of the discourse has criticised Walt Disney for his patriarchal aspects embedded in the movies made during his lifetime. However, Amy M. Davis thought it to be the collaborate product of the artists and executives working at the studio (2007). I do agree that it is unfair to blame Walt Disney solely for the anti-feminist values expressed in the films, as his ideas also prevailed in the American society in which he lived. Nonetheless, the ideas the films explore can only be the artistic vision of Walt Disney himself. Walt Disney regards the films as products of his own. He is reluctant to give credit to the animators and this caused them to fight for recognition. After facing bankruptcy in 1928, Disney apparently realised the ‘bloody reality’ of competition and swore 43

to maintain absolute control over all his production. . He insisted on being consulted and giving approval for each stage of development during the entire production of the films. The films were created entirely under his direction and were ‘carefully scripted to project his story or vision of how a story should be related’ (Zipes, 1999). Zipes compared the artists in Walt’s studio to the industrious dwarfs in Snow White who did all the hard work, and Walt the glorified prince who came and took the prize away in the end. It is clear Disney was aware of the messages purported by the early films and endorsed them for reason, and his movies were in effect representative of his own ideal world. Walt Disney had an unhappy childhood. He came from a humble background with a strict and exploitative father. His two elder brothers ran away from home when he was young because of the mistreatment caused by his father. Disney’s sense of family is evidently thwarted, and this was shown in the life Disney princesses: Snow White and Cinderella are orphans, and Aurora had been sent away from her parents when still a baby. Zipes believed that ‘Disney felt drawn to fairy tales because they reflected his own struggles in life’ (1999). We can see his shadow in the creation of the Disney prince who brings salvation at the end of each film. The princess films express his nostalgic longing for ‘neatly ordered patriarchal realms’ (Zipes, 1999). Disney’s life experience also explains his representations of 44

women in the films. His mostly idealised concept of women came from his childhood bond with his mother who was a vivid contrast to his Spartan father. However, his association of women with security was violated in adolescence, when his high school girlfriend deceived him and married someone else (Davis, 2007), and because of this, he has formed a mixed and often contradictory personal attitude towards woman. On one hand, he sees women as ‘source of love and goodness’ (Davis, 2007) like the damsels in the early Princess fairy tale films. On the other hand, his view of women as ‘source of danger and duplicity’ (Davis, 2007) expressed in the wicked villainesses. His ambivalence creates parallels of womanhood, unfortunately one that paints idyll femininity as a passive submissive female, perhaps a flash of anger against the girlfriend who disappointed him. Walt Disney’s patriarchy that pits women against each other for male approval and his archetype of woman is largely outdated. He was undoubtedly a cartoon genius, progressing the industry from the cartoon shorts to the animated full-length feature films, and a businessman whose vision created a cross-platform brand spanning films, amusement parks, Broadway shows, soundtracks, merchandising and more. Though he was not responsive to feminist ideas in his lifetime, he was nonetheless an innovative man in ‘showing the world what could happen when a vision of fantasy was joined to mechanical reality’ (Cagan et al, 2012). 45

Disney Studioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Responds to Feminism During World War II, Disney had experienced a fall in box office revenues because of the war, and animators were used to produce training and instructional films. In order to make a profit, the company thought of re-releasing Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and it proved to be another huge success. The success of the re-release made the company realize that there is not only a huge potential in re-releasing classic films, but also a gold mine of translating the classic fairy tales in an American way. However, Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attempts to create its third fairy tale princess in Sleeping Beauty (1959) were a failure as traditional ideals of femininity was found to be less desirable and relevant to the experience of a changing generation (Stover, 2013). In 1989, Disney started to change its approach by creating a relatively more feminist heroine in Beauty and the Beast, which generated huge success in the box office and positive comments. Their acuity to feminism is evident in the use of a female writer. However while Disney was responding to the changing world, their sensitivity to feminism still gave way to the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profit making strategies: Although Merida in Brave is portrayed as a quirky looking independent young girl in the original 3D animation, Disney gave her a more mature and sexualized look when she is transformed into the traditional 2D figure more akin to the previous Disney princesses. The redesigned Merida is 46

