SPAN; August 1964

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This girl eats cotton candy at a county fair, an institution of long-standing in America's rural life.

Farmers throughout the United States exhibit their livestock and the fruits of their labour at the end of the growing season. From farm machinery to automobiles, from useful objects to ornamental articles made by farm women and girls, I extensive exhibits at the fair have something to interest every farm family. Besides, there are merry-go-rounds and other amusements for children.

In a sense, the fair is a gay and colourful summing up of the farmer's year. Photo

by Avinash Pasricha.

B. K. Nehru, India's present Ambassador to the United States, accompanied Mrs. Indira Gandhi to the White House, Washington, D.C., when she called on President Johnson during her American visit ill April.

SPAN

Georgene Quenzer, photographed by Lou Jacobs, Jr., is a student at Los Angeles Valley College, California.

An article starting on page 4 discusses some of the unique features of higher education in America and its search for principles and values.

The ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi will not resound on August 15 this year to the voice of the great national leader who was one of the main architects of Indian freedom and of modern India.

Year after year, on the morning of Independence Day, Mr. Nehru unfurled the national flag and addressed his countrymen in accents vibrant with courage and hope. He always counselled hard work, sincerity and integrity as essential attributes for national progress, and understanding, tolerance and moderation as guide-

lines for India's international relations.

The voice of this great Indian and world leader is hushed for ever but his work for his country and for international goodwill andpeace must endure. Mr. Nehru played a vital role in the development of a close and friendly relationship between the world's two largest democraciesIndia and the United States. Since anniversaries are traditional occasions for retrospect and review, SPAN takes the opportunity of noting the progress of this cordial relationship over the years.

INTEREST in India dates back to the early eighteenth century, several decades before America achieved independence. Perhaps the earliest American link with this country was established by Elihu Yale, from whom the well-known American university got its name. A Bostonian who had emigrated to England and later became the British Governor of Fort St. George in Madras, Yale rendered much-needed assistance to a struggling school in Connecticut by shipping in

1718 a cargo of books and Indian objects of art which were sold to find money for the school's first endowment. The institute was named after him in gratitude and has grown into one of the world's leading universities.

As early as 1793 and within a few years of the formation of the United States, an American consulate was functioning in Calcutta, and consulates in other Indian port towns were opened in the nineteenth century. Maritime trade between the two Continued on next page

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Factory employees, leaving for home after day's work, symbolize America's industrial strength, resulting entirely from an essentially competitive economy. "Americans," remarks Simon N. Whitney in his article on Antitrust Laws commencing on page 33, "have adopted competition as the guiding principle of their economy."

OF EVENTS

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Since 1947, India has sent seven envoys to the U.S. Left to right: Asaf AU, 1947-48; B. Rama Rau, 1948-49; Mrs. V.L.Pandit, 1949-51; B. R. Sen, 1951-52; G. L. Mehta, 1952-58; M. C. Chagla, 1958-61. B. K. Nehru, present Ambassador, is shown at a White House meeting, page 1.

countries was brisk and, according to a report of the U.S. Consul in 1845, of the ships docked in Calcutta during that year three-fourths were American. About that time, too, a group of ten American technicians was active in agricultural research in India, their specific objective being to improve the cultivation and processing of cotton in the country. These early agricultural experts were the forerunners of the hundreds of American technicians whose skills and experience have been .made available to India in recent years and who are now working side by side with their Indian colleagues in almost every field of agricultural and industrial activity.

On the intellectual and cultural planes, too, India and the United States were first attracted to each other many years ago. Indian thought, ancient and current, influenced the philosophy and writings of the Transcendentalists such as Emerson and Thoreau in the early nineteenth century. Emerson read extensively translations of Hindu scriptures and his journals contain many quotations from Oriental works. While still at college, he had also become familiar with the ideas and writings of Ram Mohun Roy (1771-1833), the Indian social and religious reformer, whose efforts at reconciling the basic truths of Hinduism and Christianity were then arousing considerable interest and were being noticed by religious periodicals in England and the United States.

Thoreau also read Hindu literatUl.:e and the Bhagavad-Gita, and Indian philosophy was undoubtedly one of his many sources of inspiration. And, as is well known, in later times his Essay on Civil Disobedience struck a responsive chord in Gandhiji and may have inspired him in developing the technique of satyagraha.

Two outstandmg Indians who made a

lasting impression on American cultural life were Vivekananda and Rabindranath Tagore. Swami Vivekananda participated in the World Congress of Religions in Chicago in 1893 and inspired American audiences. Following this visit and the Swami's lectures and group discussions, Vedanta Societies were opened in New York and other towns in the United States, and American votaries of the faith still continue to visit India for inspiration and enlightenment. The centenary of Vivekananda's birth was celebrated in 1963 by the American Vedanta centres, and the observances were marked by special publications, lectures and programmes of study of the Swami's life and works.

Two years earlier America, in common with India and many other countries, also celebrated the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Rabindranath Tagore. The American magazine Poetry had the distinction of publishing Tagore's poems for the first time in the West in its issue of December 1912, about a year before the award of the Nobel prize which made him world famous. The publication coincided with the poet's first visit to the United States which was followed by a number of further visits, the last being in 1930. Since then American interest .in Tagore's writings and colourful personality has continued unabated and was greatly stimulated by the centenary celebrations, which ,comprised a comprehensive programme of cultural activities focusing attention on the life and message of the poet.

EVEN A BRIEF outline of early IndianAmerican cultural contacts would be incomplete without mention of Mark Twain who visited India in 1896. The famous American author and humorist

has been followed in recent times by hundred~~Qf writers, scholars and artists who have contributed to the building up of the cultural image of America in this country and in turn learned something of India's rich and ancient cultural heritage and the diverse elements that make up modern India. Paul Engle's poem Taj Mahal, which appears in this issue of SPAN, exemplifies this duality of the American impact. At the same time thousands of Indian students, educationists, technicians, industrialists and leaders in various fields of national activity have visited the United States for varying periods. They have seen at first hand the working of the American system and returned with specialized knowledge or fresh ideas for accomplishing the tasks which await them in India.

This two-way traffic of educational, professional and cultural exchanges has grown considerably in volume since Indian independence. Apart from students, during the five-year period ending June 30, 1963, as many as 3,839 Indians visited the United States under the various exchange programmes sponsored by the U.S. Government. A notable programme of cultural exchange is the Fulbright programme which came into effect at the beginning of 1950 and is covered by an agreement signed by the late Mr. Nehru on behalf of the Government of India. It aims at the promotion of closer relations between the two countries by an exchange of "the best representatives qualified to present the cultural and social values of each country." The specific objectives include aid to Indian education and the provision of opportunities to Indian students and teachers for American studies, and to Americans for Indian studies. During the decade following the inauguration of

FILE COpy J?lease Return To SPAN MAGAZINE, PSIS INDIA the programme it enabled some 1,300 Indian teachers and scholars to enrol in American universities; simultaneously 350 Americans have been able to come to India for advanced study or teaching in Indian universities. Currently there are 300 Fulbright Indian grantees in the United States and about 100 of their American counterparts in India.

The development of Indian-American cultural contacts is a natural corollary of the affinity of political ideals and practices between the two countries. In their struggle for freedom from foreign rule Indian leaders drew inspiration from the American example, and the Indian national movement had many supporters in the United States. During the Second World War President Roosevelt detailed his personal representatives to participate in the discussions with the British on the political situation in India and urged upon Churchill the wisdom of conceding India's demand for independence. The Indian Constitution framed after the achievement of independence enshrines many of the democratic concepts and ideals of the American Constitution.

India's leaders realized early that political independence meant little without economic contentment, and when they sought foreign aid for national development projects, the United States responded readily with large-scale financial and technical assistance on terms which are mutually satisfactory. At the beginning of March 1964the total commitments of the United States to India under various agreements of economic aid. in the shape of grants and loans stood at over Rs. 2,531 crores.

To the steady growth of IndianAmerican understanding and goodwill, Indian Ambassadors to the United States, shown on these pages, and their American counterparts in India, have made a vital contribution. Visits of high dignitaries of both countries have also been invaluable in promoting friendship between the two countries. The late Prime Minister Nehru's and the Indian President Dr. S. Radhakrishnan's official visits to the United States evoked considerable interest among Americans, and President Eisenhower, Vice President (now President) Lyndon B. Johnson and Mrs. Jacqueline Kennedy were greeted by large, enthusiastic crowds during their Indian tours. As India enters a new epoch of progress under new leadership, it has the good wishes of Americans and the assurance of their support in the furtherance of both nations' common objectives of peace, freedom and a fuller life for people everywhere.

W. H. WEATHERSBY Publisher DEAN

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THE CHANGING PATTERN OF IDGHER EDUCATION

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THE STRENGTH OF AMERICAN IDGHER EDUCATION LIES IN ITS DIVERSITY AND FLEXffiILITY. INVOLVED IN A CONSTANT STRUGGLE TO KEEP STANDARDS HIGH, IT ADAPTS TO CHANGES OF AN EVOLVING SOCIETY.

The comradeship of campus life broadens the students' social and mental horizons and provides a valuable maturing experience.

THE CHANGING PATTERN OF HIGHER EDUCATION BORN OF long tradition of British and European universities, higher education, as it exists in the Unit~d States today, is different from that of every other country.

It has been moulded by three hundred years of native development, and by America's historic commitment to provide full educational opportunity for all who can benefit by it.

Through the years, efforts to do this have led to the creation of a system of great variety and diversity, to meet the variety and diversity of individual temperaments, interests, talents, and purposes. This has involved a constant struggle to keep standards high while, at the same time, making education flexible enough to adapt to the swift changes of an evolving society in a complex and often baffling world.

A large part of the strength of American higher education lies in that very diversity and flexibility. There are now some 1,900 colleges and universities* in the United Statescovering a wide range of programmes, and varying in size from

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*The terms are often used interchangeably. But, more properly, a "college" typically offers four years of undergraduate work towards a first degree, while a "university" comprises a number of schools, offering graduate and professional -study as well as undergraduate work. Students may enter a college, or university upon satisfactory completion of four years of secondary education in a public or private "high school." (The high school is preceded by eight years of elementary education.) Frequently the successful passing of college-entrance examinations is also required for admission, and in some places certain other requirements must be met as well.

To keep nation abreast of important scientific advances, U.S. universities encourage students in laboratory research, left.

19 students at a junior college in Deep Springs, California, to some 42,000 at the great University of California, at Berkeley on San Francisco Bay. No two of the institutions are alike. Each one sets up its own policy and follows its own procedures. This is possible because there is no nationalization or centralization of education in the UI!ited States such as exists in many other countries.

Nevertheless, in all centres of higher learning in America the ultimate purpose is the same: to provide advanced training for or together-who usually young men and women-separately enter at about eighteen years of age and stay on into their early twenties.

Many of the institutions are liberal-arts colleges, some of them among the oldest in the nation. These offer four-year programmes towards the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science, similar to the baccalaureat of the French lycee.

The college may be privately or publicly supported, and may be an independent school or an undergraduate school forming part of a university. Emphasizing the humanities, the curriculum provides for some vocational specialization within the framework of a well-rounded education in the arts and sciences.

This type of college follows more closely than any other in America the traditional pattern of liberal education brought to the New World from Europe and destined to serve as a bulwark of American culture for hundreds of years.

"Junior" or "community" colleges, typically offering twoyear programmes leading to a diploma, give their students a general academic education and also frequently train them to meet specific needs of their home towns and the regions surrounding them. They are usually publicly supported, like most Continued on page 7

of the nation's secondary or "high" schools.

Small, church-supported colleges scattered all over the land constitute another important group. Though not all of them have yet been fully recognized as institutions of higher learning, a number have high standards, and their graduates, many of them clergymen and school-teachers, are providing much of the spiritual ferment in contemporary American life.

Then there are the universities-some of them, like Harvard and Yale, dating back to Colonial days. The universities may be largely self-supporting, privately endowed, church-supported, or financed by public taxation. They comprise both undergraduate schools leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts or of Science, and graduate and professional schools leading to such advanced degrees as Master of Arts or of Science and Doctor of Philosophy, of Divinity, Letters, Law, or Medicine.

