IFR for Professional Pilots

IFR for Professional Pilots

2008 Edition Revised Sept 15, 2008

By Ray Preston and Chris Thring

Needed amendments: The following items are in need of amendment in this text but time has not yet permitted this work. As the semester progresses we will discuss these items and effort will be required on your part to research these topics beyond what is contained in this text.

Required equipment – especially for RNAV operation Filing STAR, SID on flight plans Approach Bans Exercises on alternate selection Exercises on cold temperature corrections – include formulae Temperature corrections – round off to nearest 100 or 10 as appropriate Crew briefings Use of EFIS, autopilot, altitude alerter, etc Alternate selections – TEMPO, BCMG, sliding scale, GFA, with GPS Cleared into and out of controlled airspace – 108 Mile Approach for example Maximum and minimum altimeter setting, and what to do about it.

Teardrop procedure turns Jeppesen approach plates – briefing strip

Introduction To be a Professional Pilot is more or less synonymous with being an IFR pilot. It should therefore be clear that the contents of this text are vital to anyone who wishes to be a professional pilot. I would not want to leave you with the impression that it contains all that is important however. This text concentrates on the technicalities of IFR flying, but only a limited discussion of the decision making that is required can be presented here. In addition the supporting topics of meteorology and air regulations are left for other texts and courses. There is a rich philosophical subtext to professional aviation that cannot be put into words. There is a professional mindset that you must dedicate yourself to developing. Technical competence alone is not enough.

In this course you will learn the procedural aspects of IFR flight, that is to say how holds, approaches, STARs, SIDS and the many other procedures are conducted. You will also develop a sense of how the ATC system supports you, the Professional Pilot. You will learn the communication techniques that are so vital to safe IFR flight. And, you will learn to “think like an IFR pilot,� by which we mean, to deploy the various pieces of equipment at your disposal to keep track of your position in the abstract world you have chosen to devote your life to. This course coordinates with Avia 120 and 220 in which you learn meteorology, Avia 130 and 230 in which you learn all the relevant regulations, Avia 150 and 250 in which you develop the teamwork skills so vital to your success, Avia 240 in which you learn the additional details of long range flight, and Avia 261 in which you learn the technicalities of all the navigation systems. Only when the complete package has been synthesized in your mind will you be ready to call yourself a Professional Pilot. Keep in mind that synthesis is necessary. Avoid the tendency to take the new knowledge in as discreet bits. All the techniques, skills, and knowledge are useless if isolated.

This course follows Avia 160 in which you learned the fundamentals of navigation, and developed a rudimentary appreciation of how the IFR system works. There will be review questions and assignments in this course. Be sure to keep your Navigation for Professional Pilots text and review it often during this course.

In Canada NavCanada is responsible for maintaining the navigation infrastructure of our airspace system. Their mandate includes installing and maintaining the hundreds of VORs, NDBs, and ILSs. You will learn more about NavCanada in Avia 230. The US military operates a GPS satellite system that pilots from all countries are permitted to use (with limitations that you need to be aware of.) The Russians have a separate GPS system, and the Europeans are preparing to launch their own. As all these technical wonders of the 21st century are the structure of the environment you will work in you should develop a keen interest in how they all work. The course Avia 261 covers most of this, but you must develop the habit of keeping abreast of future changes post-graduation.

How navigation systems work is largely beyond the scope of this course, but we will spend a lot of time examining the work-a-day details of employing them; the difference being roughly the equivalent of knowing how to drive a car as opposed to how it works.

We will examine what navaids should be used as well as when, and how to do this without losing situational awareness. You will discover that flying IFR is inherently abstract. By far the biggest challenge both initially and throughout your career will be

“situational awareness.� Many accidents are the result of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) which happens when the pilot looses the mental image of where s/he is. Aspects of countering this are raised in Avia 150 and 250, but the recommended procedures developed in this course are designed to help you avoid this fate.

Throughout this course you will need the Transport Canada Instrument Procedures Manual, a CAP2, CAP3, LO1/2, HI, Terminal Charts, and CFS. Also, have your CR3 and an electronic calculator handy. You will also be referring to the Program Manual, in particular the FTM/IPM. We will also make use of online resources, many of which are provided by the FAA including the entire USA approach chart inventory as well as several excellent texts in PDF format.

You will also need POH for C-172P, Beech 95, and King Air for the flight planning exercises.

IFR regulations are covered in Avia 130 and 230. Despite that many regulations must be referred to in this text. You should read the entire RAC, MET, COM, AIR, and MAP sections of the AIM. Also read and know the contents of CFS section F. Pay particular attention to RAC 6.3 (communications failure) as this is a major topic on INRAT exam. This is also covered in CFS section F.

Table of Contents: CHAPTER 1.......................................................................................................... 7 Overview of IFR Flight .................................................................................................................................7 Definition of IFR ........................................................................................................................................7 Uncontrolled IFR ...................................................................................................................................8 The Emergence of ATC .........................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 2........................................................................................................ 10 IFR Charts ...................................................................................................................................................10 Canada Air Pilot (CAP) .......................................................................................................................10 LO Charts .............................................................................................................................................10 HI Charts ..............................................................................................................................................10 Terminal Charts ...................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER 3........................................................................................................ 12 Airspace Structure .......................................................................................................................................12 Domestic Flight Information Regions (FIR) .............................................................................................12 Tower ...................................................................................................................................................13 Oceanic Control ...................................................................................................................................15 Structure of Nav-Canada’s Airspace System ............................................................................................16 Northern / Southern Domestic Airspace ..............................................................................................16 Low and High Level Airspace .............................................................................................................16 Low Level Airways and Air Routes .....................................................................................................18 Approach and Departure Airspace .......................................................................................................18 Class F -Special Use Airspace .............................................................................................................20

CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................ 21 Traffic Separation (ATC’s Responsibility)................................................................................................21 Procedural Separation ..........................................................................................................................21 Radar Separation ..................................................................................................................................34 Special Topics in Protected Airspace ...................................................................................................34 Extra Services Provided by ATC .........................................................................................................36

CHAPTER 5........................................................................................................ 37 IFR Departure Procedure ...........................................................................................................................37 Terrain Separation during Departure ...................................................................................................37 Terrain Separation Enroute ..................................................................................................................49 Terrain Separation on Approach ..........................................................................................................50 Non Standard Approach Designs .........................................................................................................61 GPS Database ...........................................................................................................................................65 Enroute Navigation ...................................................................................................................................76 Performing IFR Procedures ......................................................................................................................76 Holding Patterns...................................................................................................................................76 Shuttling .............................................................................................................................................113 SIDs ...................................................................................................................................................113

CHAPTER 6...................................................................................................... 115

Flying IFR Approaches .............................................................................................................................115 ILS Approach .....................................................................................................................................126 VOR Approach ..................................................................................................................................134 DME Arc Arrival ...............................................................................................................................134 ADF Approach ...................................................................................................................................135 Localizer Approach ............................................................................................................................135 Back Course Approach ......................................................................................................................135 GPS Approach, with the KLN90b .....................................................................................................136 PAR Approach ...................................................................................................................................137 Circling Approaches ..........................................................................................................................138 Arrival at an airport with no IFR approach ........................................................................................139 IFR flight planning .................................................................................................................................141 Preferred IFR Routes .........................................................................................................................141 Filing an IFR Round Robin Flight Plan .............................................................................................141 IFR communications ...............................................................................................................................143 Enunciate ...........................................................................................................................................143 Say less to say more ...........................................................................................................................144 Know When and What to Report .......................................................................................................144 Read Back – Verbatim .......................................................................................................................146 Phonetic Alphabet ..............................................................................................................................147 By the Numbers .................................................................................................................................148 Key Phrases ........................................................................................................................................149 Sample Radio Calls – Lear JET: CYVR to CYYC ............................................................................152 Sample Radio Calls – King Air: CYXX to CYYJ .............................................................................161 Sample Radio Calls – King Air: CYCG to CYVR ............................................................................166 Copying clearances .................................................................................................................................173 Situational Awareness in IFR Flight .......................................................................................................176 Effective Use of Navigation Equipment .................................................................................................186 Tune Setup Identify (TSI) ..................................................................................................................186 TSI for Frasca 142 .............................................................................................................................190 TSI for Beech 95 ................................................................................................................................191 TSI for Alsim .....................................................................................................................................192 Scripting Principles ............................................................................................................................194 Briefings .................................................................................................................................................199 Takeoff Briefing.................................................................................................................................199 WAT .......................................................................................................................................................200 AMORTS................................................................................................................................................202 IFR in uncontrolled airspace ...................................................................................................................204 Sample Radio Calls for Uncontrolled IFR Flight – Yellowknife to Cambridge Bay .........................205 Appendix 1 – Frasca 142 Radio Template ..............................................................................................210 Appendix 2 – B95 Radio Template ........................................................................................................211 Appendix 3 – King Air Radio Template .................................................................................................212

Chapter 1 Overview of IFR Flight Definition of IFR IFR stands for Instrument Flight Rules. The purpose of having these rules is to facilitate flight in weather that prevents pilots from seeing either the ground or other airplanes.

When airplanes fly in cloud we say they are in IMC weather. In the early days of aviation airplanes did not have instruments by which pilots could maintain control in IMC. In those early days entering cloud for more than a few seconds resulted in loss of control, usually a spin or spiral, and either a crash or, if the pilot was lucky, a recovery once out of cloud.

By the end of World War II flight instruments had been developed that permitted pilots to control airplanes in IMC. Of all the flight instruments developed the “artificial horizon� was the most important. An artificial horizon is a gyro instrument that displays pitch and bank information. Unlike a real horizon it does not show yaw, i.e. heading changes, and thus today the term artificial horizon has been dropped and we call the instrument an Attitude Indicator (AI.) Controlling an airplane by instruments alone requires a scan. The recommended procedure is called selective radial scan. It is covered in the Transport Canada Flight Training Manual and the Selkirk College FTM/IPM under lesson 24. The FTM/IPM refers to a simulation on the ProfessinoalPilot.ca website called selective radial scan. All this was covered in the first year of the Professional Pilot Program. In this text it is assumed that you have mastered the selective radial scan.

Once airplanes could be flown in IMC three problems remained: 1. How to navigate without ground contact 2. How to avoid other airplanes 3. How to avoid striking terrain such as mountains, towers, etc.

To solve problem 1 required the introduction of radio navigation. Our modern system of VOR, ADF, LORAN-C, and GPS is the result of 60+ years of technological progress.

Today pilots can navigate with amazing accuracy without being able to see the ground. In the first year of the Professional Pilot Program you learned all the skills necessary for radio navigation. You should reread for review the text Navigation for Professional Pilots. In this text it is assumed that you already know how to track accurately and intercept a course. You also know how to fly a DME arc, and have completed an introduction to procedure turns (but have more to learn about these.)

As you know, VOR, ADF, and GPS have accuracy and operational limits. Knowing these is vital to your safety; much of this is covered in Avia 130, 230, and 261, be sure to pay close attention to the details.

Uncontrolled IFR Once problem 1 was solved pilots naturally wanted to fly in IMC to offer reliable schedules. These pioneers foresaw what today we take for granted - airlines. There was no government run air traffic control system, so the pilots used common sense and developed a system of flying IFR without conflicting with each other.

Common sense told them that two airplanes could not safely fly in the same vicinity at the same time so a very simple method was developed for solving problem 2. Pilots coordinated between each other on the radio. Prior to takeoff the pilot would broadcast that s/he was ready for takeoff and then listen for responses. If someone else was in the air they would talk and the two pilots would “work out” the conflict. For example the airborne pilot might say, “I am at 6000 feet and will stay up here until you takeoff and leave the area.” The other pilot would then simply say, “O.K. I will takeoff and climb to 5000 feet.” The pilots would report their positions and listen to the reports of others. thus knowing when it was safe to climb or descend, make an approach, and so on.

When an airplane neared its destination the pilot would report that s/he was making an approach, An airplane waiting for departure would have to wait while the airborne airplane landed, or the airborne pilot might “hold” for a while, waiting for the other to takeoff, depending on who acted first.

How does the above sound to you?

In northern Canada this form of “separation” is still in use. This is called IFR in Uncontrolled Airspace. There is no Air Traffic Control (ATC) in a lot of northern Canada. Near the end of this text we will return to the details of operating IFR with no controller, and no clearance. But first let’s look at the ATC system and what it does for us.

The Emergence of ATC Uncontrolled IFR is only feasible when there is a very limited volume of traffic. IFR with no ATC is perfectly safe, and as mentioned above is done every day in northern Canada.

However, a method of facilitating higher volumes of IFR traffic is needed. The purpose of the ATC system is to facilitate numerous IFR airplanes in relatively close spatial and time proximity.

The ATC system consists of controllers who keep track of the location of all the IFR airplanes and by approving their routes ensure that they do not conflict. The pilots do not communicate directly with each other, instead they communicate with a controller who issues a clearance, which means exactly what the route word implies. The word clear means emptied. Therefore a clearance means that the airspace is clear, i.e. empty, of other traffic. As long as the pilot follows the assigned clearance s/he is assured that no conflict, with other traffic, will arise.

It is important to understand that ATC exists primarily for separating airplanes from each other and NOT to separate airplanes from terrain. If traffic volumes were low enough pilots could fly IFR with no ATC. The IFR pilot is capable of avoiding terrain and obstacles during departure, enroute and approach and can therefore complete an entire flight without a controller. The only thing the pilot cannot do is avoid other aircraft in IMC. That is what we pilots need controllers for.

By the way, a future concept in aviation is called “free flight.” The idea of free flight is to eliminate controllers by providing pilots with cockpit displays somewhat similar to a controllers radar screen. Pilots could then return to the original days of IFR by communicating directly with each other and working out conflicts. In reality complex computer programs onboard would likely “negotiate” who goes first and so on. It remains to be seen to what extend free flight becomes a reality in the 21st century. For the purpose of this course free flight will not be considered.

Chapter 2 IFR Charts Read AIM MAP section, especially MAP 3.0 through 8.1 (online at http://www.tc.gc.ca/CivilAviation/publications/tp14371/menu.htm)

Canada Air Pilot (CAP) The CAP (Canada Air Pilot) is published on behalf of NavCanada. It’s primary purpose is to present IFR arrival, approach, departure, and aerodrome charts for airports with publicly available instrument approaches. There is also a restricted Canada Air Pilot.

There are 7 volumes of the CAP, each with information for a particular part of Canada.

CAP 2 covers British Columbia and CAP3 covers the Prairie Provinces; these will be the main focus in this text.

Many companies use approach plates provided by other companies such as Jeppesen Sanderson, known as Jepp charts. These include the same information but are formatted differently. The FAA publishes the complete list of USA approach charts online at: http://www.naco.faa.gov .

Pilots should read the special notices that make up the first few pages of each CAP. These are used to disseminate recent changes to IFR standards or procedures. For example at the time of this writing the notices include information relating to operation using GPS and for flying RNAV STARS. We can expect these notices to be removed when this information has been published in the AIM CAP GEN The CAP GEN contains a great deal of useful information. Every IFR pilot should read it cover-to-cover. The course manual includes an assignment coving the CAP GEN. All the information is CAP GEN can be found in other sources, especially the AIM; however the CAP GEN, which is easy to carry in a flight bag makes a convenient reference for pilots wishing to check alternate limits or the meaning of approach light codes, etc.

LO Charts LO Charts show all Canadian low level airways and air routes. IFR pilots must be completely familiar with the symbols used as described in the legend.

HI Charts HI Charts show all high altitude Canadian airways as well as the organized track structure used in ACA.

Terminal Charts Terminal charts are published for those airports with terminal radar service. The significance of terminal radar in increasing the utilization of airspace has been explained in chapter 1.

Chapter 3 Airspace Structure I recommend that your read RAC 2 (entire section) before continuing below.

Domestic Flight Information Regions (FIR) Canadian air traffic controllers work either in IFR Centers or Control Towers. Towers are located at controlled airports and are discussed in the next section. IFR Centers are located in buildings that are not necessarily at airports. Each center is responsible for a block of airspace called a Flight Information Region (FIR.) In Canada there are seven domestic centers located at: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Gander Moncton Montreal Toronto Winnipeg Edmonton Vancouver

Read RAC 2.4 in your AIM before proceeding. Figure 2.2 shows the location of the above FIRs. It also shows Gander Oceanic FIR, which is discussed below.

You will discover that Canada and the USA have agreements in certain areas such that Canadian controllers control some American airspace, and vice versa. Detroit controls traffic around Windsor for example, and Vancouver controls traffic at Bellingham Washington.

Each FIR is broken into sectors with one controller (sometimes with assistance) responsible for all IFR traffic in that sector. The dimensions of sectors are set so that no controller is overwhelmed with too much traffic. Sectors may be expanded or contracted throughout the day as traffic volumes change. In the vicinity of very busy airports, such as Vancouver and Toronto, a Terminal area is designated. This usually includes a VFR terminal area (VTA) which is intended to put VFR traffic under positive control and reduce the chance of conflicts with IFR traffic1. For IFR control a terminal is divided into numerous small sectors (one or two departure and arrival sectors for each runway for instance.) At such an airport there would typically be an IFR airplane lifting off and landing every 60 to 120 seconds. This would mean 20+ airplanes within 30 miles of the airport, and that is far too much for one controller to handle; that is why the airspace must be divided into small sectors.

At airports with insufficient traffic to warrant a terminal one controller will handle both arrivals and departures, and often some over-flying enroute traffic. If traffic volumes are 1

The regulatory aspects of this VTA are covered in Avia 130 and 230 so will not be discussed here. Here we are interested in understanding how the IFR aspects of the airspace actually work

very low then one sector may encompass multiple airports. As mentioned, the size of sectors changes as traffic volumes change, for example in the middle of the night one controller may control all low level traffic in the B.C. interior which includes several airports such as Penticton, Kelowna, Kamloops, Cranbrook and an occasional aircraft at Grand Forks and Princeton. During the day this same airspace would be broken into several sectors.

IFR Controllers specialize; some control high level traffic, some control arrivals, some departures, and some low level enroute traffic. Controllers who handle airplanes that change altitude a lot, such as arrival and departures, have an inherently higher workload, which is why arrival and departure sectors are small. High level controllers deal with airplanes flying in level flight and thus can handle more volume and a much larger geographic area.

When an airplane reaches the edge of one controller’s sector s/he hands it off to the next controller. While the airplane is within one FIR the controllers are all sitting in the same room and able to speak with each other directly. They discuss each handoff before it happens and can easily pass on special concerns (although they sometimes don’t.) When the handoff is from FIR to FIR telephone coordination is needed.

On a typical IFR flight from a busy airport such as Toronto, after being cleared for takeoff by the tower the pilot will talk next to a departure controller who may deal with the airplane for only the first 5 miles. A second departure controller may deal with the airplane from there to 30 or 40 miles out at which time a third controller may deal with the airplane up to 18,000, then a high altitude controller will take over and deal with the flight for 200 miles or so. The airplane is then handed from one high altitude controller to the next every 100 to 200 miles until nearing destination. Once the airplane descends below 18,000 a high level controller will hand it off to a low altitude controller. The airplane will be handed off again to an arrival controller perhaps 40 miles from destination. At a busy airport such as Vancouver arrival may be subdivided into multiple sectors, so the airplane may be handed off to a second arrival controller 20 miles out. The arrival controller will deal with the airplane until it is established on final approach; at that point it will be handed off to the tower who will clear it to land.

Tower controllers work in the tower at the airport and are therefore physically separated from IFR controllers. The IFR controller can phone the tower to coordinate handoffs if necessary.

The above description gives you a sense of how an IFR flight is passed from one controller to another. It gives you no idea how the controllers actually do their job. We will deal with that in the section How ATC Works below.

Tower The primary purpose of a Tower is to coordinate takeoffs and landings thus preventing conflict on the runways. It would obviously be disastrous if an airplane tried to takeoff while another was landing. The Tower controller’s principle job is to prevent this.

If you have flown VFR at a controlled airport such as Boundary Bay, Pitt Meadows, Langley, or Kelowna you have a pretty good idea of how the tower controller does his/her job. If you haven’t experienced it you can probably imagine it.

Tower controllers are NOT IFR controllers. They do NOT issue IFR clearances. Neverthe-less they play an important role in keeping IFR traffic separated. The most important role they play is sequencing departures in accordance with IFR separation standards.

Because the tower takes this responsibility departing IFR aircraft can obtain an IFR clearance that is not actually valid. That would not be possible at and uncontrolled airport. Let me explain what that means.

In the section above titled Emergence of ATC I pointed out that the word clearance means that the approved route is clear, i.e. empty of conflicting traffic. But if that was the case as soon as you get your IFR clearance you could simply taxi out and takeoff without fear of conflict with any IFR traffic (remember that an IFR clearance provides no assurance about conflict with VFR traffic.) At a small airport such as Castlegar (which has no tower) that is indeed the case. But at a busier airport such as Vancouver common sense tells us that it can’t be true. What is the actual situation?

At Vancouver an airplane departs IFR about every 90 seconds, so obviously an IFR clearance is issued every 90 seconds. But this clearance is normally copied by the pilots 15 minutes or so before departure. So, at any given moment 10+ airplanes are all cleared for perhaps two active SIDs (a SID is a published departure procedure details of which we will examine later.) In addition there will be 10 to 20 airplanes that will complete the IFR approach and land while the departing airplane taxis out but before it takes off and leaves the area. All this traffic is obviously in “conflict” and so the term “clearance” cannot mean what it is supposed to.

It is the skill of the tower controller that resolves the above dilemma. When each airplane is ready it calls the tower and requests takeoff clearance. The tower controller knows the IFR separation standards, which we discuss under HOW ATC Works below, so he checks that no IFR traffic is on final within the permitted distance and also that the preceding departure has reached the required distance (usually 5 miles in each case) and if that airspace is “clear” he tells the pilot, “Cleared for takeoff.” At that moment the word clear and the concept of clearance come together. The pilot can be assured that the airspace is empty of conflicting traffic, i.e. clear. Once airborne the tower will hand the airplane off to the departure controller who will maintain the required IFR separation, as we will discuss below. It is important to realize that the tower establishes separation by spacing sequential departures so that the airplanes are 5 miles or more apart once they get to the departure controller (the first IFR controller the pilot deals with.) Note: should a pilot wish to make a maneuver or do anything contrary to the IFR clearance s/he has copied a tower CANNOT issue or approve such a clearance. As stated previously, tower is NOT an IFR control agency.

It is imperative to understand that when I described a tower controller clearing airplanes to takeoff five miles apart I was thinking of a radar environment with a departure controller. If the airport has no radar service then much greater separation standards

apply, which we will discuss later. If no radar is available the tower controller would sequence departures according to procedural separation standards.

The obvious question is; how are departures sequenced when there is no tower, i.e. at an uncontrolled airport, such as Castlegar? The answer was implied above. The pilot will not be able to get an IFR clearance until the airspace is clear. FSS will relay the clearance, or the pilot may contact the IFR controller directly, but no clearance will be issued until the airspace is clear. Consequently only one airplane can have an IFR departure clearance at a time. When one airplane gets a departure clearance any other airplane wishing to depart will have to wait until the first one takes off and leaves the area. This obviously reduces the number of airplanes that can depart in a given period of time. This system works smoothly when an airport has one departure per hour rather than one per minute. When a larger number of airplanes wish to depart in a short time frame the system cannot accommodate them. Pilots will attempt to depart VFR, or request VFR climbs to avoid delays. We will discuss these options later, but they obviously only apply when the weather is NOT IMC. If the weather is IMC there is nothing to do but relax and enjoy the wait ď Š

Oceanic Control Canada has been designated by ICAO to take responsibility for control of the Western North Atlantic Ocean. The oceanic control center is in Gander Newfoundland. Please note that Gander also has a domestic FIR, which was included in the description above.

Oceanic control is explained in RAC 11. Operation in the oceanic control area is mostly covered in Avia 240 and 261. It is however done by procedural methods, which we will turn to shortly.

Structure of Nav-Canada’s Airspace System Before we can discuss how ATC controls IFR traffic we need to know the terminology of the airspace structure. You should already know this material from Avia 130. Review RAC 2.0 before proceeding.

In what follows I will not repeat all the contents of RAC 2.0. I will try to clarify some of the confusing aspects of the airspace system.

Something to keep in mind, which might sound very flip but it is important; airspace is uncontrolled unless it is controlled. What I mean by that is that it is best to begin by imagining all the airspace over Canada as being uncontrolled and therefore available for uncontrolled IFR as previously described. From this unregulated airspace NavCanada takes control of certain airspace, as described in RAC 2.0. The AIM naturally concentrates on explaining what is controlled. After you read RAC 2.0 try to visualize what is not controlled, i.e. what is not mentioned.

Northern / Southern Domestic Airspace Take note that the purpose of this division is that in the SDA magnetic tracks are used, while in the NDA true tracks (and runway numbers) are used. See RAC Figure 2.1 Notice that the northern domestic airspace is further divided into the northern control area (NCA) and arctic control area (ACA) (see RAC Figure 2.3.) Pay particular attention to RAC 2.6, it is worth reading a few times to digest fully.

Question: where does high level airspace begin in the northern domestic airspace?

Formulate your answer before reading the next paragraph.

High level airspace begins at 18,000 feet, but control is provided only at FL 230 and above in the NCA and FL270 in the ACA. Therefore, the airspace below these flight levels is uncontrolled.

Be sure to notice that all of the northern domestic airspace is a standard pressure region, which is discussed below.

Low and High Level Airspace Low level airspace is below 18,000 feet. A frequent exam question is whether or not 18,000’ is in high or low level airspace. What is your answer? Does the answer change with altimeter setting?

18,000 feet is in high level airspace, regardless of altimeter setting.

Standard Pressure and Altimeter Setting Regions It is crucial to wrap your mind around the altimeter setting regions, as described in RAC 2.10 and 2.11. In the standard pressure region you set the altimeter to 29.92 and all altitudes are referred to as flight levels. In the altimeter setting region you set the

altimeter to the reported altimeter setting of the nearest station so that your altimeter indicates approximately the altitude above sea level. This is what you are used to doing as a VFR pilot, but if you look at RAC Figure 2.9 you can see that most of Canada is actually a standard pressure region.

In the Southern Domestic Airspace the high level airspace is also the standard pressure region. In the Northern Domestic Airspace the whole area is a standard pressure region.

To put it another way, the only airspace in which you set the altimeter is the low level airspace in the southern domestic control area (which just happens to be where you have flown up to now.)

To check your understanding, imagine you wish to fly IFR directly from Yellow Knife to Iqaluit. Can you fly at 9000 feet?

The answer is no. You will fly at FL90.

As explained in RAC 2.11 you should set the altimeter to the airport altimeter setting for departure and arrival, even in the standard pressure region, i.e. in the northern domestic airspace. Pay close attention to the rules about when to switch to 29.92, this is a common Transport Canada exam questions.

An important rule is that the altimeter should be adjusted in the standard pressure region (see RAC 2.11 transition.) Changing the altimeter from 29.92 to the current altimeter setting is called transition (this term is part of the AMORTS briefing covered later in this text.) When you fly the King Air keep in mind that you transition above 18,000, or after leaving southern airspace and entering northern.

When the altimeter setting is more than 29.92 then an airplane cruising at FL180 would actually be more than 18,000 ASL, which means there would be plenty of vertical separation from airplanes at 17,000 feet. But if the altimeter setting is less than 29.92 FL180 would be less than 18,000. Since the rules say that high level airspace starts at 18,000 it should be obvious that on such days FL180 does not exist. See RAC 6.4.3 which should now make sense.

Jet Routes If you have been keeping track of what has been covered so far you know that all the SDA at 18,000 and above is controlled (i.e. is SCA.) Within NDA, NCA control starts at FL230 and ACA starts at FL270. There are NO lateral limits, i.e. there are no gaps within this controlled airspace, the whole area is controlled, so any route you fly will be in controlled airspace, and will therefore need a clearance from ATC. On HI charts the airways within the high level airspace are called “jet airways.� Jet airways do not have specific widths, unlike the low level airways we will discuss next. In SDA Jet airway tracks are magnetic and in NDA they are true.

Low Level Airways and Air Routes Now we will discuss the low level airspace, which you will recall is everything below 18,000 feet. Remember that low level airspace is uncontrolled except where specified. So NavCanada specifies airways along which it provides IFR control. It also takes control of airspace around IFR airports for departures and arrivals. The rest of the airspace remains uncontrolled, so you can fly IFR in it without a clearance.

Low level airways are tracks between VORs or NDBs. Some airways run from a VOR to an NDB. If a VOR is one of the navaids upon which the airways is based it is called a Victor airway. If the airway is based only on two NDBs it is called a low frequency airway.

When a Victor airway is based on two VORs its width is as shown in RAC 2.7.1 Figure 2.5(a) Low frequency airways and Victor airways based on one VOR and one NDB are wider, as shown in Figure 2.5(b) and 2.5(c.)

An example of a Victor airway that is based on both VOR and NDB is V304 between EMPRESS and LUMSDEN, on LO2. There are numerous other examples, including V23 between VANCOUVER and NANAIMO on LO1 and Vancouver terminal chart.

The base of airways is 2200 agl, the top is just below 18,000 (i.e. 18,000 is not included.)

Below the airway is class G airspace.

The lower portion of airways is class E airspace. Above 12,500 airways are class B. Pay attention to RAC 1.9.2 and notice that in many areas a transponder with mode C is required to fly above 10,000 feet on these airways (even for VFR airplanes.) Mode C is always required above 12,500 and VFR traffic must have a clearance to fly in class B airspace. See RAC 2.8.2 for full details.

Reporting Points Reporting points, marked with little triangles, will be found on LO charts along the airways. Solid triangles represent mandatory reporting points and open triangles represent on request reporting points. Examine the legend for the LO chart and become completely familiar with all the symbols.

Approach and Departure Airspace So far the only controlled low level airspace we have described is airways. These are relatively narrow strips about 8 or 9 miles wide. If this was all the controlled airspace it would be impossible to control IFR departures and arrivals. Since controlling arrivals and departures is one of the primary mandates of ATC NavCanada must take control of airspace around airports. This is done by establishing control zones, control area extensions, and transitions areas. We will look at each in turn.

Please read all of RAC 2.7 before continuing. I do not intend to repeat it all, only provide clarification in the hopes of making the structure easier to understand and remember.

Control Zones You are probably familiar with control zones as a VFR pilot because you probably dealt with them. You are used to requesting a clearance before entering the zone. The controller clears you to join the circuit and then clears you to land, etc. You know the routine.

The base of a control zone is ground level and the top is typically 3000 agl. IFR airplanes are controlled within the zone, but remember that IFR clearances come from the Center, not the Tower.

Control zones can be class B,C, or D. It makes no operational difference to the IFR pilot, although most prefer class B zones. In a Class B zone VFR traffic is also kept positively separated just like IFR traffic. We are going to discuss separation shortly. Normally separation is a concept that applies only to IFR traffic, but in a Class B zone it also applies to VFR traffic.

In class C, and D zones VFR traffic is not positively separated, although assistance in avoiding other traffic is normally provided if the controller has time. Note that it is done ONLY if the controller has time. In a Class B zone it HAPPENS, period.

IFR airplanes obviously fly in control zones only for the first and last two or three minutes of a flight. However, this is usually the portion of a flight in which the airplane transitions from IMC to VMC and may be in and out of cloud. VFR traffic must be very careful to avoid IFR traffic in this case. An IFR pilots in IMC gets very nervous about VFR airplanes in the area (hence the appreciation of Class B zones.)

Control Area Extensions I assume you are keeping track as we develop an image of controlled airspace. So far we only have airways and control zones. There are bound to be gaps between the airway and the control zone. In order to be able to clear airplanes to leave an airway to an approach procedure a control area extension will often be needed. These are described in RAC 2.7.2.

Note that control area extensions have the same base and top as airways.

Transition Areas Transition areas are similar to control area extensions except that they are based at 700 agl.

IFR approach procedures almost always have segments that extend beyond the control zone. A block of airspace called a transition area will be designated so that the airplane is in controlled airspace while it performs the approach procedure.

Class F -Special Use Airspace I am sure that controllers wish there was no such thing as Class F airspace. Be sure to read RAC 2.8.6.

You cannot fly IFR in Class F airspace. Therefore ATC must clear you around or over it, but NEVER through it.

There are three exceptions. You can fly IFR through Class F airspace if ________. The answer is in RAC 2.8.6 and is a typical exam question.

Note the rules about joint use airspace, also in RAC 2.8.6. This is class F airspace that becomes class E airspace when not in use, and therefore you can get an IFR clearance through it.

Chapter 4 Traffic Separation (ATC’s Responsibility) You likely know that controllers use radar to observe the location of airplanes and use it to separate them. But ATC existed long before radar was available. IFR traffic control is possible with no radar. The method is called procedural separation. Procedural separation is used today on oceanic routes and in less populated regions where radar is not available.

In the event radar fails ATC can revert to procedural operation. We will therefore start by examining how procedural separation is done.

Procedural Separation Before an airplane can get an IFR clearance in controlled airspace a flight plan must be filed. Note that a flight plan is not needed to fly IFR in uncontrolled airspace. The flight plan is used to predict where the airplane will be relative to others during the flight time.

Today the analysis is done by a computer, but in the early days of IFR it was done by hand. The only difference is the volume of traffic that can be processed.

The controller going over the flight plan creates a strip, which is just a piece of paper that has the airplane’s call sign, type, equipment, TAS, departure point, route, and destination on it. Based on the filed TAS the strip contains estimated time at each reporting point along the filed route. Reporting points include all VORs and NDBs as well as other designated points along the airways. When done by hand this process is done with a computer, such as a CR3, and takes several minutes, depending on how long the flight is.

You can see why it is required to file an IFR flight plan at least 30 minutes before departure.

The picture below shows a typical IFR flight strip. The exact format varies depending on the type of airspace. The strip shown here is for procedural control. A slightly different format is used for radar control.

IFR strips are laid out with the aircraft ident, type, and TAS on the left for westbound aircraft and on the right for eastbound. An eastbound example is shown later. The labeling on the strip is for your reference, the actual strip is blank as you will see when we demonstrate their use later.

The information is taken from the filed flight plan and then the strip is printed by a strip printer like this one:

Controller organizes IFR Flight Strips Strips are moved right from bay to bay for eastbound flights and left for westbound.

Strips in each bay are all proceeding to the same or parallel fixes.

Later an example control situation will be examined and you will see completed strips with hand written notations added.

Standards for Procedural Separation If Radar is not available airplanes flying IFR are separated procedurally. Pilots are required to report over all compulsory reporting points, using the format described on the back cover of the CFS. The controller keeps track of the airplanes position by recording each position report on the strip. The simplified LO chart below under the topic Time Separation shows several compulsory reporting points and three VORTACs, which are also compulsory reporting points. We will use this “make believe� world to discuss how the controller separates traffic.

Controllers have several methods at their disposal for separating IFR airplanes procedurally. First I will list them, and then we will discuss each in turn: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Delay issuing clearance VFR Departure VFR Restrictions Altitude separation Time separation Protected Airspace a. Lateral Separation on Airways i. Diverging tracks ii. Visual separation iii. Distance Reports by pilots iv. Direct communication between pilots b. Protected Airspace for Holds c. Protected Airspace for Approaches

Delay Issuing Clearance We have already covered this concept. The tower controller clears an airplane for takeoff only when the separation standards are met.

If no tower exists then a clearance is not issued until the airspace is clear.

If the airport is in a remote area where no FSS or direct pilot to controller radio contact (DCPC) can be made (but in controlled airspace) the pilot may telephone to get an IFR clearance before takeoff. In this case the airspace must be considered “occupied” from the time the clearance is issued until the pilot gets in the air and contacts the controller to report his/her position. Imagine the following scenario as an example.

The pilot wishes to takeoff from Nakusp IFR. The pilot telephones Vancouver center and receives the clearance, “GABC is cleared to the Vancouver airport via direct TENYA V342, maintain 14,000.” The pilot then completes his preflight inspection, taxis out, does a run-up, takes off and begins climbing to 14,000 in IMC. Once above 10,000 s/he will probably be able to talk to Vancouver center for the first time. How much time will have elapsed since the telephone call?

In the mean time a different airplane is flying eastbound on V342 and requests a descent to 13,000. What happens?

The controller cannot issue the descent clearance because all the airspace from ground level up to 14,000 has been “cleared” for GABC. What if GABC has a bad mag and never takes off? Is the poor guy on V342 requesting descent to 13,000 stuck up there forever?

When controllers issue IFR clearances over the phone, or relayed through FSS, they frequently include an expiry time. Words such as, “Clearance not valid after 21:40Z” may be included. In this case, the pilot is expected to takeoff by 21:40. If s/he cannot then the clearance expires and s/he must call for another. The controller will wait a reasonable amount of time after 21:40 and if the airplane does not call in, the airspace will be considered available for other traffic again.

As already stated, a controller cannot issue a clearance to an airplane departing an uncontrolled airport unless the airspace it will fly through is clear, i.e. empty of all IFR traffic. It is important to realize that IFR controllers must separate IFR traffic even when the weather is VMC. But, a pilot can request permission to provide his/her own traffic separation by asking for a VFR departure.

VFR Departure Read RAC 6.2.2 A pilot may request permission to depart VFR and pick up an IFR clearance in the air.

Obviously the weather must be VFR to do this. It is necessary to have ATC permission to

do this. When the aircraft takes off it is NOT IFR. It does not become IFR until it receives a clearance. Why would the controller not approve the request?

If two airplanes are both trying to depart at the same time on the same route ATC will be reluctant to authorize a VFR departure (presumably for the second airplane) because it is difficult or impossible to establish separation. In other words the airplanes will remain in close proximity to each other. In this case ATC will refuse the request and the second pilot should do the entire flight VFR or wait on the ground for an IFR clearance.

VFR departures do work well when the conflicting traffic is in the opposite direction.

Obviously an outbound airplane will pass an inbound and quickly reach a point at which separation exists. Once ATC determines separation is adequate an IFR clearance can be issued.

Remember that when departing VFR the airplane is not permitted to enter IMC conditions.

VFR Restrictions Read RAC 6.2.1 At various times on a trip an airplane will need to climb or descend to a new altitude.

Before a controller can clear the airplane to the new altitude the airspace in between must be clear; e.g. if the airplane is at 12,000 and requests to descent to 8,000 there must be no traffic at 9,000 10,000 or 11,000. In a non-radar environment the controller does not know the exact location of all the airplanes so any traffic that could possibly be within the airspace prevents a climb or descent clearance.

The pilot can request a visual climb or descent, with the restrictions explained in RAC 6.2.1. Note that visual climbs and descents can only be done below 12,500, so they won’t do you any good when flying at high altitudes including flight levels.

During a VFR climb or descent the airplane has an IFR clearance but traffic separation is NOT being provided. The airplane must remain clear of cloud until reaching the new altitude.

Altitude separation The primary method of separating airplanes traveling along airways is by having them fly at different altitudes. Eastbound aircraft fly at odd altitudes and westbound aircraft fly at even altitudes. Consequently opposite direction aircraft on any airway are 1000 feet apart.

For example, one airplane can be cleared eastbound at 9000 at the same time another is cleared westbound at 10,000. At some time they will be over the same location but separated by 1000 feet.

