English handbook version 2a by sherykearney

2017-18 ENGLISH HANDBOOK

MCINTOSH HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PEACHTREE CITY, GA

TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1 | Writing .................................................................................................................................................. 5 Types of writing .................................................................................................................................................. 5 Expository Essay ............................................................................................................................................. 5 Literary Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 5 Rhetorical Analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 5 Persuasive Essay ............................................................................................................................................. 5 Argumentative Essay ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Narrative Writing ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Multimodal Composition ................................................................................................................................ 5 Modes of Discourse ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Description ..................................................................................................................................................... 6 Narration .........................................................................................................................................................7 Exemplification ............................................................................................................................................... 8 Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Argument and Persuasion ..............................................................................................................................10 Classification..................................................................................................................................................12 Process Analysis............................................................................................................................................. 13 Comparison/Contrast ..................................................................................................................................... 15 Definition .......................................................................................................................................................16 Cause and Effect ............................................................................................................................................ 17 PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS...............................................................................19 KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................21 Rhetorical Précis Format................................................................................................................................... 22 Rhetorical Précis Frame ................................................................................................................................ 22 Tone words ........................................................................................................................................................23 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING................................................................................................... 25 Writing vocabulary ........................................................................................................................................... 28 Five Types of Claims .........................................................................................................................................30 Claims of Fact ................................................................................................................................................30 Claims of Definition .......................................................................................................................................30 Claims of Cause..............................................................................................................................................30 Claims of Value ..............................................................................................................................................30 1

Claims of Policy ..............................................................................................................................................30 Sample Claims ................................................................................................................................................... 31 sECTION 2 | GRAMMAR USAGE AND PUNCTUATION .........................................................................................32 Common Writing Errors .....................................................................................................................................32 COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS....................................................................................................................35 CONFUSING CONTRACTIONS ......................................................................................................................35 ONE-WORD OR TWO-WORD PAIRS .............................................................................................................35 WORDS WITH SIMILAR SPELLINGS ..............................................................................................................35 OTHER CONFUSABLES .................................................................................................................................35 SIMILAR-SOUNDING WORDS (AKA HOMONYMS) ..................................................................................... 36 Guide to Formal Academic Voice .......................................................................................................................38 Using Formal Voice: An Overused Word FUNeral ............................................................................................ 42 The Twenty Sentence Patterns ......................................................................................................................... 44 COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIONS .................................................................................................................. 44 SENTENCES WITH SERIES ........................................................................................................................... 44 REPETITIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 31 MODIFIERS ....................................................................................................................................................32 INVERSIONS.................................................................................................................................................. 33 ASSORTMENT OF PATTERNS ...................................................................................................................... 33 Basic Punctuation Rules.................................................................................................................................... 42 Commas ....................................................................................................................................................... 42 End of Sentence Punctuation ........................................................................................................................ 42 Periods.......................................................................................................................................................... 42 Exclamation Points ....................................................................................................................................... 42 Semicolons ....................................................................................................................................................43 Colons ............................................................................................................................................................43 Hyphens.........................................................................................................................................................43 MORE ABOUT COMMAS ................................................................................................................................. 44 Compound Sentences ................................................................................................................................... 44 Series ............................................................................................................................................................ 44 Introductory Dependent Clause .................................................................................................................... 44 Sentence-Ending Clauses .............................................................................................................................. 44 Introductory Verb Phrases (Infinitival and Participial) .................................................................................... 44 2

Introductory Prepositional Phrases ............................................................................................................... 45 Other sentence modifiers.............................................................................................................................. 45 Nonrestrictive elements ................................................................................................................................ 46 Coordinate Adjectives ................................................................................................................................... 46 Nouns of Direct Address ............................................................................................................................... 46 Direct Quotations ......................................................................................................................................... 46 State and Year .............................................................................................................................................. 46 Punctuating Titles............................................................................................................................................. 48 Section 3 | INTEGRATING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES ................................................................................. 51 Differences in Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing ................................................................................... 51 Transitions to Incorporate Quotations Into Paragraphs .................................................................................... 54 Integrating Quotes Smoothly Into Texts ........................................................................................................... 56 Fayette County Schools Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty Statement (9-12) .............................................. 57 Section 4 | READING ANALYTICALLY .................................................................................................................. 58 B-H-H Reading.................................................................................................................................................. 58 Preparing to Discuss a Text ............................................................................................................................... 59 Simple Guide to Text Annotation ..................................................................................................................... 60 How should I annotate? .....................................................................................................................................61 SAMPLE ANNOTATION ................................................................................................................................... 62 A GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS ............................................................................................................... 63 LITERARY DEVICES ........................................................................................................................................ 63 LITERARY FORMS ....................................................................................................................................... 64 LITERARY ELEMENTS................................................................................................................................. 64 ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY ....................................................................................................................... 65 SECTION5 | RUBRICS ........................................................................................................................................... 66 Four Point Holistic Rubric Genre: Narrative ...................................................................................................... 66 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric ...................................................................................................67 Informational/Explanatory Genre ......................................................................................................................67 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric .................................................................................................. 68 Argumentative Genre ....................................................................................................................................... 69 SECTION 6 | Graphic organizers ............................................................................................................................ 72 outline ............................................................................................................................................................... 72 ESSAY ORGANIZER .........................................................................................................................................74 3

Audience Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 77 Purpose Analysis................................................................................................................................................79 Ethos Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................81 Pathos Analysis..................................................................................................................................................83 Logos Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 85 Kairos Analysis...................................................................................................................................................87 Directions for Writing a 12 Sentence Paragraph ............................................................................................... 89 A Twelve-Sentence Paragraph Outline ......................................................................................................... 90

SECTION 1 | WRITING TYPES OF WRITING EXPOSITORY ESSAY A genre of essay that requires the writer to explore a concept or idea and present his or her conclusions in an unbiased fashion. It is an explanatory essay that enables the reader to understand new information. This genre includes cause/effect, informative, compare/contrast, defining a concept, and problem/solution. LITERARY ANALYSIS The purpose of analysis is to practice looking closely at small parts of a piece of literature to determine how they affect the whole. Literary analysis focuses on how plot, structure, character, setting, and other literary techniques are used by an author to create meaning. In a literary analysis essay, a writer uses evidence from within the text to convey a unique interpretation of that text. RHETORICAL ANALYSIS A rhetorical analysis requires you to apply your critical reading skills in order to “break down” a text. In essence, a writer breaks off the “parts” from the “whole” of the piece being analyzed. The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to articulate HOW the author writes in order to achieve his or her goal or purpose of writing their piece. PERSUASIVE ESSAY The purpose of persuasive writing is to give an opinion and to influence the reader's way of thinking with supporting evidence. This is usually done through emotional appeals, logic with presentation of evidence, establishing credibility as an author, and using a strongly biased voice. ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY An argumentative essay uses reasoning, logic, and evidence—not emotion—to take a definitive stand on a controversial or debatable issue. The essay explores two sides of a topic and proves why one side or position is the best. NARRATIVE WRITING A narrative may be fiction containing a fabricated story line, or it may be non-fiction, based on events that really happened. We use narrative writing frequently in our daily lives whether it is documenting a special event (a first school dance) or chronicling a trip or vacation (Close-Up trip to D.C.). Use vivid details and show me; don’t tell me. MULTIMODAL COMPOSITION Essays often constructed using digital technology that combine written text with audio, image, gesture, and spatial relationships in designing products. Multimodal refers to the combination of two or more modes—a slide show that incorporates music, a podcast that combines text and audio, a documentary that combines visual, text, and audio.

MODES OF DISCOURSE DESCRIPTION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Description: A rhetorical strategy using sensory details to portray a person, place, or thing.

How does this person, place, thing, or event look, smell, taste, feel, and/or sound?

From In Cold Blood by Truman Capote The distance between Olathe, a suburb of Kansas, and Holcomb, which might be called a suburb of Garden City, is approximately four hundred miles. A town of eleven thousand, Garden City began assembling its founders soon after the Civil War. An itinerant buffalo hunter, Mr. C.J. (Buffalo) Jones, had much to do with its subsequent expansion from a collection of huts and hitching posts into an opulent ranching center with razzle-dazzle saloons, an opera house, and the plushiest hotel anywhere between Kansas City and Denver--in brief, a specimen of frontier fanciness that rivaled a more famous settlement fifty miles east of it, Dodge City. Along with Buffalo Jones, who lost his money and then his mind (the last years of his life were spent haranguing street groups against the wanton extermination of the beasts he himself had so profitably slaughtered), the glamours of the past are today entombed. Some souvenirs exist; a moderately colorful row of commercial buildings is known as the Buffalo Block, and the once splendid Windsor Hotel, with its still splendid high-ceilinged saloon and its atmosphere of spittoons and potted palms, endures amid the variety stores and supermarkets as a Main Street landmark--one comparatively unpatronized, for the Windsor's dark, huge chambers and echoing hallways, evocative as they are, cannot compete with the air-conditioned amenities offered at the trim little Hotel Warren, or with the Wheat Lands Motel's individual television sets and "Heated Swimming Pool."

Anyone who has made the coast-to-coast journey across America, whether by train or by car, has probably passed through Garden City, but it is reasonable to assume that few travelers remember the event. It seems just another fair-sized town in the middle--almost the exact middle--of the continental United States. Not that the inhabitants would tolerate such an opinion--perhaps rightly. Though they may overstate the case ("Look all over the world, and you won't find friendlier people or fresher air or sweeter drinking water," and "I could go to Denver at triple the salary, but I've got five kids, and I figure there's no better place to raise kids than right here. Swell schools with every kind of sport. We even have a junior college," and "I came out here to practice law. A temporary thing, I never planned to stay. But when the chance came to move, I thought, Why go? What the hell for? Maybe it's not New York--but who wants New York? Good neighbors, people who care about each other, that's what counts. And everything else a decent man needs--we've got that, too. Beautiful churches. A golf course"), the newcomer to Garden City, once he has adjusted to the nightly after-eight silence of Main Street, discovers much to support the defensive boastings of the citizenry: a well-run public library, a competent daily newspaper, green-lawned and shady squares here and there, placid residential streets where animals and children are safe to run free, a big, rambling park complete with a small menagerie ("See the Polar Bears!" "See Penny the Elephant!"), and a swimming pool that consumes several acres ("World's Largest FREE Swimpool!"). Such accessories, and the dust and the winds and the ever-calling train whistles, add up to a "home town" that is probably remembered with nostalgia by those who have left it, and that, for 6

those who have remained, provides a sense of roots and contentment.

NARRATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Narration: the process of giving an account of a sequence of events, real or imagined; storytelling.

What happens next?

From The Story of an Eyewitness: The San Francisco Earthquake by Jack London The earthquake shook down in San Francisco hundreds of thousands of dollarsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; worth of walls and chimneys. But the conflagration that followed burned up hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property. There is no estimating within hundreds of millions the actual damage wrought. Not in history has a modern imperial city been so completely destroyed. San Francisco is gone. Nothing remains of it but memories and a fringe of dwelling-houses on its outskirts. Its industrial section is wiped out. Its business section is wiped out. Its social and residential section is wiped out. The factories and warehouses, the great stores and newspaper buildings, the hotels and the palaces of the nabobs, are all gone. Remains only the fringe of dwelling houses on the outskirts of what was once San Francisco. Within an hour after the earthquake shock the smoke of San Francisco's burning was a lurid tower visible a hundred miles away. And for three days and nights this lurid tower swayed in the sky, reddening the sun, darkening the day, and filling the land with smoke. On Wednesday morning at a quarter past five came the earthquake. A minute later the flames were leaping upward. In a dozen different quarters south of Market Street, in the working-class ghetto, and in the factories, fires started. There was no opposing the flames. There was no organization, no communication. All the cunning adjustments of a twentieth century city had been smashed by the earthquake. The streets were humped into ridges and depressions, and piled with the debris of fallen walls. The steel rails were twisted into perpendicular and horizontal angles. The telephone and telegraph systems were disrupted. And the great watermains had burst. All the shrewd contrivances and safeguards of man had been thrown out of gear by thirty seconds' twitching of the earth-crust.

EXEMPLIFICATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Exemplification: A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer clarifies, explains, or justifies a point through narrative or informative details. Related to: example (rhetoric).

How is the general made specific and the abstract made concrete?

"The best way to reveal a problem, phenomenon, or social circumstance," says William Ruehlmann, "is to illustrate it with a single, specific instance" (Stalking the Feature Story, 1978). from "Watching Out for Loaded Words"*by Frank Trippett (1926-1998) Words can be impregnated with feeling by oversimplification. People who oppose all abortions distort the position of those favoring freedom of private choice by calling them proabortion. And many a progressive or idealist has experienced the perplexity of defending himself against one of the most peculiar of all disparaging terms, do-gooder. By usage in special contexts, the most improbable words can be infused with extraneous meaning. To speak of the "truly needy" as the Administration habitually does is gradually to plant the notion that the unmodified needy are falsely so. Movie Critic Vincent Canby has noticed that the word film has become imbued with a good deal of snootiness that is not to be found in the word movie. Moderate is highly susceptible to coloring in many different ways, always by the fervid partisans of some cause: Adlai Stevenson, once accused of being too moderate on civil rights, wondered whether anyone wished him to be, instead, immoderate. * "Watching Out for Loaded Words," by Frank Trippett, was first published in Time magazine, May 24, 1982.

ANALYSIS Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Analysis:

How do the elements of this thing or event fit together to form the whole?

A form of expository writing in which the writer separates a subject into its elements or parts. Plural: analyses. Also called: division â&#x20AC;&#x153;Look at Your Fishâ&#x20AC;? by Samuel Hubbard Scudder

It was more than fifteen years ago that I entered the laboratory of Professor Agassiz, and told him I had enrolled my name in the scientific school as a student of natural history. He asked me

a few questions about my object in coming, my antecedents generally, the mode in which I afterwards proposed to use the knowledge I might acquire, and finally, whether I wished to study any special branch. To the latter I replied that while I wished to be well grounded in all departments of zoology, I purposed to devote myself specially to insects. "When do you wish to begin?" he asked. "Now," I replied. This seemed to please him, and with an energetic "Very well," he reached from a shelf a huge jar of specimens in yellow alcohol. "Take this fish," said he, "and look at it; we call it a haemulon; by and by I will ask what you have seen." With that he left me, but in a moment returned with explicit instructions as to the care of the object entrusted to me. "No man is fit to be a naturalist," said he, "who does not know how to take care of specimens." I was to keep the fish before me in a tin tray, and occasionally moisten the surface with alcohol from the jar, always taking care to replace the stopper tightly. Those were not the days of ground glass stoppers, and elegantly shaped exhibition jars; all the old students will recall the huge, neckless glass bottles with their leaky, wax-besmeared corks, half eaten by insects and begrimed with cellar dust. Entomology was a cleaner science than ichthyology, but the example of the professor, who had unhesitatingly plunged to the bottom of the jar to produce the fish, was infectious; and though this alcohol had "a very ancient and fish-like smell," I really dared not show any aversion within these sacred precincts, and treated the alcohol as though it were pure water. Still I was conscious of a passing feeling of disappointment, for gazing at a fish did not commend itself to an ardent entomologist. My friends at home, too, were annoyed, when they discovered that no eau de cologne would drown the perfume which haunted me like a shadow. In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish, and started in search of the professor, who had however left the museum; and when I returned, after lingering over some of the odd animals stored in the upper apartment, my specimen was dry all over. I dashed the fluid over the fish as if to resuscitate the beast from a fainting fit, and looked with anxiety for a return of the normal, sloppy appearance. This little excitement over, nothing was to be done but return to a steadfast gaze at my mute companion. Half an hour passed--an hour--another hour; the fish began to look loathsome. I turned it over and around; looked it in the face--ghastly; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at a three-quarters view-just as ghastly. I was in despair; at an early our I concluded that lunch was necessary; so, with infinite relief, the fish was carefully replaced in the jar, and for an hour I was free. On my return, I learned that Professor Agassiz had been at the museum, but had gone and would not return for several hours. My fellow-students were too busy to be disturbed by continued conversation. Slowly I drew forth that hideous fish, and with a feeling of desperation again looked at it. I might not use a magnifying glass; instruments of all kinds were interdicted. My two hands, my two eyes, and the fish: it seemed a most limited field. I pushed my finger down its throat to feel how sharp the teeth were. I began to count the scales in the different rows until I was convinced that that was nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me--I would draw the fish; and now with surprise I began to discover new features in the creature. Just then the professor returned. "That is right," said he; "a pencil is one of the best of eyes. I am glad to notice, too, that you

keep your specimen wet, and your bottle corked." With these encouraging words, he added, "Well, what is it like?" He listened attentively to my brief rehearsal of the structure of parts whose names were still unknown to me; the fringed gill-arches and movable operculum; the pores of the head, fleshy lips and lidless eyes; the lateral line, the spinous fins, and forked tail; the compressed and arched body. When I had finished, he waited as if expecting more, and then, with an air of disappointment: "You have not looked very carefully; why," he continued, more earnestly, "you haven't even see one of the most conspicuous features of the animal, which is as plainly before your eyes as the fish itself; look again, look again!" and he left me to my misery. I was piqued; I was mortified. Still more of that wretched fish! But now I set myself to my task with a will, and discovered one new thing after another, until I saw how just the professor's criticism had been. The afternoon passed quickly, and when, towards its close, the professor inquired: "Do you see it yet?"

ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Argument and Persuasion: A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood. Argument is one of the traditional modes of discourse. Adjective: argumentative. The use of appeals to reasons, values, beliefs, and emotions to convince a listener or reader to think or act in a particular way. Adjective:

Why do you believe that?

persuasive.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Time for an Anthem the Country Can Singâ&#x20AC;? by Shelby Wilson The music was composed as a drinking song for an 18th-century London social club. The words were written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key to commemorate a battle. And on March 3, 1931, "The StarSpangled Banner" officially became the national anthem of the United States. Ever since then, people have been complaining that the tune is unsingable and the lyrics are offensive. In response to these complaints, a bill was recently filed in Congress to replace "The Star-Spangled Banner" with "America the Beautiful" as our national anthem. For a number of reasons, this bill deserves wide support. "The Star-Spangled Banner" can be as painful to listen to as it is difficult to sing. Even professional singers have difficulty with its 12-note span, rumbling at "Oh! say, can you see" and screeching at "the rockets' red glare." In a way, however, such rumbles and screeches are fitting, for the lyrics are bloody, confusing, and war-stained. Does anyone really believe that red rockets and bursting bombs express the true spirit of America? And all that talk of of "the foe's haughty host," 'the gloom of the grave," and "the war's desolation" is far from being rousing and inspirational. Over the years, other songs have been recommended as replacements, but most of these are just as inappropriate as the present anthem. "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," for instance, is also a war tune, and John Philip Sousa's stirring march "The Stars and Stripes Forever" has no lyrics at all. "My Country 'Tis of Thee" is sweet and dignified, but the music belongs to the British national anthem, "God Save the Queen." And finally, among recent contenders, Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." has a terrific beat, but its lyrics are better suited to a requiem than to an anthem. Just imagine how disconcerting it would be to start a ball game with the line, "You end up like a dog that's been beat too much." Clearly, "America the Beautiful" deserves to be our national anthem. For years now, it has been gaining popularity in school assemblies, at official state functions, and even in our ball parks. The music is simple, dignified, and--most important--easy to sing. The lyrics celebrate our history ("O beautiful for pilgrim feet . . ."), our land ("For purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain"), our heroes ("Who more than self their country loved"), and our future ("That sees beyond the years"). It is proud but not warlike, idealistic without sounding silly. Oh! say, it's time "The Star-Spangled Banner" was put to rest. Surely our flag will continue to wave "O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave" without benefit of this windy tune. Let us have a national anthem that the whole country can sing. Let us sing, with pride, "America the Beautiful."

CLASSIFICATION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Classification: A method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer arranges people, objects, or ideas with shared characteristics into classes or groups. A classification essay often includes examples and other supporting details that are organized according to types, kinds,

How are things in this group like each other and different from things in similar groups?

segments, categories, or parts of a whole. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Man Who Interruptsâ&#x20AC;? by Bill Nye I do not, as a rule, thirst for the blood of my fellow-man. I am willing that the law should in all ordinary cases take its course, but when we begin to discuss the man who breaks into a conversation and ruins it with his own irrelevant ideas, regardless of the feelings of humanity, I am not a law and order man. The spirit of the "Red Vigilanter" is roused in my breast and I hunger for the blood of that man. Interrupters are of two classes: First, the common plug who thinks aloud, and whose conversation wanders with his so-called mind. He breaks into the saddest and sweetest of sentiment, and the choicest and most tearful of pathos, with the remorseless ignorance that marks a stump-tail cow in a dahlia bed. He is the bull in my china shop, the wormwood in my wine, and the kerosene in my maple syrup. I am shy in conversation, and my unfettered flights of poesy and sentiment are rare, but this man is always near to mar it all with a remark, or a marginal note, or a story or a bit of politics, ready to bust my beautiful dream and make me wish that his name might be carved on a marble slab in some quiet cemetery, far away. Dear reader, did you ever meet this man--or his wife? Did you ever strike some beautiful thought and begin to reel it off to your friends only to be shut off in the middle of a sentence by this choice and banner idiot of conversation? If, so, come and sit by me, and you may pour your woes into my ear, and I in turn will pour a few gallons into your listening ear. I do not care to talk more than my share of the time, but I would be glad to arrive at a conclusion just to see how it would seem. I would be so pleased and so joyous to follow up an anecdote till I had reached the "nub," as it were, to chase argument home to conviction, and to clinch assertion with authority and evidence. The second class of interrupters is even worse. It consists of the man--and, I am pained to state, his wife also--who see the general drift of your remarks and finish out your story, your gem of thought or your argument. It is very seldom that they do this as you would do it yourself, but they are kind and thoughtful and their services are always at hand. No matter how busy they may be, they will leave their own work and fly to your aid. With the light of sympathy in their eyes, they rush into the conversation, and, partaking of your own zeal, they take the words from your mouth, and cheerfully suck the juice out of your joke, handing back the rind and hoping for reward. That is where they get left, so far as I am concerned. I am almost always ready to repay rudeness with rudeness, and cold preserved gall with such acrid sarcasm as I may be able to

secure at the moment. No one will ever know how I yearn for the blood of the interrupter. At night I camp on his trail, and all the day I thirst for his warm life's current. In my dreams I am cutting his scalp loose with a case-knife, while my fingers are twined in his clustering hair. I walk over him and promenade across his abdomen as I slumber. I hear his ribs crack, and I see his tongue hang over his shoulder as he smiles death's mirthful smile.

I do not interrupt a man no more than I would tell him he lied. I give him a chance to win applause or decomposed eggs from the audience, according to what he has to say, and according to the profundity of his profund. All I want is a similar chance and room according to my strength. Common decency ought to govern conversation without its being necessary to hire an umpire armed with a four-foot club, to announce who is at the bat and who is on deck. It is only once in a week or two that the angel troubles the waters and stirs up the depths of my conversational powers, and then the chances are that some leprous old nasty toad who has been hanging on the brink of decent society for two weeks, slides in with a low kerplunk, and my fair blossom of thought that has been trying for weeks to bloom, withers and goes to seed, while the man with the chilled steel and copper-riveted brow, and a wad of self-esteem on his intellectual balcony as big as an inkstand, walks slowly away to think of some other dazzling gem, and thus be ready to bust my beautiful phantom, and tear out my high-priced bulbs of fancy the next time I open my mouth.

PROCESS ANALYSIS Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Process Analysis: A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.

How do I do this, or how does this thing work?

Process analysis writing can take one of two forms: (1) it can provide information about how something works (informative) or (2) it can explain how to do something (directive).

from Catch-22 by Joseph Heller All the officer patients in the ward were forced to censor letters written by all the enlisted-men patients, who were kept in residence in wards of their own. It was a monotonous job, and Yossarian was disappointed to learn that the lives of enlisted men were only slightly more interesting than the lives of officers. After the first day he had no curiosity at all. To break the monotony he invented games. Death to all modifiers, he declared one day, and out of every letter that passed through his hands went every adverb and every adjective. The next day he made war on articles. He reached a much higher plane of creativity the following day when he blacked out everything in the letters but a, an and the. That erected more dynamic intralinear tensions, he felt, and in just about every case left a message far more universal. Soon he was proscribing parts of salutations and signatures and leaving the text untouched. One time he blacked out all but the salutation "Dear Mary" from a letter, and at the bottom he wrote, "I yearn for you tragically. A. T. Tappman, Chaplain, U.S. Army." A. T. Tappman was the group chaplain's name. When he had exhausted all possibilities in the letters, he began attacking the names and addresses on the envelopes, obliterating whole homes and streets, annihilating entire metropolises with careless flicks of his wrist as though he were God. Catch-22 required that each censored letter bear the censoring officer's name. Most letters he didn't read at all. On those he didn't read at all he wrote his own name. On those he did read he wrote, "Washington Irving." When that grew monotonous he wrote, "Irving Washington." Censoring the envelopes had serious repercussions, produced a ripple of anxiety on some ethereal military echelon that floated a C.I.D. man back into the ward posing as a patient. They all knew he was a C.I.D. man because he kept inquiring about an officer named Irving or Washington and because after his first day there he wouldn't censor letters. He found them too monotonous.

COMPARISON/CONTRAST Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Comparison/Contrast

How are these things alike or different from one another?

A rhetorical strategy and method of organization in which a writer examines similarities and/or differences between twopeople, places, ideas, or things. Watching Baseball, Playing Softball by Lubby Juggins

We watch baseball: it's what we have always imagined life should be like. We play softball. It's sloppy--the way life really is. I figured that out a long time ago, on a soft summer evening when I was 13 years old and dying of embarrassment in center field as our opponents touched us up for 17 runs in the top half of the first inning. Now, beer in fist, gaping at a blank TV screen as I wait for the first major league game of the season, I'm trying to define just what it is I'm waiting for. Baseball, we know, is precise, ceremonial. It's a world bounded by foul lines, marked by fixed positions. The playing field is neatly geometric, while the game itself is a linear equation of batters retired and runs batted in. It begins with a song nobody can sing, and it ends with hoarse whispers of "Maybe next year." The story of baseball is like some ancient Greek myth: meet the enemy head on, tour the bases, and eventually head back home, there to be greeted by friends who suddenly recall how much they have missed you. That's baseball. Now softball is something different. For one thing we play wherever we can, usually on golden fields of dog patties and shattered glass, bounded by city streets and factory parking lots. We start by choosing sides, arguing over who's to be stuck with Artie Magaffe, gimlet-eyed and gimpy, and what we're going to use for home plate. We play until we get too rowdy or the kids drag us home or we lose the ball somewhere between a dumpster and a security fence. And whenever some complacent fool reminds us, "It's only a game, fellas," we come close to lopping his head off because, of course, we know it's a game. Why else would we take it so seriously? We watch baseball and imagine what it would be like to have the power of Manny, Big Papi, and Johnny D. We play softball and remember that really we're more like Larry, Curly, and Moe. In baseball men are Giants--and Pirates and Tigers and Braves. In softball, at best, we're lug wrenches and nuts in Warren's Electric & Hardware. Or, more often, we're just beer-bellied slobs in Disney World t-shirts and Hooters caps. And while we imagine grandstands thundering with fans, all we've got is a runny-nosed wino chasing unicorns in the outfield, and Sammy's poor wife, squatting on the hood of their Honda, reading Harold Robbins and picking her teeth. Yet now, as I sit here glaring at the TV, I remember what it is we're all waiting for. That's why I get up, wheezing slightly, go to the closet and root out a stiff old glove signed by Nomar Garciaparra. The laces are missing and all the padding has been squeezed out through a hole in the thumb. I follow my belly across a schoolyard diamond--jackets for bases, a Frisbee for home plate--and I wander out to center field. In front of me a gaggle of obsolete children in middle-age are shagging, groaning, slapping their haunches, hollering "Way to go! Way to go!" I crouch down with my hands on my knees and I wait. I wait for a lopsided ball to come skidding or spinning or bounding my way. And, asever, I will spend the afternoon fumbling and bobbling and falling flat on my can. I play softball.

DEFINITION Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Definition: In a paragraph or essay, an explanation and/or illustration of a word, thing,

What names will be assigned to any one item (or the various items) in the groups which I

or concept

have identified?

â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Jerkâ&#x20AC;? by Sidney J. Harris I don't know whether history repeats itself, but biography certainly does. The other day, Michael came in and asked me what a "jerk" was--the same question Carolyn put to me a dozen years ago, At that time, I fluffed her off with some inane answer, such as, "A jerk isn't a very nice person," but both of us knew it was an unsatisfactory reply. When she went to bed, I began trying to work up a suitable definition. It is a marvelously apt word, of course. Until it was coined, there was really no single word in English to describe the kind of person who is a jerk--"boob" and "simp" were too old hat, and besides they really didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fit, for they could be lovable, and a jerk never is. Thinking it over, I decided that a jerk is basically a person without insight. He is not necessarily a fool or a dope, because some extremely clever persons can be jerks. In fact, it has little to do with intelligence as we commonly think of it; it is, rather, a kind of subtle but persuasive aroma emanating from the inner part of the personality. I know a college president who can be described only as a jerk. He is not an unintelligent man, nor unlearned, nor even unschooled in the social amenities. Yet he is a jerk cum laude, because of a fatal flaw in his nature--he is totally incapable of looking into the mirror of his soul and shuddering at what he sees there. A jerk, then, is a man (or woman) who is utterly unable to see himself as he appears to others. He has no grace, he is tactless without meaning to be, he is a bore even to his best friends, he is an egotist without charm. All of us are egotists to some extent, but most of us--unlike the jerk-are perfectly and horribly aware of it when we make asses of ourselves. The jerk never knows.

CAUSE AND EFFECT Mode

Key Question That Provides Structure

Cause and Effect: A method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer analyzes the reasons for--and/or the consequences of--

How does one of these things come from or lead to the other?

an action, event, or decision. Learning to Hate Mathematics by Anne Miller I started to dread arithmetic back in the third grade because I didn't want to memorize the multiplication tables. Unlike learning how to read, studying math seemed to have no purpose other than to give me massive headaches and shattered nerves. The alphabet was a wonderful code that, when deciphered, entertained me with stories and revealed all kinds of secrets about the world. Multiplication tables, on the other hand, just told me how much six times nine was. There was no joy in knowing that. Although even in third grade I understood that I shared with many other students a terrible fear and hatred of mathematics, I drew little comfort from that fact. Since then, I have struggled with math for a number of reasons. I especially began to hate math when Sister Celine forced us to participate in her sadistic counting contests. Having ordered us to stand in rows, side by side, this jolly nun would shout problems at us: "Forty-eight divided by three? . . . Nine times twelve? . . . Three times eight divided by two?" The students who called out the correct answers fastest would win; those of us who answered wrong or not at all would have to sit down. To be honest, losing never bothered me that much. Rather, it was that feeling in the pit of my stomach before and right after she called out the numbers. You know, that awful math feeling. Not only did mathematics seem irrelevant and dull, it also became forever associated in my mind with speed and competition. During the counting contests, I would deliberately give an incorrect answer early on so that I could escape the game quickly. As I grew older, math grew worse, like a persistent headache that makes you want to scream to relieve the pain. Negative numbers, I thought, were simply insane. You either have some or none, I figured--not negative some. Patiently, my older brother would try to talk me through the steps when helping me with my homework. Oh, eventually I would puzzle things out (long after the rest of the class had moved on to something else), but I never understood the point of the game. My teachers were always too busy droning out formulas to explain how and why any of these calculations mattered. Who on earth cared about determining the departure times of trains or figuring how long it would take Arthur to walk to the playground? Constantly frustrated by the sheer meaninglessness of it all, I even grew to hate the people and places mentioned in word problems: I imagined trains crashing in the dead of night and little Arthur becoming hopelessly lost on his way home from the playground.