A number offer training equal in excellence to that given by any of the world's great universities.

A very small group of institutions of higher educationnotably West Point in New York and the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, and the U.S. Air Force Academy near Colorado Springs, Colorado, whose function is to train officersfor the armed forces-are supported by the Federal Government directly. In addition, certain Government departments and installations conduct extensive educational programmes of their own. Examples are the educational services of the Department of Agriculture and the national training centres for foreign service personnel.

But the influence of the Government is not limited to the few institutions it supports or the educational programmes it directs. In recent years particularly, Government participation in higher education has become very active and vital all over the nation. To help it channel its activities, it maintains in the Federal Officeof Education a special Division of Higher Education, which serves as a publication and consultation centre and a centre for research and informational exchange.

In an educational system as autonomous as the American one, some control must be exercised over the quality of the instruction given. To that end, voluntary accrediting associations have been set up throughout the country. These determine how well the colleges and universities are meeting established standards and compile lists of those that have been maintaining them successfully. In addition, a number of States have official lists of their own. Recognition of a graduate's eligibility to teach in a given locality, or to practise various other professions calling for a high degree of academic competence, may depend upon whether or not he has completed his studies in an institution that has achieved accredited status.

Another distinctive feature of higher education in the United States is the unique character of American campus life.

Since very many students live at the school during their four years of undergraduate study, most of the colleges and universities furnish them with room and board at cost. For many young Americans, these years away from home offer a fruitful opportunity for maturing experience. Because college students are largely on their own, they grow in self-reliance. Also, the University libraries promote a primary aim of higher education: to help men and women grow to their full intellectual stature.

close comradeship of campus life can do much to broaden their human understanding, since they are brought together, many of them for the first time, with others their own age from widely scattered sections of the nation and, sometimes too, from distant corners of the world.

Behind the growth and variety of higher education in America is the widely held conviction that a nation's culture is not an inert body of knowledge or of past accomplishment, but is, rather, a vibrant, constructive force permeating all aspects of daily life. To the traditional faculties of arts and letters, law, medicine, and theology, American universities have added, through the years, faculties of agriculture, mining, engineering, industry, management, business administration, architecture, dentistry, and several more.

o THE TRADITIONAL programme in liberal arts, many innovations have been added: among others, drama and opera workshops, and extensive curricula in psychology and the social sciences; journalism and creative writing; the techniques of teaching; human relations, foreign policy, and public service.

Typically, throughout a student's college years, formal learning is kept close to the issues and concerns of the modern world. In addition, teachers and administrators try to take into account their students' special talents and aptitudes, and their social and vocational needs. Thus, the training of what have been termed "second-echelon intellectuals" is considered as valid an objective as the development of intellectuals of the first order. This is a striking feature of American higher education, and from it the nation derives much of its economic and cultural vitality.

Though most students are preparing for a chosen career, colleges and universities aim to do more than merely groom them to become competent specialists-though they must do that too. They try also to help them grow into integrated individuals, able to translate much of what they have learned into activities that will be personally rewarding to them all their lives. And they try equally to inculcate in them the heritage of cultural and spiritual values stemming from the art and thought of both East and West; to train them to think freely on vital issues of their time; to sharpen their sense of civic responsibility; and to strengthen their grasp of the meaning and potentialities of life.

Other goals are the more traditional ones: to help able men and women grow to their full intellectual stature. To encourage and train the artists among them to express themselves creatively. To provide the discipline and instruction that will enable others with other special gifts to make lasting contributions to the march of knowledge in the world, and to develop in them all an awareness of their moral obligation to do so.

And perhaps ultimately most far-reaching of all-to supply vitalizing nourishment for the inner life-stronger responsiveness, subtler perceptions, and more worthy imaginings.

How well is American higher education attaining these high goals? Not fully, by any means. Yet a recent survey by the United States Census Bureau shows an educational trend that is highly significant for the health of a democracy: the Continued on next page

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rising level of education among American workers.

Today, the average American worker has completed 11.8 years of schooling as against 9.3 in 1940. Nine per cent of all workers are college graduates as compared with 6.4 per cent, and 18 per cent have had at least one year of college as against 13.4 per cent nineteen years ago.

Significant too is the fact that America's experiment in mass education is appealing to the interests and hopes of newly emerging people in every quarter of the globe. Recently, Mr. Robert H. Reid, United States Eisenhower Fellow for 1956-57, upon returning from a world tour to study educational systems, reported that educators, in Asia particularly, were impressed by the fact that in the United States the whole future of a child's education and his future place in society are not determined forever at the age of twelve-that, in America, a child can escape the pattern, so widespread elsewhere, by which many opportunities in life are shut off to all but a favoured few.

Today, the principle of providing a sound general education before allowing students to embark on specialization is almost universally accepted. Usually, specialization is accomplished through elective study, with general education embodied in broad orientation and background courses in the humanities, the social sciences, and in various areas of the physical and biological sciences. It is a widely established practice to prescribe a certain number of these general courses as partial requirements for the Bachelor of Arts or of Science, and to have the student supplement them by extensive work in one speciality or "major."

Though the common core of studies may be prescribed, much of the subject matter and approach are wholly modern.

College election campaigns provide students with the opportunity to learn functions and techniques of a democratic society.

In their combination of set requirements and free choice, lecture and seminar, laboratory and conference, such programmes constitute a fusion of the traditions, influences, and experiments that have shaped American higher education from the beginning.

Since the turn of the century, and at an increasingly swift pace in recent years, the changing pattern of higher learning has enabled the colleges and universities to reach more and more deeply and directly into the national life. This has been due, in large part, to the growth of technical and vocational training within the framework of higher education. Today, nearly two-thirds of all students enrolled are pursuing voca tional, technical, or professional studies, with the remaining third engaged in liberal arts and science programmes.

N COMMENTING on the current state of things, Robert F. Goheen, President of Princeton University, has this to say, summing up the present picture: Despite the anguish of traditionalists, and there has been much, the extension of the university's role to include education in vocational and technical subjects cannot be said to have radically debased our academic coinage.

Instead, it has brought the application of high standards of objectivity and of systematic thinking to vocational and technological problems. Advances in knowledge reached in university laboratories and disseminated through university courses have vastly increased the yield of our grain crops, opened the way to unknown mineral resources, raised beyond past credence the life expectancy in human childbirth.

These are but a few of the many tangible returns ditectly attributable to the development of our universities in such areas in the past fifty to seventy years. We must add into the balance as sheer gain the thousands upon thousands of competently trained engineers, farmers, nurses, journalists, business school graduates, and other vocational specialists who have been schooled in our universities. In accepting such tasks, clearly the universities have reached down from whatever remote heights they may have been thought to have held and have proved their ability and their concern to lighten the darkness and the dangers in which we all spend our workaday lives.

Yet while stressing the tangible returns, the American public is becoming more fully alive to the intangible. There is wide recognition that a liberal education in the sciences and the humanities has, in the past, amply proved its power to produce men and women whose view of life is broad and deep. The people at large are realizing, too, that such men and women are badly needed for crucial tasks: to help the nation to use to advantage the successes and the failures of history; to give new insight into the forces that move individuals and societies; and to lead the way in a continuing search for principles and values that will serve as compass and anchor for a world that is certain to be radically different from the one we know. •

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With an ever growing number of students, efforts are being made to start new colleges and provide them with competent teachers.

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The concep_tof man's continued progress is the most powerful incentive for the scientist. Whatever the crises facing humanity, the torch of science must ever be held aloft.

THE ENTICING FUTURE

HE IDEA OF continued progress is the primary conception or theme underlying the research and investigation approach of modern science. It provides not only the basic dynamism of modern science but is also the source of the most powerful motivation of the modern scientist. It is assumed that if we do not go forward, we stagnate. The animal that does not slowly and surely evolve runs a great risk of becoming extinct in the manner of the dinosaur.

Our future is necessarily unfinished, and, if we did not expect things to change in some sense for the better, there would be no use going on doing the things that we are doing.

Many lines of progress in the future can be set down and, if all goes well, predicted. The accomplishment of some of these will need the concentration of brains and energy and the rate of expenditure that characterized the atomic

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Dr. Davis is director of Science Service Inc., and an editor and writer of science publications. He is a member of the National Inventors Council and other scientific and technical associations, and has won a number of awards for his writings. This article is from his recent book The Century of Science, published by Duell, Sloan and Pearce.

energy programme during World War II. The accomplishment of other possibilities will require a motivation and desire that may be difficult to achieve.

Some of the most pressing and difficult problems requiring solution can be outlined as follows: We need to use the sun's energy more effectively.

For its bulk sources of energy, our civilization is dependent upon fossil sunshine. Coal, oil and natural gas are the sunshine of past geological ages. We of this century are spending them profligately. Most of our food and a small part of our energy, in the form of wood and water power, is energized with relatively current sunshine. The earth would be dead and lifeless without radiations from the sun, eight minutes of light travel time away from the earth.

The achievement of capturing the sun's energy in a useful way and on a large scale without the intervention of the green leaf and its process of photosynthesis is one of the great problems of the future. If it could be achieved it would far excel in historical importance the release of atomic energy in its revolutionary effects.

Only a relatively small amount of research is being directed at the solution of this problem of creating artificial

photosynthesis. There are perhaps a dozen laboratories intensively at work on the problem.

Success may come through the discovery of a method of capturing with economy the sun's energy through some chemical reaction which is not the same as that used by the green plant. Or it may be possible to discover the seemingly complex mechanism of chemical transformations used in natural photosynthesis and then duplicate it and simplify it for industrial utilization.

Artificial photosynthesis may very well be only a few years away if people and governments can be convinced that it is really important.

The production of power from atomic fusion also should be possible to achieve.

The raw material of atomic energy today is primarily uranium, a very rare element indeed, and possibly thorium. For a decade or two now it has been suspected that the sun and the stars stoke themselves with a much more plentiful element, hydrogen, which is at the other end of the atomic scale. The hydrogen bomb was achieved almost simultaneously by the United States and the USSR. The process employed converts the mass of hydrogen in the form of its twin and triplet elements, deuterium and tritium, into energy. There seems to be some

Space travel will increase our knowledge of the Universe but some problems remain to be solved. One is solar radiation, and to study this problem, a simulator has been developed which produces radiation from a 2.5 kilowatt mercury-xenon lamp in a space chamber. possibility that it will prove possible to have quiet and controlled hydrogen fusion so that atomic power, conversion of mass into energy, can be achieved from the lightest of the elements.

If this can be done, and we are not sure that it can be, it will be an achievement far greater than that of the fission of uranium which ushered in the present atomic era. It would bring an industrial benefit of great social significance out of the hydrogen bomb development.

Better understanding of nuclear forces is needed.

The part of the universe lying within the atom is most mysterious and relatively unexplored. Among the protons, the neutrons and the other sub-atomic particles the laws which govern larger objects with which we are familiar do not seem to hold. One of the problems ahead is to understand these forces within the nucleus. The study of cosmic rays is directed primarily at the solution of this problem, for they are created in the outside universe beyond the earth and smash into our atmosphere with tremendous energies capable of destroying the atomic structures which we find impregnable even to our largest atomic accelerators.

There is full realization of the importance of this problem. That is why giant atom smashers, the cyclotrons, the syn-

chrotrons and the linear accelerators, are being built as an adjunct to our atomic energy programme. Scientists do not know exactly what will be discovered, but they are sure that important new knowledge will come from within the atom.

We are not sure that we know the nature of the universe.

This earth upon which we live is a relatively average planet of a rather insignificant star, one of millions upon millions of stars in millions upon millions of galaxies or island universes. We know much more about the universe in which we live than we did two or three decades ago, thanks to big and wide-eyed telescopes. The size of the universe has been doubled by the latest astronomical researches over what it was thought to be.

