SPAN: May 1971

KENNEDY PORTRAITS

SPAN

May

IN THE

WHITE HOUSE OF THE permanent collection of portraits of all Presidents and their wives which hang in the White House, none have aroused as much interest as the two most recent acquisitions: the paintings of President and Mrs. John F. Kennedy. Both are the work of New York artist Aaron Shikler.

John Kennedy's portrait, painted from photographs showing him in a characteristic posture, is a study of the late President deep in contemplation-"the highest accolade I could give him," Shikler said. The picture of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, painted from life, is a softly glowing, poetic portrayal.

The two portraits-much more modern in technique than those of other recent occupants of the U.S. Presidential mansion-have stirred much animated comment, some of it admiring, some perhaps inevitably controversial.

Mrs. On ass is's call at the White House to see the paintings was her first visit since she left it after President Kennedy's tragic assassination in 1963. She came with her children Caroline, now 13, and John, 10, for a private dinner with President Nixon and his family.

The Myth of Omnipotence

by Barry Commoner

Saving Our Spaceship

Food of the Gods

12

/8

by Austen Nazareth

"If You Care About People, Become a Cop" 22

Time and Technology

28

by Robert Farrell

U.S. Foreign Aid: What the Studies Say

32

by Quentin M. West

Talcher Spurs Industrial Growth

38

by A.K. Ganguly

From cover David Attie's picture of birds on the wing is symbolic of a world that has triumphed over the problems of the environment. These . problems are discussed in a 12page section beginning on page 2.

Back cover Sun rays, obscuring the upper section of the Apollo 14 lunar lander, give this picture an "other-worldly" look. For other memorable photographs taken by the men who last walked on the moon, see pp. 24-27.

Editorial Staff: Carmen Kagal, Avinash Pasricha, Nirmal K. Sharma, Krishan G. Gabrani. Austen Nazareth. Art Staff: B.Roy Choudhury, Nand K. Katyal, Kanti Roy, Kuldip Singh Jus, Gopi Gajwani. Productioll Staff: Awtar S. Marwaha, Mammen Philip. Photographic Services: usrs Photo Lab. Published by the United States Information Service, Bahawalpur House, Sikandra Road, New Delhi, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. Printed by Arun K. Mehta at Vakil & Sons Private Limited. Vakils House. Sprott Road. 18 Ballard Estate, Bombay-l.

Manuscripts and photographs sent for publication must be accompanied by stamped, self-addressed envelope for return. SPAN is not responsible for any loss in transit. Use of SPAN articles in other publications is encouraged except when they are copyrighted. For details, write to the Editor, SPAN. Subscription: One year, rupees five: single copy, fifty paise. Inasmuch as we are currently oversubscribed for SPAN, we regret that it will not be possible to accept any more subscriptions for the time being. For change of address, send old address from a r~cent SPAN envelope along with new address to A.K. Mitra, Circulation Manager. Allow six weeks for change of address to become effective.

DEAFENED

BY THE SHRIEK OF TECHNOLOGY, MAN NOW FACES THE REALIZATION THAT HIS SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS OFTEN UNDERMINE THE VERY ENVIRONMENT HE IS TRYING TO IMPROVE. THE FOLLOWING 12-PAGE SECTION DESCRIBES THE EARTH'S DELICATE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE THAT IS THREATENED BY ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION. IT ALSO OUTLINES SOME OF THE MEASURES BEING TAKEN TO REMEDY THIS GLOBAL PROBLEM.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE ONCE REFERRED TO THE EARTH AS "A BUBBLE OF MUD ... IN THE DARK EVER-MOVING CURRENT OF TIME." TRUE-BUT, AS THE GREAT POET HIMSELF WOULD ADMIT, IT IS THE ONLY BUBBLE OF MUD WE HAVE. AND TO ENSURE THAT IT STAYS A FIT PLACE FOR HUMAN HABITATION, COUNTRIES ALL OVER THE WORLD ARE ACTING-THROUGH THEIR OWN GOVERNMENTS AS WELL AS IN CONCERT WITH OTHER NATIONS.

ecology: The branch of science concerned with the inter-relationship of organisms and their environment. ecosystem: A complex of ecological community and environment forming a functioning whole in nature.

-Webster's

Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary

THESEARE the formal definitions of words increasingly prominent in everyday vocabulary, as more and more people and their governments express their concern over the defiling of the beautiful planet Earth-and are taking action to repair the damage.

Each nation as it strives to achieve its industrial goals and a better life for its people is, at the same time, contributing to the ecological problem that the whole world must now face.

The United States, as the world's most advanced technological nation, is also experiencing most acutely the environmental problems created by technology. In the past year the whole nation has become increasingly aware of the need to protect the natural world from the ravages of industrial progress. President Richard Nixon has spearheaded a broad-scale campaign to rescue the environment.

"We are," he has said, "determined that the decade of the '70s will be known as the time when this country regained a productive harmony between man and nature .... It is literally now or never."

In a message to the U.S. Congress, the President outlined

some 40 ways to improve the environment and asked for stricter nation-wide pollution standards than ever before. He also requested his newly-created Council on Environmental Quality to oversee and develop new programmes. And he asked the nation's leading industrialists to join the Federal fight against pollution through a National Industrial Pollution Control Council.

The governmental concern has by no means been confined to the national government. In state after state, from coast to coast, legislatures and governors have proposed measures or passed laws to combat pollution and improve the quality of the environment.

The power of the citizens has stimulated and accelerated governmental activity. President Nixon's authorization early in 1970 of $10 billion over a five-year period for the construction of new sewage-treatment plants directly reflected the will of the people. And the $800 million voted by the U.S. Congress to begin work on these plants was in large measure due to the campaign directed by the Citizens' Crusade for Clean Water.

But the ecosystem does not observe national boundaries. Of what use are one nation's laws for the conservation of ocean fisheries if other nations practise no such restraint? And how can one sovereign power legislate against the polluted air that drifts in from its neighbour? Fortunately, international cooperation is growing. Here are examples of the determination of the community of nations to take concerted action: 1. In 1968 the United Nations General Assembly voted to convene a World Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. The resolution was adopted unanimously, having been sponsored by fifty-five nations, ranging from the highly developed to the undeveloped and representing all hues of political coloration.

2. The industrialized countries of Europe, East and West, plus the United States, as members of the U.N.'s Economic Commission for Europe, meet in Prague this month to study environmental problems common to one another but as yet of little genuine interest to most other nations. The hope is that this will permit the Stockholm Conference to zero in on matters in which the developing countries have a real self-interest.

3. The World Health Organization decided to establish a . threaten to disturb the ecological balance of India. University global network of monitoring stations to detect changes in the Grants Commission Chairman Dr. D.S. Kothari in inaugurating¡ the meeting said that it represented an earnest step to find earth's environment. The stations are expected to supply WHO solutions to a very serious problem. Dr. Dillon Ripley, Secretary with information on levels of air pollution caused by sulphur of America's Smithsonian Institution, said that so many factors dioxide, dust, nuclear power-plant radiation, and other factors.

Data will be relayed to countries around the world from inter- are involved in disturbing the ecological balance that an interdisciplinary approach is called for. Dr. B.K. Nayar, Executive national centres in London and Washington, and from regional Secretary of the Indian National Science Academy, noted that stations in Moscow, Tokyo, Bombay and Nagpur. the "bringing together" of Indian and American specialists "has 4. In March¡ a Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) conference in Tehran decided that environmental pollution is stimulated thinking on the present status of ecology in India even more dangerous to developing countries than to the ad- and the emphasis needed for strengthening work in this field."

The Indian team included among others: Mr. Pitambar Pant, vanced. Awareness of pollution dangers is also on the rise ,in Chairman of the Environmental Council in India; Dr. Atma Africa. Recently, for example, Emperor Haile Selassie opened an anti-pollution campaign aimed at making the Red Sea a Ram, Director-General of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; Dr. Salim Ali, President of the Natural History cleaner body of water.