After years of hating math and only barely passing my classes, I started to compound my difficulties in high school by skipping homework. With geometry, of course, that means death. My teachers would punish me by making me stay after school to do--what else?-17

more math problems. In anger and frustration, I broke pencils and tore paper as I dutifully filled page after page with utterly meaningless calculations. Not surprisingly, I came to associate math with nothing more nor less than pain and heartless punishment. In my recurring nightmares, my head was fractured by fractions and crushed by multiplication signs. Though I'm through with math classes now and carry a calculator in my purse, math still has a way of making me queasy. It's not that I can't do the math; it's just that it is math. Recently, however, a strange thing thing has happened. On a whim the other day, I bought a book called Mathematics for People Who Hate Math, and even though parts of it seem to have been written in a foreign language, I've actually been enjoying the book. In architecture and engineering, in physics and electronics, even in art and music, mathematics does have a purpose and a meaning. Like the letters of the alphabet, numerical signs can tell stories and reveal secrets about the world. Now, without sadistic teachers conducting drills or staging competitions, I think I might even enjoy learning more about math--on my own terms, at my own pace. But don't you dare throw any problems at me when I'm not looking, because I still get that feeling in my stomach sometimes.

PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS Time Order

Discussion of events or ideas in relation to passing time

Simple Listing-Process

Emphasis on the order in which something occurs

Definition

Emphasis on the meaning of a word, phrase, or idea

means, can be defined as, the same as, like

Statement & Clarification

Statement of fact wit h discussion intended to make that statement clear Analysis of where events, ideas, or facts fit in with other events, ideas, and facts

words, obviously, of course, too

Classification

Summary

Comparison

Contrast

Generalization & Example

Cause and Effect

Condensed statement of the principal points in a larger statement or idea Discussion of similarities in two or more ideas, events, or things Discussion of the differences in two or more ideas, events, or things

Statement with examples designed to illustrate or clarify the statement A reason or condition and the subsequent effect or conclusion

Addition

Emphasis on providing more information

Location—Spatial Order

Emphasis on whereabouts of a thing or things

after, afterward, at last, at that time, before, during, immediately, now, presently, shortly, since, until, while next, then, first, second, finally

category, field, rank, group, various, elements, characteristics, some feature, types, parts in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to sum up, to summarize also, likewise, in like manner, similarly, similar to, compared to although, however, but, conversely, nevertheless, yet, on the contrary, on one hand, on the other hand, at the same time… for examples, for instance, that is, thus, to illustrate, as demonstrated accordingly, affect, as a result, and, because, consequently, hence in short, may be due to, reasons, results, then, therefore, thus again, also, and besides, equally , important, finally, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover Above, adjacent to, below, beyond, then, close by, elsewhere, inside, nearby, next to, opposite, within, without, behind, in front of, to left…

KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS DISCUSS: A general instruction that means “write about.” If the question says “discuss,” look for other key terms to focus your response. DESCRIBE: Give sensory details or particulars about a topic. Often, however, this general information simply means “discuss.” ANALYZE: Divide a topic into its parts and show how the parts are related to each other and to the topic as a whole. SYNTHESIZE: Show how the parts relate to the whole or how the parts make sense together. EXPLAIN: Show relationships between specific examples and general principles. Explain what (define), explain why (causes/effects), and/or explain how (analyze process). DEFINE: Explain what something is. As appropriate, give a formal definition, describe it, analyze its parts or function, describe what it is not, and/or compare and contrast it with similar events or idea COMPARE: Explain similarities and (often) differences. Draw conclusions from the observed similarities and differences. CONTRAST: Explain key differences. Draw conclusions from the observed differences ILLUSTRATE: Provide specific examples of an idea or process. TRACE: Give the sequence or chronological order of key events or ideas. EVALUATE: Determine the value or worth of an idea, thing, process, person, or event. Set up criteria and provide evidence to support your judgments. SOLVE: Explain your solution; show how it fixes the problem, why it is better than other alternatives, and why it is feasible. ARGUE: Present both sides of a controversial issue, showing why the opposing position should not be believed or accepted and why your position should be accepted. Give evidence to support your position. INTERPRET: Offer your understanding of the meaning and significance of an idea, event, person, process, or work of art. Support your understanding with specific examples or details.

RHETORICAL PRÉCIS FORMAT Sentence #1 will include the following:  Name of the author and (if possible: a phrase describing the credentials of the author)  The type (e.g. essay, lecture, research paper, etc.) and title of the work  The date, if available (inserted in parentheses)  A rhetorically accurate verb (such as “assert,” “argue,” “suggest,” “imply,” “claim,” etc.) that describeswhat the author is doing in the text  A THAT clause in which you state the major assertion (thesis statement) of the author’s text Sentence #2 will include the following:  An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the thesis (such as by comparing and contrasting, narrating, illustrating, defining, etc.)  Present your explanation in the same chronological order that the items of support are presented by the author in the text Sentence #3 will include the following:  A statement of the author’s purpose  Followed by an IN ORDER TO clause in which you explain what the author wants the audience to do or feel as a result of reading the work Sentence #4 will include the following:  A description of the intended audience  A description of the tone the author uses RHETORICAL PRÉCIS FRAME , (author’s first and last name)

, (appositive stating author’s credentials)

in his/her

, argues that

(type of text) (title) (date) .

He/she supports the claim by first

then

, and finally

’s purpose is to (author’s last name)

(what the author does in the text) in order to .

(what the author wants the audience to do after reading the text) He/she adopts a(n) for

(and/but) .

(intended audience)

tone

TONE WORDS Students sometimes feel vaguely the correct attitude toward what they are reading, but are unstable to clarify and intensify the mood because they lack vocabulary adequate to describe. Here is a list of attitudes, which should prove helpful when trying to identify tone in a piece of writing.

Attitudes chiefly rational: Explanatory, instructive, didactic, admonitory, condemnatory, indignant, puzzled, curious, wistful, pensive, thoughtful, preoccupied, deliberate, studied, candid, guileless, thoughtless, innocent, frank, sincere, questioning, uncertain, doubting, incredulous, critical, insinuating, persuading, coaxing, pleading, persuasive, argumentative, authoritative Attitudes of pleasure: Peaceful, satisfied, contented, happy, cheerful, pleasant, bright, sprightly, joyful, playful, jubilant, elated, enraptured Attitudes of pain: Worried, uneasy, troubled, disappointed, regretful, vexed, annoyed, bored, disgusted, miserable, cheerless, mournful, sorrowful, sad, dismal, melancholy, plaintive, fretful, querulous, irritable, sore, sour, sulky, sullen, bitter, crushed, pathetic, tragic Attitudes of Passion: Nervous, hysterical, impulsive, impetuous, reckless, desperate, frantic, wild, fierce, furious, savage, enraged, angry, hungry, greedy, jealous, insane Attitudes of self-control: Calm, quiet, solemn, serious, serene, simple, mild, gentle, temperate, imperturbable, nonchalant cool, wary, cautious Attitudes of friendliness: Cordial, sociable, gracious, kindly, sympathetic, compassionate, forgiving, pitying, indulgent, tolerant, comforting, soothing, tender, loving, caressing, solicitous, accommodating, approving, helpful, obliging, courteous, polite, confiding, trusting Attitudes of unfriendliness: Sharp, severe, cutting, hateful, unsociable, spiteful, harsh, boorish, pitiless, disparaging, derisive, scornful, satiric, sarcastic, insolent, insulting, impudent, belittling, contemptuous, accusing, reproving, scolding, suspicious Attitudes of comedy: Facetious, comic, ironic, satiric, amused, mocking, playful, humorous, hilarious, uproarious Attitudes of animation :Lively, eager, excited, earnest, energetic, vigorous, hearty, ardent, passionate, rapturous, ecstatic, feverish, inspired, exalted, breathless, hasty, brisk, crisp, hopeful Attitudes of apathy: Inert, sluggish, languid, dull, dispassionate, colorless, indifferent, stoic, resigned, defeated, helpless, hopeless, dry, monotonous, vacant, feeble, dreaming, bored, blasĂŠ, sophisticated Attitudes of self importance: Impressive, profound, proud, dignified, lofty, imperious, confident, egotistical, peremptory, bombastic, sententious, arrogant, pompous, stiff, boastful, exultant, insolent, domineering, flippant, saucy, positive, resolute, haughty, condescending, challenging, bold, defiant, contemptuous, assured, knowing Attitudes of submission and timidity: Meek, shy, humble, docile, ashamed, modest, timid, unpretentious, respectful, devout, reverent, servile, obsequious, groveling, contrite, obedient, willing, fawning, ingratiating, deprecatory, submissive, frightened, surprised, horrified, aghast, astonished, alarmed, fearful, terrified, trembling, wondering, awed, astounded, shocked 23

SOME MORE TIPS ON TONE Tone reveals the attitude the writer has toward a subject. Word choice (Diction) and syntax allow a writer to vary the way the audience understands and responds to the feelings the writer incorporates in the passage. Consistency of tone is how a writer creates unity within a piece. When analyzing tone you are analyzing the writing the way you would a speaker’s voice. EXAMPLES: Read the following murder confessions and try to pick out what the writer used to convey the corresponding tone. “I just shot my husband five times in the chest with his Tek9” TONE: matter-of-fact, objective “How could I ever have killed him? It just isn’t possible.” TONE: shocked, disbelief “I’ve murdered my husband. How can I ever be forgiven for this dreadful act?” TONE: remorseful, regretful “That dirty rat. He’s had it coming for years. I’m glad I finally did it.” TONE: revengeful, triumphant When analyzing tone the basic elements can be analyzed using the LIDDS acronym. Language overall use of language, such as formal, informal, jargon, etc. I mages vivid appeals to understanding through senses (metaphor, simile, etc.) Diction the connotation of word choice Details facts that are included or those omitted for a purpose Syntax how structure affects the reader’s attitude

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

# Rule Being Consistent 1. Use correct verb tenses

Incorrect

Correct

After he broke his arm, he is home for a week.

If you are tense, he should try to relax. She skis, plays tennis, and flying kites. Anna and Sarah want to be a pilot There is eight people here.

After he broke his arm, he was home for a week. If you are tense, you should try to relax. She skis, plays tennis, and flies kites. Anna and Sarah want to be pilots. There are eight people here.

Avoid shift of pronoun person Parallelism

Noun Number Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement

Being Clear and Precise 6. Coordination and Subordination

Nancy has a rash, and she is probably allergic to something. Harry grew more vegetables than his neighbor’s garden. Barking loudly, the tree had the dog’s leash wrapped around it. In the newspaper, they report that few people voted.

Logical comparison

Modification and word order

Ambiguous and vague pronouns

10.

Diction

This event is unparalyzed in the world’s history.

11.

Wordiness

12.

Missing subjects

13.

Weak passive verbs

There are many problems in the contemporary world in which we live. If your car is parked here while not eating in the restaurant, it will be towed away. When you bake a cake, the oven should be preheated.

Following Conventions 14. Adjective and adverb

His friends agree that he 25

Nancy has a rash, so she is probably allergic to something. Harry grew more vegetables than his neighbor. The barking dog’s leash was wrapped around the tree. The author of the newspaper article reported that few people voted. This event is unparalleled in the world’s history. There are many problems in the contemporary world. If your car is parked here while you are not eating in the restaurant, it will be towed away. When you bake a cake, you should preheat the oven.

His friends agree that he

15.

confusion Double Negative

16.

Pronoun case

17.

18.

Idiom, Colloquialism, Jargon, Clichés, and Slang. Comparison of modifiers

19.

Sentence Fragments

Having to go home early.

Run-on sentences: Comma splice or fused sentence Misc. Grammar Rules 21. Spells words correctly and proofread carefully! 22. Avoid overly long sentences 23. Follow all rules of comma use, including using serial commas. 24. Indicate plurals correctly

Mary enjoys crossword puzzles, she works on one every day.

Of the sixteen executives, Meg makes the most money. Having to go home early was no fun. Mary enjoys crossword puzzles. She works on one every day.

The mother needed to buy fruit eggs milk and cereal at the store. The two girl’s had a lot of fun. The mans favorite movie was on TV.

The mother needed to buy fruit, eggs, milk, and cereal at the store. The two girls had a lot of fun. The man’s favorite movie was on TV.

The woman that won the race was overjoyed. She had only 50 facebook friends.

The woman who won the race was overjoyed. She had only fifty facebook friends.

20.

25. 26.

27.

28. 29. Style 30. 31. 32.

Indicate possessives correctly Use articles (a, an, the) correctly. “The” is used from specific references. “An” and “a” are used from general references. Use these words correctly: to, too, two; there, their, they’re; its, it’s; your, you’re; then, than; who’s, whose; which, witch; whether, weather. Use “that” for things and “who” for people. Spell out numbers under 100

drives too reckless. Manuel has scarcely no free time. He sat between you and I at the theater. Natalie had a different opinion toward her.

drives recklessly. Manuel has scarcely any free time. He sat between you and me at the theater. Natalie had a different opinion of her.

Of the sixteen executives, Meg makes more money.

Awkward sentence; rewrite for clarity. Redundant When not writing in the narrative mode, write in the third person; do not 26

use “I,” “we,” or “you” statements. MLA Format 33. Use the MLA formal, four-line heading, 12 pt Times New Roman font, and double spacing for all work you submit. Make sure to properly indent paragraphs and use one inch margins all around. 34. Give all your essays titles that meaningfully reflect their thesis—do NOT underline, boldface, italicize or change font. 35. Follow MLA style for in-text citations. 36. Use block indentation and set off with colons for quotes that are more than four lines long, but use such long quotes rarely. 37. Punctuation, such as commas and periods, go inside a title or phrase in quotations marks, if the title or phrase is not immediately followed by a parenthetical citation. 38. Titles of short works, such as poems, short stories, essays, songs, and articles are placed in quotation marks. 39. Titles of long works, such as novels, websites, and collections of poetry, stories, and essays are italicized when typed and underlined when handwritten.. Writing Development 40 Include a well-developed introduction with a clear thesis statement that responds completely to the prompt. 41. Include a clear topic sentence for every paragraph; each paragraph should focus on one idea. 42. Provide evidence for every idea you present. 43. a. Introduce the context of quotes and paraphrases before using them. b. Use a proper signal phrase (he writes, she argues, etc). Never leave a quote alone in a sentence! c. Always follow up the quote with your explanation and analysis. Never end a paragraph with a quote! d. Set off short quotes with a comma and long quotes with a colon; set off paraphrases with “that” 44. Avoid generalities; use concrete and specific details, explanations, and examples. 45. Transition needed 46. Put sentences in a better order for flow of ideas. 47. Needs more development Misc. Add-ons 48. DO NOT refer to authors only by their first names; give first and last names the first time you refer to them and last name only after that. 49. DO NOT refer to “the reader,” “the audience,” or other terms for the reader. 50. DO NOT refer to “this quote” 51. DO NOT use the phrase “paints a picture in the reader’s mind.” When writing about imagery, discuss the effect of the imagery: how it appeals to the senses and enhances understanding. 52. Form a dash by joining two hypens (- -) 53. Use a hyphen to join compounds (-) 54. Do not use contractions in formal papers. 55. This information is incorrect. Please refer back to your book. 27

56.

57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

Include a well-developed introduction that clearly summarizes your paper and restates any important points. Never introduce new information in your conclusion. Make sure your quote clearly supports your point. Follow all MLA rules for your works cited page, including hanging indent, alphabetizing and use of correct citations. When writing about literature, use the universal present tense. No extra spaces between paragraphs. Avoid starting paragraphs with first, second, third, lastly, finally, in conclusion, etc. Make sure to introduce new sources correctly. Always give the title and author of a new source! Follow all punctuation rules, including capitalization rules. Avoid unnecessary statements such as “this essay will discuss” or “the final point to be discussed” etc.