And radio waves from outer space are another kind of radiation, added to light and heat, that signal the universe's extent and the presence of bodies that do not shine but which can be observed whether clear or cloudy, day or night.

Philosophically and practically from the standpoint of human intelligence, we must know what our universe is and what we are in it. These drives provide tasks for the astronomers who feed their facts to philosophers, a status claimed by most of us.

Certainly the nature of the universe presents us with one of our great and continuing problems. If it is ever solved completely, which is open to question, it may take many more centuries. In the heavens there are in progress experiments of immense time and size. Whence did we come? Whence are we going?

How old is the universe? The light of constantly renewed stars brings us assurance that atomic energy on a grand scale is being used in other parts of the universe.

Escape from the earth is a future problem of science.

The real frontier of aeronautics is in the supersonic and hypersonic regions where missiles and planes travel beyond the speed of sound (Mach number one).

It will be a considerable length of time before there is practical flight at Mach number 5 (5,300 kilometres per hour at high altitude) or beyond, which is known as the hypersonic region. Nevertheless, we have made significant progress in escape by rocket to the space beyond the firm grasp of the earth's gravitation.

There are now artificial moons for the earth, satellites which circle it once they are put in their orbits. Human astronauts have been trained and have taken to space. Rockets and jet craft have been built to reach any part of the earth from any part of the earth with great speed. They can travel not only into the outer regions of the earth's gaseous envelope but to distant parts of the solar system. The dreams of Jules Verne and his many followers are proving to be not sufficiently daring simply because aeronautical technology is taking us in a direction and at a speed the most creative imagination had not fully contemplated.

Moreover, we cannot escape having to face the consequences.

As a result of aeronautical progress, atomic energy and consequently greatly increased operating temperatures, there is great need for new engineering materials, including unusual elements such as titanium, zirconium and many other metals and elements which are less known. Some little-known elements are unavailable except as by-products of the fission of uranium. We seem to have gone about as far as we can go in the discovery of elements, although eventually more than the known 103 will be artificially created in minute quantities and without any seemingly useful application. Many of the elements which have been discovered in the last decade are continually exploding themselves to pieces by their radioactivity. The discovery of atomic varieties, or isotopes, Continued on next page

Central problem is the explanation of genes within the chromosomes, bearers of heredity. in very large numbers has been one of the great chemical achievements.

The menace of radiation is real.

Beginning with the discovery of X-rays and radioactivity before the turn of the century, there has been more and more radiation in the world. The advent of nuclear fission and the use of a wide variety of radioactive isotopes in research and industry have greatly increased the dangers of radiation.

Radiation has a powerful effect on living matter, whether it be the X-rays and gamma rays (of the same family as light only shorter in wave-length), or actual particles such as the streams of electrons (beta rays) and helium atomic hearts (alpha rays). Radiation has not been with us in sufficient quantity for sufficiently long to make us sure that long-term effects are not being felt by human or other animal life even in the relatively small doses to which we have been subjected. If atomic warfare does occur, a much larger portion of the human population may be menaced by large doses of radiation and the whole flow of life from generation to generation may be seriously affected.

Understanding the very nature of life is a research goal.

The living cell is the seat of life itself.

An explanation of its protoplasm and the complex chemicals in many configurations which are contained within it may explain the nature of life. This is far more complex than any of the chemical processes of the ordinary factory or industry.

The discovery of the structure of protein molecules may throw considerable light on the physical mechanism of life and living processes. A central problem in this truly vital matter is the structure of the genes within the chromosomes which are the bearers of heredity. Once we understand their composition and how they are modified by various means, we shall come closer to a solution. Only a minute portion of our research brains and resources is being spent on this fundamental problem.

We do not know the cause of life or even the ultimate facts about the mechanism of heredity. Nevertheless, so much has been learned about plant and animal breeding and hybridization, that virtually Continued on page 14

A giant welding fixture is put to work on a second stage oxidizer tank for U.S. Air Force Titan III space launch vehicle. Small cylinders on the fixture, operated pneumatically through a maze of hose connections, actuate clamps to hold the alloy segments in place during welding process.

New and exciting technological devices are helping man's unending effort to solve the riddles of the

This stellarator is used in study of controlled atomic fusion.

Fusion unlike atomic fission does not require rarefuelsfor the production of energy, but can use hydrogen, an abundant element. Atomicfusion, requiring very high temperatures, once commercially developed, willprovide a cheap source of energy.

In scientific research, weight and size of instruments are vital. 'Molecularized' electronic items like a radio about half the size of a little finger, audio amplifier the size of a small coin, have fantastically reduced both.

Electronic circuit unit, above, barely visible without magnification, integrates into a tiny block the functions performed by fifty electronic components.

New Scale, developed by Westinghouse Laboratories, is so sensitive that it can weigh tar and other residues in a puff of cigarette smoke, and detect weight of ink if two words are added to a 30-volume encyclopaedia.

The white dot in centre of lens is tiny, new electronic eye which detects and amplifies signals carried to it on less than one thousandth millionth of a watt of light. The ultra-sensitive device may eventually become heart of complete receiver, the size of a matchhox, for use in long-distance space communications.

new kinds of animals and plants have been created and will be created in the future. Science controls evolution in a very real sense. Hybrid corn, for instance, has added many millions of dollars to the agricultural resources of the world.

Improved animal breeding, aided by the widespread use of the technique of artificial insemination, has produced astounding biological and economic results.

Plants are bred to resist disease and withstand difficult environmental conditions. Even micro-organisms are subjected to artificial evolution. One-celled plants, algae, are selected and bred for their ability to capture the sun's energy most effectively.

The control of population is a pressing problem for the future.

The time has not come and probably never will come when human population on the face of the earth can be planned and controlled in the same way that man regulates the hereditary future of animals and plants. But eugenics, which aims at the better breeding biologically of the human race, has made some headway against prejudice with voluntary and enlightened understanding of young parents of the future.

The introduction of modern medicine and sanitation in some of the already overpopulated portions of the world has released the biological brakes naturally present upon population growth. While the industrialization of an area seems to produce substitute limitations upon population, these in many areas are slow to get into operation. There is therefore a gigantic race between food and people.

To this problem of population, solutions developed by science and research are most difficult to apply, but in this connection again an intensive approach through research might bring results.

Nature maintains a relatively even balance among' the sexes, particularly among human beings. The approximate 50-50 ratio between males and females does not always exist in lower animals and plants. The control of human sex is not a probable development for the future but the search is under way along various lines attempting to influence the sex ratio in animals. Since the elements that control sex, the chromosomes, in the reproductive process are different for male and female, there is some chance

of eventual success in this endeavour.

Despite many medical successes, there are vast unconquered areas in the world health picture. Most uncontrolled are the degenerative diseases, such as cancer, heart and circulatory disorders, nephritis, arthritis, diseases of the respiratory system and ills of the brain. Least controlled of all the infectious diseases are those caused by the viruses, including colds. There is more chance of adequate support for medical research than for many other less "practical" objectives.

Many of the most important elements in the crust of the earth are in very limited supply.

By means of geological processes, nature has concentrated some of these in ore deposits. Man has developed processes for extraction of these substances, such as the metals iron, lead, tin, copper and others, and then has dissipated them over the face of the earth through utilizing them, discarding them and thus losing them for posterity. For some of the prime metals we can synthesize substitutes or substitute other natural elements more difficult to extract from their chemical combinations. Repeatedly during the growth of our oil age, we have been told that the supply of petroleum will continue to be available for only a few years longer. In the long view this is true, although the discovery of more oil fields has kept pace with the prodigious increase in utilization. The same is true for natural gas. Of coal and oil shale we still have extensive deposits which will cost more to process into usable liquid fuel. But this can be done. For many of the unrenewable materials essential to our present way of life. we must mine ore deposits of lessening richness or at greater distances from industrial centres.

Future generations must be satisfied with less ease in obtaining their essential elements, if they have not discovered some way by then to do without them.

There are some things on this globe that are essentially inexhaustible; the sunlight from which we should eventually be able to capture large-scaled energy, the air with its oxygen and nitrogen, sea water rich in salts and already the mine of the metal magnesium, clay from which we have not been able to extract economically the aluminium that it contains, coal with its chemical storehouse of raw

materials, sand with its tightly held silicon, to name some. Some of these plebeian materials, almost as free as the air we breathe, may be found in future decades to be as valuable as the waste lands under which oil fields existed undiscovered.

Synthetic chemistry, powered by atomic and photosynthetic energy, can reduce the difference between the have and havenot areas of the world. From almost any convenient source of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, a vast array of organic chemicals can be made provided energy is also available. Coal, oil, oil shale or even growing things can be the raw material for synthetic fibres, plastics, drugs, insecticides and almost everything else industry and modern living demand.

Assuming that the world will get over its military conflicts, the varied regions will be able to be more self-sufficient than they have been in the past thanks to the scientific skill of synthesis. Amazingly interchangeable and fruitful as the application of chemistry has become, the potentialities of the future are even greater.

The high degree of mechanization of industrial processes is but a prelude to the almost automatic factory.

Already a few men with the aid of many instruments and controls are able to operate large oil refineries night and day for months on end. Mechanization, controlled by electronic devices and utilizing the intricacies of servomechanisms with tireless and precise skills unrivalled by human hand and eye, can take over many of the factory processes. We now need only energy and capital investment to create within our buildings artificial atmospheres to neutralize the winter's cold and the summer's heat through air conditioning. More and more the human element comes into the mechanical world around us to keep the mechanism running rather than to provide the brawn necessary in earlier days.

The only real barriers to talking and seeing throughout the world will soon be those of political and ideological "curtains." We hear sounds in our living rooms which originate in literally all parts of the world that are free and accessible to us politically. Telstar has brought closer the day when television will extend throughout the world. To

200-inch Hale telescope, world's largest, at Palomar Observatory, California, U.S., has enabled man to see new and remote galaxies, and has more than doubledfor man the known dimensions of universe.

travel by airplane to almost any part of the world one needs only money and very little time. Any other part of the world is only a day or two away from us. . Language is often a great barrier to prompt communication. The future promises to see this problem solved practically. through the use of a satisfactory international language auxiliary to the existing natural languages. There have been many attempts to make an international language but not until now has there been a careful and scientific study to produce one that can technically and emotionally serve this purpose. This linguistic invention, called Interlingua, is based on the Western languages and if it is given a chance it should solve this dilemma for science and technology as well as other fields of international interchange.

It is not too much to expect that as and if the preoccupation with military defence yields to more peaceful living, we may have what amounts to a world brain which will give anyone access to the accumulated and stored knowledge of the world in all fields. Through mechanized devices that file and find information there can be created a bookless library of all the information presently available to the world in a multitude of forms. What one wishes to know can be obtained by, in effect, pushing the proper button. Microfilm and photographic enlargements from microfilm will be essential tools. Giant electronic calcula-

Development of chemical fertilizers has brought new hopes to countries with shortage of food products. This "mountain" is a stockpile of nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrogen, key nutrient in farming, brings new life to barren soil. It is used to forcefeed crops and increase the quantity and the quality of yield.

tors or "brains" will fit into the system as will new and novel methods of classification based upon mathematical principles.

To continue progress in the future and to operate our increasingly scientific civilization, new human talents and abilities must be discovered and cultivated.

Psychological techniques have given us the means of their discovery. It is fortunate for the world that not everyone has the same abilities. There are those who excel in music, language, human relations, science, technology and other fields.

A most important goal must be the discovery and cherishing of scientific ability among our youth. Adequate teachers, inspired volunteers in the community, science clubs in schools, science fairs and science talent searches are important in giving opportunity to youth who have ability and interest in science and technology.

To the extent that we understand ourselves and those with whom we live and work, we can build and promote the social peace necessary to an effective democracy. The techniques for aiding children to grow up into successful citizens have had extraordinary development. Their applications in coming years wj]] bring more fundamental sanity into the future.

Mental ills, ranging from chronic grouches to disabling psychoses, take major tolls in our civilization. Disordered and mentally warped personalities give

rise to crimes of all sorts, including those against society. Included in the mystery of mind and emotions is the matter of human behaviour, so important in the management, operation and conduct of everything we do.

