SPAN: September 1962

A MERICANS

THINK of the wilderness 'and the natural beauty preserved in their national parks as representing what is good, strong, and vigorous in America. ' The national parks and monuments are selected as the best ~xamples of sceni.c, scientific, historical and inspirational grandeurin the United States. Includingshrines and historical sites, over 1go areas are preserved by the U.S." National Park System as part of America's heritage.

In 1864, Congress established a new pattern of public-land use when it ceded Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove to the State of California, to be held inviolable for all time "for public use, resort, and recreation." But i.t was an event six years later that really marked the. beginning of the National Park System. ,In 1870, a small group of men lef! on horseback a"nd Helena, Montana, headed for a primitive region that is now known as Yellowstone National Park.

There they marvelled at the sights they saw-the geysers, the Canyon of the Yosemite, the lake, the moose, deer, and elk. As the group sat around the campfire one evening discussing the future of the area, a Montana judge, 90rnelius Hedges, proposed that it be set aside as a national park tq be kept unimpaired for the benefit and enjoyment of all people for all time.

Hedges' friends quickly accepted the suggestion. It was proposed to the Congress of the United States, which passed a bill creating the first national park in the world-Yellowstone.

President Ulysses S. Grant signed the bill in 1872. .

In 1916 the National Park Service was created to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife in the areas of the system so that they would provide the fullest degree of enjoyment and inspiration for present and future generations of Americans and for their guests from foreign lands.

Zion National Park in the western State of Utah is known for its multi-coloured and vivid rock formations of unusual height and design. The park consists of a high plateau which has been cut by the Virgin River into three main canyons -Zion, Parunuweap and the Great West. Zion Canyon, sec:n in the picture opposite, is the largest ihd most beautiful of the three.

Zion Canyon is about fifteen miles long and from a half mile to less than twenty feet wide. The floor of the canyon has' an average elevation of 4,200 feet abo\'e sea level and its walls rise two thousand to three thousand feet higher.

The magnificent Zion gorge was explored in the late 1850's by the Mormons, who named it. The region was established " as a national park in 1919.•

Governor of a Red Indian pueblo in New Mexico shows ceremonial drum to Mrs. Indira Gandhi, during the latter's recent visit to America.

See story an American Indians, page fifteen.

4

ICE AGE MAN IN AMERICA

by Thomas R. Henry

II

LIBBY'S CARBON CLOCK

by V. S. Nanda

15 THE AMERICAN INDIAN

by Albert Roland

22

THE SHORT HISTORY OF NEW AMSTERDAM

by N. V. Sagar

26 32

EVER-CHANGING

NEW YORK

HOW THE CITY PROTECTS ITS CITIZENS

by Dale McKean

38

P. A. L.

by Stan Rowland, Jr.

42 THE BUS DRIVER

by Richard Montague

46

FRIENDSHIP 7's FOURTH ORBIT Photographs by D. Chawda

48

RUTH REEVES

by Zehra Rehmatulla

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AMERICA'S

PIONEER

FAMIL Y

probably crossed on ancient land bridge (rom Asia at the present Bering Strait, where geologists believe the sea level was 200 to 300 (eet lower in the Ice Age.

Ice Age Man LOST IN the cold emptiness of a vast continent, groping their way dimly through wind-tossed glacial mists, the first Americans arrived. Homeless nomad hunters, they numbered a few thousand at most.

They had wandered out of Siberia and across Bering Strait to Alaska, perhaps on a land bridge when the level of the sea was lower than it is now, perhaps on the ice in winter, perhaps even by boat.

Their blood may well run in the veins of living men, for almost certainly they were the ancestors of some, at least, of the American Indians.

After the first Ice Age men made the crossing, migrations from Asia continued for thousands of years.

Ancestors of the Navajos, Apaches, and other Athapascan people of the Southwest perhaps arrived only a few centuries before Columbus. There may even have been some travel back to Asia.

The great glaciers were disappearing slowly, summer after summer, when the first Americans came. In the wake of the retreating ice, forests and meadows were spreading.

A strange assemblage of animals now extinctmastodons and woolly mammoths, native camels and in the horses, and a huge species of bison-mingled continent's lush grasslands. With them were wolves, bear, deer, antelope, and rabbits, which have survived essentially unchanged to modern times.

As the ancient Americans who hunted these animals moved from camp to camp, they left behind fragments of weapons, charcoal frcm fires, and bones of the creatures they cooked and ate, certain evidence of man's presence on the glacier-gripped continent.

Piecing together the story of the first Americans, how they lived and hunted, their migration routes, and above all how long ago they lived, is a fascinating task of scientific detective work, and one that is still going on.

Until recently, we knew only that these Ice Age people must have lived 10,000 or more years ago. Vile knew it because they hunted animals which existed then but later became extinct. The dart or spear points of¡ chipped stone which they fashioned have been found closely associat~d with the bones of the mammoth, giant bison, and a: species of camel.

These points, chipped from quartzite, jasper, chert, chalcedony, and other materials, are of several distinct types. The best known are called "Folsom points" after the village of Folsom in northeastern New Mexico, near which numerous specimens have been found. The mysterious hunters who made them are often called "Folsom men."

When Europeans crossed the Atlantic and began to explore the vast New World, they found the wilderness from Labrador to Patagonia sparsely populated. The first few Ice Age immigrants had increased by scarcely

•

In America more than a million north of Mexico and fourteen million south of the Rio Grande.

The ways oflife of these New World men ranged from among the most primitive on earth to the relatively high civilizations of Peru and Mexico. Their cultures and traditions appear to have developed independently through thousands of years.

The early American Indians were basically a Mongoloid people, closer in appearance to eastern Asians than to any inhabitants of western Europe. For the most part, they lacked anything like records. Stories of the past had been transmitted orally from generation to generation until reality had become hopelessly confused with the supernatural. To explain their origins, for example, some of them related how the moon became enamoured of the evening star, and how from their union the first men and women were born . . Gradually, however, scientists reconStructed about 4,000 years of American Indian history. By counting the annual tree-growth rings in rafters of ancient dwellings in the southwest region of the United States and linking these up with the rings found in trees still growing there, they were able to fix dates for the history of the Indians in this region as far back as the beginning of the Christian Era. One discovery that helped push recorded American

Indian history even farther back was the finding in 1939 ofa Mayan monument in Yucatan bearing a date equivalent to November 4,291 B.C. (Spinden Correlation), the earliest known work dated by man himself so far found in the New World. Expeditions of the National Geographic Society made this discovery and also carried out much of the tree-ring dating work.

Records and relics found in Peru take the story to still more distant epochs-about 2400 B.C. But from that time back, no proved records of man had been found until recently in either North or South America.

Now, with a dating method born of the Atomic Age, archaeologists are bridging this gap. Moreover, they are learning to date with greater precision the remains of animals and man-made relics from the Ice Age itself.

How a rare form of carbon is used to fix these dates is truly an amazing story. (See LIBBY'S CARBON CLOCK beginning on page 12).

In the Old World the human race has been evolving for at least half a million years. There is no credible evidence, however, that any of the higher anthropoid apes or man himself developed in North or South America.

Wherever he came from, it was man full-fledged who entered the unpopulated New World.

Long before, the human race apparently had developed from creatures like the ape men of Java and

S~an

September

1962

5

STONE- TIPPED SPEARS were fragile weapons against the great bears which entered North America during the Ice Age. Early men did not hunt the fearsome beast, according to available evidence, but here they try to free a comrade who has stumbled into the monster's lair. The Alaska brown bear, a I ,SOD-pound descendant, is land's largest flesh eater in the world today.

Ice Age Man in America southern Africa to the intellectual and cultural level of the pioneers of civilization. By the time primitive hunters were spreading over the Americas, men in Europe, Asia, and Africa may have been approaching the earliest stages of agriculture.

Meanwhile, impassable seas separated man from Jorth and South America. He came at last out of northern Asia, perhaps a goalless wanderer, perhaps pushed on by population pressures across Bering Strait to Alaska, the nearest thing to a bridge between the Old and New Worlds.

The possibility that the migrants could have passed dry-footed over such a causeway rests on the geologists' estimate that vast amounts of water were locked in glaciers, lowering the sea level 200 or 300 feet. Even today, Bering Strait can be crossed on waters not more than ISO feet deep.

If man came later, after the glaciers retreated, he may have crossed on the ice in winter; it can still be done. The longest distance between the mainland and intervening islands is little more than twenty-five miles.