WRITING VOCABULARY Thesis (ALSO KNOWN AS CLAIM) main idea of an essay, states a provable point; usually appears as the last sentence of the opening paragraph ex. Sophocles uses the images of sight, especially the dual images of darkness and light, to show the developing self-awareness of the main character Oedipus. Hook: an optional opening sentence before the topic sentence that captures the reader's attention and provides the hook for the information to follow ex. Oedipus is a character shrouded in darkness. Topic Sentence: main idea of a paragraph follows patterns established by the thesis; everything in a paragraph relates to the topic sentence; traditionally the first sentence in the paragraph but can appear anywhere ex. The image of darkness is prominent in the first two episodes of Oedipus Rex during the period when the main character is in the dark about his own identity. Supporting Statement: reasons that the writer believes the topic sentence is true; each supporting statement is related to the topic sentence ex. One way Oedipus is in the dark is that he does not know that he is actually the murderer he is looking for. Concrete Illustration: details (quotes, paraphrases, summaries of events) that illustrate the previous supporting statement; the concrete illustrations illustrate the supporting statements 28

ex. Oedipus tells Tiresias "Blind,/lost in the night, endless night that nursed you! You can't hurt me or anyone else who sees the light--/you can never touch me" (425-428). Explanation/Elaboration: a sentence that explains the meaning or relevance of the concrete illustration ex. Tiresias points out that it is the insults like these Oedipus flings that soon will be aimed at him because Oedipus is actually the one "lost in the night." Concluding Sentence: a clincher that provides closure to the paragraph, usually links back to the hook of the opening sentence and provides transition to the next main idea ex. Oedipus eventually comes out of his dark shroud and enters the light, only too late.

FIVE TYPES OF CLAIMS Claims can be categorized into five types, though there will obviously be instances of overlap and confusion. Analyzing the nature of the claim helps both with understanding its implications and the best approach to refute it. CLAIMS OF FACT Claims of fact center on debates about subjects we believe to be objectively true or untrue. These types of claims should be empirically disputable. Examples include:

  

Global warming is a human‐caused phenomenon. Women are as effective as men in combat. The 1950s were a time of racial and gender harmony in the United States.

CLAIMS OF DEFINITION Claims of definition center on the meaning, composition or classification of things. Examples include:

  

Alcoholism is a disease, not a vice. The detainees at Guantanamo are prisoners of war. The death penalty violates the 8th Amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.

CLAIMS OF CAUSE Claims of cause deal with the causes and effects of events. They analyze questions like “what led to this?” and “what are the likely results of this event?” Examples include:

 

The economic boom of the Clinton Presidency was caused by skillful decision‐making during the Reagan Administration. Easy access to the Internet has made plagiarism inevitable.

CLAIMS OF VALUE Claims of value evaluate the inherent goodness or morality of an event and the value systems by which we should make decisions. Examples include:

  

Euthanasia is an affront to God. The dancing that occurs in high schools leads to immoral behavior. Democracies are the only legitimate form of government.

CLAIMS OF POLICY Claims of policy address the course of action we should take, the policies we should adopt, and the way that we attempt to solve problems. Examples include: 30

  

The state of Texas should secede from the United States. The United States should adopt a Canadian‐style universal healthcare system. We should dismantle prisons and spend our resources on education.

SAMPLE CLAIMS [Adapted from R. Gass, CSU‐Fullerton]

Allowing faith‐based organizations to distribute federal dollars to provide social services violates the doctrine of separation of church and state. This is a value Claim: Whether a given act violates the constitution or not is a matter of opinion. Once the Supreme Court issues a ruling, their ruling is a fact, but their decision itself still represents the opinion of the

The proliferation of violent video games in American society has undermined the family structure. This is a claim of causation: the speaker is asserting that video games have damaged families.

The First Amendment includes the right to burn the American flag. This is a claim of definition: the speaker is defining the limits of the First Amendment.

You should never give your social security number, or a telephone number to any telephone solicitor who has called you. You have no way of knowing if the person is really who he/she claims to be. This is a policy claim: The arguer is recommending a specific course of action.

James Earl Ray did not kill Dr. Martin Luther King. Even Dr. King’s own family members now agree he was not the assassin. This is a factual claim: Either Ray either did or did not pull the trigger. Whether he is/was guilty of “murder,” however, is a judgment call.

Scary Movie 3 was scarier than Psycho, The Exorcist, or The Blair Witch Project. This is a value claim: Whether a movie is good or bad, better or worse, is a matter of opinion.

You should never give baby aspirin to an infant with a fever. The use of aspirin has been linked to Reye’s syndrome, a potentially fatal disease, which can afflict infants following exposure to the flu or chicken pox. This is a policy claim: the arguer is recommending against a specific course of action.

Tinky Winky, the purple Teletubby, is gay, as evidenced by the fact that he has a boy’s voice, but carries a purse.” This is a value claim: This represents the opinion of televangelist Jerry Falwell.

Public schools should be permitted to segregate instruction for boys and girls. 31

Studies show girls do better in math and science when they are in segregated classes. This is a policy claim: The arguer is advocating a specific course of action. It also presents a debatable fact claim.

The Soviet Union collapsed because the United States forced its enemy to spend itself into oblivion. This is a claim of causation.

SECTION 2 | GRAMMAR USAGE AND PUNCTUATION COMMON WRITING ERRORS SENTENCE FRAGMENT – A group of words used as a sentence; however, it is not a sentence because it lacks a subject, verb, or some other essential part. EX: Because she studied at a conservatory. (This is a fragment because it does not make a complete thought.) Because she studied at a conservatory, she had a thorough understanding of classical music. COMMA SPLICE – A mistake made when two independent clauses are connected (‘spliced’) with only a coma. The comma is not enough: a period, semicolon, or conjunction is needed. EX: Fighting looks like play, it teaches cubs important survival skills. Fighting looks like play, but it teaches cubs important survival skills. RUN-ON SENTENCES – This is actually two sentences joined without adequate punctuation or a connecting word. You could use a comma and a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period – you may also add a transition word. EX: Weather is one cause of famine political strife is another cause. Weather is one cause of famine; political strife is another cause. (Note that the semicolon was used) COMMA OMISSION AFTER A LONG INTRODUCTORY PHRASE – A comma should separate an adverb clause or a long modifying phrase from the independent clause that follows. EX: Considering all of the incredible hype the show was a disappointment. 32

Considering all of the incredible hype, the show was a disappointment. (Note that the comma was added after the word hype, which was the end of the introductory clause)\ COMMA OMISSION IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE – A comma may be used between two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction such as these: and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet. EX: The first customer came before dawn and the last one left after midnight. The first customer came before dawn, and the last one left after midnight. (Note that a comma was added before the conjunction and) PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT ERROR – The pronoun must agree in number, person, and gender with its antecedent. EX: Each candidate should report all of their income. Each candidate should report all of his or her income. SHIFT IN PERSON – This is a change in the structure or style midway through a sentence. EX: When people have heart attacks, you experience pain in the left arm. When people have heart attacks, they experience pain in the left arm. SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT ERROR – The subject and verb of any clause must agree in both person and number. EX: The problem with the new facilities are the ventilation. The problem with the new facilities is the ventilation. SHIFT IN VERB TENSE – This is the same as shift in person – you should make sure that you do not change the structure or style midway through a sentence. EX: After the trustees met, we are allowed to ask questions. After the trustees met, we were allowed to ask questions. DANGLING MODIFIER – These are modifiers that appear to modify the wrong word or a word that is not in the sentence. 33

EX: After studying so long, the exam was a snap. After studying so long, I found the exam was a snap.

COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

CONFUSING CONTRACTIONS it’s (it is)

its (of it)

they’re (they are)

their (of them) there (at that place)

who’s (who is)

whose (of whom)

you’re (you are)

your (of you)

ONE-WORD OR TWO-WORD PAIRS

all ready (completely prepared)

already (previously)

all together (all in one place) methods)

altogether (thoroughly) all ways (all always (at all times)

a lot (a large amount)

allot (distribute, assign)

every day (each day)

everyday (ordinary)

may be (could be)

maybe (perhaps)

some time (an amount of time)

sometime (at some unspecified time)

WORDS WITH SIMILAR S PELLINGS

advice (noun)

advise (verb)

breath (noun)

breathe (verb)

chose (past tense)

choose (present tense)

cloths (fabrics)

clothes (garments)

device (noun)

devise (verb)

envelope (noun)

envelop (verb)

human (of people)

humane (merciful)

later (after more time)

latter (in final position)

prophecy (noun)

prophesy (verb)

OTHER CONFUSABLES

good (adjective)

well (adverb)

may (asking permission)

can (have the ability)

bring (moving toward)

take (to carry off)

fewer (something you can count)

less (something you canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t count)

lay (to place)

lie (to recline or tell an untruth)

sit (to rest the body)

set (to place something) which or that (one of several things) who (what person) who (subjects) whom (objects)

SIMILAR-SOUNDING WORDS (AKA HOMONYMS) accept (receive)

except (leave out)

affect (influence, verb)

effect (result, noun)

allowed (permitted)

aloud (clearly heard)

ate (past tense of eat)

eight (the number)

break (smash, split)

brake (stopping device)

by (preposition)

buy (purchase)

capital (city, wealth)

capitol (building)

cite (mention)

sight (vision)

coarse (rough)

course (way or path)

complement (make complete)

compliment (praise)

conscience (moral judgment)

conscious (aware)

council (committee)

counsel (advice, adviser)

desert (dry land)

dessert (sweet food)

do (to act)

dew (moisture)

due (deadline)

dual (having two parts)

duel (fight)

dye (color)

die (perish)

faze (disturb, bother)

phase (stage)

for (preposition)

four (number)

forth (forward)

fourth (comes after third)

hear (perceive)

here (in this place)

heard (perceived)

herd (group)

heroin (drug)

heroine (principal character)

hole (opening)

whole (entire) 36

knot (twist)

not (negative)

know (be aware)

no (opposite of yes)

knows (be aware)

nose (part of face)

lead (metal)

led (guided)

loose (free, united)

lose (misplace, fail to win)

meat (food)

meet (encounter)

metal (element)

medal (award)

miner (excavator)

minor (young person)

one (less than two)

won (to acquire)

passed (went by)

past (earlier time)

peace (absence of war)

piece (part, portion)

plain (simple)

plane (flat surface)

poor (not rich)

pour (liquids)

pore (opening in skin)

quit (stop)

principal (chief person, sum) quite (really, positively)

principle (rule) quiet (silent) rain (precipitation)

reign (rule, authority)

read (process words)

red (color)

right (proper)

rite (ritual)

road (path) scene (stage, setting)

rowed (a boat)

write (put pen to paper)

rode (past tense of ride) seen (perceived)

sense (perception)

since (from that time)

stationary (not moving)

stationery (writing paper)

straight (not curved)

strait (narrow place)

than (word of comparison)

then (at that time)

threw (past tense of throw)

through (by way of)

to (in the direction of) two (number)

too (also)

waist (center of body)

waste (squander)

weak (feeble)

week (seven days)

wear (carry on the body)

where (in what place)

weather (atmospheric conditions)

whether (if, in case)

which (what one)

witch (sorceress)

GUIDE TO FORMAL ACADEMIC VOICE There are many different ways to write and speak, just as there are many different ways to dress. An outfit that is appropriate for jogging would probably not be suitable for prom. A job interview requires different attire than an afternoon with friends. Likewise, a certain type of language usage is appropriate for formal settings like academic or business writing, and it may be different that the way language is spoken casually. These suggestions will help check for characteristics of formal writing. The goal of formal writing is not to “sound” smart. The goal of formal writing is to communicate complex ideas clearly and effectively. Do not use the first and second person

Use the third person only.

Both first person (“I”/”me”/”we”) and second person (“you”) are inappropriate.

Speak about authors and characters in the third person (“he”/”she”). It is sometimes acceptable to use “one,” but it is often better to re-write sentences and refer only to specific, identifiable individuals.

Example with error: I believe Jim Casy, the preacher in The Grapes of Wrath, is a Christ figure. You may wonder what type of characters Cal and Aron represent.

Revision: Jim Casy, the preacher in The Grapes of Wrath, is a Christ figure. Cal and Aron in East of Eden represent the archetypal sibling rivals.

Do not use the past-tense for criticism or analysis.

Use the present tense for discussion of literature.

While references to specific historical events may require occasional past-tense, most literary criticism will not involve any past-tense phrasing.

Analysis of how literature “works” or what occurs in the text should be in present tense. These works are being read and analyzed now!

Example with error:

Revision:

The scarlet letter in Hawthorne’s novel represented shame at the beginning, then shifted meanings as Hester started to accept her identity.

The scarlet letter in Hawthorne’s novel represents shame at the beginning, then shifts meaning as Hester starts to accept her identity.

Do not use colloquial and slang expressions.

Use standard, formal English.

Colloquial diction is informal language used in everyday speech and includes such words as "guys," "yeah," "stuff," "kind of," "okay," and "big deal." Slang is also included, as non-standard expressions may not be easily recognized by all readers.

Standard English is the form of usage taught in schools, meaning it is widely understood. Only standard English terms and expressions should be used in formal writing. Revision:

Example with error: Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of The Catcher in the Rye, is kind of shady.

Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of The Catcher in the Rye, is a cynical teenager who believes the world is full of hypocrites.

Do not use contractions or shortened versions of words. Contractions, shortened versions of words, and low numbers in numerical form (except years) should be avoided.

Use complete words. Spell out words and numbers completely. Revision: Photographs cannot be taken without permission.

Example with error: Photos can’t be taken without permission. Do not use all short, simple sentences.

Use a variety of sentence lengths and types.

Too many short and simple sentences can make an essay sound informal, as if the writer does not recognize that the audience is capable of reading and understanding more complex and longer sentences. Sentences that begin with the same word repeatedly are redundant.

A variety of sentence lengths and types reflects a mastery of writing and allows the author to balance complex analysis with strong, focused points.

Example with error: The American dream is an important motif in American literature. The American dream is rarely realized in American literature. The motif of the American dream can be seen in the novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Steinbeck. The Great Gatsby is from the perspective of the wealthy. The Grapes of Wrath is from the perspective of the poor.

Revision: Reflecting the perspectives of both rich and poor American characters, novels by F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Steinbeck demonstrate characters rarely attain the American dream.

Do not use broad, vague or ambiguous language.

Use precise, effective, and confident language.

Avoid phrases like “quite,” “very,” “a lot” or “in many ways,” which tend to be meaningless qualifiers. Also avoid “there is” or “it is” constructions which make the subject unclear.

Be as specific as possible and construct sentences so the subject is clearly stated. Rather than generalizations, make clear, interpretative statements.

Example with error: It is sad that Tom Joad has to leave his very sad mother to go on the run from murder charges. There is a lot of hope when Tom says, “I’ll be all around in the dark – I’ll be everywhere. Wherever you can look – wherever there’s a fight, so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever there’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be there.’

Revision: Tom Joad runs away from his forlorn mother to escape murder charges. Tom leaves his mother with hope, saying “I’ll be all around in the dark – I’ll be everywhere. Wherever you can look – wherever there’s a fight, so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever there’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be there.”

Do not use unnecessarily wordy or pretentious language. Remove verbal “padding.” This does not mean to avoid sophisticated diction. The most appropriate word should be used regardless of length or “level.” Example with error:

Use clear, concise language. Formal writing does not “sound” smart. It is smart when author chooses the best possible word to express her meaning in clear, concise terms. Words that are big, showy, or evasive should be replaced with more direct phrasing. Revision:

To truly recognize the complexity of Gatsby’s character, one must carefully observe his myriad of foils and their unique patterns of behavior which contrast strikingly with his own.

Gatsby’s behavior can be compared to his three foils: Nick, Tom, and George.

Do not offer meaningless value judgments.

Use analysis to support specific conclusions.

Analysis does mean expressing a preference or a guess about a work of literature, so it is usually unnecessary express an opinion

Literary analysis looks closely at textual evidence to explain key ideas present in the work.

Example with error: Thoreau is quite correct when he observes that all lives come to an end, but he is too emotional about nature. Do not make broad generalizations that oversimplify a complex period, author, topic, or idea.

evision: Thoreau draws comfort from nature to reconcile himself to the reality that all lives end.

Use necessary information about your particular topic.

Analytical writing uses correct, precise, and relevant Most blanket statements are so broad that they either information, even in introductory sentences. provide no useful information (“Many scholars believe…”) or are simply false (“Througout history…”) Example with error: Throughout history women have been marginalized and treated like they are less than men, but this is not true of Janie Starks.

