The story of water: Irrigation Drinking Monsoon Pollution
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To maximize agricultural production the country's irrigation potential must be fully exploited and attention given to factors adversely affecting proper utilization.
figure represents no more than nineteen per cent of the total land under cultivation. This underlines the extent of the country's continued dependence on rainfall and the widespread failure of crops which inevitably follows when the "gamble in rain" does not payoff. A recent tragic example has been provided by the unprecedented drought and near-famine conditions which have prevailed in Bihar and affected the lives of millions of people in the rural parts of the State. How can such disasters be averted and the country attain self-sufficiency in food as early as possible? There is of course no simple answer to this question. As agricultural experts have repeatedly stressed, the solution lies in a determined, nation-wide effort to mobilize all available resources and co-ordinate the various elements which can contribute to maximum production. Among these elements proper irrigation and management of water resources are perhaps at the very top, followed by other sound agricultural practices such as deep ploughing, cultivation of improved seed varieties with high yields, timely and liberal application of fertilizers and protection of the crop against insects and pests. Agriculture is now rightly accorded a very high priority in India's national planning, and ranks next only to defence. Estimated expenditure during 1966-67 was as much as forty-three per cent above that for the preceding year, while further investment on agriculture, including irrigation, in the Fourth Plan is likely to be double that of the Third Plan. Of India's total fresh water resources it is estimated that about one-third or 555,000 lakh cubic metres can be used for irrigation. The past two decades have witnessed the launching of mighty river valley projects and a big expansion of the country's irrigation system. But these projects and all other schemes completed by March 31, 1966, had accounted for only about thirty-six per cent of the usable volume of water. There is still a considerable potential for further development. Since irrigation schemes naturally involve vast outlays of capital and expenditure on maintenance, it is important that a sound policy of water management and utilization should be evolved centrally and implemented at various levels of State and local administration. A Joint Working Group of the Government of India's Ministries of Food and Agriculture, and Irrigation and Power, was set up to consider the problems involved and formulate relevant proposals for the Fourth Plan. The Group submitted its report early in 1965. Commenting on the need for "expeditious, fuller and efficient utilization of the irrigation potential," the report analyses the factors ad versely affecting proper use
of available water supplies and indicates the directions in which progress could be made. Among the causes it lists of delayed or inefficient utilization are: delay in excavation of field channels and faulty design of channels; lack of land preparation by levelling, grading and sub-dividing fields into plots of adequate size; lack of uniformity of irrigation as a result of "wild" flooding of fields with consequent shortage or excess in high or low spots, wastage of water and washing away of nutrients in the soil; losses in the form of seepage, deep percolation and running-off of water; a tendency to over-irrigate; ignorance of correct cultivation practices and suitable crop patterns. The report stresses the importance of a detailed soil survey prior to irrigation to determine such factors as soil depth, permeability, moisture storage capacity and salinity, which have a bearing on water management. It also underlines the need for more intensive research, better training of staff in irrigation theory and practice, and greater co-ordination among engineers, agronomists, soil scientists and extension workers. Finally, it recommends the -setting up of more research stations and demonstration centres where the best irrigation techniques could be practised and studied. A similar study of "Agricultural Water Management in India" was made by a team of experts from the United States Department of Agriculture, which visited India in the first quarter of 1966. Their findings endorsed in general those of the Indian group but they had some additional points of importance to make. A preliminary observation made by the U.S. team in its report states: "In the foreseeable future some twothirds to three-fourths of the cultivable land in India must continue to depend on natural precipitation