FOLSOM HUNTERS spear a giant Ice Age bisan. the animal which fed and clothed them. Capulin volcano. New Mexico. in the background. is now extinct and its cone stands eight miles from the camp site which gave Folsom man his name.

T

HE FIRSTCOMERS brought with them weapons, a fact that shows they had developed a considerable degree of skill. The weapons enabled them to pursue and slay some of the fiercest and most powerful animals the world has ever known. Before these earliest immigrants, however, lay a vast, terrifying, and unknown wilderness of ice-covered mountains. For generations many of the wanderers doubtless stayed close to the hospitable sea, which provided much of their food.

But occasional groups must have ventured inland, drifting through the mountain passes and river valleys which opened before them, always following the game.

To understand their next move, one should recall that great ice sheets layover the northern half of North America when man first entered the continent. These glacial sheets were at times separated from each other by wide strips of territory free from ice. One of the corridors was just east of the Rocky Mountains. This passageway from the Arctic into the interior of North America is estimated to have been as much as 200 miles wide.

It was probably this route that the first Americans followed southward. Their long migration could have been only in small groups, for the game would have been too scattered to support large numbers of people travelling together. Beset by hardships in their harsh new homeland, they may well have taken many generations to reach the unglaciated lands to the south.

Although these first humans in the New World left no records, there is little reason to think that they were especially primitive. Not very different culturally from the Old Stone Age peoples of Europe, they made dart points and other implements with skill and ingenuity.

While Ice Age Americans produced no paintings comparable to those made by Cro-Magnon man on the walls of European caves, they can hardly be blamed for it: they must have lived from hand to mouth, continuously on the move, with little leisure to experiment with pictures. It was only when they reached unglaciated regions that they left traces of themselves which anthropologists have been able to interpret.

The first generally accepted evidence of the existence ofIce Age nomads in the United States was found buried under a deposit of clay and gravel, four to fifteen feet thick, near Folsom, New Mexico. Here in 1927 scientists of the Colorado (now Denver) Museum of Natural History, excavating an extinct bison embedded in clay,

USING STONE AND BONE tools. with edges sharp as broken glass. quartz into points. shaped central notched ends of shafts and bound

Folsom men chipped fluted spear points These craftsmen flaked crude grooves that stone to wood with leather thongs.

Ice Age Man in America

WHIRLING STONES AND THONGS were another weapon of Ice Age Man, who hunted the now almost extinct whooping crane.

Grooved stone balls tied together with three leather thongs were spun overhead, released to entangle the wings and necks of large birds.

discovered flaked stone dart points among the bones.

They were leaf-shaped and obviously man-made. The implication was that man and bison must have been contemporaries.

Then came discoveries that proved to be a turning point in reconstructing the history of man in the New World. More Ice Age points turned up at Clovis, New Mexico. And for six summers (1935-40) Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., of the Smithsonian Institution, excavated at a site located by amateurs in northern Colorado's Lindenmeier valley. Here he found a gold mine of information left by Ice Age hunters about themselves and their way of life.

In the near-by mountains were moraines, heaps of earth and gravel left by the valley glaciers of Colorado.

By making correlations between these glaciers and the continental ice sheets, geologists were able to estimate the age of the camp site as not less than 10,000 years.

Animal bones scattered in great profusion at the Lindenmeier site showed that the ancient nomads had hunted Ice Age bison and American camels, in addition to deer and several kinds of rabbits.

MINGLED WITH these animal bones at the Lindenmeier valley camp site, Dr. Roberts found, were Folsom points in profusion, along with stone knives, hide scrapers, and -hammers-more than 5,000 pieces altogether. He found bone beads and even engraved bone disks that may have been gaming pieces with which Folsom man gambled around his campfires. The hunters appear to have set up here a sort of workshop for making dart points.

The Folsom points are marked by fine secondary chipping along the edges of the blades. But their most notable feature is a groove extending from close to the tip along the centre on both faces.

From the abundance of artifacts found at the Lindenmeier valley site it has been possible to reconstruct in some detail the life of Folsom man. This early American, Dr. Roberts reports, was "a typical hunter depending ... upon the bison for his maintenance and sustenance.

He no doubt supplemented his preponderant meat diet with wild seeds and 'greens,' but did not cultivate his own vegetal food.

"He probably ... traveled wherever the bison moved, in order to support himself. For that reason it is not likely that his dwelling consisted of anything more substantial than a tent made from the skins of that animal."

The significance of the difference between the Clovis points and those from Folsom was not known until much later. Fluted points from Clovis, I ew Mexico, are generally larger and somewhat cruder than the characteristic Folsom forms and lack the fine chipping along the edges. After World War II the Clovis investigations were resumed by Dr. E. H. Sellards and a party from the Texas Memorial Museum in Austin; they found evidence indicating that the differences in the fluted points were attributable to age. The larger examples from Clovis were the older and were found in association with mammoth bones. The Folsom points appear to be refinements of the Clovis type. Together they represent two stages of a general cultural group.

How could a small band of men on foot kill so powerful an animal as a mammoth or bison with nothing but stone-tipped spears or darts? It is unlikely that they used arrows; the bow was probably not introduced until much later. Obviously, they must have been able to get very close to the great beasts without stampeding them.

Mastodons and mammoths they probably found bogged down in sloughs or caught in other natural traps.

Span

September

I962

9

@

National Geographic Society.

PRIMITIVE MAN USED GUILE to trap a mastodon in a pit and stone it to death. Their spears were futile against the massive bulk of the beast which stood ten feet high at its shoulders.

Ice Age Man In America

As for the bison, the Ice Age hunters doubtless dressed themselves in wolfskins and lay in wait on the slopes of waterholes to which the herds came to drink. Wolves commonly followed such herds and would have attracted little attention. Clovis-Folsom man may even have howled like a wolf to complete the deception.

Even so, it is unlikely that the early Americans killed bison outright with darts or arrows. More likely they weakened the animal so it was unable to keep up with the herd and eventually dropped from loss of blood.

Then the pursuing hunters could rush in with clubs.

To cut up the carcass, they had to rely on crude stone implements-a titanic job.

CLEARLY, CLOVIS-FOLSOM man must have had a high degree of intelligence and courage to pit his feeble body against the mammoth and bison and "make a living" out of them. There is no evidence that he tried to develop agriculture. The large game animals and a few stones gave him aU he needed-food, clothing, shelter, weapons, kitchen utensils, and decorations.

Clovis-Folsom man presumably painted his body. A rock with a depression in one side, which may have been a crude paint pot, was found at the Lindenmeier camp site.

He wore ornaments as well. Dr. Roberts found beads made from lignite, tubular beads of bone, and what 10

SEan

September

I962

appear to ~e pendants fashioned from red hematite.

The makers of the fluted points wandered far. Their curious artifacts, with slight variations, have turned up over most of the United States east of the Rockies and even near the Atlantic seaboard. Seventy-eight of the points, for instance, have been found in Mecklenburg County, in southern Virginia; sixty-two were obtained from a site in Dinwiddie County iri the same State; and others have been recovered from a site in western Pennsylvania.

Relics from one camp site of Folsom man dated by the carbon-14 method-near Lubbock, Texas, where finely chipped fluted points were found with the remains of an extinct bison-revealed an age of 9,883 years, plus or minus 350.

The date fits roughly with those of the big Lindenmeier camp site and the original Folsom finds as deter.mined by geologists. Since the Clovis fluted forms occupied a level below Folsom types, they are obviously older. For them a geologic estimate of 12,000 to 15,000 years is credible, Dr. Roberts has suggested.

In 1953 fragments of a human skull were unearthed near Midland, Texas, by a pipeline welder with a flair for archaeology. Credited at first to Folsom man because of the tools with which they were found, they were soon revealed to be even older. Skilled analysis of the winderoded site proved that the Folsom layer had blown away and its stone artifacts had dropped down to a much older layer of gray sand in which most of the skull fragments were deeply embedded.

Fluorine and other chemical tests showed that the human skull, apparently that of a woman, was contemporaneous with bones of extinct animals found in the same layer of sand. Geological evidence indicates that Midland "man" lived at least 12,000 years ago.

