Sophie Kilmartin BA Illustration Level 5 OUIL501 COP2 Studio Brief 1
To what extent is our gender identity socially constructed, or are we born with an internal sense of who we are?
Introduction The question of how ones gender identity is formed is a long debated topic, that has divided the opinions of many. There are those who believe individuals are born with an internal sense of gender identity, where others who argue that gender is influenced by and formed through ones environment. Within this essay theories supporting either side of the ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ debate will be explored. ‘People often get confused between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to biological differences between males and females. Gender refers to the cultural differences expected (by society/culture) of men and women according to their sex.’ (1) A person’s sex does not change from birth, but ones gender identify can. In the past, society seemed to have a much more limited view on the flexibility of gender identity. ‘People had clear ideas about whats appropriate to each sex and anyone behaving differently was regarded as deviant’ (1) “The formal identification and classification of what was considered gender nonconformity… began during the late 1920s” (Reicherzer 2008: 330). It’s now recognised that perhaps not everyone falls into strict gender labels; people are challenging what it means to be male or female. Most young people grow up thinking of themselves as either a boy or a girl, and don’t question their gender. However, for some individuals, gender is more complicated. Before the 1960’s little was known about people who identified as transgender. ‘The term transgender has largely replaced the older term transsexual, which is now considered outdated. Transgender is a less clinical term, referring more to gender identity and gender expression than to sexual orientation or physical sex characteristics (2) One of the first widely known individuals for having sex reassignment surgery, was American trans woman Christine Jorgensen (May 30, 1926 – May 3, 1989) After her transformation in the 1950’s, she became an instant celebrity; featured on the front page of New York Daily News, using this status to advocate for transgender people. (3) Main Body
There are arguments which suggest that someones gender identity is informed purely through ‘nurture’. Dr John William Money, a psychologist, and author, specialising in research into sexual identity and biology of gender, is regarded to be one of the first scientists to study the social impact on ones gender identity. He strongly believed that an individuals gender identity is predominantly determined by the upbringing and environment of an individual. (4) 1960’s research by Money explained how he believed that a child's gender is a result of ‘nurture’. Moneys opinion supported the theory of neutrality.(“The approach assumes that gender identity is neutral before the age of 3, and can be changed, e.g. a biological boy raised as a girl will develop the gender identity of a girl.” ) (1) The test he carried out to further explore this theory was named the John/Joan case. A child, born male suffered a tragic accident when a routine circumcision went wrong, and was left with disfigured genitals. As plastic surgery wasn’t available at the time, Money convinced the boys parents that if they raised there child as a female, ‘she’ would adopt that gender, and lead a normal life as a female. The sex reassignment surgery was carried out, and the child was raised as a girl named ‘Brenda’. Dr Money considered this experiment a success at the time; he was praised and celebrated for his profound research that supported the theory of environmental factors determine ones gender. However, years later Dr money was criticised after a male named David Reimer claimed that he was in fact the subject of this case study, the individual who's gender was changed by Money. Despite the experiment originally been deemed a success, David did not live a happy life in his female identity. After a troubled and depressive childhood, he resumed his true male identity at the age of 14 after he was informed of his birth sex. Since then, David tragically committed suicide at the age of 38 due to the related traumatic stress triggered by Money’s experiment. (4,5)
FIG 1. Left, Dr Money, Right, David Reimer, as ‘Brenda’ This incident could be said to contradict Dr moneys beliefs, and the theory of neutrality, and instead supports the notion that we are in fact born with an innate sense of our gender identity. Dr moneys experiment and strong opinions created quite a negative perspective upon the argument of ‘nurture’ being responsible for someones identity. His particular views were seen by many as extreme and appeared to distort the argument by suggesting that as people can be ‘shaped’ by their environment, and the fate of peoples gender identities can essentially be decided; that its something that can be changed as long as it’s from a young enough age. As seen through these failed experiments there are clearly limitations to these views, and one could concluded that imposing this kind of control over an individuals development is traumatic and impactful at any age. (4,5,6) However this individual example doesn't dismiss the argument entirely that environment and upbringing can have an influence over gender identity. Perhaps considered a broader theory is the biosocial approach which contains the thesis of gender neutrality. This “suggests that there is no distinction between sex and gender, and that social labelling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors to steer development.” (1) (Money, Joan, 1972) The theory was more of an attempt to integrate the influences of both nature and nurture. (1) What Dr. moneys experiment perhaps failed to show was how environment could have a natural impact on ones identity. As a child grows and develops it can be said that life experiences, and upbringing inform and and impact an individuals identity, but trying to control and force a gender upon someone is completely different than allowing an individual to make their own life choices. It could be argued that If a child has free will to discover who they are through personal experience, then that is a natural progression of identity. One could therefore conclude that gender cannot just be decided, but formed, and integrated into what makes a person who they are. (1, Butler, J. 1990: 252) (Perry, D. G., & Pauletti, R. E, 2011:111)
