Parking Lots to Parks by sophiefeld

PA R K I N G L O T S to PA R K S

SOPHIE FELD LARC 4340 24/11/17 ADVISOR: NATE PERKINS

TA B L E O F CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

P A G E

0 6

PROLOGUE P A G E

P A R T

1 0

THE ISSUE P A G E

1 2

P A R T

I I

P A G E

2 6

P A R T

I I I

P A G E

4 2

THE CAUSE

THE SOLUTION

CONCLUSION P A G E

5 6

REFERENCES P A G E

5 8

ABSTRACT

The rise of the automobile in the twentieth century has negatively impacted the l i v a b i l i t y o f c i t i e s a s g re e n s p a c e s h a v e succumbed to s t re e t s and parking i n f r a s t r u c t u re . The i n t ro d u c t i o n of a u t o n o m o u s v e h i c l e s i s p re d i c t e d t o t r a n s f o r m u r b a n c o re s a s t r a d i t i o n a l c a r u s e d e c re a s e s a n d a s u r p l u s o f e x c e s s s p a c e devoted to vehicles becomes available. R e-pu rpo s in g p ar king lots into p ub lic sp aces w i l l re s o l v e c o n n e c t i v i t y i s s u e s re s u l t i n g i n a h e a l t h i e r l i v i n g e n v i ro n m e n t f o r a l l . T h i s t h e s i s w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e f u t u re t re n d s and technologies in urban design to i d e n t i f y h o w c i t i e s c a n b e a l t e re d t o c re a t e a m o re l i v a b l e e n v i ro n m e n t f o r its pedestrians. Designing a city that prioritizes the pedestrian experience as o p p o s e d t o t h e v e h i c l e w i l l i m p ro v e t h e overall livability within the urban fabric.

PA R K I N G L O T S to PA R K S

H O W T H E B U I LT ENVIRONMENT WILL CHANGE with AUTONOMOUS V E H I C L E S

PROLOGUE

When observing the current issues of cities developed after the first world war, many are struggling with the same detrimental challenges. The air in Tehran, Kolkata, Bangkok, Beijing and hundreds of other cities is no longer safe to breathe. The number of hours commuters are spending in traffic is constantly rising as highways and streets become increasingly congested (Brown, 2010).

favouring people or automobiles. With the implementation of driverless cars in the near future, the form and fabric of our cities are predicted to radically change. The re-purposing of parking infrastructure is predicted to become the most significant change in the built environment because of the decreasing demands for parking lots, leaving voids in the urban fabric (Lubell, 2016).

An emergence of a new urbanism has originated in response to these conditions in the form of a planning philosophy. Environmentalist Francesca Lyman says it â&#x20AC;&#x153;seeks to revive the traditional city planning of an era when cities were designed around human beings instead of automobilesâ&#x20AC;? (Brown, 2010).

Re-thinking the built environment will become critical with the growth in excess space. Shifting the design focus of cities from parking lots to parks will transform void spaces into space for parks and public areas to create more livable communities. The loss of parking lots will lower noise pollution, carbon footprint, congestion, This environmental philosophy and frustration throughout the aims to seek ways of designing city, while the addition of green cities for people and not vehicles. spaces will utilize excess space Increasing the amount of green positively. Cities will be re-invented space in an automobile focused as traditional car use is decreased city is the first step toward and the implementation of making it more livable. The ratio automated transit creates highly of parking lots to parks helps to efficient and dense urban cores. indicate whether a city has been designed with the intention of

PA RT I

THE ISSUE

CITIES NEED MORE GREEN 13

The most livable cities feature more than just buildings and people, they are composed of open spaces and are known for their culture. Central Park, Hyde Park, the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and Phoenix Park are renowned green spaces located within some of the wordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most famous cities. These attractions are well known for both their visitors and inhabitants alike (Parks Victoria, 2017).

youth development begins with the focus of practitioners, the public, and policymakers. As cities of the world continue to grow it is vital that green spaces continue to strengthen with them.

The local park in every community plays an essential role in providing health benefits to its residents and the city. In addition to serving as a place of recreation, parks can contribute to lowering obesity rates, increasing In addition to being a place happiness, and keeping of recreation and relaxation, cities cool. But in increasingly open space in the urban crowded cities designed environment provides many around the automobile, space advantages to dense cities. is limited and it can be difficult Some of the advantages include to find areas for green spaces the green space, preserving (Byrne & Rupprecht, 2014). the natural environment and assisting in the control of urban With an estimated three quarters storm water management of the global population predicted (Parks Victoria, 2017). to live in cities in the next 30 years, a number of challenges Urban planners must place are presented for urban planning an emphasis on implementing (Byrne & Rupprecht, 2014). green space if the health of the city and its residents are considered important. Viewing parks as a valuable contributor toward job opportunities, public health, community building and

{pictured opposite}

GAPSTOW BRIDGE, CENTRAL PARK Joy Makon

H E A LT H I M PA C T S WELLBEING Improving mental wellbeing in addition to treating anxiety and other mental health conditions are some of the many benefits of having access to green space. Low stress, blood pressure levels and how well people are able to preform attentiondemanding tasks have shown positive links when observed before and after spending time in green space (University of Leeds, 2012).

nature that motivates people to increase physical activity? Humans have an inherent desire to interact with nature due to evolutionary background, this is called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;biophilia hypothesisâ&#x20AC;? (Wolf, 2014).

Studies associated with this hypothesis claim humans have an aesthetic preference associated with trees, water and other natural elements (Wolf, 2014). A variety of Linear woodland trails, large open health benefits have been associated spaces and community parks are with vegetated areas such as public all green spaces which encourage open spaces, parks and playgrounds. physical activity through walking, cycling, play and sporting events. Green spaces have proven to Studies show the relationship between provide users with reduced stressed the socioeconomic status of the levels, reduced depression, local population and how often a and overall perceived general neighbourhood green space is used health (Parks Victoria, 2017). is not directly correlated. Therefore no accessible green space has limited use Anxiety and depression are two of the based on the location and they can most common health risks associated help to reduce socioeconomic health with a lack of green space in heavily inequalities (University of Leeds, 2012). dense city areas. Before removing park space for short term financial Urban green spaces create gain, city authorities need to reenjoyable environments that evaluate the worth of possible longpromote physical activity and provide term pain (Byrne & Rupprecht, 2014). neighbourhood residents with outdoor spaces to relax and socialize. What is it about the presence of

In a study done by Kathleen Wolf, findings demonstrate people who use public open spaces are three times more likely to achieve recommended levels of physical activity than those who do not use the spaces (Wolf, 2010). Low levels of physical activity were previously associated with demographic and household chore factors in earlier studies, however recent studies show the built environment influences behaviours.