and is likewise subjected to the intensities of StOID1Swhich result in major run-off and flooding .... It is vitally important that these rain-fed lands receive more, not less attention as to the conservation and management of the precipitation that falls on them." Among other points highlighted in the team's report, the following are of special interest. * The extent of further economic development of ground water resources in the plains of Northern India, where thousands of tube-wells have already been sunk, should be determined by a geological survey. There is scope for improvement in tube-well design and installation and its efficiency of operation. * Canal leakage and run-off of water during the monsoons have resulted in an estimated forty-five million acres of water-logged land, of which about fifteen million acres are salt-affected. Effective drainage and
other parts. These irregularities are responsible for floods and droughts, thereby influencing the food growing operations of this essentially agricultural country. This is the reason for the well-known saying that India's budget is a monsoon gamble. A delayed monsoon, though usually associated with deficient rainfall in the earlier months, may be followed by concentrated spells of heavy rain. During the month of May heavy rain may fall not only along the west coast but also in Assam and north Bengal. With the burst of the monsoon in June the daily rainfall shows a general increase all over the country especially along the west coast as well as on the western portions of Assam and north Bengal. The Deccan plateau, however, may remain dry. By July the rainfall intensifies along the west coast and shows a general but slight increase in central and northern India owing to the influence of depressions in the Bay and their subsequent track across central and north India. During the height of the monsoon period-sometimes in July and more commonly in August-there may occur spells of about a week or more when there is a temporary cessation of rainfall. During these periods weather is clear in the major part of India (except along and near the eastern Himalayas and the submontane regions where copious rainfall occurs causing devastating floods in the rivers of these areas). This condition is known as a "break in the monsoon." According to meteorologists these breaks occur when pulses in the south-east trade winds move westward without feeding into the Indian area. Formation of depressions and cyclonic storms during the monsoon season is of common occurrence in the Bay of Bengal. Usually they develop in the northern part of the Bay and move across the IndoGangetic plain in a west-northwesterly direction and eventually may reach Rajasthan. Occasionally these winds may curve northwards and break up in the region of the Punjab
and Kumaon Hills and finally finish up on the Himalayas, Along their path they cause squally winds, heavy rains and floods. These depressions and the accompanying tempests are important because they help to bring about a more equitable distribution of rainfall in the interior of the country. As one cyclonic storm subsides, the monsoon becomes weak, but before long another depression may form at the head of the Bay and the process repeated. Thus the monsoon is essentially pulsatory in character, each pulse being initiated by a cyclonic storm; the depression in the Bay helps the spread of the rainbearing winds further upward. By about the middle of July the southwest monsoon has spread over the major part of the subcontinent. A capricious monsoon can seriously upset the food production of these areas and may lead to severe consequences as was demonstrated in 1965 and 1966. Variations from the normal pattern in respect to rainfall such as a delayed monsoon, prolonged breaks in the rainfall or an abrupt termination of rains associated with the monsoon may seriously affect crop growth. Again when depressions and cyclonic storms follow one another in rapid succession along the same track, concentrated spells of rain occur in a narrow belt and may cause severe floods. Similarly continuous rains for a prolonged period may lead to disastrous floods with dire consequences. Compared to the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea is calmer with fewer storms and depressions. The worldfamous Bay of Bengal is in fact notorious for cyclonic storms. Here cyclones occur frequently during the monsoon and some of them on record are examples of nature's worst rampage. The data from 1924 to 1952 covering a period of twentynine years show that there were not less than 413 storms and depressions in the Bay of Bengal whereas the Arabian Sea had only fifty-three of them, July being the month with the maximum number of storms and depressions in the Bay.