The development of the human factor in our civilization constitutes the greatest of the unsolved problems of science.

It is the probable key to the prevention of war.

Implicit in the dissemination of science and its method to all people is the belief that if the people know the truth it not only will keep them free but also will allow them to act intelligently in the conduct of their social and personal lives. This may be the whole story, if science is narrowly construed. But if the deep emotion, the hidden motivations, the biological and-psychological remnants of our heredity and environment are knowable and controllable within the realm of science, then we can have some confidence that the impact of science upon humanity can mitigate the conflict and cruelty of man against man. We must believe that we can domesticate the human beast or breed out the bad genes.

Whatever is the outcome of this great and fateful chance for humanity through which we are living (perhaps every generation has lived through a crisis as epochal to it), we have the obligation to do our best to keep aloft a full-blazing torch of science. •

This exhibition of work by ten contemporary Indian artists, which is currently on a successful tour of the United States, was

F LE COPY

chosen by Roy Craven, an American art

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historian and painter. Here, Mr. Craven reviews American response to the show.

THE EXCITEMENT

OF

CONTEMPORARY INDIAN ART

s A SENIOR research scholar under the Fulbright programme, I was privileged last year to travel throughout India, meeting artists and viewing and photographing their paintings. Because of my long-time interest in India and its art, stemming from a stay there some years ago, I was already somewhat acquainted with India's historical and contemporary artistic achievements.

On this recent visit, while travelling to India's art centres, it was exciting to notice changing trends and to see 'how the art scene had taken on a whole new aspect in the 'sixties. I became imbued with the desire to present a picture of contemporary Indian painting to other Americans, so that it might become more widely known and appreciated. Because of the interest of many individuals and organizations in promoting this idea, an exhibition of thirty contemporary paintings by ten Indian artists is now touring the United States.

The artists represented in this exhibit were selected because they all work in the contemporary mode and present a diverse point of view and commitment: Jyotish Bhattacharjee, Bal Chhabda, Biren De, V. S. Gaitonde, Satish Gujral, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Jeram Patel, G. R. Santosh and K. G. Subramanyan. These artists perform on a very high level and their paintings reflect an essence of the growing maturity in a new phase of Indian art. It has been this aspect of the exhibition which has excited gallery visitors in the United States, and thus fulfilled the goal of the showings.

A

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Mr. Craven, Assistant Professor of Art at the University of Florida, relates in the following article how, as a Fulbright scholar in India during 1963-64, he selected thirty paintings by ten contemporary 1ndian artists and arrangedfor their exhibition in the U.S. Mr. Craven, who was born in Alabama, received his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Chattanooga, Tennessee, and his Master of Fine Arts degree from the University of Florida.

His own art work has been widely exhibited in the U.S. and his articles on art include "Four Gandharan Sculptures in the North Carolina Museum" and "The Indian Sculptures in the John and Mabel Ringling Museum of Art," Florida.

The itinerary for the exhibit was arranged to display the paintings in a number of cities where Indian paintings had never been shown, as well as to avoid areas of the U.S. East Coast where Indian works are frequently on view. It so happened that, concurrently with the contemporary exhibition, works of several other Indian painters were being displayed in New York, Boston and Washington.

The exhibit has been seen, or is to be presented, at the University of South Florida's Gallery of Art, Tampa; the Jacksonville (Florida) Art Museum; the Isaac Delgado Museum of Fine Art, New Orleans, Louisiana; the Thomas Hunter Gallery of Art, Chattanooga, Tennessee; the Colorado Springs Fine Arts Centre; the Long Beach (California) Museum of Art; and San Francisco (California).

Many comments by the American public, press and gallery directors demonstrate the warmth with which the exhibition has thus far been received. Typical are these reactions by a newsman and a gallery director: "I thought it was a beautiful collection," said one newspaper critic. "Separately none of the paintings differ much from contemporary American or European art. Collectively, though, they project a different feeling. There is a meditative air about the collection. It has emotion but not emotionalism."

A museum director noted that the exhibition "provided our area with its first glimpse into contemporary trends in Indian painting. The show proved to be very exciting and helped to illustrate that the Eastern world ... is making its own contributions in the field of art today. The exhibition was very well received by the public and proved to be of special interest to the art students .... In all aspects it was a great success."

Some of the Americans viewing the exhibit expected to see a

style of art not far removed from Rajput miniatures and were surprised to find paintings which are Indian in mood and syntax, but not too dissimilar from works of other contemporary painters.

The contemporary paintings of many countries indicate that we seem to be moving more and more towards a common world culture. In fact, that evasive quality which identifies an artifact as being a product of a particular culture has become today (for better or worse) as elusive as that all-important but indefinable ingredient which is necessary in a successful painting before it becomes a work of art. Despite our general trend to discount the validity of similarities between artists and movements, by over-emphasizing the "new" and the isolated "creative agent," it becomes impressive to observe that artists throughout the world are beginning to discover a common brotherhood of creativity.

The success of this exhibit of Indian contemporary art in the United States can be attributed to many sources. To begin with, it could not have materialized without the hard work of a number of persons and groups. Through the generous efforts of the New Delhi office of the Asia Foundation, funds were obtained for collecting, crating, insuring and shipping the display to the United States (the exhibit will also tour Asia).

Most important, of course, are the ten painters who loaned their works for an extended time, and Richard Bartholomew, director of a New Delhi gallery, who helped select the paintings and handled many details of the undertaking. Also making valuable contributions to the project were the director of Kumar's Gallery, the Kunika Art Centre, and the Indian Co-operative Union (all in New Delhi), and Russell Hicken, director of the Jacksonville (Florida) Art Museum, who arranged the exhibition schedule in the United States.

"There is a meditative air about the collection. It has emotion but not emotionalism."

LE OP~ Ira. e Return To SPAN MAGAZh"fE, US IS INDI

'LET FREEDOM RING' Highlights of America's Declaration of Independence, signed July 4, 1776.

AMONG THE EVENTS THAT LED UP TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, THE BATTLE BETWEEN AMERICAN MILITIAMEN AND BRITISH SOLDIERS ON THE VILLAGE GREEN IN LEXINGTON, MASSACHUSETTS, WAS AN IMPORTANT TURNING POINT IN THE REVOLUTIONARY STRUGGLE. THIS ENGRAVING BY AMOS DOOLITTLE, AN AMERICAN COLONIST, CAPTURES CRUDELY BUT ACCURATELY THE FIRST VOLLEY WHICH DISPERSED THE AMERICAN FORCES AT LEXINGTON ON APRIL 19,1775. LATER, AS THE BRITISH WITHDREW TOWARDS BOSTON, THE MILITIAMEN FOUGHT IN THE MANNER OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN-FROM BEHIND TREES AND STONE WALLS-INFLICTING HEAVY CASUALTIES.

IINDEPENDENCE N THIS HISTORIC FOR

SCENE THE DRAFTING COMMITTEE PRESENTS THE DECLARATION OF CONSIDERATION AND ADOPTION BY THE /CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, JULY 1776.THIS IS A DETAIL FROM THE FAMOUS PAINTING BY JOHN TRUMBULL, IN WHICH JOHN ADAMS, ROGER SHERMAN, ROBERT LIVINGSTON, THOMAS JEFFERSON AND BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, LEFT TO RIGHT, PRESENTED THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENT TO JOHN HANCOCK.

NEWS OF THE ADOPTION OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS IN PHILADELPHIA ON JULY 4, 1776, WAS GREETED WITH EXULTATION AND REJOICING

BY THE AMERICAN COLONISTS. MEMBERS OF AN ORGANIZATION KNOWN AS THE SONS OF LIBERTY PULLED DOWN A GILDED EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF THE ENGLISH KING, GEORGE III, AND LATER MELTED IT INTO BULLETS FOR THE AMERICAN ARMY.

By

THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN 1826, FOURTH OF JULY PARADES IN EACH CITY AND VILLAGE HAD BECOME A NATIONAL TRADITION. AS IN THIS PAINTING, CITIZENS MARCHING ALONG THEIR TOWN'S MAIN STREET OFT~N WORE COSTUMES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY ERA. WHILE THE JULYFOURTH, 1826,CELEBRATION WAS GOING ON, THOMAS JEFFERSON, AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DIED AT HIS HOME IN MONTICELLO, VIRGINIA. THE NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONARY LEADERS WHO STILL SURVIVED WAS DWINDLING RAPIDLY' BUT THE HERITAGE OF INDEPENDENCE THEY HAD GIVEN THE NATION WAS FLOURISHING.

IN

THIS BUILDING-INDEPENDENCE HALL IN PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA-THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS PROCLAIMED AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE ON JULY 4, 1776.

THE ORIGINAL DECLARATION 'OF INDEPENDENCE IS ONE OF THE NATIONAL TREASURES KEPT ON DISPLAY AT THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES IN WASHINGTON, D.C. EACH YEAR MORE THAN A HALF-MILLION VISITORS VISIT THE ARCHIVES TO READ FOR THEMSELVES THE NOBLE AND FAMILIAR WORDS OF THE NATION'S FOUNDING SCRIPTURE:" WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BE SELF-EVIDENT, THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED EQUAL, THAT THEY ARE ENDOWED BY THEIR CREATOR WITH CERTAIN INALIENABLE RIGHTS, THAT AMONG THESE ARE LIFE, LIBERTY, AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS."

THOMAS JEFFERSON WROTE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, AND PROVIDED THE NATION WITH A DEMOCRATIC CREED. THE PAINTING OF JEFFERSON BY REMBRANDT PEALE, RIGHT, NOW HANGS IN THE WHITE HOUSE, RESIDENCE OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, IN WASHINGTON, D.C. A FEW WEEKS BEFORE HE DIED ON JULY 4, 1826, JEFFERSON WROTE A LETTER IN WHICH HE REGRETTED HE COULD NOT GO TO WASHINGTON TO JOIN IN THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE SIGNING OF THE DECLARATION. HE EXPRESSED HIS THOUGHTS ON THE DECLARATION: "MAY IT BE TO THE WORLD WHAT I BELIEVE IT WILL BE ... THE SIGNAL OF AROUSING MEN TO BURST THE CHAINS ... AND TO ASSUME THE BLESSINGS AND SECURITY OF SELF GOVERNMENT .... "

THIS IS A CLOSE-UP OF THE DECLARA TJON OF INDEPENDENCE AS IT APPEARS TODAY AT THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES, WASHINGTON, D.C. A YELLOW FILTER IS PLACED OVER THE DOCUMENT TO PROTECT IT FROM DAYLIGHT.

TAJ MAHAL L ~ IOP'"i

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The Taj Mahal with its massive marble lightness Floats above the river valley, the most Beautiful building raised by a man to a woman.

Nor was it built out of romantic folly By an ignorant youth idealizing a lady.

-.i~-;.-

Shah Jehan, absolute Emperor, had it made In that pure, feminine form, bent like a breast, To honour Mumtaz Mahal, simply a wife.

In the early seventeenth century when women Were things to be collected like tigers and jewels.

What a woman she must have been in such a time To be given such proud devotion after her death.

For twenty-two years he built it, in her praise.

She had borne him many children, surely he knew her As well as a man could know a wzfe. Surely they quarrelled Out of love, and were reconciled out of their love, Made private family jokes, smiled at each other Riding on top of the rocking elephants, Giving a human touch to that royal pomp.

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Inside the high and haunting tomb, I marvel At the coloured flowers carved from pure gems and set In the fiercely white stone, their long stems curving Lively and lovely as a woman's hair.

The guide calls, "Allah Is Greatr' The double dome Reverberates on and on, down to a whisper, Like the architect's echoing voice, proud of his work.

All day the dead wife hears God praised, and hears Footsteps of shoeless tourists rustle the floor.

With her fragile woman's bones, she bears the weight Of all that old i'fIJmensity of marble.

I leave cool darkness for the burning day Where the Indian sunlight screams.