Some question what society could be like, if these gender roles weren't persistently forced upon us throughout life, and instead we lived in a gender neutral environment without cultural pressure.There are in fact a number of communities around the world that live outside of these gender stereotypes.Their beliefs challenge the conventional labels of male and female identifications and sexuality, found within modern 21st century society. Walter L Williams’ book ‘The Spirit and the Flesh’ explores sexual diversity in native american culture. Members of this society (FIG2) are known for being more open and explorational with their gender roles and sexuality; In this community, that often follow traditionalist native american religions, members have strong beliefs that everything comes from the spirit world, and that an individuals character is a reflection of their spirit. People who identified as Intersex, transgender, androgynous, feline males, and masculine females, are not socially stigmatised like many are in western culture, but instead these people are recognised for their ‘spiritual gifts’ and greeted with admiration and respect. Specifically those who identified themselves as transgender; They are commonly referred to now as ‘Two-spirited’, because the adorn both a masculine and feminine identity. Expressing the characteristics of both genders reflects them as being powerful and gifted. They are celebrated for possessing more spiritual capabilities, and are often appointed the most highly regarded jobs such as religious leaders or teachers. There is a practical advantage to this
also; with individuals possessing the capability to carry work they associate with both genders. It could be argued that compared to western culture, more people within these communities are fluid about their gender and sexuality, due to freedom, acceptance, and opportunity. (Williams, W,L 1986:64-110)
FIG 2. ‘Two Spirited’ woman from a native american tribe. The Evolutionary Explanation of gender theory, however, supports the idea that we are born with a pre determined gender identity that is based on which sex we are. (1,7) It was first suggested by Darwin; His theory ‘suggests that aspects of human behaviour have been coded by our genes because they were or are adaptive…The theory implies that men and women have little choice or control over their behaviours: women are natural ‘nurturers’ and men are naturally aggressive and competitive.’(1)(FIG 3) Historically it was practical and essentially needed for both sexes to take on these roles in order for our ancestors to survive, reproduce and form a functioning community. ‘Gender role division appears as an adaptation to the challenges faced by the ancestral humans in the the environment of evolutionary adaptation.’(Darwin, C, 1874: 21
FIG 3. An illustration depicting neolithic humans performing early societal roles.
However, this is based on the the theory that our sex very much determines our gender identity; and 21st century society has developed away from these historical gender roles. We no longer rely on fitting within these categories to thrive as a human race. Gender behaviours are changing; its becoming more and more acceptable for men to demonstrate feminine attributes as much as woman can adopt behaviour considered to be ‘masculine’. So perhaps its the influence of our society responsible for this shift in identity. (1,6, Eckes, Thomas. Hanns M. Trautner, 2000: 56)
However, research shows that people can be ‘conscious of their gender identity between 18 months and 3 years.’ (Ref 8) Children known to be this young have shown the desirability to exist as the opposing sex. Its arguable that this is age is too early on in development to be influenced by environmental factors.’Most people develop a gender identity that matches their biological sex. For some, however, their gender identity is different from their biological or assigned sex.’ (Ref 8) Approximately between 2% and 5% of the UK population experience some form of gender dysphoria, however statistical analysis on the topic is vague. (BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ 2015) The BBC2 Documentary ‘Transgender kids’, presented by Louis Theroux, provides a thoughtful insight into the lives children who experience gender dysphoria. Camille, six, ( FIG 4) was born a boy, and known by her parents as Sebastian for the first few years of her life. Growing up she would detest wearing boys clothing, and would ask if she could “become a girl”. Camille soon began dressing in girls clothes, and is now referred to as female by her supportive family. (9) (BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ 2015)