more ‘charming’ and ‘attractive’ donning makeup, a more tempered hairstyle with her shoulders exposed and waist thinner. More importantly, her signature, the bow and arrow, is missing, transfiguring her from femme fatale to the more tradition image of non-martial woman. This redesign of Merida has caused an uproar among the fans and critics, who were deeply disappointed by the message which conveyed that the original, less sexy Merida is inferior to the latter one by way of ‘makeover’. Peggy Orenstein commented, ‘In the end, it wasn’t about being brave after all. It was about being pretty.’ (2013) It is perhaps that a more potent accusation actually came from the film’s original director, Brenda Chapman, who refers to the makeover as ‘a blatantly sexist marketing move based on money.’ (2013) According to Chapman, Merida was created to give young girls a better, stronger and healthier role model, but the company’s decision to reinforce the narrow definition of beauty in such a subconscious way had ruined their effort.

Merida’s original look in the animation film (left) and her redesigned look (right)

Mulan also met with similar embarrassment. Famous for her brave performance as a warrior, she was stripped of her amour and posed like a traditional Asian doll in her feminine Chinese dress in the Princess collection, as though this were emblematic of her identity and not the progressive idea of powerful femininity she embodies in her androgynous costume. Even the stories that have portrayed a dynamic idea of feminine power are undermined when they are carried into the marketplace. Instead, the company seems to slide back into the problematic ideology of female beauty being their strength.

Mulanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original look (left) and her look on Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s official website (right)

While the animators have been providing us with more feisty and self-sufficient princesses, the titles of the films, which seem to mimic the progress of their narrative, tell a different story. Less gender-specific titles, such as Tangled (2010), Brave (2012), and Frozen (2013) have been chosen for the most recent feature 48

films instead of girl centric Rapunzel, Merida or The Snow Queen. These names were chosen because ‘it was not a girl’s name’ (Davis, 2013: 3). When the 2009 release of The Princess and the Frog did not meet a generous box-office return, executives blamed the title as they believed boys don’t want to see a film with a girl’s name in it (Chmielewski et al, 2010). In order to prevent such ‘tragedy’ of alienating potential audiences, the studio has been taking active actions in renaming its every princess animation afterwards, which undermines the feminist developments made by the narratives. There is a gap between the actual animations and the company’s marketing strategies. Whilst the animations are finally fostering a change towards a more autonomous and complex princess of potent social aspiration, the company compromises their new ideology for more profits in advertising and products. It seems that all the feminist presentation and evolution in animation is merely superficial. They were used to appease the public who has been dissatisfied with the limited image of some of their female heroes.

Conclusion

In overview, the ‘Disney Princess’ has undergone a significant development over the years. The princesses of Walt Disney’s lifetime were submissive, passive and domestic whose success was left to their beauty. Since then and particularly in the last 10 years, Disney has been able to create more modern princess although in this transformation Disney underwent a period where their seemingly progressive heroines futilely undermined their own accomplishment in the romantic endings of the films, which was portrayed as the mark of true happiness. In any case, we are now greeting the introduction of the independent and self-sufficient princesses not dependent on heterosexual romance for individual accomplishment. Disney has not only been making efforts in creating contemporary and engaging Princesses that can manage their own fates, it has also been improving its long perceived anti-feminist image by changing its tradition of depicting villains as jealous and vicious women dating back from Walt Disney. Moreover, as the Princess feature film’s focus shift from romantic relationship to relationship between sisters, mothers and daughters, the company has started to explore women’s internal power. The male characters 50

have become increasingly marginalised, lending support rather than being placed as centrally important. While Walt Disneyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal feelings and experience about women and family life, and his patriarchal values have greatly shaped the animated fairy tales in the early days. The company has gradually grown out of his shadow and responded to the changing roles of women by bringing an evolution to its princesses. The overwhelming improvement reflects the improvement in female status and the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s awareness in keeping up with the times. However, there are also drawbacks of this seemingly feminist revolution in Disney Princess franchise. There is no doubt that the animators intend to provide viewers with stronger and more unique heroines. However, the marketing direction of the company greatly affects the progress of the narratives and takes the feminist image a step backward. In response to the title of this paper, I do believe that the feminist princesses with the complexity, progress and self-knowledge will provide the most inspiring story line. They will be the ones that possess the most socially lasting effects, inspiring viewers with a depth that their predecessors lacked.

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