Amongst the outdoor environment, specific elements frequently encourage positive choices. Table 1 describes the urban conditions within cities that support greater activity. Both nature and trees support activity as they play an important role in outdoor environments. In addition natural environments and psychological or social benefits prove to show positive relationships in recent research (Wolf, 2010).

Ta b l e 1 : D e t e r m i n a n t s o f C i t y W a l k - a b i l i t y Physical Environment

Psycho-Social Environment

Higher population density (city core rather than suburbs)

Safety from crime

Higher housing density

Safety from traffic

Mix of land uses (such as residential and retail)

Absence of social disorder

Street design with more connectivity (rather than cul-de-sacs)

Aesthetics (including trees and landscape)

Availability of public transit

Education campaigns

Walking and biking infrastructure (such as sidewalks and bike lanes)

Incentive programs (such as workplace reimbursement for transit use)

Wolf, 2010

R E L A X AT I O N & R E C R E AT I O N The understanding between physical activity and nature is complex as cities often bring stress to people. Recreation and relaxation are two essential factors that contribute to the livability of a city. In Hangzhou, China the conversion of grey space into linear parks was done by removing old factories. This has provided spaces for city residents to engage in both relaxation and recreational uses. When a person seeks an experience of restoration they often turn to a natural environment for a walk, rather than a built environment (Wolf, 2010). When a greater percentage of the living environment in a city is green space, residents perceive themselves to be generally healthier. The relationship between physical activity and relaxation is clear with the overall satisfaction of citizens that have access to parks and open space. 02

{pictured above}

HANGZHOU NEW CBD WATERFRONT PARK, CHINA 18

{pictured below}

NAARDEN, NETHERLANDS

PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY TO VISIT

GREEN SPACE

IF THEY DO NOT HAVE TO

TRAVEL FAR

TO REACH IT University of Leeds, 2012

Neighbourhoods in the Netherlands with abundant green spaces prove to have many positive outcomes regarding overall general health (Wolf, 2010). This relationship was demonstrated between neighbourhoods that contained housewives, the elderly and people of low socioeconomic status (Wolf, 2010). Cities with a high volume of green spaces continue to produce increasing rates of physical activity. In Europe adults are 40 percent more likely to be overweight or obese if living in areas with little green space (Wolf, 2010). This is because everyday walking trips are more appealing to residents when there are natural features like street trees to be appreciated in their neighbourhood. Distances appear to be greater in cities that have little green spaces deterring people from the decision to walk.

NEIGHBOURHOODS 19

PA R K S / P U B L I C O P E N S PAC E It has been stated by the World Health Organization that physical inactivity poses as a major public health risk to cities (Parks Victoria, 2017). Much like North Americans, Australians do not meet the 30 minute daily physical activity recommendation.

Landscape designers and urban forestry professionals promote public health as a guiding principle to their work. Public health policies and urban planners do not emphasize the need for city trees and green space enough, but rather view them as a luxury.

In table 2, elements associated with park use are displayed. Evidence provides a link to suggest easy access to parks and open space is directly related to the use of green spaces for physical activity. One study proves people who use public open spaces are three times more likely to meet the daily recommended levels of physical activity than those who do not use the spaces (Wolf, 2010).

The public costs of sedentary lifestyles provides urban foresters and arborists with an opportunity to partner with urban planning professionals and public health representatives to provide high value for public health investments (Wolf, 2014).

Ta b l e 2 : D e t e r m i n a n t s o f Pa r k U s e Physical Environment

Psycho-Social Environment

Quantity and quality of space

Characteristics of potential users (age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status)

Passive recreation amenities (such as walking paths or picnic areas)

Match between park attributes and perceived needs

Absence of physical barriers (such as a major road between the park and home)

Perceived barriers

Distance to park

Safety from crime

Access to competing local facilities (such as recreation centres)

Aesthetic features (presence of trees, water, bird-life)

Level of park maintenance

n/a

Wolf, 2010

E N V I R O N M E N TA L I M PA C T S In a competition for space, parks are commonly an afterthought. Many politicians and local governments treat parks as a luxury to a city rather than a necessity. This is a problem in cities of higher density as various environmental issues like stormwater run-off and the heat island effect begin to arise (Byrne & Rupprecht, 2014). Seoul, the capital city of South Korea, has eliminated highways in order to allow for large expanses of green space for people, plants and animals (Byrne & Rupprecht, 2014). The billion dollar returns from its Cheonggyecheon stream restoration project proved worthwhile as it resulted in increased tourism, cooler temperatures, increased use of public transit and a return of native plants and animals to the concrete dense city.

{pictured above}

CHEONGGYECHEON STREAM RESTORATION, SOUTH KOREA 21

Ta b l e 3 : U r b a n H e a t I s l a n d P r o f i l e

BlueScope, 2017

T E M P E R AT U R E & C L I M AT E C H A N G E When the materials used to build cities absorb more of sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy than the natural surfaces, the urban heat island effect occurs. Those living in urban cores are most vulnerable to the UHI effect as they endure severe heat waves. This was demonstrated during the 2003 heatwave when London experienced a 42% increase in mortality in August. In order to reduce the UHI effect on cities, implementing urban green spaces is essential to providing shade and evapotranspiration which contributes to cooling the air. Evapotranspiration is the process in which water is transferred from the leaves of plants into the atmosphere using the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy. In addition to cooling

the surrounding urban areas, green spaces assist by reducing energy use within buildings which can decrease the need for air conditioning (University of Leeds, 2012). Planet earth has gradually increased in temperature over the past century as carbon dioxide emissions have grown by more than 40% since humans began industrializing (University of Leeds, 2012).

It is important to understand the consequences of removing green space in order to provide a balance between sequestration and decomposition amounts.