FIG 4. Louis Theroux posing with Camille in ‘Transgender Kids’ (BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ (2015) When camille is older she, and her parents wish to consider treatment which “includes psychological counselling, hormone blockers and, eventually, the possibility of sex reassignment surgery.” Despite Camille and her parents being convinced that she most certainly identifies as female, there is the possibility to consider that perhaps children are too young to truly make up their mind whether to go through with a physical transformation. “Critics have queried….whether, in adulthood, they might wish to reverse the process by which stage it could be too late.” (9) (BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ (2015) There have been cases where individuals have gone through surgery, and yet not reached an identity they feel comfortable with. Research into Britain's in transgender population isn't conclusive, but ‘research from the US and the Netherlands suggests that up to a fifth of patients regret the change’ (9) Never the less, for mother Casey, there is no question. “You spend a day with my child, and tell me I don’t have a little girl,” she says. “She was never Sebastian, she was always Camille ...She really loved wearing my shoes, she was into more feminine things. We would put a truck in front of her and she would just not care about that very much.” (BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ (2015) (12)
Society is evolving to become more accepting and understanding of individuals who experience gender dysmorphia, which is recognised as being a positive step forward in the progression of western society. However, are these masculine/feminine labels still harming our perceptions of gender? ‘Casey’ states that camille is a girl, and that its clear because she wears girls clothes and likes feminine things. But does this prove that camille is ‘born in the wrong body’ or in fact just a feminine boy? (Butler, J.1990:164), (Dines, G. and Humez, J,M. 2011:144)
It cannot be denied that we are born into a world with pre determined perspective on how male and females are supposed to look and behave. Certain expectations and messages are constantly forced upon us from all angles, form the media to our schools and religions. People continue to try and challenge these conforms of society, but never the less these gender labels still exist, and we are subjected to these from the moment we are born. It could be argued that these restricted views are holding back our progression, in terms of understanding and embracing the evolving views of gender identity. Hennessy, Rosemary (2000)
FIG 5. Victor & Rolf, perfume advertisement (2015) (FIG 5) An example of advertising that pushes the typical ‘feminine’ gender depiction. It could be viewed as being objectifying, treating the woman as a decorative accessory to sell the perfume; with the advert being marketed towards men. Upholding these stereotypes of what gender should be, will continue to limit peoples gender potential; more gender neutral campaigns should be present within 21st century society. Hennessy, Rosemary (2000) ‘By spreading a variety of of non-traditional images and ideas about how people can appear and act, the mass media can server a valuable role in shattering the unhelpful moulds of ‘male’ and ‘female’ roles’ (Butler, J. 1990:274) The ‘Queer Theory’ is an approach to sexuality and, more generally, identity. Considered to be one of the most valuable versions of queer theory is Gender Trouble: Feminisms and the Subversion of Identity (1990) by Judith Butler. “Queer theory is a radical remix of social construction theory, and a call to action: since identities are not fixed - neither to the body nor to the ‘self’ - we can perform ‘gender’ in whatever way we like. Although certain masculine and feminine formations may have been learned, those patterns can be broken.” (Butler, J. 1990:83) The basis or the argument suggests that we should we should ‘work to change gender norms and the binary understanding of masculinity and femininity.’ (Butler, J. ’Gender, 1990:142)
In continuing to push these mass fem stereotypes, there is a danger that male/females who exhibit characteristics of the opposite sex, may feel that they need to transition to become that sex. (Butler, J. ’Gender, 1990:142) This was the case for Tyler Ford.(FIG 6) Born a female, Tyler struggled with their identity for a long time, and didn't feel comfortable identifying as female, perhaps due to societies pressure to exhibit certain ‘feminine’ behaviours. At the time, tyler thought that they identified as a male, and in early adulthood, transitioned to the opposite sex. However, Tyler soon realised that identifying as male, was not the answer to achieving a sense of identity they so longed for. Through years of feeling continuously out of place, Tyler decided to live as a non binary individual, an individual who identifies as neither male no female, but somewhere in-between on the gender spectrum. (Ford, Tyler 2015), (13) Tyler now sees no reason to have to conform to one gender or the other, and in choosing to identify as a non binary individual, Tyler feels as though they have the choice to be whoever they want to be. “I have been out as a non binary person for a year now, to me, this simply means having the freedom to exist as a person without being confined by the limits of the western gender binary….my existence causes people to question everything they have been taught about gender, which in turn inspires them to question what they know themselves” Ford, Tyler 2015)
FIG 6. Tyler Ford