Also of apparently greater age than the Folsom remains are artifacts found in a cave in the Sandia Mountains, northeast of Albuquerque, New Mexico. In the floor of this cave were three strata bearing evidences of human occupation. The uppermost contained artifacts approximately 1,000 years old. Below this stretched a hard crust of limestone sealing a stratum containing Folsom points and bones of bison, mammoth, ground sloth, camel, and wolf. Next came a layer of yellow ochre without human traces, and after it a stratum of broken rocks and pebbles mixed with bones of mastodon, mammoth, horse, and camel. In the same stratum cropped up remains of hearths with charcoal, ashes, and fragments of burned bones.

Scattered through this deposit occurred javelin heads which have come to be called "Sandia points."

They vaguely resemble Folsom points and may have been forerunners. Besides these Sandia points, caves in the Sandia and near-by Manzano Mountains of New Mexico yielded stone knives, scrapers, and grooved stone balls suggestive of the bolas once used on the Argentine pampas.

Similar balls have been found elsewhere in the Southwest and in an Ice Age camp site in Nebraska. In South America the balls, joined by cords in pairs or sets of three, were hurled at birds or animals to entangle their legs and throw them to the ground.

Sandia's artifacts are suggestive of some made towards the end of Europe's Old Stone Age, but were not necessarily produced at the same time. There are indications that the ochre deposit in Sandia Cave was built up during a wet period which preceded the last glacial retreat. The fact that the Sandia artifacts, like the Midland bones, were found below the Folsom type indicates they are of greater age or at least as old.

In California's Death Valley Dr. Thomas Clements, of the University of Southern California, and Mrs. Clements have uncovered several hundre.d:stone objects, obviously man-made, on a terrace formed by waves of the

long-extinct Lake Manly. Geological evidence indicates that the site compares in age with the Lindenmeier valley ca-mp of Ice Age man-that is, 10,000 or more years ago-and that the artifacts could not have been washed up on the terrace at a later period.

The majority of these items, which were of very primitive workmanship, were evidently designed as scrapers; a few crude knife-blades were found, but no points. The users apparently were primitive nomads who caught fish from the ancient lake and lived in part on berries, nuts, and fruits. Perhaps they ate their food raw; no evidence of fire was found.

OTHER MARKS of early human occupancy of the Southwest are provided by the so-called Cochise culture.

Remains of hearth fires and bones of Ice Age animals have been exposed in eroded gullies in Arizona and New Mexico. The oldest hearths contain hickory charcoal, though no native hickory trees are found in the region today.

Charcoal of the Cochise hearths has yielded several carbon-14 dates. The earliest is about 7,500 and the latest about 1,500 years ago. Presumably the Cochise people lived there all through this long interval.

Though none¡ of Clovis-Folsom man's bones have so far been conclusively identified, scientists are puzzled by several different sets of human remains found in various parts of the New World. About forty years ago a skull and other parts of a human skeleton were discovered in an old stream deposit near Vero Beach, on the Indian River in Florida. Mammoth and other bones were found near the skull.

A few years later, under a golf course at Melbourne, Florida, a crushed human skull was found in close association with bones of extinct horses and tapirs. Near by were bones of mammoth and mastodon.

This indicates that man and some types of extinct animals were living in Florida at the same time. Perhaps these creatures survived here long after they had vanished elsewhere.

Then there is the mystery of the Minnesota girl, whose remains were brought to light by a road scraper.

Her skeleton was found in clay deposits laid down approximately 20,000 years ago in the bottom of an extinct glacial lake near Pelican Rapids. She may have been drowned after falling through an air hole in the ice of the lake or may have been buried at the spot after the lake dried up.

Found with the skeleton were an implement made of elk antler and a marine shell perforated at one end, apparently worn as an ornament. The shell is of a species now found on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This would seem to indicate that at the time the girl lived the country was populated enough for contact between tribes up and down the Mississippi Valley.

South America has yielded a few human remains for which considerable antiquity is claimed, although many scientists disagree. Here man was coming to the end of his long trek from the Bering Sea coast. Made entirely on foot and delayed for long intervals, the journey probably required several thousand years.

Yet carbon-14 measurements of organic remains in one Chilean cave which also contained human artifacts at the same level give an age of 8,639 years, plus or minus 450. This, one of the oldest accurately determined dates for man's presence in the New World, would indicate that the first Americans had travelled all the way from the Bering Strait to the southern tip of South America at that early time.

PARTIAL SKULL of Midland human appears to be that of a 12,000year-old woman. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., examining the skull, is Associate Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. He acted as consultant to ensure the scientific accuracy of this article on Ice Age Man in America and of the paintings which illustrate it.

Notable among South American finds is a skull from the Punin district of Ecuador. It was found in a deposit which also contained bones of extinct animals-an Andean horse, a camel, a mastodon, and a giant sloth.

Even if Ice Age mammals and man were contemporaries in the foothills of the Andes, the time might not have been as much as 10,000 years ago, for some of the creatures are believed to have survived in South America long after they had become extinCt in the north.

A human skeleton found in the State of Minas Gerais in Brazil shows somewhat better evidence of antiquity.

Located under a layer of stalagmite in the rear of a cave, it had been buried under about seven feet of sediment evidently washed in by floods from a near-by lake. In the same stratum were bones of an extinct horse and a mastodon.

Geological evidence suggests that the stalagmite dates from a rainy period which both continents experienced after the last great glacial advance in North America.

(South America was never covered by ice sheets except in the high Andes and Patagonia.) Nobody knows how long this rainy time lasted. Bones of some of the animals found in the cave are those of creatures fairly abundant in the same region today. The human skull is not very different from those of Brazilian Indians of the present.

Still, fluorine tests show it is contemporary with the fossil bones in the same cave stratum.

Until new discoveries are made, or new methods are arrived at for evaluating material already in the hands of scientists, the family tree of man in America is doomed to remain a dim tableau of figures glimpsed through the glacial mists of many centuries.

Perhaps we shall never know what Sandia man looked like or when the first Asian huntsman walked into the new hunting grounds of North America. But we have learned a little about these first Americans who came from Asia to people the other side of the world. And, slowly, scientists here and there may continue to clear away some of the mist .•

Willard. F. Libby.

Nobel Prize Winner.

LIBBY'S CARBON CLOCK MANY GAPS in the chronology of pre-historic man and his environs are being steadily filled by the new dating techniques which scientific research has evolved in recent years. Among these techniques a revolutionary one is Willard F. Libby's discovery of the carbon clock for which he was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize for chemistry.

The son of a Colorado farmer, Libby worked in his spare time on a fruit ranch, during his high school years, to pay his way through the university. A chance meeting with two graduate students and their exciting talk about chemical research made him abandon his plans to become a mining engineer and turn instead to chemistry.

Libby qualified for a doctorate in chemistry in 1933, and became a teacher in that subject at California University in Berkeley. His main interest lay, however, in research and not teaching.

The young scientist's daring experiments in radioactive chemistry and atomic techniques attracted much attention and led to his association, shortly after Pearl Harbour, with the historic Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb. He served for about nine years on the Atomic Energy Commission, first on its General Advisory Committee and later as a Commissioner and Vice President. He was the top scientist and chief planner for the U.S. group at the international conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy held in Geneva in August 1955. During this period he kept up his intense interest in research and, whenever he had a brief respite from his duties in the Commission, he worked furiously in his private laboratory in the Carnegie Institute in Washington. He resigned his commissionership in 1959 to take up his present appointment on the faculty of the University of California.

It was at the Institute of Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago, which he joined after the war, that Dr. Libby's research into the faint radioactivity of air resulted in the development of the radio-carbon dating method.

Since the beginning of time the earth's atmosphere has been bombarded by powerful cosmic rays coming from outer space. One of nature's built-in time-keeping systems is powered by these mysterious rays. The rays strike nitrogen atoms in the air about five miles above the earth creating new atoms of a heavy radioactive carbon named carbon- 14 because each has a nucleus composed of 14 nucleons. The radio-carbon atoms gradually descend to the earth. Some of them unite with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide that mixes with other carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Since plants get food from carbon dioxide, all plants eventually become faintly radioactive. Animals, which live directly or indirectly on plants, absorb radio-carbon via plant foods. The molecules of radioactive carbon decompose at a fixed rate but each living thing takes in replacements to keep a perfect balance between ordinary carbon and radioactive carbon.

The moment an organism dies, its intake of radiocarbon ceases and the carbon-14 in it begins to disintegrate at an incredibly slow, fixed rate. Roughly, every 5,500 years or so an object loses half of its residual carbon-I4; thus, after 33,000 years only 1(64 of the original amount would be left.