A reciprocal track is any track that is within 45 degrees of the reciprocal, i.e. more than 135 degrees. Therefore, in the diagram below an eastbound aircraft on V2 is considered

opposite direction to an aircraft on V2. More on this when we examine protected airspace shortly.

Because altimeters are less accurate at high altitude the separation between aircraft is increased to 2000 above FL290, except that properly equipped airplanes can be 1000 feet apart in RVSM airspace. Read RAC 12.16.

Time separation When altitude separation cannot be used, i.e. both airplanes wish to fly the same altitude on the same route then time separation is normally used.

The controller is working several airplanes. One is expected at CASTL shortly. Its strip is as follows:

Referring to the chart and strip above imagine that airplane GABC reports over the CASTL reporting point, making a position report as follows: Pilot: Edmonton Center, GABC is over the CASTL at 1613, level at 9000, IFR, estimating SENTL at 1653, Wherecome next.

The controller adds this information to the strip; the updated strip now looks as follows:

Adding an X at CASTL confirms the airplane is past that point. The ETA for SENTL at 1653 is entered. The controller notes that the pilot is making this estimate based on a groundspeed of 120. S/he could enter this as a remark, as has been done in the sample strips. The strip shows the filed TAS as 105 KTAS, so apparently there is a 15 knot tailwind. The controller also notices that the airplane has reported at CASTL at 1613 but previously (at YPP) he estimated CASTL at 1614. This minor discrepancy is normal, so the controller has good confidence that the airplane is achieving a ground speed of 120 knots.

Airplane GDEF is expected at CASTL soon (based on a previous position report); its strip is shown below. The controller must decide if there is a conflict.

The standards for procedural separation require aircraft on the same track to be at least 10 minutes apart, unless the leading aircraft is 20 knots or faster than the trailing aircraft, in which case separation can be reduced to 5 minutes. GDEF is expected at CASTL at 1625, which will be 12 minutes after GABC; that will be fine, but the controller will do some calculating to see if separation will be maintained all the way to SENTL and YWH. GABC will require 40 minutes to reach SENTL and a further 35 minutes to YWH. GDEF will require 37 minutes to SENTL and 32 minutes to YWH (use you CR3 to confirm the controller’s calculations.) The separation will drop from 12 to 9 minutes at SENTL and if nothing is done will only be 6 minutes at YWH. The controller will call GDEF and issue a hold clearance at CASTL. S/he already knows that GABC passed there are 1613 and that GDEF needs to be delayed to at least 1619.

Some additional delay should probably be built in for a safety margin, so GDEF will likely be asked to hold until 1625.

Summary: Aircraft must remain at least 10 minutes apart when enroute except that if the aircraft in the lead is 20 knots faster than the trailing aircraft in which case the second airplane can be allowed to proceed when 5 minutes has elapsed. Obviously the time differential will increase over time, which is why this is permitted.

Protected Airspace We have already said that when a controller issues a “clearance” s/he is saying that the airspace is clear. We now turn to the question; which airspace is clear? Controllers protect blocks of airspace the size of which depends whether they are airways, holds, approaches, or departures. Each of these represents an area that must be protected.

Protected Airspace on Airways When an airplane is cleared to fly a particular airway it is compulsory that the pilot remain within the lateral dimensions of the airway. Previously, on page 18 we examined the width of low level airway. The controller protects the width of the airway, i.e. no other airplane can be cleared into the airspace represented by the airway. Review the standards for width of airways in RAC 2.7. High altitude Jet airways technically have no specified width, however ATC protects the same lateral dimensions as for low level airways. A small amount of extra airspace is protected for airplanes making turns

The diagram above shows V2, which is 8nm wide, plus an extra width equal to 4.5째 making it almost 16nm wide between CASTL and SENTL. In the earlier example of GABC and GDEF flying between CASTL and SENTL they must each be given exclusive access to this full airspace. I.E. this whole area must be clear.

In the diagram I placed a VOR about 20nm off the center of the airway. If a controller clears an airplane to hold as drawn s/he must protect the airspace marked by the rectangle. Since this overlaps V2 the situation is not acceptable.

The controller may be able to resolve the conflict by clearing the holding airplane to use a different radial, more to the north, or could assign left turns in the hold.

If an airplane is in the hold drawn above then no aircraft can be cleared to fly V2 between CASL and SENTL during that time and that altitude.

Sometimes ATC assigns a route that is not an airway. For such off airway tracks the protected airspace is 45nm each side of the track (see RAC 6.4.6.)

Diverging tracks Enroute aircraft can also be separated by sending them on diverging tracks. In the case of our hypothetical chart GABC could have been routed via V1 rather than V2. The

following diagram shows the standards that apply when separating airplanes on diverging tracks based on VOR/DME or VORTAC.

Case 1: If there are two tracks diverging at more than 20°, but less than 45° a second airplane can be cleared to continue once the preceding airplane is 15nm past the VOR. If the aircraft do not have DME it is acceptable to use timing to for case 1. I.E. once the first airplane has flown long enough to cover 15nm the second airplane can be cleared.

Case 2: If an airplane wishes to pass a VOR but opposite direction traffic is approaching the VOR on a converging track, at the same altitude, then the airplane must reach 20nm before the inbound airplane reaches 30nm. You may be thinking that these airplanes should be at 1000’ altitude separation, but if the tracks were closer to north or south they could be for flight at the same altitude. For case 2 it is not permitted to use timing. DME or GPS can be used or distance can be confirmed by a reporting point (compulsory or on request type.)

Case 3: If the tracks diverge at more than 45° the second airplane can be cleared past the VOR as soon as the preceding craft reports established on the radial. In the diagram that

has not yet happened. Case 3 does not require DME and can be used for both VOR and ADF tracks.

ADF is a bit less accurate than VOR so the standard requires that the tracks diverge by 30° or more. As with VOR timing can be used for case 4, as shown in the diagram below.

Using timing and diverging track standards, explained above, a controller can keep aircraft separated during the enroute portion of an IFR flight. The controller has one or two more tricks in his/her bag of tricks.

Report Traffic in Sight It is very common for an aircraft to request clearance to climb or descend enroute. A controller cannot permit any airplane to climb or descend through another airplane’s airspace. An exception we have already seen is a VFR climb or descent, but this can only be done in class C, D, and E airspace. In Class A and B airspace VFR climbs are not permitted.

When two aircraft are on reciprocal track, i.e. their tracks differ by more than 135° if both pilots report each other in sight and that they have passed a climb or descent can be permitted. The critical point to note here is that BOTH pilots must report the other in sight. If one a/c sees the other but the other doesn’t a climb is not authorized. Note also that the aircraft must be on reciprocal tracks. If a jet reports that it has caught up to a C172 and passed it it still CANNOT be cleared to descend, even if the C-172 also reports it in sight and ahead.

A similar report is for both a/c to report past a common geographic point. As above this applies only to aircraft on reciprocal tracks. If both aircraft report past a certain mountain, town, river, etc. then a climb or descent can be authorized.

The advantage of reporting traffic in sight is that it can facilitate a climb in class A and B airspace. But many controllers will not accept the reports.

Separation Based on Pilot DME or GPS distance So far we have seen that the standard for separation between airplanes on the same track is 10 minutes. At 480 knots that is 80 miles between airplanes. In a radar environment the standard is 5 miles, so you can certainly see that a lot less traffic can be accommodated on airways when procedural separation is used.

When both aircraft are DME or GPS equipped ATC can accept simultaneous reported DME from both aircraft to fix the position. This may make it possible to permit a climb or descent that would not otherwise be permitted.

Both aircraft must report either DME or both GPS and it must be from the same station or waypoint.

Pay particular attention to RAC 6.4.4, which requires pilots to use terminology such as, “100 DME” if DME is the system being used or, “100 nautical miles” if GPS or other RNAV system is used.

Direct Communication between Pilots One final method of separating airplanes in cruise remains. A controller can allow pilots flying the same route to maintain their own separation by directly communicating with each other and reporting their DME. The DME must be from the same station. For example the first airplane reports 90 DME from YWH on V2 (see above.) The trailing airplane must remain at least 10 miles behind. If it is 100+ DME all is well. These reports must be made no less than every 30 minutes. If the trailing airplane begins to close in on the leading airplane the pilots should communicate to decide what to do. The airplane behind could slow down or the leader could speed up, or they could call ATC and request an altitude change.

The procedure described here is exactly the same as pilots would use in uncontrolled airspace. The controller in this case simply permits use of the uncontrolled airspace procedure even though the aircraft are in controlled airspace.

Don’t get excited about doing this in southern domestic airspace. It is typically only used in the north.

Protected Airspace for Holding When an aircraft is cleared for a hold a certain amount of airspace must be protected. The dimensions of the airspace vary with the speed of the airplane; faster airplanes require more protected airspace.

Extra airspace must be protected during the hold entry. Once the pilot reports established in the hold the amount of airspace that must be protected is reduced.

The controller must allocate protected airspace taking the speed of the airplane and the wind into account. For example an airplane holding at 175 KTAS has a diameter of turn of 1.75nm. In a radar environment the controller will protect at least 5nm all around the

hold, as shown in the diagram below. In a procedural environment these values could increased. It might seem that drift would be for 1 minute, or 1.5 minutes depending on altitude, but as you will see later when we learn to fly holds the actual drift is double that.

Therefore a 30 knot wind requires a drift allowance of 1.0nm up to 14,000 and 1.5nm above 14,000.

Protected Airspace for Approach IFR approaches are divided into four segments: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Initial Intermediate Final Missed approach

Each segment has defined dimensions, as described in Instrument Procedures Manual section 4.6 and more extensively in TP308.

The controller must protect the airspace for the segment that is currently being flown.

During the final approach segment, if the airplane will circle for landing the circling airspace must also be protected. Therefore, the controller needs to know if the pilot will circle.

If a pilot applies cold temperature corrections to procedure altitudes, especially the missed approach altitude ATC must be informed so that extra airspace will be protected.

When an airplane is cleared for an approach in a procedural environment the controller normally protects all four airspace segments before clearing the airplane for the approach.

As the aircraft progresses through the approach the pilot reports his/her position. After completing the initial segment that airspace need no longer be protected. After completing the intermediate segment that airspace need no longer be protected, and so on.

If the airplane misses the approach then once the pilot reports on the missed approach only that airspace need be protected. If the airplane lands and reports down all the airspace is released and another airplane can be cleared to use it. See the comments in the paragraph after next for the traffic limiting consequences of this situation.

In a radar environment more than one airplane can be “on the approach” at the same time.

The controller vectors the airplanes to the intermediate segment, i.e. the initial segment is radar vectors. There may be more than one airplane in the initial segment (i.e. on vectors) with each spaced 5+ miles apart. Normally only one airplane will be in the intermediate segment and one in the final segment at a time. The controller monitors the space between the airplanes to ensure the segment is clear before a new airplane enters it.

Vectored approaches require well thought out missed approach procedures because an airplane in the final segment must have clear airspace for a missed approach.

At airports with no radar, missed approach procedures often “double back” over the final and/or intermediate segment. The controller must protect the missed approach airspace for an airplane on final; therefore a second airplane cannot be cleared into the intermediate segment if that conflicts with the missed approach. Consequently when procedural separation is used the maximum rate of airport utilization is about one airplane landing every 10 to 15 minutes. With radar and an appropriate missed approach procedure the frequency of landings can be increased substantially. In some parts of the world traffic densities are so high that great lengths are taken to increase the number or airplanes on approach at the same time, for example using parallel runways for which the “usual” protected airspaces overlap. The FAA is a world leader in using parallel runways and you will find it quite interesting to read some of their online publications specifying the criteria used. For pilots the bottom line is that very precise navigation on the exact centerline of the approach is vital to avoid traffic conflict when flying in busy airspace. In these environments traffic separation standards are tighter than terrain separation standards. In other words – if you drift off the centerline of the approach you will conflict with other traffic before you conflict with terrain.

Even when parallel approaches are not in effect it is crucial that the pilot remain within the approach airspace because there is no buffer beyond it. There may be other aircraft being vectored just outside the approach airspace. The controller can request the pilot report leaving altitudes as s/he descends on approach and release altitudes the pilot has vacated. This does not prevent climbing during the missed approach however, as that airspace is always kept clear. It is vital to understand that if you execute a missed approach you MUST not climb above the specified altitude. Doing so could create conflict with other traffic.

Radar Separation Most or the discussion so far has been about procedural separation, but when radar is available things are easier. It is best to think of radar separation as in addition to procedural rather than instead of procedural separation. In other words the same airspace must be protected whether there is radar or not, it is just easier with radar.

The existence of radar does not change the fact that full width of an airway must be protected. Indeed, since the radar separation standard is 5 miles and airway half-widths are 4 miles and 4.34 for LF many controllers actually enforce the 5 mile standard.

In a radar environment the controller watches the a/c on a radar scope. If the projected flight path of two aircraft will bring them closer together than the standards permit the controller will issue a vector or ask the airplanes to change airspeed. A vector is usually phrased something like, “GABC, for traffic spacing turn right heading 140.� Pilots can be assured that the controller would not issue such a clearance if it was not needed and thus should turn immediately. In some cases the pilot may wish to propose an alternative such as speeding up or slowing down. This may be a good idea, but the suggestion should always be made AFTER turning, to prevent loss of separation.

Special Topics in Protected Airspace Before leaving the topic of protected airspace there are a few special topics we must cover.

Transfer of Control to Tower in VFR Weather Read RAC 9.10 In the discussion of protected airspace above I stated that traffic separation is provided when the airplane is in the final approach segment until the airplane lands. However, special procedures have been developed for the IFR controller to hand the airplane off to the VFR tower controller, if the weather is VFR. In this case separation service is no longer provided. The tower works with the landing IFR airplane very much like VFR traffic in the zone. As a result a departing IFR airplane will be permitted to takeoff i.e. two IFR aircraft can be within 5NM of each other. This is only done in VFR remember, and only when the tower can keep the aircraft is sight. Read RAC 9.10 and be aware of it.

Static Reserved Altitude Blocks Read RAC 2.9.1 In civilian flying the most common reason why a pilot would request a static altitude reservation is to do test flying, flight training, or an aerial activity such as photography.

The clearance permits the pilot to maneuver as desired within the designated airspace.

The reservation will have both lateral and vertical limits that will be specified in the clearance. The pilot can climb or descend within the block as desired. Direction of flight rules do not apply.

The full block, i.e. its full lateral dimensions and its full altitude extend, is protected airspace. No other IFR aircraft can enter the block even if the controller can see on radar that the aircraft assigned the block is at a different altitude, or at the other side of the block.

Obviously controllers find altitude reservations rather inconvenient, but if the requested airspace is sparsely used they are reasonably convenient. When Canadair wants to test fly a new jet for instance they are the easiest way to go.

Moving Altitude Blocks Read RAC 2.9.1 Normally an airplane is assigned to fly a specific altitude, unless it has been cleared to fly 1000 on top, as discussed next. However, an IFR pilot can request at any time a moving block of airspace. Typically the request would be made with words such as, “Edmonton center, GABC requesting to maintain a block between 10 thousand and 12 thousand.” If the controller approves this request s/he must protect the same lateral airspace but at all altitudes from 10,000 through 12,000 inclusive. An opposite direction airplane at 11,000 could not be permitted for instance. If there is no anticipated conflict however the controller will approve the block. The pilot can fly at any altitude within the block, even one not approved for the direction of flight.

Why would a pilot request such a block? Perhaps to get above clouds and out of icing.

There may be cloud layers and the pilot wishes to “float” up and down between the layers avoiding the worst of turbulence and icing. Presumably the conditions are not suitable for 1000 on top.

Notice that a block can be requested in any class of airspace including A and B, unlike 1000 on top, which we discuss next. Obviously you don’t necessarily get the block just because you ask. The controller must assess the traffic and determine if s/he can protect that much airspace for you.

Notice that full separation service is maintained in the block, unlike 1000 on top.

Consequently you DO NOT need to be in VMC conditions when in the block.

1000 feet on top IFR Flight Read RAC 8.8.

IFR pilots can request 1000 feet on top if the conditions in RAC 8.8 apply (essentially the weather must be VMC.) If the controller approves this request then no airspace need be protected. There are two exceptions, as listed in RAC 8.8. Overlapping hold airspace must be protected at night and reserved airspace (see above) must be protected.

Notice that 1000 on top is very different than an airspace block as described in the preceding section. In 1000 on top you must be visual, and the controller does not protect the airspace so you must watch for and avoid traffic.

Notice that 1000 on top CANNOT be used above 12,500. Above 12,500 if you want to stay above clouds you must either request a specific altitude or a block as described above.

You might suspect that controllers would like 1000 on top since they don’t need to protect the airspace. Actually they hate it because when the cloud tops start building, as Murphy’s Law says they will, and the pilot calls requesting a hard IFR altitude again, they are expected to materialize separation out of thin air  I recommend using 1000 on top with care. It is seldom of value in B.C. In some parts of Canada, especially in the winter when cloud tops don’t tend to build, it can be useful.

RVSM Reduced vertical separation minima were mentioned previously. Read RAC 12.16

Extra Services Provided by ATC Read RAC 1.0 You should now understand that the core-purpose of ATC is to provide separation service.

Since the ATC system exists it has come to pass that controllers provide non-core service to pilots such as weather reports and navigation assistance (radar vectors) but it is important to know that these are not the primary duty of controllers and will not be provided when the controller is too busy. Normally pilots should obtain weather information from FSS, which is not part of the ATC system.

Chapter 5 IFR Departure Procedure Chapter 3 explained how ATC separates airplanes. It is crucial to realize that is their only job. As a pilot you are responsible for terrain separation. In the coming chapters we will learn how to depart, fly Enroute, and make approaches. Departures and Approaches are particularly dangerous since they must be done close to the ground. There is a great risk of flying into a hill, tower, etc. consequently procedures must be put in place, and you must follow them, to remain safe.

Avoiding obstacles, which is known as terrain separation, is NOT the purpose of ATC. I have already said that an IFR pilot does not need ATC for this, and that is why uncontrolled IFR is possible.

There are three phases of an IFR flight that have unique challenges for terrain separation: 1. Departure (i.e. climb to cruise) 2. Enroute 3. Approach and landing Of the course the way we avoid terrain enroute is obvious, in principle, we fly higher than the obstacles. A minimum safe altitude (MEA) must be established and we must fly above it; that will take care of the enroute portion of the flight. Standards for MEA are covered below.

Avoiding obstacles during departure is trickier; since the takeoff runway is usually lower than many surrounding obstacles (for example the mountains that surround Castlegar.)

Obstacles must be identified and a route found to avoid them or climb over them.

Avoiding obstacles during landing is another tricky thing. A safe route along which the aircraft can descend while avoiding obstacles is needed. Ideally this “approach� should line the airplane up with a runway for landing. An obvious question is; how low can an airplane safely descend in IMC conditions. Some modern airliners, on some runways, are capable of landing on autopilot. But most landings must be manually conducted so approaches must have a minimum descent altitude.

Terrain Separation during Departure Every runway must be assessed individually to determine if an IFR takeoff in IMC conditions can safely be conducted and if so what route should be flown and what climb gradient is required. NavCanada employs IFR procedure designers to do this work. Most runways at airports that have IFR approaches are assessed but there are still lots of runways that are not assessed; for these runways pilots and Air Operators must make their own assessment.

If airplanes could takeoff vertically i.e. fly straight-up no special departure planning would be required. But real climb gradients are not vertical. In reality climb gradients are quite shallow. You learned about climb gradients in Avia 160 and you should review that material, especially how to use your CR3 for gradient to rate calculations, before proceeding.

IFR Departure in VMC Weather Before we turn to making IFR departures in IMC conditions it must be pointed out that on many days the weather is VMC. In this case terrain separation is a non-issue. The pilot must look out the window and avoid flying into anything  As you will see below, specific routes are often published that facilitate safe terrain separation on departure. When the airport has a SID it will be assessed. If the aircraft is cleared for the SID (which it almost always will be) the pilot MUST follow the SID. But, if the airport has a departure procedure that is not a SID following it is optional. It would be rather foolish not to follow the departure procedure in IMC, but when the weather is VMC pilots often prefer to climb enroute providing terrain separation visually.

If the pilot intends to provide visual terrain separation on departure s/he should tell the controller and get approval. This is important because the airplane must be provided traffic separation service and the controller cannot do that effectively if s/he does not know the route the pilot intends to fly. For example, if the departure procedure calls for a climb overhead the airport before proceeding on course but the pilot intends to proceed on course without climbing overhead s/he should tell the controller that.

Often on a SID departure ATC provides vectors to the airway after takeoff. By rule the controller cannot vector the airplane below the minimum radar vectoring altitude – with one exception. If the pilot says, “I can maintain my own terrain separation” the controller can vector the airplane below the vectoring altitude. Knowing this can save time; it would save more if pilots knew what the minimum radar vectoring altitude is, which they don’t.

But, when you fly the same route every day you can figure it out (because the controller turns you at the same altitude day after day.) If you are in VMC conditions you can tell the controller, “I am able my own terrain separation” and get a turn toward your airway earlier.

For the remainder of what is written below I assume IMC conditions unless stated otherwise.

Climb Gradient Read Instrument Procedure Manual section 4.2.6 The Instrument Procedures Manual perhaps should emphasize more that the key thing is the 152 ft/NM obstacle slope. This is the “standard” obstacle gradient. We will now explore what an obstacle gradient is.

The diagram above shows that the first step in assessing a runway for IFR departure is to check whether or not any obstacles penetrate an imaginary line that slopes at 152 ft/NM crossing the departure end of the runway at 35 agl. The diagram also shows that obstacle clearance is “accumulated” at the rate of 48 ft/NM. I.E. the aircraft must clear an obstacle 1.0NM after liftoff by 48 feet; an obstacle at 2NM must be cleared by 96 feet, etc.

By rule, the pilot must fly runway heading to 400 feet, which will be 2.0 miles past lift off. From this “turning point” the 152 ft/NM gradient must be projected in all directions, and no obstacles may penetrate this surface.

The diagram below demonstrates the concept of the 152ft/NM cone. From the turning point the cone extends in all directions at 152 ft/NM. If any obstacle penetrates the cone a standard departure cannot be authorized. In the diagram below there is a TV tower that tops just short of the 152ft/NM cone. In this case a standard departure can be approved. Let’s examine what that means.

All IFR airplanes must climb at least 200 ft/NM, which exceeds the 152 ft/NM climb gradient by 48 ft/NM. If standard conditions exist this performance provides a safe takeoff into IMC conditions with no fear of hitting any obstacles. In principle it would be safe to takeoff with zero ceiling; all you need is enough visibility to taxi to the runway and see the center-line for takeoff. However, the government has determined that the minimum safe visibility for takeoff is ½ statue miles. Commercial operators may be authorized to use lower takeoff minima, as you will learn in Avia 230. For our purposes we will go by the standard takeoff minimum, which is ½ statue miles visibility.

Remember that the minimum climb gradient that all airplanes must meet is 200 ft/NM. This is not a very steep climb gradient. What is the climb gradient of a C-172 climbing at 85 knots and 500 fpm?

The climb gradient is about 360 ft/NM; so even a C-172 can do better than the regulatory minimum.

An important point to note is that aircraft operating under CAR 602 and 702 are only required to meet the 200 ft/NM gradient with all engines operating. Many aircraft cannot climb 200 ft/NM after an engine failure. In such a case an IMC airplane would not have a safe margin on departure. CAR 705 operators are required to meet the climb gradient even after an engine failure. You will learn more about this in Avia 230 and 240.

In conclusion: while training for your instrument rating you are NOT a commercial operation and therefore you require 200 ft/NM climb with all engines operating. There is no legal requirement after an engine failure, but you are nuts if you don’t spend a bit of time thinking about what you will do in the event of an engine failure.

What if an obstruction penetrates the 152 ft/NM line? A standard takeoff cannot be authorized, but there is more to it than that. Consider the diagram below:

In the diagram above the TV tower is taller than before and it penetrates the 152 ft/NM cone. If an aircraft turns toward the tower from the turning point it would hit the tower.

The easiest way to deal with this situation is to publish a limitation on the headings that can be turned to (see diagram: excluded airspace.) An example is the published departure for Sandspit BC (see CAP 2.)

The above is from the Sandspit Aerodrome chart in CAP 2. It shows that a takeoff with ½ mile visibility is permitted. On runway 12 the aircraft must climb between headings of 122 counter-clockwise (CCW) to 302 until reaching 3500 feet; above 3500 the airplane my climb in any direction. The letters BPOC stand for Before Proceeding On-Course.

They mean that after the specified point “standard conditions apply” so the airplane may

fly in any direction but must maintain 200 ft/NM minimum climb gradient until reaching MEA. The above method of avoiding obstacles allowed the departure designer to retain the standard climb gradient of 200 ft/NM and works well when an obstacle is several miles from the airport, and not directly on the departure end of the runway. Consider the diagram below:

In the diagram above a tree and a building both penetrate the 152 ft/NM line. In this case the obstacles are too close to the runway to employ the strategy used to avoid the TV tower. In this case the departure chart may offer the pilot two options. One option is to avoid the obstacles visually, which will require more than ½ mile visibility. The other option is to climb steeply (more than 200 ft/NM) and avoid the obstacles that way.

The diagram above shows that the obstacle gradient is 206 ft/NM; which clears both the tree and building. In this case the building is limiting, i.e. if it is cleared the tree is also cleared. (Please note that 206 is simply an example.)

The “rules� specify that the published climb gradient must be 48 ft/NM more than the obstacle gradient, so in this case the departure procedure will specify a climb gradient of 254 ft/NM (206 + 48.) The departure designer will specify what altitude this climb gradient is required to. Pilots must understand that above the specified altitude the usual 200 ft/NM gradient still applies, even this will not be stated. Climb altitudes are

expressed ASL (keep that in mind.) See Williams Lake aerodrome chart for an example of this type, a copy of the departure procedure is shown below.

Takeoff on runway 11 is permitted at the standard ½ mile but requires a climb gradient of 450 ft/NM to 3500, which is 426 agl (the runway elevation is 3074, shown at lower right.) After 3500 the aircraft must climb at the usual 200 ft/NM. Note that a gradient to rate table is provided on this chart but that is not always the case, so be sure you have mastered your CR3 procedure for converting gradient to rate.

If the aircraft is capable of 450 ft/NM then takeoff is authorized at the standard minimum of ½ statue mile. If the aircraft is not capable a second option is given: SPEC VIS. SPEC VIS is the code used to indicate that an obstacle must be avoided visually.

Obviously the aircraft must NOT enter IMC until the specified altitude is reached. In the Williams Lake example the pilot is instructed to remain visual to 3550, which is 476 agl. Once the airplane is higher than 3550 the normal 200 ft/NM gradient is adequate, so the airplane may safely enter IMC. Sometimes the extent of obstacles around an airport make it easier to specify which heading must be flown, rather than which must not. Abbotsford’s departure for runway 07 is an example of this (see your CAP 2.) Takeoff at the standard ½ mile is permitted, but the pilot is instructed to turn to a heading of 201° after takeoff. The pilot can be assured that the 152 ft/NM obstacle gradient is NOT penetrated on this heading, but obviously it is in many other directions or this restriction would not have been published.

Sometimes the location of multiple obstructions makes it necessary to publish a more complex route to avoid them. Many airports in B.C. require this. An example is Penticton, shown below:

At Penticton, an aircraft can takeoff on runway 34 with the standard visibility of ½ mile if it can sustain a climb gradient of 360 ft/NM to 6000asl (the airport elevation is 1129 not shown.) But, the airplane must follow the prescribed route in order to avoid obstacles. If the aircraft cannot maintain 360 ft/NM a SPEC VIS procedure is also published; it is not shown here.

SPEC VIS It is now time to examine SPEC VIS in more detail.

Anytime a climb gradient of more than 200 ft/NM is needed a SPEC VIS departure must also be published. We have already seen cases in which a ½ mile takeoff with increased climb gradient is published. Climb gradients more than 700 ft/NM are never published. In such cases only SPEC VIS will be published (Castlegar is an example of this.)

A SPEC VIS departure requires a visual climb to a specified point. After that point a normal 152 ft/NM gradient applies; the simplest version of this situation is shown in the diagram below.

In the above example the airport is surrounded by mountains as is typical of airports in British Columbia. In this case a standard 152 ft/NM cone based at the ground is not an option. Let’s say the procedure designer discovers that if the cone is centered on the airport but based at 900agl no obstacles penetrate it. The departure designer will then simply instruct pilots to climb over the airport visually to this altitude before proceeding on course (BPOC.) SPEC VIS Climb visually over airport to 2300 or above BPOC.

In the example above the BPOC point is directly over the airport. This is very common, but by no means the only possibility. It is important for the pilot to read the departure instructions carefully and understand where the BPOC point and understand that the 152 ft/NM cone is centered there, and based at the specified altitude.

Pilots usually prefer that the departure procedure designer specify the lowest possible altitude for the BPOC point. Consequently it is usually the case that the cone is based at an altitude from which climb can be made in some direction but not necessarily all directions. There are numerous examples of this, Port Alberni for instance:

The departure procedure for Port Alberni requires a visual climb over the airport to 4800 feet. From there the 152 ft/NM obstacle gradient is clear ONLY on heading 137째. The pilot can enter IMC on this heading but must turn again when intercepting the Vancouver

258 radial. The instructions specify that the aircraft should level at 8000, but this is a traffic restriction not related to obstacle clearance.

For other examples similar to Port Alberni look at Castlegar, Penticton and Kamloops.

Unassessed Runways It was mentioned earlier that not every runway in Canada has been assessed for IFR departures. What should a pilot do if departing from an airport that has not been assessed?

If the airport is to be used on a regular basis, especially for commercial purposes, it may be worth the expense of having a professional assess the runways. If a standard ½ mile departure is safe it would be good to know that. If a greater than standard climb gradient is needed it is important to know that, and if SPEC VIS is required it would be good to find the most efficient safe route.

For an occasional IFR departure, such as a medevac from an uncontrolled airport that normally does not handle IFR traffic, the pilot is on his own to determine a safe procedure and decide whether standard conditions exist.

If the airport is in the middle of Saskatchewan the pilot might be satisfied to check the local charts for towers and finding none assume that standard conditions apply. The pilot might also consider that the turbo-prop airplane s/he is flying normally climbs at a gradient of 1000+ ft/NM. Given these facts the pilot might feel confident that a takeoff in ½ statute miles is safe. Most likely the pilot would turn at 400 agl, but it is CRUCIAL to realize that this would be no more than a habit. If no assessment has been formally done then no criteria exist.

In more rugged parts of Canada the pilot might realize that obstacles do exist and that a standard ½ mile takeoff is NOT advisable. In this case the pilot must devise a “home made” SPEC VIS procedure. The pilot can do this in many ways but in most cases the pilot will use one of the following strategies: 1. A visual climb to airway MEA. Of course the weather must be quite good for this.

2. If there is an IFR departure procedure nearby the pilot may choose to fly VFR to that airport and then depart IFR. 3. If there is an IFR approach procedure the pilot may climb visually to the missed approach point then follow the missed approach procedure. Alternatively the pilot may fly the approach procedure backwards It should be clear that when departing from an unassessed runway great care must be taken. The law permits ½ mile takeoff, but the safety of doing so is questionable. The pilot must be completely certain that no obstacles impinge on the aircraft’s climb gradient.

Terrain Separation Enroute Read RAC 8.6 The departure procedure ends when the aircraft reaches MEA.

Mountainous Regions Because altitude indications rely on the pressure altimeter, which is subject to increasing error at altitude it is necessary to set MOCA and MEAs higher in mountainous terrain.

The mountainous regions of Canada are defined in RAC 2.12

MEA and MOCA MOCA and MEA are designated for all low level airways and air routes in Canada.

MOCA is the minimum altitude that provides the legally required terrain clearance. This is normally 1000 feet above the highest obstacle within the boundary of the airway. In mountainous areas 2, 3, and 4 this is increased to 1500 feet. It is increased to 2000 feet in areas 1 and 5, which includes British Columbia (see RAC 2.12 for mountainous area boundaries.)

MEA takes radio reception into account as well as terrain. If the airway segment is long it may be necessary to fly higher than MOCA in order to receive the VOR or NDB for navigation. In this case MEA is higher than MOCA. When radio navigation is not limiting then MEA = MOCA. With GPS it is possible to fly safely below MEA but above MOCA. Different MEAs may be published for adjoining segments of an airway. The airplane must cross the reporting point where MEA changes at the higher MEA. In the USA minimum crossing altitudes (MCA) are published at reporting points. The aircraft can cross the point at that MCA if climbing at 200+ ft/Nm until reaching the new MEA. Canada does not use MCA, but some LO charts covering portions of the USA show them; MCA is therefore included in the legend of LO charts.

Minimum IFR Altitude The minimum IFR flight plan altitude is defined as the lowest whole thousand foot altitude appropriate for direction of flight above the MEA. See RAC 8.6 and CAR 602.34 In the winter when temperatures are cold MOCA obviously provides less terrain clearance than in the summer. In some cases pilots may find it prudent to increase the minimum IFR flight plan altitude if the temperature is very cold, especially on airways with very high MEAs typical of British Columbia; having said that, many pilot become complacent about this given that 2000 feet of separation is already built in. It is very rare for altimeter errors to approach this value. This cavalier attitude cannot be carried into the approach phase, which we turn to next.

Terrain Separation on Approach At some point the airplane must leave the airway for landing. In order to facilitate this NavCanada publishes approach procedures for many airports in Canada.

We have already said that approaches are divided into three segments for the purpose of traffic separation. The same segments are also applicable for terrain separation, i.e. each segment has a terrain clearance standard.

In many cases there is no airway leading to the IAF, which is the point at which the initial approach segment begins. To facilitate transition from airway to approach 100-mile safe altitude and Minimum Sector Altitudes (MSA) are published.

We will examine the terrain separation standards for: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

100-mile safe MSA Initial Approach Segment Intermediate Approach Segment Final Approach Segment Circling Airspace Missed Approach Segment

When terminal radar service is available items 1 to 3 on the above list are replaced by radar vectors, during which the controller takes responsibility for assigning a safe altitude. Radar vectoring altitudes are established by NavCanada. They are similar to airway MOCA standards except that some vectoring altitudes in Mountainous areas have been set at 1000 feet rather that the usual 1500 and 2000 (most are set at the higher standard however.)

The above 7 areas are discussed from a terrain clearance point of view below.

100-mile Safe Altitude Every approach plate lists a 100-NM safe altitude. This provides terrain clearance for 100 NM centered on the same point as the MSA. 100-mile safe altitudes provide 1500 feet of terrain clearance in mountainous areas 2, 3, 4 and 2000 feet in areas 1 and 5. Elsewhere 1000 feet of terrain clearance is provided.

100-mile safe altitudes are seldom needed in practice, but they are an important safety backup. If suddenly all navigation information is lost, climbing to the 100-mile safe altitude gives you time to sort out the problem. Many pilots refer to this altitude as the “emergency safe altitude.�

MSA Minimum Sector Altitudes (MSA) are the primary reference for transitioning from an airway to an approach when radar service is not available.

MSA provides 1000 feet of terrain clearance. It is IMPORTANT to note that no extra clearance is provided in mountainous terrain, so be careful in cold temperatures. A cold temperature correction should be applied to the MSA when the airport temperature is below zero.

TIP: It is seldom necessary, or advisable, to descend all the way to MSA altitude. Later in this book we will talk about flying approaches in detail.

MSA covers a 25 nautical mile area centered on a designated point.

The above example shows four MSA areas centered on the XX beacon, which is the IAF for the approach. The bearings shown are magnetic in SDA and true in NDA. The example shown is typical, but there are exceptions.

In most cases the MSA is centered on the IAF, but not always.

The above picture shows the MSA for ILS 16 at Kelowna. The MSA is centered on the EX beacon, which is not the IAF or the FAF. It is IMPORTANT to pay attention to which point the MSA is centered on.

The above diagram also demonstrates that there are not necessarily always four MSA areas. In this case all aircraft approaching from the west have a common MSA of 7800asl.

In order to use the MSA you must KNOW you are within 25NM of the designated point.

Use DME or GPS if possible to confirm this. Sometimes a cross radial or NDB crossbearing can be used. If you make a mistake and descend before you are within 25NM it could be a fatal mistake, so don’t go by ETA or other potentially inaccurate methods.

Initial Approach Segment By definition the Initial approach segment begins at a point called the Initial approach fix (IAF.) In the initial approach segment 1000 feet of terrain clearance is provided.

The most common form of initial segment is called a procedure turn. You already have some idea how to do this, more details are provided later. On most approach plates a procedure turn altitude is published. The airplane can descend to this altitude in the procedure turn airspace and it will have 1000 feet of terrain clearance – except for temperature correction error. The dimensions of the procedure turn airspace are described in the Instrument Procedure Manual Fig 4-29.

When the airport temperature is below zero it is imperative to add a cold temperature correction factor to the procedure turn altitude.

A procedure turn is not always required; the initial segment can also be a published route that leads to an intermediate fix (IF,) which is by definition the point where the intermediate segment begins. The route can be any published track that leads to the IF at an angle requiring a turn of no more than 120° to intercept the intermediate segment.

1000 feet of terrain clearance from all obstacles along the published transition track is provided. The width of the transition is the same as VOR or NDB airways as applicable (4.0 or 4.34 NM each side of track.) The MEA for the transition is published on the approach plate. The example below shows a transition from the Vancouver VOR to the IF at Nanaimo. The plate shows an MEA of 2000 on the transition (circled.)

You should note that an IF is a fly-by waypoint, i.e. the pilot must turn to intercept the intermediate segment without overshooting the track. We will discuss this in more detail later.

DME ARC Transition A common form of transition is a DME arc. These are the same in principle as the straight-line transition discussed just above; the MEA on the arc provides 1000 feet of terrain separation 4NM each side of the published arc.

Precision and Non-Precision Approaches All IFR approaches are categorized as precision or non-precision. Precision approaches have a glidepath that provides descent guidance to the pilot. On non-precision approaches the pilot descends to a minimum descent altitude (MDA) in each segment.

ILS is the most common precision approach and the only one we will discuss extensively.

The military maintains a precision radar approach system (PAR) which can be used by civilians at some locations. The location of PAR approaches is in CAP GEN. GPS bases VNAV approaches are the latest form of precision approach but are not discussed extensively here.

Pilots flying non-precision approaches tend to prefer one of two techniques referred to as:

1. “Dive and drive�

2. Constant descent angle Dive and drive is a slang term for descending as rapidly as possible to the MDA in each approach segment. Dive and drive was for years thought to be the best way to do nonprecision approaches, but constant descent angle is gaining popularity. We will discuss this in detail when we study how to do approaches later.

When the pilot levels at MDA in the final approach segment s/he begins looking for the runway or other acceptable visual reference as described in RAC 9.19.3. If the pilot sees the required visual reference s/he can descend and land; if not then a missed approach is conducted at the missed approach point.

Below we first examine terrain separation in the intermediate and final segments of nonprecision approaches and then examine the ILS.

Intermediate Approach Segment The intermediate approach segment begins at the intermediate fix (IF) and ends at the final approach fix (FAF.) If a procedure turn is used the intermediate segment begins when the aircraft re-intercepts the approach track after the turn.