Overall, urban green spaces will absorb more carbon than they will emit however their design and maintenance plays an essential role in concluding the amount of carbon that is stored. Parks with heavy vegetation and Green spaces are needed ground cover will maximize as trees and plants store carbon sequestration over carbon dioxide while spaces with less vegetation. removing pollution from the atmosphere. The process In addition to implementing of storing carbon dioxide is new green spaces, called carbon sequestration, looking after the existing and as long as vegetation does parks are crucial as not decay the carbon dioxide matured trees continue to will not return into the air. sequester and withhold large amounts of carbon. 22

AIR QUALITY Cardiovascular disease and respiratory system issues are two of the most common problems associated with poor air quality in dense city environments. Poor air quality consists of particles called particulate matter and three gases known as nitrogen hydroxide, ozone and sulfur dioxide. Approximately 3.7 million deaths worldwide are caused from exposure to poor atmosphere air quality per year (University of Leeds, 2012).

The importance behind conserving existing green spaces and the need to implement additional are the multiple impacts trees and shrubs have on air quality. They eliminate particles from the air which stick to the surface of leaves and gases that get absorbed through pores on the leaf surface. Conifer trees (such as pines) tend to capture more particles than deciduous trees because of their intricate, ridged and hairy leaves (University of Leeds, 2012).

In conclusion implementing vegetation into urban spaces reduces air pollution and provides a healthier atmosphere for city residents to enjoy. As proven, traffic-related pollution in classrooms is minimized when schools are surrounded by green space (University of Leeds, 2012). There are still multitudes of research to be done to further improve the various ways in which urban vegetation can impact and improve the air quality of a city.

F LO O D I N G & W AT E R Q U A L I T Y The importance of urban green spaces in relation to flooding and water quality is their ability to filter water, reduce the risk of flooding and improve water quality in streams, rivers and lakes. Impermeable surfaces do not allow rain to be absorbed and are frequently used in cities for roads and pavements (University of Leeds, 2012).

are able to collect and store storm-water which reduces the volume of rainwater runoff. Without a balance of green space and infrastructure, high levels of surface water run-off transport pollutants from the paving surface into water courses (University of Leeds, 2012).

urge cities to implement green space as a part of new urban developments, and integrate them with existing urban regions (University of Leeds, 2012).

Viewing green space as an essential to balance built infrastructure is an effective alternative to This pollution causes engineered flood control problems for water treatment which is expensive and Flooding occurs when the facilities and results in harmful to the environment drainage capacity is exceeded damaging the water quality (University of Leeds, 2012). due to accumulation of of lakes, rivers and streams. heavy rainfall on the paving Climate change worldwide surface. Vegetated surfaces is experiencing significant are essential because they transformations which should

W I L D L I F E & H A B I TAT S Green spaces in urban areas are known to contain a less diverse range of plants, animals and birds than rural areas. Urban areas however provide pleasing environments that can favour an intensively farmed countryside for many species. This suggests large parks and woodland regions among cities can support national conservation efforts. This is because green spaces that are interconnected and composed of native tree and shrub species offer positive benefits for wildlife with less intensive management (University of Leeds, 2012).

When planners consider the accessibility of a city, understanding how green spaces can be used to act like wildlife corridors is vital. Exercising green spaces as corridors creates a relationship between larger parks and rural areas on the outskirts of a city. To prevent fragmentation and the isolation of wildlife, designing corridors enables the movement of birds, animals, and insects between individual green spaces (University of Leeds, 2012). Although more green space is always the goal, the strategies to enhance biodiversity will differ based on the location, the species present and the type of habitat. Themes such as the introduction of locally native wildflowers, less intensive management practices, and protecting parts of the green space from human interference are common throughout. Routing paths away from suitable nesting areas and the infrequent mowing of grass are two strategic examples that will support all bio-diverse communities (University of Leeds, 2012).

Roadside roundabouts, green roofs, roadside verges and large scale green spaces are all effective contributions toward a range of plants, bird and insects. The only opportunity for city dwellers to interact and be surrounded by parks regularly is through urban green spaces. When people perceive higher biodiversity levels among green spaces, research shows the time spent using them increases (University of Leeds, 2012).

E C O N O M I C I M PA C T S The presence of green space has economic impact that affects urban regions by generating employment opportunities and providing indirect benefits to local economies (University of Leeds, 2012).

jobs, tourism expenditure, estimated social cost savings (the impact of reduced pollution) and well-being benefits, the project has doubled in worth since its implementation (University of Leeds, 2012).

Green space increases property value therefore encouraging further investment and property development in neighbouring regions. The circumstances created from the establishment, maintenance and management of green spaces support the local economy and provide city residents with opportunities for employment (University of Leeds, 2012).

Overall the assessment established the location of green space amongst the urban fabric is key to determining its success. To be easily accessible means to maximize the benefits of green spaces for tourists and locals. What is undetermined is whether the importance of non-monetary effects such as increased biodiversity can be captured with an assigned monetary value (University of Leeds, 2012).

A tree planting program conducted for Mersey Forest in the UK now consists of woodlands and green spaces stretching over 1300 km2. From the creation of forestry related

Further research is required to asses the true value of a green space using approaches that combine the measuring of both monetary and non-monetary values.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES OVERLOOKING GREEN SPACES ARE VALUED

AROUND 5-7% HIGHER THAN EQUIVALENT PROPERTIES ELSEWHERE.â&#x20AC;? University of Leeds, 2012 Vienna | 06

PA RT I I

THE CAUSE

THE AUTOMOBILE OVER THE PEDESTRIAN 27

THE AUTOMOBILE SHAPES THE CITY The rise of the automobile in the twentieth century is the culprit for cities with football stadium sized parking lots, 20lane interchanges and mind-blowing traffic. The detrimental plans of altering the urban environment for automobiles has become a global distress. The addition of 60 million cars on the planet every year comes with toxic emissions, smog and rapidly depleting resources to accompany. The sedentary lifestyle which emerged from the automobile has increased rates of heart disease and obesity and decreased rates of physical activity (Walker, 2013). However cars do not only

risk the health of cities, they also pose as a threat to pedestrians killing 270,000 every year (Walker, 2013). Cities that lack an essential number of green spaces for its citizens are not pedestrian-friendly. Kent Larson an architect who studies how cities develop stated; “The overriding mistake of last century was building cities around cars” (Letzter, 2016). In order to increase the implementation of green spaces within cities, the issue of designing for the automobile and not the pedestrian needs to be addressed.

The automobile causes traffic congestion, parking problems and wastes valuable land for cars to sit in 24 hours a day. Cities functioned much like networked villages prior to 1880, with people choosing to work, relax and shop all within 20 minutes of their home (Letzter, 2016). Although cities experienced their own challenges throughout that era they functioned as cohesive units that revolved around the human. With little need for a vehicle during this period of time, residents were more likely to interact and function together as a community.