5. Also in March the World Peace Through Law Centre, an Society, Bombay; and Professor B.R. Seshachar, Head of the Department of Zoology, University of Delhi. international legal organization with headquarters in Geneva, took up the cause of improving the environment. It is sponsorThere is scarcely a nation in the world now where men and ing a contest for the best research papers on "Measures of women are not working to alert their fellow citizens to the an International Character Directed Towards Environmental dangers inherent in the despoliation of the environment. Action Problems." to repair it and protect it has been launched. Man, it would ap6. At a Geneva meeting held in March of the Stockholm pear, has finally come to see that all living creatures are dependConference preparatory committee, the United States stressed the importance of enabling developing countries to learn from ent upon one another, their lives interlocked by the three basic requirements for life: food, shelter, and the ability to reproduce. the environment-jeopardizing mistakes of the industrialized It has become evident at last that if Man were to succeedcountries. destroying other life forms through pollution Among developing countries which sent representatives to as he could-in the preparatory meeting, there was active interest in several and other carelessness, his own would soon follow the path to extinction. As the dominant species on earth, he may already aspects of the environmental problem. India, for instance, took a leading part in discussing the problem of soil erosion and the have altered the balance of nature beyond recall in certain areas.

It was Rabindranath Tagore who wrote: question of establishing a pool of genetic materials for agricul"Through millions and millions of years, the stars shine, ture and animal husbandry.

7. In New Delhi a four-day seminar on ecology was held fiery whirlpools revolve and rise in the dark ever-moving current recently under the sponsorship of the Indian National Science of time. In that current, the earth is a bubble of mud .... " But as men who have travelled into space have revealed, Academy. Forty top scientists, ecologists and naturalists diskicking the arid dust of the moon, the earth is the only bubble cussed the entire range of problems related to ecology: whether the growing human population, declining number of wildlife of mud we have for the foreseeable future. It is encouraging to species, increasing denudation of the countryside and rising note that men are beginning to unite in a new awareness of discharge into the atmosphere of industrial and other pollutants the common bond between themselves and nature.

END

Remember when the Peace The Peace Corps had some Corps happened? growing up to do, too.

There was an electricity, a It had to stop telling young ,shared smile. Most of us said, people that love alone conquers "What a great idea!" And all, because it doesn't. thousands of Americans It had to stop saying that said, "I want in."

11 ~, volunteers could be Just like that. The Peace . "agents of change" Corps was in business, ;:/ " political changeexporting a product that because it wasn't " ". ;,;., \ true. the cynics had made jokes about for two , .;/"'~ It had to stop hundred years: , ~ pretending it The American Innocence, "-, wasn't a United the notion that people States governcan change things. ment agency, The supply of because it is. volunteers ,was unlimited. ;,~~ It had to Before the Sixties ended <~. learn that'",', believe it or more than 40 000 ~!/'>::'1/! ~:~~ '~not- people in Americans - most ~f them young and whIte and ~~J' ' " faraway lands college educated - had .!i.~ ~ knowmore ,joined the Peace Corps. '{f.' about what they need than we do. (And when they ask for help, they're very specific: an electrician, two ,. city planners, five math teachers, an experienced farmer.)

'Today the Peace Corps is in 60 countries. That's 59 more What happened was that than it started in. It's changed America, the world's leading a lot, but so has the world and exporter of innocence, ran out so has America, and so - after all -have you. of the product at horne. Let's not go through the list again.

The Peace Corps is still a ,Growing up anytime, anyremarkable idea for people who where is hard work. Growing need to help,nose to nose. up in America has become But it's not like it used to be. almost unbearable.

It's better.

~:7~~'/~.

if:'I"rJ

Whatever, happened to the Peace Corps?

This year is a landmark for the Peace Corps as it enters its second decade, and also joins other U.S. organizations to form a new agency called

A NOVEMBER morning last year a green Jeep pulled up in the village of Banskho and the first man ever to walk on the moon got out. His historic deeds have made front-page headlines and tight-packed schedules a part of the pattern of Neil Armstrong's life, but to him this quiet rural interlude was time well spent.

For Armstrong is not only the worldfamous astronaut. He is also chairman of President Nixon's Peace Corps Advisory Council-a measure of the importance of that worldwide American institution, the Peace Corps. And the hero of outer space was in the Rajasthan village to get a downto-earth look at the contribution that Volunteers of the Corps are making there, as they are in so many places spread across the globe.

"All the Peace Corps Volunteers are doing excellent work in Rajasthan," the state's Chief Minister told Armstrong. "I wish to convey my thanks through you for this important co-operation." It is a sentiment that has been repeated many times in many parts of the world.

This year the Corps, created in 1961

by President John F. Kennedy, rounds out its first decade. Peace Corps Director Joseph H. Blatchford sees the birthday of this lusty lO-year-old as "the .beginning of an era of greater opportunity-not, as some have suggested,. the nostalgic end of a grand experiment." It continues to grow and diversify.

In 1961 me Peace Corps had 800 Volunteers at work in nine countries. In 1971 it has 9,000 Volunteers who serve in 60 lands and have learned to speak some 200 different languages and dialects, including Kru, in Liberia; Aymara, in Bolivia; Kadazan, in Sabah; and Wolof, in Senegal.

Today the Corps is experiencing a renewed surge of vitality. In 1961 most Volunteers were in either education, which is still a major field of effort, or community development. They now represent over 300 different skills ranging from small-business development to self-help housing. Requests for Peace Corps Volunteers from host countries are up for the first time in four years. Applications from aspiring

¡ON

continued

Peace Corpsmen like John Shryock (le/t. with Indian colleague) work in fisheries projects which help increase consumption 0/ protein. Advertisements (as at far left) in U.S. publications attract recruits to the Corps.

The help Peace Corps Volunteers provide stimulates ever -widening. economIC and social advancement.

Volunteers last year were up by as much as 41 per cent.

One of the best tributes to the Corps is the fact that several other countries, and the United Nations, have formed similar organizations. The United States enthusiastically supports the new UN Volunteer Corps with a proposed contribution of 200 Americans to its planned total strength of 1,200. And in India alone, in addition to the American Peace Corps, there are volunteers of six other nationalities-Canadian, . British, West German, Swedish, Danish, and Japanese.

Every member of the Peace Corps and similar groups comes in to do a specific job in a specific situation at the express request of the Indian Government. Predictably, most are in the public sector, the requests originating at state level. Peace Corps Volunteers are presently serving in 13 Indian states.

As with any maturing organization, progress in the Peace Corps has entailed change-shifts in emphasis, in range of activities, in age levels, in racial composition, in backgrounds of those recruited. To sum up these changes as a switch from non-skilled generalists to skilled specialists is an oversimplification, although there is a core of truth in it.

The bulk of the 40,000 Americans who have served in the Peace Corps since its inception have been generalists-young graduates of arts colleges. The proportion between these and the Volunteers with specialized skills has been about 95-to-5. This has changed, but not all that dramaticalIy; it now is around 75-to-25.

However, there are more meanings thil.ll one of the word skill. An engineer, say, possesses highly-specialized skills which he may put to very productive use when serv-

ing as a Volunteer. But there is also the arts-college graduate who can be trained to serve successfully in a limited, welldefined sector of, for instance, agriculture, without great previous experience of farming or farm life.

While it is impossible to make an agricultural expert out of a generalist in three months, it has proved possible to give him a short, intensive course in India in-for example-rice-growing that equips him to fill a limited but valuable role in extension work with rice farmers. That is how, in dozens of spheres of activity, the Peace Corp~ builds generalists into men and women skill-trained for a specific job.

The question is sometimes asked: aren't Volunteers displacing local people from employment? That is just what they are not doing. Volunteers work, by request of local authorities, in situations where there is a temporary shortage of the kind of middle-level manpower they can provide.

They help train local people to take their places, and their goal is to "work themselves out of a job."

And the Peace Corps Volunteer's work resembles a pebble which, cast into a pool, makes ever-widening ripples. In the sphere of agricultural extension, he may assist a state agriculture department in transferring to farmers new, productive knowledge and capabilities-relating to the high-yield varieties of food-grains, for instance. The Volunteer only needs to get the process started. Once some farmers are impressed with the success that one or two of their colleagues have had with the new techniques, the good word gets around rapidly.

Or, similarly, a Volunteer may help in the agriculture department's efforts to spread use of a new and more efficient type of rig for tube-wells. Indian crews are trained by the Volunteers, who also assist in getting the project well started, so that the Volunteers can leave after two years, when the need for their services is over.

