Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
To what extent do the pressures of western cinematic society influence women to modify their appearance? The exploration of how transformation films portray the patriarchal structure of cinema This essay aims to highlight and question the idea that the film industry embodies the patriarchal views of western society when it comes to aesthetic expectations on-screen, particularly considering the portrayal of women in relation to gender roles. Although the main focus will be on the way women are represented in front of the camera, there are also fundamental aspects to consider behind the camera. According to the New York Film Academy (New York Film Academy Blog, 2017), a female actor's wages on average are a considerable amount less than a male actor's. The consideration of age is a key factor contributing to this, the highest paid women (still at the lower spectrum of the men) are evidently a lot younger in comparison to the male actors. Why there is such a presence of a male gaze within film appears to be obvious when looking at who the people are behind the camera. There is a 5:1 ratio of men to women working in the film (New York Film Academy Blog, 2017), which could be a direct indication of inequality within the industry, both in regards to the opportunities for women to work as a director/film maker, and also in relation to the way women are seen in film altogether. Because such a large proportion of men are writing and directing female characters, they are more often than not going to be created from the perspective of male desire, subconsciously or not. Therefore, women end up being confined to their appearance and their role as a damsel-in-distress, hence appropriated for the male characters, who by default of their gender, are more relatable to the men who created them. The presence of a patriarchal society and specific gender roles are evident within the film industry. In Laura Mulvey's essay 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' (Mulvey, 1975) it is argued that the strong occupancy of these factors have been the foundation of which the industry was structured. Women are constantly seen as 'the bearer, not maker, of meaning' (Mulvey, 1975:15), which puts them inferior to men (the maker). The gender roles portrayed on-screen are at the source of the subjugation of women by men, which filters directly into what is seen as socially accepted. A key aspect of Mulvey's writing, which further highlights this idea, is the notion of 'Scopophilia', the pleasure in looking or viewing sexual acts. The male gaze and fantasies of desire/power in film relate to the way women are viewed as a whole. Richard Dyer examines this in 'Stars and Audience's' (Dyer and McDonald, 2011). He acknowledges that 'images of stars construct the fantasies and pleasures of movie-goers' (Dyer and McDonald, 2011:187). Therefore, the fulfillment of pleasure/fantasy is associated with very specific representations of gender often shown in film, examples of which are unfeasible to the majority. Portraying these ideals as a model of society is enabled by the way in which narrative is structured and told through film. In 'Cultural Theory and Popular Culture' (Storey, 2006) John Storey explores this idea through his examination of popular cinema, splitting it into two fractions; narrative, which is often concerned with the active male, and spectacle, which is associated with the passive female. Here it is suggested that a male role is key to driving a story forward, whereas a female role is lesser based upon her capabilities/actions, but exists purely for her aesthetic appeal. The state under which this occurs leads the viewer to put themselves in the place of the male/female star and believe the 'illusion of looking in on a private world' (Mulvey, 1975:17). Therefore, the audience who are, according to Dyer's spectatorship theory, 'positioned accordingly to the pleasures of male heterosexual desire' (Dyer and McDonald, 1986:188), are supplied with a safe outlet in which to live out these fantasies. Furthermore, Mulvey examines the Freudian ideology that scopophilia is closely associated with the objectification of women. This objectification could also be a result of the visual expectations placed on women in the western world. Because of this, the social presence of women, as described by John Berger in 'Ways of Seeing' (Berger, 2008), is very different to that of men. 