During August the average daily rainfall shows a decrease along the west coast; in September the daily average remains almostuniformover the whole country with some local exceptions. As the south-west monsoon withdraws from the country during October the rainfall decreases over north-west India and increases along the east coast. This is a month of severe storms in the Bay and adjoining east coast. In November and December the north-east monsoon becomes active and the southeast coast receives good rainfall, sometimes with severe storms. The rains no doubt bring fresh life to the dry earth and in turn to all living creatures. But as they continue to fall the effect takes a different turn. Inundating low-lying areas, flood waters merge with streams and canals to swell rivers which burst their bounds-and may even change their course. Rails, bridges and roads may be washed off by the angry swirling waters. Crops drown, cattle perish and the muddy walls of the huts and houses crumble into the swift waters. Epidemics develop, causing death along the flood path. In a way the life-giving monsoon is thus also a season of death. Perhaps the most spectacular aspect of the monsoon is the colourful drama enacted by the clouds in the troposphere. They transform the sky into a natural stage of awe, beauty, mystery and power; it is here that the weather drama is savagely played. On the blue sky the wind draws with the clouds endless and ever changing patterns and ephemeral forms, the sun adding rich colour to the whole picture. The sunset sometimes becomes unbelievably artifigarish crimsoncial with shades glorious beyond description. The puffy cumulus clouds of the warm clear summer sometimes pile up into cumulo-nimbus which are the thunderheads. The fine veils of cirro-stratus clouds that blotch the sky or drift lazily across the blue heavens are succeeded soon by dull grey stratus clouds that dim the sun; they are later replaced by the thick, dark, wet and fearful
of
sheets of the nimbo-stratus, pregnant with rain drops. The effect of the wind on the sea . is of no less importance. Along wide stretches of the west coast the winds wrup up powerful waves which relentlessly chew off edges of the land. Along with this erosion, valuable coconut palms are uprooted, houses are swept off and swallowed by the seas. Side by side with this process of aggression on land, a mysterious phenomenon, the like of which is not known anywhere else in the world, takes place along the same south-west coast. This is the formation of the mud-banks, a characteristic feature noticed during or soon after the monsoon. Here in these socalled mud-banks fine particles of silt settle in the form of a thick slimy mass forming a bank which is fluid and mobile. Existing at sub-surface levels and containing large quantifies of nutrients, these mud-banks form fertile 'grounds' for the growth of tiny sea plants which soon form extensive floating meadows. Into this rich area large shoals of fish-mostly shrimps, prawns and sardines-move in, providing a fishing ground par excellence for the thousands of anxiously waiting fishermen along the coast. Thus, while this is a season of rains, floods, disease and death on the land, off the coast it is a season of intense productivity and harvest. By December the clouds have all been rained down, either to seep deeply down into the earth or to feed the rivers that reach the oceans from where they started the cycle. The sky once again clears up and the sun shines brightly over a clean and fresh landscape. The seeds that have sprouted into healthy shoots have by now grown into herbs and shrubs. Trees bear fresh green leaves. Buds appear and burst into beautiful blooms ushering in a colourful, fragrant spring. Stars twinkle through a transparent sky. The season of rains is over. The unanticipated deaths, misery and devastation due to rains, storms aQ.dfloods remain as a faint, sad memory.
"The weather drama-everchanging patterns, ephemeral forms .... Flood waters merge with streams to swell rivers."
Above. the ice-filled hold receives more fish ji'om the bulging net. Whenever it is lowered, there is promise 0/ a big haul.
As night approaches, the trawler "Ken Pat," above left, fitted with underwater scope, sets cut seeking fishing grounds.
Fishing is no longer a guessing game /01' Captain Styron, left, who looks through the underwater scope Gnd guides his crew.
Water iRDatHre aRdmaD~s
world Over hundreds of millions of years, water has been one of the most powerful agents in shaping and reshaping the face of the earth. Frozen into creeping glaciers, it chisels the landscape, gouging out vast depressions and lake beds, switching river courses and carrying soil and boulders over tremendous distances. Falling as rain or in flowing rivers.. it levels mighty mountains, creates broad valleys and steep canyons, and weathers the hardest rocks. As pounding waves or lapping surf( see opposite page) it gnaws constantly at coastlines, transforming the profiles of islands and continents. It determines the climate)forms
the soil in which crops and forests take
root and, as steam or hydroelectric power) it drives the machines of modern technology.
Above: Using a plastic raft. children enjoy themselves in a swimming pool. Below: Penguins at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, resemble an assembly of men in full dress. At right, a surfboard rider engages in a thrilling race with the foaming fury of a huge wave behind him at Makaha Beach. Hawaii.