Conclusion In conclusion, there is valuable evidence to support each argument on the subject and I believe that ones gender identity is influenced by both ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’. It seems evident through case studies and documentaries such as ‘transgender kids’ that children suffering from gender dysmorphia have done so from a very young age; arguably too young to be influences by environmental factors. However I don't think that these examples limit the argument to saying that ‘nurture’ has no effect on ones gender; whether individuals are born with in internal sense or not, it’s also been shown that environmental influences, can have an impact over ones gender identity. In my opinion Dr Money’s failed gender swap experiment could conclude that children forced into an identity do not exist in that gender simply because there environment conditions them two, I think there is a clear difference in forcing an identity upon someone, or letting them to develop and evolve into an identity through life experience, and culture, Like the ‘The Two-Spirited People of native american culture. Additionally there are examples of how the pressures of western society can have strong influence over someones gender identity; both positively and negatively. Despite continuous ‘gender labelling’ in the media, considerable development has been made in the past 20 years. Society has progressed immensely in terms of knowledge of the subject, and are beginning to accept all kinds of gender identities. I believe this progression is responsible for the increase in people identifying outside of traditional gender norms. I conclude that perhaps we are all born with an internal sense of our gender identity, to some extent, but its society’s influence that ultimately helps to inform and determine how that identity is formed. It greatly depends on the nature of ones environment, and how much that environentm encourages their true identity to thrive. (Eckes, Thomas. Hanns M. Trautner Taylor & Francis. 2000) Influential people like Tyler Ford, are continuing to push gender identity boundaries, and are encouraging our society to evolve to become more accepting of people who identify outside the conforms of society. I think it’s important to state that increasing awareness, doesn't imply that everyone would in time identify somewhere high on the gender spectrum, but I believe its important that civilisation has a choice for those that do. Everyone has the right to discover there own identity, and not have to be suppressed by a heavily biased media and societal expectations. Our culture is becoming more accustomed to promoting individuality however, and so I feel that more people are coming to realise there true identity and are stepping out as their authentic selves for the world to embrace.
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Bibliography Academic Sources Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. Dines, G. and Humez, J,M. (2011) Gender, Race, and Class In The Media. Gauntlet, D. (2008) Media, Gender and Identity (An introduction). Darwin, C (1874) The Decent of Man and Selection In Relation to Sex. Money, Joan (1972) ‘As Nature Made Him’ Williams, W,L, (1986) The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture) Hennessy, Rosemary (2000) Profit and Pleasure: Sexual Identities in Late Capitalism Eckes, Thomas. Hanns M. Trautner Taylor & Francis. (2000) "The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender”. (society - harmful for gender) Maccoby, E. E. (2000). Perspectives on gender development. International Journal of Behavioral Development. Perry, D. G., & Pauletti, R. E. (2011). Gender and Adolescent Development. Journal Of Research On Adolescence. Reicherzer, Stacee. "Evolving Language And Understanding In The Historical Development Of The Gender Identity Disorder Diagnosis." Journal Of LGBT Issues In Counseling 2.4 (2008): 326-347.
Websites Ref 1 - Biological Theories of Gender, (Saul Mcleod 2014) http://www.simplypsychology.org/gender-biology.html#bio-social Ref 2 - “Transgender History.” transgenderzone.com. 2011. Ref 3 - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Jorgensen Ref 4 - Dr Money and the Boy with No Penis (2014) http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/dr_money_prog_summary.shtml Ref 5 - Nature vs Nurture: David Reimer Case https://sophmoet.wordpress.com/2014/01/29/nature-v-nurture-david-reimer-case/ Ref 6 - Gender Queer Theory http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-que1.htm Ref 7 -Evolutionary Explanations of Gender Roles, Charlotte Ward (2013) https://prezi.com/e4xpgyh2hkjf/evolutionary-explanations-of-gender-roles/ Ref 8 - Gender Identity, Gender Theory - https://www.genderspectrum.org/glossary/gender-identity/ Ref 9 - Transgender Kids, Elizabeth Day. (2015) http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/apr/05/transgender-kids-children-change-sex-families Ref 10 - Gender Identity: Definitions, Shuvo Ghosh, http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/917990-overview
Ref 11 - http://www.dictionary.com/browse/transgender Ref 12 - Gender Identity: (2008) Introduction, https://members.scouts.org.uk/supportresources/4227/genderidentity-introduction?cat=377,378&moduleID=10 Ref 13 - http://myfriendtyler.com Ref 14 - Ford, Tyler (2015) http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/07/my-life-without-gender-strangersare-desperate-to-know-what-genitalia-i-have Documentaries BBC, ‘Transgender Kids’ (with Louis Theroux) (2015) Images FIG 1 - http://shelshocked.com/blog/2014/6/6/david-reimer-the-boy-who-was-raised-as-a-girl (2014) FIG 2 - http://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/11/two-spirit-people-north-america (2010) FIG 3 - http://www.simplypsychology.org/gender-biology.html#bio-social (2008) FIG 4 - http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/apr/05/transgender-kids-children-change-sex-families (2015) FIG 5 - (2015) https://mybrainonapage.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/o-240941.jpg FIG 6 - http://myfriendtyler.com (2015)