In Indian education, Volunteers aid on two fronts where they can be of most use.

As Americans, their own linguistic-cultural milieu equips them eminently for Englishlanguage teacher-training-which, incidentally, helps them reach a much greater number of potential students than if they filled mere individual teacher roles. In science "workshops," the Volunteers help teachers by showing them how to make equipment from inexpensive, "throwaway"

materials, and informing them of new techniques of science teaching-for which, again, their science-oriented American educational background has particularly fitted them.

Volunteers are put through an average of three months' intensive preliminary training for whatever their specific field of activity may be. Sensibly, some 90 per cent 'of this is imparted in the host countryand, as far as possible, on or near the actual site where they are going to be working. The training is largely done by Indian institutions or government departments.

The local language, naturally, forms an important part of the curriculum; and it is taught by up-to-date, scientific methods, which give a learner the basics of his new idiom and equip him to attain growing mastery of it in the natural course of his ongoing Peace Corps activities.

A collegiate, youthful image is what most people associate with the Peace Corps, and this picture is basically accurate; the majority are university graduates in their mid-20s. But there is nothing rigid about the pattern, and Volunteers come in all ages, ranging right up to their 70s.

There is now also a general tendency to seek to attract more older, experienced Volunteers. . America's Peace Corps Volunteers and their host countries, of course, work in close harmony; facilities are jointly provided, and administrative personnel are bi-national. Indian state governments give each Volunteer simple housing, furnishings, and a bicycle; the United States pays a living allowance-to cover food, clothing, transport-and any medical bills. In the Corps' regional and national offices in this country, staff at the administrative/clerical level is Indian; at the programming/policymaking level, it is split in half between Indians and Americans.

Above all, the worldwide operations of the Peace Corps can be summed up in the phrase "give and take." While the Volunteers contribute to the peoples of India and five dozen other countries around the globe, they also benefit by forging warm . personal friendships and gaining first-hand, intimate knowledge of other cultures. END

Agriculture, education, health, small business -these are major fields in which Volunteers serve. Scene in rural clinic at right shows Peace Corps nurse helping treat a sick baby

Food 01the Gods Once considered fit only for divine consumption, mushrooms are today within the reach of mere mortals.

Cultivation of this delicacy is mushrooming in Himachal Pradesh, thanks to the efforts of an FAO expert.

Two of the many species of edible mushrooms, above and top.

Dr. Mantell demonstrates method of compost preparation, right.

AT A RECENT luncheon in Chail, Himachal Pradesh, the menu included pilau, curry, pakoras, vegetable dishes, and pickles. Unremarkable, you think, until it is mentioned that all these delicious items had a common ingredient-mushrooms.

Appropriately, the hundred-odd lunch guests were mushroom experts and growers from all over the country, delegates to the first seminar on mushroom cultivation ever held in India. The luncheon was given at the modern A & B Mushroom Farm. ChaiI itself-35 kilometres from Solan, the seminar venue-is known as "Mushroom Town"; mushrooms tinned in Chail find a good market not only in this country, but also abroad. In a word, this new small-scale industry is mushrooming.

Where does it all begin?

People commonly think of all living things as belonging to two great groups: the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom. But many modern scientists suggest that there is a third grouping-whose members, unlike plants, are without chlorophyll and cannot make their own food and, unlike animals, lack the power of movement.

Fungi comprise this "third kingdom."

Mycology (the science of fungi) has identified over 100,000species and believes some 250,000 exist. Fungi include yeasts, rusts, mildews, moulds-and mushrooms.

Mushrooms vary widely in size, shape, colour, odour, and flavour. They have been a delicacy since ancient times, when the Egyptians considered them fit only for Pharaohs and the Greeks and Romans called them the "food of the gods."

Enthusiasm for them remains high in our own day, finding outlets in organizations like the American Mushroom Institute, the Mushroom Growers Association of England, and the North American Mycological Association. John Cage today is a famed and prosperous American composer of avant-garde music, but back in the Depression '30s he sustained himself largely on mushrooms gathered in the fields.

Not surprisingly, he is the founder of the New York Mycological Society.

A great many species of mushrooms are edible, but relatively few have been cultivated for food, the principal one being known as Agaricus bisporus. It is varieties of this species which are grown commer-

cially in America and Europe and which have been found suitable for cultivation in Himachal Pradesh.

Not only are mushrooms delectable; they are a nutritious food, rich in proteins, minerals, and vitamins, and a pleasant aid to digestion. Alexander Woollcott once said that everything enjoyable is either illegal, immoral, or fattening, but mushrooms prove him wrong; they are ideal fare for those who wish to lose weight.

Mushrooms are commonly grown indoors in order to maintain the necessary constant temperature, in wooden trays J 5 to 23 centimetres deep. A specially-prepared compost is essential; "to most mushroom growers the smell of the compostingyard is the breath of life," rhapsodizes a leading British mushroom trade paper.

The stem and cap which form the mushroom's umbrella-shaped body have, instead of roots, a tangled underground inass of tiny threads called spawn. Good-quality spawn is basic for raising a mushroom crop. The Mushroom Research Institute and laboratory at Solan sold Rs. 29,000 worth of spawn to growers last year, expects to produce Rs. 40,000 worth this year, and has an annual production capacity of Rs. 2lakhs.

Much of the credit for the progress in mushroom cultivation made so far in Himachal Pradesh goes to a U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert attached to the Solan institute, Dr. E.F.K. Mantell of West Germany, who has been advising Indian growers for the past three years. Says Albert Bragg, an American mushroom grower in the state capital, Simla: "We have him entirely to thank for introducing us to this industry, and if mushroom cultivation comes up in Himachal Pradesh he will really have been the father of the industry. We are highly dependent on Dr. Mantell's knowledge and teehnical know-how."

A plant has been set up near Simla for processing and tinning mushrooms and other foods, and the state government has recently constructed a Rs. l2-lakh, airconditioned commercial mushroom house and modern spawn lab. Each year it will produce 60,000 bottles of spawn for supply throughout India and 3,600 kilogrammes of mushrooms. Dr. Mantell rates it as one of the best mushroom houses in Asia.

Highly prone to infection, mushrooms Greatly susceptible to disease, mushrooms are usually grown in wooden trays indoors, to ensure sanitary conditions, constant temperature.

must be grown in spotlessly clean, sanitai'y surroundings, free from flies and protected against air-borne diseases and those carried by man himself. Workers at Summer Hill, the Bragg farm, in their masks and special clothing, vaguely resemble hospital staff in their antiseptic appearance.

The mushroom industry abroad has developed some highly refined techniques.

It has reached the point where, says Al Bragg, "in Switzerland, they are able to have a mushroom grow on Saturday, stop growing Sunday, and start growing again

Monday, so that the cropping workers can have their day off on Sunday. This is done by simply turning down the temperature in the cropping-rooms 3°e and turning the carbon dioxide up 2 per cent."

It will be some time before Indian growers reach that level of sophistication.

But the increased production of mushrooms in India has already cut down the anJount of foreign exchange needed for their import. And insiders believe [ndia's mushroom export business is destined to "mushroom" rapidly.

END

%uriSt 'CJ: ' Iypes

WHAT; NO HERALD 'TRJ8UNE?•••• 1

Nobody knows how they all started -the stories about the English duchess, the parsimonious Scot, the Irish priest, or the Arab sheikh. In recent years this family of (types' has been joined by the American tourist as an object of goodnatured fun. On these pages, cartoonist Mario presents his view of American tourists in India.

"II YOU care about peOPle, become a Cop"

ropped up on a desk at the front of a college classroom, New York City police sergeant David Durk flings out a gritty challenge: "Why don't you guys become cops?" It is a tough question for the young law enforcement officerto ask. Among many disaffected and militant students, the status of policemen is very low and their role in society is regarded with misunderstanding and scepticism.

But this doesn't deter Durk who, during his spare time, tackles his recruiting job with unCOllUnon dedication. In fact, by going around to college campuses he has been able to clear up a lot of youthful misconceptions about

P

Answering questions from students, David Durk convinces them of the importance of being a policeman.

the life and aims of police work by presenting a first-hand account of what it is really like.