A little girl Waits for her parents to climb the stairs. I smile.

She turns away, a disciplined, decent child, Huddled inside her orange-coloured sari.

Then she peers up, her face centuries old With a woman's way of looking at a man, I

.

Shrewd) shy) affectionate) all in one glance.

Softly she speaks her two little words of English) "Good noon/' in a voice that is poised and scared together.

Paul Engle began

writing poetry

while in high school and has published eight volumes of poems so far besides a

And But She And

then) with a hand before her mouth) amazed) also pleased) at such a brazen boldness) says again) more gently now) "Good noon/' flees into the T aj with a flutter of cloth.

novel and a book of reminiscences. His verses on the Taj Mahal were composed after a visit to India in 1963 when he made a tour of several Asian countries.

A member of the facuIty of the University of Iowa for the past twenty-six years, Paul Engle is at present director of the university's

The far sun wavers hotly at high noon.

You taught me about that Empress) why she was built a tomb Over those years) in desperate devotion.

Surely among women she was most womanly) The sort who can move a man by more than beauty ..

So that) gone) she makes his unfulfilled hands Feel they can touch eternity yearning towards her.

Writers'

offers a programme

Workshop

which

in crea~ive writing

and attracts students from all over the world. One of the objects of his Asian tour was to discover

talented

young

writers in the Orient who might benefit from this programme.

Unlike other poetic eulogies of the Taj, Paul Engle's tribute to the famous Moghal monument avoids rhapsody, but the poem's mood of restraint and quiet reflection has its own distinctive appeal.

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G A.ZI E US IS INnr

You blessed that place with your own feminine presence.

You will never have) living) the robes of Mumtaz Mahal) You will never have) dead) so echoing a tomb.

But already you know more English than she did.

ILE copy Already) finding the right and furious moment) Plea.se Retur. To SPAN MAGAZINE, USIS L DIA. You have instructed) and amused a man.

You will never live in a castle) ruling a country) But in your time) like Mumtaz) you will be That greatest wonder of our human world Before which tombs dissolve like sudden tears: A wise and loving woman) alive. Alive!

CHRYSLER CORPORATION

HECENTRAL DECISIONS which must be made in the economy of any country are: what commodities to produce, in what quantities, and at what prices to sell them. In some countries, the government makes most of these decisions. In others, these important decisions are largely left to the private producers themselves. Some countries in the second group have been accustomed to rely on cartels, or associations of private firms, to determine prices, production, and investment when individual firms disagree. The United States, however, believes that each individual firm should make its own decisions. In other words, Americans have adopted competition as the guiding principle of their economy.

But competition, if it is unsupervised, can lead to monopoly and unfair practices. Some firms may try to escape from competition by making their own private agreements or their own cartels. Or one of them may squeeze or buyout its competitors and become a monopoly.

A government which really wants to preserve competition "must, therefore, adopt positive measures to protect it.

These positive measures form the "antitrust legislation" with which the United States has been experimenting since 1890.

Today, two government agencies, the Continued on next page

T

These trademarks represent some of America's largest corporations.

When is BIG business

too BIG?

ABOUTTHE AUTHOR:Simon H. Whitney is a former professor of economics and now Director, Bureau of Economics, U.S. Federal Trade Commission.

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M0NY Federal Trade Commission and the Department of Justice, share responsibility for enforcing antitrust laws. Because the laws are wide-ranging and because economic situations can be very complicated, a considerable number of lawyers and economists are kept busy full-time at the job of protecting businesses and the public against monopoly and unfair practices.

The first national antitrust law was a response to the burgeoning industrialism of the years since the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865. At that time the North mustered its industrial might to support its armed forces against the South. Increased size of business was one of the tools used to increase production. When the war was over, the trend towards bigness continued, and the famous "captains of industry" (caned by their critics "robber barons") of the 1870's and 1880's built the structure of modern American industry. John D. Rockefeller set up the Standard Oil combination, Andrew Carnegie was the first great "steel master," J. P. Morgan served as investment banker for big business. The new trend, looked at sympathetically, created the physical and organizational base for the modern American high standard of living. Looked at unsympathetically, it put too much economic power into too few hands.

The political response was not long in coming. Farmers whose prices were falling and small businessmen who feared destruction by "big business" spearheaded the "populist" or "people's" movement.

The political parties that incorporated its programme never gained wide national support, but populist ideas infiltrated the older political parties. One of those ideas was government action to control the giant business combinations.

A climate of opinion developed in which the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 (named after the Republican Senator, John Sherman) could be passed by the Senate with but one dissenting vote, and by the House of Representatives with none.

A "trust" at that time was a type of organization used by Standard Oil and a few other big business units, in which the original owners took "trust certificates" to represent their ownership but

gave over full power of management to a little group of "trustees." This form of business organization is no longer in active use, but the name "trust" stuck and is still popularly used to describe any big business combination or concern.

The legislation against such concerns became known as "antitrust" legislation, and that name too has stuck.

The Sherman Act contained two important sections, whose essential words were the following: Section]. Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is hereby declared to be illegal. ...

Section 2. Every person who shan monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor ....

In short, contracts in restraint of trade, and attempts to monopolize commerce, were outlawed. They could either be punished by fines or prison, or could be forbidden by court orders.

The first important and successful action under the Sherman Act was a Department of Justice lawsuit against the famous Standard Oil combination whose activities had done so much to arouse sentiment for the passage of the law.

The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, which controlled over seventy-four per cent of the refining and wholesale marketing of petroleum products in the United States, was charged with both restraining trade and monopolizing. The case reached the Supreme Court on appeal, and was decided in May 19] 1 on the same day as a similar suit against the "tobacco trust." The court held that both these trusts had deliberately and successfully established monopolies. Although a number of small competitors were active in each industry, the court found the two trusts guilty of substantial domination and monopolization. Standard Oil was ordered broken up into thirty-four companies, and American Tobacco into sixteen. The Supreme Court pointed out

that it was not bigness but the deliberate attempt to create a monopoly that was being condemned. Many of the "successor companies" of Standard Oil are today individually much larger than the old trust, but the fact that they really compete makes them immune to antitrust action.

There was one feature of these Supreme Court decisions that aroused apprehension among those interested in controlling monopoly power. This was the "rule of reason" laid down by the court, according to which only "unreasonable" restraints of trade (such as those indulged in by the oil and tobacco trusts) were to be punished. Sentiment now developed to plug this "loophole" in the Sherman Act. The aim was to specify by law the various monopolistic practices that small businesses and the public generally objected to.

Sentiment against the trust had been further stimulated by the work of the "muckrakers." This was the name given to journalists who dug around in the "muck" of business misdeeds and exposed them to public opinion. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, directed against the meat packers, was the most famous tract against big business that emerged from this school of writers. Because of this rising sentiment, the Presidential election of 1912 was fought in large part on the trust issue, and important new antitrust legislation passed in 1914, during the first administration of President Woodrow Wilson.

The two new laws were the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Act. The first of these set up a commission of five men, serving seven-year terms, with authority to halt business practices that constituted "unfair methods of competition." The second named several specific practices which were considered likely to lead to monopoly-in particular, acquisition of a competitor, exclusive dealing, price discrimination, and having the same men serve as directors of competing corporations-and forbade them.

The enforcement of these prohibitions was given both to the Federal Trade Commission and to the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice.

The antitrust legislation goes, therefore, well beyond the mere prohibition of monopolistic combinations. Let us observe its impact by reviewing a few of

TWA+ the cases which were completed after World War II. First was the case brought by the Department of Justice against the one remaining classic example of an industrial monopoly, the Aluminium Company of America (Alcoa). From 1893 to 1941 this firm, whose founder had developed in the United States the process of making aluminium from clay, was the sole maker of aluminium. In 1938 the D<:partment of Justice brought its antitrust suit against it. The decision in the trial court went in favour of the company, but in 1945 this decision was reversed in the court of appeals. That court held that the defendant company had deliberately monopolized the production of aluminium by systematically taking advantage of every opportunity to forestall possible rivals. It happened, however, that the Reynolds Metals Company had entered the industry during the war with the help of government financing. The court, therefore, suggested that competition had already begun to appear in the industry. It was decided not to dissolve "Alcoa" as Standard Oil had been dissolved, but to see to it that the plants built with government money during the war be sold to Reynolds and to any new companies that might enter the industry rather than to Alcoa. Today there are not two but at least five competing companies producing aluminium.

Just as the outcome of the oil and tobacco suits had been a multiplied number of companies, so it was here. Once again, bigness by itself was not condemned.

Alcoa's two largest competitors, Reynolds and Kaiser, both produce three to four times as much aluminium today as Alcoa did in 1938, but they will not be attacked by the antitrust laws as long as they are in competition.

Another case which set an important precedent was that brought in 1949 against E.!. du Pont de Nemours & Company. The Department of Justice held that its purchase of nearly a quarter of the stock of General Motors Corporation had given this biggest of chemical companies control of the biggest automobile manufacturer. The Supreme Court, in 1957, ruled that the purchase of this stock created an ever-present possibility that du Pont might monopolize on the basis of favouritism rather than the

merits of its products, the huge market for artificial leather, paint, and other chemical products which General Motors constituted. Although a lower court had found that General Motors had not in fact bought du Pont's products on the basis of favouritism, it' was enough for the Supreme Court that ~he possibility existed, whether it had been used or not.

The court was determined to overthrow this danger of monopolizing. Each company was left by the decision as big as before, but they were ordered to break up the tie-in with each other which threatened free competition.

Several antitrust cases were designed to prevent the use of patents by big companies to gain or keep monopolistic power over whole branches of industry. Such giant concerns as Eastman Kodak, American Telephone and Telegraph, International Business Machines, and Radio Corporation of America have had to make many of their patents available to competitors.

As a result, openings were made for new companies.

Besides this type of "big case" against big companies, much of the daily work of the antitrust enforcement agencies is to ferret out and enjoin agreements among competing businesses of various sizes to fix prices, divide markets, control production, or in any way to control or soften the competitive process. Among those charged recently with arrangements of this character are automobile dealers in several cities, distributors of plumbing supplies in one county, and a number of producers of rubber belting for industrial use. Such arrangements may be entered without knowledge by the participants of their illegality, but "ignorance of the law is no excuse." Often they represent attempts to cope with a serious drop in demand for a product by an arrangement which will prevent competition from becoming "cutthroat." But the state of the industry is never admitted by the courts as an excuse for arrangements of this type. The law insists on competition, whatever the prevailing trade conditions and no matter how harsh it may be to the individual competitor.

The Federal Trade Commission gives much of its attentiQn to price discrintination. An American company is not

allowed to sell its product at different prices to different customers if the result is to injure those not receiving the lower price (though exceptions are made when the lower price is justified by the lower unit cost of handling large quantities).

The pricing practices of a number of companies have been readjusted on the basis of this part of the law, so as to give smaller competitors an equal chance to compete.

One mqre type of case brought by the Federal Trade Commission remains to be mentioned: that against false and misleading advertising, misbranding of products, and any other means of competition which has been ruled in court decisions as being "unfair." Under this provision, many companies have been compelled to change their advertising and labelling· to conform with proved facts. The result has been to protect the consumer.

In summary, the antitrust laws are designed to preserve competition against being wiped out either by collusioI). among the competitors or dominance· by anyone of them; and also to see that the type of competition conducted is fair to all competitors, suppliers, and customers.

It is on these laws that the United States relies in considerable degree to preserve a system of business in which both large and small firms can operate as their special qualities are called for.

The large firms offer the econolllies of mass production,· mass distribution, and organized research. The small firms offer personal service, flexibility, and individual initiative. Americans are aware that preservation of a competitive economy requires constant vigilance and a real understanding and intelligence on the part of the antitrust authorities. But they are convinced that they have much to gain by preserving such an economy -without breaking all business corporations up into tiny segments. So far America's competitive economy has achieved a large volume of production, a wide variety of products and services, and a wide field of individual choice for consumers and producers alike. This is the kind of free and decentralized economy which Americans believe will best suit their national needs. •

Seven years ago Miss Helene Moos retired from the F LE COpy Please Return To

SPAN MAG ZINE USIS INDIA.