Man and the river Modernized to suit present-day navigation needs, the 981-mile old water route of Ohio River is now a vital artery for an expanding industrial domain. covering six U.S. States (see map below). Steamboats of yesteryear have made way for diesel-powered towboats fitted with radar, radio telephones and electric steering control. These modem boats operate safely in darkness and fog. In one stich towboat, right, the captain communicates by telephone with an approaching tow.
Old and new Typical of changes brought about by industrial expansion is the great contrast between this 150year-old West Virginian house, foreground, and the modern industrial plant on the opposite bank.
A commercial town Starting as a frontier town in 1788, Cincinnati, Ohio, is now the second largest city 0/1 the banks of the river. Skyscrapers and commercial buildings dot the rive/front of t!lat first, old, settlement.
MEN" INGENUITY AND THE RIVER ABUNDANTNATURALRESOURCEScombined with man's ingenuity in their use are largely responsible for the surging industrial expansion in the Ohio River Valley of the United States. This expansion, steadily progressing during the past two decades, not only affects the six States which lie along the river's banks but has an important influence on the economic stability of adjoining States and the nation. The Ohio River is a 981-mile waterway which extends from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, where it joins the Mississippi River. The two-century old water route has been modernized with a controlled channel and a series of locks and dams. Diesel-powered towboats and steel barges have replaced the stern-wheel steamboats
which once travelled through the quiet agricultural valley. These modern carriers transport more than twice the tonnage moved on the river about twenty years ago. The coal deposits in the six States along th~ "Ohio River are America's largest. The reduced cost of coal-based power; achieved through improved techniques, attracted new industries into the valley. notably atomic energy installations, chemical factories, and aluminium production. Salt deposits necessary for these operations are abundant. Today, the Ohio River is the vital artery for a growing industrial domain of electric power, atomic energy, oil refining, mining, steel, aluminium, chemicals and other manufacturing.
Historic structures of the Nagarjunakonda Valley were moved to safety and restored by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Above, panel shows Buddha's renunciation. Riding his horse Kanthaka and accompanied by its groom, Chhandaka, and others, Buddha lcares Kapilavastu.
Statue of Buddha, found in several fragments, stands four metres in height. Below, an ancient, square-stepped tank has been rebuilt on its new site.
MONUMENTS of ancient Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh not long ago faced the same imminent risk of being lost forever. The Nagarjunasagar Dam project involved submergence, by the waters of the Krishna River, of the valley where these monuments were located. This archaeological tragedy was averted and the valuable relics preserved by an imaginative undertaking in 1954 by the Archaeological Survey of India. The Survey's project, completed in 1960, yielded a rich harvest of ancient sculptures and architectural specimens. Among these are two outstanding stone panels: one depicts alternately events from Buddha's life and mithunG figures; the other tells the story of Buddha's Great Renunciation. Elegantly executed, the two panels sensitively portray varying moods. Another exquisite piece is the statue of Gautama Buddha. Originally found in several fragments, the image has been reconstructed and stands about four metres in height. Stupas, viharas, nsl'amedha tanks, bathing ghats and swimming tanks with steps are among other salvaged monuments. The old structures, either transplanted or faithfully rebuilt to their original form and alignment, are now placed on three different sites. While the hill-top of Nagaljunakonda has the main concentration of monuments, a nearby museum houses models of fifty excavated sites, arranged around a miniature valley. Other antiques and relics, some representative of pre-historic days, are also included. At a distance of about one-and-a-half miles from the hill-top is the third site where more monuments are displayed. With resolution and international co-operation, man has proved again that he can enjoy the benefits of technological progress and also preserve the symbols of his cultural heritage.
Right, close-up o{ tll'O of the statllcs o{ Rameses I I. The width of each face ji-Olll ear to ear .is three melrcs. Sllla//er slatues are those o{ his children.