On the basis of these facts, Dr. Libby was able to develop a sensitive instrument for measuring the amount of carbon- 14 remaining in an organic object and thereby calculating its age. A great deal of ingenuity and experimentation was needed to count the "ticks" of nature's built-in atomic clock. One of the obstacles to accurate counting is the contamination of old carbon with new when the object is embedded in layers of soil, so that a test might give a falsely recent date. Careful inspection and analysis, however, minimizes the incidence of such errors.

Many researchers, archaeologists, anthropologists and geologists co-operated in testing out the new method which aroused a great deal of-excitement. One of the first objects to be tested was a piece of ancient Egyptian wood

THE ATOMIC aOCK. right. is a web aftubes and bottles used for dating ancient relics.

The glass bulbs hold carbon dioxide produced in a combustion tube. left. from chips of ancient wood found at an archaeological site.

from a funeral boat found in the tomb of a Pharaoh believed to have died about 3,750 years ago. The wood was reduced to pure carbon by a special chemical process and run through Libby's special Geiger counter to measure the radioactive carbon-14. The counter ticked off an age of 3,62 I years, with a marginal error of about 130 years.

Tests of other dated samples showed the same degree of accuracy. The age of a bit of cordwood from a giant redwood tree felled in 1874 was determined to be 2,710 years. This tallied more or less with nature's record of the tree's growth, as indicated by the number of rings, which was 2,905' In some cases the atomic carbon clock has helped to correct misconceptions or to solve a historical riddle. For instance, over a period of years Red Indian relics had been found in a section of upper New York State. Archaeologists had inferred that these objects belonged to a tribe which had settled in the area about 1,900 years ago.

But when these relics were unearthed in 1950 and put to the carbon-14 test, it was found that they were much more ancient and belonged to another tribe which had inhabited that part of the country around 3,000 B.C. This materially altered the known history of the region.

Equally interesting is the story of seeds of aquatic lotus plants which had been buried in the mud of a driedup lake outside the village of P'u-Ia-tien in Manchuria.

When dated by carbon-14, the seeds were found to be 1,000 years old, which set the date for the drying up of the lake. But what turned out to be a more remarkable result of the test was the emergence of a new scientific fact.

Botanists had previously believed that seeds over 200 years old could not germinate. These lotus seeds, however, were germinated and within four months the first seedling blossomed into a sixteen-petal, pink lotus. Seeds gathered from the first blossoms also germinated and grew and today some of these magnificent flowers, grown from seeds which had lain dormant in the wilderness of Manchuria for a thousand years, may be seen in the Kenilworth

Aquatic Gardens in Washington, D.C. These are only a few examples of the many thousands of tests of vegetable, animal and human remains which have been carried out by the carbon-14 method. The materials tested include bones, snail and conch shells, bark, corn-cobs, peat, deer antlers, rope, pine cones, hazel-nuts, stems and roots of plants, wheat and barley and carbonized baskets. Among the historic relics which have been dated are linen wrappings from a copy of the Book of Isaiah, about 2,000 years old, bits of charcoal and wood found on the site of ancient pyramids near Mexico City, charcoal from the famous Lascaux Cave in France where 15,000-year-old paintings were found, and plant debris from an ancient glacier bed near London which existed over 20,000 years ago.

The instruments for detecting and analyzing radioactivity are being constantly improved. Present determinations by Dr. Libby's carbon clock are reasonably accurate up to about 30,000 years but can extend to a range of 70,000 years. It is hoped that even the tiniest remnants of radio-carbon in objects of great antiquity will soon be calculated with sufficient accuracy to make the carbon clock applicable to the very remote past. (As a more homy, short-range application of his technique, Dr. Libby has also developed a formula for dating water and beverages. "You send me a bottle of vintage wine, and I'll tell you how old it is," he says.)

The story of early man in America is being re-written in the light of the new facts uncovered by the atomic calendar. Scientists had originally fixed the date of the retreat of the latest ice cap which once covered much of North America, at 20,000 years ago. During one brief retrea t of the ice, some spruce trees grew in the area now known as the Two Creeks, Wisconsin, and when the glaciers crept forward once again, they were buried under the glacial rubble. The remains of these trees when tested by carbon-14 were found to be 11,000 years old. This timing was corroborated by tests of organic materials

SPEAR TIP EMBEDDED in extinct bison's ribs was found in 1927 in a fossil pit near Folsom, New Mexico.

Radiocarbon dating of the bones yielded clue to the antiquity of man in America.

Photo by Denver Museum of Natural History

buried with the arrow points used by Folsom man and by the 'carbon dating of charred fragments of the bones of an extinct bison recovered from deposits in various parts of the United States. Fibre sandals found by excavators in a cave in Oregon were dated as abolit 9,000 years old.

Excavations in northern Colorado's Lindenmeier Valley yielded abundant evidence of an ancient camp site: thousands of arrow points, ~tone knives and other crude instruments were found mingled with bones of bison, extinct camels and other pre-historic animals. These bones were tested and found to be about 10,000 years old.

From this impressive accumulation of archaeological data, checked by the carbon clock, emerged the reasonably certain fact that the first Ice Age nomads, crossing from Asia along the Bering Strait, possibly over a land bridge, appeared in North America more than 11,000 years ago.

Carbon-14 tests have also indicated that villages existed in Mexico about 7,000 years ago and this may have been the date of early American man's transition from the life of a roving hunter to that of a farmer and a village dweller. Similar tests of samples of ancient materials found in the Straits of Magellan, on the southern tip of South America, fix the age of the oldest discovered human habitations in that area at 8,000 years ago.

DR.

WITH THE CARE OF SURGEONS, archaeologists at Lindenmeier site removed bones from IO,OOO-year-oJd camp site, plotting each scrap on diagram before removal.

LIBBY'S discovery has thus resulted in the development of a new perspective of human history which has already achieved some remarkable results. Capable of still further improvement and extension of its time range, the carbon clock is a typical tool of the atomic age which should be of invaluable help in archaeological research.

I t has also stimulated the study of other radioactive clocks in nature which hold the promise of reliable dating of formations of mountain belts, the oceans and atmosphere and of enabling man to make further leaps into the very remote past.

One such promising study is that of a radioactive isotope known as ionium which is formed in the process of breakdown of uranium to lead. Separated from uranium, it decreases by half in 80,000 years, to one-quarter of the original quantity in 160,000 years, and so on. Ionium formed from the uranium in sea water sinks to the bottom of the sea, and as new sediments constantly accumulate, the quantity of ionium progressively decreases in the older sediment. By a vertical sampling of the ocean floor, it is thus possible to date the strata of sediments.

Another interesting measure for computing the age of the earth's interior is provided by a comparison of the isotopic composition of meteorite material, obtained from meteorites which have fallen to earth, with that of lead ores in the earth's crust. The meteorites, which were probably formed early in planetary history and are as old as the earth, were found to contain small amounts of lead but almost no uranium, in contrast to the radiogenic element oflead in the earth which has increased with the passage of time. By ascertaining the rate of this increase and calculating the period over which it has taken place, it has been possible to infer that the age of the earth's interior where these ores were produced, is about 4,500 million years.

These are only a few examples of the achievements of modern geochronology, or the science of reading nature's clocks, which will doubtless unravel many more of nature's mysteries in the future and make valuable additions to man's ever-increasing store of knowledge.

Libby's carbon clock, in the meantime, has proved the most valuable chronometer yet devised for reconstructing the pre-history of the human species.o .• '

The American YESTERDAY

Indian

AND TODAY

BUFFALO BULL'S BACK FAT, a chief of the Blackfoot tribe, wore his full ceremonial dress when he sat in 1832 for this portrait by American artist George Catlin. The original now hangs in President Kennedy's office in the White House.

"ITsunset, WAS a magnificent, far-flung the whole west flaming with intense golden red that spread and paled far into the north. Against this glorious background the Indians were riding away, in dense groups, in long straggling lines, in small parties, down to couples. It was an austere and sad pageant. The broken Indians and the weary mustangs passed slowly out upon the desert ....

Far to the fore the dark forms, silhouetted against the pure gold of the horizon, began to vanish, as if indeed they had ridden into that beautiful prophetic sky ...

bent in his saddle, a melancholy figure, unreal and strange against that dying sunset-moving on, diminishing, fading, vanishing-vanishing."

This is how Zane Grey, novelist of the American west, closed his sad, moving saga of Nophaie the Indian in The Vanishing American, a fictional account based on much tragic truth.