New York Public Health Service and came to India. Now 61, she lives in Gargoti, and with a gentle hand and a firm manner cares for the women and children of many villages in the area.

Gargoti's favourite nurse IS BAZAAR day in Gargoti, a small village in the Kolhapur District of Maharashtra State. Along the roads leading to it come bullock-carts laden with earthen pots, cloth merchants on bicycles, bangle-sellers on foot, their wares glinting brightly in the sun. But not all of the people who converge on Gargoti on Wednesdays are headed for the market-place. From some twenty surrounding villages come also the old and infirm, the sick and the tired and the crippled-all bound for the Shri Mouni Vidyapeeth Health Clinic.

The clinic was started and is conducted by Miss Helene Moos, a retired New York public health nurse who for the last seven years has been a member of the Mouni Vidyapeeth's teaching staff. The Vidyapeeth is.a rural university with a broadbased programme for village education and reconstruction.

Watching Helene Moos at work in her clinic is a memorable experience. A small boy is brought in, his stomach bloated with fluid. After a brief examination, Miss Moos says: "I can't do anything for him; he has to be taken to Kolhapur immediately.

Even his chest is full of fluid now, and if you delay any longer, the boy will die." There is no time for delicacy; understatement is a luxury she cannot afford. The boy's father is sent for, the stethoscope is put into his ears to convey the urgency of the case. "Go now," she urges, "go quickly."

Two boys-Atmaram, seven, and Jayaram, ten-are examined next, both of whom have discoloured stubs for teeth. The seven-year-old, it turns out, is still being breast-fed. "This must stop at once," she tells the mother, "your milk has no sustenance any longer. You must give them at least two cups of milk a day."

The boys are tested for pill-swallowing ability, and they are sent off with a month's supply of calcium and vitamin pills.

And so it goes on. A little girl with an earache submits to the syringe with the infinite patience bred only of poverty.

A milk tooth obstructing the growth of a permanent tooth is unceremoniously yanked out. Wounds are cleaned, dressed, and smeared with antibiotic ointment. Temperatures are taken, injections given, bottles filled with medicine, and pills counted out by the hundred.

Most of her cases arise out of malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies. Common ailments are worms, diarrhoea, anaemia, eye conditions. As her work is mainly preventive health education, she treats them with multi-vitamins, shark liver oil, various vitamin injectibles, or simple tonics. Anything that requires further medical attention is promptly referred to the local doctors in Gargoti or to the hospital in Kolhapur. Because of the demands on her time, Miss Moos treats only women and children, and yet attendance runs between 80 and 100, and the

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clinic which starts at nine in the morning often ends only at twelve midnight. In recent months, the clinic has been held on Saturdays as well.

In dealing with her patients, Helene Moos is in turn autocratic, imperious, understanding, sympathetic and gentle. Not over-endowed with patience, she knows that the best way to make a child open his mouth is to clamp his nose, and that when a child is yelling his head off it's a good chance to take a look at his teeth. Her manner is brusque. but when she is dressing a wound her touch is gentle. Though the villagers stand a little in awe of her, there is no question but that she has their love and affection.

A good index of this is the way the village women greet her. They will touch her feet, will embrace her, will shower her with pathetic expressions of their gratitude-a bunch of bananas, a couple of cucumbers, a few sticks of sugar-cane.

Often when a patient is directed to the Kolhapur hospital, his people will say: "Yes, we'll go, but place your hand on him first so that we know he'll be well." When this happens, Miss Moos' reaction is: "All this faith is frightening-it's awe-inspiring. I know my limitations, but they don't. After all, I'm no miracle-worker. " In a sense, Helene Moos might be credited with having worked one very modest miracle: of making some headway in breaking down centuries of superstition and quackery; in gaining acceptance of modern medicines in place of charms and amulets and magic potions; in inculcating ideas of cleanliness and elementary hygiene and sanitation.

What still remains to be done, however, is a tremendous task. That is why perhaps she gives the impression of one with time constantly at¡ her heels. At sixty-one, this frail, whitehaired woman sleeps little, eats hardly at all, and drives herself so furiously that others find it impossible to keep pace with her.

Her obsession with time is equalled only by her fanatic sense of duty. As she explains it: "Just as doctors have the Hippocratic oath, we nurses take the Florence Nightingale oath and we pledge ourselves to saving lives and helping people whenever and wherever we can." Too down-to-earth to find moral overtones in her work, Miss Moos nevertheless lives her oath twenty-four hours a day. Sometimes she will wake in the morning to find a child rolling in pain on her back veranda; an asthmatic patient comes gasping to her doorstep at all hours of the night; often she is called to remote villages to help a woman in childbirth.

In addition to the Mouni Vidyapeeth clinics, she holds Continued on next page

A gift of people of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, CARE mobile health unit allows Miss Moos to treat patients in eight other villages.

"[ don't want to hear any more," Miss Moos tells pleading man.

Because of demands on her time, she treats only women and children.

To treat serious eye cases Miss Moos asked Dr. B. Kronenberg to visit India. Gandhi caps substitute for unobtainable surgical caps.

The former New York public health nurse considers village well a good place to teach ideas of cleanliness, sanitation and hygiene.

Miss Moos gives first aid to a village woman on the veranda of her home, a common occurrence although she works long hours in clinic.

With setting sun, Miss Moos begins return trip after treating villagers in the Kolhapur area. Mobile unit is completely equipped.

The job of teaching is not limited to the classroom-it

goes on all the time.

regular health clinics in eight other villages which means long hours of driving over bad roads. To some of these Miss Moos goes in the fully-equipped mobile health unit which, through her efforts, was donated by the citizens of Philadelphia through CARE. This is a regular hospital-on-wheels-an enormous gleaming white van, about as incongruous in an Indian village as an elephant on the streets of New York. The CARE unit was handed over to Miss Moos in May 1961 by Defence Minister Y. B. Chavan (then Chief Minister of Maharashtra) at an impressive ceremony held in Bombay. Looking over pictures of the event later, she observed: "My one day in the sun! And I have to have four inches of petticoat showing!"

This is typical of Helene Moos and her disregard for her personal appearance. Her normal attire is a cotton shirt, a thick grey or khaki drill skirt and on her feet the stout Kolhapuri chappals.

In addition to the CARE unit, she has also been responsible for getting Gargoti an ambulance van which is invaluable for transporting urgent cases to the Kolhapur hospital thirty-two miles away. The ambulance was donated by a group of her American friends. A distinctive Moos touch added to the ambulance is a New York siren. As cows in the van's path gaze at it blandly and pedestrians stare in curiosity, the siren's ineffectual wail is supplemented by a deep loud voice shouting admonitions in a mixture of Marathi and English.

Both the ambulance and CARE unit play an important part in Miss Moos' work in the villages, of which the health clinics are just one aspect. She conducts a distribution programme of foodstuffs-milk powder, beans, whole wheat flour, butter oil -received through the Church World Service. She holds regular family planning clinics in Gargoti and the surrounding villages.

She has organized several medical camps--eye camps, dental camps, tonsil camps, and vasectomy camps. "One of the biggest thrills of my life," she says, "came after our first eye camp when a man whose bandages had just been removed ran around shouting, 'I can see! I can see!' " While the clinics and camps absorb Miss Moos in her capacity as nurse, it is as teacher that she is employed by the Shri Mouni Vidyapeeth. She is a senior instructor in the Social Education Organizers' Training Centre which is conducted on behalf of the Maharashtra Ministry of Community Development and Co-operation. The subjects she teaches include public health, health education, family planning, maternal and child health, school health, environmental sanitation, extension methods, home nursing and first aid. Her students are the mukhya sevikas (leaders of village level workers group) of the Central Social Welfare Board.

But the job of teaching is not limited to the classroom; it goes on all the time. "It includes everything from painting a box to digging a garden, putting a bolt on a car and keeping the latrine clean." Extremely resourceful, Helene Moos knows and understands machines, can often deal with mechanical problems in the ambulance or CARE unit herself. When it is time for servicing or major repairs, she goes to Kolhapur and instructs the garage mechanics what to do. She has a special heavy-vehicle licence and as she drives into town, villagers along the road will stop to say, "Namaste, Moos Maushi" (maushi means aunt in Marathi). For miles around she is

known and hailed by this affectionate appellation.

All this is pretty far removed from that day in January 1958, when Helene Moos first arrived in Gargoti. She had to establish not only her bona fides but her sex-with her short hair and the fact that she smokes, many villagers took her for a man. "I had to furnish some really basic explanations to prove that I am a woman," she says.

Miss Moos' contact with one of the active promoters-of the Mouni Vidyapeeth led to her appointment at the rural university. An initial trip in 1955 had convinced her that India is the country in which she wanted to live and work.

Today Helene Moos lives in a cosy stone bungalow, lovingly furnished with textiles from Orissa and brass from South India, with cool rush mats on the floor and Moghal prints on the walls. "People sometimes comment on the hardship of the life I'm living," she says, "but I don't feel I'm making any sacrifices.

Where in the world would I get a house like this all to myself?

I have always wanted to live this way-not to have to worry if a bird flies through the house." Often on a moonlit night she will walk out to the centre of the Vidyapeeth's campus, drinking in the beauty of the surrounding countryside. The tough-talking New Yorker would be aghast at the suggestion that she has a touch of the poet in her, but this is evident from the frequent newsletters which she writes back to her friends in the U.S. In one of these she speaks of the sugar-cane's "lovely lavender flower-a magnificent sight like a vast silvery purple sea nestled in the mountain-ringed valley."

Helene Moos is a fourth generation New Yorker who has spent all her life in the concrete jungle of that city. Her mother was an accomplished pianist who passed on to Helene a deep love of music and who also influenced her decision to. become a nurse. As a small child her mother was subject to fainting spells and Helene remembers the wave of helplessness that swept oyer her when the attacks came. "I made up my mind that when I grew up I would be a doctor so I could cope with such situations. My favourite game when I was little was to take all my dolls and teddy bears and, using the ironing board as an operating table, slit open their tummies and sew them up again." But by the time she grew up, the family finances were too strained to allow her to become a doctor; which is why she had to settle for the next best thing.

Miss Moos has a Bachelor's degree in health education and a Master's in public health which she acquired over an eleven-year stretch, holding down a job all the time. As a registered nurse she worked with the public health department of New York City-in school health programmes, in anti-venereal, anti-rabic and TB clinics, and in preventive health centres, all of which were in areas inhabited by the underprivileged.

Last year Miss Moos returned to New York on what might be called a holiday. There she visited pharmaceutical firms wheedling donations of drugs from them; spoke before various civic groups of her work in India; made contact with CARE, Church World Service and other organizations which have been helping her in Gargoti.

But the main purpose of her visit was to raise funds for her dream project: a l00-bed hospital about nine miles from Gargoti, which will serve the needs of 100 villages within a ten-mile radius. Already a trust fund has been set up and about Rs. 16,000 collected, with promises of an additional Rs. 1 lakh, but she will need at least Rs. 5 lakhs to get started on the scheme.

"If my dream is ever realized," she says, "it will be the happiest day of my life."

There are no indications that Helene Moos intends to stop or even to slow down. When asked about plans for retirement, she replied: "Retire? Never! I'm going to die with my boots on-or rather my chappals on." â&#x20AC;˘

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LE COpy ./ Plea.e Return To SPAN 'GAZL~E, U'JIS INn!

Mrs. John F.Kennedy restored public rooms of White House to their earlier elegance.

FIRST

LADIES

OF AMERICA

WIVES OF U.S. PRESIDENTS HAVE INFLUENCED SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND ADDED LUSTRE TO THE WHITE HOUSE. BUT WHILE SOME WOMEN HAVE ENJOYED THEIR DEMANDING DUTIES AS THE NATION'S OFFICIAL HOSTESS, IT HAS BROUGHT TRIAL AND TRAGEDY TO OTHERS

HENPRESIDENT John F. Kennedy stepped from his plane in Fort Worth, Texas, early on the morning of November 22, 1963, he was greeted by a throng of well-wishers.