Appealing to young people's idealism, he says: "You say you want to do good. I'm telling you how. I'm offering you ajob where altruism merges with fun. I'm offering you an absolutely succulent job. I was bored out of my skull, falling into the same trap as everyone else. I'd be a lawyer and make money. Then I became a cop. I love being a cop .... It's showing compassion when people

are in trouble. If individuals really count, become a cop. If you really want to do good, if you really want to help people, become a cop. It's a real job dealing with real people and real problems."

Durk knows what he is talking about. In seven years on the force he has racked up an outstanding record. He was so effective as a patrolman that he was made a detective after only two years and a sergeant after five. And, though this makes his recruiting more effective, Durk still runs into suspicious, if not hostile, reactions from students. His repeated message to them is that collegetrained recruits can change negative attitudes towards the police.

"You college graduates," says Durk, "can get a better-paying job anytime. Therefore, you will be freer. You can show the average cop that it's not unmanly to be concerned, show compassion."

Durk seems to be getting through.

Since October of 1969, he has talked more than 200 young people into taking tests for the New York City police force and for other cities as well. Part of his own reward is the satisfaction he knows those who do become policemen can find. He says: "They're going to discover that it's a heady feeling to be able to say to yourself: 'Things are different because I'm there.' "

Patrolling deserted, dimlylit streets, Gary Abrecht still prefers walking his beat, left, to desk work.

Right, police "jump suit" is worn by Mary Ellen on special assignments, but husband Gary always wears his uniform when on duty.

A member of the juvenile division, Mary Ellen confers with her colleagues on the police force, below.

Dneloung

couPle who got the message Although they have never met Sergeant Durk, Gary and Mary Ellen Abrecht of Washington, D.C., are just the kind of new cops that he talks about-bright young college graduates who view police work as a chance to change the world around them. "I can help people," says Gary, "at the moment they need help the most.

It's good to do something for someone else."

His wife Mary Ellen joined the force after she inadvertently

talked with a police recruiter while she was phoning to ask about a youth recreation job. She was initially sceptical and not altogether sure about becoming a policewoman, who must carry a revolver in her purse. But she has since found that her work involves compassion more often than action-cases such as abandoned babies, family fights and troubled kids.

Intrigued by his wife's experiences, Gary gave up his job as a sixth-grade Latin teacher to join the force. After over a year, he is convinced more than ever of the importance of what he is doing and speaks for both himself and his wife when he decries the use of violence: "I'm not a fighter because I don't believe a policeman has to be a fighter to be good."

END

Three times have men from Earth walked on the surface of the moon. The latest -Apollo 14's astronauts-brought back many striking lunar photographs.

Mission commander Alan Shepard vividly evoked the moonscape: "There are no trees; the near horizon is very close; there's no colour difference as on Earth, just the starkness of the place."

At a news conference, Shepard suggested that among the many beneficial results of space exploration would be the possibility of predicting earthquakes.

On the rim of the moon's Cone Crater, Shepard and Edgar Mitchell picked up whitish rocks that have turned out to be the oldest lunar material ever recovered, perhaps dating back to the birth of the moon 4,600 million years ago. Mitchell reported a major scien~ific finding: levels of local magnetism three times higher-perhaps due to residual volcanic activity-than recorded at the two earlier Apollo landing sites. Stuart Roosa, who snapped thousands of photos from orbit while Shepard and Mitchell walked on the lunar surface beneath, showed pictures of "the youngest crater ever seen on the moon's far side" and of a new feature like a winding ditch ("the Thing") on the near side that has stirred much excitement among geologists.

Visible in picture at right, taken by automatic camera mounted on hand-pulled toolcart, is Alan Shepard's wrist-strapped checklist of jobs to do on moon. Edgar Mitchell (background) operates scientific devices. Above, Shepard assembles a tool in the course of his moonwalk,

ALSEP (Apollo IUllarsurface experiments package) central station, left, handles power and data distribution. Top picture shows gialtt boulders on Fra Mauro.

Above (foreground, left to right), astronauts Mitchell, Roosa, and Shepard examine rocks they brought back from moon.

END

TIME AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE LABORATORY a Western Electric engineer feeds a 45,000-cycles-per-second signal into an oscilloscope. The green squiggles that appear on the screen are a visual presentation of the signal as it changes with time.

The layman, to the extent that he stops to think of it, must wonder how it is possible to divide the second into such small parts and to do so accurately and consistently.

Yet, the ability to divide time intervals accurately is essential to many of the conveniences we enjoy today. All electro-communications systems and all Western Electric equipment-from "voice frequency" (which begins around 75 cycles per second) to pulse code modulation equipment working in the giga-Hertz (billions of cycles per second) range-are dependent upon consistent time divisions and the term "cycles per second"-or its modern equivalent, Hertz-is commonplace.

How man has progressed from counting moons to dividing the second is a story that covers centuries, a story that is not yet ended, and one to which the Bell Telephone System has made a number of contributions.

Time is man's most precious commodity and his records since the dawn of the written word indicate his preoccupation with its passing. Today there is, fortunately, enough general agreement on how to measure time to permit our civilization to operate smoothly. This agreement has not always existed. The telephone was already nine years old, for instance, before the world adopted standard time.

The ancient Egyptians made an early contribution to time reckoning when they noticed that a particular star rose in the sky just before dawn at about the same time the Nile had its annual flood. They counted 3651days between these star risings:"When it came to making a calendar, though, they provided for an interval of only 365 days.

Consequently, the date marking the floods kept getting later and later.

What happens in a millionth of a second? To find that, a bullet's flight was recorded by a camera. It took 60 millionths of a second for the bullet to pass through a playing card.

Worldwide recognition of a system of time zones is less than 100 years old and it was not nntil 1925 that astronomers began using a day that began at midnight rather than at noon.

The study of time reckoning goes on and American industries, with important stakes in the results, assist in the search for accuracy.

Julius Caesar managed the troublesome quarter-day by introducing the leap year concept, reducing the calendar's error to one day every 128 years. By the year 1582, however, this error had put the Julian calendar 10 days ahead. At this point scientists working for Pope Gregory XII eliminated the 10 days and cancelled leap year in the century years (those ending in -00) unless the year could be divided by 400. With this move they stabilized the calendar to within 26 seconds of the solar year and gave us the calendar a good part of the world uses today.

Whereas the reckoning of the year evolved methodically, the smaller time intervals we use today represent a curious combination of science and superstitiontradition. Babylonian astronomer-priests divided the heavens into 12 sections, the zodiac. The time it took for the sun to travel from one section to the next roughly coincided with the period required for the moon to complete its phases and the coincidence was strong enough to perpetuate itself into our months. The ancients also divided day and night into 12 hours each in recognition of the "power" of the zodiac's number 12.

And our hour and minute? Again credit the Babylonians who considered 60 a mystic number and used it widely in all measurements. Sixty has great versatility because it can be divided by many numbers, so it was an excellent choice for time measurement.

Which brings us to the present and the observation that many details in the matter of time measurement have been settled recently and that refinements will, in. an probability, go on forever. For instance: It was not until late in the last century

that universal sanction was given standard time. An international conference in Washington in 1884 brought order out of chaos, set up 24 equal belts of time, and established the zone time based on the Greenwich meridian-the time that is now adoptedalmost everywhere.

As our own century headed for its midpoint there was another big change. One would think that time measurement 30 years ago was precise enough for the average person to catch his favourite radio programme or show up at the dentist's on time, but scientists persisted in their quest for ever more accuracy. The rotation of the earth was the sole standard of time determination until around 1940 when it became certain that the rotational speed of the earth was not constant. This meant that solar time was non-uniform. Scientists introduced a new kind of time, called ephemeris time (E.T.), which is uniform, and is defined by the revolution of the earth about the sun. In 1955 they adopted the E.T. second as their standard.

Computation of ephemeris is not a matter for the corner jeweller. An B.T. second is defined as 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900. Solar time continues in civil use, but ephemeris time is employed when scientific and technical needs for accuracy exceed one part in 10,000,000.