The tribe he portrayed under the name of Nopah was recognizably the Navaho-who fifty years ago faced great misery and suffering, and dramatized for all Americans the plight of many Red Indians. There was no hope

for them, thought Zane Grey; they were bound to pass from the scene.

But the American Indians have not vanished. The Navahos, today's largest tribe, whose conditions had sparked Zane Grey's anger and compassion, have since taken giant steps towards economic improvement and a better life. Nor are the Navahos alone.

During the last thirty years, the Red Indian population in the U.S. has increased about sixty per cent, to well over 500,000 people. About two-thirds of them live on Indianowned land, which totals more than

Span

September I96z

15

BULL DANCE OF THE MANDAN

INDIANS

was painted in 1832, in one of their mud-dome villages along the Missouri River, by George Catlin. The dance celebrated the seasonal arrival of buffalo in the Mandans' hunting grounds.

fifty million acres. Red Indians playa vital part in American life. Many have been elected to State and national office. Prominent among them were two Vice Presidents-Charles Curtis, a descendant of Osage and Kaw chiefs, and the part-Cherokee John Nance Garner, who was elected twice as Franklin Roosevelt's running mate.

Among the 25,000 Red Indians who served with distinction in the armed forces during World War II was Major General Clarence Tinker, an Osage, who re-organized U.S. air forces after the attack on Pearl Harbour. One of the greatest all-round American athletes, Jim Thorpe, who in the 1912 Olympics won both the Decathlon and the Pentathlon, was a Sauk-Fox. Less spectacular but perhaps of greater significance to an assessment of the Red Indian's place in modern American society is the large and growing number of jurists, teachers, federal employees, doctors, and other professionals who day in, day out carryon their work, together with their non-Indian colleagues.

MUCH OF the American Indians' heritage has already been richly woven into the many-stranded fabric of U.S. life. Thousands of Indian names dot America's map, such as the musical Monongahela River and Appalachian Mountains. Nearly half of the nation's States have taken their names from tribes-Massachusetts, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Ute-or from other Indian words. American speech was enriched by words and expressions borrowed from the Red Indians.

Tobacco was used by the Red Indians long before it became known to the rest of the world. Even today's diet owes much to the first Americans: corn and sweet potatoes, pumpkins and peanuts.

Just what were the American Indians like when white men began arriving, and conquered their land?

The answers are many, since there is no such thing as one Red Indian culture. Languages were of radically different families, as far apart as English is from Hindi or Urdu.

Physically, Red Indians ranged from very tall to short, from dark-skinned to ivory yellow. And as for customs and way of life there was probably more in common between Carthage and Rome than between the southwestern Pueblos and the Five Nations of the Northeast.

The Red Indian every schoolboy knows is the hunter and warrior-with feather bonnet, tomahawk, and all -galloping bareback after buffalo or swooping down with bloodcurdling war cries on a wagon train. Insofar as this stereotype resembles historical

facts, it applies only to some tribes living in the Great Plains between the Mississippi River Basin and the Rocky Mountains, and only to a period of less than a century. The beginning of the horseback culture of the Plains dates from the latter part of the 1700'S, when the horses which the Spanish introduced to America had multiplied, wild, in sufficient numbers. Tribe after tribe took to them.

Cheyenne, Blackfeet, and Arapaho; Comanche and Mandan and Crow, and finally, destined to become most famous of all, the Sioux-for all of them the horse changed buffalo hunting from a brief and difficult seasonal pursuit into the economic foundation of a satisfying way of life.

Buffalo meat gave plenty of food.

Skins made bedding and robes, shields, bags, and a perfect covering for the conical, movable tepees once swathed in tree bark. Bones were used for tools, sinew for sewing, horns for cups, and the Red Indians' colourful costumes included painted hides, polished bone breast-pieces, horned headgear.

The Plains culture was a culture for the young and the brave. Social organization was loose and democratic, and its main force was public opinion rather than any formal authority. Only during buffalo hunts a police force enforced strict discipline, restraining eager hunters from frightening the great herd away and organizing efficient co-operation so as to provide the most food for the whole tribe. Since these Red Indians carried all their property with them, bundled on the long tepee poles dragged behind the horse, there was Iittle emphasis on material possessions, and much on gift-giving. The way to renown was through prowess in hunting, generosity, and courage in war.

The greatest honour was to make a coup by touching a living, armed enemy without hurting him. Killing was not in itself praiseworthy.

In the Northeast, a country of great woods and fertile land, there was no buffalo to provide amply and easily the essentials of life. Hunting and fishing were good, but the Iroquois tribes which dominated the area now forming Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, and New York State farmed on a fairly large scale. The men cleared the fields, then the women took over; crops included some sixty kinds of beans, fifteen varieties of corn, and squashes. Iroquois villages were surrounded by sturdy wooden stockades, and their long rectangular buildings with rounded or pitched roofs were covered with tree bark. Each longhouse had a central hall with a series of fires, facing on either side a room which housed one family of a clan.

Iroquois society came close to being

a matriarchy: the clan was based on descent through the women, who owned crops and houses. Although they didn't actually rule, the women chose the rulers and had the power of recall if a chief did not live up to expectations.

The Iroquois had the most thoroughly organized government north of Mexico. Some 500 years ago, five tribes had formed a league, called The Great Peace by the Red Indians and The Five Nations by the early settlers.

Composed of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondega, and Seneca, the league dealt with war and foreign relations, but could not interfere in the internal affairs of a member tribe.

The ruling council was made up of representatives from each tribe, voting as a unit; decisions had to be reached by unanimous agreement.

For the Iroquois, war was more than a young man's road to glory and status.

As the league grew stronger, it conducted large-scale operations-with armies of several hundred warriors -to defeat other tribes, often bringing them in afterwards as tribute-paying subordinate members. The league's support of the English played an importan t role in breaking French power, and during the American Revolution it tied down considerable numbers of American fighting men.

Notwithstanding the horrible tortures that were an inseparable part of Iroquois warfare, and the resentment and hatred they stirred in the Revolutionary army, at war's end George Washington concluded a just peace with the Iroquois. Their word thus pledged to the new nation, the league's tribes remained neutral in the war of 1812, depriving England of a powerful ally which might have made possible the conquest of the whole northern part of the United States, bringing the war to a different conclusion.

The Red Indians of the Southeast never reached the degree of intertribal integration which made the Iroquois league so powerful. But the tribes which the first European explorers found living on the Gulf of Mexico had a highly developed social organization.

Sturdily built 'houses of wood, bark, thatch were grouped around a council house and public square. Farmlands stretched for miles around, and here too the women did the farming. Each village or town was independent, though usually it did not fight against towns of the same tribe and often joined with them against other tribes.

A head chief ruled the town; he had great authority and kingly attributes, bu t was king by the will of the people, since high rank was not hereditary and could be gained only by proving superior fitness.

SOME STILL PURSUE the ancient crafts of their culture. independently or in organized enterprise. while others acquire other newer skills.

The subordination of military to civilian authority, which has become a cornerstone of U.S. Government, was a basic practice among the Southeastern Red Indians. For even though they made almost a cult of warfare, war chiefs merely led the fighting; governing was left to rulers chosen for their wisdom and general ability.

T

FAMOUS APACHE WAR CHIEF, Geronimo, spread terror through southwestern States before surrendering to U.S. Army in 1886.

Apaches had fought white settlers for three centuries.

HE MOST famous tribes of the Southeast are the ones known as the Five Civilized Tribes: Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee, and Seminole. These came closer than any other Red Indian group to working out a new way of life and surviving on their homeland as full equals of the colonists. They began acquiring cattle, firearms, ploughs; they learned the' use of the spinning wheel and other crafts.

Traders frequently married into the tribe, hastening the process of adoption of European ways. For a time, the Five Tribes were as strong and prosperous as they had ever been, well on their way to prove that a relatively primitive people - can, if it has the will, catch up within a few short years with a more developed civilization. The U.S. Congress even considered carving out a Red Indian State in the Southeast and admitting it into the Union.

The settlers' hunger for land, the westward push of a nation in the making did not allow the Five Tribes' development to come to full fruition.

Groups of Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees already had been moving west of the Mississippi, anticipating what was to come. In 1830 a law authorized the purchase of Red Indian lands and the removal of Red Indians at government expense; in the following decade, most of the people of the Five Tribes were moved to Oklahoma, where they began again to build communities and continued their abruptly disrupted development. When the Oklahoma territory became a State in 1907, tribal governments were dissolved. The Red Indians there are now fully integrated; they hold public office and have a strong voice through their votes. Their children attend public schools, and a good number of them go on to college, so that many people from the Five Tribes have become doctors, lawyers, and businessmen.