“THE OVERRIDING MISTAKE OF THE LAST CENTURY WAS BUILDING CITIES AROUND CARS.” Kent Larson 07 | Los Angeles

â&#x20AC;&#x153;PARKING LOTS CREATED A

VICIOUS CYCLE, WHEN

MORE PARKING WAS PROVIDED,

MORE PEOPLE DROVE.â&#x20AC;?

Traffic in Singapore | 08

Norman Garrick

The introduction of the automobile during modern era changed this way of life. Kent believed early modernists viewed housing, commercial, and industrial as the three separate functions of the future (Letzter, 2016).

major highways which isolated neighbourhoods and ghettoized many minority and low income populations (Letzter, 2016).

The rise of the automobile resulted in crowded cities that were less dense. This is because the space A separation between high given up for cars reduced quality residential areas the areas of livability and was a reaction to the poor leisure available to humans. quality living conditions often found in cities Designing for the vehicle which caused the rise of not only reduces the suburbia (Letzter, 2016). number of people who can fit into a square mile, Major highways allowed it encloses the space for wealthier people to making it feel crowded migrate to the suburbs and uncomfortable and commute into (Letzter, 2016). city centres for work. Those who remained in cities were divided by 29

Cities designed around the pedestrian will offer an experience that caters to the urbanite by providing shared transportation options and walkable spaces. Although cities still have a long road of progression ahead, one example of a pedestrianized effort was shown on Broadway Street in New York where the road was converted into a communal space.

09 | Village of Hamburg

10 | Poynton, East Cheshire

HAMBURG, NEW YORK Located in upstate New York, the village of Hamburg is home to 10,000 community leaders who rejected the 2001 proposed widening of U.S Route 62. Dan Burden, an advocate for walkable communities nationally, was consulted and a conclusion was approved by the community for an alternative plan (Goodyear, 2013).

needed since (Goodyear, 2013). Properties surrounding the once obsolete downtown have doubled in worth since the renovations and local business owners have begun contributing millions towards new projects (Goodyear, 2013). When a village centre is both functionally and aesthetically pleasing residents view it as a pleasurable experience rather than something that needs to be endured.

The local main street, Route 62, was not rebuilt as a high speed transit way for cars but instead was revitalized into a pedestrian friendly shopping street with street trees, generous sidewalks and narrow traffic lanes. Crashes were reduced by 66 percent and injuries had fallen by 60 percent in the two years following construction completion in 2009 (Goodyear, 2013).

Hamburgâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s revived economic health and significantly improved quality of life reflect similar village centres like Poynton in the UK (Goodyear, 2013). Poynton features trafficcalming shared streets which revived a formally traffic congested Roundabouts replaced intersections area. The outdated designs of which demonstrated a reduction 20th century traffic engineering are in ambulance related accidents harmful to both public health and and only tow trucks have been the economic development of cities.

PA R K I N G When the automobile was on the rise, developing cities in the twentieth century suffered the hardest hit from the infrastructure response to the anticipated needs of increased driving (Mäkinen, 2017). Unlike much of Europe where infrastructure is old and the scarceness of land has forced underground parking or multi-story garages, North America’s urban shopping centres are characterized by huge surface parking lots (Mäkinen, 2017). However it is not just the large surface parking lots that are the only problem, 300 square feet of space is required everywhere a parking spot is required. Parking lots divide neighbourhoods and hollow out cities (Goodyear, 2014). In North America, most parking lots contain large open expanses of asphalt paving with little to no landscaping. The high proportion of impervious surface dedicated to parking lots, causes significant harm to surrounding ecosystems due to storm water runoff and pollution, air and light pollution and the effects of the urban heat island (Fichter, 2010). The environmental effects of parking lots are significant as they contribute toward 12 percent of energy consumption and greenhouse gases in addition to 24 percent of other emissions (Goodyear, 2014).

“Parking lots create a vicious cycle, when more parking was provided, more people drove” said Norman Garrick a professor who studies the effects surface parking can have on a city’s health at the University of Connecticut (Goodyear, 2014). In addition to the potential safety hazards it poses on women after dark, huge surface parking lots create a dull and hostile environment for the pedestrian that is extremely hot in the summer and windswept throughout the year (Goodyear, 2014). For urban designers, parking lots are an unaesthetic part of the city fabric which are disorienting, illegible and are inhabitable from within. They interrupt the continuity throughout the city creating voids in the urban fabric and removing the sense of identity. Social interaction is the key to maintaining vibrancy in urban spaces, however this has been discouraged with the impact of parking infrastructure making the spaces unfriendly. These large lifeless places are most commonly used for automobile storable which are vacant mostly during periods when parking demand is low (Fichter, 2010). “The typical design of parking lots as simply mere functional expanse of cheap asphalt and net of white lines is wasteful and destructive.” Mark Childs

There are

Like train stations, bus terminals and airports, parking lots are a component of the larger transportation network. Automobiles must be stored at either end of every vehicular trip, therefore incorporating parking into the larger transportation network is unfortunately essential. However the automobile is not necessary for mobility around dense city centres with a multitude of transit options. Parking is universal, therefore oversized parking surfaces tend to accompany large shopping and activity centres where the automobile is the primary method of travel (Fichter, 2010). Parking lots give a transition between automobile transport to pedestrian travel, however their traditional design caters to the automobile and often to the detriment of the pedestrian approach.

times as many parking spaces as cars in America. (Thompson, C., 2016)

11 | Parking Metre

Denver | 12

“The single use of large areas for parking creates dead space. It has made a number of American down-towns look half-developed even after redevelopment efforts.” CARSCAPE: A PARKING HANDBOOK Catherine G. Miller 34

AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS Proposing urban highways and paved parking lots, Amsterdam was much like every other city in the middle of the 20th century: planning for the rise of the vehicle (Walker, 2016). In November of 1973 the oil crisis occurred, in effort to help its citizens save gas the Netherlands implemented a nationwide â&#x20AC;&#x153;Car-free Sundayâ&#x20AC;?. 3 million cars one day per week were required to stay parked, this encouraged citizens to use horses and bikes on the highway (Walker, 2016).