In the intermediate segment terrain separation is only 500 feet. Be aware of the reduced separation and fly extra precisely in the intermediate and final segments of approaches.

The safe altitude changes instantly at the IF Of course an airplane cannot descend instantly. By rule the maximum gradient required in the intermediate segment is 300 ft/NM. The reason for limiting the gradient to 300 ft/NM is to allow the airplane to slow to final approach speed, which is be hard to do in a steep descent.

You MUST make a cold temperature correction for the intermediate segment altitude when the airport temperature is below zero. Terrain separation could easily drop to zero in cold weather, especially in mountainous areas.

Intermediate Approach Segment Summary While the minimum intermediate segment terrain separation is 500 feet, in many cases the published altitude provides more than this. There are several reasons; for instance the 300 ft/NM rule limits the amount of descent the approach designer can call for in the intermediate segment. Another reason is that the designer wants to keep the airplane high enough to remain in controlled airspace. Another reason may be to avoid conflicts with overlapping airspace such as nearby class F airspace. Finally, it is becoming more common to maintain high intermediate segment altitudes for noise abatement (this obviously results in a steeper final segment.)

The conditions mentioned above are not revealed to the pilot on the approach plate so you must fly the intermediate segment altitude as though your life depends on it, because sometimes it does.

Final Approach Segment On non-precision approach the minimum segment terrain separation in the final segment is 250 feet. Precision approaches have lower minimums, specifically a Cat 1 ILS has a minimum of 200 feet, Cat 2 approaches have minima of 100 feet and Cat 3 ILS can in theory have a zero foot ceiling (auto-land only.)

The final approach segment begins at the FAF and ends at the missed approach point (MAP.) The purpose of the final approach segment is to position the airplane for landing but in case the required visual reference is not achieved the final segment leads directly into a missed approach procedure, which begins at the MAP. It is important to realize that while only 250 feet of terrain clearance is guaranteed in the final segment this almost always means that the MDA is more than 250 above TDZE. If for example the highest obstacle in the final approach airspace is 50 feet tall the MDA will be 300, etc. The size of the final segment varies slightly for VOR and ADF approaches, being larger for ADF approaches, resulting in higher MDAs. Approach design assumes that the airplane is in approach configuration by the time it reaches the FAF. This explains why standards permit a descent gradient up to 400 ft/NM in the final segment. If a greater descent gradient is required the approach cannot be listed as a straight-in approach, i.e. it will be a circling only approach. [Of course a steeper gradient could be permitted in a company approach, as found in the restricted CAP.] ILS approaches are always aligned within 3° of the runway centerline, but non-precision approaches are not always so perfectly aligned. A non-precision approach that doesn’t align with the centerline may still be published as a straight-in provided the criteria in the diagram below are met.

The uppermost top view shows the preferred situation in which the final approach segment aligns with the runway. However, the side view shows that the descent gradient from intermediate segment to runway may NOT exceed 400 ft/NM. Look at any of the Penticton approaches in CAP 2 as examples of this. All these approaches are exactly on the runway centerline yet only circling minima are published.

The second top view above shows that the approach track must cross the runway centerline within ½ NM of the threshold and an angle of less than 30° if straight-in minima are published.

The diagram below shows the situations in which ONLY circling minima are published.

Case 1 is uncommon but included as a theoretical possibility. Castlegar is an example of case 1, but it is also case 3.

Case 2 is the most obvious circling scenario. The approach is more than 30째 out of alignment with the runway. Many airports have an approach to only one runway. If the pilot wishes to land on any other runway this condition applies and the approach is therefore a circling approach. Circling airspace and terrain separation are covered later.

Case 3 is important, especially in British Columbia. Penticton was already mentioned; Kamloops, Castlegar and many other airports can be added to the list. Many of these approaches are within 30째 and 0.5NM of the threshold but the descent gradient exceeds 400 ft/NM, therefore only circling minima are published. If an airplane is capable of a steeper descent gradient, and the required visual reference is achieved before descending below MDA, there is no legal restriction on landing straight-in.

Most approaches are designed with the same track for the intermediate and final segments, i.e. no turn at the FAF. But, this is not a rule and some approaches have a turn at the FAF. This is done to avoid terrain or conflicting airspace in the intermediate segment.

Other Non-Precision Approaches There are three other types of non-precision approach: 1. Localizer approach 2. Back-course approach 3. GPS approach Each of these approaches has a certain size final approach segment, the dimensions of which you can find in TP308. It is not especially important for pilots to know the exact dimensions, only to realize that you should fly as close as possible to the center-line of the approach course, which will ensure you are well within the designated airspace, and therefore you will achieve the expected 250 feet of terrain clearance in the final segment.

ILS Approach Protected Airspace As you know from the simulation How ILS Works the width of an ILS varies from slightly less to slightly more than 5°. Once the airplane drifts beyond the lateral width of the ILS beam there is no way for the pilot to know how far off s/he is, so a missed approach should be initiated. Never-the-less there is a tapering buffer space along the lateral edge of the ILS. Normally the glidepath is intercepted at the initial-approach-segment altitude. If this is done safe terrain separation is maintained to the Decision Height. It is critical to realize that you cannot safely descend below the glidepath to the decision height. I.E. you MUST follow the glidepath to be safe. If the glidepath fails you can only use the LOC MDA, not the ILS decision height.

Normally the Intermediate segment of an ILS begins within 18NM of the airport. In some cases, for example Terrace B.C. the glidepath is intercepted considerably further from the airport than 18NM. If NavCanada flight tests show the glidepath to be unreliable at these greater distances MDA altitude will be published on the approach plate. Pilots must respect these altitudes. When flying such an approach you may not receive a reliable glidepath indication until within 18NM of the airport – so be careful.

Circling Read RAC 9.23 Circling is a visual maneuver but it is done in weather that is marginal so pilots should think of it as a semi-IMC maneuver. The aircraft should not be in cloud, but it is difficult to see obstructions with rain on the windshield and it can be hard to judge when a normal descent rate will take the airplane to the runway. We will talk later about doing circling; here it is important to realize that there is terrain protected airspace for circling. If the pilot remains within the circling airspace, at the circling altitude, the airplane will be 300 feet above all obstacles. Knowing this the pilot can keep his/her eyes on the runway and not worry about flying into an obstruction.

The above diagram shows that circling MDA is usually higher than the straight-in MDA. In some cases straight-in and circling MDA may be equal, but circling can not be lower than straight-in minima.

If the pilot intends to circle there is no reason to descend below the circling MDA on approach. If the pilot descends below circling MDA s/he should climb back up before circling.

The circling airspace is bounded by circles centered on the threshold of each runway with tangent lines joining the circles, as shown in the diagram above. In the diagram the circles have a radius of 1.5NM, which is for Category B airplanes. For other categories the standards are: Category A: 1.3NM Category B: 1.5NM Category C: 1.7NM Category D: 2.3NM Category E: 4.5NM Category E circling minima are not normally shown in CAP. Category D is shown but in practice most commercial air operators with aircraft in this category refuse to circle. You should memorize category B and C because these cover 99% of the light and medium commercial airplanes that are likely to do circling.

You will notice that in many cases CAP shows the same circling minima for B and C. Can you see why?

When category C is higher than B it tells you that there is an obstruction more than 1.5 but less than 1.7NM from the runway.

In many cases cat D circling minima is the same as A, B, and C. When this is the case you know you can go wider without fear of encountering terrain, but remember that you need to keep the runway in sight when circling. So it is wise to stay within 1.5 miles even in a Cat C airplane when the weather is poor. Of course many days the weather is better than minima.

Missed approach The missed approach procedure starts at the missed approach point (MAP) and ends at a defined location or fix described in the missed approach procedure, which is on the approach plate in CAP. Lateral and terrain separation standards gradually increase throughout the missed approach from the value they have at MAP to the enroute value. In other words by the end of the missed approach you will have 1000 feet of terrain separation and 4NM to each side, except on NDB approaches where you will have 4.34NM each side.

Missed approaches in the CAP are based on a 152 ft/NM obstruction gradient with terrain separation increasing at 48 ft/NM. These are exactly the same standards as for IFR departures previously covered.

You will recall that on some departure procedures there are climb gradient notes such as maintain 368 ft/NM. You will NEVER find such notes on missed approach procedures, in the CAP. By rule this is not permitted. Therefore all missed approaches, in the CAP, must meet the standard of 152 ft/NM. As a result many approaches are “missed approach limited.� This is explained pictorially below.

In side view 1 a 152 ft/NM gradient is not penetrated by any terrain. This is the ideal situation so this approach is NOT limited by the missed approach.

In side view 2 the 152 ft/NM line is penetrated by a mountain. The line must therefore be slid up – in the diagram a second line is drawn that clears the mountain. This line is also sloped at 152 ft/NM. Since the airplane MUST be on this line at the missed approach point the MAP must be moved back from the threshold, or the MDA must be raised. In the diagram the MDA is raised. We say this approach is missed approach limited.

It might seem reasonable that airplanes capable of climbing more than 200 ft/NM could be permitted to use the standard MDA and then make a steeper climb in the missed approach; as stated above this is NOT permitted in the CAP. However, commercial operators with aircraft capable of steeper climbs can complete the necessary assessment to determine the required climb gradient for the missed approach and then apply for a special approach, which is published in the Restricted-CAP (R-CAP.) As a commercial pilot you are likely to fly approaches in the R-CAP so keep your eyes peeled for missed approaches that require steeper climb gradients.

Non Standard Approach Designs The descriptions above of protected airspace for VOR and NDB approaches are correct for approaches that are designed according to the standard criteria. In the standard

configuration a non-precision approach has a FAF between 3 and 6 miles on final, as shown below.

The most common non-standard approach design is when the NDB or VOR is at the airport rather than 3 to 6 miles from the airport. To do a full procedure approach the airplane goes to the beacon then performs a procedure turn. Upon intercepting the approach track the intermediate segment begins. The airplane can descend to the usual 500 feet of terrain separation, as described previously. But, the missed approach point is the NDB or VOR. So there is no final segment. There are lots of examples of approaches like this, for example Bella Bella in CAP 2.

The point to note is that the terrain separation standards previously described apply to non-standard approach designs also. The thing to note is that some approaches don’t have a final segment.

A hybrid example of this situation is potentially confusing. The diagram below shows an approach that has a final segment if the aircraft has a DME, but does not have one if the aircraft is NOT DME equipped.

An aircraft with no DME does the above approach exactly as just described; in this case there is no final approach segment. Per rule this approach is circling only, due to the location of the MAP. An aircraft with ADF and DME can identify the FAF, which is at 4.6 DME. This airplane would go to the NDB and start a procedure turn. It would go outbound beyond the FAF before completing the procedure turn. Upon intercepting the approach track it would descend to the intermediate segment MDA, which would be the same as the MDA the non-DME airplane uses. But, when it reaches 4.6 DME it passes the FAF and enters a final approach segment. The lower terrain separation standards will mean that it can descend lower. In addition it can identify a MAP on the runway centerline, which makes it possible to designate this as a straight-in approach.

An example of the above is the NDB 27 approach at Victoria, in CAP 2.

Another common non-standard approach design is one with multiple step-downs within either the intermediate or final segments. Castlegar is an excellent example of this.

In the first example above the FAF is at CG so the intermediate segment is “normal� but the final segment has two MDAs. After passing the FAF the pilot can descend to 5900, then once past YK can descend to 5380. Remember that each MDA takes effect instantly after passing the preceding fix.

In the second example the FAF is a 6.5 DME so both the intermediate and final segments are non-standard. The intermediate segment has an MDA of 8000 prior to CG and then 6300 at the FAF. The final segment also has two step downs, first to 5500 prior to 4.5 DME and then to the final MDA after passing YK (4.5 DME.) The above are typical of mountain approaches, which we will talk more about later.

GPS Database Know all the rules about keeping the GPS up-to-date and when you can use it and when not. These are in COM 3.16

IFR Clearance Read RAC 6.1 All aircraft flying IFR in controlled airspace require an IFR clearance.

An IFR clearance must include: Clearance limit Route Altitude Transponder code (optional but usually included) The clearance limit is the location the airplane is cleared to; it is usually the destination airport. If the controller is unable to clear the airplane all the way to destination, due to conflicting traffic s/he may clear the aircraft to a clearance limit short of destination. In this case a time to expect further clearance must be provided.

If the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and has not yet received further clearance the pilot must hold and request further clearance.

The route specifies the exact airspace that has been protected for the flight.

The altitude specifies the altitude that has been cleared of traffic. An exception is when the aircraft is cleared for a SID. Standard Instrument Departure (SID) At many airports, especially those in terminal areas, departing aircraft are cleared for SID departures. SIDs are described in detail on page 113.

A SID specifies an altitude to maintain, which is usually much lower than flight plan altitude. There are frequently special instructions to follow in the event of a communications failure. The controller need only clear the airspace up to the altitude specified in the SID. Once the aircraft is airborne and radar identified s/he will clear the aircraft to higher altitudes. In the event of a communications failure the pilot will climb in accordance with the published communications failure procedure and the controller will “move� other aircraft out of its way.

When a clearance is issued with a SID there need be no further altitude since the SID includes the altitude.

Read Back of IFR Clearance Read RAC 6.1 With one exception all IFR clearances must be read back. Pilots must strive for a verbatim read back. Verbatim means word for word. When the pilot paraphrases a clearance there is a risk of changing the meaning and introducing confusion. Further advice about reading back IFR clearances begins on page 143.

The one exception to reading back IFR clearances is that when cleared on the ground at a controlled airport for a route that includes a SID the pilot need only read back the transponder code. This procedure reduces congestion on the clearance delivery frequency at busy airports in terminal areas. While the procedure also applies at smaller regional airports with less traffic pilot should not hesitate to read back the clearance in the interest of increased safety.

Takeoff Minima Read the section on Takeoff Minima in CAP GEN Transport Canada publishes takeoff minima for most runways at airports listed in CAP. There are many other airports, which do not have IFR approaches, for which no takeoff minima are published. These runways are classified unassessed. The four possibilities we must deal with are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

½ statute mile *½ statue miles SPEC VIS Unassessed

½ Statue Mile Takeoff minima are always listed at the lower left corner of the airports Aerodrome Chart. The display typically looks like the one below.

The above takeoff minima are the optimum for the IFR pilot. When all the runways at the airport meet the ½ mile standard the chart may show:

When takeoff minima are ½ we know that no obstructions penetrate the 152 ft/NM slope explained on page 37. A safe takeoff can be made provided the aircraft is more than 35agl at the departure end of the runway and climbs at 200 ft/NM. No turns should be made below 400 agl. The 200 ft/NM climb gradient must be maintained until reaching MEA or MOCA. * ½ Statute Mile ½ mile is considered the standard takeoff minimum. When obstacles penetrate the 152 ft/NM boundary the designer looks to see if there is some way to retain the ½ mile takeoff. This was explained earlier. The designer puts an asterisk (*) in the takeoff minima box to indicate that some special condition exists. The pilot must read and follow the restriction in order to be safe.

If the airport has a SID then it will be assessed for compliance with the 152 ft/NM obstruction gradient. If it meets the criteria then rather than publishing a procedure such as the one above the takeoff minima will be * Refer to SID, as shown below:

It is important to note that in all the examples above the takeoff minima is ½ and the required climb gradient is 200 ft/NM. As long as this criteria can be met no SPEC VIS departure is published, because none is needed.

If a ½ mile takeoff is not feasible a SPEC VIS departure will be published. A typical example would look like this:

In the example above runway 34 has no obstructions penetrating the 152 ft/NM gradient so a standard ½ mile takeoff can be completed. But, runway 16 requires a climb gradient of 370 ft/NM to 2900asl. Any aircraft capable of this can takeoff with ½ statute mile visibility and enter IMC immediately (as always the aircraft must be 35agl at the departure end of the runway and must not turn below 400 agl.) But, if the aircraft is not capable of 370 ft/NM the pilot can takeoff visually (see below) and climb VMC to 2800.

Above 2800 the aircraft may enter IMC and continue at the normal gradient of 200 ft/NM to MEA. SPEC VIS At some airports only SPEC VIS is published. An asterisk will appear in the takeoff minima box and the SPEC VIS notation will appear above. An example is shown below:

In this case obstacles penetrate the 152 ft/NM gradient for both runways, and apparently the designer could find no way to offer a ½ mile takeoff even with an increased climb gradient. Therefore only SPEC VIS is published. The departure procedure is to climb VMC over the airport to 4300; from there the 152 ft/NM cone is clear in all directions so the airplane can enter IMC and climb in any direction to the MEA. Consider the example below:

Here we have runway 02, 09, and 27 suitable for * ½ mile takeoff. We must refer to the SID for details. But runway 13 and 31 require SPEC VIS. Details of how high to climb VMC and the location to proceed to BPOC are in the SID (this example is copied from Victoria in CAP 2 if you would like to examine it further.)

To make a SPEC VIS departure the airplane must remain in VMC. Transport Canada being a regulatory agency, like to set legal limits on this. Faster airplanes logically need better visibility for SPEC VIS departures so the legal criteria are: AIRCRAFT CATEGORY SPEC VIS (statute miles)

A 1

B 1½

C 2

D 2

The above table is taken from CAP GEN Legally there is no required ceiling, because by law in Canada visibility governs takeoff.

For a ½ mile takeoff that is reasonable because as we have seen, as long as you maintain the required climb gradient you will clear all obstacles. But for a SPEC VIS departure

you must remain VMC to the specified altitude. Indeed the procedure should really be called SPEC ALT, but we don’t make the laws we just live by them. The bottom line is that as an IFR pilot, just because you can legally takeoff doesn’t mean that you should.

Use your understanding of the system and knowledge of the actual weather to decide whether or not to takeoff.

Unassessed Most runways in the CAP are assessed. An exception is military airports where different procedures apply. At these airports you may find the departure box contains the note: NOT ASSESSED, as shown below:

There are many other none assessed runways however. Normally when an airport has multiple runways only those longer than 5000 feet are assessed. Therefore short runways, which might be perfectly suitable for many small commercial airplanes remain unassessed (presumably someone is saving money by doing this.) In other cases runways remain unassessed for what appear to be political reasons – perhaps to discourage use of runways considered noise sensitive.

Airports that are not in CAP are not assessed. Never-the-less IFR operations may take place at these airports. On page 48 we discussed how to plan an IFR departure from a non-assessed runway.

Legally it is permissible to takeoff from an unassessed runway if the visibility is ½ statute miles. It would however be very foolish to do that without conducting an assessment.

Approach Minima Every approach plate has an approach MINIMA BOX, which is explained in CAP GEN. A copy is below. Study it and memorize the meaning of each detail.

Obviously it is important to note the minimum altitude above sea level since that is what you fly to on your altimeter. But you should also note the height above ground because that equates to the reported ceiling.

IFR Alternate Airport Read RAC 3.14, 3.14.1, and COM 3.16.9 Alternates are designated base on FORECAST weather (TAF) not current METAR. When you file an IFR flight plan you must designate an alternate airport. The reason was explained early in this text; it is always possible that you won’t achieve the required visual reference at destination and therefore you must have a place to go where the weather is good.

It is easy to find an alternate when the weather is good and sometimes hard to find one when the weather is bad. That’s a problem because you really only need one when the weather is bad. Pilots often get in the habit of filing an alternate “just to make the guy at FSS happy” (s/he won’t accept your flight plan if you don’t specify an alternate.) Most days you don’t really need one, but when you do you REALLY do.

Missed approaches don’t happen very often. Most pilots “miss” very infrequently.

Obviously the exact frequency depends on the type of flying you do. Long-haul airline pilots may go years between missed approaches while regional airline pilots in B.C. may do them once or twice per week, especially in the winter.

When you miss the approach at your destination for the first time you will experience that somewhat worrying “what now?” sensation. Should you try again? Is there an airport nearby that the passengers can be dropped off at? Whatever you decide to do it is critical to remember that the engines are using up the fuel in your tanks and no matter what; you MUST be on the ground SOMEWHERE before fuel runs out. The more fuel you have onboard the more options you have.

The reason Transport Canada insists that you file an alternate is to force you to carry enough fuel to fly to an area where the weather is good. In most cases the worse the weather the further away you have to look to find a legal alternate. If you can find an alternate near your destination that implies the weather is good, so you probably didn’t need an alternate anyway.

RAC 3.14.1 and the CAP GEN have all the rules for finding an alternate. The rules are rather involved so you probably won’t be able to memorize them all. Instead it is better to have your CAP GEN handy when you are filing your flight plan and check your candidate alternate against the criteria to see if it is legal.

When it comes to finding an alternate you should be able to split hairs when necessary, but not necessarily split hairs. There are numerous technicalities in the rules and you need to understand them ALL. We will now examine each criterion to ferret out the technicalities in each case:

Two or More Precision Approaches 400 – 1 The airport must have a TAF. The approaches must be to separate runways, i.e. NOT the two ends of one runway.

Victoria with ILS 09 and ILS 27 doesn’t qualify.

To use the above alternate minima the airport must have at least one ILS with minima of 200 – ½ If the airport’s LOWEST usable HAT is more than 200 – ½ then you need higher alternate minima.

For example if the lowest minima is 300 - ¾ you will need a forecast of 500 - 1¼ One Useable Precision Approach 600 – 2 700 – 1½ 800 – 1 The airport must have a TAF To use the above minima the ILS approach must have minima of 300 – ½ or less.

If the ILS has minima is more than 200 – ½ the alternate minima must be higher.

For example Kelowna’s ILS has minima of 651 – 2. To use Kelowna as an alternate add 300 – ½ to get 1000 – 2½. In practice the forecast would need to be 1000 – 3. You CANNOT prorate this.

Non-Precision Approach Only 800 – 2 900 – 1½ 1000 – 1 The airport must have a TAF. To use the above alternate minima the airport must have at least one non-precision approach with minima of 500 – 1 or less.

If the airports approach has minima more than 500 – 1 then higher alternate minima apply.

For example if the approach minima are 1100 – 2 then alternate minima are 1400 – 3.

GPS Approach at Alternate You may file an airport that has a GPS approach as your alternate if the following conditions apply: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The airport has a TAF The original destination airport has an approach based on a traditional navaid RAIM and or WAAS is predicted for the alternate at appropriate time LNAV minima only may be used (i.e. NOT VNAV.) If above apply then Non-Precision alternate minima above apply:

800 – 2 900 – 1½ 1000 – 1 IMPORTANT the destination airport must have an approach based on a traditional navaids (ADF, VOR, ILS, PAR.) For example if you are IFR to Abbotsford, which has an ILS and NDB you can file Langley, which has a GPS approach, as an alternate. But if your destination is Langley you cannot file Qualicum as your alternate; because both airports have only GPS approaches.

GFA Forecast at Alternate In ALL the above one of the criteria is that the airport have a TAF. If the airport does not have a TAF you can still use it as an alternate but the criteria are very restrictive. The criteria are: 1. No cloud forecast to 1000 above lowest approach minima 2. No cumulonimbus 3. Visibility 3 statute miles or more For example, if the airport has an approach with minima 800 – 1 then there can be no cloud forecast below 1800. Take note that the rule is NO CLOUD, even a few clouds below 1800 disqualifies the airport.

Remember that GFA normally predicts clouds above sea level but the minima mentioned above are above ground level. You must do the conversion.

Alternate Airport with no IFR Approach You may file an airport as an alternate even though it has no IFR approach if the ceiling is at least 500 feet above the MEA at the airport.

In other words, locate the nearest airway to the airport (the one you would fly to get there) and imagine that you will simply ask the controller to clear you to descend to MEA. If the ceiling is high enough that you will break out of cloud you can file this airport as an alternate.

I would recommend being absolutely sure before using this option. But if the weather is excellent you can take advantage of this to use a nearby airport as an alternate rather than

carrying a lot of fuel to fly to a distant alternate that you clearly don’t really need anyway.

If your destination is an airport with a GPS approach and you want to use another airport with a GPS approach as an alternate, can you? This can only be done if the alternate airport meets the criteria for an alternate with no IFR approach, i.e. the ceiling is more than 500 above MEA. If your ADF is unserviceable but you have a GPS can you file an airport with an NDB approach as an alternate?

No; unless it meets the criteria for an airport with no IFR approach.

Enroute Navigation Covers effective use of navigation radios – TSI concept – duties of PM

Performing IFR Procedures In Avia 160 you learned to track and intercept a course using VOR, ADF, and GPS. You also learned how to fly a DME arc and perform a simple procedure turn. These procedures are described in the text Navigation for Professional Pilots. It is assumed here that you have mastered that material.

In this section we will go over in detail how to perform the remaining IFR procedures.

We will start with holds as this is the first procedure you will learn in Avia 210. The complete list of topics covered is: Holds Shuttling SIDs ILS Approach VOR Approach ADF Approach GPS Approach Localizer and Backcourse Approach PAR Approach STARs Profile descents Departure from un-assessed runways Arrival at an airport with no IFR approach

Holding Patterns The first IFR procedure covered in second year is “holding patterns” and how to enter and maintain them. A holding pattern is more commonly referred to simply as a “hold.”

A hold is a racetrack shaped pattern in which an airplane “flies circles” as a delaying tactic. Why would we ever want to do that?

Purpose of Holds In the days before ATC RADAR holds were a routine requirement used on a daily basis to keep airplanes separated. A brief reference to this use was made earlier. In today’s IFR system there are still many remote parts of Canada without RADAR service, especially at lower altitudes. Consequently when more than one airplane is arriving at a smaller airport one may need to hold, because only one airplane at a time can be permitted into the approach airspace.

Holds are sometimes needed even in a RADAR environment. For example if a runway closes at a large airport, perhaps due to a gear up landing or the need to initiate snow plowing, there may be too many airplanes vying to land on the remaining runway for the system to accommodate. As a result some airplanes will have to hold for a time until the traffic load eases.

Certain in-flight emergencies require time for the pilot(s) to complete checklists (for example – an emergency gear extension.) When the crew requires time to sort out a situation they will often “request a hold.” ATC will then accommodate by providing a hold clearance.

The situations described above should make it clear to you that holds are needed and used in the modern IFR system. Sometimes you may here pilots claim that “no one ever holds except on a flight test anymore.” That is not the case. Depending on the type of airplane you are flying and the part of the country you fly in you may hold as often as once a week or as infrequently as once a decade, but everyone does need to know how to enter and fly a holding pattern.

There is one final situation in which you will have to hold, and that is your IFR flight test.

Entering and maintaining a holding pattern is one of the skills you must demonstrate in order to get (and keep) your instrument rating.

The Hold Clearance Read your AIM section RAC 10, it describes all the technical specifications of holding patterns.

RAC 10.2 specifies the six components that must be part of a holding clearance. Below these requirements have been reworded to improve clarity: 1. A clearance to a holding fix 2. The compass direction to hold from the fix 3. A specified radial, course, or inbound bearing that defines the inbound track.

4. If DME is used, the DME distance at which the fix turn and outbound end turn are to be commenced.

5. The altitude or flight level to maintain 6. The time to expect further clearance (EFC or EAC.) We will now make a preliminary examination of 1,2, and 3 above.

Holding Fix A holding fix is a “place” to hold. It is usually a VOR or NDB, but it can also be an intersection or DME fix. In the modern world of RNAV navigation any named fix in the navigation database could be used as a holding fix by an appropriately equipped airplane.

For airplanes lacking GPS or similar type navigation systems there are a few restrictions on where a hold fix can be specified. A hold fix cannot be in the DME cone of ambiguity, or at an intersection where the radials cross at an angle of less than 45 , or at an intersection where the cross-bearing is from an NDB. When the holding fix is an intersection we say we are performing an “intersection hold.”

If the hold fix is a specified DME fix it is still an intersection hold.

In the special case where the controller specifies both a DME fix and a DME distance to end the outbound leg we call the hold a “DME hold.” Most pilots agree that DME holds are the easiest type of hold to fly. A fuller description of a DME hold is presented in the next section.

A hold where the fix is a VOR is called a “VOR hold” and a hold where the hold fix is an NDB is called an “NDB hold” or “ADF hold.”

Direction From the Fix The controller always specifies a compass direction such as north, south, etc to help the pilot visualize where the holding pattern is to be flown. This information also acts as a safety feature as it must be consistent with the specified inbound track. Pilots must therefore develop the habit of confirming that the specified compass direction is compatible with the specified inbound track. If it is not some error has been made.

Perhaps the pilot heard, and read back, the clearance wrong; or perhaps the controller misspoke the clearance. Either way the error must be sorted out or grave danger could arise.

The eight possible options for compass direction are: North North East East South East South South West West North West The Specified Inbound Track The specified inbound track must unambiguously indicate the exact course the pilot is to navigate along on the inbound track of the hold. As you will see soon the inbound track is the ONLY segment of the hold in which the pilot actually employs radio navigation.

When the controller states, “inbound course 030” it is quite easy to see what the precise inbound course is. It is a little less obvious that if the controller says “inbound on the 210 radial” that the same inbound course of 030 has in effect been specified. Unfortunately convention demands that holds at VORs be specified in terms of radials. The pilot must therefore calculate the reciprocal in order to determine the inbound course.

Naming an airway can also uniquely specify a hold course. For example the controller may say the hold is to be “inbound on V300,” where V300 is an airway that leads to the specified holding fix. In this case the pilot would have to consult an LO chart to obtain the required radial (course.) Once the pilot looks up the radial on the map the hold is specified as surely as if the controller had stated the radial directly, therefore this is a legal (and common) specification format for an inbound hold track.

Expect Further Clearance Time As you know from your study of IFR regulations all IFR procedures must contain contingencies for communications failure. We have discussed the general dangers and procedures for communications failure in chapter two. At that time we said we would discuss the special case of communications failure in a holding pattern in chapter seven.

Any time you hold you must have a specified time that you will leave the hold in the event of a communications failure. It is important to note that this time is only used if you suffer a communications failure. Since this communications failure is very rare you will seldom need this “further clearance” time, but it is still a legal requirement.

Controllers routinely use two distinct phrases when specifying the further clearance time.

They may say “expect approach clearance at X” or “expect further clearance at X” in each case X is replaced by a time in UTC. These are abbreviated as EAC and EFC respectively. The difference is fairly obvious. When you receive an EAC you know that the next clearance will be an approach clearance and so you should prepare for that.

When you receive an EFC you should expect some further clearance (which could be an approach clearance) at the specified time.

If you were holding while waiting for another airplane to complete an approach prior to your approach you would of course expect an EAC. Common sense also tells us that the controller can only estimate the time the other airplane will complete its approach with limited accuracy. Therefore controllers usually slightly overestimate the time and your actual further clearance will usually arrive earlier than the specified time. Occasionally the opposite happens, or course. So, you must watch the clock and request a revision if the EAC or EFC expires without further clearance arriving.

If your hold is due to an unexpected eventuality such as a closed runway or unplanned snow plowing any EFC provided by ATC is an estimate only so you must plan accordingly including determination of whether you have enough fuel to remain in the holding pattern. If the specified or likely EFC will take you beyond your safe reserves you must refuse the hold clearance and take whatever steps are needed to land safely, including diverting to another airport or declaring an emergency so that your landing priority is moved ahead of other airplanes.

Hold Pattern Specifications RAC 10.3 attempts to explain hold pattern specifications, but it is a bit confusing. One reason new IFR pilots have so much trouble mastering holds is that they don’t fully understand the specification of the holding pattern. That is in part because the AIM and Instrument Procedures Manual only describe clearly the procedure in zero wind.

You should read RAC 10.3 and FTM Chapter 4.4, and then return here where we will try to clarify the specification of a holding pattern.

Figure 7- 1

In Figure 7-1Error! Reference source not found. the triangle represents a holding fix that would be specified in a holding clearance. The arrowed line represents the inbound course, 270 in this case. The figure also indicates that the inbound course must be 1:00 minutes long. As you know from RAC 10.6 the time would be 1:30 if the hold were above 14,000 feet.

Figure 7- 2

In Figure 7.2 we define point EP1, which is the point at which the inbound track begins.

The distance between the hold fix and EP1 depends upon the wind. If there were a headwind on the inbound track then EP1 would be closer to the hold fix. Conversely, if there were a tailwind on the inbound track then EP1 would be further from the hold fix.

By way of example; if the TAS in the hold is 120 KTAS then the inbound leg is 2.0NM long in zero wind. But, if a headwind slows the groundspeed to 100 knots on the inbound leg then EP1 would be only 1.667 NM from the fix. A 20-knot tailwind, resulting in a groundspeed of 140 knots would require EP1 to be 2.333 NM from the fix.

It is important for you to note that EP1 is a conceptual point introduced in this text that is NOT described in either the AIM or the Instrument Procedures Manual. The important feature of EP1 is that it is a specific distance from the hold fix, for a given TAS and wind, and is exactly on the inbound track. The crucial point to understand about EP1 is that it is the ONLY place in the universe where an airplane can set off, at the chosen TAS and on the assigned inbound track that results in arrival at the hold fix 1:00 minutes later. Failure to grasp the concept of EP1, which stands for evaluation point 1, is often the main source of confusion about the specification of holding patterns.

Figure 7- 3

Figure 7.3 shows that the outbound leg of a hold is NOT parallel to the inbound track.

The outbound leg starts at the point labeled SHP and ends at the point labeled TP (turning point.) The airplane begins to turn at TP, and a rate one turn2 brings the airplane to EP1.

It is important to notice that the radius of the turn at the fix-end (see figure) of the hold is different than the radius of turn at the outbound end of the hold. This is because of a crosswind. Thus the outbound leg and the inbound track can only be parallel to each other when there is no crosswind in the hold. You should be able to see that in Figure 7.3 the wind must be from the north.

Figure 7- 4

In Figure 7-4 the wind is from the south. Once again the outbound leg is not parallel to the inbound track. This time TP must be closer to EP1 in order for a rate one turn to bring the airplane to EP1.

It is important to notice that TP is not necessarily “abeam� EP1. In most cases there is some headwind or tailwind component on the inbound track and when that is the case TP is NOT abeam EP1 (see Figure 7-5.)

2

RAC 10.2 specifies that all turns in a holding pattern are to be at rate one or 25 of bank whichever is less. For a propeller powered airplane holding at 175 knots or less a rate one turn is less than 25 of bank.

Figure 7- 5

Figure 7-5 introduces the terms “Hold side” and “Non-Hold side,” which refer to the two sides of the inbound track, as shown. The figure also shows that with a wind from the southwest (see the figure) the SHP is past abeam the hold fix while the TP must be before abeam EP1. It should be clear that as the wind gets stronger SHP and TP would move closer together. Figure 7-5 shows the very interesting special case where there is no crosswind but there is a very strong headwind along the inbound track. You will find that if the wind is equal to 1/3 of the airplane’s TAS that the SHP and TP become the same point. In other words the pilot must make a continuous rate on turn after passing the hold fix to arrive back at EP1, In this case there is no outbound leg3.

Figure 7- 6

It should also be clear that if the wind were even stronger than 1/3 TAS it would be impossible to meet the specification of the holding pattern. In such a case a continuous turn initiated at the hold fix would intercept the inbound track too far from the fix, as shown below in Figure 7-7. The result would be an inbound leg of more than 1:00.

Unless you were holding above 14,000 feet where 1:30 was the desired inbound time it would be necessary to contact ATC and advise them that you are unable to meet the requirement of a 1:00 inbound leg. The controller would likely authorize the deviation but would necessarily have to keep traffic further from the hold fix than would normally

3

Note that this claim is based on a one minute inbound leg. If the hold is above 14,000 feet the inbound leg must be 1:30 and a greater amount of wind can be tolerated before the hold specification becomes impossible.

be required (because you would be using more airspace than normally allocated for a holding airplane.)

Figure 7- 7

While the above discussion is interesting it does not represent a very common real world occurrence. Most IFR airplanes hold at more than 100 knots, so a headwind of more than 33 knots is required before we would be unable to achieve the hold pattern. This could happen, but isn’t too common. The more important point to learn from the above discussion is that the time flown between SHP and TP is NOT 1:00 – it is WHATEVER time is needed to establish an inbound time of 1:00. For the record there is NO lower or upper limit to the time you may fly between SHP and TP. Occasionally people hear rumors of some limit, for example some IFR flight test candidates have declared to me that there is a limit of 2:00 on the outbound leg – please note that no such limit exists.

(Consult RAC 10 to confirm that no upper or lower limit is found anywhere in that section.)

Figure 7- 8

Figure 7-8 shows the case where a tailwind blows along the inbound track. In this case the fix-end turn would end before abeam the fix at the point labeled SHP above. In addition drift during the outbound end turn requires that the turning point, TP, be past abeam EP1. In this case the outbound leg will be considerably more than 1:00 long.

The AIM RAC 10.6 specifies that outbound timing should begin abeam the holding fix (at the point labeled ts, for timing starts) rather than at the point labeled SHP. There is a

good reason for this, although a special case exception will be needed, as you will see later. The reason for the “time starting rule” is that pilots may be slightly inconsistent about initiating the turn over the hold fix. Consequently SHP moves (left or right in the figure) depending on whether the pilot initiates the turn slightly after the hold fix or exactly over it. By waiting until abeam the fix to start timing the pilot can establish a more consistent timing reference. Note that when the airplane is already past abeam when the outbound turn is completed, as was the case in Figure 5 and 6, timing is started at SHP. (This is specified in RAC 10.6.) Note also that the computerized flight instructor in the hold simulation always starts timing at SHP. In this section so far we have specified the following details about holds: We defined the imaginary point EP1, which is the point on the assigned inbound track that is just the correct distance from the hold fix such that it takes exactly 1:00 minutes to fly from EP1 to the hold fix. We also defined the fix-end turn as the turn that starts at the holding fix and the outbound end turn as the turn at the other end of the hold. We then learned that the SHP (set heading point) is the point where the fix-end turn is completed. We also learned that there is one unique turning point TP where a rate one turn will take the airplane to EP1. It is crucial to realize that if the outbound end turn starts anywhere other than at TP the airplane WILL NOT arrive at EP1 and the hold therefore would be unacceptable. We also have learned that it is recommended to start the timing of the outbound leg at point ts, in Figure 7-9Error! Reference source not found., when SHP occurs before abeam the hold fix.

The remaining specification for the hold is to state that the fix-end turn is to be a right turn unless the controller specifies a left turn. If the controller wishes to specify a left turn the terminology will be “hold non-standard, all turns left” see RAC 10.4.

Strategy For Maintaining a Holding Pattern Imagine that you are at SHP in 7-7 or 7-8; in theory all you have to do is fly a certain heading and time that will take you to TP. If you chose the correct “outbound time” and the correct “outbound heading” such that you arrive at TP everything else falls into place automatically. Refer back to 7-7 and 7-8 and study them until you fully understand why all your judgment regarding holds must be devoted to choosing the outbound time and outbound heading.

Figure 7- 9

It is important to fully accept the fact when an airplane makes a rate one turn the curved line that is takes through space is unique. This fact is shown in 7-9.

When the pilot chooses a heading and time to fly outbound and sets off from the SHP s/he is “aiming” at TP, but more often than not will miss the mark. 7-10 shows an example where the pilot missed TP and actually started the outbound end turn at tp. The important thing to note is that the curved line flown through space is the same as the ideal one that should have started at TP. Thus, when the pilot finishes the turn and discovers that s/he is not at EP1 the position error between ep and EP1 is the same as the error between tp and TP.