The Southwest, where Coronado marching up from Mexico City looked for cities with gold-paved streets, was a Red Indian world all its own. Rugged canyons and flat-topped mesas make up a kind of lunar landscape; rivers are sparse, and the few times it rains, water floods violently in the dry beds

of arroyos. It is here that farming was at its highest point of development among the North American Indians.

Unlike the Iroquois and the southeastern tribes, it was the men who did the heavy, endless work offarming in dry country. The women stayed home, and their relative leisure gave birth to highly refined basketry and pottery.

Southwest culture considered a war a distraction from the serious pursuits of agriculture, since it took strong young men away from the fields.

Human sacrifice and torture were absent, and when fighting was necessary to defend the village any warrior who happened to kill an enemy had to go through an elaborate ritual of purifica tion.

Best known among the long-settled tribes of the Southwest are the Pueblos, so named by the Spanish because they lived in pueblos-villages or towns.

Pueblo villages resemble somewhat a compact mediaeval town, with sturdy clay or clay brick buildings several storeys high. In the centre of the village are the kivas, functioning both as ceremonial chambers and as meeting places for the men. When the Spanish first arrived, the Pueblos had strongly organized governments, with civil and religious authority tightly intertwined, and an elaborate complex of formal ceremonies. The Pueblo dances, continued to this day, were actually dramatized prayers: for rain, crops, fertility.

Living close to the Pueblos and in turn trading with them and raiding them were the Navahos, one of several tribes first known to the Spanish as Apaches, meaning enemies in one Red Indian dialect. The Navahos learned farming and weaving from the Pueblos, and borrowed heavily from their rituals and mythology, producing exceedingly beautiful sacred tales. But the Navahos had no liking for the closely knit society of the Pueblos, and whatever they borrowed was adapted to their individualistic way of life.

The primary concern for the Navahos, and to a greater or lesser degree for most Red Indians of North America, was to keep in harmony with the forces of nature and with the omnipresent, impersonal God. Sickness being the outward sign of disharmony, Navaho ceremonies-including the famous centred on healsand paintings-all ing, bringing the individual at peace again with the universe.

I t is a long step from the desert country of the Pueblos to the cool, humid coast of the Northwest. In between lay the Great Basin, whose rivers never reach the sea but flow to lakes or are lost in desert sands; the Ute, Shoshoni, and other tribes living there'did practically no farming,

THE HORSE. brought to America by the Spanish conquistadors. wrought a great change in the life and warfare of Red Indians of the plains. This painting depicts a battle between war parties of the Snake and Sioux tribes. Prehistoric species of horses. which roamed the Americas and were not domesticated, became extinct sometime around the fast Ice Age.

The American

Indian

NAPOLEON JOHNSON, a Cherokee, is Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, State of Oklahoma.

hunted all available game, gathered everything edible, and their nonmaterial culture was exceedingly simple. Compared with these conditions, life on the Pacific coast was one of luxury and ease: the sea and the many rivers provided abundant and varied food, hunting was fair.

Tobacco was the only plant raised, but there were wild berries, and in some places the starchy roots of the camas.

The relative affluence of the Chinook on the Columbia River, of the Nootka and Kwakiutl to the north, and of the Tlingit up in Alaska, found expression in living habits and social customs of a lavishness not common among other Red Indian tribes. Cooking, for example, was greatly refined, with a variety of recipes and different methods: broiling, steaming in pits or boiling in boxes and watertight baskets by using hot stones. Houses, arranged inside somewhat like the multi-family Iroquois longhouse, were very large, sturdily built from wooden planks, with massive carved pillars, and often faced with a totem pole recording symbolically the owner's triumphs and rank. Widely used, totem poles were in many ways the equivalent of a heraldic crest, and thus were quite important to the extremely status-conscious Northwest Red Indians. A fairly rigid social structure provided. for different rights and prerogatives for chiefs, nobles, and commoners. Hereditary privileges, almost unknown among American Indians elsewhere, played a significant role in these tribal societies. Possessions that could be inherited included not only material goods but social rank,

the exclusive right to a fishing area, the right to practise a certain craft, such as whaling, or to perform a certain ritual.

CENTRAL TO the social life of the Northwest was a ceremonial feast called the potlatch. Given by a man in honour of the dead chief he succeeded, or to announce the choice of an heir, or for any number of other reasons, the potlatch consisted of a lavish feast that might last for days-with dances, singing, athletic events, and the recitation of the host's honours and privileges. The main feature of the potlatch was a session of conspicuous gift-giving, designed to establish beyond question the host's wealth and station in life.

If the economy of the Northwest relied on sea and rivers as an easy and abundant source of food, wood was its second mainstay. Giant evergreens-and especially the cedar, far easier to work than the eastern elm and hickory-were used for just about every purpose, from building houses and big, hollowed-out canoes to fashioning all manner of utensils.

Red Indians knew how to steam and bend wood, how to inlay shell and bone and copper. Their painted carvings, ranging from vividly representational to highly stylized, rank among the finest Red Indian art in North America. Basketry was also highly developed, though not quite as fine as that of the California tribes to the south, whose way of life shared traits of both the Northwest and the Great Basin. Weaving was fairly elab-

PROFESSOR EDWARD¡ DOZIER, ¡one of America's anthrapologists, grew up in. a New Mexico pueblo.

orate too, usually with cedar bark or wool yarn.

Hunters or fishermen or farmers, nomadic raiders or peaceful village dwellers, the Red Indians all found their traditional way oflife challenged, then profoundly shaken, and often irretrievably shattered by the coming of settlers to their homeland. Some tribes, especially in the eastern United States, have disappeared-a few destroyed in the early days of armed clash or wiped out by disease, others gradually assimilated so that only the memory of Indian ancestors is left.

Many tribes were forcibly removed to another section of the country as pioneers pushed westward, hungry for new land, and overran the Red Indian country; several of those now live in Oklahoma. Finally a number of stronger tribes in the West and Southwest-and a few small groups in the East-remained in their native homeland, preserving much of their ancient way of life in Indian-owned reservations.

Designed at first as areas where tribes occupying land the pioneers wanted could be confined, reservations have long since lost this restrictive character altogether. Today they are simply tracts of land owned by a specific group of Red Indians and set aside for their exclusive use. Both the land and the income derived from it are exempt from taxation, and the sale or lease of any tract requires the consent of the Red Indian owners and of the Federal Government through the Interior Department's Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau is responsible for providing all community

leading-

NAVAHO GIRL attends college on scholarship from, tribe's education trust fund.

BEN REIFEL, U. S. Congressman, is a Sioux who represents 400,000 South Dakota constituents, including 5,000 Indians.

services, from roads to education, for Red Indians living on reservation.

Civil and criminal jurisdiction within the reservation belong jointly to the Federal Government and the tribe, which means that State and local authorities are completely excluded.

This right of home rule, repeatedly upheld and strengthened through a series of court decisions, has been an effective shield against regional prejudice and discrimination, inasmuch as local communities could exert no authority inside the reservation's boundaries.

Every Red Indian is endowed with all the rights and duties of any other American citizen. Citizenship was granted to many tribes long ago by Acts of Congress or through treaties; a special law stating that all Red Indians born in the United States are citizens was passed in 1924. Since then, several court decisions and legislative acts have removed the last vestiges of official discrimination.

Whether or not he lives on a reservation, the Red Indian can vote and run for office-and where there is a large and well-organized group, as in Oklahoma, he exercises real political power. He may leave the reservation at will, and needs no one's permission to travel anywhere he pleases, or to hold any type of employment. He is subject to the draft, and like all other Americans, he is eligible to receive social security, unemployment compensation, and all federal services.

This does not mean that discrimination has disappeared altogether.

Although outside the reservation his status is legally that of any American

citizen, the Red Indian in some sections of the country still faces unequal treatment. It may be segregation in eating places or in housing, it may be limited access to State or local services, such as welfare programmes not sponsored by the Federal Government. These lingering instances of injustice are painful reminders that there are problems still to be solved.

The American dream-and deeply held conviction-that "all men are created equal" is being woven more tightly into the warp and woof of the country's social fabric. The important fact remains that much progress has been made and continues to be made.