'A man's presence is dependent upon the promise of power which he embodies' (Berger, 2008:45), whereas a woman's presence is 'manifest in her gestures, voice, opinions, expressions, clothes, chosen surroundings, taste' (Berger, 2008:46). Hence, a woman is confined to the way she appears aesthetically/sexually, as a man holds control over her, therefore giving him the capacity to emerge as the 'representative of power' (Mulvey 1975:20). This distinction between a male and female presence causes a woman to be constantly aware of her outward persona rather than her actions, as predominantly, this is how she is judged by others. Berger claims that because of this, 'she turns herself into an object – and most particularly an object of vision' (Berger, 2008:47). Therefore, in order to gain a valid presence within society women are expected to assign attention to superficial factors. This creates a vicious cycle, where in order to satisfy the requirements of her social role, a woman must contribute to the source of her own inequality. Transformation (or make-over) movies provide are a clear example of the way ideas such as the spectatorship theory, male gaze and scopophilia are utilised within the film industry. In 'Investigating Women's Cinema What if I had been the Hero?' (Thornman, 2012), Sue Thornman considers this by listing films such as Miss
Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
Congeniality (Petrie, 2001), Legally Blonde (Luketic, 2001) and The Devil Wears Prada (Frankel, 2006) as being representative of a woman searching for 'successful female self-hood' (Thorman, 2012:3), but in order to do so she much reject the idea of negative traits associated with feminism, of which are constructed from male fears around the subject matter. Some would argue that surrendering to these ideologies still puts the male gaze at the centre of the narrative, as the very essence of the female individual becomes disparaged in order to ultimately fulfill a male desire. The way someone dresses, as described in 'Fashion, Culture and Identity' (Davis, 2008) by Fred Davis, is directly associated with their individuality. In essence, dress serves as 'a kind of visual metaphor for identity' (Davis, 2008:25). Therefore, as well as there being evidence of ambivalence within western society towards personal identity, this statement suggests that judgment of the majority is grounded by the way they look. The idea of a reducing female identity down to 'a sight' (Berger, 2008:47) is highlighted by Simone De Beauvoir, she explains how a woman is 'required by society to make herself an erotic object' (Bruzzi, 2004:121). Consequently, as clothing plays an important role in the characterisation/sexualisation of a female role, women are first and foremost held to their aesthetic presentation, which they are constrained to. Following Berger and Mulvey's ideas around female objectification within film, Stella Bruzzi's 'Undressing Cinema' (Bruzzi, 2004) explores the ways in which a woman's appearance can be manipulated to fuel her subjugation. Due to this, a woman's independence is thwarted and society discomfits her ambitions, therefore her opportunities. A specific way that garments can be used to portray identity, corresponding to assumptions in society often found within many transformation movies, is the inclusion of a woman wearing glasses. Examples, most of which are coming of age movies aimed at a teenage audience, include; She's All That (1999), Princess Diaries (2001) and Not Another Teen Movie (2002). The removal of the glasses in these films constitute an ugly duckling effect, creating a visual sign associated with a woman's personal growth, also serving as a metaphor for intelligence. Mary Anne Doane in 'Femmes Fatales' (Doane, 1991) describes this as one of the 'most intense visual clichĂŠs of the cinema' that is concerned with 'repressed sexuality, knowledge, visibility and vision, intellectuality, and desire' (Doane, 1991:27). It could be argued that a woman taking off her glasses is a way of hiding her intelligence, therefore removing an element of her personality. Mulvey and Berger's views on the objectification of women, particularly in western cinema, are highlighted here. As a relationship to a man is conclusive to the majority of these films, there is a clear association with a girl's journey to womanhood, and the visual evolution she must go through in order to be accepted by a man.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