Figure 7- 10

We can now see why EP1 is called an “evaluation point.” When we roll out from the outbound end turn we should evaluate whether or not we have arrived at EP1, and if we

did not we must think about how we will change our outbound heading and time next circuit so that we do better.

Figure 7- 11

Imagine you are at point ep in 7-11. Using your VOR or ADF you realize you are not at EP1. If this were a VOR hold your CDI would be deflected to the right4, if this were an ADF hold your RMI would indicate a bearing of more than 270. The amount you are off the inbound track is the angle e in the figure. You should now evaluate your track error and make a plan to adjust your outbound heading on the next hold pattern.

The required correction you should be visualizing is also shown in 7-11Error!

Reference source not found.. From SHP to tp is the line representing the track over the ground that you must have flown last time. But because you are south of EP1 you know that tp was south of TP. The thin gray line from SHP to TP represents the track you must make good in order to correct this holding pattern. The angle a represents the amount you must change your heading from the heading you flew last time. Be sure to locate the angle a in the figure and convince yourself that it represents the difference between the outbound heading you flew last time and the outbound heading you should fly next time.

Now look more closely at angles e and a and convince yourself that they are very close to being the same angle. Try imagining the situation where ep is closer or further from EP1 (and therefore tp is further or closer to TP) and convince yourself that angles e and a would change in unison.

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OBS would be set to 270

We now have a VERY useful rule of thumb for correcting holding patterns. Upon completing the outbound end turn you should check your track error (e) and plan to adjust (a) your outbound heading by approximately the e. It is important to note that the required change in your outbound heading is approximately e, not exactly e. From the diagram you may have concluded that a = e exactly, but as you will see shortly a is only approximately equal to e.

Remember that we have imagined that we are at point ep. From the diagram you can easily see that the airplane is closer to the hold fix than it should be. I.E. you can see that ep is west of EP1. Consequently we can see that it is necessary to increase the amount of time flown on the outbound leg from that flown last time. But how would you know that if you were actually a pilot flying this holding pattern?

In theory you could tell you are too far west if your airplane is equipped with either DME or GPS and you calculate what the distance from the hold fix to EP1 should be and compare that to your actual distance at ep. This certainly would work in theory, and I invite you to take it into consideration as a method you might try. But most pilots find this idea to be unrealistic, and it really is impossible to do without a GPS – even DME is not precise enough to use this method. So, what are we to do?

The answer is that we start our stopwatch and wait until we reach the hold fix. Our theory is that if we reach the hold fix after more than 1:00 we will know that ep is too far east, or as would happen in this case, if we reach the hold fix in less than 1:00 we will know that ep was too far west, and that we must therefore increase our outbound time next time.

This is a good theory, but it does have its limitations. Consider 7-12, which shows what a pilot would probably do.

Figure 7- 12

7-12 shows the direct path from ep to the hold fix. But we pilots are trained to “get back on course” when we are off course, and rightly so. Consequently the pilot will turn to past the direct track by some amount, labeled as t in the figure. S/he will then intercept the inbound track and begin tracking to the hold fix. The figure also shows some “snaking” to represent the fact this pilot is not doing an ideal job of establishing drift.

As you recall, the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. A corollary of this axiom is that a curved line is longer than a straight line, so the actual time it will take

to fly from ep to the hold fix will not be a precisely accurate indication of whether of not ep was east or west of EP1.

Fortunately the difference between the direct path distance and the probable path flown is not large as long as error angle (e) is small. Still it is worth remembering that some error does exist and that we should make a slight adjustment when we compare the time from ep to the hold fix to 1:00. We need to remember that we will only get a truly accurate inbound timing when we roll out of the outbound end turn at EP1.

Taking all the above into consideration it is obvious that if the inbound time is less than 1:00 we need to increase the outbound time last flown, and if the inbound time is more than 1:00 we need to decrease the outbound time last flown. Most IFR pilots use the following rules of thumb: If inbound time is less than 1:00 increase outbound time by twice the error.

If inbound time is more than 1:00 decrease outbound time by half the error.

For example, if the inbound time turns out to be 0:50 we have an error of 10 seconds. We would therefore increase the outbound time by 20 seconds from whatever outbound time we flew last time.

If the inbound time was 1:10 then we also have an error of ten seconds. In this case we reduce the outbound time by half the error, i.e. by 5 seconds from whatever time we flew outbound last time.

It is time to summarize what we know about correcting hold patterns so far. We know that when we roll out of the outbound end turn we are at point ep. We know that we should immediately determine our track error (e) and plan to adjust the outbound heading by roughly that amount next time around the hold. We also know that we should start our stopwatch and time how long it takes to get to the hold fix. Once we arrive at the hold fix we determine if there is a timing error. If there is we plan to adjust our outbound time according to the rules of thumb given just above.

The preceding paragraph represents all many pilots ever learn about correcting hold patterns, and it is adequate. But there are some complications to discuss if you want to be truly proficient at holding patterns.

Time and Heading Corrections Interact Previously we said that the heading adjustment angle (a) is not exactly equal to the track error angle (e.) Look back to 7-11 to be sure you know which angles we are discussing.

Then consider the special case shown in 7-13. In this case the outbound turn ended (ep) exactly abeam EP1. In this case the adjustment angle (a) is exactly equal to the track error

(e.) All the pilot needs to do is change the outbound heading by e and fly the same outbound time as on the previous hold5.

Figure 7- 13

In 7-13Error! Reference source not found. the outbound time required will be just slightly more than 1:00, but in order to simplify our analysis let us assume the outbound time to be 1:00. We can say that if the outbound time is 1:00 (i.e. is equal to the inbound time) then adjustment angle (a) is equal to error angle (e) (i.e. a = e.) But what if the outbound time is not 1:00, i.e. there is a headwind or tailwind component?

5

If you are really sharp you will note that the time from ep to the hold fix will be slightly more than 1:00 (assuming the pilot re-intercepts the inbound track) but, the pilot should discount the slight error, for the reasons discussed previously, and should therefore not make any timing adjustment on the next outbound leg.

Figure 7- 14

In 7-14 TP2 is the turning point shown in 7-13. The figure shows that angle(a) = angle(e), as we have already seen.

If the outbound time were to be less than 1:00 but still with the same crosswind component as in the previous example then TP would actually be at TP1. Examine 7-14 until it is clear to you that the adjustment angle(a) is more than angle(e) in this case.

If the outbound time were to be more than 1:00 but still with the same crosswind component then TP would actually be at TP3. In this case adjustment angle(a) is less than angle(e.)

Summarizing the above point we now know that when we roll out of the outbound end turn at point ep and discover that we are off track by an error amount e we know that if our outbound time is less than 1:00 we will need to adjust our outbound heading by more than e, or that if our outbound time is more than 1:00 then we must adjust out outbound heading by less than e.

Based on what we have just learned it should also be clear that any change we make to the outbound time would affect the outbound heading we must fly. If we increase the outbound time we will need to reduce our outbound wind drift correction, or if we decrease the outbound time we will need to increase the outbound wind drift correction.

Study the diagrams and discussion above until these facts are clear to you, because they are important.

Now that we know that changes in outbound time affect the required outbound heading we should ask – does a change in outbound heading affect the outbound time required?

The answer is yes.

Figure 7- 15

Imagine you are at point ep in 7-15 You have just completed the outbound end turn and are very pleased that you are exactly on the inbound track. You know that the error angle (e) is zero (see earlier figures for definition of e.) You therefore conclude that the adjustment required to your outbound heading (a) is also zero. In other words you are planning to fly the same outbound heading next time that you flew this time.

Fifty seconds later you pass the hold fix. At that point you realize that ep was west of EP1 and that you need to increase the outbound time. Your time error is 10 seconds so using the previously covered rule of thumb you plan to increase the outbound time by 20 seconds.

Figure 7- 16

7-16 shows that if the pilot simply adds an extra 0:20 to the outbound time but flies the same heading as last time the airplane will not fly exactly to TP. As a result, when the new outbound end turn is complete the airplane will be at ep, slightly off track. The error

angle (e) has not been labeled in the diagram in order to avoid clutter, but you can clearly see that the airplane will be off track slightly. The solution to the problem is to realize that when outbound time is increased the amount of outbound wind drift must be slightly reduced. In the example shown the wind is obviously from the north and the outbound drift correction is therefore also to the north. When the outbound time was increased the pilot should have slightly reduced the drift correction, i.e. adjusted the outbound heading very slightly to the south.

The opposite effect would occur if the outbound time were to be shortened. In other words, when shortening the outbound time always slightly increase the outbound drift correction.

Keep re-examining thisError! Reference source not found. until you convince yourself that increasing outbound time effectively reduces the amount of wind correction you must make, and vice versa.

Consistency is the Key to Good Holding Patterns

Figure 7- 17

It is very important to accurately fly the inbound track when flying a holding pattern.

Imagine that you are flying the inbound track in 7-17, but do a poor job so that when you pass the hold fix you are at point HF1. Inevitably you will be at point SHP1 when you complete the turn and consequently you will be at tp1 at the end of the outbound leg even though you have flown the “correct� outbound heading and time. As a result you will be at ep1 when you complete the outbound end turn and will be tempted to believe you have an error of e1 (see the figure.) If you make an adjustment to your outbound heading based on the apparent error (e1) and assuming you fly more accurately this time so that you cross the hold fix you will have out smarted yourself and will wind up closer to ep2 next time around.

The points HF2, SHP2, tp2 and ep2 show another set of points that follow naturally from another inaccurate hold fix passage. It should be clear that you must strive to accurately

pass over the hold fix each time around the hold or you will be unable to tell real errors (e) from apparent errors.

Another error that is very common is shown in 7-18 In this example the pilot knows exactly what time s/he must fly to get from SHP to TP, but doesn’t concentrate enough on the stopwatch. As a result the airplane flies a few seconds too long before turning (at point tp.) It is obvious that the airplane will arrive at ep rather than EP1 and the time on the inbound leg will more than 1:00. It is also clear that the timing correction must be made relative to the actual amount of time flown on the outbound leg, NOT the time the pilot intended to fly.

Figure 7- 18

In 7-18 the diagram was kept simple by showing a hold with no wind but if a wind correction had been used on the outbound leg then the inadvertent timing error would also have created an apparent track error (e), which might “fool” the pilot into making an unnecessary outbound heading correction.

Two points are to be made about care in timing. The first is that you should take care to be as accurate as possible. But, because we are human we all make mistakes, so if you find that you have flown past TP then make a mental note of the amount of extra time you have flown and take that into account when you make any outbound time or heading corrections. Also keep in mind that if you have already flown around the hold several times with the outbound heading and time working out well an apparent error is likely just that (apparent) so don’t make any correction until you fly around the hold one more time taking care to fly headings and times accurately, as well as ensuring a precise hold fix crossing.

Hold Entries Now that we have thoroughly discussed the factors that go into maintaining a holding pattern we will discuss how to enter the hold.

When you enter a hold you must first fly from wherever you are when you receive your hold clearance to the hold fix, you then fly an entry procedure. When you cross the hold fix a second time you are “established” in the hold and should begin using the time and heading correction procedures we have just been discussing. Therefore what we are about to discuss is the procedure you follow from the time you first receive your hold clearance until the second time you cross the hold fix.

There are two things to be done once you get a hold clearance, but unfortunately some pilots only do the first of these, and that is largely responsible for poor performance in flying holds. The two things to be done are: 1. Determine (and then fly) the required hold entry procedure 2. Plan the required outbound heading and time As hard as it may be to believe many pilots determine the hold entry procedure but give absolutely no thought to what outbound heading and time will be needed. This is a very foolish thing to do. We will spend some time discussing strategies for estimating outbound heading and time shortly, but first we will discuss the hold entry procedures.

Hold Entry Procedures RAC 10.5 specifies the three types of hold entry procedures that are permitted. RAC 10.5 implies that these procedures are compulsory and you should treat them as such. Having said that; there are other ways to enter holds, but we will not discuss those here.

Hold entries are the most commonly failed item on the initial IFR flight test – so pay close attention to this topic. You should read Instrument Procedures Manual section 4.4.4, which gives a very good verbal description of the three hold entry procedures. The three hold entry procedures are: 1. Direct 2. Parallel 3. Offset (teardrop) It is VERY strongly recommended that you silently describe to yourself the procedure you will follow in the minute or so prior to entering a hold. Your description should be a word for word repeat of the description in Instrument Procedures Manual 4.4.4. For example if you are about to complete a parallel hold entry you say to yourself “this will be a parallel entry. Upon reaching the fix I will turn left to heading _______ for 1:00. I will then turn left to intercept inbound track _______. On second arrival over the fix I will turn right …” (we will add more in the next section. The blanks should be filled in with the actual values for the assigned hold.)

If you will take the time to explicitly describe the hold entry procedure to yourself just before flying it, especially including the words left and right as regards each turn, you are quite likely going to do fine and will pass your IFR ride. If you refuse to do this you may very well make one of the classic mistakes. For example many people turn right rather than left for the second turn – in the quote above the offending turn is in bold print.

Unfortunately if you turn the wrong way on your IFR ride you will have to come back

another day and try again. If you do it on a real IFR flight you should simply continue to the hold fix and continue by making a direct hold entry.

In your Instrument Procedures Manual section 4.4.5 you will note that non-standard holds can be either left turn holds or holds with timing other than 1:00 (or 1:30 above 14,000’.)

As an assignment prepare for yourself a verbal description of each of the three hold entry procedures for the case of a hold with left turns. When you have completed the assignment commit your three descriptions along with the ones in Instrument Procedures Manual 4.4.4 to memory so that you can say them to yourself whenever needed without any hesitation. Don’t even consider going further with this text and for sure don’t get into an airplane to fly a holding pattern if you can’t quote these hold entry descriptions effortlessly. If you can’t say what you are going to do you have no chance at all of actually doing it.

Figure 7- 19

7-19 is a recreation of figure 10.2 in the RAC 10, it is also in the Instrument Procedures Manual as figure 4-13. The figure shows the three entry procedures for entering a standard hold. Figure 10.3 in RAC 10 shows the equivalent diagram for left turn holds.

You must study the figure until you understand how to perform each of the three hold

entries. Compare the diagram to the verbal description you created earlier and practice saying the verbal description out loud while following along in the diagram. Repeat this exercise for both right and left turn holds until you can effortlessly keep track of the steps in a hold entry. Be sure to imagine what you will need to do with the OBS and HSI while progressing through the steps of each entry.

Figure 7- 20

7-19 is a very important diagram for describing hold entry procedures, but it is of limited value in flight. Nevertheless you should repeat the recommended exercise of verbalizing hold entry procedures step by step.

When it comes to visualizing a hold entry in flight we need another procedure. One reason 7-19 is ineffective is that it only works for holds east of the hold fix, i.e. with an inbound track of 270. What we need is 360 different versions of 7-19, one for each possible inbound track.

An example of such a hold with an inbound track of 270 is shown in 7-20 In this example the airplane is approaching from the southwest and you can readily see by comparing the situation to 7-19 that an offset entry is called for. How would you know what hold entry is called for if the inbound track was some bearing other than 270?

Carrying 360 different diagrams with us might seem like an unrealistic system but in effect we can do just that by creating a hold entry diagram for ourselves superimposed over the top of our HI. If you are lucky enough to have an HSI the task is even easier as you can use the course bar to represent the inbound hold track. 7-21 shows the same hold as represented in 7-20Error! Reference source not found. drawn on top of the HSI as it would appear in the airplane, which is flying heading 045 toward the hold fix.

Figure 7- 21

To visualize the hold entry you simply set the HSI course bar to the assigned inbound hold track, 270 in this example. You then imagine that the hold fix is at the center of the HSI and then imagine the hold pattern as shown. To “draw” the hold pattern in your mind put your finger at the tail of the course bar and “fly” in toward the hold fix then turn right at the fix and “fly” parallel to the inbound track thereby creating the hold pattern in your mind just like the one shown in 7-21.

Once you have visualized the hold pattern on the HSI you simply note which of the three entry sectors the inbound track lies in. The entry sectors are labeled in 7-21Error!

Reference source not found., but you must visualize those too.

Figure 7- 22

7-22 shows where the sector lines must always be visualized on the HI or HSI (the circles represent the instrument.) These lines could theoretically be permanently etched into the

glass cover of the HI or HSI, but we don’t recommend defacing your instrument like that.

Instead most pilots just visualize the lines. The parallel sector is 110 , as you know from 7-19 but it is much easier to think of that as 20 more than 90, in other words the parallel sector line is always 20 below your left wingtip for a right turn hold and 20 below your right wingtip for a left turn hold. Similarly the offset sector is 70 , which is 20 less than 90. Therefore the offset sector line is always 20 above your right wingtip for a right turn hold and 20 above your left wingtip for a left turn hold. Note also that the dividing line between offset and parallel hold entries is exactly “on the nose.”

It is IMPORTANT to note that the lines described above are only correct if the airplane is flying toward the hold fix. In other words the line that divides offset and parallel hold entries must be oriented to the direction the airplane will arrive at the hold fix. Since the first step in any hold entry is to fly directly to the hold fix it is automatic that the reference line is vertical as shown. The thing to remember is that this system is only valid if you first turn directly toward the hold fix (as for example in the airplane in 7-20 Practice Hold Entry Visualization You should now practice several hold entry visualizations using the simulation on the website. Prior to activating the simulation you can set the simulation to the hold speed you use in your own airplane. The computerized flight instructors uses the speed you specify for any demonstrations you request.

Once you activate the simulation the computer generates a hold clearance, which appears in the red box at the right side of the screen. The simulation will create a random selection of right and left turn holds. If you wish only right turn holds deselect the checkbox at the lower left of the screen.

The computer always places the airplane 8.0 NM from the hold fix flying directly toward the fix. For this exercise it is recommend that you “freeze time” by clicking the 0X button on the stopwatch.

By default the simulation provides an HSI with a built in RMI as well as a standard VOR indicator and a second RMI. The HSI also contains a blue relative wind vector, which helps you visualize wind drift (you won’t need that for this exercise.) The HSI also has the hold entry sectors marked on it (in yellow), as described in 7-21. The lines will orient correctly depending on whether the hold clearance is for a left or right turn hold.

The simulation includes a “map view” in the center of the screen. Such a view would only be available in a modern airplane with an EFIS, or other moving map display.

To switch to ADF holds or alternate VOR instrumentation use any of the following codes. Simply press the specified key on the keyboard for about one second and the instruments will reformat.

H = HSI (with separate RMI but no built in RMI) V = VOR (standard indicator)

R = RMI (ADF) F = Fixed card (ADF) A = All (the default display) Initially you should leave all the visual aids turned on. Visualize the required hold entry procedure then click the “Do Another” button and repeat the exercise.

Once you are easily visualizing the entries start turning off visual aids. Start by hiding the hold pattern (click the “Hide Hold” button at the bottom of the screen.) This eliminates the moving map and also the hold pattern on the HI/HSI. If you can visualize hold entries consistently with the hold pattern hidden then you are ready to continue.

Tip: if you have any doubt that you are visualizing the correct hold entry turn on the computerized flight instructor. NOTE that the instructor cannot “think” if time is frozen so increase time to at least 1X (faster will cause him to think faster) and he will “tell you” what type of hold entry is required (the instructors “mind” can be read in the green box at the lower right.)

Planning the Hold Entry Now that we know how to determine what type of hold entry procedure to use in a given situation we must turn to the more challenging task of visualizing how wind and momentum will affect the hold pattern. We have two objectives: 1. Plan for the effect of wind and momentum during the hold entry procedure 2. Make a first estimate of the required outbound time and heading.

Each of the above objectives is important. Failure to do a reasonable job of allowing for wind and momentum during the hold entry often results in a poor station passage following the entry procedure. This problem was discussed in 7-24Error! Reference source not found.. If we don’t have a reasonable estimate of the required outbound heading and time we at a minimum increase the amount of time required to properly establish the hold, and in some cases will fly such a poor pattern on the first circuit that the problem described in 7-24Error! Reference source not found. will arise.

In order to visualize the effect of wind you must know what the wind is. No IFR pilot should ever go flying without checking the winds aloft forecast first. In addition you should be paying attention to wind-drift throughout the flight. As a result you should always know approximately what the direction and speed of the wind is.

Momentum is not much of a factor on parallel or offset hold entries, but it is a major factor on some direct hold entries. You should not assume that direct entries are easier than parallel or offset. Direct entries are relatively easy if you approach the hold fix within a few degrees of the inbound hold track, but as you can see from the various

figures above, direct entries are called for when you arrive at the hold fix as much as 110 degrees off the inbound track from the non-hold side, or up to 70 degrees off from the hold side. In these situations momentum is a major factor. Consider 7-23 below, which shows an airplane arriving from the south for a hold on the 246 radial. The hold pattern superimposed on the HSI shows that the required entry is direct (although it is within 5 of parallel.) Referring to our verbalization we would say to ourselves, “upon reaching the fix I will turn right to a heading of 246 degrees and follow the holding pattern.� The problem with this plan is shown in 7-25.

Figure 7- 23

Figure 7- 24

Looking at 7-24 we can see that our momentum will take us too far north as we turn to the outbound hold heading. Making matters worse in this case is a south wind. At a minimum we have made a mistake by saying that we will turn to heading 246, our heading needs to be less than that to compensate for wind drift. But to correct for momentum we will need an even more southerly heading. If we do not properly compensate for this situation we will wind up on the non-holding side when we turn back to the inbound hold track. In this case a more appropriate heading would be 216 degrees (approximately 30 degrees less than 246.) Even if the wind had been calm we would need about 20 degrees of compensation for momentum. It should also be clear that any delay initiating the turn when we cross the hold fix would cause major problems. We should therefore make an extra vigilant effort to watch for station passage and start the turn immediately.

Figure 7- 25

Now consider 7-25, which shows the airplane arriving once again from the south but this time assigned to hold east on the 080 radial. The HSI has been setup for the hold and once again we see that a direct hold entry is called for. We verbalize to ourselves, “Upon reaching the VOR I will turn right to a heading of 080 and follow the hold pattern.� Will momentum be a concern in this case? Did we specify the correct heading to turn to?

Figure 7- 26

7-26 shows that momentum, or the lack of momentum is a potential problem in this case also. Our radius of turn will leave us well inside the desired outbound leg and consequently when we turn inbound we will wind up on the non-holding side. The problem is made worse if there is a north wind. The situation arises even though the radius of the turn that begins at the hold fix is the same as the radius of the turns in the hold, but the hold itself has a diameter equal to two radii.

The problem could be minimized in several ways. For example we could fly a higher airspeed during the entry thus increasing radius of turn – but that is not usually a good strategy. A better strategy is to change the planned heading to the north; a heading of about 060 should do nicely in this case. We can also note that unlike the example in 724Error! Reference source not found. there is no advantage in initiating the turn quickly. Some pilots will purposely delay the turn for five or six seconds in this situation rather than adjusting the outbound heading.

We have looked at two specific examples of how momentum affects hold entries.

Momentum is a factor on any entry other than one where the airplane is already on the inbound hold track when the entry begins. Usually momentum takes the airplane where you want it to go on a parallel entry. You should review the diagrams to see why this is so. Momentum may work for or against you on an offset entry, but usually the angles are small enough that momentum is a small concern compared to wind drift. Examine the diagrams to see why this claim is true.

We will now turn our attention to estimating the outbound heading and time for a hold.

The more accurate our initial estimate, the smaller the corrections we will have to make later. Earlier you learned how to make corrections, but now we are going to discuss how you come up with the initial heading and time estimate.

Some pilots just fly the outbound heading with no wind drift correction and go outbound for 1:00 on the first circuit of the hold and then begin corrections from there. That strategy is only acceptable when the winds are light and even then is a sign of amateurism. The professional pilot is always aware of the wind and plans for it. We have gone over this point extensively in our earlier discussion of drift and tracking.

Planning a hold starts with estimating the crosswind and headwind component on the inbound hold track. From these we can estimate the inbound drift and the headwind or tailwind component. The method for estimating crosswind and drift was covered extensively earlier and will not be repeated here. If you did not master the material earlier it is time to do so now because only a master of drift can fly a hold properly.

Let us say that for a particular hold the crosswind is 20 knots and the drift 10 degrees on the inbound track. The headwind is zero. If you were paying attention you know that the outbound drift will NOT be 10 degrees, it will be more. Let’s see why.

Figure 7- 27

First consider 7-27, which pictorially displays the situation described above. The airplane is at EP1 and there is a 20-knot wind from the north. The angle (d) is the drift angle. The thick black line with the arrow head is the inbound track along which the airplane must travel. The thin gray line extending from the airplane represents the heading the airplane is on in order to track inbound. If this concept is not familiar to you review tracking before continuing.

The grayed out hold pattern represents a scale image of the holding pattern this airplane would fly in zero wind. But since there is a wind in this case the pattern will look much different. We will next examine the fix-end turn.

Figure 7- 28

7-28 shows the airplane at SHP, i.e. it has just completed the fix-end turn. A 180-degree rate one turn takes 1:00, so the airplane will drift the same amount in the turn that it does during the 1:00 inbound leg. Consequently the airplane arrives at the position shown rather than remaining on the gray hold pattern (the zero wind pattern.)

If you are following through the logic of this you may have realized that the airplane did not actually turn precisely 180 degrees. And you may also realize that the airplane in the diagram has turned further than it should, as the pilot should have rolled out with a more northerly heading in order to compensate for the wind. These points are true and they slightly invalidate the claim that drift during the turn is equal to drift on the inbound leg.

However let us ignore the error for a moment and move on to TP.

Figure 7- 29

7-29 shows the airplane at the proper TP point for this wind. The turn from TP to EP1 will take 1:00 so once again the airplane will drift the same distance during the turn as on the inbound track. But this time the drift will increase the radius of the turn, as shown.

As before the claim is not precisely true because this time the turn will actually take a bit more than 1:00 (because the airplane actually needs to turn more than 180 degrees.) Once again we will ignore the slight error and consider what heading would be required to fly from SHP to TP. In other words we will finally answer the question we set out to answer – what should the outbound heading in a hold be?

Figure 7- 30

7-30 reminds us that there is also drift on the outbound leg. If we assume that the outbound leg is 1:00 then the total drift that must be accounted for during the outbound leg is three times the inbound drift. In the diagram the baseline represents a line parallel to the inbound track and the adjustment angle (a) is shown as 3d (more precisely tan(a) = tan(3d).) Recall from 7-30 that (a) represents the adjustment in the outbound heading to fly from SHP to TP. Many IFR pilots are familiar with the rule of thumb that says: drift on the outbound leg equals three times the drift on the inbound leg. The above diagram shows where this equation comes from and also shows its limitations. A minor flaw is that as presented it implies that the airplane would turn from the hold fix 180 degrees and then turn back the other direction by (a). Another minor flaw results from the assumption that the outbound end turn is exactly 1:00, which it is not. But the greatest error is the assumption that the outbound leg is 1:00. We have already seen that the outbound leg can be any value from zero to 2:00 or more and that the baseline (see figure) grows longer as outbound time increases. We have learned that when the outbound leg is longer the drift adjustment (a) required is less and vice versa. Consequently the outbound drift can be at times just equal to the inbound drift and at other times much more than three times the inbound drift.

Note that the diagrams used to develop the relationship between (d) and (a) were based on a north wind but the same results would have been obtained with a south wind. The only difference would be that the fix-end turn would be the wide turn and the outbound end turn would be the narrow turn. Be sure to draw this situation out for yourself so that you can visualize it.

We can now summarize the process of estimating an outbound heading and time. We start by estimating the crosswind and headwind on the inbound leg, using the techniques learned in tracking. We then estimate the inbound drift angle (d.) Next we estimate the outbound time by considering whether there will be a headwind or tailwind (remember that a headwind on the inbound leg is a tailwind on the outbound leg and vice versa.)

Once we have made a rough estimate of the outbound time we estimate the heading adjustment angle (a), we start by tripling (d) then we reduce the estimate if the outbound time is to be more than 1:00 or increase it if the outbound time is to be less than 1:00. We can use simple prorating for this adjustment, in other words if outbound time is to be 2:00 use a = 1.5d or if outbound time is to be 0:30 use a = 6d.

Practice Hold Entries You should now begin practicing hold entries and wind drift corrections using the simulation on the website.

Be sure to set the desired hold speed before activating the simulation.

If you do not want any non-standard (left turn holds) deactivate the checkbox at the lower left.

Use the “0X” button on the stopwatch to freeze if you need time to figure out the hold entry or plan your initial estimate of wind drift and timing.

Use the min and max buttons beside the wind box to set the minimum and maximum wind the computer will generate. The simulation randomly sets the wind in this range when you click the “Do Another” button. Note that you can also manually change the wind by dragging the blue wind vector in the wind box. Rotate it to change wind direction and drag in or out to reduce or increase wind speed. We recommend starting with relatively little if any wind then work with stronger winds as you gain confidence.

The hold clearance appears in the red box. You can change the clearance in any way you want. To change the hold, drag the holding pattern on the moving map view. To change the entry drag the airplane symbol to a new starting point. To switch between right and left turn hold patterns double-click the hold pattern in the map view.

It is a very good idea to let the computerized flight instructor demonstrate one or two holds for you.

Initially keep the visualization aids turned on but as you become proficient turn them off.

Do not try to do holds in a real airplane until you can do them in the simulation with all visualization aids turned off.

Remember to use the codes described to switch between VOR and ADF as well as HSI and standard indicators.

For information about controlling heading, airspeed, or any other aspect of the simulation read the instructions on the website.

DME Holds Compared to the extensive discussion above DME holds are very simple. RAC 10.8 explains DME holds. A typical DME hold clearance might be “cleared to the 10 DME fix to hold west on the 270-degree radial between 10 and 15 DME; maintain 7000, expect further clearance at ________.) The hold is represented in 7-31. A DME hold has a hold fix, as do all holds but it also has an outbound fix, as shown in the figure below. The outbound leg ends at the outbound fix, NOT after any particular amount of time.

Figure 7- 31

Note that DME holds can be any length that ATC assigns. The example hold is five nautical miles long which is about twice as long as a the usual hold conducted by a general aviation airplane holding in the 100 to 150 knot speed range. As a result the outbound adjustment angle (a) is much less than 3d (see previous section.) As the length of the DME hold increases eventually a = d. (Note that 7-31Error! Reference source not found. is drawn for the zero wind situation.)

As mentioned in the opening remarks of this section, you may sometimes need to request a hold while you sort out an emergency, for example a gear malfunction. A DME hold can be excellent for this because you don’t need to sort out any timing details. If you can get ATC to agree to a long length for the hold you don’t have to turn as often either, so feel free to ask for long legs (5 to 10 miles works well.) These two factors substantially reduce the workload for a DME hold making them a favorite with pilots. The main limitation on the length of a DME holds is that ATC must protect all the space they authorize you to use, so the length of the hold they will authorize depends on traffic volumes in your area.

Intersection Holds Intersection holds used to be very common in the days before extensive RADAR coverage. In some parts of the world RADAR is still not available and you can expect many holds. In areas where RADAR is available intersection holds are still sometimes used, often as a place to “stack” arriving airplanes when the arrival procedure becomes saturated. 7-32 shows a typical intersection hold. Usually when these are drawn in

textbooks the zero wind hold is shown but in this case we have drawn a hold with a strong northwest wind.

Figure 7- 32

Intersection holds have 1:00 inbound legs just like other holds and therefore the same wind drift rules we learned previously apply. The hold fix is the intersection, which is the solid triangle in the figure above. The angle labeled (l) in the figure must always be more than 45 according to the rules followed by ATC. An airplane arriving from position 1 would perform a direct entry to the hold (this is the most common situation.) An airplane arriving from position 2 would perform a direct entry also. An airplane arriving from position 3 could perform either an offset or parallel entry (the author recommends parallel.) An airplane arriving from position 4 would perform a parallel entry (in this example.) Note that an airplane with conventional instrumentation can only enter this hold from these four positions. An airplane with GPS or other type of RNAV could enter the hold from any direction, using the procedures already described.

An important point about intersection holds concerns the location of SHP and ts (see the figure.) Traditionally pilots have been taught that since it is not possible to identify the point abeam the hold fix outbound timing should begin when established on the outbound heading. However, if you are DME equipped simply use the same DME to start the outbound timing that is used to establish the fix on the inbound leg. If the airplane is RNAV equipped it is possible to identify the point abeam the hold fix and it is recommended that you do so.

GPS Use In Holds An IFR certified GPS could be used to hold at any VOR, NDB or intersection. Optionally the underlying navaids can be tuned and most pilots will take this option.

When holding using GPS there is no fundamental difference in the procedure you use.

The shape of the holding pattern will be exactly the same – i.e. the wind drift rules covered above apply regardless of the navigation equipment you are using. The difference lies in the amount and type of information available to the pilot much of which can make holding a lot easier. Each manufacturers GPS system is different but almost all provide the following information: Instantaneous groundspeed (not closing speed) with no slant range error Drift angle Cross-track distance Wind direction and speed Precise groundspeed readout is obviously very useful in a hold. Be sure to compare the groundspeed inbound and outbound and use it to improve your initial estimate of the outbound time. Do this during the entry procedure.

Most GPS units read out the drift angle (d) see 7-30 for the definition of (d.) Be sure to read this value from the GPS during the entry and then use it to improve your initial estimate of (a) the outbound drift adjustment. See the discussion above about the relationship between (a) and (d.)

Cross-track distance is the distance between the selected track and the airplanes present position measured at right angles. The parallel lines marked as 1.0 Nm and 2.0 NM in 733 are examples of cross-track (XTRK) distances.

When flying a hold you should set the GPS so that the selected track is the inbound track.

The cross-track distances will then be as shown in 7-33. A very IMPORTANT tip is to know the zero wind cross-track distance for your airplane. Previously when we learned to intercept a DME arc you saw that the radius of turn is half of one percent of KTAS. Therefore the normal cross-track distance in a zero wind hold is 1% KTAS. For example an airplane holding at 120 KTAS will be 1.2 NM cross-track on the outbound leg. The zero wind hold is grayed out in the figure below and the distance 1.2 NM is shown. Be sure to substitute the value for your airplane.

Figure 7- 33

When the airplane completes the fix-end turn (i.e. is at SHP) the cross-track distance will not equal the zero wind distance if there is a crosswind. In the example above the crosstrack is 0.9 NM. The pilot should note that this is 0.3 less than “normal� and therefore at TP the distance should be 0.3 more, or 1.5 NM. Armed with this expectation the pilot can observe the cross-track distance while flying outbound and can usually spot quite quickly whether or not s/he has selected a suitable heading.

The final thing to note about GPS holds is to pay attention to the displayed wind vector if your GPS has that feature. This will be more accurate than the winds aloft forecast, which you will have to use in the absence of a GPS or INS. Refer to the GPS groundspeed as you fly the entry. The important thing is the difference between the inbound speed and the outbound speed. If you inbound speed is greater then you must go outbound more than one minute. If you inbound speed is slower your outbound time will be less than a minute.

Compare the TK and your heading. The difference is drift. Try to notice this during the inbound leg on your hold entry, or even before entering the hold if you are arriving in the same direction. Remember that drift correction outbound is always more than inbound. By combining this drift information and the speed information you can make an intelligent guess at what heading to fly outbound.

The most valuable piece of information the GPS will give you in a hold is the XTRK. To get this information you must put the GPS in OBS mode and set the hold course. To do that you must select GPS mode to activate the HSI and set the course. Once you have the DTK set to the inbound course in the hold if you choose to switch back to NAV mode the GPS will still give the correct XTRK.

To use the XTRK remember that in zero wind the diameter of a rate one turn is 1% of the TAS. If your TAS in the hold is 125 KTAS then the diameter of the turn will be 1.25 nm. If there is a crosswind you will need more or less accordingly. Also, you will need more distance if you make your turn shallower than rate one.

Often during the entry to a hold we get less than perfect station passages and thus are half mile or more out of position as we begin the first outbound leg. Such an error can only be spotted and corrected for using the XTRK feature. So, the key is to pay attention to XTRK during the first two times around the hold. After that you should pretty much have the hold established and you will be making fine tuning adjustments to the outbound heading and no longer need XTRK information so much.

Shuttling A shuttle is simply a holding pattern in which you climb or descend. Shuttles can be used during departure procedures in order to solve climb gradient limitations (see Tofino example below.) When procedural separation is in effect only one airplane can fly the approach at a time. Any other arriving aircraft are cleared to hold at the FAF and then shuttle down when their turn for approach comes.

Examine the departure procedure on the Aerodrome diagram for Tofino in your CAP2.

The departure is a good example of a shuttle to MEA, which is a common devise to gain altitude in mountainous areas.

SIDs There are two types of SIDs in Canada: 1. Vector SID 2. Pilot Nav SID

Vector SIDS are by far the simplest. The SID simply assigns a heading to be flown after takeoff, an altitude to climb to, and a note to expect radar vectors from there. You will notice that vector SIDs are not in the database of the KLN90b. This makes sense since they have no waypoints. If you are building a closed flight plan a vector SID would involve one or more ha legs.

Pilot Nav SIDs require the use of one or more navaids. The instructions specify certain tracks to intercept and fly as well as an altitude to maintain. A Pilot Nav SID may also end with a note to expect radar vectors. Most Pilot Nav SIDs are in the KLN90b database.

Open your CAP to any SID procedure and look in the upper left corner of the chart. The procedure name is written in large bold type but just above that will be a note saying either “SID(VECTOR)” or “SID(PILOT NAV)” Many Pilot Nav SIDs are in the KLN90b database. If the SID requires specific tracks to be intercepted it is often necessary to put the GPS in NAV mode to set these tracks. At

some point the GPS must be returned to LEG mode, so be sure you know when and where to do that.

Chapter 6 Flying IFR Approaches Avoiding obstacles during landing is another tricky thing. A safe route along which the aircraft can descend while avoiding obstacles is needed. Ideally this “approach” should line the airplane up with a runway for landing. An obvious question is; how low can an airplane safely descend in IMC conditions. Some modern airliners, on some runways, are capable of landing on autopilot. But most landings must be manually conducted so approaches must have a minimum descent altitude.

We will look at the unique aspects of ILS, VOR, ADF, GPS, Loc, BCRS, and PAR approaches.

Review Chapter xx

Initial Segment – Vectored Arrival When arriving at an airport in a radar terminal area ATC normally provides radar vectors to final. In this case the initial segment is replace by vectors – or we can say that vectors are the initial segment. You can be vectored to any type of approach, ADF, VOR, GPS, ILS, etc.

As soon as the controller starts to vector you for an approach do a full TSI to get your radios setup for the approach At some point on the vectors slow down to a moderate airspeed: At Selkirk College we use 85 KIAS for the C-172 and 120 KIAS for the B95 and 140 KIAS for the King Air. I have noticed that some pilots are confused about airspeed during vectors. I have encountered some people who believe they cannot slow down until cleared for the approach, but the approach clearance will not be issued until a few seconds from the intermediate segment, which is far too late to slow down. The thing to realize is that vectors to an approach is “part of the approach” so you are not “enroute” and therefore can and should slow down.