Plantage Middenlaan in the 1970s | 13

Like many other countries who have implemented similar car-free days, the Netherlands and specifically Amsterdam, saw a positive change from the activity which inspired residents to incorporate it into a permanent lifestyle (Walker, 2016). In conclusion Amsterdam transformed into a pedestrian friendly city which was designed for the human and not the automobile. Incorporating sidewalk dining benches, parks, markets, fountains, and adding trees are all necessary in order to adapt a city, removing car lanes and implementing bike lanes should not be the only focus. The changes are in the details to make streets within cities an environmentally and pedestrian friendly destination in itself.

Plantage Middenlaan in 2015 | 14

G O O D BY E H I G H WAY In an automobile focused era, many highway systems were built with the intention of reducing traffic, increasing safety and creating an overall efficient city. It was only decades later when cities designed around the automobile realized the benefits of removing eight lanes of highway in order to achieve a more efficient, and safe city with reduced traffic. This counterintuitive approach is happening all over the world as people are realizing the healthier, safer and greener benefits without them (Walker, 2016).

If a high occupancy highway were removed, many would believe it would cause congestion among the surface streets, however this is not the case. Many examples have demonstrated the removal of a high occupancy highway does not turn the surrounding streetts into a parking lot, but rather it proves that if you make streets bigger, more people will use them. This is a theory called “induced demand,” if streets are reduced in size, drivers discover alternate routes and traffic times remain the same (Walker, 2016).

San Francisco, Seoul, Portland, By removing highways, cities Milwaukee, Madrid and Seattle are implementing parks in are among the various cities an effort to bridge the gap that demonstrate successful between disconnected examples of highway communities (Walker, 2016). removal (Walker, 2016). The Big Dip in Boston is an example of removal On Harbor Drive in Portland projects aimed to revitalize during the 1950s six lanes neighbourhoods that were of Route 99 ran along the devastated by highways. Willamette River as a high occupancy transit way The aim of cohesion (Walker, 2016). Throughout the throughout all affected regions years as additional highways was successfully carried out were constructed, Route 99 with the creation of multi- became less popular amongst functional streets that could drivers who could find quicker be utilized by all modes of routes across town with the transportation. To focus on new roads. Oregon’s governor repairing the inequality that realized the area provided highways institutionalized an opportunity to implement years ago, the US Department green space therefore the of Transportation introduced highway was closed in 1974. an initiative following the implementation of The Big Dip (Walker, 2016). 36

The plan proceeded and a large stretch of open space named after Governor Tom McCall now occupies a portion of land along the riverfront. This important decision has allowed Portland to remain as one of the best cities for river access. Part of the project included the removal of aging buildings to create room for more public space in addition to the several parks created. The renovated waterfront also attracted popularity to the industrial areas on the west side of the banks. Similar to Portland’s riverfront green space, Madrid’s Manzanares River was a featured characteristic of the city that was encompassed by the M-30 highway over its banks. Over a span of 11 years the project opened to the public in 2011 and included a 300-acre park featuring biking trails, recreation centre, skate parks, running and an urban beach (Walker, 2016). The rerouting of traffic through several underground tunnels has made a transformational impact on the city. Rio Madrid provides city dwellers with access to an environment that studies show promotes good health and well-being.

Harbor Drive in 1962 | 15

Governor Tom McCall Water front Park | 16

Madridâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Manzanares River & Water front Before | 17

Madridâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Manzanares River & Water front After | 18

TRAFFIC & CONGESTION Due to the continuous expansion of road systems and streets in city cores, traffic congestion is the most striking physical impact of automobile use in the twentieth century. It is a demonstration of how capable the urban environment is of absorbing or justifying the process of people moving and evaluating how cities are utilized (Melosi, 2010). The issue of traffic jams did not arise from vehicles however they intensified with mass-producing of the automobile which transportation systems were not prepared for. Prior to the rise of the automobile, city planners commonly approached the problem of congestion by increasing street widths, narrowing sidewalks and extending blocks to make them longer (Melosi, 2010). Pedestrians were affected by this change as broadened roads lead to decreased pedestrian safety and the construction created neighbourhood barriers which separated residents (Melosi, 2010). Green spaces were affected by this growth as the rise of traffic motivated the increase of transportation infrastructure. Much like the separation of residents because of construction, green spaces became increasingly fragmented due to connectivity issues transportation networks caused.

“AS A TECHNOLOGY THE AUTO DID NOT CREATE

CONTEMPORARY TRAFFIC PROBLEMS ANYMORE THAN THE USE OF THE HORSE DID IN NINETEENTHCENTURY CITIES. RATHER IT IS THE OVERUSE OF THE AUTO AND THE ACCOMMODATION OF SOCIAL SPACE TO IT- AS A

HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM OF MOBILITY

-THAT IS THE PROBLEM” Unknown

Traffic on Detroitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Grand Boulevard on April 1, 1924 | 19

After 1920, there is little doubt surrounding the automobile industry boom which changed the urban landscapes and city cores of North America. Many believe the vehicle was the single driving force behind the modernization of cities (Melosi, 2010). It is debated however whether automobile transportation was the contributing agent for change in cities or if the technology just accelerated ongoing changes.

automobile dealerships, automotive supply stores and service stations.

Designing for the vehicle did not come without consequences for the city core. After the introduction of the railway and streetcar system, remaking the road system to accommodate for the automobile came with a price. The environmental degradation of building new roads and highways damaged The modern cities designed around the both humans and animal habitats. Plant automobile suffer the long-term imprint life and wildlife was endangered from the of vehicles and other forms of motorized dislocated and destroyed neighbourhoods transportation (Melosi, 2010). By the early that had little political influence (Melosi, 2010). 1960s business districts in various North American downtown cores were devoted Watercourse pollution was generated to streets and parking spaces which from road and highway runoff composed make up more than fifty percent of sand and salt asphalt particles, rubber of ground area (Melosi, 2010). from tires, oil and grease, and ice built up (Melosi, 2010). The filtering capacity of soil Although many forms of transportation is also affected by the building of roads prior to the automobile required a larger as it increases runoff amounts slowing space allowance, recent data does not down the soils function (Melosi, 2010). account for the various devices associated with the vehicle such as fueling stations,

THE CITY CORE 39

Mannheim, Germany Car-Free Neighbourhood Proposal | 20

The reality of car-free neighbourhoods are already happening in places like Vauban, Germany where cars are no longer allowed and a tram runs throughout the city to serve the citizens (Walker, 2013).

from the poor street lighting those who don’t have access to badly marked crosswalks to a vehicle can walk or to high crime” Walker, 2013). utilize the system by bicycle.