Do not use the passive voice when it can be avoided. In passive voice, the action of a sentence is not carried out by the subject, and a compound verb phrase is created. Overuse of passive voice weakens the impact of writing and can be unnecessarily wordy.

Revision: Writing in the wake of the women’s suffrage movement and opening of educational opportunities to black women in the Harlem Renaissance, Zora Neale Hurston presents Janie Starks as a dynamic, independent woman who is still criticized by the more traditional women on her community. Use the active voice and action verbs whenever possible. Replacing passive voice with strong, active verbs and subjects often requires re-writing the sentence, but encourages specific wording and a focused tone.

Example with error:

Revision:

Social conventions are broken by Janie when she wears overalls and braids her hair.

Janie breaks social conventions by wearing overalls instead of dresses and by braiding her hair instead of straightening it.

Do not overuse “be” verbs.

Use strong action verbs.

Overuse of “be” verbs (“is”/”are”/”were”) weakens the

Action verbs carry weight and convey tone more

tone of formal writing.

effectively than “be” verbs.

Example with error:

Revision:

Vergible “Teacake” Woods is very fun-loving. Janie is attracted to his energy and willingness to make her equal.

Teacake attracts Janie with his fun-loving energy and willingness to treat Janie as his equal.

Do not “say what you will say” or explain that you are

Go directly to analysis.

explaining.

It is assumed that essays are interpretive and analytical, and this fact will be self-evident in the strongest writing. Effective writers do not need to state what they are doing because they are busy doing it!

It is unnecessary to state when analysis is occurring, and this phrasing is clumsy. Examples with error: This essay will prove that Holden is never truly mad, but enacting a deliberate performance of madness in the hospital.

Revision: Holden is never truly mad, but enacting a deliberate performance of madness in the hospital.

My writing is appropriate for academic contexts because… It is technically correct. There are no distracting errors or casual expressions that make it difficult for my audience to focus on my ideas. I am here to inform, not fill a page. Every sentence is necessary and develops my argument. I am here to inform, not to show-off. The most specific words I can because they express exactly what I mean, but I NEVER use “fancy” or wordy phrases that I think “sound” like smart writing. I am here to inform, not to entertain. I am never sarcastic or silly, and I never use slang. I re-read my writing and ask myself “How can I make it easier for my reader to understand what I mean? What else do they need to know to follow my ideas? Is this the best way to present my information?”

Many of these revisions reflect more than a single, simplistic change. Formal writing requires consistent awareness of diction, syntax, and purpose. The best formal writing is produced by conscious, thoughtful authors who take revision seriously and are attentive to both voice and content at all stages in the writing process.

USING FORMAL VOICE: AN OVERUSED WORD FUNERAL

Some words just should not be in a formal paper. Today, we are going to pay tribute to their little word lives and then bury them. Here they are: NEVER AGAIN use the following in your formal writing. Points will be deducted! Don’t Use These Words!

Why?

I We

First person pronouns add subjectivity to formal analysis. Avoid them.

Me Our

My Us

Mine

I think . . . I feel . . . I believe . . . In life . . . In my opinion . . .

These kinds of phrases are slow wind-ups that weaken the point of a sentence. The sentence will probably be stronger without them.

You Your Yours

Second person pronouns often tell the reader what he thinks. (“You can see that . . .”) This is inappropriate in formal analysis.

The reader . . .

This word is usually used to tell the reader what he thinks.

One

This word is usually used to try and get away with telling a reader what he thinks (“One can see that . . .” ). Just don’t.

Quote Essay Thesis Paragraph Book

Deliberate acknowledgement of the structure of your paper is artless. Especially distasteful is “This quote shows that . . .”

Couldn’t, shouldn’t, can’t, don’t, won’t, wouldn’t, isn’t, weren’t, wasn’t

Contractions are short cuts. Short cuts are not appropriate in formal writing.

Things, stuff

This diction is too casual for a formal paper.

This, it

IF USED ALONE AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE -- these words often create a pronoun antecedent error. (We can’t tell what “this” or “it” is.)

definitions

Don’t define literary terms. Assume the reader knows what they mean.

in today’s world in today’s society

Trite and overused; eliminate completely

The quote cannot do anything. The author of the quote is the one doing something.

There is There was There are There were This is

These phrases used at the beginnings of clauses or sentences are called expletives. They have no grammatical function in the sentence. Look for the real subject and verb after these phrases.

Very, really, totally, quite

Adding the adverbs very, really, totally before an adjective is a clear indicator to find a stronger adjective (ex. Very afraid=terrified; very big=immense; very large=colossal)

Due to the fact that

Using this phrase is a sure sign that your sentence is in trouble and wordy. Did you mean because? Due to is acceptable after a linking verb (The team's failure was due to illness among the stars.); otherwise, avoid it.

A lot, lots

“A lot” (referring to quantity) is always two words and often misspelled. Eliminate it entirely from your writing to avoid the mistake and be more precise. “Allot” (one word) means to give a portion or share.

Did you know? You can use Ctrl+F to search for each of these words. If you find one (that’s not in a quote) rewrite your sentence to take it out!

THE TWENTY SENTENCE PATTERNS adapted from The Art of Styling Sentences

COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIONS PATTERN 1: SV;SV Examples: He who knows others is wise; he who knows himself is enlightened. –Laotzu Note: no conjunction joining the two clauses PATTERN 1A: SV;HOWEVER,SV Examples: She exercised every day and cut back on her food; however, she didn’t lose any weight. PATTERN 1B: SV;SV, AND SV OR SV, BUT SV; SV Examples: The rain kept falling; Joan saw the roof begin to leak, and she put out a bucket to catch the water. I didn’t do it; John said he didn’t do it, but the vase was certainly broken. PATTERN 1C: SV;SV;SV Examples: John got an A; Jennie also got an A; unfortunately, George got a C. Dad is a skinflint; when I ask for a loan, he doesn’t listen; Mom isn’t any help either. PATTERN 2: SV DO OR SC; S OMITTED VERB, DO OR SC. Examples: The mother and son each had a goal; hers, educational; his, recreational. Lou Williams was in for adultery; John Jones for gambling. PATTERN 3: GENERAL STATEMENT (IDEA) : SPECIFIC STATEMENT (EXAMPLE). (AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) (AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) Examples: A lizard never worries about losing its tail: It can always grow another. Weekdays are very similar to identical suitcases: They are all the same size, but some people can pack more into them than others.

SENTENCES WITH SERIES PATTERN 4: A,B,C Examples: The United States has a government of the people, by the people, for the people. It took courage, skill, knowledge—and he had them all. I like big burgers with everything on ‘em: pickles, onions, tomato, lettuce, plenty of mustard. PATTERN 4A: A OR B OR C. (IN ANY PLACE IN THE SENTENCE)

A and B and C. (in any place in the sentence) Examples: Looking down from the Empire State Building, Jeannie felt thrilled and amazed—and scared.

As long as rivers shall run down to the sea, or touch the mountains, or stars graze in th vault of heaven, so long shall your honor, your name, praises endure.—Virgil (using pattern 4a for 1st series, pattern 54 for 2nd series)

PATTERN 5: A AND B, C AND D, E AND F. (May be in any slot in the sentence)

Examples: The textbook clearly showed the distinctions between prose and poetry, denotation and connotation, deduction and induction. PATTERN 6: APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE—SUMMARY WORD SV. ( Key summary words may be—such, all, those, this, many, each, which, what, these, something, someone. Sometimes this summary word will be the subject but other times it will merely modify the subject.)

Examples: The depressed, the stressed, the lonely, the fearful—all have trouble coping with problems. What it comes down to is this: the butcher, the baker, the merchant, the landlord, the druggist, the liquor dealer, the policeman, the doctor, the city father and the politician—these are the people who make money out of prostitution, these are the real reapers of sin. –Polly Adler PATTERN 7: S –OR ( APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE, APPOSITIVE –OR ) V S—OR( MODIFIER, MODIFIER, MODIFIER—OR ) V Examples: My favorite books—To Kill a Mockingbird, Jane Eyre, and Their Eyes Were Watching God—feature girls and women coming of age. The basic writing skills (good vocabulary, knowledge of grammar, sense of style) can be learned by almost everyone. PATTERN 7A: S -- OR ( OR , APPOSITIVE – OR ) OR , V Examples: The sudden burst of light—a camera flash—startled me. Many people (especially ecologists) say that we need to do something about global warming. The first man to walk on the moon, Neil Alden Armstrong, is a man the world will never forget. PATTERN 8: IF . . ., IF . . . , IF . . ., THEN SV. WHEN . . ., WHEN . . ., WHEN . . ., SV. SV THAT . . ., THAT. . ., THAT . . . . (omit the 3rd clause and have just 2, if you wish)

Examples: Because it may seem difficult at first, because it may sound awkward or forced, because it often creates lengthy sentences where the thought “gets lost,” this pattern seems forbidding to some writers, but it isn’t all that hard; try it.

REPETITIONS

Pattern 9: SV key term – or , repeated key term.

(use em-dash or comma before repetition)

Examples: We live in an uncertain world—the inner world, the world of the mind. The tree of knowledge will remain forever, as it was in the beginning, a tree to be desired to make one wise. --A.E. Houseman Note The repetition must be a phrase not a clause!!!!! Wrong: He was part of the older generation, his generation was born before the Depression.

Right: He was part of the older generation, a generation born before the Depression. PATTERN 9A: SV REPEATED KEY WORD IN SAME POSITION OF THE SENTENCE. Examples: Rodin’s The Thinker presents the perfect figure in the perfect pose. His greatest discoveries, his greatest successes, his greatest influence upon the world’s daily life came to Edison only after repeated failure. PATTERN 10: SV WORD: THE APPOSITIVE (THE SECOND NAMING). (with or without modifiers)

Examples: Her room contained a collection of trash: old clothes, soda cans, McDonald’s wrappers. Airport thieves have a common target: unwary travelers. Note: Check the words before the colon; be sure they make a complete sentence. PATTERN 10A: SV WORD – THE APPOSITIVE. (echoed idea or second naming)

Examples: Many traditional philosophies echo the ideas of Plato. E-mail is wonderful and so easy to send but also represents a major problem—answering it. Note: A second naming must be a true appositive; don’t just stick in a dash or a colon before you get to the end of the sentence. If you do, you may create an error in punctuation, not a true appositive. Example: Wrong: One class of teenagers can be labeled—students. Correct: One label would fit almost any teenager—student. Also note: A dash cannot separate two complete thoughts. Wrong: Mary Shelley spent a full year at Marlow writing Frankenstein—her monster has survived better than some of her husband’s poems. Correct: Mary Shelley spent a full year at Marlow writing Frankenstein—creating a monster that has survived better than some of her husband’s poem.

MODIFIERS PATTERN 11: S, MODIFER, V. S – MODIFER – V. S (MODIFIER THAT WHISPERS) V. Examples: A small drop of ink, falling (as Byron said) like dew upon a thought, can make millions think. Donuts and Danish pastries, popular breakfast foods, contain little nutrition. PATTERN 11A: S – A FULL SENTENCE—V. S ( A FULL SENTENCE) V. Examples: Juliet’s famous question—early in the balcony scene she asks, “Wherefore art thou Romeo?”—is often misunderstood; she meant not “where” but “why.” He leaped at the chance (too impetuously, I thought) to go whitewater rafting.

PATTERN 12: PARTICIPIAL PHRASE, SV. SV, PARTICIPIAL PHRASE. Examples: Expecting a spectacular display, the crowd eagerly awaited the fireworks. Note: Do not dangle participles! Wrong: Walking onto the stage, the spotlight followed the singer. PATTERN 13: MODIFIER, SV. (MODIFIER MAY BE IN OTHER POSITIONS) Examples: Below, the traffic looked like a necklace of ants.

INVERSIONS Note: Be careful when using inversions. It may lead to awkwardness. Inverting the natural order should always result in a graceful sentence, not one that seems forced or looks like a gimmick. PATTERN 14: PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE SV (OR VS). Examples: After a long pause, the teacher continued. From the mist emerged a figure playing a flute. Note: sometimes a comma is necessary after the prepositional phrase, sometimes not. The sound and meaning of your sentence will guide you. PATTERN 15: OBJECT OR SUBJECT COMPLEMENT SV. Examples: His kind of sarcasm I do not like. PATTERN 15A: OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT OR MODIFIER VS. Examples: Down the field and through the weeds pranced the little puppy. Never before have we had so little time to do so much. – FDR ASSORTMENT OF PATTERNS PATTERN 16: NOT ONLY SV, BUT ALSO SV. (ALSO MAY BE OMITTED) JUST AS SV, SO TOO SV. (MAY BE SO ALSO OR SIMPLY SO) THE MORE SV, THE MORE SV. (MAY ALSO BE LESS) THE FORMER SV, THE LATTER SV. IF NOT , AT LEAST . Examples: Reluctantly, every dieter looks for a favorable verdict from the bathroom scale; if not a pound less, at least not an ounce more. *Note: Remember these constructions come in pairs and that means “two.” Don’t give the reader a signal suggesting two items and then provide only one. Caution: Put both conjunctions of a pair in logical places so that what follows each one will be parallel. Wrong: The prisoner was not only found guilty of murder but also of robbery. (NO parallel verb here) Correct: The prisoner was found guilty not only of robbery but also of murder.

PATTERN 16A: A “THIS, NOT THAT” OR “NOT THIS, BUT THAT” CONSTRUCTION. Examples: For some hummingbirds, migration involves a much smaller range, measured in hundreds, not thousands, of miles. I believe that man will not merely endure; he will prevail. –William Faulkner PATTERN 17: S (DEPENDENT CLAUSE AS SUBJECT) V. SV [DEPENDENT CLAUSE AS OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT]. Examples: How he did that is still amazing to me. He finally finished what he had started over a year ago. Note: The dependent (or subordinate) clause can NEVER stand alone—it is only a portion of your sentence. PATTERN 18: ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION, SV. S, OR – OR ( ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION, OR – OR ) V. Examples: The snow having stopped, we were able to continue our journey. I want to go away to college (my parents willing) as soon as I graduate from high school. Note: An absolute construction uses a noun or pronoun plus a participle and has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence. PATTERN 19: SV. Examples: Jesus wept. –The Bible Make my day. Clint Eastwood Note: This pattern can provide intense clarity, but being brief alone will not make it dramatic. This pattern will be effective only when you use it after several long sentences. PATTERN 19A: (INTERROGATIVE WORD) AUXILIARY VERB SV? (INTERROGATIVE WORD STANDING ALONE) ? (QUESTION BASED SOLELY ON INTONATION) ? AUXILIARY VERB SV ? Examples: Can we get it? What if E.T. calls? Note: Avoid scattering these around because they are easy; make them serve some purpose. PATTERN 20: MERELY A PART OF A SENTENCE Examples: Fair enough. Absolute power corrupting once more. Note: If you are in the habit of writing fragments, don’t think you have mastered this pattern! Use it only as a deliberate styling device. Use sparingly & precisely.

BASIC PUNCTUATION RULES Source: Utah State University Writing Center Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some of the most critical punctuation rules. COMMAS Commas separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words, and they can clarify the meanings of sentences. Commas are used to separate three or more words or phrases in a series. EXAMPLE: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night. Commas are used after introductory words and introductory dependent clauses (groups of words before the subject of a sentence that do not form complete sentences). EXAMPLES: If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant. Incidentally, I was not late this morning. Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing. Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). EXAMPLE: My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath. Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses. EXAMPLE: The man, I think, had a funny laugh. Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night. END OF SENTENCE PUNCTUATION End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished. PERIODS A statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period. EXAMPLE: Orem is the home of Utah Valley University. Question Marks A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark. EXAMPLE: When did Joe buy a red shirt? Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect question. EXAMPLE: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt. EXCLAMATION POINTS An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point. EXAMPLE: What a good movie! Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate sentences or create an informal tone. EXAMPLE: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes influential painter; therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)

SEMICOLONS Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal emphasis. Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating conjunction is used. EXAMPLE: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly. Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the clauses of a compound sentence. EXAMPLE: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped immediately. Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are commas within the listed items. EXAMPLE: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sofia, Bulgaria. COLONS Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that comes after them. EXAMPLE: Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (word) Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (phrase) Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause) Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list) Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list. INCORRECT: CORRECT:

The things on Joeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind are: finals, work, and Linda. The things on Joeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind are finals, work, and Linda.