Slowing too early is equally foolish as “time is money.” The most difficult part of a vectored arrival can be keeping track of where you are and deciding when to slow down and when to do the pre-landing checklist. With GPS moving maps this has become easier than it once was however. If you have no GPS pay attention to the DME. If there is no DME watch the angle to the NDB at the FAF and ere on the side of slowing early. Also, listen to the controller, s/he will often tell you your distance to final.

When to slow and how much varies according to traffic. If you are landing at Toronto in a small airplane you had better keep your speed up or you will be run over. If landing in Kelowna you have a lot more latitude. One secret is to listen to the clearances other traffic is getting and form an image of where the controller is fitting you it. You can usually tell if s/he would like you to speed up or slow down. Try to avoid surprising the

controller by flying abnormally fast or slow. Controllers anticipate what pilots will do, so do the “normal” thing, or make special requests for abnormal operations. The speeds listed above for Selkirk College airplanes are normal, fly them unless the controller requests you to do something different.

Start your pre-landing checks at least 5NM before intercepting final approach. Try to always have the checklist completed before intercepting final.

Short-Gate The controller normally vectors the airplane onto final at a point called the “gate”, which is far enough from touchdown that the airplane is below the 3° glidepath. When this happens you will typically have several seconds after intercepting final before intercepting the glidepath, at which point you extend the gear and start your approach (more on that later.)

Sometimes controllers vector airplanes inside the gate. This is called a “short gate” (the gates are symbols shaped like a > on the controller’s radar screen that s/he vectors the airplane to. At some airports there is a standard gate and a short gate. On a short gate the controller vectors the airplane where it may be on or even above the glidepath when it intercept final. In this case you will feel compelled to quickly extend the gear and start final descent. Be careful not to descend too soon. DO NOT descend until you are established on final, even if the glidepath needle is alive. On vectors to an NDB approach be especially careful because there will be bank error as you turn final; don’t descend until you complete the turn and confirm you are within 10° of final approach track.

Initial Segment – No Radar When no radar is available you will either fly a published transition or do a procedureturn.

When flying a transition the same speed advice given above for vectored arrivals applies.

Slow down well before the IF and get the pre-landing checks done.

If you are doing a procedure turn slow down no later than IAF outbound. Complete the pre-landing checks during the procedure turn.

Procedure Turns When executing a procedure turn you must maneuver the aircraft using one of the five possible orientation procedures described on page 4-42 of the Instrument Procedures Manual. Diagram 4-28 shows the procedures. At Selkirk College we only use four of these: 45 Procedure Turn (or standard procedure turn) S-turn Modified Racetrack Racetrack Pattern

Each of these procedures has its unique considerations, after reading what the Instrument Procedures Manual has to say read the following advice. Each of these procedures can be practiced using the simulation “Approaches.” You can have the computerized flying instructor demonstrate how to make a procedure turn – simply drag the airplane to any desired starting point around the 10NM ring and then click “you have control.” In a green box at the top of the screen the instructor will tell you what type of procedure turn he is going to do. In the green box at the lower right he gives further details. The box at the upper right is the “GPS readout” it shows XTRK and other information.

The following explanations may make more sense if you read them while watching the computerized flying instructor demonstrate.

Procedure Turn Distances and Timing

Figure 1

Prior to all procedure turns determine D1, as shown in figure 1. This distance is based on the altitude to lose in the intermediate segment of the approach. D1 is easy to calculate if you simply remember to allow 0.3NM for every 100 feet to lose in the intermediate segment. For example 700 feet requires 2.1 NM.

Figure 2

Figure 2 shows the intermediate segment. In the example 1000 feet must be lost in the intermediate segment. D1 is calculated based on 3.0 Nm for each 1000 feet, or 0.3Nm for 100 feet.

T1 is the time to go outbound. If you do not have a GPS or DME to reference D1 you will have to use time as a substitute. It is important to remember that distance is the primary reference and time is a backup to be used only if the primary is not available.

The following table should be memorized: Altitude to lose in intermediate segment 1500 1000 900 800 700 600 500

D1

4.5 Nm 3.0 Nm 2.7 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.5 Nm

Notes

Zero wind T1 @ 85 kts

Zero wind T1 @ 120 kts

3:20

2:15

2:10

1:30

May round up to 2.5

1:45

1:15

May round up to 2.0

1:30

1:00

1:00

0:45

May round up to 3Nm

From the table memorize the values relevant to the airplane you fly. For example for an airplane flying 85 knots 1:00 outbound is sufficient for an intermediate altitude change of 500 feet but 2:10 is needed for 1000 feet. Whatever you do, don’t fall into the habit of thinking that the outbound time on all approaches is the same.

When doing an S-turn, Modified racetrack, or Racetrack procedure the pilot must also determine D2 as shown in figure 3

Figure 3

D2 is always equal to D1 + 2.5 NM. If the aircraft is equipped with a GPS or other navaid that can measure D1 and D2 the pilot should initiate the procedure turn based on those distances. The distances D1 and D2 above are recommended but may be increased to facilitate losing excess altitude or if more time is needed to complete checks, etc. (Tip: at D2 the aircraft should not normally be more than 800 feet above procedure turn altitude.)

If distance information is not available then the procedure turn must be timed. For a standard procedure turn the required time is called T1, as shown in figure 1. This time can be calculated using a CR3 or simply memorized from the table above.

Timing procedure turns other than standard procedure turns requires adjustment to the timing as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4

Note that on the S-turn and Modified racetrack the required outbound time is 45 seconds less than T1. For a racetrack procedure the required outbound time is more than T1 (it is recommended to add at least 1:00 – to be precise, add the time for 2.5 Nm.) It is a very common mistake by beginners to not go outbound long enough on a racetrack procedure turn. For an intermediate segment altitude change of 500 feet you need 2:00 outbound and for a 1000 foot intermediate segment you need 3:10 outbound in the C-172.

CAUTION: In no case may the outbound distance (D2) or time exceed the maximum distance for the procedure turn as specified on the approach plate. To be safe always limit D2 to the published maximum less 1.5NM. NOTE: The distances and times presented above ensure that the airplane is below the glidepath when final descent is begun. On engine out approaches pilots are cautioned against making wide procedure turns that may make it difficult to reach the airport.

However, under normal operations pilots may go outbound further than specified above although they must realize that doing so adds time and expense to the flight.

Standard Procedure Turn The standard procedure turn is also known as a 45 procedure turn, or by the slang expression “hockey stick.”

To complete a standard procedure turn fly directly toward the IAF (usually an NDB or VOR) then track outbound along the approach track (note: track – don’t just fly a heading.)

Go outbound to D1. For example if the procedure turn altitude is 9000 and the beacon crossing altitude is 8200 you go outbound 2.4 NM. Once at D1 turn to the first procedure turn heading as printed on your approach plate. This may be a right or left turn – the plate will tell you.

Hold the first procedure turn heading until you are a sufficient distance off the inbound track. Usually a time of 1:00 is used. A GPS XTRK distance of 1.5 NM is also a good guide for Selkirk College twins.

Next you turn 180 to the second procedure turn heading. Hold this heading until you intercept the final approach track.

S-Turn Procedure The S-turn procedure is used anytime you are approaching the IAF from the procedure turn side and are more than 45 from the outbound track. Refer to Fig 4-28 on page 4-22 of the Instrument Procedures Manual for more details.

Upon crossing the IAF start a turn to the first procedure turn heading, as published on the approach plate. This turn will always be more than a 90 degree turn.

Report outbound AFTER passing abeam the IAF.

Hold the first procedure turn heading until you cross the inbound track. Reset your stopwatch at that time and fly for a further 1:00.

Next you turn to the outbound heading, plus WIND DRIFT as required. Hold this heading until you are at distance D2 (as described above.)

Next you turn to the second procedure turn heading and fly until you intercept the final approach track.

Modified Racetrack Procedure The modified racetrack procedure is used when approaching the IAF from the non-procedure turn side. You may think of this as the opposite to the S-turn. See Fig 4-28 on page 4-22 of the Instrument Procedures Manual for more details.

Upon crossing the IAF turn directly to the first procedure turn heading as published on the approach plate. This will always be a shallow turn of less than 45 .

Start your stopwatch and report outbound right away.

Fly the first heading for 1:00 then turn to the outbound heading plus WIND DRIFT as required. If you have XTRK information check it. It should be more than 1% of your TAS – plus some extra for any crosswind that may be blowing you toward the inbound track. If it is insufficient adjust your outbound heading.

Fly to distance D2 as described above.

Next you turn to the second procedure turn heading and fly until you intercept the final approach track.

Racetrack Procedure Turn Fig 4-28 on page 4-22 of the Instrument Procedures Manual shows when to use a racetrack procedure turn. In addition, a Race Track procedure should be used when the aircraft is established in a holding pattern prior to the approach. (This criterion applies when holding at the FAF prior to the approach and also applies when a shuttle descent is conducted as part of the approach.)

When you cross the IAF turn directly to the outbound heading plus WIND DRIFT as required. If you have XTRK information check it. It should be more than 1% of your TAS – plus some extra for any crosswind that may be blowing you toward the inbound track. If it is insufficient adjust your outbound heading.

Fly to distance D2 as described above.

Contrary to the way it is drawn in the Instrument Procedures Manual, you should next you turn to the second procedure turn heading and fly until you intercept the final approach track. Do NOT assume that you can simply make a 180 turn and wind up on the inbound track as the diagram would have you believe.

It is important for students to become competent at completing racetrack procedure turns but they are very challenging when the winds are strong. Therefore when in a position from which the Instrument Procedures Manual calls for a racetrack

procedure turn it is recommended that if the winds are strong and the airplane is not equipped with a GPT the pilot perform a standard procedure turn instead. Since Selkirk College’s twins have GPS you should be able to do a racetrack in our airplanes, but in the C-172s without GPS or any airplane in which the GPS is unavailable do a standard procedure turn instead. If you do have a GPS, ensure that it is set to the inbound track for the approach and maintain a XTRK distance of more than 1% of the airplane’s true airspeed – more if there is a wind blowing you toward the inbound track. For example if your procedure turn airspeed is 120 KIAS estimate you TAS based on altitude, let us say 130 KTAS. You should maintain more than 1.3 NM XTRK, plus and extra 0.1 NM for every six knots of crosswind toward track.

Flying a Stabilized Approach – Constant Descent Point It is an important to develop the skill to fly a stabilized approach. We will discuss that in detail momentarily. First we will discuss “dive and drive.”

A dive and drive approach is based on the philosophy that you want to get down to the minimum altitude as quickly as possible. Many pilots apply this procedure in both the intermediate and final segments of an approach. What they do is, after completing the procedure turn they descend as rapidly as possible to the FAF crossing altitude. A descent rate of up to 1000 fpm can be used. Similarly the pilot descends as rapidly as possible to the MDA after passing the FAF. The advantage of dive and drive is that it gets you out of cloud as quickly as possible. Thus your eyes have time to adapt and you have time to look around and see the airport or other geographic features that will help you acquire the necessary visual reference to descend and land.

The problem with dive and drive is that the high descent rates involved can easily lead to overshooting the target altitude and getting too low. In addition it may not be possible to level off on a single engine approach in some airplanes, such as our own Travelairs. In that case a stabilized approach is the only safe thing to do.

The diagram above introduces the concept of the constant descent point (CDP.) In the near future Nav Canada will begin publishing this point on approach plates. For now you must determine it yourself. It is essentially D1, as described above.

At Selkirk College we plan all our intermediate segments with a CDP that gives us a standard 3NM/1000 foot gradient. We initiate final descent at CDP and descend at

the same vertical speed used for an ILS which brings us to the FAF at the published crossing altitude.

The diagram above implies that the same descent rate would be used after passing the FAF. That is exactly what large aircraft operators such as Air Canada do. But at Selkirk College we believe this procedure is not workable in light aircraft, therefore we use dive and drive in the final segment. In other words we increase descent rate upon passing the FAF inbound and descend quickly to MDA. An important skill to develop is the ability to check how your descent is progressing and make adjustments to your vertical speed in the intermediate segment.

This is quite easy to do when you have a GPS. Develop the habit of checking at 1000, 500, 300 above and 200 above FAF altitude, which will be 3.0NM, 1.5NM, 0.9Nm and 0.6 Nm respectively. When you make your SOP “100 above” call you should 0.3NM from the FAF. On the final segment reduce power and increase the descent rate to reach minima well before the missed approach point.

Mountain IFR approaches For the most part an IFR approach is an IFR approach is an IFR approach. But, there are a few distinct features of approaches into mountainous areas, such as Castlegar, Kelowna, Penticton, etc. that don’t show up so much in approaches to flatter parts of the world. In this section we will discuss the key items One difference is the length of the approach. The average IFR approach has a final segment of about four miles and an intermediate segment of five to ten miles. In other words you intercept final approach between eight and twelve miles from the airport.

But many mountain approaches are much longer. It can be the intermediate or final segments that are longer (or both.) Castlegar has two beacons on the approach, where as most approaches have only one, this extends the final approach segment in Castlegar to more than 12 miles. Many mountain approaches have the intermediate and final segments divided with two or more MDAs within each.

The only reason for a long intermediate or final approach segment is to lose a lot of altitude. For example in Castlegar the intermediate and final segments involve descending from 9000 to 5000 (lower for company approved approaches) which is a 4000 foot descent. At three miles per thousand feet the approach designer must give you 12 miles to lose 4000 feet, hence the long approach. In flatter parts of the world the total altitude lost is usually only 2000 to 2500 feet, which requires only 6 or 7 miles of descending.

Previously I have told you that our generic Selkirk College procedure is to fly a stabilized intermediate segment and then “dive and drive” to MDA in the final segment.

But if the final segment has two MDAs it is really only the last one that you should dive on. It is of great advantage to fly stabilized all the way to the last segment of the approach.

With the long descent through many thousands of feet you are almost guaranteed significant wind shifts. This makes tracking particularly important, and substantially increases the risks of NDB approaches because the pilot may hesitate to follow the NDB

being unsure weather the wind is really changing or the ADF needle is just wandering due to mountain effects. Always backup the ADF with GPS if available. And remember that localizer approaches are more reliable in the mountains than NDB approaches.

Cold Temperature Corrections Pilots everywhere should make cold temperature corrections when the temperature drops below zero. But, on a mountain approach you may fly over a mountain (such as Sentinel) clearing it by only a few hundred feet, in cloud, at thousands of feet above the field elevation. In this case if you don’t make the temperature correction it will be the last mistake you ever make. It is quite possible to fly smack into the top of a mountain while exactly at the published altitude for beacon crossing on a cold day. So, always remember to make your temperature corrections.

Steep Final Approach Segment In flat parts of the world most approaches have straight-in landing minima and the approach designer tries to make the FAF crossing altitude such that a 3 glidepath (320 ft/NM) takes you to the runway. The maximum descent gradient ever required is 400 ft/NM. Mountain approaches almost never have straight-in minima. Once again Castlegar is a good example. Penticton and Kamloops are also examples.

To maximize the chances of landing on a mountain approach you want to use the maximum safe descent rate in the final segment. After you pass the FAF reduce power to establish maximum safe descent rate. At 100 above MDA start to level off.

Stabilize the Approach Prior to the LAST Segment Previously I mentioned that you want to use the maximum safe descent rate in the final approach segment, on a mountain approach if the final segment has an intermediate step down try to fly a stabilized approach to that point.

One of the most important things to do is plan the approach so that you arrive at the final fix established in a descent. If you cross the fix in level flight and have to throttle back and start descent the seconds you waste doing that can prevent you from reaching MDA. It is therefore crucial to develop the skill of flying stabilized all the way to the last fix (which might be after the so called FAF,) as I mentioned earlier.

It is much more difficult to stabilize an approach if you have no DME or GPS. In such cases you may have to use dive and drive throughout the approach, but be extremely careful to avoid descending through any altitudes as the margins are very thin.

Circling in the Mountains “Normally” pilots maintain the circling MDA while circling. The general advice is; don’t descend until turning final. But that will not work in the mountains. The circling altitude is usually several thousand feet above ground level.

When flying a mountain approach you must ensure you have adequate visual reference before descending below MDA. If you break out before MDA you can assess this in the descent and make a continuous descent to the runway. If the weather is

marginal level off at MDA and assess it. If you judge the weather is adequate (i.e. you have the required visual reference) you may resume the descent.

Plan your descent from MDA to the runway so that you never lose sight of the runway. How far you fly away from the airport depends on the visibility. If the weather is good you may choose to fly well away from the airport in order to descend without conflicting with circuit traffic. If the weather is marginal there will be no VFR traffic so it is best to circle down over the airport. In other words just descend in the circuit.

Remember that just because you are IFR does not give you any special priority over VFR traffic. Most mountain airports are uncontrolled, so be prepared to cross midfield and join downwind like any other airplane.

Remember that you are obligated to confirm the runway is clear if no ground station is available to report it as clear.

ILS Approach Before discussing how to fly an ILS approach we will examine how ILS actually works.

You previously covered how VOR, DME, and ADF work in the text Navigation for Professional Pilots.

This section is supported by a simulation on the website.

Load the simulation called “How ILS works.�

ILS consists of two separate parts called the localizer and the glidepath. Each of these requires a separate receiver and display in the cockpit. Many simple airplanes have localizer receivers but no glide path receivers.

Because most localizer radios display position on the same indicator as the VOR (i.e. on a Standard VOR indicator or and HSI) some pilots make the BIG mistake of thinking that VOR and ILS are the same. They are not. They work completely differently. It is therefore quite possible for your VOR radio to fail while your ILS radio still works, or vice versa. It is of course also possible for your localizer radio to fail while your glidepath radio still works, or vice versa.

In most light aircraft the VOR, Localizer and Glidepath radios are housed in the same box. In transport jets in most cases these three radios are separate boxes (usually somewhere in the belly or nose of the airplane.) The outputs from those three radios is routed to the cockpit and displayed where needed on mechanical or electrical displays on the panel. Realizing this will help you remember that VOR, Localizer, and Glidepath are three independent things.

Consequently doing a VOT test means nothing about whether your ILS is working properly. It is also true that if your VOR is out of calibration your ILS may still work just fine (or not.) So, each system should be tested and crosschecked separately.

Click the begin button The first frame shows a Map view and a Side view of a typical ILS. On the Map view the localizer is the yellow and blue icon. The approach course is right down the middle of this beam. On the side view a similar yellow and blue icon represents the glidepath. The airplane follows these two beams through the sky. If the pilot does a good job these beams will bring the airplane right down to the runway.

On the left side of the screen are examples of the two most common cockpit displays for ILS. At the top is a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) below that is a Standard VOR/ILS indicator. We will examine these displays in more detail in section 3.

On the Map view the runway is the rectangle (see picture above.) The localizer transmitter is normally 1000 past the departure end of the runway.

The two football shaped symbols on the map are called marker beacons. In most parts of the world ILS approaches have two marker beacons, one called the Outer marker and another called the Middle marker. In Canada the government has decided we don’t need marker beacons so all markers have been decommissioned. When the airplane is over either of the markers the corresponding light on the marker radio, shown below will flash.

In this simulation you can drag the airplane around with your mouse. Try dragging the airplane onto the localizer. You will notice that the green needle on the HSI and the vertical needle on the standard VOR/ILS indicator center. Try dragging the airplane over the markers to see that the marker radio works.

Looking at the Side view you can see whether the airplane is above or below the glidepath. Drag the airplane (Map view) closer to or farther away from the runway. If you put the airplane exactly on the glidepath the glidepath indicator on the HSI and Standard VOR/ILS indicator will center (see diagram below to identify these indicators.)

The above picture shows the two different styles of glidepath indicator. Both will give the same information if both radios are working properly. Checking them against each other is one of the things experienced IFR pilots do to confirm the glidepath radios are working properly.

How Localizer Transmitter Works Previously we learned that VOR creates an infinite number of radials. But ILS is designed to only create ONE very accurate course.

Click the “next” button, or number “2.”

The localizer transmitter is approximately 1000 feet past the departure end of the runway.

It transmits two signals, from two separate directional antennas. In this frame the two signals are represents by the blue sector and the yellow sector.

A technician adjusts the two antennae so that the blue and yellow signals overlap.

Specifications call for the signals to overlap by 700 feet at the threshold of the runway.

In this frame you are the technician. You must first choose the length of the runway. The simulation lets you choose any value from 6000’ to 11,000’. (ILS is never installed on runways less than 5000’) Once you have a runway length adjust the beam width (overlap) so that it is 700 feet at the runway threshold.

For a 7000 foot runway the beam will be 5 degrees wide. For shorter runways it will be a bit more than 5 degrees, and for longer runways it will be a bit less. So, unlike VOR where we know that full scale is always 20 degrees from side to side ILS is approximately 5 degrees side to side, but will vary slightly from runway to runway.

How Localizer Receiver Works The localizer receiver in your airplane receives both the blue and the yellow signal. If it receives ONLY the blue signal the CDI will go full scale left. If it receives ONLY the yellow signal it will go full scale right. If it receives both signals it deviates from center according to the relative strength of the two signals. Obviously the CDI needle will only center when the two signals are equal – i.e. right on the centerline of the approach.

How the Glidepath Transmitter Works The glidepath transmitter works essentially the same way as the localizer, only in the vertical plane.

When you visit the airport you will see a red and white building beside any runway with an ILS. That is the glidepath transmitter. It must be located abeam the desired touchdown spot on the runway. That is usually between 750 and 1250 feet along the runway, depending on the length of the runway and the size of airplanes that will use it.

Click the “next” button, or number “3.”

In this frame you see the two glidepath signals being transmitted. Once again you are the technician responsible for setting up this ILS. All glidepaths are adjusted to a beam width of 1.4 degrees. So, do that first. The point to notice here is that the glidepath beam is very narrow (1.4 degrees from full up to full down, or 0.7 degrees from the center of the beam to the edge.)

Next you will adjust the angle of the approach. The system can be adjusted to any angle between 2 degrees and 4.5 degrees. However, 99% or ILSs are set to 3 degrees. 2½ used to be quite common, but not much any more, due to noise abatement. Occasionally a steeper angle is used to come in over obstacles, for example Kelowna B.C. has a 3½ ILS. Click the “next” button, or number “4.”

In frame 4 you can adjust the approach course to any direction you desire. Of course the technician will normally adjust the ILS to the orientation of the runway. But, if it was not possible to put the ILS exactly on the centerline of the runway, perhaps because of a lake, etc. then the localizer is adjusted so that it crosses the threshold of the runway. Thus, you might have to turn a few degrees after touchdown to stay on the runway centerline.

ALWAYS check your approach plate to see if the ILS lines up exactly with the runway or not.

The main point for you to note at this time is that an ILS has only ONE COURSE. Unlike a VOR which can be used to navigate in any direction, the ILS can only be used on this one course.

You now understand all the theory about how ILS works. Lets explore how it all appears to us in the cockpit.

Click the “next” button, or number “5.”

In frame 5 you have free play. By default time compression is set to zero, but if you increase it you can fly the ILS approach. Remember that we are not really going to learn to do ILS approaches until section 6. The idea here is just to understand how the system works.

There are a series of secret codes in this frame that we will use to explore ILS indications.

Press the 1-key The approach course is now 060 and the airplane is just slightly right of the centerline of the approach. However, the thing to notice is that the HSI course is NOT set to 060. Nor is the OBS on the Standard VOR/ILS indicator.

Even though these indicators are not set they correctly indicate the position. Try changing the OBS setting. Notice that it makes NO DIFFERENCE what you set the OBS to.

Try turning the course selector on the HSI. Notice that it has NO EFFECT on the deflection of the CDI. That certainly is a LOT different than with a VOR. Press shift and the 1-key It should be clear that while the HSI could in theory be set to any value you should always set it to the approach course so that the Course bar lines up with the direction of flight.

It is less important to set the OBS on the standard indicator. Some pilots don’t bother, most do set the approach course just to remind them what it is.

Press the 2-key The approach course is now 180 and you are just right of the centerline. Notice that both the CDIs are telling you to turn right to get on course.

Don’t change anything. Watch the airplane and the HSI and Standard VOR/ILS indicator and: Press shift and the 2-key The airplane is NOT MOVING, it is only turning 180 degrees.

After the turn the centerline is on your left. Notice that the HSI correctly tells you to turn left to get on course, but the standard indicator still is deflected right.

Based on what we learned previously you should realize that the standard indicator only knows that the yellow signal is stronger, so all it can do is deflect right. It has NO IDEA what your heading is, so don’t be fooled into thinking you can always follow the needle.

This is the same problem we ran into with VOR. You can only follow the needle when flying inbound. It works in reverse when flying outbound. With the VOR we solved the problem by setting the OBS in the direction we are flying. Go ahead and try that here.

You will see that it won’t work. The only thing you can do is remember that the standard CDI works backwards when flying outbound on an ILS. Press the 3-key The glidepath signal is very directional. So, if you are too far off the localizer glidepath signal is lost. In this scenario the airplane is well off the localizer and glidepath signal is not being received. The Standard VOR/ILS indicator shows a glidepath flag and the needle centers. On the HSI there is no glidepath flag, instead glidepath needle disappears when the signal is lost.

the the red the

If you drag the airplane closer to the localizer, or increase time compression and fly straight ahead you will see the glidepath flag disappear and the glidepath needle start to work.

Press shift and the 3-key This scenario is the same as number 3 but a bit closer so the glideslopes are working.

Press the 4-key The airplane is now exactly on the localizer and the glidepath. Notice that both the glidepath indicators are centered.

Look at the airplane on the side view and note that it is in the center of the glidepath beam.

Press shift and the 4-key The airplane jumps up 300 feet. The result is that we are slightly above the centerline of the glidepath. The glidepath needles now move down indicating that we need to be lower.

Press the 5-key The airplane now drops to 300 feet below the glidepath. Notice that the glidepath needles are now deflected up, indicating that we need to be higher.

All the pilot really has to do is maintain the present altitude and s/he will intercept the glidepath. To see this increase the time compression, or:

Press shift and the 5-key The airplane is now in motion, and in a few seconds will intercept the glidepath. Once it does you will need to start a descent to follow the glidepath. Use the up arrow key to start the descent or: Press the 6-key The airplane is now slowed to 120 knots and is descending at 638 fpm. This will take it approximately along the glidepath. If it drifts off the glidepath you should adjust the vertical speed.

Allow the airplane to continue until it passes the Outer marker. Notice the blue light flash on the marker radio.

If you fly further you will reach the Middle marker at approximately 200 feet above ground level. To save time: Press shift and the 6-key The airplane is now about 400 feet above ground. The Middle marker will soon start to flash. In the real world you would expect to see the ground soon.

We learn more about the ILS approach in section 6.

Press the 7-key In areas with no RADAR you will need to fly outbound along the ILS (i.e. away from the runway) then turn around for the approach.

In this scenario you are about to intercept the ILS outbound. Practice tracking outbound using both the HSI and the Standard VOR/ILS indicator. It’s pretty easy, but you MUST remember that the standard indicator works backwards when outbound.

Set the time compression to a value of more than zero and try tracking outbound.

Press shift and the 7-key This is the same as the previous scenario but intercepting from the other side.

Flying an ILS Approach When flying a full procedure ILS go outbound until below the glidepath. The glidepath needle may not work when you are flying away from the station so calculate the distance to go outbound, i.e. D1.

When outbound on an ILS the CDI needle works in reverse on a standard VOR indicator.

On and HSI it works normally.

If being vectored to the ILS slow to normal procedure turn speed and complete prelanding checks well before reaching final approach. Use the GPS, DME, and angle to the beacon at the FAF to judge distance.

Upon intercepting the glidepath scan the attitude indicator and VSI establishing a vertical speed equal to five times the groundspeed. Fly this vertical speed precisely for several seconds. Don’t be timid about making firm elevator inputs to establish the needed vertical speed – but trim the airplane so you don’t have to keep fighting it. Remember to scan your heading; don’t let it swing, as it often will if you fixate on pitch control.

Fly the chosen vertical speed and check the glidepath needle. If it moves out of the center REVISE your chosen vertical speed. The crucial thing is don’t chase the needle; instead revise your estimate of vertical speed needed to track the glidepath.

While using the above strategy to establish vertical speed hold a constant heading. If the localizer needle drifts out of the center revise your estimate of wind drift; move the heading bug to the new heading.

Make moderately aggressive corrections; 10° in the first minute or so on an ILS, to establish a heading that keeps the needle centered. Once a good heading is established limit yourself to five degree heading changes after that. That also means no more than 5° of bank once established.

By the time you are past the FAF you should have a heading within 2° of ideal and a vertical speed within 50 fpm. You only have to hold these smoothly and accurately and the approach will be a success.

As you near the runway the ILS becomes very sensitive. You must react quickly to any movement, but the correction must be small. If the glidepath needle drops down ease forward moving the pitch attitude about 1 degree – watch the VSI and don’t let it increase more than 100 fpm. As the glidepath needle returns to the center ease the nose back to the proper position. I have emphasized proper position in the preceding sentence to highlight that your objective is to establish and hold the one ideal pitch attitude.

A common problem is fixation – while making a small pitch correction pilots will accidentally bank, and vice versa. Be aware of this tendency and keep your eyes moving.

DO NOT look at your approach plate in the final segment. Check the DH and missed approach procedure in the intermediate segment. Once you pass the FAF all your concentration must be on flying the approach. Do NOT let anything distract you. Ignore radio calls. Avoid the tendency to make one last check of the approach plate on short final. Doing this is the most common reason to “blow an approach.”

Fly the glidepath all the way to decision height. On an ILS you MUST fly through the DH staying on the glidepath. As you pass through DH you decide, and if you don’t have the required visual reference you start a missed approach. By the time you add power and pull up you will be 50 feet or so below DH, this is normal.

If you have the required visual reference just keep following the approach to the runway.

No sudden changes are needed at DH.

VOR Approach When setting up the OBS for a VOR approach always set the inbound approach course. It might seem logical to set the outbound course during the procedure turn, but don’t do it.

By setting the OBS as specified the CDI will work in reverse when outbound. This makes it the same as an ILS, which is a much more common approach so you will find that while this seems weird at first it will be “normal” for you after a while.

At CDP establish the same descent rate you would use on an ILS, i.e. five times your groundspeed.

At 1000 above the FAF altitude check distance to the fix, it should be 3.0NM. If it is more reduce vertical speed, if less increase vertical speed.

At 500 above FAF altitude check distance again. It should be 1.5NM. Adjust vertical speed as needed.

AT 300 above confirm 0.9NM, at 200 above confirm 0.6NM at 100 above make your standard call and confirm 0.3NM to the FAF. If distance is good you will not need to level off.

If you do not have GPS or DME to perform the above procedure you will have to add power to level at the FAF altitude. Add power just after the 100 above call and level off at or above the FAF altitude. NEVER go below the FAF altitude.

At the FAF perform the 5Ts. Push the stopwatch button, turn if needed, and then reduce power. Power should be brought back to establish a descent rate that will reach MDA well before the missed approach point – see the discussion above about final approach segments.

Call “100 above” and add power to level at MDA. Do not descend below MDA until in a position to land safely.

DME Arc Arrival DME arc arrivals can be flown to both VOR and ILS approaches. Technically the IAF is at the beginning of the arc and the arc ends at the IF. Often you will self navigate to the IAF but sometimes a controller will vector you to the arc.

The important thing to note is that as you approach an arc, whether navigating on your own or on vectors you should be looking at both the DME and the RMI. As you approach the arc turn so that the RMI needle is on your wingtip.

There is normally a lead radial or lead bearing on the arc that tells you when you are 2NM from the final approach track. You want to be slowed down and have the prelanding checks done well before that. Slow down at least 5NM before final. You can estimate this by using 2 ½ times the LR. If you are new to arcing I recommend slowing down even sooner.

ADF Approach If you have GPS use it to backup the approach. Calculate D1 and be sure you go outbound far enough. If you have no GPS calculate the required time outbound as explained previously.

There is a lot of bank and quadrantal error in the procedure turn therefore fully complete the turn to final before declaring yourself on final and safe to descend.

Once established on final extend the gear and flaps at or before CDP (which you should have calculated.) If you have no GPS descend right away, i.e. do dive and drive.

At the FAF perform the 5Ts. Push the stopwatch button, turn if needed, and then reduce power. Power should be brought back to establish a descent rate that will reach MDA well before the missed approach point – see the discussion above about final approach segments.

Use common sense and turn to a heading that will take you from the FAF to the runway.

You should know what the wind is – don’t fly a heading that is 30° from the final approach track when the wind is calm for instance.

As soon as you complete the 5Ts check the tail of the ADF needle. Remember, tail to desired plus 30 – make a correction. Normally less than 30 is needed, but make a correction right away. The most common mistake is to wait too long before correcting.

Call “100 above” and add power to level at MDA. Do not descend below MDA until in a position to land safely.

Localizer Approach Think of a localizer approach as a combination of ILS and VOR approaches described above. Little more need be said.

Back Course Approach To fly a Backcourse approach you MUST setup the OBS and HSI for the front course. If you do this the HSI will work properly, i.e. will give directional indications.

If you have a standard VOR indicator the CDI will read directionally when outbound and backwards when inbound. There is nothing you can do about this, so get used to it.

The reality is that back course approaches will mess with your mind. As you track inbound you must constantly remind yourself to turn away from the needle. Just when you think you are doing great the needle will take a jump – you will twitch the wrong way and “there it goes.” You will need lots of regular practice to fly a good back course.

The localizer transmitter is on the end of the runway where you are approaching which makes a back course VERY sensitive on short final. You must use bracketing to establish the required heading on final and as you near the airport limit yourself to 2° heading changes.

With all the above in mind back course approaches are just like VOR approaches, so read the advice there.

GPS Approach, with the KLN90b When completing the Approach portion of the AMORTS briefing, the pilot briefing the approach should identify the procedure to transition from en-route flight to the instrument approach procedure (IAP). This may be by way of direct navigation, a STAR, Radar Vectors, DME ARC, or transitions published on the applicable GPS approach plate.

The GPS approach will be retrieved from a current GPS database. Approach waypoints will be verified by checking the latitude and longitude of each waypoint. Step down fixes that are not included in the database will be identified and noted at this time.

Additionally, accuracy of bearings and distances between waypoints will be confirmed while flying the approach by referencing the approach plate.

Prior to transitioning from an airway to the IAP, the pilot will confirm the HSI is displaying GPS referenced track guidance by confirming that “GPS” has been selected on the annunciator panel and the “GPS” light has illuminated.

For straight-in GPS approaches, the pilot will confirm that “LEG” mode has been selected on the annunciator panel and the light has illuminated. The GPS will remain in “LEG” mode unless there is a requirement to hold or shuttle at a waypoint, in which case the “OBS” mode would be selected prior to reaching the holding waypoint. It would be re-selected to “LEG” mode following the last turn inbound in the hold or shuttle.

The pilot will confirm the correct station altimeter setting has been entered into the GPS data-base when prompted by the message “PRESS ALT TO SET BARO”. This will occur once the GPS arms the approach mode. Later updates as provided by ATC will be entered as required by pressing “ALT” on the GPS panel and correcting the altimeter setting.

The pilot will confirm that the GPS has “ARMED” the approach by determining that the “ARMED” annunciator light has illuminated, and calling “APPROACH ARMED”. This should be accomplished no later than 2 miles prior to the initial approach waypoint (IAWP).

If not already in use, the Super Nav 5 page, should be selected shortly after passing the IAWP. The scale factor on the super-nav page can be set to “AUTO”, or set to a specific distance at the pilot’s discretion.

Speed reduction from cruise speed to initial approach speed should occur on the leg from the IAWP to the IWP (intermediate way-point) and in any case should be initiated no later than 3 nm prior to the IWP. Pre-landing checks to should be initiated after passing the IAWP. If the landing gear is not required to assist in the descent between the IAWP and the IWP, it will be not be extended until initiating the speed reduction to final approach speed. This will normally occur once by the IWP inbound.

The aircraft will be configured for the final approach prior to the final approach way-point (FAWP).

Within 2 miles prior to the final approach way-point (FAWP) the pilot will confirm the active light is illuminated and call “ACTIVE”. If the active light has not illuminated by the FAWP inbound, the approach must be discontinued and the pilot will conduct a missed approach. At the FAWP the pilot will call “APPROACH ACTIVE, CONTINUING” or “APPROACH NOT ACTIVE, MISSED APPROACH”.

On reaching the MDA, standard calls will apply.

On reaching the MAWP, if the runway is not visible the pilot will call “MISSED APPROACH” and execute a missed approach. The GPS will not automatically cycle past the missed approach waypoint. The pilot will re-configure the aircraft for the missed approach and initiate a climb BEFORE, pushing “DIRECT” on the GPS radio. If the desired direct-to waypoint is displayed, press “ENTER”, if not select the correct waypoint, then report the missed approach to ATC. The direct-to waypoint displayed should be the first waypoint for the published missed approach (Note: the wrong waypoint will be displayed if the right-hand selector knob was left out.) If a different waypoint is desired due to alternate ATC instructions, it can be selected before pressing, “ENTER”.

If the missed approach instructions specify a particular track, the pilot will select “OBS “ to correct the track reference to the appropriate track if needed, then return to “LEG” mode unless the OBS mode is required for a hold.

PAR Approach PAR approaches are available at several locations, which are listed in CAP GEN. A PAR approach is just as accurate, if not more so, as an ILS. A PAR always starts with vectors to final, slow to the normal procedure turn speed and get your pre-landing checks done. The arrival controller will turn you over to the PAR controller as you approach the intermediate fix. Once turned over to the PAR controller you will be briefed about the missed approach and any other special considerations. The

PAR controller will inform you that you no longer read back clearance, simply follow instructions.

The PAR controller gives you a running commentary of distance to landing, how many feet you are off the centerline, how high you are, whether you are above or below the glidepath, etc. Think of this as “aural CDI needles.” Your job is to hold your heading and vertical speed constant, changing them only when the controller tells you to. The approach starts with the controller telling you that you are intercepting the glidepath. At that point start a descent at five times your groundspeed, and be sure to hold your heading steady. The controller will tell you if you are getting high or low, listen carefully and translate the information into revised vertical speed values. If the VSI gets away from you quickly return to the correct value, don’t wait for the controller to tell you.

The PAR controller will coordinate with the tower. You won’t be able to talk to tower because you will remain on PAR frequency right through to landing. At some point the controller will tell you that you are cleared to land.

The PAR controller will tell you when you are approaching “civilian minimums,” which means 200agl. S/he will then continue to talk you right down to the runway. It is up to you to confirm you have the required visual reference as you descend through minimums; if not, start a missed approach. The controller will see that and turn you back over to departure control for further clearance. From that point on things are exactly like missed approach on any other type of approach.

Circling Approaches I commented on the special considerations for circling on mountain approaches previously. Here I would like to talk about the “normal” circling situation in which the circling altitude is just a few hundred feet above ground level.

Circling in minimum visibility, typically 1½ to 2 sm, is quite frankly the most difficult task in IFR flight.

Review the approach plate ahead of time. Many airports have restrictions such as “no circling west” etc. Have a plan for how you are going to make your “circuit.”

If there are two pilots on board – and there usually are – make sure you both work together as a team when circling. The “classic” advice was to circle with the airport on your left so that you can see it, but if there are two pilots it is better to circle so that the PNF can see the airport. That way the pilot flying can concentrate on flying, maintaining heading and altitude and let the pilot monitoring call when to turn base and final. As long as the crew works competently together this can be the least stressful way to circle. As the pilot flying be sure to brief the PNF of what you expect him to do. If you are captain and your first officer is flying the circling while you tell him when to turn downwind, base, and final (airport is on left of aircraft) make sure he knows that you expect him to fly instruments and that you will maintain visual contact with the runway.