Walking is the only option for the high populations of city dwellers around the world who cannot afford to own a vehicle, this puts Larger cities like Chengdu, the most vulnerable citizens China have bigger ambitions at risk (Walker, 2013). to house 80,000 citizens in a car-free area with regional Experts predict 78% of mass transit connections the households in China (Walker, 2013). The aim is will still be car-less in 2020 walk-ability and designing confirming this situation to allow residents to walk won’t be changing anytime anywhere in the city within soon (Walker, 2013). 15 minutes (Walker, 2013). Car-free cities will allow green Using green spaces to space to reclaim land that connect neighbourhoods was once lost to the vehicle. that were once fragmented because of the vehicle will “Perhaps the biggest positively impact walk-ability deterrent for walkers is the throughout cities. If trail perception that it’s unsafe, systems are implemented which can mean anything within city green spaces,

Although car-less cities are a great solution to reducing the negative effects of parking, highways and traffic, autonomous vehicles are predicted to become the realistic solution of the near future. Driverless cars would help to prevent collisions with pedestrians, lighten traffic and congestion, diminish the need for parking and reduce the number of vehicles on the road. The driverless car technology would act as a fleet of shared self driving taxis, making them accessible for all urbanites to use.

WALK-ABILITY & RE-CLAIMING THE STREETS 40

Chengdu Great City, Master Plan | 21

Donghu Park - Chengdu, China | 22

PA RT I I I

THE SOLUTION

DESIGN TO A N T I C I PAT E THE AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE 43

SHAPING THE FUTURE The merge between technology and the city is seen as a possible remedy for the various challenges of urbanization. Many smart city solutions propose driverless car technology, also known as autonomous vehicles, as one of the many popular smart city solutions that could reshape cities. In a recent prediction, researchers suggested that up to half of all road travel by 2040 will account for autonomous vehicles (Yigitcanlar, Tan, et al., 2017). Every change in transportation technology has little research toward the effects it had on the development patterns of urban landscapes in the past. The horse and carriage, the coalpowered train, the street car and the vehicle have all had significant impact on the transition toward the autonomous vehicle, which will soon occupy cities around the globe (Yigitcanlar, Tan, et al., 2017).

GM, Google, Audi and Uber are among a few of the various companies working toward a future with AV’s (Lubell, 2016). Planners, mayors and government officials around the world are now rethinking the role of the automobile as this new technology promises to revolutionize the form and fabric of cities. The possibilities that AV’s present for cities are endless. Specifically in Chicago, architects and urban designers are forecasting the future of the city by brainstorming bold new planning ideas in preparation for the approaching era of the self driving vehicle. For designers understanding the driverless vehicle is more than just a transportation technology, but an opportunity to re-shape the onedimensional role forced upon the city during the auto age (Kamin, 2017).

The built environment will change as roads narrow and sidewalks widen. Parking garages can be transformed into parks and curb-side parking can be converted in bio-swales, which would collect rainwater to prevent sewer backup (Kamin, 2017). Using the removal of parking infrastructure as a solution to the lack of green spaces in cities is a realistic approach to solving the problem. In parking spaces alone, the U.S has a billion and counting, which together make up an area the size of Puerto Rico (Green, 2015). The argument is to plan now in anticipation for the realistic future, “It’s about when this will happen, not if” (Green, 2015). This will allow decision makers to visualize the future of their cities as they begin to understand the impacts of what a driverless future entails.

ADDITIONAL STUDIES CONDUCTED SUGGESTED THESE VEHICLES COULD: DECREASE AIR POLLUTION, CONGESTION AND PRIVATE MOTOR VEHICLE OWNERSHIP REDESIGN OR ELIMINATE TRAFFIC SIGNALS INCREASE RIDE SHARING, ROAD SAFETY, ACCESS AND MOBILITY INCREASE MOBILITY FOR PEOPLE WHO ARE ‘TRANSPORTDISADVANTAGED’ (Yigitcanlar, Tan, et al., 2017).

“WE MUST ANTICIPATE AND

HARNESS THE POTENTIAL

FOR POSITIVE CHANGE, INSTEAD OF SIMPLY ASKING WHAT CHANGES DRIVERLESS CARS WILL FORCE UPON US” Associate Architecture Professor, University of Illinois Marshall Brown 45

THE BASICS The shift to AV’s is predicted to happen in transitional periods much like the elevator did (Green, 2015). By adding a call box, alarm and safety switch people felt more comfortable using the elevator (Green, 2015). Driverless vehicles will act in the same way with steering wheels and other controls for added safety comforts then will transition by slowly phasing those features out (Green, 2015). Many experts have discussed the idea of subscribing to car subscription services (Green, 2015). This will not allow citizens to own a vehicle but rather the freedom of car availability 24/7. The reduced number of vehicles on the road will also be more fuel efficient as driverless vehicles do not require parking (Green, 2015).

“ITS NOT JUST ABOUT PREDICTING WHAT THE FUTURE WILL BE, BUT ABOUT SHAPING IT INTO THE FUTURE WE WANT IT TO BE” Sadik-Khan

{pictured above}

DRIVERLESS CAR IMPACT Jason Logan

R I G H T- O F - W AYS Altering the infrastructure of cities to anticipate the arrival of AV’s begins with retrofitting existing rightof-ways to accommodate. Driverless vehicles are able to travel more precisely than human-operated vehicles meaning they present the opportunity for smaller and more efficient right-of-ways. Planners, engineers and the government will need to discuss roadway design management to rewrite standards in regard to the smaller and more efficient right-of-ways required for AV’s. The beginning of lane width reduction and potentially reducing the number of vehicle lanes, will have various implications for the future of street-scape planning and design. This includes using the additional space available from reduced lane widths to improve bicycle and pedestrian facilities, or to enhance existing green space corridors.

Roadways today are designed to provide drivers with a margin of error, however AV’s are expected to remove the need to design for human error (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016). In addition to narrowing lanes, AV’s are predicted to increase the carrying capacity of roadways and their efficiency. This is because driverless vehicles are able to communicate with one another allowing for significantly faster reaction times. These self-governing vehicles will also be able to safely travel in closer proximity to one another. Their added safety could drastically improve the efficiency of roadways as 25% of current congestion is caused by traffic incidents. Even if the reality of AV’s only brings a decrease in lane expansions it will increase opportunities for green space in cities (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016).