HYPHENS Hyphens are used to form compound words and to join prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words. Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as modifiers. EXAMPLES: forty-two applicants two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying majority) three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty) two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because thirds is a noun being modified by two) Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when the adjective comes before the word it modifies. However, some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as well-balanced. Look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them. EXAMPLES: a well-liked author an author who is well liked a world-renowned composer a composer who is world renowned Use hyphens with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective. EXAMPLES: all-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect anti-Semitic non- European self-control self-image

MORE ABOUT COMMAS COMPOUND SENTENCES Use a comma along with a coordinating conjunction between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: I didn’t believe a word Nick said, and I told him so Remember that the comma along produces a comma splice. SERIES Use a comma when listing a series of three or more sentence elements: We gossiped, laughed, and sang the old songs at our class reunion. We hunted in the basement, in the attic, and through all the storage rooms, to no avail. The serial comma, the one before and, is optional; however, usage—either with or without it—must be consistent. INTRODUCTORY DEPENDENT CLAUSE Use a comma to set off an introductory dependent clause: When the riot started, the police fired tear gas into the crowd. SENTENCE-ENDING CLAUSES Use a comma to set off a dependent adverbial clause following the main clause if the adverbial clause has no effect on the outcome of the main clause: Some people refused to leave, even though the hurricane winds had started. Note that in the following sentences the idea in the main clause will not be realize without the adverbial clause; therefore, we do not use a comma: I’ll pack up and leave if you tell me to. We left the area because we were afraid to stay. INTRODUCTORY VERB PHRASES (INFINITIVAL AND PARTICIPIAL) Use a comma to set off any introductory phrase that contains a verb form: After studying all weekend, I felt absolutely prepared for the midterm exam. Having worked at McDonald’s for the past four summers, Max felt confident when he applied for the job of assistant manager. To get in shape for ski season, my roommate works out on the NordicTrack. Note: In most cases the subject of the sentence must also be the subject of the verb in that introductory phrases; otherwise, the sentence has a dangling modifier. Exceptions occur with set phrases: 44

Speaking of the weather, let’s have a picnic. To tell the truth, I have never read Silas Marner.

INTRODUCTORY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Use a comma to set off adverbial prepositional phrases of approximately six or more words: Toward the end of the semester, everyone starts to study seriously. prepositional phrases, especially if you think the reader should pause.

For example, information of specific dates is sometimes set off: In 1990, the official dismantling of the Berlin Wall began. In making the decision about such commas, consider the punctuation in the rest of the sentence: Don’toverload the sentence with commas. Set off any prepositional phrase that might cause a misreading: During summer, vacation plans are our main topic of conversation. OTHER SENTENCE MODIFIERS Set off words and phrases that modify the whole sentence, serve as transitions or have parenthetical meaning—at both the beginning and end of the sentence: A.

Adverbs

Luckily, we escaped without a scratch. We escaped without a scratch, luckily. Meanwhile, there was nothing to do but wait. B.

Yes and no:

Yes, he’s the culprit. C.

No, I can’t go.

Transitional prepositional phrases

In fact, there was nothing I could do about her problem. In the meantime, I listened to her sad tale. D.

Absolute phrases

Money in our pockets, we headed to town. Ginny relaxed before the fire, her feet propped on the footstool.

NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS Use commas to set off non-restrictive (commenting) elements such as nonrestrictive appositives and adjectival clauses. My oldest brother, a history major, spends every night in the library. Now, in the twenty-first century, we have different challenges. Steve Jobs, who co-founded Apple in the 1970s, was known for his entrepreneurial savvy. COORDINATE ADJECTIVES Use commas in the noun phrase between coordinate adjectives in the preheadword position. Coordinate refers to adjectives of the same class—for example, subjective qualities: a tender, delightful story an easy, winning smile If the adjective are of different class, no comma is necessary. a tall young man

a huge red ball

A good general rule for making a decision about commas between these pronoun modifiers is this: If you could insert and or but, use a comma: a tender and delightful love story Notice that the two phrases without commas contain adjectives from different classes (height, age, size, color)—so they will not be separated: a tall and young man

a huge and red ball

NOUNS OF DIRECT ADDRESS Use a comma to set off vocatives in both opening and closing positions: Students, your time is up.

Put your pencils down, everyone.

DIRECT QUOTATIONS Use commas to set off direct quotations after verbs such as say and reply: The waiter said, “Good evening. My name is Pierre.” Harold replied, “I’m Harold. This is Joyce.” Note: This is actually an exception to the punctuation rule you learned: “Do not mark the boundaries of the basic sentence units with commas.” When the direct object is a direct quotation, we do mark the boundary. Direct quotations can also be introduced with colons: Harold replied: “I’m Harold, and this is Joyce.” Note: The end punctuation appears inside the quotations marks if it is a comma or period, except in sentences ending with citations, in which case the period would go outside the close parentheses. STATE AND YEAR 46

Use commas to set of the name of a state when it follows the name of a city: I was surprised to learn that Cheyenne, Wyoming, isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a larger city. Also set off the year in a complete date: Born on August 13, 1899, Alfred Hitchcock was the youngest of three children.

PUNCTUATING TITLES It's easy for students to forget that different types of titles require different typographical features. It is even harder to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation. Despair not! If you remember these two handy rules, you can keep the difference straight: Short works and parts of long works are usually in quotation marks. Long works and collections of short works are usually put in italics (or underlined when submitting publication work to editors). It's easy for students to forget that different types of titles require different typographical features. It is even harder to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation. Despair not! If you remember these two handy rules, you can keep the difference straight: 1. Short works and parts of long works are usually in quotation marks. 2. Long works and collections of short works are usually put in italics (or underlined when submitting publication work to editors). "SHORT WORKS" & "SECTIONS OF LONGER WORKS"

LONG WORKS & COLLECTION OF SHORT WORKS

TITLE OF A SHORT POEM

TITLE OF AN EPIC OR BOOK-LENGTH POEM

Ex. “The Raven”

Ex. The Odyssey

TITLE OF A SHORT STORY

TITLE OF A BOOK

Ex. “Young Goodman Brown”

Ex. The Scarlet Letter

TITLE OF AN ESSAY

TITLE OF A COLLECTION OR ANTHOLOGY

Ex. “The Short Fiction of Langston Hughes”

Ex. Modern Writers and Their Readers

TITLE OF A SONG

TITLE OF A CD, CASSETTE, OR ALBUM

Ex. “Jingle Bells”

The Razor’s Edge by AC/DC

TITLE OF A SKIT OR MONOLOGUE

TITLE OF A BALLET OR OPERA

Ex. “Madmen’s Lament”

The Nutcracker Suite or Die Fliedermaus

SHORT COMMERCIAL

TITLE OF LONG CLASSICAL OR INSTRUMENTAL COMPOSITIONS IDENTIFIED BY NAME, RATHER THAN NUMBER.

Ex. “Obey Your Thirst” TITLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL EPISODE IN A TV SERIES

Ex: Wagner's The Flight of the Valkyries TITLE OF A FILM

Ex. “The One with the Wedding Dress”

Ex. Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones

TITLE OF A CHAPTER IN A BOOK

TITLE OF A PLAY

Ex. “Welsh Mountains”

Ex. The Importance of Being Earnest

ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE

TITLE OF A TV SERIES AS A WHOLE

Ex. “Mountains and Plateaus”

Ex. Friends

TITLE OF A MAGAZINE OR JOURNAL ARTICLE

TITLE OF AN ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ex. “Training Your New Puppy”

Ex. Encyclopedia of Animals

TITLE OF AN ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER 48

Ex. “Search Underway for Suspect in Death of Clutter Family”

TITLE OF MAGAZINE or JOURNAL Ex. Teen Vogue

ONE OR TWO PAGE HANDOUT

Ex. Journal of American Literature

Ex. “Old English Verbs: A One-Page Guide”

TITLE OF NEWSPAPER Ex. The New York Times TITLE OF PAMPHLET Ex. The Coming of the Kingdom of God and the Millennium

A FEW FINAL NOTES: In past editions of MLA, underlining a title and italicizing it were considered synonymous. That is no longer the case, and the current edition of MLA favors italics. If you submit articles for publication, some proofreaders and copy editors prefer underlining to italics. The arrival of word-processing has made italics fairly easy to make, and many people think they look classier than underlining. Traditional religious works that are foundational to a religious group or culture are capitalized, but not italicized or underlined. For instance, note the Torah, the Bible, the Koran, the Book of Mormon, and the Vedas [no italics or quotation marks]. Visual artwork, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, mixed media, and whatnot, is italicized, never put in quotation marks. Thus, Van Gogh's Starry Night and Rodin's The Thinker both have italics. Book and film series have neither punctuation: the Harry Potter series, the Godfather movies, the Star Wars series The title of your own unpublished student essay at the top of the first page. You do not need to underline your own title or put it in quotation marks.

CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES Normally, most words in a title are capitalized. The most common rule is that all "important" words should be capitalized, which I think isn't helpful as a criterion. In actual practice, MLA requires the first and last word in the title is capitalized, along with every noun and every verb, every adjective, and every adverb. MLA typically does not capitalize prepositions and articles; however, outside of MLA requirements, many other guidelines call for capitalizing every word that is more than three letters long. Another common rule of thumb is to capitalize t he first and last words of the title, and then capitalize everything else except for prepositions and articles. Sometimes, especially in short titles, every single word might optionally be capitalized. Examples: The Planet of the Apes [The words "of" and "the" are not capitalized.] The Land that Time Forgot "Why Not Me?" [Since title is so short, all the words are capitalized.] "Losing My Religion" [Since title is so short, all the words are capitalized.]

SECTION 3 | INTEGRATING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES DIFFERENCES IN QUOTING, PARAPHRASING AND SUMMARIZING

Quotation

Paraphrase

Summary

Difference



Matches the source word for word.



Matches the source in terms of meaning.



Sums up the central point of the source.



You use the source’s words.



You use your own words.



You use your own words.



Exact same length as the source, unless you follow the rules for adding or deleting material from a quote. Purpose



Approximately the same length, though often shorter than the source.



Much shorter than the source.



To provide credibility for what you are saying (you support your point by quoting an authority).



To get someone’s exact words (when HOW someone said something is as important as WHAT they said).

Purpose



Copy the source’s words exactly.



There are special rules for capitalization and punctuation within quotes. See Writing Lab for handouts or a tutor for help.



Cite it according to whatever style your instructor requires (e.g. MLA)

To show that you have command of the material (not a slave to the original author’s word).



To “shorten” a section from the source that is too long to quote.



To demonstrate comprehension (independent assignment). How to

How to 

To get down the meaning of someone else’s words when: 1. Their exact words are not important 2. Their exact words are not appropriate (style too dense or too simple for example) or useful (what they emphasize is different from what you want to emphasize).



Carefully read the section of the source you are going to paraphrase. Put it away and write down in your own words what the source is saying. Then go back and check to see if you missed anything.



Cite it just like a quote.



Appears on Works Cited page.

Purpose 

To get down the gist of someone else’s work.



To avoid unnecessary details when the main point is all you need.



To show that you understand what the source is saying.



To refresh the reader’s memory if they have read the source.



To give your audience a general introduction to the source.

How to 

Carefully read the section of the source you are going to paraphrase. Put it away and write down the main point(s) of the source. Do not be a slave to the source’s organization—you decide what the main points are.



First sentence: “[John Doe]‘s essay [‘Wild Gift’] states that...”

Common knowledge includes whatever an educated person would be expected to know or could locate in an ordinary encyclopedia and does not need to be cited. For example:    

Easily observable behavior (Heat makes people tired in the summer; puppies display tremendous energy) Commonly reported facts (Oranges contain vitamin C; Napoleon’s army was decimated by the winter march on Moscow during the War of 1812) Common sayings (“You are what you eat;” “Look before you leap”) Information easily found within general reference sources (Franklin D. Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882)

But beware: while common knowledge need not be cited, specific expression of common knowledge must be identified. For example, you may mention without citation, as above, that Napoleon’s army suffered ruinous losses during the winter march on Moscow. However, if your source says, “Napoleon’s army froze in droves as it struggled toward Moscow,” you must use quotation marks and cite the source of those words if you include them. Therefore, if you use someone’s words, you must quote and cite them, even if they contain an idea that is common knowledge.

(From “The Plagiarism Handbook” by Robert A. Harris (Pyrczak Publishing, 2001)

TRANSITIONS TO INCORPORATE QUOTATIONS INTO PARAGRAPHS

If you get tired of stating over and over again that "Jones says'. . .’”, try some of the following variations. They work equally well with direct quotations or paraphrases, and when combined with a bit of basic information about the source of your material, they kill two birds with one stone by both introducing and crediting your information (often eliminating the need for a parenthetical citation), as in this example: Jones notes in the November 2002 issue of Psychology Today that ". . . . Other suggested variations: Jones found in

that . . .

demonstrates “

“

reports

suggests

“

observes

“

asserts

•"

emphasizes

“

declares

holds

maintains

“

In his controversial book, The Naked Ape, Desmond Morris argues that.... demonstrates maintains.... suggests.... . In a 2001 (book, “article,” or whatever) entitled . . . , So-and-so examines the subject of catfish and observes that. . . . According to Jones, . . Jones' view . . . . opinion,. . estimation,. . . .

Jones contradicts this view in a 2003 Saturday Review essay in which he argues that . . . However, Jones maintains that. . . . Although Jones opines that . . . , Smith suggests another theory:. . . . 54

A (book, “article,”” essay, “”speech,” etc.) by Jones, which is (summarized, referred to, alluded to, mentioned, included in a discussion) i In one of Joe Moholzer’s New York Times’ editorials makes the point that . . . . As reported by Jones in the October 22, 1968 Seattle Post-Intelligencer, . . . .

INTEGRATING QUOTES SMOOTHLY INTO TEXTS There are three main ways to TIE quotations smoothly into text: “T” tag (attribution comes after the quotation) "You brute. You brute," Holden mutters as he leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours. "Secretly, of course--I was all for the Burmese," Orwell confides. “I” introduce (attribution comes before the quotation) As Holden leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours, he mutters, "You brute. You brute." Orwell confided he "was all for the Burmese." “E” embed (quotation is embedded between attribution and explanation) Holden mutters, "You brute. You brute," as he leaves the compound where he and Ameera have spent many happy hours. Orwell was "all for the Burmese" and hated working as an agent of the British Empire in Burma . Generally, long quotations are to be avoided. When a long quotation is absolutely essential (generally, only in a formal paper), it should be set off from the text. Still, it is important to introduce the quotation. Usually "set off" text is preceded by a colon: George Orwell had a difficult time acting as a police officer in Lower Burma . As demonstrated in the following excerpt from “Shooting an Elephant,”) he was frustrated by his conflicting need to maintain law and order while remaining faithful to the idea that the Burmese had the right to be free: All this was perplexing and upsetting. For at that time I had already made up my mind that imperialism was an evil thing and the sooner I chucked up my job and got out of it the Better. Theoretically--and secretly, of course--I was all for the Burmese and all against their oppressors, the British. (p. 4) Notice when quotations are set off from text they do not require quotation marks. Indent each line of the quote 10 spaces from the left margin (15 when starting a new paragraph). Right margin remains the same as the body of the paper. Spacing is the same as the body of the paper. All quotations must be tied to text! Do not simply sprinkle them in like confetti. Smooth integration is the mark of a mature writer and makes a paper flow.

This handout is adapted from a handout by Michelle Garbis of Stoneham Douglas High School in Florida, 2003.