Prime examples of films whose narratives embody the idea of a woman transforming herself in response to the encounter of a man are Grease (Kleiser, 1978), and Pretty Woman (Marshall, 1990). Above are two screen shots, each taken from the start of the movies, before the inevitable transformation occurs. What is interesting about the depiction of these two very different female characters is how they are so heavily identified by the way they dress (Fig 1. & Fig 2.). This coincides with Berger's observations that a woman must 'continually watch herself' (Berger, 2008:46) and is constantly 'accompanied by her own image' (Berger, 2008:46). In some ways, Sandy and Vivian are at either end of the spectrum of innocence and experience which manifests in their outward appearance. However, highlighting Storey and Mulvey's ideas on scopophilia, the expectations within film are that 'men look and women exhibit' (Storey, 2006:82), and as women are 'crucial to the pleasure of the male gaze' (Storey, 2006:82), neither of these characters carry the necessary aesthetic to earn the lead male's affection initially. Therefore, a change is prompted within them to become the ideal woman, whatever that may be in relation to the male's desire. Both films, directed by men, were and still remain incredibly popular with audience's, reaching countries all over the world. The importance of acknowledging the extensive influence of film are emphasised by Alicia Malone and Naomi McDougall-Jones in their Ted Talks, 'Girls in Film' (Malone, 2015) and 'The Women in Film Revolution Begins with You' (McDougall-Jones, 2016). In the western world, McDougall-Jones explains that 95% of the movies people have seen were directed by men. Similarly, Malone discusses how the lack of women working in the film industry means that a large proportion of the population is 'not getting their perspective told on screen' (Malone, 2015). The presence of a male gaze, as previously stated by Mulvey, influences a narrative's progression of the female's relationship to the male lead. Repeatedly, a woman is 'subjected to the male star alone' (Mulvey, 1975:22) and 'becomes his property' (Mulvey, 1975:21), experiencing a loss of identity. This 'prism of one perspective' (McDougall-Jones, 2016) means that a male gaze is the default point of view for movie-goers, and sequentially filters into the subconscious of society. Furthermore, studies show that 'audiences learn about the world through films and they learn about themselves' (Malone, 2015). Mulvey also makes the observation that 'in reality the fantasy world of the screen is subject to the law that produces it' (Mulvey, 1975:19). The law in this instance, is moulded by the patriarchal values generally expressed and accepted in the film industry. Hence, as suggested by McDougallJones, many aspects of a person's life can be subtly influenced by this system, such as; hobbies, career choices, emotions, sense of identity, relationships, mental health and marital status. The consumption of film can therefore have a drastic impact on the individuals who watch it.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 65 Fig.
Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
The above screen shots (Fig 3. & Fig 4.) are taken from the final scenes of the Grease (Kleiser, 1978) and Pretty Woman (Marshall, 1990). At the end of both movies, Sandy and Vivian look completely different, adopting the fashion styles of their male antagonists, Danny and Edward (Fig 5. & Fig 6.). Thornham quotes Virginia Woolf when describing the power of using women as 'looking-glasses' to reflect a male ego as 'the figure of a man at twice its natural size' (Thronham, 2012:41). These depictions of Sandy and Vivian could be used as an example of this inflation of masculinity. Here the man has so much control and power over the woman that she changes not only her appearance, but her whole identity, seemingly to gain his acceptance. Storey explores this idea, linking it to fetishistic scopophilia, which 'builds up the physical beauty of the object' (Storey, 2006:83). In Grease (Kleiser, 1978) and Pretty Woman (Marshall, 1990), the physical beauty of the objectified female character is essential to the narrative of the story, concerning her with the fantasies of the male lead. When a female character changes her appearance to honor these fantasies, 'it is for the sexual gaze of both the hero in the narrative and the spectator in the auditorium' (Storey, 2006:82). Dyer also contributes to the idea that clothing can play an important part in shaping the way a viewer thinks about male and female portrayals on-screen. It is evident, especially in these two examples, that the latter fashion styles were 'designed as a spectacle for male desire' (Dyer and McDonald, 1986:191). This implies that the very essence of this action subliminally influences the outlook of an audience, both male and female, on what is socially acceptable in regards to gender roles.