Medians are designed to provide a buffer between two lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions. The impact of driverless vehicles will affect medians as they have been designed to reduce the need for them. AV’s are not able to get distracted or make mistakes like falling asleep at the wheel, therefore the need for medians is not essential. Although many medians will be retained as they bring an aesthetic value to a space, in most cases they can be narrowed or eliminated all together. The street-scape will be revitalized with AV’s as smaller and more efficient right-ofways are implemented. The additional space required for the traditional vehicle is no longer needed to provide right-of-ways and can be used to provide wider sidewalks, bike lanes and green space. Urban spaces will become more inviting as autonomous vehicles open up the possibility for safer pedestrian friendly areas (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016).

F R O M H I G H WAY TO G R E E N P L AY When the implementation of AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s is in full effect, there will no longer be a need for 22-lane highways, instead they will be reduced to eight (Green, 2015).

Highway lanes can be transformed into green corridors providing habitats for pollinators like birds and bees (Green, 2015). In highway areas with wetter surroundings, green spaces can Utilizing the excess space from a act as water absorbing environments reduction in highway lanes could for run-off (Green, 2015). mean an increased desire for landscape architects and planners The various options present a to work with this richly green and wide magnitude of uses that all unkempt land (Baumgardner, 2015). contribute toward solving the issue of green spaces lacking in cities These expansive spaces will create designed around the automobile. both conflict and opportunity for city planners and government officials as decisions regarding land use will become vital.

SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA In the early 2000s a 5.6 kilometre elevated highway covering Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cheonggyecheon River was removed and transformed into a public park. This is one of the largest transformation projects worldwide to date, which saw positive effects on the city immediately.

The former highway had 120,000 cars passing through the area on a daily basis which project opponents believed would filter through into side streets if removed.

However the opposite happened as car use decreased since the revitalization The park reduced temperatures (Thompson, C., 2016). in surrounding areas by 9 degrees celsius during the summer in addition to sparking tourism.

ACCESS MANAGEMENT One of the most significant changes to the built environment will be the drop-off revolution that will commence with the unnecessary need to park the AV. The space dedicated to on-site parking will be revolutionized into drop-off areas which is predicted to provoke business owners to adjust site designs in order to accommodate. The transition from parking to drop-off will have extensive implications associated with access management such as the drop off/loading area, form, location, and design of curb cuts (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016).

Although drop offs may take various different forms including frontage roads, cul-de-sacs and pull-offs, to ensure safety in all cases they must be placed separately from traffic lanes to protect pedestrians entering and exiting the vehicles.

The need to be with the vehicle while it parks is no longer, AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s allow passengers to be dropped off rather than exiting the vehicle where parking is permitted. This will encourage the desire of drop off and pickup services in close proximity to the destination. The priority will shift from parking to drop-off at site level with AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, therefore drop-off zones will no longer be limited to bus stops and airports.

In addition to implementing safe drop-off and pick-up zones, implementing passenger waiting areas is vital to accompany. Landscape architects could adapt principles from existing best practices of bus stop design to include in the innovation.

Planners and designers may consider separating drop-off zones from pick-up areas with high traffic like a downtown core. This will prevent the possibility of impeding traffic and allow the departure process to be as efficient as possible.

Drop-off and pick-up zones play a small role in the urban fabric of cities today, however in a world dominated by driverless vehicles they are expected to be one of the most important The emergence of drop-off and pick-up areas design elements (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016). is expected to become a staple in the design of urban spaces (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016).

Autonomous Street Vision | 24

Autonomous Curb & Street W idth Vision | 25

S I G N A G E & S I G N A L I Z AT I O N Traffic signals, signs and intersections make up some of the most important features of today’s transportation system. They are necessary contributions to the smoothness and efficiency of the transportation system in every major city. Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I) technology are prepared to revolutionize the transmission of information to drivers and the movement of traffic through intersections. By updating signage technology trafficflow and congestion are predicted to improve significantly which will have notable effects on the built environment. Autonomous vehicles will de-clutter roadways with the removal of signage and traffic signals (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016). When driverless vehicles are first introduced and roads are shared between humanoperated vehicles, signs and signals will still be necessary to accommodate human drivers. This is because both vehicle types will require indication of where they are and are not allowed to drive. Once all of the vehicle

fleet is composed of AV’s signage and traffic signals are no longer necessary. Phasing out lane striping is also a possibility as the primary function of them is to guide the human. In the future a virtual lane system embedded in the infrastructure could replace the traditional painted lines (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016). The replacement of traffic signals will require the use of both V2I and V2V technology. Signals will be hidden as sensors are embedded into the road or placed in traffic towers to communicate up to date information with vehicles on the road. This means physical traffic signals can be removed from intersections, however the possibility of removing the need to stop at intersections has also been discussed among researchers. AV’s may revolutionize intersections to the point where vehicles are able to sense and communicate with one another allowing them to freely flow through intersections. Although this futuristic vision will not be ideal until all vehicles on the road are autonomous, the idea promises to significantly improve traffic flow and congestion (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016).

Google’s Self Driving Autonomous Car Project | 26

ACCIDENTS & EFFICIENCY Road infrastructure in automobile focused cities were designed to accommodate human error with medians, lane markings, wider streets, guardrails and signage. With AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eliminating human error as one of the founding principles, the opportunities it offers are remarkable (Madia, 2017). In general most auto-collisions are a result of human error, but with AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gone are the days of worrying about drivers over correcting, curb jumping and colliding with trees, infrastructure or pedestrians.

allow for heavier pedestrian flow, bike lanes, street trees and public spaces (Madia, 2017). Furthermore the need for vast stretches of sound walls, rumble strips and buffers are no longer required as driverless cars are becoming quieter and more environmentally friendly.