If you have to circle single-pilot you will find that you should still fly instruments about 50%. Use your heading indicator; don’t try to fly purely by visual reference. Plan the heading for downwind, base, and final. Set the course bar on the HSI parallel to the runway you are landing on to help visualize. As you turn final you normally want to start descent about the time the runway comes into view in the front window, but if there is rain on the window or it is night try to pickup the PAPI before descending. Obviously the great concern here is descending too early and landing short. On the other hand if you wait too long you will land long. It takes a lot of experience to get good at this. Try to take note of where you start down on days when the weather is good so that you have a reference the first time you do it in poor vis.

If you loose visual reference part way through the circling you must initiate a missed approach, but you are past the missed approach point so what exactly do you do?

The generic advice is to turn toward the center of the airport and begin to climb; then follow the published missed approach procedure.

Keep your wits about you. The above advice is based on the observation that the MAP is usually at the threshold of the runway and thus turning toward the airport will put you into the missed approach airspace. But there are lots of approaches where the missed approach starts somewhere else. If this is the situation consider turning toward the known MAP, if you can figure out where that is.

Arrival at an airport with no IFR approach Read RAC 3.4 and 9.4. Also note RAC 3.16.2 From time to time charter pilots are called up to fly to airports that have no IFR approach.

Of course you could do the entire flight VFR, but if the weather enroute is IMC or the airplane you are flying requires flight in high level airspace, or even class B airspace, you will want to fly IFR enroute.

Remember that you can file a combination IFR/VFR flight plan – see RAC 3.8. Normally you file IFR to the point on the airway above your intended destination. After that point you will become VFR. If not, you will go to your alternate. Remember that on a combination flight plan you must close it after landing.

If you are IFR to one airport but then a situation arises where you want to land VFR at another inform the Center controller of your intention. As you approach the destination the controller will clear you to descend to MEA, or MOCA at your discretion. If you break out of cloud you can cancel IFR, or request your flight plan be changed to VFR. If radar is available there may be a lower radar vectoring altitude. The controller will usually tell you if this is the case, but you can ask if necessary.

If you do not encounter VFR conditions at MOCA you have no choice but to continue to your alternate, or some other IFR airport.

You must close your IFR flight plan after landing in the above scenario – read RAC 9.4 If you know in advance that the weather is not adequate to complete the above strategy consider filing IFR to an airport near your desired destination and then fly VFR for the last leg. For example if your destination is Nelson fly IFR to Castlegar then VFR to Nelson.

IFR flight planning Read RAC 3.0 Can you file an IFR flight plan with intermediate stops (RAC 3.10.)?

You learned to complete IFR flight plans in Avia 160, review the text Navigation for Professional Pilots.

Preferred IFR Routes Before finalizing your chosen route for any IFR flight check the Canada Flight Supplement for a preferred IFR route.

Any time your destination is in a major terminal area there WILL be preferred IFR routes that you should be using. In some cases you will have to do some interpretation. For example if you are IFR from Castlegar to Vancouver you will find no entry in the CFS, but there is an entry for Cranbrook to Vancouver, and you should intercept that.

Filing an IFR Round Robin Flight Plan An IFR round robin flight plan is needed when you are doing IFR training. It allows you to do an IFR approach at an intermediate location then go on to a final destination, which is usually the same as your point of departure.

The procedure for filing these flight plans is in AIM, RAC 3.11. However, the explanation given there is missing some details, which we will discuss here.

RAC 3.11 emphasizes that you do NOT include the time for the intermediate approaches in your total time enroute. It also tells you to include the approaches you will do and the amount of time allotted to them in the “other information” section of the flight plan. Unfortunately that is about all it explains, and there are a few other things to keep in mind.

First thing to realize is that the controller doesn’t see the “other information” section of your flight plan so you need to make the route section explicit. We have found that including the approach or hold that you are requesting in brackets as part of the route works very well. NOTE that this is NOT contrary to the AIM, as the AIM has chosen not to give us any guidance about filing the route section of an IFR round robin. It is important that you do follow all the instructions in the AIM, but that does not prevent you from doing even more.

Here is a typical IFR round robin flight plan route section as you would file it for an IFR training flight: HUH V495 YYJ (1 ILS approach at CYYJ) A060 N0155 A1 YCD (1 NDB approach at CYCD) A040 A16 WC R10 XX

In the above example note that the altitude and TAS both changed after the approach in CYYJ but only the altitude changed after the approach in CYCD – this is only an example.

IFR communications Read COM 5.0 IFR flight is a team effort. When there are two pilots communication between them is critical. Even one pilot must communicate accurately with ATC. In the long run nothing is more important to your safety than your ability to communicate.

Communications includes talking with other crew members and passengers as well as on the radio with ATC and FSS. In this section we will concentrate on radio communications, but you should make a commitment to apply these principles to your cockpit communications as well.

Enunciate When – you – speak – say – each – word – individually.

Repeat out loud: I – will – concentrate – on – saying – words – and – not – slur – them – together.

The ident of your airplane is NOT: gofserrapoopalfa  Say it: Golf – Sierra – Poppa – Alpha I have noticed that most people feel a compulsion to speak quickly. This WILL waste time in IFR flight. Controllers are going to be asking you to, “Say again” frequently, which will take more time than if you had simply spoken clearly to begin with.

The local FSS at home base knows the ident of your airplane and can understand gofserrapoopalfa. That’s too bad, because it breeds complacency about enunciation.

Please try to – speak – each – word – individually – when – you – talk – on – the – radio.

It is really hard to do a good job of speaking on the radio if you insist on speaking badly the rest of the time. I strongly recommend that you make a commitment to speak well all the time. I recommend going so far as to use standard aviation phrasing in everyday life.

For years I have gotten into the habit that when someone mumbles I don’t say, “What?” instead I use, “Say again”; I do this even at the grocery store and no one has ever complained. Similarly I use negative and affirmative rather than no and yes, etc.

Know the key phrases that have been approved for aviation use. Use them appropriately.

This may be the single easiest way to convince others (fellow pilots and ATC) that you are professional. It is amazing how many pilots don’t know the difference between “repeat” and “say again” or what “confirm” means. The phrases are listed below with

explanations. I strongly recommend using them as described in day to day conversation to get used to them. Always use them properly on the radio. To do otherwise reveals you as a poser pilot.

Say less to say more You have probably heard the saying “less is more” which has environmental and other philosophical overtones. When it comes to speaking I have a similar principle based on the observation that the human mind can only absorb a limited amount of information into short term memory. Try reading this list to a friend: Apple, banana, peach, orange, mango, apricot, pear.

Have your friend repeat the list. They probably can’t do it accurately.

Should you get on the radio and tell FSS everything from where you are to where you were to where you are going to how bumpy it is and that you saw one airplane but not the other and; is there anyone in the practice area? and have a nice day….?

Know what needs to be said. Say that, and ONLY that.

Know When and What to Report When a controller assigns you a new heading do you report getting to that heading? No, but when s/he assigns you a new altitude you do report reaching that. When you are cleared for an approach do you report reaching the procedure turn altitude? No. There are “rules” governing all this that you must know and follow. We will go over them.

Position Reports When ATC radar identifies you it is no longer necessary to report at reporting points. If you are not radar identified you must make a full position report, following the format on the back cover of the CFS. In a radar environment ATC will often make a request such as: ATC: ABC, report Active Pass Pilot: report Active Pass, ABC ATC: Roger Pilot: Victoria terminal, ABC at Active Pass [several minutes later] ATC: ABC roger. Switch Victoria terminal on 133.95 The report does NOT follow a full position report format. The controller just wants to be reminded, so s/he can give you further clearance, perhaps an altitude change or hand-off.

The rule is that if you are radar identified full position report is not needed; use the format above.

Report Altitudes When you are cleared to a new altitude you must report leaving the last assigned altitude and reaching the new assigned altitude. See verbatim read backs below for further examples.

When you are cleared for an approach you are NOT assigned a new altitude (normally) therefore only report leaving the last assigned altitude. Here is a typical exchange.

ATC: ABC cleared to the Somespot airport for the NDB runway two six approach.

Pilot: cleared to the Somespot airport for the NDB runway two six approach, leaving niner thousand at this time, ABC ATC: Roger Notice that the pilot decided to descend right away and so included that in the read back.

It would be just as acceptable: ATC: ABC cleared to the Somespot airport for the NDB runway two six approach.

Pilot: cleared to the Somespot airport for the NDB runway two six approach, ABC ATC: Roger

Pilot: Edmonton Center, ABC leaving niner thousand [at a later time when the pilot is ready] ATC: Roger The pilot will NOT report subsequent altitudes (MSA, Procedure turn, FAF, MDA, etc.) to ATC.

Report on New Frequency When handed off to a new controller use the following format.

ATC: ABC switch Victoria terminal one three two decimal seven Pilot: switching, ABC Pilot: Victoria terminal, Lear FABC level six thousand [on the new frequency] ATC: ABC, squawk ident Notice the format of the standard report on new frequency is.

Agency – Type – Ident - Altitude There are a few situations in which you want to say MORE than above, they are covered next: Contact with Departure Pilot: Calgary departure, Lear FABC off three four, through four thousand two hundred for seven thousand.

ATC: ABC radar identified

The format for initial contact with departure is: Agency – Type – Ident – Runway- Altitude When an airplane is climbing or descending at the time of hand off the new controller must always be told the present altitude to the nearest hundred feet, and the altitude cleared to.

Contact with Arrival ATC: ABC switch Calgary arrival one two five decimal niner Pilot: Switching, ABC Pilot: Calgary arrival, Lear FABC, level one one thousand, with November ATC: ABC, squawk ident The format is: Agency – Type – Ident – Altitude - ATIS If the pilot has fallen behind with his duties the exchange below would be typical: ATC: ABC switch Calgary arrival one two five decimal niner Pilot: Switching, ABC Pilot: Calgary arrival, Lear FABC, level one one thousand, negative ATIS ATC: ABC, squawk ident, ATIS information November Pilot: Squawk ident, ABC ATC: ABC, radar identified Pilot: Calgary arrival, ABC has November [later, when the pilot has ATIS] ATC: ABC, roger If you don’t have the ATIS tell the controller so, as above. When you get it tell him/her that too.

Notice in the above exchange that when the controller said, “ABC, squawk ident, ATIS information November” the pilot correctly recognizes that only squawk ident is an instruction, so only that is read back.

Read Back – Verbatim In IFR most clearances and instructions should be read back verbatim. In this section we will encounter one or two exceptions, but normally verbatim is the key.

Verbatim means word for word. Here is the WRONG way to do it.

ATC: ABC Maintain four thousand, climbing through three thousand direct Hamstrong VOR Pilot: direct Hamstrong VOR at three thousand, maintain four thousand, ABC ATC: Roger

The read back is correct(ish), but why does the pilot feel the need to reorder the words?

Doing this makes it much more likely that a mistake will be made. For example “at 3000” implies leveling off. Could a mistake be made? Maybe. The ideal exchange is: ATC: ABC Maintain four thousand, climbing through three thousand direct Hamstrong VOR Pilot: Maintain four thousand, through three thousand direct Hamstrong VOR, ABC ATC: Roger Note that it is acceptable to drop words that add no information. In the example the pilot dropped the word “climbing.” If in doubt leave all the words in. What matters most is to see the clearance as having elements and read back each element, in the order given.

Below is an exchange that follows the verbatim rule, but is too stilted as a result.

ATC: ABC maintain four thousand Pilot ABC maintain four thousand. Leaving six thousand for four thousand.

ATC: Roger Strictly speaking the above is a perfect exchange. Most pilots will shorten it as follows, which is recommended.

ATC: ABC maintain four thousand Pilot Leaving six thousand for four thousand, ABC ATC: Roger Pilot: Vancouver Terminal, ABC level four thousand [when within 100 of new altitude] ATC: ABC, roger This bends the verbatim rules, but is an approved deviation.

Don’t read back things that aren’t clearances or instructions. For example: ATC: ABC, traffic two o’clock four miles northbound, altitude unknown Pilot: looking, ABC

Phonetic Alphabet You must know your phonetic alphabet. You probably already do so I won’t take up space with it here.

You must know when to use phonetics and when not to. If you are spelling something for the other pilot in the cockpit most pilots don’t use phonetics unless the first attempt fails.

Pilot 1: Nice to meet you, my name is garf Pilot 2: Did you say garf? How do you spell that?

Pilot 1: G-A-R-T-H. Pilot 2: Sorry Garth. My name is Ray

You do NOT use phonetics when a letter is used to represent an aircraft type. For example C-172 (spoken cee one seventy two) not Charlie one seven two. Or L1011 (spoken El ten eleven) not echo one zero one one.

Except for special cases as indicated above, phonetics should be used on the radio. Your aircraft ident is always in phonetics.

When flying in Canada drop the Charlie. I.E. Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha, not Charlie Golf Sierra Poppa Alpha.

ALWAYS start with four letters in your ident. LISTEN to the controller, if s/he shortens your ident to three or two letters you should follow suit.

Pilot: Vancouver tower, foxtrot alpha bravo Charlie, ready for takeoff runway two six left.

Tower: foxtrot alpha bravo Charlie, cleared takeoff two six left.

Pilot: foxtrot alpha bravo Charlie

Notice in the above exchange the tower did NOT follow common practice of shortening the ident to ABC. Therefore the pilot is committed to use FABC until such time that the controller makes the switch. The reason is that it is possible that GABC is also in the area, and ATC would know that.

By the Numbers Numbers are used extensively in aviation. Headings, altitudes, transponder codes, wind speed, etc. are all numbers.

A number is NOT treated as a number when it is an aircraft type. A C-172 is a one seventy two. That isn’t a number any more than Skyhawk is. Similarly an El ten eleven is not a number, nor is a Dee Cee ten or Em Dee ninety or a Beech ninety five.

When numbers are numbers they are spoken one-digit-at-a-time. See below for more details.

Headings Headings are always specified with three digits. If necessary a leading zero is added. 270 is spoken, “Two seven zero.” 030 is zero three zero.

Altitudes Altitudes are spoken in thousands and hundreds. 13,500 is spoken, “One three thousand five hundred.”

Try this list of altitudes: 500 4000 9000 9500 10,000 14,000 17,800 Five hundred Four thousand Niner thousand Niner thousand five hundred One zero thousand One four thousand One seven thousand eight hundred

Altimeter Setting Altimeter settings in Canada are given in inches of mercury. Four digits are given; there is NO NEED to say the word decimal.

29.92 is: two niner niner two 30.14 is: three zero one four By rule ATC controllers are required to repeat the altimeter setting when it is less than 28.92.

28.76 is: two eight seven six. I say again, two eight seven six The above is the format the controller will use. You do not need to, but if you don’t hear it for an altimeter setting less than 28.92 you MUST question it because either the controller is being lazy, or you heard it wrong.

ATC: altimeter two eight seven five Pilot: Confirm two eight seven five [emphasize eight to draw controller’s attention] See the note below for the use of the key word confirm, which the pilot has used properly above.

Key Phrases I have used several key phrases above. You must get to know all these and use them appropriately.

In everything that follows I will assume that you know the rules about phonetics and numbers so I will just write the letters and numbers and you are expected to translate them according to the rules.

Say again – repeat ATC: ABC turn left heading 265 Pilot: say again new heading, ABC ATC: ABC, turn left heading 265 Pilot: left 265, ABC ATC: ABC you are number four to land Pilot: ABC, my left engine is on fire. Repeat, left engine on fire [add emphasis] ATC: ABC roger. Cleared to land You want someone to “say again” if you didn’t hear them the first time.

You are repeating yourself, for emphasis when you use the word repeat.

Say Your….

It happens all the time; some other airplane reports and you miss their ident. All you have to do is say, “station calling, say your ident.”

If you want to know another aircraft’s altitude you would say, “GDEF, say your altitude” Of course ATC will use it on you as well: ATC: ABC, say your heading Pilot: 040, ABC ATC: ABC, turn right heading 055 Pilot: right 055, ABC ATC: roger

Roger, Confirm, Affirmative, Negative ATC: ABC, confirm steering 065?

Pilot: roger. 065, ABC Confirm is a question. It cannot be an answer. The above utilization is correct. If the pilot answers “confirmed” that is a dead give away that he is a poser. It would be perfectly acceptable for the pilot to answer, “Affirmative” or “Affirmative, 065” Roger is an acknowledgement. In the above case the pilot is acknowledging the question and answering 065, or acknowledging the heading is 065; the perspective doesn’t matter, but it would have been better to just say affirmative.

Often you can use either Roger or affirmative, but affirmative carries more information and is therefore preferable when applicable.

Consider the following exchange: ATC: ABC, confirm steering 065?

Pilot: Negative. Heading 200, ABC ATC: ABC Roger. Turn left heading 065, vectors to ILS 12 This exchange is also correct. The controller asks a question by using confirm. The pilot answers, “Negative.” If the pilot only said negative the controller might be forced to ask what the actual heading is, so this pilot wisely included the information.

ATC: ABC, confirm steering 065?

Pilot: Negative. Heading 200, ABC ATC: you were told to steer 065. Turn now!

Pilot: Roger, left 065, ABC Don’t get flustered. Every professional pilot has been through the above. If you can keep your head while all others about you are losing theirs ….. Don’t let the chewing out bug you. If you can continue to formulate proper RT calls after being chewed out, as this pilot did, ATC will soon forgive you and recognize you for the professional you are. Airline pilots miss calls at times. The controller’s response is not only rude but incorrect – the ident of the aircraft called is missing  Pilot: Confirm ABC is cleared to land [from pilot on short final] ATC: ABC, roger This pilot used the word confirm correctly. This situation happens a lot – you just can’t remember if the controller cleared you to land or not. This is a perfect time to use the word confirm, because you are asking a question. For some reason pilots have a lot of trouble summoning up this call. Note that the controller would have been better advised to say affirmative.

Summary: The most common confusion regarding these terms is to use confirm, or confirmed when you really mean affirmative. Please work on it.

When able – Until able ATC: ABC, go direct White Rock when able.

Pilot: Direct White Rock when able, ABC In the above exchange the controller is telling the pilot that as soon as s/he can get the WC beacon tuned and identified s/he should go direct to it. The pilot has done the standard thing, which is read back the clearance verbatim. Is that the best thing to do?

If the pilot is not presently able to go direct White Rock then the above exchange is perfect. When the pilot gets WC tuned and identified and begins to track toward it s/he should call ATC and say:

Pilot: ABC now proceeding direct White Rock ATC: Roger

If the pilot is ready to go to White Rock when cleared the exchange should be: ATC: ABC, go direct White Rock when able.

Pilot: Direct White Rock at this time, ABC ATC: Roger

The above bends the verbatim rule, but makes sense.

Controllers sometimes clear you to do one thing until you are able to do another thing. An example exchange would be: ATC: ABC, heading 030 until able direct White Rock Pilot: 030 until able direct White Rock, ABC ATC: roger Pilot: Victoria terminal, ABC now proceeding direct White Rock ATC: ABC, roger

Check Pilot: Aircraft on short final, check your gear down The word check in the above example is used as an urgent instruction. This pilot is really saying, “Look at the green lights on your panel and make sure they are green!!” The unspoken presumption is, “I think you forgot to put your gear down.” In this form the word check is a substitute for confirm, but carries a sense of urgency. By using it sparingly it carries more weight.

Another situation in which this key-word arises is: ATC: ABC turn left heading 270, vectors to ILS 09, expect a short gate Pilot: Left heading 270, vectors to ILS 09, check remarks In this case by saying, “check remarks” the pilot means that s/he took note of the previous remark. In this case check is a substitute for roger. The pilot could have said “roger remarks,” but this seems like bad movie dialogue, so pilots prefer “check remarks.”

Sample Radio Calls – Lear JET: CYVR to CYYC I will present sample IFR radio calls for a flight in an RNAV equipped Lear Jet flying Vancouver to Calgary. After each exchange I provide commentary about why the calls are structured as shown and any optional alternatives.

Consider these calls as templates into which the details of your own calls can be fit.

Memorize the structure of each call as explained in the notes.

You should assume the weather is IMC, with approximately half mile visibility at both airports.

The airplane has filed the preferred high altitude RNAV route, which is ADSIX KESTA KETTL. You may assume the aircraft has the equipment for an RNAV star at Calgary and that is included in the scenario.

Clearance Delivery Pilot: Vancouver clearance delivery, Lear FABC IFR to Calgary at FL 330 ATC: FABC, departure on 26 right, cleared to Calgary airport via Vancouver 3 departure, flight plan route, squawk 3511.

Pilot: Squawk 3511, FABC Per RAC 6.1 only the transponder code need be read back in this case. At a busy airport like CYVR it would be unprofessional to do more. Note that the controller did not shorten the ident (FABC), hence the pilot refers to himself as FABC not ABC. All SIDs specify an altitude to maintain, but they normally have communications failure procedures that refer to the flight planned altitude. That is why it is normal to state the flight plan altitude when requesting clearance. In the unlikely event of a communications failure we don’t want any confusion between you and ATC about what altitude you are going to maintain.

Pilot: Vancouver clearance delivery, King Air GSEL IFR to Castlegar at FL 230 ATC: SEL, departure on 08 right, Richmond three SID, flight plan route, maintain 3000, squawk 5124 Pilot: Maintain 3000, squawk 5124, SEL In this case the controller has amended the altitude in the SID to 3000. By rule, this must be read back. In this example the controller shortened the ident to SEL so the pilot followed the controllers lead

Ground Pilot: Vancouver ground, Lear FABC on 121.7 ATC: ABC ground, go ahead Pilot: ABC at the Aerocenter, IFR Calgary, with Whiskey ATC: ABC, altimeter 29.64, taxi via alpha, hotel. Hold short 26 left.

Pilot: 29.64. Hold short 26 left, ABC

The pilot makes an initial contact in the format station – type – ident – frequency.

Frequency should always be included when the agency has more than one (Vancouver has two ground frequencies.) ATC then asks the pilot to go ahead.

The pilot describes his/her position; alternatively s/he could have said, “On apron two.”

And tells the controller s/he is IFR to Calgary and has the ATIS. The controller already has a strip for the airplane and will annotate it as the airplane taxis. The controller must get the airplane from the south side of the airport to the north east corner without conflict with landing traffic on 26L. The controller clears the airplane only part way to 26R, and specifies to hold short of 26L. All hold short clearances must be read back. (The controller will annotate hold short 26L on the strip.)

Pilot: Vancouver ground, ABC holding short 26 left on hotel.

ATC: ABC cleared across 26 left. Hold short delta.

Pilot: hold short of delta, ABC ATC: roger The pilot reports once at the hold short point. It is NOT necessary to request further.

Many pilots do, but it is redundant.

The ground controller checks with the south tower controller and when the runway is not in use clears the airplane across (there might be some time elapsed here due to traffic using 26L.) The instruction to hold short of delta implies other taxiing traffic.

Pilot: Vancouver ground, ABC holding short of delta ATC: ABC roger, hold short. 767 traffic crossing right to left, report when he is past ABC roger Pilot: Vancouver ground, 767 has passed ABC ATC: ABC roger. Cleared taxi 26 right via route delta Pilot: 26 right via route delta, ABC ATC: roger The pilot reports holding short of taxiway D. The controller asks him/her to report when a Boeing 767 on taxiway D is past. Remember that in ½ mile visibility the controller is working blind. There is no ground radar, so the controller is using a form of procedural separation to keep track of where everyone is.

When ABC reports the 767 past, the controller checks his board for conflicts and finding none clears the Lear to 26R via route Delta. Vancouver has Coded Taxi Routes – look them up in your CAP2. The instruction at the top of the page requires the pilot to read back the code. So the pilot reads back, “26 right via route delta” just as s/he should.

Pilot: Vancouver ground, Lear FABC on 127.15 ATC: FABC go ahead Pilot: FABC on Juliet holding short of kilo. Request clearance to 26 right.

ATC: ABC roger, do you see a Jazz Dash 8 entering Juliet from Kilo.

Pilot: affirmative, ABC ATC: ABC, behind that traffic, cleared 26 right via Juliet, Mike, Mike niner.

Pilot: ABC At the specified point in route delta the pilot switches to the north ground control frequency. The example shows a textbook call in the same format previously used: station – type – ident – frequency. While it is true that many pilots would skip this, going directly to the next pilot call in the exchange it is not recommended. The controller has a tough job keeping track of the traffic in this low visibility procedural scenario. Give the controller a chance to get ready by making an initial call. If the weather is better you might want to skip this call – that’s where your professional judgment will have to come in.

The controller asks the pilot if s/he sees other traffic. The pilot uses the word affirmative, NOT roger to indicate that s/he does.

The controller issues taxi instructions to the airplane, but there is no need to read all this back. The clearance contains no hold short instruction that require read back. The pilot simply acknowledges with his/her ident. Many pilots would read back, “26 right via Juliet, Mike, Mike niner, ABC” It’s not a problem if you want to do this, but it is not required in this case.

Tower Pilot: Vancouver tower, Lear FABC on 119.55, ready for takeoff runway 26 right.

ATC: ABC roger. Number three for departure Pilot: ABC When calling tower the request for takeoff should be included in the first call – as this pilot does.

Many pilots would leave out the tower frequency, but the above demonstration is by the book and I recommend you follow this format. Most airports don’t have two tower frequencies however so the most normal form of this call is, “Somespot tower, Lear FABC ready for takeoff runway 12.”

Notice that ATC advises the pilot that s/he is number three for departure; the implication is that the pilot called with two other airplanes ahead in the lineup. This is proper procedure on the pilot’s part. DO NOT wait until you are first in line to call for takeoff clearance, especially in poor visibility. Calling right away helps the tower controller organize the strips on his board in the order for takeoff.

ATC: ABC line up on 26 right.

Pilot: line up on 26 right, ABC ATC: ABC, wind 240 at 15, cleared takeoff runway 26 right Pilot: ABC

Only the calls related to this flight are being shown, but the pilot would have heard the two aircraft ahead cleared for takeoff and thus be able to figure out when to perform the “below the line” items on the pre-takeoff checklist. When ATC clears him/her to position it would come as no surprise because the aircraft ahead would have been cleared for takeoff shortly before.

The pilot must read back a clearance to line up.

When the aircraft ahead reaches the necessary IFR separation distance, as we previously discussed, the tower controller clears the Lear jet for takeoff. The pilot does not need to read this back, ident only as shown is adequate although many pilot would say, “cleared for takeoff, ABC” consider this an acceptable redundancy.

Departure Pilot: Vancouver departure, Lear FABC on 126.125, off 26 right through 1100 for 7000.

ATC: ABC, radar identified The standard call to departure takes the form: station – type – ident – (frequency) – runway of departure – altitude. Note that this is the same format used previously with the addition of runway of departure and altitude. Get to know this format.

In most cases there is only one departure frequency thus the most common form of this call is, “Somespot departure, Lear FABC off runway 12, through 1000 for 6000.”

It is important to report the ACTUAL altitude the aircraft is passing through when the call is made – rounded to the nearest 100 feet. The SID instructs the pilot to call at 1000, but in the above example the pilot was a tad late and called at 1100. The call is used by the controller to check the accuracy of the Mode-C readout, which is why the actual altitude must be reported.

ATC: ABC, maintain 11000, through 7000 turn left heading 160 vectors enroute Pilot: Maintain 11000. Through 7000 left 160, ABC ATC: roger As expected, the controller begins vectoring the airplane. The pilot reads back each clearance verbatim (with redundant words dropped.) Pay particular attention to the fact that the pilot reads back each clearance with its elements in the same order the controller issues them.

Note that the clearance to 11000 was issued before the airplane reached 7000 – that is why there is no call leveling 7000.

ATC: ABC, when able, direct ADSIX Pilot: direct ADSIX at this time, ABC ATC: roger

The controller has used the key-phrase “when able” s/he wants the airplane to go direct ADSIX as soon as they get it tuned up on the RNAV. It turns out the pilot is ready, so rather than read back verbatim, in this case s/he responds, “Direct ADSIX at this time, ABC.” ATC: ABC, maintain 15,000 Pilot: Maintain 15,000, ABC ATC: ABC roger. Switch Vancouver Center 135.0 Pilot: Switching Pilot: Vancouver Center, Lear FABC through 12,400 for 15,000 ATC: ABC, squawk ident Pilot: Squawk ident, ABC ATC: ABC, radar identified.

The controller clears the airplane up to 15,000 and hands it off to the center controller for that sector. The pilot acknowledges by saying, “switching” which is all that is needed.

The pilot was anticipating this frequency; it is on the HI chart. If the departure controller had said a frequency that the pilot did not expect it would be worth reading back, it could even be turned into a question by adding the key-word confirm; “confirm Vancouver center on 135.5?” followed by the controller saying, “Negative, 135.0” and then from the pilot, “Roger, 135.0, ABC” Notice that “squawk ident” is an instruction and as such must be read back. A lot of pilots just push the ident button, but the instruction should be read back first to make sure no confusion exists.

Notice the standard format that the pilot uses when contacting a new controller: station – type – ident – altitude. This will be used a million times in your life, so get to know it.

Pilot: Vancouver center, ABC level 15,000 ATC: ABC roger, expect higher in 10 miles Pilot: ABC The pilot must report reaching the assigned altitude. There is a traffic conflict so the controller informs the pilot that s/he can’t clear him higher for another 10 miles. This is NOT a clearance, so the pilot simply acknowledges with the ident, ABC. ATC: ABC, maintain Flight Level 230 Pilot: out of 15,000 for Flight Level 230, ABC As was previously explained this is a recommended variance from the strict verbatim read back, which would have been, “Maintain Flight Level 230, leaving 15,000 for Flight Level 230.” While technically correct very few pilots use this very formal read back.

ATC: ABC, maintain Flight Level 330 Pilot: maintain Flight Level 330, ABC ATC: roger

The controller now clears the airplane to the final altitude. Notice that the airplane never leveled at FL230, i.e. the clearance to FL330 came before the airplane reached FL230.

Why didn’t the controller just clear the airplane directly to FL330? Because there was a traffic conflict – probably someone at FL240 who had to “get out of the way” first.

Pilot: Vancouver center, ABC level Flight Level 330 ATC: roger From this point on things become very routine. The airplane will be handed from sector to sector. This is a relatively short flight so there will be only a couple of hand offs: ATC: ABC switch Vancouver center on 134.55 Pilot: Switching, ABC Pilot: Vancouver center, Lear FABC level Flight Level 330 ATC: ABC, squawk ident Pilot: Squawk ident, ABC ATC: ABC is radar identified Then after some more time elapses ATC: ABC switch Edmonton center on 133.3 Pilot: Switching, ABC Pilot: Edmonton center, Lear FABC level Flight Level 330 ATC: ABC, squawk ident Pilot: Squawk ident, ABC ATC: ABC is radar identified This is the last enroute hand off for this flight, but if the airplane was going all the way to Toronto the next four hours would just be a repeat of the above pattern every 30 to 45 minutes.

Not shown in this scenario are any calls made to FSS to check weather, or any calls on company frequency to dispatch. This scenario shows only communications with ATC. ATC: ABC, maintain FL 250 expect HANDA FOUR Pilot: leaving Flight Level 330 for 250, ABC The airplane is about 55NM from Opale now and the controller begins to bring it down.

“Expect the Handa four arrival” is not a clearance and so need not be read back. By this point the pilot has the ATIS and knows that runway 16 is active.

ATC: ABC, Calgary altimeter 29.75, maintain 16,000, cross Opale Flight Level 210 or below Pilot: 29.75, maintain 16,000, cross Opale Flight Level 210 or below, ABC

The controller has cleared the airplane down to 16,000 before it leveled at FL250.

The controller must provide the current altimeter setting before clearing the airplane out of the standard pressure airspace. The pilot should read it back.

The clearance is to 16,000 with a restriction to cross Opale at FL210 or lower.

Restrictions must be read back.

ATC: ABC, switch Calgary arrival 125.9 Pilot: switching, ABC

Arrival Pilot: Calgary arrival, Lear FABC descending through Flight level 230 for 16,000 with ATIS X-ray ATC: FABC, squawk ident. Calgary altimeter 29.75 Pilot: 29.75, squawk ident, FABC ATC: FABC, radar identified. Cleared the Handa Four arrival, report Opale Pilot: Cleared the Handa Four arrival, report Opale, FABC Prior to this exchange the Lear was not cleared for the Handa four – they were just expecting it. Now they have the clearance.

Note that the controller used all four letters in FABC, so the pilot followed suit.

The controller has requested a call by Opale: Pilot: Calgary arrival, FABC is by Opale ATC: FABC roger, maintain 14,000 at your discretion. Be advised aircraft ident GABC is on this frequency also Pilot: 14,000 at my discretion. Check remarks, FABC ATC: roger “14,000 at your discretion” means that the aircraft can descend as quickly or slowly as the pilot likes. This is a “restriction” technically, so should be read back.

The controller has revealed to the pilot that GABC is on the frequency. No read back is required but it is polite to acknowledge, which this pilot does; the key word “check” means “I have taken note of…”

The controller will likely not speak with this aircraft again until it is past MOGOT ATC: FABC, maintain 8000 Pilot: maintain 8000, FABC ATC: roger

The aircraft is now cleared down to 8000. The chart tells the pilot not to expect anything lower than 7500, so all is as expected and the pilot likely expects no further calls until s/he is cleared for the approach ATC: FABC, maintain 7000 until established on final, cleared the straight-in ILS 16 approach Pilot: Maintain 7000 until established on final, cleared straight-in ILS 16 approach, FABC On an RNAV arrival the approach clearance can come early or late, here we have an example of an early clearance; the aircraft is at least 3NM from UBTON. By clearing the airplane for the approach the STAR is CLOSED. The pilot can follow the RNAV to ELERO and then intercept the glidepath.

The controller clears the airplane to 7000, but the pilot will plan his/her descent so as to cross UBTON at 7500 or above. The airplane will not descend below 7000 until intercepting the glidepath on final.

The above scenario only works if the controller has all the airplanes following along in trail with good spacing between them. If spacing is not good the controller will not clear the airplane for the approach. According to the STAR the pilot will then fly heading 343 from UBTON and expect vectors to final. This is called an OPEN STAR. On the closed STAR the controller will simply watch this airplane follow the route around onto final and once it is established on final s/he will hand it off to tower.

ATC: FABC switch Calgary tower 118.4 Pilot: Switching, FABC Pilot: Calgary tower, Lear FABC at 11 DME, with X-ray ATC: FABC roger, altimeter 29.76, wind 140 at 25, report SARCEE. Pilot: 29.76, report SARCEE, FABC Pilot: Calgary tower, FABC by SARCEE beacon inbound.

ATC: FABC number one Pilot: FABC ATC: ABC cleared to land Pilot: ABC Notice that the controller has shortened the ident to ABC (apparently GABC is gone.)

The pilot followed suit.

ATC: ABC, where are you going after landing?

Pilot: Apron five ATC: roger, plan to clear left on C3 Pilot: roger

The airplane is still on final during this exchange Exchanges of this type are quite common with tower.

Ground The next call will be to ground after the airplane lands.

Pilot: Calgary ground, FABC is on C3, taxi to Apron five ATC: ABC, cleared to apron five via Charlie, X-ray Pilot: ABC The controller has cleared the airplane all the way to apron five. This requires crossing runway 07, but no restriction was issued therefore the pilot is cleared all the way. Many pilots can’t resist calling just before crossing the runway with something like, “Ground, confirm ABC is cleared across 07?” There is a lot to be said for this, but you have to use your discretion. If the controller is busy and you can hear that 07 is not in use don’t waste air time with this call (it is not legally required.)

Sample Radio Calls – King Air: CYXX to CYYJ The sample radio calls in this scenario are for a low altitude flight from Abbotsford to Victoria. Both airports are controlled. Abbotsford has no clearance delivery.

The calls in this scenario are very similar to the ones new IFR pilots will encounter in a training environment. For the purpose of this flight the King Air is IFR but the weather is VMC.

Ground Pilot: Abbotsford ground, King Air GSEL ATC: GSEL go ahead Pilot: GSEL is at the base of the tower, IFR to Victoria at 6000, with India.

ATC: SEL is cleared to the Victoria airport via the Abbotsford six departure direct Whatcom VOR, Victor 495. Squawk 3521.

Pilot: Squawk 3521, SEL ATC: roger. Are you ready to taxi at this time?

Pilot: affirmative ATC: roger. Altimeter 30.21, wind 220 at 10. Taxi runway 19, hold short on alpha.

Pilot: 30.21, hold short 19 on alpha.

The standard form of the call to ground is: station – type – ident – frequency. In this case there is only one ground frequency so the pilot left it out.

The pilot has the option of whether to read back the IFR clearance; s/he chooses to only read back the transponder code. The SID altitude was not amended – if it had been that would have been read back also (RAC 6.1.)

The ground controller asks if the airplane is ready to taxi. The pilot could have cleared this up by adding the fact that s/he is ready to taxi in the previous call; “GSEL is at the base of the tower, IFR to Victoria at 6000, with India, ready to taxi.” The principle to grasp here is that when you call ground it is normally redundant to say “ready to taxi” because; why else would you be calling ground? But at an airport with no clearance delivery some pilots call ground to get their IFR clearance before starting the engines. If the controller does not know what you are up to, confusion could creep in. You can eliminate confusion by confirming that you are ready to taxi. In the same vein, if you only want an IFR clearance and are not ready to taxi state that. The call would then be, “GSEL is at the base of the tower; Ready to copy IFR to Victoria at 6000” In this case there is no need to specify the ATIS, you would do that later when you call for taxi clearance.

In the above exchange the controller issues a totally redundant instruction to hold short of runway 19 on alpha. Even though it is redundant, once issued the pilot should read it back. The principle is that you read back all hold short instructions and I recommend NOT letting yourself get into the habit of making exceptions.

Tower Pilot: Abbotsford tower, GSEL ready for takeoff runway 19 ATC: SEL, wind 220 at 5, cleared takeoff 19 Pilot: SEL When you call a tower for takeoff the request is made in a single call in the format shown above. There is only one tower frequency so there is no need to specify it.

When the tower clears the airplane for takeoff it is not necessary to read it back although many pilots do, “SEL, cleared for takeoff” or even, “SEL, cleared for takeoff 19.” There are pros and cons to doing this. On the negative side it wastes a few seconds on the radio, which could be a problem on a VFR day if the tower is working seven airplanes in the circuit. On the positive side it ensures that the airplane is rolling on the correct runway, which is more of a problem on an IMC day. Make your choice intelligently taking these and any other factors that seem relevant into account.

The airplane will switch to Victoria terminal at 1500, as per the SID, without speaking to tower again – unless the tower has any VFR traffic to point out or other similar considerations that typically would involve fitting this IFR airplane in with all the VFR traffic. If the weather is IMC it is unlikely tower will speak to this pilot again.

Departure Pilot: Victoria terminal, King Air GSEL off Abbotsford runway 19, through 1500 for 3000.

ATC: GSEL, squawk ident Pilot: Squawk ident, GSEL ATC: SEL, radar identified. Maintain 6000, through 3000 direct Whatcom on course.