In 1928W.A. Marrison and J.W. Horton built the first quartz crystal clock at Bell Telephone Laboratories. This clock works on the principle that if appropriate current is supplied, a precision-shaped quartz crystal will vibrate a certain number of times per second with great regularity. These vibrations can be used to regulate alternating electric current which in turn will run electric clocks. Quartz crystal clocks have been brought to such a high stage of reliability and precision that through their use it was possible to determine the variations in the speed of the rotation of the earth. Good quartz crystal units are accurate to about .00002 second per day. In the 1940s these clocks became the only kind used at the Greenwich and United States Naval Observatories.

Although the quartz crystal clock's continued

From counting moons, man has advanced to building clocks of fantastic accuracy. variations are too small for the layman to worry about, the need for greater accuracy does exist as technology leaps ahead. In the next step, scientists turned to molecules and atoms for the most dependable to-andfro motion known in nature. The ammonia molecule has atoms which will vibrate at the incredible rate of 2,837 billion times per second if high frequency radio \yaves are used to excite the ammonia gas. In 1951, C.H. Townes, a Bell Telephone Laboratories Nobel Prize winner, used the ammonia molecule to stabilize a microwave amplifier called the MASER (microwave amplification by simulated emission of radiation). The MASER's signal, like that of the quartz crystal, was piped off to run a clock that could be read directly.

The latest and most accurate working development in timekeepers is a clock that uses the atoms of the element cesium. Tuning is so precise on these clocks that the frequency can be measured to one part in 30 billion-equivalent to a discrepancy of one second in 1,000 years. This is the accuracy of a cesium clock at the National Physical Laboratory near London.

And what does all this n~ean? To repeat, the number of times per second an electrical signal vibrates is a concept that is the basis of the whole telecommunications industry. Extraordinary care must be taken to ensure that the frequencies are accurate, and this means that test sets must be calibrated against exceedingly accurate timereckoning devices.

To illustrate, take the new Touch-Tone telephone. The caller punches out a number and as keys are depressed they generate combinations of tones. These tones are received by apparatus that must discriminate accurately between the various pitches. Although the frequency control is not hypercritical-the tones are in the range of 6981636 cycles per second and can be off 10 or 12 cycles and still function-there would be disabling confusion if the calibration at either end were far enough off for neighbouring numbers, rather than the ones dialled, to be understood by the receiving equipment.

Teletypewriter transmission is similar, but greater speed is involved, and a few frequency generators being off wouldconsidering the 1,200 word-per-minute

capability of Teletype's new Inktronic machine-result in a large quantity of gibberish being transmitted.

With the pulse code modulation system for T carrier, accuracy is critical. Variation can be no more than one part ill a million.

It has been estimated that in this decade, data will be transmitted at the rate of 50,000 bits per second over a band of frequencies extending from 40-110 billion cycles per second. With information flying at such speed on that many paths, one errant signal could waylay a lot of messages.

And how does Western Electric achieve this accuracy? Its capability is, of course, built into the design, but fine tuning is one of the last operations of manufacture. An engineer designs the testing set-up and specifies what is to be achieved and skilled technicians then calibrate the test sets against which the product is checked. The standards they use are signals broadcast by the United States National Bureau of Standards' radio station WWV. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission requires that telecommunications equipment calibration be based on WWV. Western Electric service centres maintain accuracy of both their own and telephone company equipment after it leaves the factory. The Service Division provides the centres with receivers tuned to WWV. From WWV's signal, service centre technicians tune an accurate time device, and from this secondary standard, calibrate their test sets. The usual secondary standard is a crystal-controlled oscillator which is sometimes checked as often as once a day.

Perhaps the most accurate clock in Western Electric is at the North Carolina Works in Winston-Salem.

Designed by Bell Labs, it is a quartz crystal instrument that probably won't be off more than a second in 300 years.

Dialling numbers, sending voices, selecting one voice from millions carried through the air on radio frequencies rigidly prescribed by the Federal Communications Commission-all are done with equipment working with constantly controlled electrical frequencies, some occurring billions of times per second. From counting moons to dividing the second-in time reckoning we've come a long way from the ancient who thousands of years ago placed a stick into the ground to observe its shadow.

Woman at right sets her watch by the world's //lost accurate public clock in New York. The clock is accurate to within 1/20th of a second.

. ;. ii . 1 .* '" .. "..•

.•

~ ~

'

". t •.

..... "

Painting, top, by Nick Voglein shows some unusual time-keeping instrumentsfrom the past. 1. Ancient Roman Sundial. 2. Indian Time Stick-The stick had a hole at the top into which a short peg was inserted at a right angle. It was then held up by a string at the

•i

end and the shadow cast by the peg on the side of the stick showed the time. 3. Candle ClockAn early method utilized colour in the candle at intervals which, it was estimated, would take an hour to burn down. 4. Sand Glass (or hOIll" glass). 5. Chinese Dragon Fire Clock-A rod made of sawdust and pitch placed ina small bOlllshaped vessel, across which two balls were hung on a thread. When one end of the rod was lighted. after a given time the fire reached the thread, the balls then fell with a clang on a metal tray beneath. 6. Oil Clock-A lamp burning oil was kept in a vessel with graduated markings whereby the time could be toldfrom the level of the fuel. 7. Egyptian Shadow Clock-The tail was placed in an East- West position with the "T" -piece north and south. It would have to he turned arollnd at midday. 8. Pendulum Clock.

END

,

A FOREIGN AID advisory panel, reporting to the President of the United States last year, noted that "apathy and misunderstanding ... seem to surround the issues" of international assistance programmes. Indeed, throughout the history of 20th-century aid programmes, misunderstanding of the methods and aims of foreign assistance has adversely affected both public support and actual operations of such programmes.

Yet, at the same time that United States interest, official and public, seems to be at a low point, there have been a number of reports, within and outside the Johnson and Nixon Administrations, aimed at restoring this interest and making U.S. aid programmes more effective.

These reports and other studies have helped focus the issues of foreign aid and are making inroads on improving public and official understanding of aid policy. A close examination of the various reports shows, of course, diverse opinion and suggestions; still, there are a number of recurring recommendations.

By comparing these reports and isolating their similarities, one begins to see an evolving consensus on foreign aid policy. How many of these points of agreement become part of actual United States aid policy is yet unknown, but several have already received positive action or at least an affirmative nod from President Nixon. A survey of the ten consensus points follows.

Since the mid-l 960s, U.S. foreign aid expenditures have steadily declined. The U.S. Congress appropriated just $1,500 million in economic assistance for 1970 compared to $2,500 million in 1963. Of the 16 aid donor members of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), only three have reached the "one per cent of GNP" aid target which was presented at the second UNCTAD meeting in New Delhi in 1968.

While higher, or even steady, levelsin foreign assistance by aid donors are highly uncertain, there appears to be general support by the various study groups for increasing such expenditures. This support is clearly evident in both the Pearson report to the World Bankl and the Peterson report to President Nixon.2 But, unlike the Pearson Commission, which recommended that the U.S. official aid flows should be raised to 0.70 per cent of the country's GNP by 1975, the Peterson group declined to name a specific annual figure. It maintained that this approach "puts the emphasis on the wrong side of the partnership and that the real test should be the determination of less-developed countries to mobilize their own resources and to adopt policies that will ensure the Mr. Quentin West is Administrator Service of the U.S. Department has been reprinted with permission

of the Economic Development of Agriculture.

This article from FAa's magazine Ceres.

IPartners in Development. Report of the World Bank Commission on International Development headed by former Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson. September 1969.

'U.S. Foreign Assistance in the I970s: A New Approach.

Report to the President from the Task Force on International Development, March 1970. This study, headed by Bank of America president Rudolph Peterson, was requested by the U.S. Congress.

effective use of funds." However, the Peterson task force did recommend an annual increase of $500 million in U.S. contributions to international development banks by 1972 and increased multi-year financing for U.S. bilateral programmes.

The two Pearson benchmarks for aid commitments were: Increase aid volume (official plus private) to at least one per cent of the GNP by 1975 (the United States contribution in 1968 was 0.65 per cent, or $5,700 million).

Increase official aid flows to 0.70 per cent of the GNP by 1975 (the United States contribution in 1968 was 0.39 per cent, or $3,300 million. A 0.70 per cent level of GNP for 1975is estimated at $6,200 million for the United States).