Tree-lined roadways connecting the city will become a realistic future as concrete overloaded highways are no longer needed. Overall, an improved highway system allows cities to remove concrete and invest in The removal of driving obstructions such as additional street trees, which will improve air traffic lights, medians and guardrails in addition quality and green space for all (Madia, 2017). to narrowing lanes, will open up space to

AUDI Urban Future Initiative | 27

PA R K I N G LOT TO PA R K AV’s will reduce and potentially eliminate the amount of space devoted to parking in highdemand urban cores. High value properties with mandatory parking supply requirements will need to alter their arrangements in order to accommodate. The urban core has the potential to completely transform with a reduction in parking lots and the addition of highvalue activities such as parks. Green spaces can spark business uplift, resulting in the creation of mixed-use and transit oriented development. Therefore replacing parking lots with green space would accelerate a trend toward innercity living (Yigitcanlar, Tan, et al., 2017) Baumgardner predicts the implementation of AV’s will have city dwellers subscribing and not buying. There will be less space needed on roads for driving and no

space devoted to park the vehicle. Those who are inclined to purchase their own driverless vehicle will still have self-parking alongside other autonomous vehicles, however it will require significantly less infrastructure to do so (Baumgardner, 2015).

The University of Connecticut conducted a study which demonstrated parking oriented cities interfere with surrounding development and worsen traffic by hindering walking, biking and public transit. In addition to the negative affects parking has on For example, all cars that pedestrians it generates require owner pickup at little to no tax revenue 5 o’clock will be stored while buildings generate together in tight clusters. a minimum of 88 Cars used for subscribers percent (Madia, 2017). may not require parking at all, but if they did it As less parking is would be reduced in size required the affect as there is no need for on land significant as aisles between vehicles. parking infrastructure When a car is called will need to be reupon the next vehicle in purposed. “Eventually, line will leave as needed. we’ll be able to turn parking lots back into Many subscription parks,” Lyft co-founder owned vehicles would John Zimmer wrote in continue to drive around Lyft’s Medium blog last instead of parking September. “We’ll be which would reduce able to shrink streets, the need for parking expand sidewalks, spaces by 75 percent and make room for (Baumgardner, 2015). more pedestrians.”

The High Line | 28

THE HIGH LINE, MANHATTAN One of the most famous reclaimed spaces is located in New York City as Manhattanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s High Line. The once decaying elevated railway has transformed into a lush green space that drew approximately 6.2 million visitors in 2014 alone.

Robert Hammond the leader of the non-profit organization that tends to The High Line, suspects the future of public parks are these types of hybrid spaces which reclaim urban space (Thompson, C., 2016).

Only 2 million of those visitors were locals therefore proving these reclaimed spaces serve as a park, plaza and tourist attraction all in one.

“The biggest change to the urban fabric will be to parking infrastructure,” says Futing, “Parking will be moved indoors and outside of city centres, freeing up outdoor lots and spaces for development and public space. Lots them will be able to accommodate 60 percent more cars thanks to smaller driving lanes, greater maneuverability, and a lack of need for stairs and elevators.” Project Manager, Audi Urban Futures Initiative Lisa Futing 54

THE NEAR FUTURE The potential to dramatically change roadway design and the built environment is quickly approaching with the rise of AVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.

In order to increase green space implementation in city cores, it is essential to design in anticipation of the driverless vehicle.

The revolutionary technology will impact cities significantly by adjusting right-of-ways, retrofitting highways, developing standards for drop-off areas, adjusting signage and signalization, preventing accidents and recognizing parking demand changes.

Although further research is required regarding the integration of this modern technology, understanding how it will operate alongside traditional vehicles is the first step.

Grey to Green | 29

This can be achieved through investment and collaboration efforts between federal, state, regional and local transportation agencies.

CONCLUSION

Cities developed after the first world war focused on designing around the rise of the automobile. Green space became an afterthought to local, federal and government agencies as the priority was to design with vehicle accessibility in mind. Parks play an essential role in providing health, environmental and economic benefits to both a city and its residents.

for passengers to be in the car at all times, the nature of driving will transform indefinitely. This thesis is a step in the direction of exploring the future of autonomous vehicles and their impact on cities and the built environment. Understanding the pedestrianfriendly, safe and attractive urban environments this future technology predicts to create, will allow researchers to solve current As cities continue to grow it is problems with long term solutions crucial to keep green space (Chapin, Tim, et al., 2016). as a priority that grows with them. Rethinking the role of the Although further research is automobile and seeking ways needed to comprehend the to design cities around people potentials of automated vehicle and not cars is the first step technology, planning agencies toward solving the problem. The also need to focus on the impacts integration of green space makes of the built environment as well. a city exceedingly more livable Very few analysts were able than one which relies on privately to foresee the massive impact owned vehicles. Taking the initiative traditional car use was going to design for future planning to have on infrastructure, travel trends and technologies allows behaviours and transportation cities to alter the built environment systems. The reduction of parking in order to fit the ever-changing infrastructure will open up a pedestrian needs (Brown, 2010). remarkable opportunity to increase the number of green spaces within Automated vehicle technology cities. Utilizing these excess spaces will be the first revolutionary is an intergenerational legacy movement to the transportation for the future livability of cities. system since the Model T was introduced by Henry Ford over a century ago. By removing the need

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TA B L E S

13. Page 35 - Beeldbank, the Amsterdam city archives. (2016, February 23). [Plantage Middenlaan in the 1970s]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/ look-how-much-better-a-city-can-be-when-it-designs-for-1760859711 14. Page 35 - Beeldbank, the Amsterdam city archives. (2016, February 23). [Plantage Middenlaan in 2015]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/lookhow-much-better-a-city-can-be-when-it-designs-for-1760859711

Table 1 - Determinants of City Walk-ability Wolf, Kathleen L. “City Trees, Nature and Physical Activity.” International Society of Arboriculture, 2010.

15. Page 37 - City of Portland Archives. (2016, May 25). [Harbor Drive in 1962]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/6-freeway-removals-thatchanged-their-cities-forever-1548314937

Table 2 - Determinants of Park Use Wolf, Kathleen L. “City Trees, Nature and Physical Activity.” International Society of Arboriculture, 2010.

16. Page 37 - City of Portland. (2016, May 25). [Governor Tom McCall Waterfront Park]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/6-freeway-removalsthat-changed-their-cities-forever-1548314937

Table 3 - Urban Heat Island Profile BlueScope Steel products help to cool Urban Heat Islands. BlueScope, 2017, www.steel.com.au/news/article-03--bluescope-steel-products-helpto-cool-urban-heat-islands.

17. Page 37 - Urban Dispatch. (2012, January 5). [Madrid’s Manzanares River & Waterfront Before]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/6-freewayremovals-that-changed-their-cities-forever-1548314937 18. Page 37 - Urban Dispatch. (2012, January 5). [Madrid’s Manzanares River & Waterfront After]. Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/6-freewayremovals-that-changed-their-cities-forever-1548314937