Mrs. Kennedy was not at his side, however, and the President apologized.

"Mrs. Kennedy is busy organizing herself," he said with a grin. "It takes a little longer, you know, but then she looks so much better than we do."

The airport gathering was not disappointed for long, and when she finally appeared wearing a pink wool suit and a pillbox hat, both the crowd and Mr. Kennedy appeared pleased. She was "organized" and everyone, including the President, agreed that she looked "better than we do."

Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, the 31st woman to serve as America's "First Lady of the Land," had won, in less than

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three years, the admiration of millions, both at home and abroad. Her taste and choice of clothes had placed her on the "best dressed" lists, and her efforts to restore the public rooms of the White House to their early nineteenth century splendour were received with appreciation. Since January 20, 1961 when her husband had taken the oath of office as 35th President, Mrs. Kennedy had created a place for herself as one of the most gracious and beautiful First Ladies in recent memory. The events of the next few hours would place her in history as one of the most courageous.

Following a breakfast in Fort Worth sponsored by the Chamber of Commerce, the President and Mrs. Kennedy, accompanied by Vice President and Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson and Texas Governor and Mrs. John Connally, boarded Air Force One, the Presidential

jet, and flew to Dallas where some 5,000 persons gave them a warm and friendly greeting when they landed. Mrs. Kennedy received the customary bouquet of red roses and the President shook hands. At 11-50 a.m. she took her place beside her husband in the open Presidential car for the drive through Dallas.

One hour later an assassin's bullet killed John F. Kennedy. The shocking news flashed around the world. People everywhere had their own memories of John Kennedy-and his beautiful lady.

In India, millions remembered the American First Lady riding an elephant at Jaipur or posing for photographers at the Taj Mahal.

Now they would remember the photographs of Jacqueline Kennedy, grief stricken and still wearing the bloodstained pink wool suit, standing beside a grim-faced Lyndon Johnson as he

George Washington's wife Martha was the original First Lady of the United States.

First to live in White House, Mrs. Adams hung out family laundry in parlour to dry.

Witty, energetic Dolley Madison was called best hostess during career as First Lady.

Mary Lincoln's bitter life as First Lady was climaxed by husband's assassination.

took the Presidential oath on board Air Force One. Others would remember Mrs. Kennedy, her face shrouded in black as she walked behind her husband's casket tbrr,ugh the streets of Washington.

Mrs. Kennedy became the fourth woman whose career as First Lady was turned from triumph to tragedy by assassins' bullets. Mary Todd Lincoln, Lucretia Rudolph Garfield and Ida Saxton McKinley had suffered the ordeal, and most First Ladies since Mary Lincoln have lived with the fear of assassination while their husbands served as President of the United States.

The President's wife has been called "The First Lady" almost since the days of the first President, George Washington, who served from 1789 to 1797. The position is almost as difficult as that of the President. A successful First Lady requires almost superhuman

patience, tact and physical stamina. She presides over the most famous residence in the world-The White House. She must plan parties for guests sometimes numbering more than a thousand; converse intelligently with the heads of other nations (Mrs. Herbert Hoover was fluent in several languages including Chinese and Mrs. Kennedy spoke French with guests from France and several former French colonies in Africa, and in Spanish with Spanish and Latin American dignitaries); make hundreds of public appearances, both alone and with her husband; pose for innumerable photographs; answer questions, sometimes impertinent and personal, of news reporters; and still remain a conscientious wife and mother whose primary task is to make the White House a comfortable and comforting home for the man who is America's Chief Executive.

Thomas Jefferson's daughter, Martha, was his official White House hostess.

'The job was just as rigorous in 1789 when the first President's wife, Martha Custis Washington, began her duties. She had to establish the entire procedure of entertaining and plan official parties which would command respect for the little underdeveloped country among the royal courts of foreign countries.

Her successor, Abigail Adams, was the first woman to live in the White House, and when she and President John Adams (1797-1801) moved in, it was still under construction. Mrs. Adams bad no wood for the fireplaces, and no way to summon servants. She regularly hung out her own wash in one of the unfinished rooms.

By the time the White House was completed in 1801, a new President had been elected-Thomas Jefferson, whose wife had died before he became President. He asked his daughter, Martha, to take over the job of official hostess. Since that time all Presidents without wives have followed Jefferson's example, asking relatives or friends to assume the demanding role of White House hostess. The sister of President Chester A. Arthur found her position so taxing from 1881 to 1885 that she asked as many as sixty other women to share the honour with her at large social functions.

Other traditions became a part of the White House heritage as new First Ladies came on the scene. Lucy Hayes, wife of Rutherford B. Hayes (1871-1881), celebrated the Easter holiday by inviting children to roll eggs down the White House lawn, an event which has continued to this day. Mrs. William Howard Taft (whose husband served from 1909 to 1913) directed the planting of Japanese cherry trees around the Tidal Basin in the nation's capital, and thousands gather there each spring to see the Continued on next page

ILE COpy Plea.se Return To SPAN MAGAZINE, USIS INDIA.

President Wilson married Mrs. Edith Galt, a widow, after death of first Mrs. Wilson.

Mrs. Grover Cleveland was the only First Lady who was married in the White House.

Theodore Roosevelt's wife Edith raised six children while serving as the First Lady.

beautiful blossoms.

The public has always carefully watched the appearance of the First Lady of the Land. Her hair and dress styles govern a large portion of the period's styles.

In 1817 Eliza Monroe, wife of the fifth President, James Monroe (1817-1825), appeared at an official White House reception with rouge on her cheeks. Society leaders were shocked but soon more and more women were wearing rouge on their own cheeks. When Mamie Eisenhower entered the White House in 1953, her hair style, the "Mamie bangs," became the nation's most popular coiffure. Women also noted that she often wore pink-coloured clothes and accessories and soon department stores were swamped with requests for dresses in "Mamie Pink."

When Mrs. Kennedy swept into the Inauguration Ball in 1961 wearing a dazzling gown of white silk ottoman, she set a new style in bridal gowns as thousands of young women rushed to department stores and bridal shops to purchase copies of Mrs. Kennedy's gown to wear for their weddings. Others found the style of Mrs. Kennedy's gown appropriate for evening dresses. Her favourite hat, the "pillbox," was seen on feminine heads from New York to California, and her bouffant hair style was copied by millions of women, young and old; the "Jackie Look" was seen everywhere and while women's garment manufacturers

welcomed the First Lady's pace-setting, many husbands and fathers were less enthusiastic when the bills came in from beauty parlours and department stores.

But being on public display almost around the clock can be tiring and some First Ladies have' not stood the glare of publicity or the physical demands of the position. The first Mrs. John Tyler, already ill when her husband succeeded to the Presidency in 1841, attended only one White House social event before she died. The first Mrs. Woodrow Wilson crusaded to clean up Washington's slums and won her battle but died shortly thereafter in 1914, less than two years after her husband became President. Mrs. Zachary Taylor, whose husband was President from 1849 to 1850, found the strain of publicity so great that she became a recluse and refused to be seen at all. Elizabeth Wallace Truman did not enjoy the public attention that is given the President's wife, and during her husband's administration from 1945 to 1953 she preferred to live quietly and avoid public life as much as possible.

Standing in receiving lines for several hours was painful for her because of an old knee injury; she substituted small dinner parties whenever possible. But for most of her years as First Lady she lived in Blair House, the President's Guest House across Pennsylvania Avenue from the White House, while the Executive Mansion was completely renovated.

Perhaps the most tragic experience of all First Ladies was that of Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of the Civil War President.

Before her marriage to Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd had predicted that whoever she chose to marry would one day become President of the United States.

But after she reached the White House in 1861 her life became a series of bitter incidents. She was unpopular with the leaders of Washington society and was often snubbed. Because close relatives were fighting on the Southern side in the Civil War, rumours spread that Mrs. Lincoln was a traitor to the United States. The rumours were finally squelched when her husband appeared unexpectedlyand unannounced before a Congressional investigating committee and affirmed "that it is untrue that any of my family hold treasonable communication with the enemy." Another bitter blow for Mrs. Lincoln was the death of her son, Willie, in the White House. But the most crushing blow was the assassination of her husband as they sat together watching a play on April 14, 1865, within a few blocks of the White House-and less than a week after the Civil War had ended.

It was the Civil War that helped bring another First Lady to the White House.

Julia Dent Grant, wife of General Ulysses S. Grant who led the victorious Northern armies, declared that her eight years as First Lady were the happiest of

Bess Truman lived in Blair House during renovation of the White House (1949-51).

Eleanor Roosevelt served as First Lady for over 12 years and became world famouS'.

Mrs. Mamie Eisenhower enjoyed beingFirst Lady, set a hair style with "Mamie Bangs."

her life. As the wife of President Grant she was noted for the elegancc she brought to White House functions. And the President was pleased with his wife's enthusiasm for her duties as First Lady.

Only once did he become angry with her.

She wanted to have an operation to straighten one eye, but the President said, "No!,'-he liked her just the way she was.

Edith Carow Roosevelt had five children of her own and her stepdaughter to look after in the White House-plus her exuberant and adventure-loving husband, Theodore Roosevelt, the uncle of Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt. The children slid down the White House bannister, brought ponies into the formal East Room, and chased each other through its corridors.

Others went to the White House with great enthusiasm. The witty and energetic Dolley Madison, wife of President James Madison (1809-1817), gave some of the best parties Washington has ever known.

When the British burned the White House during the War of 1812, she rushed into the flaming mansion to save important papers and a valuable portrait of President Washington.

More excitement occurred in the White House when President Grover Cleveland (1885-1889, 1893-1897) married Frances Folsom. At only twenty-two she became the youngest First Lady and the only one to be married in the White House. She

so enjoyed being the wife of a U.S. President that when her husband lost the next election, she told the White House staff to take good care of everything because she would be back "four years from today." She was. Her husband won the election of 1892 and Mrs. Cleveland was back, happily shaking as many as 9,000 hands at mass receptions.

Forty years later Eleanor Roosevelt shook even more hands. She served as First Lady for more than twelve years, from 1933 to 1945, longer than' any other woman. Surrounded by celebrities, Mrs. Roosevelt ran a crowded and informal White House, and her guest lists included people of all stations of life. She supported innumerable causes, held weekly press conferences, drove her own car, wrote a weekly newspaper column which appeared throughout the country, and had a radio programme.

She travelled more miles, met more people and made more speeches than most of the other First Ladies combined.

She never failed to symbolize America's warm interest in less fortunate peoples.

Eleanor Roosevelt was one of the few First Ladies to become a public figure in her own right and she created nearly as much controversy as her husband. And after Franklin D. Roosevelt's death in 1945, Mrs. Roosevelt served with the United States delegation to the United Nations and remained active in U.N. activities until her death in 1962:

Mamie Eisenhower is another woman who enjoyed being First Lady and the reasons are easy to find. Before moving to the White House she had lived in more than twenty houses and apartments at army posts around the world. Her early years as Mrs. Eisenhower were marred

by World War I and the death of her first son; her middle years by World War II, when her husband was overseas and her son John away at West Point Military Academy. But when her husband was swept into the White House by a large popular vote in 1952, Mamie had a new home with her son and grandchildren nearby. She was happy, too, to retire to the Eis'enhowers' farm at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in 1961.

Happiness and misery, strain and turmoil-all have mingled to make the lives of America's First Ladies an experience enjoyed by few, but observed by millions. Eliza Monroe's rouge, Eleanor Roosevelt's travels, Mary Lincoln's bitterness and Jacqueline Kennedy's courage are part of the fabric of America, a land of differences and diversity reflected in the approach of thirty-two women to their duties as First Lady of the Land.

Now America and the world are getting to know Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson who became First Lady when her husband became President on November 22, 1963.