Pilot: Maintain 6000, through 3000 direct Whatcom on course, SEL ATC: roger

The call sign of the departure agency is important. The SID chart shows that the agency to be called is Victoria terminal.

The standard format is the same as in the Lear jet example given earlier: station – type – ident – (frequency) – runway of departure – altitude. There is only one terminal frequency so it is dropped. The runway of departure is appended with the airport name whenever the agency called has a call sign different than the airport. I.E. since we are calling Victoria terminal but are in Abbotsford we are off Abbotsford runway 19, not just runway 19.

Note that altitude is always phrased as altitude passing through and climbing to. In this case the altitude climbing to is the SID assigned altitude of 3000 NOT the flight plan altitude.

The controller requests the pilot to squawk ident. This is an instruction and so must be read back. For some reason many pilots just push the ident button and fail to read back this instruction. Please read it back to ensure that no mistake is made.

Pilot: Victoria terminal, SEL level 6000.

ATC: roger You must report reaching all assigned altitudes. It is best to make this call right away.

Most pilots call as the nose is being pushed over, but make sure you are within 100 feet when you call. If you overshoot a bit and are correcting report that, “Victoria terminal SEL leveling, at 6200 correcting to 6000” (don’t make a habit of this sloppiness.)

Enroute ATC: SEL call Victoria terminal on 133.85 Pilot: switching Pilot: Victoria terminal, King Air GSEL level 6000 with November ATC: SEL squawk ident.

Pilot: squawk ident, SEL ATC: SEL radar identified, Victoria altimeter 30.10 Pilot: 30.10, SEL When assigned a new frequency it is not required to read it back; the format shown above is ideal. 99% of the time you should already have the next frequency tuned – they are all on the charts so you should know what frequency you will be switched to next. If the frequency assigned is NOT what you expected that would be a good time to use the keyword confirm, “Confirm Victoria terminal on 133.95?” followed by the controller correcting himself, “negative. 133.85” – “roger 133.85, SEL.” The standard format when handed from one sector to the next is: station – type – ident – altitude. The above case adds the extra information ATIS because the agency being called is the arrival controller for CYYJ. The pilot knows this from the approach plate.

When calling the arrival controller the form of the call should always be: station – type – ident – altitude – ATIS.

ATC: SEL traffic ten o’clock three miles northbound, a Twin Otter 1000 feet below you.

Pilot: looking, SEL ATC: SEL, by that traffic Pilot: SEL, roger ATC: SEL, traffic at two o’clock southbound, a Sikorsky helicopter at 3500 VFR. Pilot: have the traffic, SEL ATC: roger Exchanges of the above type are a constant part of flight in the terminal area. In this case the airplane is in VMC. There will be times that you are in IMC conditions and the controller says something very unnerving such as, “SEL, opposite direction traffic, altitude unknown.” What should you do? Feel free to say, “SEL is IMC, request vector around the traffic.” The controller will come back with, “SEL roger, turn right heading 250, vectors for traffic.” Whether or not to do this is a command decision – put your PIC thinking cap on and decide.

Arrival ATC: SEL, depart the Victoria VOR heading 270, vectors to ILS 09 Pilot: depart the Victoria VOR heading 270, SEL ATC: roger The controller has assigned a vector heading of 270, which the pilot is to steer after passing the Victoria VOR. The information “vectors to ILS 09” is something the controller is required by rule to say – no vector shall be issued without informing the pilot where s/he is being vectored to. It is not part of the clearance so need not be read back.

ATC: SEL maintain 4000 Pilot: maintain 4000, SEL ATC: SEL, turn left heading 180 Pilot: left 160, SEL ATC: SEL negative, left heading 180 Pilot: left 180, SEL ATC: roger ATC: SEL, turn left heading 120 Pilot: left 120, SEL ATC: SEL, cleared to the Victoria airport straight-in ILS 09 approach Pilot: Cleared straight-in ILS 09, SEL ATC: roger ATC: SEL, one zero miles final, call tower 119.7 Pilot: Switching, SEL The above series of calls is totally standard for an arrival of this type. Extra exchanges about traffic to look for are often interspersed. In addition this particular arrival is unusual

in that the 270 vector heading sends the airplane toward high terrain so the actual exchange is more likely to be: ATC: SEL maintain 4000 Pilot: maintain 4000, SEL ATC: SEL roger. You are flying toward high terrain, if no communication from me, at the Vancouver VOR 215 radial, steer heading 160.

Pilot: at the Vancouver VOR 215 radial, steer heading 160 ATC: roger Etc. as above Notice in the above exchange the pilot had to figure out what the clearance is (as opposed to commentary) and then read back the clearance verbatim. In this case the clearance is, “At the Vancouver VOR 215 radial, steer heading 160.” Note that every controller has his own unique way of phrasing this so listen carefully and read back the controllers words verbatim.

When I wrote out the sample radio calls above I assumed that you are familiar with all the operational details. For the record: the clearance to 4000 is issued on heading 270, i.e. after the Victoria VOR. The heading 180, which the pilot did not hear correctly is a “base leg” so the pilot would slow down and complete pre-landing checks prior to the final vector (the pilot heard it wrong because s/he anticipated the previously mentioned 160 heading – but that was not applicable, so listen carefully.) The heading 120 is a 40 degree intercept for the ILS (typical) and the pilot would be anticipating the approach clearance as received shortly thereafter; the form of the approach clearance, “cleared for straight-in ILS 09” is totally standard so this pilot should be expecting it and have no trouble reading it back.

Tower Pilot: Victoria tower, King Air GSEL 9.6 DME with November ATC: SEL roger, altimeter 30.10, wind calm, report Mill Bay Pilot: report Mill Bay The pilot chooses to include his/her DME when calling the tower. This is not required but may be helpful to the tower in spacing traffic. (In actuality Victoria tower has radar so does not need this assistance.)

The tower instructs the pilot to report at Mill Bay. This is totally redundant, because Mill Bay is the FAF and the pilot is required to report at the FAF. Because this is an instruction most pilots feel compelled to read it back. Actually, since tower is a VFR controller it is acceptable to simply acknowledge the instruction with the ident, “SEL” but reading it back is likely so automatic that most pilots will do it, as shown in the sample call.

Pilot: Victoria tower, SEL is by the Mill Bay beacon inbound ATC: SEL, number two to a Cessna 150 on left base Pilot: SEL looking

Pilot: SEL has the traffic ATC: SEL, roger ATC: SEL, wind calm, cleared to land 09 Pilot: SEL

Ground Pilot: Victoria ground GSEL on Sierra request taxi to the terminal.

ATC: SEL, taxi via Sierra, hold short 31 Pilot: hold short 31, SEL When calling ground after landing use all four letters in the ident, but it is not necessary to state type.

You can request taxi to your desired parking location in the first call as done here.

It is required to read back all hold short instructions. In this case the instruction is to hold short of runway 31.

You do NOT need to request an IFR flight plan closed – ATC does it automatically.

Pilot: Victoria ground, SEL holding short of 31 ATC: cleared across 31 to the terminal Pilot: SEL This exchange brings this flight to a conclusion.

Sample Radio Calls – King Air: CYCG to CYVR In this set of radio calls the airplane is departing from an uncontrolled airport with an FSS. The arrival will be via a non-RNAV STAR. The route filed is: V300 YDC V369 BOOTH The weather is VFR and there is VFR traffic flying in the vicinity of CYCG.

FSS Pilot: Castlegar radio King Air GSEL on 122.1 FSS: SEL Castlegar radio, go ahead Pilot: SEL on the main apron IFR 16,000 to Vancouver FSS: SEL roger, wind 130 at 10 altimeter 29.54, active runway 15, traffic a C-172 in the circuit, I have your IFR clearance, advise ready to copy.

Pilot: 29.54, taxiing for 15, go ahead the clearance, SEL

FSS: ATC clears GSEL to the Vancouver airport via the flight planned route, maintain 14,000, contact Vancouver center 134.2 clear of the mandatory frequency area, squawk 3265 Pilot: GSEL is cleared to the Vancouver airport via the flight plan route, maintain 14.000, Vancouver center 134.2 clear MF area, squawk 3265.

FSS: SEL, read back correct.

Pilot: Castlegar radio, SEL is requesting a visual departure via the Arrow Lake FSS: Roger, standby After a few moments FSS: SEL, visual departure is approved.

Note the form of the initial contact to a Flight Service Station station-ident-typefrequency.

Note that FSS typically reads a clearance by starting with the words “ATC clear” which serve to remind the pilot that the clearance is being relayed and that it is not a controller who is delivering the it.

The pilot intends to climb visually down the Arrow Lake rather than performing the published IFR departure procedure in the CAP. This is safe if VMC conditions can be maintained to the MEA, which is approx 10,000asl. We will assume that on this day the conditions are met. The pilot has FSS confirm the plan is acceptable with ATC. It is approved. Note that IFR separation is provided – this is NOT a VFR departure, so this airplane can enter IMC conditions.

The clearance is valid as soon as it is issued. Remember our previous discussion about traffic separation and realize that ATC would not have issued the clearance if there was any conflicting IFR traffic. An FSS does not have the authority to “control” the departure, so the clearance must be valid when issued. If there had been inbound traffic the FSS would have advised the pilot of a delay in obtaining an IFR clearance. Knowing this many pilots prefer to delay starting the engines until the clearance is in hand.

After the above exchange the King Air will taxi out and perform all preflight checks. The pilots must watch for the C-172 in the circuit, and when they are ready to takeoff the following transmissions will be required.

Pilot: Castlegar radio, SEL is backtracking runway 15 FSS: roger Pilot: Castlegar radio, SEL rolling runway 15 FSS: roger After a few minutes: Pilot: Castlegar radio, SEL is clear of the Mandatory Frequency area, climbing through 6500.

FSS: roger

Center At this point the airplane is clear of the MF and will switch to Vancouver Center.

Pilot: Vancouver Center, King Air GSEL off Castlegar, through 7000 for 14,000.

ATC: SEL, squawk ident.

Pilot: Squawk ident, SEL ATC: SEL, no contact, report through 12,000 Pilot: report 12,000, SEL A few minutes later.

Pilot: Vancouver center, SEL through 12,000 for 14,000 ATC: SEL, squawk ident Pilot: Squawk ident, SEL ATC: SEL, radar identified. Maintain 16,000. Princeton altimeter 29.62 Pilot: Maintain 16,000. 29.62, SEL The above series of exchanges should seem very familiar by now. They are totally standard. Notice that ATC radar did not pick the airplane up at 7000, so the controller asked the pilot to call again at 12,000; at that time the airplane was radar identified.

Pilot: Vancouver center, SEL level 16,000 ATC: SEL, roger

The controller will hand this airplane off as it nears Princeton.

ATC: SEL, switch Vancouver center on 135.0 Pilot: switching, SEL Pilot: Vancouver center, King Air GSEL level 16,000 ATC: SEL, squawk ident. Princeton altimeter 29.62 Pilot: Squawk ident. 29.62, SEL ATC: SEL, radar identified As the airplane cruises along the pilot will listen to the ATIS. S/he knows that if runway 08L, 08R, or 12 are active a BOOTH arrival will be given, otherwise a STAVE arrival.

The pilot will therefore complete all necessary briefings. Let’s assume that runway 26L is in use today.

A few miles before reaching BOOTH ATC: SEL is cleared for the STAVE FOUR arrival, runway 26 left, main 12,000 at your discretion.

Pilot: Cleared for STAVE FOUR arrival, runway 26 left, 12,000 at my discretion, SEL.

ATC: SEL, roger In the above exchange the controller has cleared the airplane to descend but the pilot has not yet done so – this is acceptable because the controller told the pilot to descend at his/her discretion. Note that the STAR requires the airplane to cross VITEV at 14,000 or below. The pilot will need at least six miles to get down to 14,000 which means the pilot figures to start down about at BOOTH. As the airplane approaches BOOTH Pilot: Vancouver center, SEL is leaving 16,000 for 12,000 ATC: SEL, roger The pilot reports leaving his current altitude when the descent begins. There is no need to say anything about the 14,000 restriction – just obey it.

Pilot: Vancouver center, SEL level 12,000 ATC: SEL, roger

Outer Arrival As the airplane nears STAVE it is handed off to the outer arrival controller.

ATC: SEL, switch Vancouver arrival 128.6 Pilot: Switching, SEL Pilot: Vancouver arrival, King Air GSEL on 128.6, level 12,000, with India.

ATC: SEL, squawk ident, Vancouver altimeter 29.77 Pilot: Squawk ident, 29.77, SEL ATC: SEL is radar identified.

Note that the pilot states the frequency because Vancouver arrival has two. Many pilots skip this, but the above demonstration is by the book.

Notice that the pilot specifies that s/he has ATIS Mike. This is important.

As the airplane continues along the STAR the controller will bring the airplane down in steps. If things go smoothly often one altitude transition runs smoothly into the next so the airplane does not have to level off multiple times. In order for this to work both the pilot and controller have to be competent. Let’s assume they are: ATC: SEL, maintain 8000 Pilot: Leaving 12,000 for 8000, SEL ATC: SEL, roger A little later (past MOGUS) ATC: SEL, maintain 5000 Pilot: SEL, descending through 8400 for 5000

The brilliant pilot is almost down to 8000 at MOGUS, but not quite (so s/he never had to level off.)

A little later – about at OBSTOT ATC: SEL maintain 3000 Pilot: leaving 5200 for 3000, SEL ATC: SEL, roger. Slower traffic ahead, turn left heading 180 for vectors around the traffic Pilot: left 180, SEL ATC: roger Apparently some poky guy in a Beech 95 is ahead, so the controller is going to vector the King Air around it. The real reason for this traffic is to demonstrate the follow exchange:

Inner Arrival ATC: SEL, switch Vancouver arrival on 133.1 Pilot: Switching, SEL Pilot: Vancouver arrival, King Air GSEL, on 133.1, descending through 4300 for 3000, with ATIS Mike, heading 180.

ATC: SEL, squawk ident, altimeter 29.76 Pilot: Squawk ident, 29.76, SEL ATC: SEL, radar identified.

Notice that when on a radar vector and handed from one controller to the next the pilot should inform the new controller of the heading s/he is steering.

The controller is watching the King Air and Beech 95 and trying to get the King Air around the slower airplane ahead. There may be calls not shown here asking the Beech 95 to slow down or make other turns. The King Air pilot is paying close attention. The following conversation may or may not take place.

ATC: SEL, I am going to vector you through the ILS to re-intercept from the south Pilot: Check remarks, SEL If the controller vectors you through an ILS you are not supposed to turn, you are supposed to follow the vectors. Having said that, in most cases it is a mistake, so you should call the controller and say, “Vancouver arrival, SEL is passing through the ILS, did you want us to turn?” Therefore, many controllers tell you if they are planning this maneuver. But a pilot who is paying attention might expect something like this in the situation knowing that the controller must swing you 5 miles wide of the slower airplane to get you around it.

Pilot: Vancouver arrival, SEL level 3000 ATC: SEL, roger

When the time comes ATC: SEL turn right heading 310 Pilot: right 310, SEL The pilot should have the ILS tuned. This particular ILS has the VR beacon at the FAF so the pilot can keep track as s/he approaches the final approach course. The pilot will complete all pre-landing checks. ATC expects the airplane to slow to normal final approach speed as it nears the FAF (usually about five miles before for an airplane in this category – sooner for a jet) A savvy pilot will be taking the progress around the slower airplane into account, and may be keeping speed up a bit longer than normal. But the pilot must also listen to other traffic. If a Dash 8 is cleared for the approach ahead you can bet s/he is just intercepting the final approach a few miles back from FAF and you don’t want to be “up his tail feathers” ATC: SEL, left 290, cleared the straight-in ILS runway 26 left approach.

Pilot: left 290, cleared straight-in ILS runway 26 left approach, SEL ATC: SEL, roger

Tower At this point the airplane is about 12 miles from landing. The arrival controller will watch the airplane establish itself on final and then hand it to the tower at some point prior to FAF in most cases.

ATC: SEL, switch Vancouver tower 118.7 Pilot: switching, SEL Pilot: Vancouver tower, King Air GSEL on 118.7. 11 DME final 26 left.

ATC: SEL roger, number two to a Dash-8, six miles ahead.

Pilot: SEL At VR Pilot: Vancouver tower, SEL is the Vancouver beacon inbound.

ATC: SEL, cleared to land 26 left Pilot: SEL There may be additional instructions such as: ATC: SEL plan to clear left at Echo Pilot: Clear left at echo, SEL

Ground Once the airplane lands and clears the runway the pilot will switch to ground frequency.

Pilot: Vancouver ground, GSEL on121.7; at taxiway echo, request clearance to the south terminal.

ATC: SEL, taxi echo and alpha to apron one.

Pilot: SEL

Copying clearances Until printed data links take over, as they probably will some day, copying an aural clearance into shorthand written format is a necessary pilot skill.

In the next section, on Situational Awareness in IFR Flight I give some advice about when to write down a clearance and when to rely on your memory, or some other nonverbal memory device such as a heading bug, altitude alerter, etc. In this section I will present a shorthand that I recommend you learn and use.

You may wish to modify this shorthand for your own ease of use, but in a crew situation it is advantageous if each pilot can read the other’s writing, so using a standard shorthand is recommended.

Shorthand Climbing through 2000

Descending through 1500

Climb to 2000

Right turn heading 300 Left turn heading 150

Climbing left turn to heading 150

Climbing right turn to heading 300

Flight level 330

Squawk 5532

Descend

Climb Maintain 50000 Not below 3000 Not above 4000 Climbing left turn Climbing right turn Proceed on course Before proceeding on course Takeoff runway 33 Depart Heading 330 Radial 330 Track 330 Abbotsford one departure (SID) Mill Bay 1 departure, Vancouver transition (SID) Direct Victoria tower, frequency 119.7 Victoria terminal, frequency 132.7 Vancouver departure, frequency 120.5

Vancouver arrival, frequency 133.1 Vancouver center, frequency 134.2

Situational Awareness in IFR Flight There is a “mind set” that we call thinking like an IFR pilot. Thinking like an IFR pilot involves knowing where you are, where you are going, and how to get there. The IFR pilot fully visualizes the entire “IFR System” knows his/her place in it and always maintains situational awareness. Knowing the appropriate priority at any given moment is a major key.

There are good IFR pilots and “not so good.” Knowing how to perform every IFR procedure is NOT enough. The secret is really employing the correct skill at the correct moment in time. As such, you must learn to recognize the indicators of what is important at a given moment and react accordingly. Once this becomes natural we say you are thinking like an IFR pilot. SOPs are a major key in achieving this. SOPs bring the procedures into a repeatable format which imprints on the mind creating the necessary mind set.

Create a Script You must have a complete image of an IFR flight. I emphasize complete. You should be able to describe step-by-step every action to be taken from the moment you enter the cockpit until you park and disembark. You start by saying, “the first thing I do is …….”

And the next thing is …… and the next thing is ……. Etc, all the way to the end of the flight. If you can’t do this you aren’t ready to be in the cockpit. It is crucial to avoid having to “figure out” what to do in flight, you must be proactive about anticipating and figuring things out ahead of time. The key principle is anticipation.

A productive way to think about preparing for a flight is to imagine that it will be a movie in which an actor will play the role of “you.” The actor is not a pilot, so you must script every action s/he will take.

The idea of creating a script is expanded further in several of the sections below. It is one of the most valuable ideas you will come across in this book, so I hope you will heed it.

You will learn to do what I call “kitchen table flying” which I will explain later.

IFR Clearance Review Just before takeoff you should conduct an IFR clearance review. At Selkirk College we have this on our checklists. In the future, if it is not on your checklist you must do it anyway. Reviewing your clearance before takeoff is the single most important thing you can do to ensure a safe non-stressful flight. It is surprisingly easy to get airborne without realizing you don’t know where you’re going. That anyone could be so stupid or incompetent might seem implausible to you, but once you start flying IFR you will see that it can easily happen if you don’t consciously develop a clearance review procedure.

An IFR clearance review is a three step process: 1. Read the clearance 2. Trace the route on SID, Terminal, or LO charts 3. Get all radios setup

You start by reading the clearance which by this point you will have copied. Make sure you understand it and accept it. If necessary ask for clarifications or amendments. Let’s say your clearance is something like, “GABC is cleared to Somespot airport via the Clover 3 departure flight plan route, squawk 4321.” Flight plan route is obviously acceptable. You would then read the Clover 3 SID and note the altitude you are cleared to, the frequency and location to contact departure control, and any special restrictions such as climb gradients or non-standard com failure procedures.

The second step is to trace the route you will fly on your charts. If the clearance included a SID then use that chart first, if not then go directly to the LO or terminal chart as applicable. Put your finger on the map at the takeoff point and move it along the route as you create a script for yourself (as described above.) The SID must be translated into a step by step process such as climb on heading 270 to 3700, turn right direct YAB VOR, maintain 5000. Continue the process of writing this script for yourself deep enough into the flight to connect up with the script that you should already have (see preceding topic.)

If you have been cleared via flight plan route you only need to build a script to the end of the SID because you already have one for the rest of the route from your “kitchen table flying.” If you are cleared for an unanticipated route you should go further and build a complete script. This won’t happen very often. Frequently the unexpected route will be one you have flown before and you will be able to recall the script you used previously.

But, if you get a totally unexpected and unfamiliar route you need to examine it, and script it, before you takeoff. You will get quite quick at doing this with practice. We will do numerous exercises of scripting in this course.

The third step is to setup all the radios. To do this we use a framework called Tune, Setup, Identify (TSI), which is described in detail below. If you have a good script this step is pretty easy.

Once you have completed these three steps you should be ready to go. You would normally then conduct a crew briefing if you have a copilot and then takeoff.

Takeoff Briefing In a two-pilot environment it is normal to conduct a takeoff briefing just before departure.

This is normally just after the IFR clearance review described above and just before calling the tower for takeoff clearance. The primary content of the crew briefing is to review the speeds and procedure for the takeoff and to clarify who will do what in the event of an emergency. As such the main content of this briefing is outside the scope of this course. You will discuss it extensively in Avia 100, 150, 201, 250, and 240.

In this text I would just like to point out that a small portion of the crew briefing should involve clarifying the IFR departure procedure. This should be very short, for example simply saying, “ we will climb runway heading to 5000 and expect radar vectors.” It is not usually wise to put too much information in the briefing because if you do you risk information overload and a tendency for the other pilot to tune you out. But you should note the altitude you are cleared to and any turns that will be required in the first minute or so. I like to think of this as priming the other pilot (PM) to act as an altitude and heading alert. The importance of such things is discussed below. If you say to yourself,

“what do I want the other pilot to draw my attention to if I get distracted?” your answer will generally tell you what to include in the briefing. You will find that it is very easy to shoot through your assigned altitude on departure (especially in the King Air) so you will want the other pilot to draw that to your attention. It is also easy to forget a turn after takeoff since most takeoffs involve climbing runway heading until ATC instructs you to turn. So these are the sorts of things to include in a briefing. Conversely, things that won’t happen for many minutes into the flight have no place in a briefing. They can be briefed later at a more appropriate time. Things that are totally SOP do not need briefing (unless you have a new copilot who doesn’t know the SOPs.) Briefing SOPs is a good way to bore the other pilot into ignoring you.

Aviate Navigate Communicate There is an old saying that must become the mantra for your life as a professional pilot.

Aviate, navigate, and communicate. This is a priority list. It tells you that NOTHING is more important than controlling the airplane. If control is in doubt then forget about everything else and get control. A classic example is during a missed approach procedure.

The airplane must be established in a climb with the gear and flaps retracted. Instructors are often flabbergasted to see how many pilots will push the PTT button and start talking on the radio while the gear is still down and the climb rate is far less than the safe value; I have even seen people sinking toward the runway attempting to communicate when they clearly need to aviate. Make a resolution to step through this three step priority list continuously throughout your flights.

Everything you do as a pilot can be put into one of these three categories. What you need to do is develop a mental discipline that whenever you do ANYTHING you slot it into this priority sieve. For example when your find yourself wanting to reach over and tune a new VOR frequency (navigate) you should consciously think, “are my wings level, is my altitude steady? O.K proceed.” Personally I literally “talk” silently to myself as described here, but in some fashion you must confirm that aviate is OK before you do any navigating and both aviate and navigate are OK before you communicate.

If you have an autopilot then it largely takes care of aviate meaning that you can more easily concentrate on navigate and communicate. If there are two pilots, and no autopilot, then one should always be aviating while the other can concentrate on navigating and communicating. In these situations the aviate, navigate, and communicate priority still applies but failure to consciously think about it may not carry a noticeable penalty – most of the time. You should however strive to keep this three level priority in your mind all the time and train yourself to scan the flight instruments (confirm aviate) just before every navigation change or communication. This will keep you mentally prepared to handle malfunctions such as autopilot failure or incapacitation of your copilot.

Single Pilot – No Autopilot IFR The hardest thing in the world to do is single-pilot IFR with no autopilot. Well, maybe climbing Mount Everest with no oxygen is harder. But single-pilot IFR is right up there.

To do it you must absolutely be committed to aviate, navigate, and communicate priority.

An airplane will drop off into a spiral dive, or slump below the minimum climb gradient on a missed approach, very easily if you divert your attention to navigating before you

have full trimmed control. It is critical to keep the airplane in good trim during singlepilot IFR. Never communicate before aviate and navigate are confirmed OK. What I find works for me is a self authorization mantra. When flying single pilot I constantly ask myself, “What should I do now?” At every moment I have some answer that comes into my mind. I run this through my mind as though some part of me is asking permission from another part to do something. I describe this as my “first officer” asking my “captain” (I am both of these at once.) When the first officer wants to do something, such as report on the missed approach, the captain checks that pitch and bank are steady and airspeed and vertical speed are as desired, he then checks that nav radios are as needed (I use the TSI system described below) and if these are all OK he authorizes the first officer to make the call. This has become so ingrained in me that I honestly cannot press the PTT button without scanning the AI, Alt, VSI and radio stack first. And I cannot reach for a nav radio without scanning the AI, Alt, and VSI first. This is pretty basic stuff, but if you develop a bad habit early in your flying it is hard to break later so work on this diligently.

Conducting a WRACEM and AMORTS briefing single pilot with no autopilot is very challenging. I would go so far as to say that you cannot do it “cold.” By cold I mean without having done it previously. This means that you must examine every plate you could possibly use on a flight and run through an AMORTS briefing for it as part of your preflight preparation. That way when you do the briefing in flight you will have a reasonable chance of not missing anything.

In closing this section I would like to say that by far the most common mistake for beginners is to worry too much about communicating. Take a hold entry for example.

When you enter the hold you are supposed to report, but what difference does it make if you report the second you pass the station of 30 seconds later? It doesn’t really matter.

But if you don’t turn, or you spiral in the turn that does matter. Yet time and again new IFR pilots will press the PTT and start talking without turning, or will loose altitude in the turn because pitch is not under control, or the airplane is not in trim. Don’t let this happen to you.

The Five Ts The five Ts is a mnemonic designed to keep you organized when you pass a beacon, VOR, or waypoint on an IFR flight. The five Ts are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Time Turn Throttle Track Talk

You must get into the habit of performing the 5T procedure every time you pass a station or waypoint. This means both while in cruise and when flying an IFR approach.

You will soon discover that some of the Ts are redundant in particular situations, but you MUST develop the habit of doing them to prepare you for when they are all needed, such as when flying an IFR approach.

To perform the Ts all you do is: 1. Time – press the right hand button on the ADF to start the stopwatch. In addition, if you are in cruise write down the time over the station on your navlog. (Note: you always start the stopwatch, even in cruise.)

2. Turn – turn the OBS and Heading bug to the new course and heading, and THEN start turning the airplane.

3. Throttle – if a change in altitude is required adjust the power. If no change in altitude is called for then this T is redundant.

4. Track – start watching the CDI or ADF needle so that you don’t shoot through your track. If you did not turn to a suitable heading at step 2 then start intercepting.

5. Talk – only AFTER you have done the first four Ts should you make any position reports that may be required. If you are in cruise you will need to make an IFR position report if you are not radar identified. The format for the IFR position report is on the back cover of your CFS. If you are flying an IFR approach you will have to report outbound or inbound.

The important thing to remember about the fifth T is to do it last – not first.

Altitude Alert In our King Air we have an altitude alter box that you must get into the habit of adjusting every time you are cleared to a new altitude. It is surprisingly easy to forget what altitude you are going to when you are concentrating on other things. When you have an altitude alerter you don’t need to write down new altitudes when the controller clears you. This is surprisingly effective at reducing workload.

In our other airplanes we do not have a practical altitude alert system. The KLN 90b in the B95 and Frasca 142 does have a built in altitude alert. You can read how to use it in the Operating Manual. At Selkirk College we have concluded that this alerter is not user friendly enough to use in single pilot IFR. In addition it does not have a visible alert altitude display. Therefore, we recommend writing down the altitude you are cleared to.

Don’t rely only on your memory. This does not apply to approaches and SIDs where you are following a written plate.

Our SOP requires a call 100 feet before each altitude. Be sure to make this call, out loud.

You will find it worthwhile also calling 500 feet before as well. In the King Air call 1000 before.

Heading Recording When a controller clears you to turn to a new heading simply set the bug to that heading.

There is no need to write the heading down. This is in keeping with the philosophy above regarding altitude alerts. In the C-172 there is no heading bug so you should write down assigned headings.

Nav Radio Setup – Identify Reporting Points When you are flying Victor airways (single pilot) you should always track using Nav 1 and use Nav 2 in a supplemental role (unless Nav 1 is defective.) This rule makes it pretty obvious what Nav 1 should be tuned to so we will assume you can figure that out.

Nav 2 is used in a supplemental role. At times it should be on the same frequency as Nav 1, which is called “backing up.” But it is not necessary or wise to always backup.

The rule you should follow is that you MUST identify every reporting point on Victor airways.

Take the above flight from Prince George Grand Prairie and on to Peace River as a typical example. On V301 there are three reporting points: RAPID, ELKIE, and HIDIN. Of these RAPID and HIDIN are defined by radials from YXJ (Fort Saint John VOR.) Nav 2 should be tuned to YXJ and the RMI should be set to N2 along this airway. Even if you don’t have DME you can tell you are approaching the intersections by watching the radials on the tail of the RMI. OBS 2 should be set to the defining radial. DO NOT take the reciprocal, set the radial published on the chart. A rule that always works is that the CDI on Nav 2 will deflect toward the VOR until you pass the reporting point, then it will point away from the VOR. ELKIE is defined as 71 DME from Grand Prairie. This appears to also be 71 from Prince George, but ideally you should use Grand Prairie. To get the DME on Grand Prairie in the Frasca 142 or King Air you must put Nav 1 on 113.1. Do this prior to 71 DME. In the

B-95 we could tune Nav 2 and set the DME to N2, but it seems an unwise plan since we wish to have the RMI setup as described above. Therefore Nav 1 should be used to identify ELKIE in all cases.

Once the airplane passes HIDIN normal practice is to backup Nav 1 by switching Nav 2 to Grand Prairie (YQU.) As YQU is approached Nav 2’s OBS should be set to V329 to go on to Peace River. Once past YQU the HSI’s OBS would be set to V329 and Nav 2 then becomes available to identify reporting points.

There are no reporting points between YQU and YPE so Nav 2 should be set to YPE. The RMI could be on either N1 or N2, but N2 is preferred because it is usually better to have the RMI indicate where you are going rather than where you have been.

Don’t Neglect the ADF When flying Low frequency airways everyone makes good use of the ADF. There are a few tips that I will cover shortly, but first I would like to say that you should not ignore the ADF just because you are on a Victor airway, especially in the mountains or the north.

There are lots of NDBs scattered around northern Canada and you should get into the habit of tuning them as you fly by. This provides a backup confirmation that your VOR is working properly and confirms the functionality of your ADF. Many pilots have flown for hours to a destination in northern Canada that has only an ADF approach only discover upon arrival that their ADF has failed. If they had been checking it enroute they could have saved themselves a low-fuel emergency.

When flying low frequency airways you will be plagued by the inaccuracy of the ADF. The needle will wander around and at times become quite unusable for navigation. As GPS becomes more prevalent this problem will disappear, but there are still lots of people flying with no GPS, so you need to develop proficiency at using ADF. Be aware of the sources of ADF error such as mountain and shoreline effect and twilight etc. These are discussed in detail in Avia 261 so we will not go into them here. Knowing that these errors exist you must expect that the ADF needle will wander around as you are navigating. The secret is to have patience when interpreting the needle. Paraphrasing an old TV show, “truth is in there.” As the needle wanders around it points at the station plus some error. The error tends to be variable, so if you watch the variability and subtract it out in your mind what is left is the truth, Sherlock ;) Of course this is easy to say and hard to do. You will improve with practice.

An important principle of ADF navigation is that the ADF is more accurate when close to the station. That should be a no-brainer. Therefore it behooves you to track accurately outbound when you depart your destination and are close to the station. Once you establish the heading that is keeping your on course don’t change it substantially enroute even if the needle starts to wander around. Hold your heading until the destination beacon comes into range. Of course it is crucial that you keep your heading indicator up-to-date, so check the compass every 15 minutes.

Keep Track of Your Position If you are using the navigation radios as described above you will always know where you are. Have your LO or HI chart out and keep noting where you are on the chart. From this you can determine the next frequency you will need. If you can’t put your finger on the chart and say, “I am here” you are not doing your job properly.

Plan Ahead After 30 years of teaching people to fly IFR I have noticed a surprising phenomenon.

Many pilots I have flown with do a terrific job as long as I sit beside them and every two minutes say, “So what are you going to do next?” Sometimes it seems that I could just send along a tape recorder with that question on it.

The first rule of IFR flying then is to keep asking yourself, “What should I do next?” If you do this you will more than likely come up with a good answer. If not on your first flight then by the time your have done three or four flights you will be darn good at anticipating what needs to be done next.

In many cases the best format to use in planning ahead is the five Ts. This is particularly applicable when about 5 minutes from a VOR (or NDB) enroute, or during an approach.

When you ask yourself, “What should I do next?” you discover that you are approaching a station and must do several things. In this case write yourself a script for the five Ts, but be very specific. If you just say to yourself, “I will do the five Ts” that will do little good.

Instead use the Ts as a framework. You say, “Time: I will go outbound for 1:30, Turn: I will set the heading bug to 265, Throttle: I will reduce manifold pressure to 18 inches, Track: I will set the HSI and Nav 2 to 070, Talk: I will say Somespot tower GABC is by the Somespot beacon outbound.” Notice the specificity of this script. If you do this you will be well prepared to act when you pass the station.

As soon as you pass the station and complete the above script you would then ask yourself, “What do I do next?” You would then plan the five Ts for inbound. And so the process goes on and on for the entire flight.

The DME “HOLD” Feature The DME in both our airplanes and the simulator have a hold feature.

Occasionally you will need to use it, but it is a potentially very dangerous feature so it bears examining in some detail.

To understand the hold feature you need to first understand the DME frequency pairing system, which was covered in the text Navigation for Professional Pilots. Given that every DME station is paired with a VOR or ILS of a particular frequency it would just add extra weight and complexity to your airplane to have a tuner for your DME radio. Instead your DME is tuned automatically when you tune a VOR/ILS. In the case of the Frasca the DME is always tuned when nav 1 is tuned. In the case of the B-95 the DME can be switched between nav1 and nav2. This is also explained in the simulation called “Tuning the DME” on of Professional Pilot IFR website. The thing to remember is that you only have one DME, the N1/N2 switch only changes which tuner is being used.

If you ever need to have your VOR on one station and your DME on a different station you can see the problem. The hold function is the solution to that problem. You can tune the DME, then select hold (HLD) this disconnects the DME from the nav radios.

You can then tune the VOR/ILS as desired without affecting the DME. The problem is that there is NO INDICATION anywhere in the cockpit of what frequency your DME is on. There have been a few fatal accidents where the pilot held the DME from one station then forgot and used that DME for a descent on an IFR approach and flew into the ground. This switch is widely accepted to be a “killer” so don’t use it unless you have to. And, always identify your DME separately before an approach.

The RMI – Your Best Friend Perhaps the most useful instrument in the cockpit for maintaining an overall situational awareness is the RMI. The RMI can be set to Nav 1 or Nav 2 and in the B-95 it can also be set to GPS, which is a huge advantage, but first let us discuss using RMI with Nav 1 and Nav 2.

The RMI displays your current radial under its tail, and the bearing to the VOR under the arrow head. It is important to realize that RMI does NOT WORK with ILS. When you tune an ILS the RMI needle goes to the right wingtip and parks there (i.e. it does nothing.) If you have the option of switching to GPS do so. If not then the RMI becomes redundant during an ILS. An important use of the RMI is to get a quick bearing for an initial turn. For example if a controller asks you to, “Go direct Whatcom” you can tune Nav 1 to 113.0 and setup the RMI to N1 and then set the heading bug to the bearing indicated by the green needle.

After you complete the turn you can set the HSI’s OBS to the course.

In the days before DME and GPS it was standard practice to deploy the RMI to the VOR that defines the next upcoming reporting point. Nav 2 would also be set to this intersection, but having the RMI set gives a “poor man’s DME” by showing you closing in on the reporting point. At Selkirk College we would like to see you follow this procedure as the default RMI application when in cruise. That way you are ready in the event of a DME failure. The alternative is to have the RMI on the Nav 1, which will be directly in front or behind you, which really doesn’t tell you much.

In the event that a VOR signal is lost (i.e. the station goes off the air) the RMI should go to the right wingtip, but in some cases it will continue to point at the last position. Be on guard for this possibility. Check the ident if in doubt.

When the RMI is set to GPS it points at the active waypoint, which is in the upper left corner of Super-nav 5 page. When you are in LEG mode the waypoint is always ahead of you so as you pass each one the needle swings telling you the new direction to fly.

GPS Moving Map Since GPS moving maps became available in-flight disorientation has gone way down.

But even with a moving map pilots can become disoriented. Some famous accidents, even at the airline level, have happened despite moving maps.

The first key to using the moving map is knowing how to set it up. Know how to turn VORs, airports, NDBs, etc on and off.

The scale setting depends on the airspace you are flying in. On approaches you should set it to auto, but enroute that will result in far too large a scale so you must manually set it.

In busy airspace such as Vancouver terminal 7 or 10 miles is usually best. On longer cross countries you may wish to increase the scale so that at least one or two VORs are in range, so the scale should be approximately half the distance between VORs. The map can be oriented to north up or track up. Track up is better in almost all cases.

Know how to change this.

Effective Use of Navigation Equipment In this section we will practice setting up the navigation and communications radios for various scenarios. This will give us an opportunity to practice IFR flight scripting, i.e.

Kitchen table flying, as recommended above.

The method we will use is called Tune, Setup, Identify (TSI.)

Tune Setup Identify (TSI) The TSI system must become a ritual for you. If you use it all the time you won’t miss anything. If you don’t you may be successful some of the time, even most times, but occasionally you miss things. Sometimes the things you miss will be minor, but occasionally you will make a major mistake. An example of this is having the annunciator on GPS when it should be on Nav. If you don’t notice this your HSI will be leading you on the wrong track. In an extreme case this could be fatal. Another example that has been known to cause fatal accidents is not noticing that the DME is on hold. I can pretty much guarantee that you will make mistakes relating to tuning and setup of your radios. The question is not whether you will make mistakes but whether you will catch the mistakes and correct them before a serious problem arises. Your commitment to precisely following the TSI procedure is your best line of defense against the dangers of mistuning radios.