O

fficial and private assistance by advanced countries, including the United States, should be one per cent of GNP, according to the Committee for Economic Development. 3 "Beyond 1970, the flow of resources to developing countries should increase at a rate that would permit the target of one per cent of Gross National Product to be met by 1975," said the Committee. The CED study group included, interestingly enough, Rudolph Peterson, leader of the aforementioned Presidential task force; Peterson also served on the Perkins Committee." The Peterson and Perkins studies yielded similar recommendations.

Allocating aid on just an annual basis, according to the Pearson report, contributes seriously to the unpredictability of future aid. "The stop-go situations which result make adoption of long-term policies, particularly bold ones, exceedingly difficult," it says.

The Hannah study groupS was one of the first to recommend longer-term financing. His task force, comprised of various American university officials, asked that the process of institution-building in developing countries be financed for "appropriate duration," not limited by annual authorizations. This idea has since been endorsed in many discussions and figured prominently in the reports by the National Planning Association,6 the Pearson Commission, the Committee for Economic Development, and the most recent one by the Peterson group. (continued) 3Assisting Development in Low-Income Countries: Priorities for Policy. September 1969. Committee for Economic Development.

u.s. Government

'The "Perkins Report" (Development Assistance in the New Administration. Report of the President's General Advisory Committee on Foreign Assistance Programmes headed by Cornell University president James Perkins. October 1968.)

"The "Hannah Report" (International Development Assistance.

January 1969. A statement by the task force on international developmental assistance and international education of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Universities. The task force was headed by John Hannah, then president of Michigan State University and now Administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development-U.S.A.LD.) "The "NPA Report" (A New Conception of U.S. Foreign Aid. March 1969. National Planning Association.)

In a step towards this direction, the U.S. aid programme now operates on a two-year authorization from Congress but still must weather an annual Congressional budget appropriations process. This falls short of the Pearson formula for all aid-givers to "consider extending appropriation periods to at least three years, and permitting appropriated funds to be carried forward for several years." Related to this is the CEO suggestion: "In order to permit more rational agricultural planning in both the United States and recipient countries, we recommend that U.S. food aid be financed by the Congress on a longer-term basis than the present two-year authorizations and one-year appropriations .... " This is in addition to its comment that authorizations for bilateral lending should be for at least three years.

4

The recommendation that more appropriated aid funds be channelled through multilateral organizations such as the development banks is, perhaps, one of the most difficult to accept by dortor nations. National lawmakers do not like the idea of losing .control of that money. There is mistrust of the abilities of international institutions. Some aid policies serve commercial interests. And, of course, the idea that foreign aid should be somewhat of a "public relations" instrument of a nation's foreign policy often blurs the more practical issues involving the relative effectiveness of multilateral versus bilateral aid. These reasons and many others obstruct moves to multilateral aid. Indeed, one estimate shows that such aid accounts for only about 10 per cent of official U.S. development assistance.

R

owever, the multilateral trend has been endorsed oy President Nixon who, in February 1970, noted in a report to Congress that multilateral institutions must play an increasing role in the provision of aid, thereby minimizing the political and ideological complications which can affect the assistance.

The Peterson report emphasized that the United States should re-design its policies so that "the international lending'institutions become the major channel for development assistance and that U.S. bilateral assistance is provided largely within a framework set by the international organizations." Here is the line-up of the various reports: Pearson-Strengthen the multilateral aid system and increase multilateral aid to a minimum of 20 per cent of total aid flow from each donor by 1975.

NPA-Channel more development funds through multilateral agencies, specifically, a transfer of a significant amount of United States development funds to the World Bank group.

Perkins-Contributions to multilateral agencies should be expanded as rapidly as possible and the United States should welcome the leadership of a strengthened World Bank in providing more aid and co-ordinating bilateral programmes.

Hannah':-Funnel funds for capital assistance through international agencies to the possible extent.

The National Planning Association does, however, sound a qualifying note. While it favours increased multilateral aid, it says: "Multilateralization is not a panacea nor should it be made the sole-or even the major-ehannel for U.S. foreign aid for some time to come." Reasons: The United States needs substantial bilateral programmes so that "it can provide assistance rapidly in special situations" and so that its influence for sound development objectives can be effective; The United States already supplies nearly half of the resources available to multilateral agencies; therefore, transferring the bulk qf the U.S. bilateral funds without corresponding increases from other nations would "seriously compromise the international character" of the international agency; and Except for the World Bank group and the International Monetary Fund, the "international financing and technical assistance agencies have not yet for the most part adequately demonstrated the capacity for exercising effective influence for sound development policies." ,

The recorded public and publicly-guaranteed debt of the developing countries stood at $47,500 million as of mid-1968, according to the Pearson study. The Peterson group pegs the current debt at closer to $50,000 million.

"Overhanging the entire aid picture," the CEO report says, "is the growing burden on the developing countries of debt-servicing requirements. In the 1956-67 period, their annual debt service grew from $800 million to approximately $4,700 million, of which $3,100 million were amortization payments and $1,600 million interest."

To relieve this "growing burden," the Pearson study urges aid donors to consider debt relief a "legitimate form of aid." President Nixon, reacting to a suggestion generated by the Rockefeller study in Latin America,7 has called for studies of methods to ease the debt burden of the developing nations. The Peterson, the NPA ("contiriue concessionary terms of U.S. development assistance loans to bring debt relief to recipient nations"), and the-CEO reports all support some type of debt relief programme.

Encourage outside private investment within developing nations "Private investment," said President Nixon in his February 1970 foreign policy presentation to Congress, "must playa central role in the development process." But, he qualified his statement, "to whatever extent desired by the developing nations themselves."

Outside investment has spawned a history of P9litical 'The Rockefeller Report on the Americas. The official findings of a U.S. Presidential mission for the Western Hemisphere, headed

by New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller. August 1969.

sensitivity, largely because of the developing nations' fear of foreign domination. Yet, as the Pearson report pointed out, there appears to be an improvement in the "behaviour and attitude of foreign companies, partly in response to host-country pressures, partly as a consequence of increasing international interdependence and co-operation."

The ~earson report supports foreign investment, noting that it "has contributt;p greatly to the growth of developing countries and can do even more in the future .... "

III &

he Peacson Cnmmi"ion

encoumged developed

and developing nations alike to improve investment opportunities. To the developing nations, it says to take immediate steps, "where consistent with legitimate national objectives, to identify and remove disincentives to domestic private investment" and also to maintain the "greatest possible stability in their laws and regulations" affecting such investment. To the developed nations, it recommended that they strengthen their overseas investment incentive schemes.

Relating to this suggestion, the Perkins 1968 report earlier advocated what it called an "Overseas Investment Corporation" which would take over the present investment guarantee and investment promotion functions of the U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S.A.LD.) and work to expand private investment in less-developed countries. The National Planning Association wanted a "Private Enterprise Development Corporation," the Committee for Economic Development encouraged developing nations to create a better foreign investment climate, and the Rockefeller and Peterson groups endorsed the Nixon Administration proposal for an "Overseas Private Investment Corporation." This "OPIC" was authorized by the U.S. Congress and has now been organized.

There was general agreement by the Peterson, CED, Pearson, and Rockefeller studies that the practice of "tying" economic assistance to the purchase of U.S. goods be ended or at least curtailed.

Accordingly to the Pearson study, tied aid is the most serious of all the limitations on the flexibility of aid and imposes many different costs on aid-receiving countries.

Tied aid, it says, "requires them to purchase goods from donors at prices often substantially above those in competitive world markets. Tying of shipping and insurance in some cases adds further to such direct costs. Estimates of direct costs¡ vary, but individual country studies indicate that they frequently exceed 20 per cent."

In his Action for Progress for the Americas address in October 1969, President Nixon emphasized that tied loans should be freed to allow purchases not only in the United States but anywhere in Latin America. The tying requirement in aid to Latin America was subsequently relaxed and extended to a total of 90 developing nations around

the world, including India. These countries are now free to use U.S. aid funds for purchasing goods from each other and from the United States.

Recent American Presidential statements on aid policy give positive attention to a liberal system of tariff preferences for developing nations, as do the Peterson and Pearson reports. Peterson, discussing preferential arrangements, notes that "unlike grants and loans, opening the markets of industrial economies to the products of developing countries does not lead to debt-servicing problems for developing nations or financial burdens for industrial countries. On the contrary, cheaper imports and a larger volume of trade would add to the real incomes of all participating countries and help to contain inflationary pressures."