On the following pages, a l\mgctime friend of Mrs. Johnson gives an intimate portrait of the First Lady. â&#x20AC;˘

The First Lady, shown with elder daughter Lynda in garden of their former home, is good conversationalist and a better listener.

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THE FIRST LADY: HER INTEREST LAUDIAALTA JOHNSONis unique. As a long-time , friend, I am certain that, for her, every human being is important. Shortly after the Johnsons moved into the White House, the First Lady and I talked of the continuity of her interests, and of the future. We were in the family living room. Yellow roses, barely opened, stood on the small table before us. Pale-yellow slip covers, soft chintz and the jewel tones of a small Persian rug complemented the mahogany pieces of the Federal period.

By the desk, Mrs. Johnson had hung a coloured photograph of the late Speaker of the House of Representatives, Sam Rayburn. We talked of the birthday parties she used to give him, inviting all the children of the Texas delegation.

Mr. Sam would say, "This is the nicest thing anyone ever did for me," and he never missed an opportunity to praise Lady Bird Johnson.

I remember sitting with Mr. Sam in the drawing room of a well-known club in Washington, in 1955. Lady Bird, accompanied by her husband, then majority leader of the Senate, had just appeared in the doorway. There was a flurry. High-ranking officials began pushing past lesser notables. The Speaker pronounced judgment, punctuating

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THE AUTHOR: Mrs. Louchheim, a long-time friend of the First Lady and a former Vice Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, is Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. This article is reprinted by special permission of Ladies' Home Journal. Š 1964 The Curtis Publishing Company.

ABOUT

IS PEOPLE his rema~ks with a forefinger: "That is the greatest woman I've ever known," he said. "She's good and she's kind. She hasn't a mean thought, and she's got more sense than most men. The smartest thing Lyndon ever did was to marry her.

He's just lucky."

Speaker Rayburn was right. In Washington, a city where every talent is suspect and every drawing room crowded with critics, witnesses to the First Lady's social assets vie with one another to describe them. "She is indefatigable. How does she always manage to be gracious, act as if she wasn't bored, look as if she never tires?" says a friend who campaigned with her in 1960. "She manages so well," explains the wife of a Presidential aide, "because she is self-disciplined and possesses a natural reserve of energy. The two together make it possible for her to use this energy effectively and do so many things so well in so little time."

But the real reason, I suspect, is that her first love is people. Four-H clubbers, grass-roots politicians, Nobel Prize winners, egg-heads-the First Lady is people-oriented.

It would be difficult for her to pretend that sort of thing.

Washington is small-town. Gossip takes the place of parlour games, hypocrisy-is passed with the canapes. People who wear masks in public are quickly exposed. Anyone who has been in public life for twenty-seven years, as Lady Bird has, has been tested many times and dissected at every dinner table. The First Lady always emerges with her legendary reputation for sincerity intact, because she is real, she is natural, and she is consistently honest with Continued on next page

"Lyndon expects a lot of me and so I've learned not to be afraid any more," says Lady Bird.

herself. Even Washington cannot alter those ingredients of character. Lady Bird, as her intimates can attest, has only one face.

What is she made of? Why, when one describes her to strangers, does she sound almost too perfect? How can she manage to keep every woman friend and yet make men describe her as beguiling?

Self-discipline, the kind that comes with responsibilities, is only part of the answer. A deep religious sense is another part. When the President was stricken with his serious heart attack in 1955 and it was touch and go whether he would recover, friends who knew of her dedicated faith gave her a cross to keep by her side during her lonely night vigil.

"She has great inner strength," says former Congressman Homer Thornberry (now a judge), perhaps the closest friend the President and his wife have. "An ordinary woman would go to pieces under stress, but not Bird. Her children are remarkable; they will do all right in the White House, because she taught them early on how to deal with problems of public life. And she has such good judgment. The President and I will be discussing some problem and he will say: 'Let's ask Bird.' We'd discover she already had all the facts and had made up her mind."

Inner strength is most often a virtue allotted to men.

So are good judgment and the reasoned reply based on knowledge of facts. It would never do for a well-bred Southern lady to admit to possession of the tools of the intellect. Lady Bird's deceptively feminine demean our serves as a suitable disguise for a woman of stature and substance.

Men find her beguiling because she is at once a good conversationalist and, a, better listener-a difficult and little-practised art.

Women friends, on both sides of the political aisle, are devoted because she has never lost kinship with them.

The highly competitive biographical market has been flooded with anecdotes that invariably begin: "She was so kind, she wrote to me, she came to see me, she rescued us."

My own files contain letters from the President and Mrs. Johnson, all full of warm friendship.

In the fall of 1960, the Vice Presidential candidate called late one evening to ask me please to go "campaigning with Bird." The hour and the personal request were both typical.

Of course I went, and watched with admiration Mrs. Johnson's increasingly successful struggle to master her shyness. "Thousands of barbecues and hundreds of speeches helped," and she adds, "Lyndon expects a lot of me and so I've learned not to be afraid any more."

Despite her own protests to the contrary, the First Lady is by disposition, experience and inclination what President Lyndon Johnson calls a "can-do" woman.

Lady Bird distributes Mrs. John F. Kennedy's Christmas presents to small patients at the Columbia General Hospital, Washington.

Mrs. Johnson escorted Mrs.Indira Gandhi through the White House during Mrs. Gandhi's visit in April this year to United States.

What can and will she do as First Lady?

She will do the routine jobs expertly. She has graduated with honours from more receiving lines, charity bazaars, ladies' lunches and head-table endurance contests than any of her predecessors. Her expression is naturally alert, and she is modest without being self-conscious. She suffers fools cheerfully. She admits that she doesn't bore easily, and she never complains of her feet.

Acting as the late President's hostess on occasions when Mrs. Kennedy could not be present, seated between visiting dignitaries who spoke no English, she ploughed right in with the same intelligent enthusiasm and dependable charm that helped elect her husband to the House and then to the Senate.

But Mrs. Johnson is also an innovator. Before taking off with the Vice President on his goodwill missions, the State Department, at her request, prepared lists of important women in the countries she was about to visit. Her schedule, separate from the Vice President's, always included visits with women "doers" -doctors, journalists, scientists, social workers, senators, judges-and stops at whatever projects they had evolved in their efforts to eradicate the various ills of mankind.

In the fall of 1962, after Mrs. Johnson's trip to Greece, the U.S. Ambassador's wife, Eve Labouisse, wrote describing her visits to urban community centres, day nurseries for children of working mothers, farm schools for boys and handicraft centres. "These meetings were not formal in character and their objective was personal contact and interesting conversation. This was accomplished not only because of Mrs. Johnson's direct and gracious manner but also 'because her interest was so real and because in several areas, such as social welfare, journalism and business, she At picnic for press

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herself knew a great deal. Her intellectual curiosity, her warm and spontaneous friendliness gained for her the affection of all the Greeks who met her."

One of my duties in, the State Department was to dramatize effectively the importance of women visitors to the new administration. How better accomplish this than to ask Mrs. Johnson to receive them? In the spring of 1961 twelve Latin American social workers, the first of many such groups, visited the United States under the auspices of the State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Exchange. Lady Bird invited them to the Vice President's office in the Capitol. Over the coffee and cake they got both empathy and history. "There are many little things I love about the Capitol building. It is-in looks and being-such a continuing thing, stretched from time to time to meet the new demands of the growing nation," Mrs. Johnson began in that friendly Southern drawl.

Between these official visits there were the emergencies, when we knew, that despite an already overcrowded schedule, she would help out: the time the woman from Bolivia brought her husband's gift of a silver wedding dish to present; the visit from the Turkish ladies who had commissioned a special American flag.

Lady Bird's own estimate of herself is modest; she does not think of herself as businesslike. Mrs. Johnson has her own answer to the eternal question: What is a woman's business? "Her first and most important business is to provide a comfortable, peaceful, efficient and, above all, a happy home. Her business must also be to raise her children with sturdy bodies, independent, disciplined minds, a sense -of obligation to their country and the assurance that spiritual strength is their greatest bulwark." And she Continued on next page

family ranch in Texas, the First Lady greeted reporters and photographers with friendly, informal hospitality.

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adds, "To serve as a vast resource of thoughtful energy for the betterment of their community."

For all the millions of homemakers and mothers, tired of being twitted about the "retreat" to the hearth and weary of being unfavourably compared to the talented career types, these are encQ,uraging and soothing words. Lady Bird is a homemaker, and she wants homemakers to know she identifies with them. "Mathematically," she says, "it is very unlikely that many of us will leave our 'footprints in the sands of time,' but through the people we love, we make the greatest contribution of all-a gift to their immortality."

How will she keep her family free from the insistent demands of public life? How can she preserve their privacy?

"We'll live as we always have," she answered. "Lyndon will involve us all, Lynda and Lucy and myself, in the fascinating people and doings that go on about him. He feels the girls should be as interested in the political world as he is-and they are. He calls on them, no matter where they are or who is there. Sometimes [ watch, holding my breath. but they never let him down."

Lynda's interest in history is her father's special joy.

She has his drive, his keen perception, his inquiring mind, even his mannerisms.

Lucy loves dogs and cats, makes brownies, writes poetry and is more the "domestic" type. Both girls have adjusted to the insistent demands of public life; they respond gladly and drink in the opportunities for learning by association with the great minds of their day.

Yet they are still two very natural, exuberant young girls, and Mrs. Johnson makes a point of keeping their surroundings in this key.

Lucy's white painted furniture, moved from The The First Family poses for formal portrait: the President, Mrs. Johnson (seated), daughters Lynda, 20 (centre) and Lucy, 17.

Elms to the White House, might be any American teenager's. The white ruffled canopy bed, the typical young girl's knickknacks, a silver heartshaped box, personal mementos, books, photographs of her family, a radio by the bed and an open fire make the room cozy. On Lynda's bed across the hall a large Teddy bear waits for its keeper.

We spoke of Lady Bird's plans: The ways she might make the White House a showcase for women of achievement. They will be her ways, as individual as have been her accents in all her doings, whether at The Elms, the LBJ ranch in Texas, or in the thirty countries she has traversed "bragging on women."

She may invite prominent women visitors from abroad to tea, and bring in newspaperwomen to help them tell their stories. She will take the wives of heads of state to see the new developments in education at the Washington schools. She will show them the work of the Urban Service Corps volunteers headed by Cabinet wives. She will go with them to Cape Kennedy, Florida, where the U.S. has its space exploration centre and MonticellQ, Virginia, where Thomas Jefferson lived and lies buried, to the wonders of the space age and the past. She will set the stage for people in the arts and entertainment world at White House dinners.

Will she introduce them herself, as she so graciously did on occasions at The Elms? "I may," she answered, as I reminded her of her expertise in bringing together the "doers" and listeners at luncheons for Indira Gandhi or Japanese Cabinet wives. "I thought you might like to visit with some of our own," she would begin. "I am always so proud when we can show off such lady activists as"-and follow with pertinent facts about her special guests: a woman judge, an economist, an astronomer, a discerning art collector.

Life in the White House will have the personal, informal touch she has given every home she has created. She will take pains at everything, but this won't be obvious. There will be the dignity due the occasion and the surroundings, and yet the western breezes will blow and the flavourful "you all" will make every guest believe "it was mighty good to see you." She will go on signing her own mail and making her own personal telephone calls to invite old and new friends to visit; being a keen observer and an intelligent listener and the person her husband turns to for solace and advice.

Early in the campaign I had to introduce Mrs. Johnson to a large audience. I had given a great deal of thought to what I could say that would do her justice. In the end I simply said, "Lady Bird Johnson brings to high office one very great advantage, besides the obvious ones of experience, aptitude and devotion: she does not have to change.

She can just be herself and measure up." This is still the case. The White House has as many rooms as the job of First Lady has hopes and heartaches, but all Lady Bird Johnson has to do to measure up is be herself. â&#x20AC;˘

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The lighter side

"I hate to make a nuisance of myself, but could I trouble you for the time again ?"

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"Do you have anything for somebody who was turned into a frog by mistake?"

"I thought they gave in too easily when our grievance committee asked for larger paychecks."