It might seem unimportant to you what order tuning, setting up, and identification are done in. In fact it sometimes isn’t important. That is part of the problem. Because pilots can “get away with” doing things in any sequence a lot of the time with no apparent penalty for this lack of discipline. Using TSI rigorously demands discipline on your part; not unlike the life-discipline to eat right and exercise. It is often tempting to disregard “eating right and exercising.” In the short term no penalty ensues, but in the long term your health suffers. In the case of TSI the precise sequence only matters sometimes, such as when a complex clearance must be responded to in a short time period. Examples include: a last minute change of active approach, an emergency requiring immediate landing (fire), incapacitation of the other pilot, etc. TSI can take you from zero to “good to go” faster than any other sequence. If you are in the habit of using it you can handle difficult situations without making a mistake. But if you normally setup in a jumbled fashion that “gets the job done eventually” you may well miss something important under pressure. It is precisely when you are stressed that you won’t notice that you are in GPS mode when you should be in Nav, or OBS mode when you should be in LEG, or the RNAV button is depressed, or the DME is on hold, or the wrong ILS frequency has been tuned, etc. And keep in mind that even when there is no special pressure the highly abstract nature of IFR flight makes it difficult to avoid occasionally missing something, or setting some switch in the wrong position. TSI is your best insurance policy.

Hopefully you are convinced that TSI is a worthwhile discipline. The logic of tuning first, then setting up before identifying is that you tune first because the radios can do nothing until they are on the proper frequency. You setup before identifying because once the setup is complete your mind can begin processing the image of your position and making decisions about where to go. Identification is therefore the last step. There is never any controversy about tuning first, but some people feel they should identify before setup because they know there is a “rule” that you must identify before you “use” a navaid.

An established principle is that you should not navigate with a radio until it has been identified. But there are some exceptions to this, which we must discuss.

The only thing more dangerous than navigating with a radio that has not been identified is not navigating at all. Common sense says that you can’t just fly off into “nowhere land” in IMC conditions. So at times, if you have to switch to a new frequency and then begin navigating by it right away, it may be necessary to start a turn while you are identifying.

Conversely, in the real world you are often in VMC conditions even though you are on an IFR flight plan. If ATC requests you go to a navaid as soon as able you can tune and setup the navaid and begin turning safely toward it while you identify. A key point in both these situations is that you should know the approximate location of the navaid anyway. Once you tune and setup the radio if it indicates a track in the direction you anticipated a tentative identification has been completed and you can begin turning while the formal identification is completed.

A further point to consider is that your mind needs time to process the abstract information (deflection of CDI needle, relative position of RMI to HDG bug, etc.) By setting up first you can begin figuring out what the instruments are telling you while you identify. This will save a few (important) seconds.

IMPORTANT: despite the discussion above it is often the case that you should NOT turn by reference to a navaid until it has been identified. You should be smart enough to figure out such situations. In these cases delay turning until you have identified. Just because you have done setup does not obligate you to turn.

The preceding paragraph is very important, note it carefully.

Tune - Run the Stack A complete TSI involves tuning all the radios before setting up. We call this “running the stack.” The diagram below is a schematic representation of the radios in the Frasca 142, which is the first place you will learn to use TSI.

Running the stack means going from top to bottom of the radios starting with the KLN 90b then com 1, com 2, Nav 1, Nav 2, and ADF. The spots you must fill include 1 active GPS waypoint, 4 com frequencies, 5 Nav 1 frequencies, 2 Nav 2, and 2 ADF frequencies.

Once all these are set tune is complete.

Expect to be assigned exercises in which you pencil in the 15 values in the stack. Forms for you to practice with are in the appendix.

Setup: 3, 4 or 5 things Setup involves setting the three, four or five items on the left side of the panel. The number of items is different in different airplanes. In the case of the Frasca 142 panel shown above there are four things to setup. These are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Annunciator panel HSI Nav 2 RMI

The above diagram is a schematic of the Radios in the B-95. It is quite similar to the Frasca 142, but there are a few differences. For one thing there are five things to setup: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Annunciator HSI Nav 2 RMI DME

It is important for you to go through the setup procedure in the same sequence each time and never skip anything even if you know it is already OK, just say, “Good, good, good� as you skim over items that require no change. But you will be surprised how often you notice that you need to change something (that you would have missed without this framework.)

The following schematic is for the King Air 210 (turbine simulator.) How many things are there to setup?

Identify The last step in TSI is identify, for this use the audio panel as your guide. All Selkirk College airplanes use the KMA 24 audio panel. The recommended procedure is to run across the audio panel from left to right. The Alsim audio panel is slightly different but works essentially the same way.

Abbreviated TSI In a complete TSI you run the stack first, i.e. tune ALL the radios, then all the setup items and then identify the radios by moving across the audio panel from left to right.

There are some situations in which a complete TSI is not feasible, for example a clearance such as, “GSAK go direct the WC now.” In this case common sense dictates that we not waste time tuning the GPS, Nav 1, and Nav 2 before tuning the ADF. Instead simply do an abbreviated TSI on the ADF only. I.E. tune the ADF, setup the RMI switch and identify the ADF. Two important points must be made here: First; in the Frasca 142 and B-95 setup there is no setup required for the ADF radio. But in the King Air the RMI switches must be set to ADF. It is vital that you develop the discipline of mentally acknowledging the setup step in the Frasca 142 and the B-95 by simply saying to yourself, “nothing to setup.” The two seconds taken are worth it to implant the TSI principle in your mind and will stand you in good stead when you fly the King Air and other airplanes in the future.

Second; when you do an abbreviated TSI on one radio make a mental note that you “owe yourself” a complete TSI. Any change in navigation reference warrants a complete check that everything is set the way you want it as soon as workload permits. It is often necessary to do a limited TSI as described here, but run the stack and check all setup items as soon as you can afterwards.

TSI for Frasca 142 As you run the stack the details to keep in mind in the Frasca 141, in order, are: Check the active waypoint on the GPS (Nav 5 page is assumed) Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 1 Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 2 Confirm all 5 memory frequencies are as desired on Nav 1 Select an in use frequency Check RNAV / VOR buttons are as desired Confirm HOLD is not selected (unless desired) Tune active and standby frequency on Nav 2 Tune active and standby frequency on ADF Set clock display as desired on ADF Set ADF / ANT switch to ADF Once you have run the stack as described above perform the four item setup. Annunciator and HSI have sub-items:

1. Annunciator  Select GPS or Nav as needed  Select LEG or OBS as needed 2. HSI  Set heading bug to current or new heading  Set OBS to desired course 3. Nav 2  Set desired course 4. RMI  Select Nav 1 or Nav 2 After the setup complete identification by going left to right on the audio panel. Set marker audio as desired. Identify Nav 1, Nav 2, DME, and ADF in that order. To identify the ADFs push the button in. If more than 5NM from the station use the ANT setting to identify and perform a test by observing the needle swing as ANT and then ADF are selected.

TSI for Beech 95 As you run the stack the details to keep in mind in the B95, in order, are: Check the active waypoint on the GPS (Nav 5 page is assumed) Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 1 Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 2 Tune active and standby frequency on Nav 1 Tune active and standby frequency on Nav 2 Tune active and standby frequency on ADF Set clock display as desired on ADF Set ADF / ANT switch to ADF Once you have run the stack as described above perform the four item setup. Annunciator and HSI have sub-items: 1. Annunciator  Select GPS or Nav as needed  Select LEG or OBS as needed 2. HSI  Set heading bug to current or new heading  Set OBS to desired course 3. Nav 2  Set desired course 4. RMI  Select Nav 1, Nav 2, of GPS 5. DME  Set to N1, N2 or occasionally to Hold After the setup complete identification by going left to right on the audio panel. Set marker audio as desired. Identify Nav 1, Nav 2, DME, and ADF in that order. To identify the ADFs push the button in. If more than 5NM from the station use the ANT setting to

identify and perform a test by observing the needle swing as ANT and then ADF are selected.

The differences between the B-95 and Frasca 142 are: 1. There is no RNAV therefore Nav 1 setup is simpler 2. RMI can be set to GPS as well as N1 and N2 ( a big advantage) 3. DME must be selected. (not always on N1 as in Frasca 142)

TSI for Alsim As you run the stack the details to keep in mind in the Alsim, in order, are: Check the active waypoint on the GPS – set OBS mode as desired Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 1 Tune both an active and standby frequency on com 2 Tune active and standby frequency on Nav 1 Tune active and standby frequency on Nav 2 Tune active and standby frequency on ADF Set clock display as desired on ADF Set ADF / ANT switch to ADF

To perform the tune, setup, identify procedure on the Alsim without missing anything you must know how many items require setup, and where they are.

There are 8 items to check/set for the PM and 7 for the PF. Pilot Flying setup: 1. HSI 2. Primary RMI 3. single needle RMI 4. double needle RMI 5. Annunciator – check and set CDI 6. Course 7. HDG bug

Pilot Monitoring setup: 1. HSI 2. Primary RMI 3. single needle RMI 4. double needle RMI 5. Annunciator – check and set CDI 6. Course 7. HDG bug 8. DME selector

Options: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

HSI [Nav1 / Nav2] Primary RMI [VOR1, VOR2, ADF] single needle RMI [VOR1, ADF] double needle RMI [VOR2, ADF] Annunciator – [GNSS if HSI on NAV1 and GNS430 CDI button on GPS, else NAV1 OR NAV2]

6. Course [course bar on HSI, set as required] 7. HDG bug [set desired heading] 8. DME selector [N1, N2, H1, H2]

Scripting Principles Now that we have the TSI procedure and have explored recommendations for using the navigation radios to maintain situational awareness it is time to do some practice scripts.

We will examine several example scripts with commentary intended to reveal the authors view of what the most effective setup is.

First let’s examine a few further principles to keep in mind about scripting IFR flights.

Flexibility in Scripting There is more than one effective way to setup the radios for most IFR situations. The examples that follow represent the ideas of only one pilot and there is no intent to indicate that they represent the only acceptable setup.

While there are several good setups available in most situations that is not the same as saying that any setup is good. As much as possible I will mention alternate good options and point out commonly used but poor setups. The objective is to get you thinking, about the options and developing your own style (yes there is such a thing as style.)

Single-Pilot Scripts There can be a significant difference in the best setup depending on how many pilots there are and whether or not they have an autopilot. This relates back to aviate, navigate, and communicate principle covered on page 178.

A single-pilot with no autopilot should put a premium on setups that must be changed as infrequently as possible. Every time a single-pilot must change a radio, concentration available for aviating is reduced.

The greatest concentration on aviating is required during departure and approach and therefore these are the stages of a flight in which it is important to choose a setup that requires no more changing than necessary. In the enroute phase of flight the airplane should be trimmed for cruise and quite stable. Making radio setup changes at this stage is comparatively easy, so everything that needs to be done, such as weather checking, RAIM predictions, WRACEM and AMORTS, etc should be taken care of in cruise.

For departure setup a single-pilot is well advised to setup for what will be needed rather than what could remotely be needed. This is obvious when stated like this, but many pilots like to setup the radios for an emergency return to the airport in case there is an engine failure on departure. This is laudable concern but a relatively unlikely probability.

If a complex departure must be flown single-pilot it is much wiser to setup for the departure and enroute; setup for an emergency return with radios that are “surplus.”

Maximum Information or Required Only?

If you are taking off on a runway with an ILS should you tune the ILS? When taking off should you tune the active ILS and IAF beacon?

Enroute, should you identify every intersection.

When flying an ILS with no DME should you hold the DME on a different frequency?

When flying an ILS approach should you setup the GPS moving map for the same track?

When flying an ADF approach should you tune a nearby VOR? The answer to all these questions could be either yes or no. In each case the pilot must decide whether the added information is worthwhile.

In the section on Single-pilot scripts above I said you should setup so that no changes are needed during departures and arrivals, if possible. This conflicts with the idea of getting as much information as possible. The single-pilot should probably not tune the ILS for departure for example. On the other hand s/he normally should identify every intersection enroute, but might have to forgo this if time is needed to check weather or deal with an emergency. The decision would have to be made in the context, including whether or not the airplane is radar identified.

When there are two pilots, as in the King Air, then pilots should lean toward getting maximum information. In this case tuning the ILS on departure is good. The frequency can be quickly changed by the pilot monitoring when needed.

To Backup or Not to Backup The issue of backing up in your setup is a matter of redundancy. Airplanes have two engines, two alternators, two vacuum pumps, etc for redundancy. If one fails the other takes over and no harm is done. The same applies to radio setups. When flying an ILS tune both radios to the ILS. When doing an ADF approach tune both ADF radios to the beacon, etc.

A mistake that is sometimes made is to backup the wrong thing. For example on an ILS the ADF is used to identify the glidepath check point (usually the FAF) This may be backed up with a DME, but if DME is not available it could also be backed up with a VOR cross-radial. However, to do so would mean not backing up the localizer and glidepath. Common sense should tell us that this is not good backing up.

Avoid Flags and Red Lights When a red flag extends on a VOR or GPS it means something is wrong – usually. But it could just be that the station is out of range. Therefore on departure it is often the case that a red flag will appear on the HSI or VOR#2. What can we do about this; or should we do anything?

It is a bad habit to get into, letting red flags remain unresolved on your panel. It breeds an apathy that can get you into trouble. So, if there is a way to tune some other frequency so that no flag shows you should do that. For example you may be able to switch from Nav to GPS, or tune an ILS rather than a VOR that is out of range, etc.

Sometimes there is no way around this problem, so you have to accept the flag on the ground. Try not to let it become a habit; but keep in mind what I said about setting up what will be needed for a single-pilot departure – that could require a compromise on this issue.

Adjusting to Equipment Failures If you have a script (see below for more advice on this,) you know what you intended to do with all equipment, and why. Having though it through you will usually find it easy to decide what you can do without if you must adjust to the failure of a radio. You will know the situations in which a radio is necessary and request a change of clearance. For example if you were going to do an ADF approach but now your only ADF radio has failed can you continue to your destination?

Yes, if you have a script for setting up a GPS overly; otherwise – no.

If you are going to do an ILS in which a beacon marks the FAF can you continue if your only ADF has failed?

In most cases you can. There may have scripted a DME backup, or have considered a VOR cross radial, or if you are in radar contact that can be substituted. If you have a good script you would know this and have little trouble deciding whether to continue or not and what script changes are needed.

Kitchen Table Flying As we near the end of this text I am about to reveal to you my most valuable peace of advice. I am not kidding; this simple concept is my best advice, so don’t blow it off.

I have said that you should develop a script as part of your preflight planning for every IFR flight. This obviously involves looking over all the relevant charts, especially the SID, and approach plates as well as examining the LO chart. Once you have looked them over and think you understand everything, try this exercise.

Sit at the Kitchen table and pretend you are in the cockpit. The first few times you try this have several blank copies of the relevant radio templates from the appendix in front of you, but once you get good at it you will just do it in your head.

Start by saying, what clearance do I expect? If you can’t anticipate your IFR clearance go back to the beginning and start over because you are nowhere near ready to fly IFR. Now assume you got the required clearance – do TSI as you will for takeoff. Completely fill in the blank form (later you will just memorize your choices.)

Next; ask yourself, when is the first time I will need to change any of these items (even the slightest change)? Think it through carefully because this is perhaps the most telling test of your ability to create a script. I am quite confident that with a moment or two of reflection you will be able to specify exactly when you will need to make a change.

Next, assume you are at the specified location and repeat TSI again. Then ask yourself when the next change will be. Repeat this over and over, you will eventually get to the end of the flight (i.e. end of the script) but there is one complication.

The complication is that in some cases you will realize that a change point the flight could proceed this way or that way. EXCELLENT, you have identified a DECISION point that you will have to make in flight. Obvious examples include which approach you will do at the destination but there are others, such as whether or not you will get this STAR or that STAR, etc.

When you recognize a decision point as described above you MUST follow each reasonable scenario. i.e. pick one and go through TSI for that and follow it through to the end of the flight – and then come back and pick the other option(s) and follow them through to the end, until you cover all possible.

How long will it take to do the above? From my experience it often takes a beginner at longer to Kitchen fly a trip than it will to actually fly it; in other words it may take you two hours, sometimes more, for a 1.5 hour flight. The reason it takes so long is that you will find yourself dithering about whether you should set this or that and you will have to lookup a lot of information on the approach plates that you previously thought you had reviewed but now realize only scanned in a far too superficial way. There are two ways you could react to putting so much time into this Kitchen table flying idea. You might say – no way am I going to do this, it is completely unrealistic to spend two hours reviewing material for a flight. I’ll give you my thoughts on that, but please reflect on what you think before reading the next paragraph.

I agree that it is totally unrealistic to spend two hours reviewing charts for a professional IFR pilot. But it is ridiculous to think that if it takes you two hours to figure out what to do when you aren’t even being burdened flying that you are going to do anything but make a fool of yourself if you go flying. As a student you need this much time to prepare for an IFR flight (or simulator session.)

Kitchen table flying is the most valuable exercise you can undertake as a student of IFR flying. It is the equivalent of an Olympic runner putting in miles of training so s/he can run a 10 second race. You won’t need to do Kitchen table flying anymore when you can do it so fast that you could just as easily do it in flight. But I GAURANTEE that you will be far too slow the first 20 or 30 times you do it. So I will be trying to force you to do it in class, and begging you to do it before simulator sessions, so that when you finally fly IFR for real you have no hesitation about what you want to do. It won’t be long once you are on the job before pass this idea by, but it will be an important step to getting there.

The Ultimate Kitchen Table Flight I’m not done yet.

In the above I only talked about “kitchen flying” the radio setups. But there are clearly other aspects of a flight that can be scripted. I have found that scripting configuration and power changes is a terrific benefit to beginning IFR pilots. The best way to do this is to

script all 5T situations as part of your kitchen flying script. I previously recommended that under Plan Ahead on page 183. Please review that and incorporate it into your Kitchen table flying.

When you know your configurations and power setting so well that reviewing them is redundant you can stop.

IKEA Kitchen Tables IKEA tables come in pieces that you have to put together.

So do IFR flights. If you script a flight from Castlegar to Kelowna and on another day script one from Cranbrook to Kelowna the last 2/3 of the flights are the same. So if you have a decent memory you are done in a jiffy.

Scripts come in modules. Once you have a script for a departure from Vancouver you can use if for a flight to anywhere. You get the idea.

So think of your scripts in modules and build a library of useful ones in your memory.

Briefings Takeoff Briefing The need to give a takeoff briefing was previously mentioned under the topic of Maintaining Situational Awareness. It is important to remember in all the briefings described in this section that their purpose is to improve the crew’s situational awareness.

In the case of a single pilot, briefing may not be the correct term, since it is usually done silently, but the formal process serves the purpose of establishing mental alertness with the intent of reducing the chances of neglecting an important detail or reacting too slowly to an anticipatable emergency.

A takeoff briefing normally contains three elements: 1. Description of takeoff, including operational speeds 2. Description of departure route 3. Emergency responses Item 1 normally involves describing the type of takeoff to be performed and reviewing the “V speeds.” This material is outside the contents of this course so it will not be discussed further here.

Item 2 is the primary concern of this course. The pilot(s) should have reviewed the clearance, following the three-step procedure described on page 176. The review is normally done silently. As this is a scripting exercise it proceeds from beginning to end, and thus the elements most present in the pilots mind are the later ones, when it is the first ones that need to be emphasized. Therefore, in the briefing the pilot flying should emphasize those elements of the script that apply in the first moments of the flight.

Exactly how far into the flight to brief is a matter of judgment, but usually more than two or three minutes is too much. The briefing should always include: Cleared altitude Special ATC or procedural restrictions Unusual maneuvers required The cleared altitude is frequently different than the flight plan altitude, which makes mistakes easy. Therefore the cleared altitude should always be emphasized in the briefing.

Special ATC or procedural restrictions include items such as VFR climb restriction, a request to contact a frequency other than the one published on the departure chart, the need to fly a climb gradient other than 200 ft/NM, etc.

It can be a matter of judgment what constitutes an unusual maneuver. Most pilots would agree that any turns that must be initiated before a trimmed cruise climb is established are unusual, and therefore should be briefed. Someone once said, “I can’t define art, but I know it when I see it.” Unusual maneuvers are like that. If the departure requires you to

do something you seldom or never do it is unusual by definition and therefore requires specific briefing.

In the above discussion the word briefing implies a conversation, and therefore two pilots. But it is important that when flying single-pilot-IFR you brief yourself. You probably will do it silently, so the passengers don’t think you’re off your rocker. But it is still an important exercise in mentally preparing for flight.

Many pilots, with the approval of the companies they work for, make use of abbreviated briefings in which words such as, “normal procedures” or some similar terminology is used to shorten the takeoff briefing. This can be a good idea or a bad idea depending on the details and the mental attitude of the pilots who use it. It is a good idea because repetitive briefings on a series of flights in a single work day tend to promote apathy and lack of attention. On the other hand, if briefings are ALWAYS stripped of details, perhaps because we assume we have them memorized, after weeks or months of flying we are not mentally alert and safety is compromised. Therefore I recommend that for the first takeoff each day a full briefing is done. On subsequent takeoffs, with the same crew, (single-pilot is always the same crew  ) the briefing can be shortened provided the same conditions apply.

When a briefing is shortened, as described above it is normally part 1 and 3 that are shortened. Only if the crew is doing the same route several times in one shift can part 2, the description of departure route be dropped.

WAT WAT is an acronym that may be used to mentally organize for the approach enroute to an IFR destination. The WAT briefing is normally completed as a lead in to the AMORTS briefing. Ideally it will be completed prior to initiating descent. However, the items included in a WAT briefing should be given consideration prior to departure and continually revisited enroute. These items allow you to formulate a plan and anticipate the arrival procedures based on relevant and updated information (weather, anticipated delays, NOTAM, etc). This mental preparation is essential to a smoothly executed arrival.

In a two-pilot operation WAT should be included as part of the formal approach briefing.

The letters stand for: W – Weather A – Approach T – Temperature

W.

Check the weather, NOTAMs, and PIREPs for your destination, alternate, and enroute. Update this information periodically in cruise. You can get this from ATIS if available but you may need to call FSS. When requesting updated weather form FSS, ask for the latest METAR and any amendments to the last TAF you have in your possession.

If things have changed unexpectedly or drastically, consider requesting a more thorough update. Ask yourself these questions about the current and forecast weather?

What runway do I anticipate using? Considerations (winds, runway length and condition)

Will it be a circling or straight-in approach?

Is the ceiling and visibility above or below approach minima?

What do I expect to see at DH or MDA? (type of approach lights, runway alignment) What are the chances of success?

What will I do in the event of a missed approach? (try another approach, or request clearance to the alternate)

A. Review potential arrivals and approaches for your destination and alternate.

Determine which approaches you are able to do (i.e. which you have the equipment for.)

Determine which has the lowest minima, and which have minima lower than the reported weather. Finally decide what your preferred or anticipated approach is. Ask yourself these questions about the available approach procedures?

What are the available procedures? (consider wind, weather, NOTAM outages, aircraft equipment, active runways) Which procedure has the highest likelihood of success?

Which procedure will be most efficient? (least amount of maneuvering, shorter taxi, etc.)

When will I need to start the descent? (crossing restrictions, etc.)

Does the procedure require a non-standard radio setup?

T. Consider the temperature at destination and the alternate. If the field temperature is 0°C or below cold temperature altitude corrections are required. Consider making these calculations prior to departure if the flight is short. Always apply these corrections prior to starting the approach briefing.

WAT makes a good planning ahead format to help you develop a script prior to completing the actual briefing. As you plan ahead and are trying to answer the usual, “What should I do now?” question you can use WAT to help you decide if you have forgotten anything. In a two-pilot environment the WAT items will be included as part of the approach briefing. This is not to say you will verbalize all the preceding questions, but once they have been considered you will formally brief the relevant points.

Refer to the professional pilot website for an example of a typical WAT briefing in video and textual format. (Pilot Training→Alsim Page→Two-Piot CRM Videos→Two-Pilot ILS Approach)

AMORTS Although formalized approach briefings are the industry standard for professional pilots, the specific form varies with operator. It is important to adopt a systematic approach to the briefing to ensure nothing is missed. This may seem onerous at first, but in time you will be familiar enough with the format that it becomes automatic.

AMORTS is a common industry acronym that helps you get organized before flying an IFR approach. You will perform an “AMORTS approach briefing” prior to commencing every IFR approach. Once you have considered WAT you are ready to complete an approach briefing. During operational single pilot flights this briefing will typically be completed silently. During a single pilot instructional lesson in the simulator the instructor will expect to hear the approach briefing in order to evaluate its content, and efficiency.

The letters stand for: A – Approach M – Minima O – Overshoot R – Radios T – Timing S – Speeds and special considerations The acronym ensures that you will cover all important aspects of the approach before doing it. It is not a substitute for having reviewed the approach thoroughly before the flight however. It is important that you have analyzed the approach as described elsewhere in this manual before the flight. If not you should silently do that analysis before attempting an AMORTS briefing.

AMORTs briefings will be performed out loud in a multi-crew situation.

A. The approach section ensures all crew members are referencing the correct material.

Name the approach State procedure effective date State the airport elevation or touchdown zone elevation if applicable

State the name of the approach and whether or not you will fly a full procedure, or a straight-in. If straight-in state the method of intercepting final.

State intentions to circle and runway if applicable.

Next read the effective date (bottom of page.)

Next read the airport elevation or touchdown zone elevation if applicable (top right corner of the plate)

M. This portion of the AMORTs will be the most involved. It is simply a step by step review of what is required to complete the procedure from top of descent until DH or MDA is reached. It is a chronological overview of the procedure including: Top of Descent Minimum safe altitudes as they apply chronologically Crossing/speed restrictions Plan to transition into the approach (when to turn to intercept the arc, what type of procedure turn with applicable timings/distances, vectors, etc.)

Constant descent point Required tracks Altimeter bug setting if applicable Only relevant minimum altitudes need mentioning. (ie: if there are more than one sector altitude, only the applicable sector needs mentioning) Normally the initial safe altitude is the MEA for the airway you are on. But, if you are not on an airway then you must use the 100-mile safe altitude, or the 25NM safe altitude. To use either of these you must confirm you are within the specified distance.

O. The proper term for this segment is missed approach. An overshoot is a visual maneuver. Unfortunately AMMRTS doesn’t roll off the tongue too well so we use the word overshoot to remind us of the missed approach procedure.

The pilot normally reads the entire missed approach procedure. For a non-precision approach ensure to mention the missed approach point and how it is identified. One extra piece of information should be added if not included in the written procedure and that is the direction of the first turn. The only possibilities are “straight ahead”, “left turn,” and “right turn.”

During single-pilot operations it is advisable to MEMORIZE the initial step of the procedure. During the initial stages of the missed approach you need to concentrate on adding power, pitching the nose up and retracting flaps and gear. You don’t have time to look at the plate. Therefore you must know whether to continue straight ahead or turn.

Emphasize this when you read the procedure.

Remember you have already considered the weather and are aware of the chances of success. A missed approach is rarely a surprise.

R. This part of the briefing specifies the navaids required for the procedure. Only nonstandard radio setups need to be included in the briefing, other communication or direction regarding radio setup can take place informally outside of the briefing.

Remember to use TSI (Tune setup identify) as a framework to keep you from forgetting anything about the radio setup.

T. If the missed approach point is based on timing brief the time here, if the MAP is based on distance (DME or GPS) state “timing, not applicable”.

S. Speeds and special considerations are briefed at this point. Only Vref and any nonstandard speeds need mentioning. Set applicable speed bugs at this time.

Special considerations refer to any applicable cautionary notes found on the approach plate, and any other items which need special attention ( runway condition, crosswind, circling restrictions, non-standard configuration, short field landing technique, etc.).

Refer to the professional pilot website for an example of a typical WAT briefing in video and textual format. (Pilot Training→Alsim Page→Two-Piot CRM Videos→Two-Pilot ILS Approach)

IFR in uncontrolled airspace Read RAC 2.0 This book started with a discussion about the roots of IFR flight and that it is possible to fly IFR without air traffic control, as long as the number of airplanes in the system is small. That is exactly the situation in northern Canada and as a result NavCanada has chosen not to provide control service in NDA below FL230 and FL270 in the ACA. In other words, if you want to fly IFR at less than 23000 feet in the north you will be uncontrolled.

Read RAC 8.9 In many cases a portion of your flight will be controlled, while another portion is uncontrolled. RAC 8.9 explains the rules about getting an IFR clearance before entering controlled airspace. Remember that if you are cruising at any altitude below FL230 when you cross the boundary into NDA you become uncontrolled at that point. Remember also that if you are below 18,000 when that happens you also transition to a standard pressure region. When do you change your altimeter to 29.92? Formulate your answer before reading the next paragraph.

You always change the altimeter in the standard pressure region. I.E. after leaving SDA, or prior to entering SDA (below 18,000.) CAR 602.37 RAC 2.11 Read RAC 1.9.2 and CAR 605.35 What transponder code should you squawk when uncontrolled IFR? Formulate your answer before reading the next paragraph.

If you are in high level airspace, i.e. uncontrolled from FL180 to FL220 in NDA or up to FL260 in ACA squawk 2000; in low level airspace squawk 1000.

Read RAC 4.0 When flying uncontrolled IFR all the usual procedures for MF and ATF that you use when you are VFR still apply (see RAC 4.0.) In addition you must report your intentions

on 126.7. This usually means that you will have to transmit your departure and arrival intentions twice (once on MF and once on 126.7.)

Sample Radio Calls for Uncontrolled IFR Flight – Yellowknife to Cambridge Bay In this section I will present a set of simulated radio calls for an uncontrolled IFR flight in a Navajo from Yellowknife to Cambridge Bay. You need an LO 5 and CAP 1 to follow along. Notice that Yellowknife is in Southern Domestic airspace but that transition to the northern domestic airspace will occur 50 miles into the flight. The flight will become uncontrolled from that point on.

A flight plan is filed the route is BR84 at 9000asl.

Notice that a flight plan is only legally needed to PENVU, there will be no ATC clearance beyond there, but if a full flight plan is not filed then a flight itinerary would be needed. We will assume that the pilot prefers to have a flight plan, just like a VFR pilot would. The flight plan must be closed after landing in Cambridge Bay (just like a VFR flight plan.)

To make it interesting I will include radio calls from several aircraft along the way in order to demonstrate how uncontrolled IFR is done. The other aircraft will be identified as aircraft 1, aircraft 2, etc.

Pilot: Yellowknife ground, Navajo GABC. ATC: ABC Yellowknife ground, go ahead Pilot: ABC on apron 1, IFR to Cambridge Bay at 9000, ready taxi, with alpha ATC: ABC roger, wind 240 at 10, altimeter 29.44, taxi bravo and Charlie, hold short 27. I have your IFR clearance when you’re ready.

Pilot: 29.44, hold short 27. Go ahead.

ATC: ABC is cleared to PENVU intersection via Yellowknife One, flight plan route, squawk 2461 Pilot: squawk 2461, ABC ATC: roger So far everything is exactly as we have been doing. This is to be expected because Yellowknife is in controlled airspace, indeed a “bubble” of southern domestic airspace surrounds it (check your LO5.)

The pilot taxis out, and when ready for takeoff the following calls are required.

Pilot: Yellowknife tower, GABC is ready for takeoff on 27 ATC: ABC cleared takeoff 27, switch Edmonton center 135.8 through 1000 Pilot: ABC Note that no read back is required, although many pilots would.

The next call is to Edmonton after takeoff Pilot: Edmonton center, Navajo GABC off Yellowknife runway 27, through 1100 for 4000.

ATC: ABC squawk ident.

Pilot: Squawk ident, ABC ATC: ABC, radar identified, through 2000 turn right heading 030 magnetic, vectors to bravo Romeo 84.

Pilot: through 2000 right 030 magnetic, ABC ATC: ABC, roger This particular controller doesn’t want any mistakes so he tells the pilot that the vector heading is magnetic. The pilot should not really switch to true headings until PENVU but many pilots would actually set the true heading on the runway before takeoff northbound out of Yellowknife. This is technically a no-no, because they are still in SDA until PENVU. After a minute or two: ATC: ABC, maintain 9000 Pilot: through 3500 for 9000, ABC ATC: roger A few minutes later Pilot: Edmonton center, ABC level 9000 ATC: ABC, roger After twenty minutes or so: ATC: ABC approaching PENVU, maintain 9000 in controlled airspace. Radar service terminated, squawk 1000. Frequency change approved.

Pilot: 9000 in controlled airspace. Switching, ABC The pilot is now a few moments from entering northern domestic airspace. S/he should do several things: Switch the altimeter to 29.92 for the standard pressure region Correct altitude to FL090 or whatever other altitude is desired Broadcast location on 126.7 When should each of the above be done?

Switch altimeter setting is AFTER entering NDA, but a broadcast should be made now, before entering uncontrolled airspace. The Navajo has two radios so the pilot leaves one softly monitoring Edmonton center and using the other makes a call on 126.7 Pilot: Any traffic on 126.7, this is Navajo GABC on BR84 at PENVU, 9000 at 1723 Zulu, IFR to Cambridge Bay, estimating LUPIN at 1840. Cambridge Bay next.

Airplane 1: something Charlie, I missed the ident. This is King Air GSEL 90 DME north of Yellowknife on BR84 descending through 11000 for 8000. Say your DME.

Pilot: This is G-A-B-C, at 52 DME northbound at Flight level 090.

Airplane 1: ABC roger, we will expedite descent through 9000 Pilot: ABC roger, could you call me through flight level 090 with your DME Airplane 1: Wilco As is common, the King Air didn’t quite catch the ident but recognized a possible conflict. Our pilot repeated his ident slowly. The King Air pilot could have simply leveled at FL010 (I would think that would be the smarter thing to do – but he doesn’t even seem to know that he isn’t at 11000, he is at FL011) but instead asked ABC for a DME distance and discovering they were still almost 40 miles apart decided to descend. We can only wonder what s/he would have done had ABC reported “negative DME.” Airplane 1: GSEL is descending through 9000 at 80 DME. Pilot: ABC roger, thanks.

The next reporting point is LUPIN, but since there is an IFR approach at LUPIN our pilot should report about 15 minutes south of LUPIN in case there is someone arriving or departing there that could be passing through FL090.

There are probably additional calls to Yellowknife and Arctic radio to check weather, which I am not showing here.

Notice that our pilot has now entered NDA and changed the altimeter to 29.92. With that done s/he must correct to FL090.

Our pilot will repeat the following call on 126.7 and then on LUPIN ATF 122.8 Pilot: LUPIN traffic, this is Navajo GABC on 126.7, 50 miles south of LUPIN at FL090, estimating LUPIN at 1723, Cambridge Bay next.

Pilot: LUPIN traffic, this is Navajo GABC on 122.8, 50 miles south of LUPIN at FL090, estimating LUPIN at 1723, Cambridge Bay next.

Notice the slightly abbreviated format.

After repeating the above on 122.8 the following exchange might occur: Airplane 2: GABC this is Conquest FXYZ on 122.8, taxing for departure at runway 01 at LUPIN. Confirm estimating LUPIN at 1723.

Pilot: ABC, affirmative, 1723. I am at flight level 090.

Airplane 2: roger, I’ll call when I am ready for takeoff for a position update This guy is obviously pondering whether he can get up and out of LUPIN before the Navajo conflicts. The current time is 1709, so if he is going to depart with a 10 minute separation he had better move it. And GABC better be accurate with his ETA Our pilot should be monitoring both frequencies as s/he flies over, but the Conquest is legally required to broadcast his departure intentions on both 122.1 and 126.7, so in theory it is OK to be just on 126.7.

Three minutes later the following transmission is made on 122.1, then moments later on 126.7 Airplane 2: This is conquest FXYZ taxiing to position runway 01 LUPIN, departure IFR northbound on BR84, climbing to FL250 Pilot: XYZ, this is ABC, I check your intentions, I estimate 35 miles south of LUPIN at FL090.

Airplane 2: XYZ, roger. No conflict, I will climb northbound after departure Pilot: roger, ABC The Conquest pilot visualizes that the Navajo is still 10 minutes (just) south and that if s/he departs northbound there is no conflict, it would NOT be a good idea to takeoff on runway 19 in this case as the airplanes would get too close.

Airplane 2: LUPIN traffic, Conquest FXYZ off runway 01 through 2000 for FL 250 Pilot: XYZ, this is ABC could you report through flight level 090 please.

Airplane 2: roger Airplane 2: LUPIN traffic, FXYZ is through FL090 for FL250 By the way will the conquest be uncontrolled or controlled at FL250?

Pilot: Arctic radio, this is Navajo GABC on 126.7, over LUPIN at 1721, level Flight Level 090, IFR to Cambridge Bay, estimating Cambridge Bay at 1856 Zulu, for an approach.

Radio: ABC, Arctic radio, I check your progress report. No reported traffic.

The above IFR position report is standard – see the back cover of your CFS. Since there is no “next” reporting point our pilot has said “for an approach” to clarify his/her intentions.

The next report should be approximately 15 minutes before arrival at Cambridge Bay. It will be very much like the procedure south of LUPIN. The call must be made on both 126.7 and CYBC MF 122.1 Pilot: Arctic radio, this is Navajo GABC on 126.7, 50 miles south of Cambridge Bay, level flight level 090, inbound for the NDB runway 31 approach. Standby Pilot Arctic radio, this is Navajo GABC on 122.1, 50 miles south of Cambridge Bay, level flight level 090, inbound for the NDB runway 31 approach, estimating Cambridge Bay beacon at 18:57 Zulu.

Radio: ABC, Arctic radio, I check your position. No reported traffic, altimeter 29.07, wind light and variable.

If no air to ground advisory is available the pilot will have to fly the approach and check the windsock and runway conditions before landing.

Even though the radio operator says, “No reported traffic” the pilot must broadcast all intentions on both 126.7 and 122.1 just in case.

When should our pilot set the altimeter to 29.07?

The altimeter should be change just prior to commencing descent from FL090 for the approach. NOTE that if the pilot decides to “step descend” i.e. descend say to FL 050 for a while prior to the approach then the altimeter should NOT be changed. Set the airport altimeter setting once descent for the approach begins.

Pilot: Arctic radio, ABC is descending from flight level 090 for the NDB runway 31true approach, estimating Cambridge Bay at 1857, estimate landing at 1909.

Radio: roger Pilot: Arctic radio, ABC is by the Cambridge Bay beacon outbound.

Radio: roger Pilot: Arctic radio, ABC is by the Cambridge Bay beacon inbound for landing runway 31 true.

Radio: roger, no reported traffic. Wind 330 at less than 5.

Pilot: roger Pilot: Arctic radio, ABC is down and clear, request flight plan closed.

Radio: ABC roger, flight plan closed.

Appendix 1 – Frasca 142 Radio Template

Appendix 2 – B95 Radio Template

Appendix 3 – King Air Radio Template

Sample setup: ILS 08R at CYVR:

Sample setup: V300 at GOATE; Destination CYCG for LOC DME E APR