A key role in the process of in tegrating the Red Indian tribes-many of them jealously attached to an ancient way of life-into modern American society has been played by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Following a two-pronged approach to the problems of the Red Indian today, the Bureau helps both the groups of the reservation and the individuals who want to establish a new home elsewhere. On the reservation, education is a primary concern: the Bureau operates nearly three hundred schools, with an enrolment of some 37,000 children (85,000 more Red Indian children attend public schools). In addition, a large and growing number of communities on reservations have programmes of adult education. Better health protection is another major concern. The U.S. Public Health Service has stepped up its efforts in this area, not only to fight disease but to carryon an intense programme of preventive medicine

DR. WCILIE MARSH. a specialist in pediatrics, is a descendant of Tuscarora chieftains.

and improved sanitation.

Finally, many projects have been carried out, and more are planned, to provide better economic opportunities for Red Indians.

On the reservation, the goal is to help tribes develop more fully the natural resources of their lands and balance already established agricultural, livestock, and craft activities with industrial establishments suited to the particular region.

For Red Indians living on reservations who decide to leave, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has developed an extensive relocation programme, with offices on reservations as well as in several cities throughout the country.

Counselling, vocational training, and financial assistance help Red Indian families find homes and jobs in urban communities, bridging over the initial period of adjustment to a new life.

An American by right, long before the word existed, the Red Indian has been finding his rightful place among the many groups who contributed to the birth of a new nation-Germans, Irish, Italians and others. The process of adjustment has been longer, because in the case of the Red Indians the cultural differences were immeasurably greater and because the tragic history of conflict made mutual understanding and co-operation very difficult, for many long years. Problems remain-democracy is a process, forever unfinished and forever striving -but men of vision and dedication keep working to expand opportunities in every field for their fellow Red Indians within and without the reservations. Zane Grey's vanishing Americans are indeed here to stay .•

The Short History

of

NEW AMSTERDAM

T

HE LARGEST city in the Western hemisphere commenced its history in 1613 as a tiny Dutch settlement with less than a hundred inhabitants.

Originally named New Amsterdam, it was destined to become ew York.

To Captain Henry Hudson, an English naval commander in the service of the Dutch East India Company, belongs the credit of the epoch-making achievement which gave the United Netherlands their foothold in the New World. In September 1609 his sailing ship, the Half Moon, anchored in what is now the outer harbour of New York.

For a month he and his mariners explored the navigable expanse of the great river named after him, from Manhattan Island to a point not far below Albany. As their yacht drifted along the river in golden, autumnal weather, the sailors had many exciting experiences. Pitting their wits and resources against those of the aborigines, they sometimes engaged in barter and exchange with the Red Indians, inviting them to the ship.

But these friendly overtures were not always successful, and occasionally there were bloody skirmishes. Once Hudson and his men were attacked by more than a hundred savages who let loose a flight of arrows upon them and were dispersed only after a shot from the ship's cannon followed by a discharge of musketry.

Hudson's return voyage to the Netherlands after his momentous voyage was interrupted: he was held with his ship at the English port of Dartmouth on the grounds that he owed his services to the land of his birth. But the detailed report of his discoveries, which he sent to the Dutch East India Company, aroused a great deal of

interest and enthusiasm among the Dutch. Lured by the prospects of lucrative trading, a second ship was sent from the Netherlands within a year of Hudson's pioneering voyage and soon a fleet of vessels was plying between Old and New Netherlands, as the Dutch called their new possession.

The object of these early expeditions, however, was commerce rather than colonization. There was brisk trading in tobacco and furs, which were sent to Europe in shiploads.

It was not until after the institution of the Dutch West India Company by special charter in 1621 that plans for occupying and settling the region reached fruition. The first governor, Cornelis Jacobsen May, arrived in May 1623, accompanied by some thirty families of Walloons. Sturdy and industrious artisans of Protestant stock, the Walloons, who were soon distributed over Manhattan and other parts of the territory, proved to be a valuable element in the colonization of the area. These first settlers were described as "a wild, uncouth, rough, and most of the time a drunken crowd." They lived in small log huts thatched with straw and their food consisted of a little corn, game and fish.

They wore rough clothes and protected themselves with skins in the winter.

"Afraid of neither man, God nor the Devil, they were laying deep the foundation of the Empire State." The women were as hardy as the men and shared their labours, not hesitating to grasp a rifle and defend their homes against a Red Indian attack.

It was Peter Minuit, the third governor of New Netherland, who gave legal title to the Dutch occupation of Manhattan Island. He pur-

chased the island, covering some ¡twenty-two thousand acres, from Red Indians in. 1626 for merchandise valued at sixty guilders or twenty-four dollars! This unique transaction not only placated the natives but was intended to consolidate the Dutch claim against the neighbouring English in New England, by adding the rights of purchase to those of discovery. With the help of an engineer whom he had brought with him, Minuit also built in the same year Fort Amsterdam on what was then the tip of Manhattan Island. Around it grew up the settlewhich ment of New Amsterdam became the capital of New Netherland.

Inspired by the great naval victories which the Dutch scored over the Spanish in Europe about this time,.

Minuit also encouraged two Belgian shipbuilders to build a ship of eight hundred tons carrying thirty guns.

This project, which cost more than anticipated, coupled with other complaints about Minuit's administration, led to his recall by the Government of Netherlands.

In the meantime the colony continued to grow. To stimulate colonization and encourage agriculture, the Dutch West India Company introduced a system of patroonships, or grants of manorial rights. Excluding Manhattan Island, which was reserved for the Company, large estates were granted to certain privileged persons who were made patroons and given the prerogative of administering justice within the limits of the manor.

The patroon system, with its outdated feudalism, often entailed hardship for the tenants and led to much discontent. It created a landed aristocracy, or "Lords of the Manor" along

the Hudson, some of whom rose to wealth and eminence from humble positions. At least two U.S. Presidents, Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevel t, were descended from these Hudson River Dutch families. Much more important than the patroons, however, to the developing economy and prosperity of New Netherland were the large number of small proprietors who eventually predominated in the new colony.

A traveller who visited the country about the middle of the 17th century wrote that there were only three towns on the Hudson-New Amsterdam, Fort Orange and Rondout-and that the rest were mere villages. Even on Manhattan Island primitive rural living conditions prevailed for a long time in the farming region, where areas were set apart as village commons for pastura ¡¡C and often the dwellings were only crude shelter against the elements. In New Amsterdam, however, there were simple but comfortable clusters of houses as early as 1640. A few years later the building of wooden chimneys was forbidden as fire hazards, and roofs of reed were replaced with more solid and less inflammable materials. Fines and severer penalties were also imposed for insanitation.

With the increase in prosperity, living conditions improved. Bricks and tiles imported from Holland began to be used in the construction of houses which conformed increasingly to Dutch styles. According to a chronicler, the house had "an abundance of large doors and small windows on every floor, the date of its erection was curiously designated by iron figures on the front and on the top of

Span

September I96Z.

23

the roof was perched a fierce little weather-cock tp let the family into the important secret which way the wind blew." The life of the family was centred in the kitchen where great fires roared up the chimneys in winter.

Here the burghers smoked after the day's work, the women knit stockings and the children gathered to hear stories.

Annual festivals were observed in much the same way as in Holland and were occasions for feasting and merriment. On New Year's day, everyone put on his or her best apparel.

Huge bowls of punch were brewed and all visitors served with refreshments and cordials prepared from old family recipes. The young people regaled themselves with turkey-shooting, sleigh-riding, skating and dancing.

A special occasion for children was the 6th of December when their genial patron-saint, St. Nicholas or Santa Claus, made his long-awaited nocturnal visit. Entering¡ through the open door amid a shower of sweets, he smilingly distributed his parcels to the children. Following him was another exciting figure-in New Netherland,

NEW AMSTERDAM

a black man-who held ~n one hand an open sack into which to put particularly unruly or ill-behaved children, and in the other some rods which he shook vigorously from time to time.

The inhabitants of New Netherland were also intent upon things of the mind and the spirit. Before churches were built they gathered for worship in the pastor's house or some other suitable meeting place, such as the horsedriven flour mill at Fort Amsterdam.

The Dutch settlers were deeply religious and most were members of the Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church, but they also believed in freedom of conscience and did not wish to impose .their church discipline on others of different faiths. When Peter Stuyvesant, the last governor of the colony, persecuted the Quakers, a number of prominent citizens protested and even suffered penalties for expressing their views. On receiving news of these proceedings, the authorities in Holland strongly rebuked Stuyvesant and stated that "the consciences of men ought to be free and unshackled so long as they continue moderate, inoffensive, and not hostile to government."