FAYETTE COUNTY SCHOOLS PLAGIARISM AND ACADEMIC DISHONESTY STATEMENT (9-12) Rationale: Plagiarism and academic dishonesty are serious violations of the principles of academic integrity. They represent a form of theft rather than genuine learning, and undermine the learning process. Plagiarism and academic dishonesty demonstrate a breach of character that is at odds with the values and goals of Fayette County Public Schools as an agency of college and career readiness. Students must become adept at gathering information, evaluating sources, citing material accurately, reporting findings from their research, and analyzing sources in a clear and cogent manner. Plagiarism and academic dishonesty will not be tolerated. Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty include the: 

 

representation of another’s ideas or writing as one’s own, by withholding credit through the omission of parenthetical documentation and/or a works cited page submission of work copied in part or whole from the work of someone else and submitting it as one’s own, by withholding credit through the omission of parenthetical documentation, specific source citations on a works cited page, and/or works cited page use of material—copied directly, cut and pasted, summarized, or paraphrased--without providing the author’s name and title of source submission of purchased papers or papers downloaded from the Internet as one’s own submission of papers written by some other person—including tutors, parents, siblings, or friends--as one’s own provision of one’s work in any discipline or subject matter to others, whether one believes the work will be copied or not unless the teacher has given specific permission for collaborative effort stealing of examination or course materials or cheating on an examination falsifying of records, laboratory results, or other data assistance of another student in any of the areas above, including assistance in an arrangement whereby any work, classroom performance, examination, or other activity is submitted or performed by a person other than the student under whose name the work is submitted or performed.

Penalties for Plagiarism: A. B.

A student who has plagiarized all or any part of a major writing assignment in any class will receive no credit for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given. A student who submits an assignment that requires documentation with no parenthetical citation and/or works cited has effectively and purposefully committed plagiarism; therefore, the student will receive a grade of zero for the entire research or writing assignment. No substitute assignment will be given. A student who allows another student to copy his or her assignment in any discipline, or assists in the act of plagiarism or academic dishonesty, will be subject to disciplinary action and will receive a grade of zero for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given. All incidents of plagiarism will result in a disciplinary referral, parents will be notified, and the assignment will receive a grade of zero for the assignment. No substitute assignment will be given.

NOTE TO PARENTS: “County Guidelines for Student Behavior” outlines the punishments for academic dishonesty; plagiarism is academic dishonesty. Teachers give instruction orally, in writing, and through specific examples as to what constitutes plagiarism to all students. Revised 07/2013

SECTION 4 | READING ANALYTICALLY B-H-H READING

PREPARING TO DISCUSS A TEXT

Directions: After reading your selection, choose ______ of the sentence stems and complete them to write a response to what you have read. This story is about This story is told by I notice I liked the way The writer wants me to know The writer thinks I already know This writer claims Something that confirmed my thinking is Something that challenged my thinking is Something that changed my thinking is Something that changed my feeling or thinking about the world is I learned about myself that I learned about others that My actions of feeling which change because

SIMPLE GUIDE TO TEXT ANNOTATION

What is text annotation?

Textbook annotation is part of a system of textbook marking that involves the reader (the student...you!) in: 1. Writing brief summaries in the textâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s margins 2. Listing or numbering multiple ideas (causes, effects, reasons, characteristics) 3. Sketching pictures and charts to explain difficult processes/ concepts 4. Predicting & writing possible test questions 5. Noting puzzling or confusing ideas that need clarification by the professor 6. Underlining key ideas or concepts

What will text annotation do for me?

What should I look for to annotate?

Text annotation can have several advantages for the reader (you!). It will: 1. Improve your concentration so you will not become distracted and have to reread the text. 2. Provide an immediate self-check for your understanding of the textâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s key ideas. 3. Help you remember more. 4. Assist you in getting ready for tests on the material. 5. Negate the need of time spent in rereading the chapters. 6. Help you state ideas in your own words.

Here are some important factors/areas to look for when reading and annotating: What am I looking for?

How do I annotate it?

Definitions

Def.

Lists, features, causes, effects, characteristics, reasons

1. 2.

Names, dates, events that are key

Underline or (circle)

Examples of main idea

ex (in the margin)

* [ ] (done in the text/margin)

HOW SHOULD I ANNOTATE?

Here are some steps to applying annotation to texts: Skim through the chapter. Note the organization of the chapter (are there subheadings, pictures, graphs, etc.) Skim the introduction, THEN the conclusion, before reading the entire chapter. This will help you get a sense as to what exactly you should know before diving in and reading. Read one or more paragraphs. Then STOP. The amount of text you can read will vary from text to text, according to difficulty and organization. Think about the key ideas that you have read—what is the author arguing, or how is the author supporting the argument? Briefly write the key ideas in the margin, looking for the following:       

Definitions Examples Lists Causes and effects Characteristics Likenesses/differences Names or dates or other important information

Check your annotations to be sure that they make sense to you. Go on to the next section or paragraph. Remember, not every paragraph will have a key concept that should be annotated, but every page or section usually does. How can you study based on this system?      

Cover the text. Read your annotations. Ask yourself the following questions: Do my annotations make sense? Do I understand the concepts identified? If not, uncover the text and reread only the key material. Do not reread the entire section. In essence, you want to talk yourself through the entire chapter/text and actively learn the material

Adapted from Dan Progreba

SAMPLE ANNOTATION

A GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS LITERARY DEVICES Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds used especially in poetry to emphasize and link words as well as to create pleasing, musical sounds. Example—the fair breeze blew, the white foam flew. Allusion: A reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art to enrich the reading experience by adding meaning. Characterization: Techniques a writer uses to create and develop a character by what:  he/she does or says,  other characters say about him/her, or how they react to him/her  the author reveals directly or through a narrator. Dialect: Speech that reflects pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar typical of a geographical region. Flashback: Interruption of the chronological (time) order to present something that occurred before the beginning of the story. Figurative Language: Language that has meaning beyond the literal meaning; also known as “figures of speech.”  Simile: comparison of two things using the words “like” or “as,” e.g. “Her smile was as cold as ice.”  Metaphor comparison of two things essentially different but with some commonalities; does not use “like” or “as,” e.g. “Her smile was ice.”  Hyperbole: a purposeful exaggeration for emphasis or humor.  Personification: human qualities attributed to an animal, object, or idea, e.g. “The wind exhaled.” Free Verse: Poetry that does not conform to a regular meter or rhyme scheme. Poets who write in free verse try to reproduce the natural rhythms of spoken language.

Foreshadowing: Important hints that an author drops to prepare the reader for what is to come, and help the reader anticipate the outcome. Imagery: Words or phrases that appeal to the reader’s senses. Humor: The quality of a literary or informative work that makes the character and/or situations seem funny, amusing, or ludicrous. Irony: A technique that involves surprising, interesting, or amusing contradictions or contrasts. Verbal irony occurs when words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meaning. An irony of situation is when an event occurs that directly contradicts expectations. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate sounds. Examples would be hiss, buzz, swish, and crunch. Point of View: Perspective from which the story is told  First-person: narrator is a character in the story; uses “I,” “we,” etc.  Third-person: narrator outside the story; uses “he,” “she,” “they”  Third-person limited: narrator tells only what one character perceives  Third-person omniscient: narrator can see into the minds of all characters. Satire: Writing that comments humorously on human flaws, ideas, social customs, or institutions in order to change them Style: The distinctive way that a writer uses language including such factors as word choice, sentence length, arrangement, and complexity, and the use of figurative language and imagery. Suspense: A feeling of excitement, curiosity, or expectation about what will happen. Symbol: Person, place, or thing that represents something beyond itself, most often something concrete or tangible that represents anabstract idea.

Prose: A literary work that uses the familiar spoken form of language, sentence after sentence.

LITERARY FORMS Autobiography: A writer’s story of his or her own life.

Realistic Fiction: Writing that attempts to show life as it really is.

Biography: A writer’s account of some other person’s life.

Science Fiction: Writing based on real or imaginary scientific developments and often set in the future.

Comedy: Writing that deals with life in a humorous way, often poking fun at people’s mistakes.

Short Story: Shorter than a novel, this piece of literature can usually be read in one sitting. Because of its le ngth, it has only a few characters and focuses on one problem or conflict.

Drama: Also called a play, this writing form uses dialogue to share its message and is meant to be performed in front of an audience.

Tall Tale: A humorous, exaggerated story often based on the life of a real person. The exaggerations build until the character can accomplish impossible things.

Essay: A short piece of nonfiction that expresses the writer’s opinion or shares information about a subject Fable: A short story that often uses talking animals as the main characters and teaches an explicit moral or lesson.

LITERARY ELEMENTS Action: Everything that happens in a story.

Fantasy: A story set in an imaginary world in which the characters usually have supernatural powers or abilities.

Antagonist: The person or force that works against the hero of the story. (See protagonist) Character: One of the people (or animals) in a story.

Folktale: A story originally passed from one generation to another by word of mouth only. The characters are usually all good or all bad and in the end are rewarded or punished as they deserve.

Climax: The high point in the action of a story. Conflict: A problem or struggle between two opposing forces in a story. There are four basic conflicts:

Historical Fiction: A made-up story that is based on a real time and place in history, so fact is mixed with fiction. Myth: A traditional story intended to explain some mystery of nature, religious doctrine, or cultural belief. The gods and goddesses of mythology have supernatural powers, but the human characters usually do not. Novel: A book-length, fictional prose story. Because of its length, a novel’s characters and plot are usually more developed than those of a short story. Poetry: A literary work that uses concise, colorful, often rhythmic language to express ideas or emotions. Examples: ballad, blank verse, free verse, elegy, limerick, sonnet.

•

Person Against Person: A problem between characters.

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Person Against Self: A problem within a character’s own mind.

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Person Against Society: A problem between a character and society, school, the law, or some tradition.

•

Person Against Nature: A problem between a character and some element of nature-a blizzard, a hurricane, a mountain climb, etc.

Dialogue: The conversations that characters have with one another.

Exposition: The part of the story, usually near the beginning, in which the characters are introduced, the background is explained, and the setting is described.

Theme: The message about life or human nature that is “the focus” in the story that the writer tells.

Falling Action: The action and dialogue following the climax that lead the reader into the story’s end.

ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY

Mood: The feeling a piece of literature is intended to create in a reader.

Article: A complete piece of writing, as a report or essay, that is part of a newspaper, magazine, or book.

Moral: The lesson a story teaches.

Atlas: A book of maps.

Narrator: The person or character who actually tells the story, filling in the background information and bridging the gaps between dialogue. (See Point of View.)

Encyclopedia: A book that contains information on many subjects; or comprehensive information in a particular field of knowledge; usually arranged alphabetically.

Plot: The action that makes up the story, following a plan called the plot line. Plot line: The planned action or series of events in a story. There are five parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Protagonist: The main character in a story, often a good or heroic type. Resolution: The part of the story in which the problems are solved and the action comes to a satisfying end. Rising Action: The central part of the story during which various problems arise after a conflict is introduced. Setting: The place and the time frame in which a story takes place. Style: The distinctive way that a writer uses language including such factors as word choice, sentence length, arrangement, and complexity, and the use of figurative language and imagery.

Fiction: A literary work whose content is based on the imagination and not on fact. Glossary: An alphabetical listing of difficult, technical, or foreign terms with definitions or translation; usually found at the end of a book. Index: An alphabetical listing that gives page numbers or books where information can be found. Mystery: A novel, story, or play involving a crime or secret activity and its gradual solution. Nonfiction: True writing, based on factual information. Periodical: Another word for magazine. Reference: A type of book that provides information arranged for easy access. Series: Several books related in subject, or dealing with the same characters. Table of Contents: The part of a book which lists the chapters or contents within the book.

SECTION 5 | RUBRICS FOUR POINT HOLISTIC RUBRIC GENRE: NARRATIVE Description

Points 4

3 The Narrative writing task examines the writer’s ability to effectively develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective techniques, descriptive details, and clear event sequences. Students are responsible for language conventions learned in their current grade as well as in prior grades. Refer to the language skills for each grade to determine the gradelevel expectations for grammar, syntax, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

Criteria The student’s response is a well-developed narrative that fully develops a real or imagined experience based on a text as a stimulus (when designated). •Effectively establishes a situation, one or more points of view, and introduces a narrator and/or characters •Creates a smooth progression of events •Effectively uses multiple narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, pacing, reflection, and plot to develop rich, interesting experiences, events, and/or characters •Uses a variety of techniques consistently to sequence events that build on one another •Uses precise words and phrases, details, and sensory language consistently to convey a vivid picture of the events •Provides a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or events •Integrates ideas and details from source material effectively (when applicable) •Has no errors in usage and/or conventions The student’s response is a complete narrative that develops a real or imagined experience based on a text as a stimulus (when designated). •Establishes a situation, a point of view, and introduces one or more characters •Organizes events in a clear, logical order •Uses some narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, pacing, reflection, and plot to develop experiences, events, and/or characters •Uses words and/or phrases to indicate sequence •Uses words, phrases, and details to convey a picture of the events •Provides an appropriate conclusion •Integrates some ideas and/or details from source material (when applicable) •Has a few minor errors in usage and/or conventions The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified narrative based on a text as a stimulus (when designated). •Introduces a vague situation and at least one character •Organizes events in a sequence but with some gaps or ambiguity •Attempts to use a narrative technique, such as dialogue, description, reflection, and plot to develop experiences, events, and/or characters •Inconsistently uses occasional signal words to indicate sequence •Inconsistently uses some words or phrases to convey a picture of the events •Provides a weak or ambiguous conclusion •Attempts to integrate ideas or details from source material (when applicable) •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions The student’s response provides evidence of an attempt to write a narrative based on a text as a stimulus (when designated). •Provides a weak or minimal introduction •May be too brief to demonstrate a complete sequence of events •Shows little or no attempt to use dialogue or description •Uses words that are inappropriate, overly simple, or unclear •Provides few if any words that convey a picture of the events, signal shifts in time or setting, or show relationships among experiences or events •Provides a minimal or no conclusion •May use few if any ideas or details from source material (when applicable) •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions that interfere with meaning

•The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no response. •The student merely copies the text in the prompt. •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

FAYETTE COUNTY SEVEN POINT TWO-TRAIT RUBRIC INFORMATIONAL/EXPLANATORY GENRE

Idea Development, Organization, and Coherence This trait examines the writer’s ability to effectively establish a controlling topic and to support the topic with evidence from the text(s) read and to elaborate on the topic with examples, illustrations, facts, and other details. The writer must integrate the information from the text(s) into his/her own words and arrange the ideas and supporting evidence in order to create cohesion for an informative/explanatory essay.

The student’s response is a well-developed informative/explanatory text that examines a topic in depth and presents related information based on text as a stimulus (when designated). • Effectively introduces the topic and main idea(s) to be examined. • Effectively uses an organizational strategy to present information and to maintain focus and to make important connections and distinctions. •Thoroughly develops the topic with well-chosen, relevant, and sufficient facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples that are appropriate for the audience. • Uses appropriate and varied transitions to create cohesion, to link major section(s) of the text, and to clarify the relationship among ideas • Effectively uses precise language and domain-specific vocabulary appropriate to the audience and complexity of the topic. • Establishes and maintains a formal style and objective tone. • Provides a strong concluding statement or section that logically follows from the ideas presented and goes beyond summary. • Includes accurate information. The student’s response is a complete informative/explanatory text that examines a topic and presents information based on text as a stimulus (when designated). • Introduces the topic and main idea(s) to be examined. • Has an organizational strategy to group information and provide focus, but sometimes connections and distinctions are not clear. • Uses a few pieces of relevant information from source(s) to develop topic. • Uses some transitions to connect and clarify relationships among ideas, but relationships may not always be clear. • Uses some precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to explain the topic. • Usually uses a formal style and objective tone. • Provides a concluding statement or section that follows from the ideas presented. • Includes accurate information. The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified informative/explanatory text that cursorily examines a topic based on text as a stimulus (when designated). •Attempts to introduce a topic or main idea. •Ineffectively organizes ideas, concepts and information. •Develops topic, sometimes unevenly, little relevant information. •Attempts to link ideas and concepts, but cohesion is inconsistent. •Uses limited precise language and/or domain-specific vocabulary to manage the topic. •Attempts to establish formal style and objective tone but struggles to maintain.