B

ecommending that the developed countries eliminate certain excise and import duties on products of developing nations, the Pearson report notes that "in the long run, only the evolution of their (developing nations') trade with other nations, together with a growing capacity to substitute domestic production for imports, will enable the developing countries to grow without the help of concessional finance."

Increased exports from less-developed countries as an integral part of development was also endorsed in the 1970 Economic Report of the President to the U.S. Congress.

The report says that freer trade has many long-range benefits to both trading partners. But recognizing that relaxation of tariffs and other barriers may, in the short run, hurt some American producers, the report indicates that the U.S. Government should help these producers adjust to the new trade patterns.

In discussing a "framework for free and equitable inter~ national trade," the Pearson Commission took both the developed and developing countries to task: "The first requirement for rapid international development is continued vigorous expansion of world trade. However, many developing countries must become more outward-looking and competitive if they are to take advantage of this expansion. Trade policies of advanced countries also raise many obstacles to the growth of export earnings for lessdeveloped economies."

More emphasis on agriculture and population programmes Both agriculture and population programmes received emphasis from most of the studies, just as they have in recent aid programmes. Funds'for family planning authorized by the U.S. Congress reached $75 million for 1971, compared to $35 million appropriated two years ago. U.S.A.LD. last year committed $415 million for agricultural programmes, .the fourth successive year in which such commitcontinued

ments exceeded $400 million. made its first population Jamaica.

The Perkins group said on agriculture and population for Economic Development emphasis on agriculture but population control.

III &

The World Bank just recently control loan-$2 million to U.S. assistance should focus control, while the Committee endorsed present U.S. aid called for more attention to

h, Hannah "port sngg,st,d

huilding "high quality

research and training centres in developing countries to concentrate on regional and international foodpopulation problems." The NPA, Rockefeller, Pearson, and Peterson groups added their support to emphasis on agriculture.

In his message on population of July 1969, President Nixon recommended, among other things, high priority for attention to personnel, research, and financing of population assistance in the U.S. foreign aid programme. To follow up on this population message, the President called on the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agency for International Development to investigate ways of adapting and extending U.S. agricultural experience and capabilities to improve food production and distribution in developing nations. The principal recommendations were: Substantial increase in U.S.AJ.D. support of an international agricultural research network, in both developed and developing countries, directed at problems of agricultural growth in the latter.

Expanded efforts to obtain, impart, and apply knowledge of soil and water in order to increase food production and protect the environment.

Increased and more relevant agricultural training in both the United States and the developing countries.

Emphasis on development of central governments, especially ministries of agriculture, to plan and manage agricultural programmes and to provide supporting services to the agricultural sector.

Separate military aid from other assistance programmes "Development assistance is a tricky enough business without combining it with major military co-operation or assistance for security reasons," the Perkins group said as it recommended that the two types of assistance be legislatively separated from one another. Both Perkins and Peterson reports say that the military assistance should remain under the Secretary of State's policy guidance.

The Perkins report goes on to say: " ... If the development assistance agency is to have credibility, the influence which it tries to exert on the key development policies of host countries must be visibly devoted to the economic well-being of their citizens. It must try to make its judgments about aid levels stick on objective grounds unencumbered by leverage for defence co-operation."

Several proposals centred around replacing the present U.S. Agency for International Development with new organizations. The Peterson group, commissioned by the President, has possibly been the most specific in its recommendati'ons although the Rockefeller, Hannah, CED, NPA, and Perkins reports also emphasize the matter.

The restructuring recommended by the Peterson study follows these lines: A new U.S. International Development Bank for capital and related technical assistance loans (multi-year capitalization of $2,000 million from Congress and authority to borrow another $2,000 million from the public).

A new International Development Institute to concentrate on research, training, population, and other programmes, but with fewer than present technicians and advisers overseas (multi-year authorization of $1,000 million).

A

new International Development Council to coordinate U.S. aid (serving on the Council would be the Secretaries of Agriculture, State, Treasury, the President of the Export-Import Bank, the Peace Corps Director, and the executives of the new "Bank," "Institute" and "Corporation").

The "Bank" and the "Institute" would need regional and in some cases country representatives, but the principal operating decisions would be made in Washington.

The Hannah group wanted a new agency, separate from the State Department and insulated from short-run U.S. foreign and domestic policy. The Perkins report called for a "streamlined" agency to replace U.S.A.J.D., possibly named the Development Co-operation Fund, which would be authorized to use long-term loans on liberal terms for capital assistance and grants for technical assistance. The National Planning Association suggested an autonomous technical assistance and development research institute, jointly financed by the United States Government and private organizations.

Clearly, the consensus items covered here have been discussed at great lengths by development experts long before appearing in any of these reports. But the future of foreign assistance is far too important to be left to the experts alone; the American public and the national decision-makers must be involved as well. The authoritative information and conclusions in these reports will help dispel misunderstandings, thus contributing to a more favourable political climate for foreign aid.

Except for the Pearson report, these studies were, admittedly, aimed at U.S. assistance. Yet the issues involved may be universal; other donor nations may face similar problems and opportunities. A close study of these reports can help these nations, as well as the United States, come to grips with crucial issues involving the future of the developing world.

END

TALOHIR

SPURS

INDUSTRIAL OROWTH

Assured of a steady supply of electricity, new industries are springing up around the Talcher Thermal Power Station in Orissa.

"WITH THE development of power; industry grows. That means more jobs for electricians and other craftsmen. Power projects like the Talcher Thermal Power Station are sure to transform our lives," remarks Mr. S.N. Biswal, an instructor at the Industrial Training Institute (IT!) at the Talcher coalfield. Many of the students at ITI acknowledge the impact of the power station on their lives, and on the future of Orissa state.

"Our future is promising," says Sashi Bhusan Sahu, 18, a first-year trainee in the Electricians Section. His native village is Ghantapara in the District of Dhenkanal.

His classmate, Akshaya Kumar Rout, 20, is also looking forward to a more comfortable life in his village, Jagannathpur, Cuttack, when he completes the two-year course for electricians.

The 250-megawatt Talcher Thermal

Power Station is near the Talcher coalfield in northern Orissa. Combined with other hydroelectric projects in the state, it assures a steady flow of power for private and industrial uses. It provides power in larger bulk to the neighbouring areas of Jajpur Road, Kendrapara, Paradeep and Bhadrak where the present supply is limited due to circuitous low-voltage distribution lines. Talcher's power is also used to support the Hirakud and Balimela hydroelectric power stations when their reservoirs are low.

One of the largest beneficiaries of the station is the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), which operates the Talcher coal mines to meet the requirements of coal-based industries. Although the NCDC has explored only a small part of the 2,190 square-mile coalfield, it is estimated that the coal reserves are about

30,000 million tonnes-sufficient to meet the power requirements of the coal-based industries in the area for many years to come. Assured of adequate power, new industries are moving into the district.

Because of Talcher power, the Ferrochrome Plant capable of producing 10,000 tonnes of chrome alloys per year was recenHy. -':built at Jajpur Road by the Industrial Development Corporation of Orissa Limited. During its first year of production the project earned about Rs. 90 lakhs in foreign exchange.

Power development in Orissa is relatively new. The state started with about 300 kilowatts in 1945; with the completion of the Hirakud Dam Project and the Talcher Thermal Power Station, it now has a total capacity of 554 megawatts. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) provided the total foreign

exchange requirements for the Talcher power project, amounting to $28.4 million (Rs. 21.30 crores). It also provided Rs. 18.74 crores from the Public Law 480 (Food for Peace) Programme to meet the local costs. The Hirakud Dam Project was built with the aid of a loan of Rs. 4.99 crores from the Food for Peace Programme. This project, with a generating capacity of 270 megawatts, aids in the control of floods and provides irrigation facilities.

Mr. T.e. Mohapatra, Chief Engineer, Electricity, Orissa State Electricity Board, said of these projects, "They opened up new avenues for industrialization, lift irrigation, and village electrification in the truest sense. An aluminium factory at Hirakud, a paper mill at Brajrajnagar, a cement factory at Rajgangpur, and a ferromanganese plant at Joda were soon set up by private entrepreneurs. The major steel

Above, workers install the fourth generator at the Talcher Thermal Power Station.