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Mulvey's idea of 'woman as icon' is demonstrated in My Fair Lady (Cukor, 1964), starring Audrey Hepburn (Fig 7. & Fig 8.). Often, the portrayal of a women as a star on-screen in this way, according to Mulvey, gives 'the quality of a cut-out or icon, rather than verisimilitude' (Mulvey, 1975:20). An unrealistic depiction of femininity is promoted, in contrast to the three-dimensional space demanded by a male figure, a female figure emanates an idealistic illusion and therefore a flatness, which inhibits her complexity as an individual. In Mulvey's words, 'the male protagonist is free to command the stage' (Mulvey 1975:21), whereas a female is constrained to the role given to her by the unchallenged conventions of a patriarchal structure found within mainstream film. Hollywood in particular, has always 'restricted itself to a formal mise en scène' (Mulvey, 1975:16), abiding to this structure. In contrast to this, alternative cinema has the freedom to be able to challenge these basic assumptions, making 'politically and aesthetically avant-garde cinema' (Mulvey, 1975:16) possible. Although the idea of favouring men with three-dimensional roles seemingly put women below them, the inclusion of a star adds to the 'escapist spectacle' (Dyer and McDonald, 1986:190) for the audience, creating role models. Mulvey acknowledges the ability of a star to provide a focus for the film, where 'the glamorous
Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
impersonates the ordinary' (Mulvey, 1975:18), therefore being able to identify with the lives of the people who watch it. Dyer describes this identification as the motivation for practical action, for people to 'transform the self and construct similarity between moviegoer and performer' (Dyer and McDonald, 1986:191). Because of this, 'Hollywood film became integrated with the consumer economy' (Dyer and McDonald, 1986:191), the iconic fashions observed within film filtered down into high-street stores, further fuelling the significant influence of the movie industry on a western society. The practical work produced in response to undertaken research focused on these ideas. Modification, appearance and icons, and the link to a patriarchal system of values provided a starting point. Through the medium of collage, the concept of alteration was explored. Using a mixture of found image, line and shape, the compositions could be manipulated to describe the issues with aesthetic in the western world. Going back to Mulvey's ideas on the flatness of the film icon being described as a 'cut-out' (Mulvey, 1975:20) also fits in with the methodology used here. Initially, the more general depictions of aesthetic alterations were examined. With the use of line drawing techniques, cut paper and thread, the mundane (make-up) to extreme (plastic surgery), figurative elements could be replicated and arranged in the context of what is considered to be a perfect female body. As the process of exploring aesthetics unfolded, the use of fashion within society as a response to a woman's 'physical emanation' (Berger, 2008:46) served as an introduction to the rest of the work. The consideration of empowering female role models and their expressed thoughts and ideas, as well as the analog application of drawing to collage, conducted an investigation into womanhood and its influence. Using examples such as Caitlin Moran, Coco Chanel, Edith Wharton and Marie Curie was a way of pointing out the implications of popular culture. These women, although very different, share a similarity of liberation against the norms of gender roles in society. The consideration of the audience became an integral part of what was created in response to these themes. Whilst researching into female fashion designers in particular, a specific layout was used, reflecting that of a spectators seating arrangement in the cinema, as would be viewed from the screen. In the words of Dyer, 'films do construct positions which limit how they may be understood and interpreted' (Dyer and MacDonald 1986:187). A grid-like drawing composition was utilised throughout the study of film fashion icons and characters, in relation to femininity. By doing this, the aesthetic similarities and differences of each individual could be highlighted clearly. Looking at the concept of the damsel-in-distress and fragility of female roles, through the process of drawing, proceeded to highlight Berger's idea that a woman's appearance 'can determine how she will be treated' (Berger, 2008:46) by a man. As the application of line to collage developed, so did the ocular representation of the relationship between the star and spectator. Finalising the visual aspect of the project was based around the idea of the subsidiary role of a woman, living in a man's world. In conclusion, it is evident that the way film is made overall has an effect on the way it is consumed by an audience. Expressed particularly by Mulvey, Berger and Storey, a female character is constantly answerable to a man, 'in herself the woman has not the slightest importance' (Mulvey, 1975:20) and she is more often than not portrayed primarily as an image, as seen in Pretty Woman (Marshall, 1990), Grease (Kleiser, 1978) and My Fair Lady (Cukor, 1964). The complexity and depth of the human personality traits expressed in the male characters, is in contrast to this depiction of a female character, who is subject to her appearance. Because the default structure of cinema is based around patriarchal values, women are subconsciously told they are inferior to men. To adhere to the social constructs created and encouraged by this, women must first and foremost concern themselves with their outward presence. In 'Technologies of Gender', Teresa de Lauretis poses a potential solution to this issue, by 'addressing the spectator as female' (De Lauretis, 1998:135) women are given the opportunity to show the positive and negative implications of their outlook on the world. McDougall-Jones' Ted Talk highlights the importance of this by asking how the world would be different if 'all the stories were told' (McDougall-Jones, 2016). In itself the male perspective is not a bad one, the issue lies with a lack of opportunity for alternative viewpoints to be portrayed on-screen. Therefore, in order to change the reductive way people are perceived by others, and ultimately, themselves, the very foundation of cinema needs to become more adaptable.
Sophia Watts
Level 5 – OUIL501 - Illustration
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