•Provides a weak concluding statement or section. • Includes inaccurate information. The student’s response is a weak attempt to write an informative/explanatory text that examines a topic based on text as a stimulus (when designated). •May not introduce a topic or main idea, or the topic or main idea must be inferred. 1 •May be too brief to demonstrate an organizational structure, or no structure is evident. •Provides minimal information to develop the topic, little or none of which is from sources. •Struggles to link some ideas and concepts, but cohesion is weak throughout. •Uses vague, ambiguous, inexact, or repetitive language. •Lacks appropriate formal style and tone. •Provides a minimal or no concluding statement or section. • Includes inaccurate information. •The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no 0 response. •The student merely copies the text in the prompt. •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored. The student’s response demonstrates full command of language, usage, and conventions. • Uses clear and complete sentence structure, with appropriate range and 3 variety. • Correctly and consistently attributes and integrates paraphrases and Language, Usage, and direct quotations to their sources via in-text or parenthetical citations. Conventions • Has almost no errors in usage and/or conventions. • Fully adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. This trait examines the writer’s The student’s response demonstrates partial command of language, usage, ability to demonstrate control of and conventions. sentence formation, usage and •Uses complete sentences, with some variety. mechanics as embodied in the 2 •Attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations grade-level expectations of the inconsistently to their sources via in text or parenthetical citations. language standards. •Has minor errors in usage and/or conventions. Students are responsible for • Adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. language conventions learned in The student’s response demonstrates weak command of language, usage, their current grade as well as in and conventions. prior grades. Refer to the language •Has fragments, run-ons, and/or other sentence structure errors. skills for each grade to determine 1 •Makes little if any attempt to attribute and/or integrate paraphrases and the grade-level expectations for direct quotations to their sources. grammar, syntax, capitalization, •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions. punctuation, and spelling. • Attempts to adhere to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. •The student’s response has many errors that affect the overall meaning, or the response is too brief to determine a score. 0 •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored. Students will lose credit for failure to use the assigned number of credible and appropriate sources that are quoted and/or integrated and documented in the Works Cited page. The final grade will be based on the percentage of required sources actually used with each source carrying equal weight.

FAYETTE COUNTY SEVEN POINT TWO-TRAIT RUBRIC 68

ARGUMENTATIVE GENRE

Idea Development, Organization, and Coherence This trait examines the writer’s ability to effectively establish a claim as well as to address counterclaims, to support the claim with evidence from the text(s) read, and to elaborate on the claim with examples, illustrations, facts, and other details. The writer must integrate the information from the text(s) into his/her own words and arrange the ideas and supporting evidence in order to create cohesion for an argument essay.

The student’s response is a well-developed argument that develops and supports claims with multiple, clear reasons and abundant, relevant evidence based on text as a stimulus (when designated). •Effectively introduces a claim or claims and engages the audience •Has a clear, valid, and original claim that takes a position on a substantive topic •Uses an organizational strategy to establish clear relationships among claim(s), counterclaims, reasons and relevant evidence •Uses specific and well-chosen facts, details, definitions, examples, and/or other information from sources to develop claim(s) and counterclaims fully and fairly and to point out strengths and limitations of both while anticipating the audience’s knowledge and concerns •Acknowledges and counters opposing claims, as appropriate •Uses words, phrases, and clauses that effectively connect the major sections of the text and clarify relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims •Intentionally uses and maintains a style and tone that is appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a strong concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented • Includes accurate information The student’s response is a complete argument that relates and supports claims with reasons and evidence based on text as a stimulus (when designated). •Clearly introduces a claim or claims •Has a claim that states a position on an issue •Uses an organizational strategy to present claims, reasons, and evidence •Uses multiple pieces of relevant information from sources adequately to develop claim(s) and counterclaims and to clarify relationships between claims, reasons, evidence, and counterclaims while attempting to attend to the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Attempts to acknowledge and counter opposing claims, as appropriate •Uses words and/or phrases to connect ideas •Uses a tone and style appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a concluding statement or section that follows from the argument presented • Includes accurate information The student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified argument that partially supports claims with reasons and evidence loosely-related to the text (when designated). •Attempts to introduce a claim, but the claim may be unclear •Has a claim that identifies an issue but author’s positon is unclear •Attempts to use an organizational structure, which may be formulaic •Develops, sometimes unevenly, reasons and/or evidence to support a claim and present opposing claims but shows little awareness of the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Makes reference to opposing claims •Attempts to use words and/or phrases to connect claims, counterclaims, reasons, evidence, but cohesion is inconsistent or weak •Attempts a tone and style that are appropriate for task, purpose, and audience •Provides a weak concluding statement or section • includes inaccurate information The student’s response is a weak attempt to write an argument and does not support claims with adequate reasons and evidence based on the text as stimulus (when

3 Language, Usage, and Conventions This trait examines the writer’s ability to demonstrate control of sentence formation, usage and mechanics as embodied in the gradelevel expectations of the language standards. Students are responsible for language conventions learned in their current grade as well as in prior grades. Refer to the language skills for each grade to determine the gradelevel expectations for grammar, syntax, capitalization, punctuation, and spelling.

designated). •May not introduce a claim, or the claim must be inferred •Has no clear claim •May be too brief to demonstrate an organizational structure, or no structure is evident •Provides minimal information to develop the claim(s), little or none of which is from sources and fails to attend to the audience’s knowledge or concerns •Makes no attempt to reference, acknowledge, or counter opposing claims •Makes no attempt to use words and/or phrases to connect claims and reasons, reasons and evidence, and claims and counterclaims •Uses a style and tone that are inappropriate and/or ineffective •Provides a minimal or no concluding statement or section • Includes inaccurate information •The response is completely irrelevant or incorrect, or there is no response. •The student merely copies the text in the prompt. •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored. The student’s response demonstrates full command of language, usage, and conventions. • Uses clear and complete sentence structure, with appropriate range and variety. • Correctly and consistently attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations to their sources via in-text or parenthetical citations. • Has almost no errors in usage and/or conventions. • Fully adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. The student’s response demonstrates partial command of language, usage, and conventions. •Uses complete sentences, with some variety. •Attributes and integrates paraphrases and direct quotations inconsistently to their sources via in text or parenthetical citations. •Has minor errors in usage and/or conventions. • Adheres to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. The student’s response demonstrates weak command of language, usage, and conventions. •Has fragments, run-ons, and/or other sentence structure errors. •Makes little if any attempt to attribute and/or integrate paraphrases and direct quotations to their sources. •Has frequent or major errors in usage and conventions. • Attempts to adhere to MLA formatting and documentation guidelines. •The student’s response has many errors that affect the overall meaning, or the response is too brief to determine a score. •The student copies so much text from the passages that there is not sufficient original work to be scored.

Students will lose credit for failure to use the assigned number of credible and appropriate sources that are quoted and/or integrated and documented in the Works Cited page. The final grade will be based on the percentage of required sources actually used with each source carrying equal weight.

SECTION 6 | GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS OUTLINE

TOPIC______________________________________________________

Subtopic

Supporting

details

2. 3. 4.

Subtopic

Supporting

details

2. 3. 4.

Subtopic

Supporting

details

2. 3. 4.

Subtopic

Supporting

details

2. 3. 4.

ESSAY ORGANIZER

Name:

Date:

INTRODUCTION Hook: Thesis (what you will prove): Background Information: Three pieces of supporting evidence: Body 1 Body 2 Body 3 Claim:

Body #1 Evidence #1 Details: 1 2 3 Quote: Explain how quote supports reason: Conclusion sentence:

Body #2 Evidence #2 Details: 1 2 3 Quote: Explain how quote supports reason: Conclusion sentence:

CONCLUSION Restate thesis:

Summarize your evidence: 1 2 3 Extend, go beyond, larger meaning or universal truth

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS Writerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claim/position What does the writer say?

Audience

Characteristics

Motives and/or Interests

Required Response

Describe the key traits of this audience (age, education, community, region, gender, class, ethnicity).

Describe what is important to this audience. What do they want?

Describe what the writer wants this audience to do (make a decision, take action, change beliefs, etc.).

World View What values, beliefs, or assumptions might members of this audience share?

Quick Write How would you describe the audience of this text? How are the writerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rhetorical choices (eg. language, structure, evidence, appeals, etc. suited to the needs, interests, expectations of this audience? Explain.

PURPOSE ANALYSIS WRITERâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer say?

Purpose

IDEAS

FEELINGS

ACTIONS

Describe what the writer wants the audience to know or understand

Describe the emotions the writer wants the audience to feel.

Describe what the writer wants the audience to do.

PAST, PRESENT, OR FUTURE Explain whether the writer wants the audience to make a judgment about the past, understand a statement about the present, or decide a course of action for the future.

Quick Write How would you describe the purpose of this text? What do you think the writer hopes to accomplish through his or her argument? Does the argument serve multiple purposes? If so, which one(s) is/are most important?

ETHOS ANALYSIS WRITER’S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer say?

Support & Evidence

PERSONAL EXAMPLES

CREDENTIALS/QUALIFICATIONS

ROLES/RESPONSIBILITIES

List any personal stories or anecdotes the writer shares.

List any words that have strong emotional connotations.

List any special jobs, life experiences, or social roles that are part of the writer’s identity (e.g., being a mother or an immigrant).

Quick Write How would you describe the writerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image or ethos? What adjectives would you use to describe the writerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s persona? What kind of person does the writer seem to be? Do you trust this person? Do you like or admire this person?

PATHOS ANALYSIS AUTHORâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S CLAIM/POSITION

Support & Evidence

PERSONAL EXAMPLES/ANECDOTES List any human interest stories or personal experiences the writer shares.

LOADED LANGUAGE List any words that have strong emotional connotations.

HUMOR, IRONY, AND/OR SARCASM List any jokes or funny/sarcastic remarks the writer makes.

Quick Write Describe the overall emotional impact of this text. How did the writer make you feel? Happy? Sad? Afraid? Hurt? Enthusiastic? Suspicious? Excited? Irritated? Brave? Angry? Amused? Concerned? How strong were your feelings while reading this text?

LOGOS ANALYSIS AUTHOR’S CLAIM/POSITION

Support & Evidence

AUTHORITY/EXPERTS

FACTS/STATISTICS

QUALIFIERS/TRANSITIONS

List any expert testimony the writer includes.

List any numerical data or scientific evidence the writer uses.

List words and phrases like “some,” “often,” “perhaps,” “as a result,” or “on the other hand” that qualify claims or signal logical relationships.

COUNTERARGUMENTS List any opposing views the writer mentions

Quick Write How reasonable does this writer seem to you? Is the writer careful to make claims that can be supported by evidence? Does the writer seem fair and unbiased? Does the writer consider different viewpoints? Make concessions?

KAIROS ANALYSIS WRITER’S CLAIM/POSITION What does the writer day?

Context/Occasion

TIME

PLACE

SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS

Describe what’s special about this moment in time (e.g. holiday, historical event, election, scientific discovery, or once-in-a-lifetime opportunity).

Describe what makes the location unique (e.g., a private home, public space, natural setting, university, business, city, region, or nation).

Describe the behavior people consider appropriate for this occasion (e.g.,rules and manners).

THE LANGUAGE OF KAIROS List any words or phrases in the text that suggest the importance of time.

Quick Write How would you describe the kairos of this text? How do time, place, and social expectations impact the writerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s argument? Do you think the writer has chosen the best opportunity to make his or her argument? Explain your thinking.

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING A 12 SENTENCE PARAGRAPH Your paragraph must contain TWLEVE, and ONLY TWELVE, sentences. Specific directions for each sentence are given below. You may want to compare these directions with a sample paragraph. Your paragraph must have a TITLE, but the title is not one of your sentences. T The FIRST SENTENCE must state your topic. The SECOND SENTENCE must limit your topic to THREE ASPECTS. The THIRD SENTENCE must make a statement about the first aspect of your topic. The FOURTH SENTENCE must give specific information about the first aspect. The FIFTH SENTENCE must give additional information about the first aspect. The SIXTH SENTENCE must make a statement about the second aspect of your topic. The SEVENTH SENTENCE must give specific information about the second aspect. The EIGHTH SENTENCE must give additional information about the second aspect. The NINTH SENTENCE must make a statement about the third aspect of your topic. T The TENTH SENTENCE must give specific information about the third aspect. The ELEVENTH SENTENCE must give additional information about the third aspect. The TWELVTH SENTENCE must make a concluding statement about your topi

Title:

Topic Sentence:

Controlling Sentence:

II.

III.

Conclusion:

A TWELVE-SENTENCE PARAGRAPH OUTLINE

Self-Sacrificing Heroes Topic Sentence:

Some heroes hate killing and military life, but they have an inherent devotion to duty and a willingness to sacrifice themselves for others.

Controlling Sentence: Of the heroes who can be considered self-sacrificing,George Hamilton Kodzinski, Wesley Stenson, and Peter Jackson have been cited as heroes during World War II. I. Kodzinski, a college freshman from Butte, Montana, was drafted late in the war. A. While on a mission in the Philippines, Kodzinskiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s squad was pinned down by machine-gun fire. B. Kodzinski, under fire, managed to worm his way to the other side of the enemy position and to destroy it with a grenade. II. Stenson was a theology student until he become convinced that the evil that Hitler and Hirohito stood for must be destroyed. A. Stenson was in training as a fighter pilot when a malfunctioning engine caused him to go down in flames. B. He could have bailed out, but he chose to guide the plane away from a residential area and into the side of a mountain, where he was killed. III. Jackson was a farmboy who could have been deferred as the sole support ofhis widowed mother. A. He chose not to stay at home but to fight with the Marines atOkinawa. B. He was killed when he tried to drag a wounded Marine to safety. Conclusion: Kodzinski, Stenson, and Jackson did not win the Medal of Honor, but they can certainly be ranked as self-sacrificing heroes.

Apostrophes · 41 Audience Analysis · 77

Integrating Quotes Smoothly Into Texts · 56

Basic Punctuation Rules · 42

Kairos Analysis · 87 KEY TERMS USED IN ESSAY QUESTIONS · 20

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING · 24 COMMA OMISSION · 32 COMMA SPLICE · 31 Common knowledge · 53 Common Writing Errors · 31 Comparison/Contrast · 14

Logos Analysis · 85

M MODES OF DISCOURSE · 5 Analysis · 7 Argument and Persuasion · 9 Cause and effect · 16 Classification · 11 Comparison/Contrast · 14 Definition · 15 DESCRIPTION · 5 Exemplification · 7 NARRATION · 6 Process analysis · 12 MORE ABOUT COMMAS · 44

D DANGLING MODIFIER – · 33 Differences in Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing · 51 Directions for Writing a 12 Sentence Paragraph · 89

E ESSAY ORGANIZER · 74 Ethos Analysis · 81

O F Outline · 72 Fayette County Schools Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty Statement · 57 Fayette County Seven Point Two-Trait Rubric · 67, 69 Five Types of Claims · 29

P Paraphrase · 51 Pathos Analysis · 83 PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND THEIR CUE WORDS · 18 Preparing to Discuss a Text · 59 PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT ERROR · 32 Punctuating Titles · 48 Purpose Analysis · 79

G Guide to Formal Academic Voice · 37

H How should I annotate? · 61

Q Quotation · 51

R RHETORICAL PRECIS FORMAT · 21 RUN-ON SENTENCES · 31

Spelling · 50 SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT ERROR · 32 Summary · 51

T The Twenty Sentence Patterns · 43 Tone words · 22 Transitions to Incorporate Quotations Into Paragraphs · 54 TYPES OF WRITING · 4

S SAMPLE ANNOTATION · 62 Sample Claims · 30 Section 4 | reading analytically · 58 SECTION 6 | Graphic organizers · 72 SENTENCE FRAGMENT · 31 SHIFT IN PERSON · 32 SHIFT IN VERB TENSE · 32 Simple Guide to Text Annotation · 60

U Using Formal Voice: An Overused Word FUNeral · 41

W Writing vocabulary · 27