The 250-megawatt plant also supports the hydroelectric projects at Hirakud and Balimela.

At left, an overall view of the Talcher station,

plant of Orissa at Rourkela also depends heavily on Hirakud power."

Mr. Mohapatra also pointed out the vast potential for further industrialization.

Utilizing the by-products of the existing steel plant, polystyrene, ammonium sulphate and nitrogenous fertilizer could be manufactured here. Surplus chlorine produced at the existing caustic soda plant could be used for making pesticides. With Orissa's large deposits of kaolin and china clay, insulators could also be manufactured.

Orissa forests make a hardboard plant another industrial possibility.

Situated as it is in the hub of the industrial belt, and with its tremendous stores of mineral wealth, Orissa can play a major role in the development of the national economy. The growth of electric power in the state is a significant step towards this goal.

END

Tapping the rich cultural heritage of the American Negro) the Alvin Ailey Dance Theatre has reached the top of the modern dance world.

IT'S THE SAME ROUTINE wherever they go: the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre members play to packed houses and draw thunderous ovations, although there is certainly nothing routine about their performances. From the sophisticated capitals of Europe to small American college towns, their unique blend of dance artistry and special dance idiom touches a responsive chord in audiences. In Hamburg, Germany, for example, the people simply refused to go home after a concert and the company received an unprecedented 61 curtain calls!

But popularity is not all. During the 13 years of its existence, the Ailey group has built a distinctive repertory, unlike any other group's, which features Negro folk themes and movement, but embraces classical and other contemporary concepts as well. In addition, the predominantly black company has been polished into a brilliant, smoothly functioning unit that now ranks among the best modern dance companies in the world.

Alvin Ailey is Texas-born, California-reared. He is an enormously gifted choreographer and director, for many years a top-flight dancer, and founder-director of the American Dance Theatre. At one time he was associated with one of the great black entertainers of the age, Harry Belafonte.

Discussing the basic appeal of his group, Ailey says: "The cultural heritage of the American Negro is one of America's richest treasures. From his roots as a slave, the American Negro-sometimes sorrowing, sometimes jubilant, but always hopeful-has created a legacy of music and dance which has touched, illuminated and influenced the most remote preserves of world civilization. I and my dance theatre celebrate in our programmes this trembling beauty."

Ailey, whose company is inter-racial both with respect to performers and choreographers, is proud of his black heritage, but, as an artist, he is deeply concerned with universality. "I have a black dance heritage," he says, "but I'm a black American and I live today. I'm as much Balanchine, de Mille, Tamiris, Robbins as I am Dunham and Primus and other black dance leaders .... I feel strongly black, but I don't do only black things, because I'm an American.

Some criticize me for this, but in my dances I'm talking about people. I'm looking for a universal statement."

Ailey has created major dance works to compositions by black musicians and white (Samuel Barber, Surinach and others) and has been inspired by themes from the black Langston Hughes and the white Garcia Lorca. He is at home with both, moved by both, for although he is dedicated to his black people, his art transcends race.

Prodigal Prince, left, depicts the fantasy life of a Haitian painter. At right, Revelations celebrates the American Negro experience in a theatrical masterpiece of joy, sorrow and awe.

The vibrant young interracial company brings to life the dance vision of Alvin Ailey.

Mari Kajawara

Miguel Godreau

John Parks

Kelvin Rotardier

Linda Kent

Judith Jamison

Consuelo Atlas

Bobb)' Johnson

Sylvia Waters

Leland Schwantes

Renee Rose

Mario Delamo

Linda Levi has received her M.F.A. from the University of California at Los Angeles. She has had a one-man show at the Esther-Robles Gallery, Los Angeles, and has participated in other exhibitions in New York City and Phoenix, Arizona.

Bom in Sweden in 1925, Hans Hokanson is featured in collections in New York and Albuquerque, New Mexico.

This work, which explores the whole idea of helixes, is an eX'lmpfe of the influence of science 011

art.

A graduate of the Carnegie Institute of Technology and Instituto Allende San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, Frederick J. Eversley is represented in collections throughout the United States and has had many one-man shows.

Plexiglas, brass

Coloured plastic

ERNEST TROVA

JAMES GRANT

Ernest Trova, born in 1927, has had major one-man shows in the United States and England. His works are in the Museul11of Modern Art, New York, and the Tate Gallery, London. He is best known for his "falling man" prints and sculptures.

Born in 1924, James Grant studied at the Jepson Art Institute. He has exhibited widely in America and Italy, including at the M.H. de Young Museum, San Francisco, and the Galleria Poliani in Rome.

Doris Chase regularly exhibits at the Ruth White Gallery in New York. A graduate of the University of Washington's School of Architecture in Seattle, she has held shows in Italy, Japan and Thailand.

What is required today for an appreciation of contemporary expression is an understanding of the artist's intent in relation to each piece.

physicist, the chemist, the engineer have all become partners of the sculptor.

Here the real excitement lies in what can be constructed. And some dramatic results are achieved when "Light Art" is combined with kinetic art. The latter may be described as any work that involves motion.

Each of the kinetic light boxes in the Small Sculpture exhibit offers its own unique experience. Chuck Prentiss achieves the sensation of floating lights that create a hypnotic effect; Josef Levi produces an intriguing moire pattern through the use of silk-screened plexiglas panels; and George Ladas has made of his Orbita an actual clock-a device for measuring time.

Perhaps the most fascinating kinetic piece in the collection is Electric Flower

by George Mellor. According to Margaret Cogswell, deputy chief of the Smithsonian's International Art Program: "It revolves slowly and is like a growing flower. It has two arms like stalks and on the stalks are pieces of flowers. The work is made of stainless steel and lucite. An electric motor provides power for the sculpture's motion."

From the laws of the natural world, the artist's visual vocabulary may extend to scientific principles and terminology. Thus Hans Hokanson's Helixikos explores the whole idea of helixes as they may occur in a ram's horn or simply as the by-product of a tooling process. Bren Jacobson takes the Ptolemaic system of planetary motions to create a mysteriously surreal work in wood. Linda Levi uses the simple pyramid in her Infinite Orange, but in other works she has turned to numerous variations of geometric motifs.

A few pieces in the exhibit engage the viewer's interest through a kind of participation in which works can be assembled and reassembled to one's liking. For example, a variety of things can be done with Lila Katzen's Stack Light Units. And it is only when the forms of Brown Catalyst are moved apart that we perceive the space relationships that concern Doris Chase.

Inventiveness is to the fore again in Ernest Trova's Folding Man. Elegant, .

glowing and golden, it is a flat bronze cutout of a man with hinges at the knees and waist. It is displayed folded at the hinges. Trova, who is usually identified with his "falling man" sculptures, says: "One of my foremost concerns is not to synthesize man with the machine ....

It [his work] is something of a man falling; yet a man who never falls. They are all studies. There is no final solution.

It is somewhat like an allegory."

Trova is one of the better-known artists represented in the Small Sculpture exhibit. Other prominent figures include Claes Oldenburg, whose entry is a "dissolving" fire hydrant; Louise Nevelson, who contributes a plastic multiple object entitled Night Leaf; and Colin Greenly, who shows one of his famous space cages-this time a table-topsized one of glass, plastic and aluminium. Most of the other artists in the exhibit, however, are relative newcomers to the art scene.

Taken altogether, their work reveals the wide spectrum of styles being followed, the various media they choose to work in, and the differing moods governing each piece-from serious and thoughtful to whimsical and amusing.

Today an increasingly sophisticated art public has become quite comfortable with pure abstract art. All it asks is the hedonistic enjoyment of rhythms, of textural harmonies, of the interplay of form and space, and of the traditional resolution of these elements.

But what is also required for an appreciation of contemporary expression is an understanding of the artist's intent in relation to each particular piece.

Freed from the barriers of conventional aesthetic attitudes, it is only then that one can evaluate the originality, the breadth and depth of implications stimulated by the idea of the art object.

LITTLE DIDE

Todd Williams, born in 1939, studied at the School of Visual Arts, New York City, and now teaches at the City College, New York. He has exhibited at the First World Festival of Negro Art and in Mexico City.