. Inspired by the democratic principles and traditions which they had inherited from their mother country, the Dutch colonists strongly resented arbitrary exercise of authority. The ill-advised and treacherous attacks launched by Stuyvesant's predecessor, William Kieft, against Red Indians in 1643, resulted in much needless bloodshed and deterioration of race relations. His actions were strongly disapproved by the governor's advisory committee of twelve, headed by Captain De Vries, who predicted that the shedding of so much innocent blood would recoil on the governor's own head. This prophecy proved true when Kieft's ship was wrecked and he was drowned on his way back to Holland in 1647.

The struggle against arbitrary power was even more acute during the term of Peter Stuyvesant. A picturesque figure, with a wooden leg decorated with silver bands and nails, Stuyvesant was an odd mixture of opposites.

Son of a clergyman, he was a strict adherent of the Reformed Church.

He was a brave soldier who had lost his leg in a military action while governor

the origins of New of the Dutch island of Curacao, and he came to New Netherland at the age of fifty-five with a reputation for courage and efficient administration.

Unfortunately, however, he proved to be extremely haughty and intolerant of any opposition. Many of his acts were harsh and dictatorial and, if any member of his council questioned their propriety, he flew into a violent rage.

He once remarked: "It may, during my administration, be contemplated to appeal; but if anyone should do it, I will make him a foot shorter, send the pieces to Holland, and let him appeal in that way."

It is not surprising that this kind of language and behaviour, coupled with his religious fanaticism, made Stuyvesant very unpopular and led to the bitter attack on him in the Representation which eleven responsible burghers, headed by Adrian Van der Donck, sent to the government in Holland.

STEPPING INTO the governorship at a time when there was hardly any money for the expenses of the town and the defences were in poor shape, Stuyvesant carried out many reforms.

He regulated the traffic in intoxicants and prohibited sale of liquor and guns to Red Indians. By one of his edicts every man in New Amsterdam was

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required to work for twelve days a year on reconstruction and improvement of the fort. To protect the town from attack by land, he had a great wooden wall built, along the line of which, years later, New York's famous Wall Street was laid out. When the Swedes captured the Dutch fort of Casimir on the Delaware, Stuyvesant sailed into the river with his fleet and defeated them in a series of engagements which ended the power of New Sweden.

It was a tragic irony of fate that, in spite of Stuyvesant's victories against the Swedes and the many energetic measures he took for the improvement of the colony, his regime witnessed the collapse of New Netherland and Dutch rule in America. The authorities in Holland paid no heed to Stuyvesant's repeated warnings about the weakness of the colony's defences.

When war broke out in 1652 between England: and the Netherlands and was extended later to the Western hemisphere, New Amsterdam began to fortify itself with feverish haste. In the absence of reinforcements, which were not forthcoming in spite of the governor's frantic requests, the end came suddenly in 1664. An English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls appeared before the walls of Fort Amsterdam. Although the odds were heavy against him, Stuyvesant was prepared to offer resistance, but the citizens presented a petition imploring him to surrender. One of the signatures on the petition was

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that of his own son. He capitulated.

Thus, without a single shot being fired, the colony changed hands and New Ams terdam became New York in honour of James, Duke of York, brother of the English King, Charles the Second. Colonel Richard Nicolls, as the first English governor, proved to be as good as an administrator as he had shown himself to be a soldier.

Although the Dutch form of government was soon replaced by English institutions, and a mayor, aldermen and a sheriff were appointed in New York, the Dutch were not interfered with in their homes or holdings. They continued to enjoy commercial rights and had complete religious freedom.

Using his power with great discretion and for the good of the people, icolls did invaluable work during his fouryear term in harmonizing the diverse elements in the colony and in promoting its unification.

Stuyvesant remained in New York and lived to the age of eighty in his bowery or farmhouse, in a district of what is now Tew York City and still known as The Bowery. On this site was later built Saint-Marks-in-theBowery Church and the graveyard where the last governor of New Netherland was buried. According to legend, his tall figure with the famous wooden leg may still be seen at midnight on ew Year's Eve tramping down the city's old streets, preceded by a ghostly Dutch patrol and a rattle of drums .•

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York

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City

Ever-Changing

glimpses

New York

of the city's face

T

HE CHARACTER of New York City has been variously described as impressive, noisy, beautiful, ugly; fastpaced, majestic, stimulating and ever-changing. The one description commonly agreed upon is "ever-changing."

Visitors who have not seen the metropolis for a few years are surprised to find the massive elevated railway system gone and in its place wide, tree-lined avenues. One-way streets have eased traffic burdens and new highways have been built bordering the East and Hudson Rivers to facilitate entrance to and exit from the city.

CANYONS OF THE CITY are yielding to broader vistas.

Ever-Changing

New York

Park Avenue, at one time a fashionable address for the wealthy, has bowed to progress since the end of World War II. Magnificent apartments which once lined this central artery of the city have given way to modern office buildings of skyscraper height. More compact apartment dwellings have been erected, many overlooking the rivers that circle the island of Manhattan.

Expansive slum areas have been cleared to make way for comfortable housing developments for families of lower-income; apartment houses designed for a maximum of fresh air, garden space, playgrounds and a reasonable amount of quiet.

THE MYRIAD INDIVIDUAL FACES of the city, left, come and go. The collective face of the city, below, reflects a new world, a new era.

Ever-Changing

New York

Changes have been taking place since the first houses were built on lower Manhattan in 1630 when two-hundred settlers from the Netherlands set up a trading post there. Manhattan was the first of the five boroughs which now constitute the city.

The city was then known as New Amsterdam but, in 1664, it was occupied by the British and re-named ew York. After the Revolutionary War, it was the capital of the United States for a short while. George Washington was inaugurated as first President there in 1798. Some of the colonial buildings of that time still stand in the Wall Street area, like little doll houses, side by side in the shadow of skyscrapers and new, many-storeyed housing developments .•

How the City Protects

To

SAFEGUARD the lives, property and health of its eight million inhabitants and its millions of visitors, the City of New York provides a vast network of service through its police, fire, sanitation and health departments.

Each of these departments is a separate agency of the city government and is headed by a commissioner appointed by the mayor. Each department functions independently of the others, but on occasion their combined services are required to handle an emergency or disaster.

The first signal of a disaster, such as an air or rail crash or a fire in a congested area, brings into play the police department's rapid mobilization plan. Through the use of preplanned code signals broadcast over the police radio system, men and equipment are rushed to the disaster area. Such a mobilization plan speeds rescue oper:ations and the evacuation of endangered buildings, and assures the safeguarding of property.

At the same time, the fire department is alerted and firemen hurry to the scene with their apparatus. Eventually, when the emergency has been dealt with, the forces of the sanitation department come in to clean up the debris.

Among peacetime occupations, the firefighter's is one of the most dangerous, and often the most dramatic.

Just as important, however, as fire fighting-though less spectacular-is fire prevention. In New York City, the fire department has expanded its fire prevention functions by instituting new measures regarding inspection of property, education of the public, and enforcement of regulations. But, despite preventive measures, fires still occur frequently and the firemen must be ready, willing and able to handle any situation.

The Jew York City Fire Department, established in 1865, has a present strength of 12,500 and is considered one of the world's most efficient fire departments. Its operational methods have been studied by

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32

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September

Its Citizens

representatives of many foreign countries as well as by emissaries from towns and villages in all parts of the United States.

The right personnel is as essential as adequate apparatus for a good fire department, and high morale is dependent on the health, aptitude, training, and working conditions of the members of each unit. An applicant for a post in the New York City Fire Department must be between twenty and twenty-nine years of age, physically fit, and must pass a written civil service examination designed to test his intelligence, education, judgment, aptitude and capacity to learn the work. If he passes the required tests, he enters a six-month probationary training period, during which he receives twelve weeks of formal training at the department's training school and on-the-job training at various specialized places.

Training is divided into four units.

The first unit provides the probationer with the necessary background.

He learns to give first aid to the injured, to perform fire-house watch duties, to respond to signals; and he learns about his personal obligations to the department.

The second phase of training is in the ladder unit, where he learns to work on a ladder truck, as well as the care and use of hose, life nets, and the various tools and equipment used by the engine and ladder companies.

The third phase is in the engine unit. Here he is indoctrinated in the operation and functions of engine company tools and equipment, and in the operations of marine units, or fire boats.

The fourth and final phase is instruction in the combined operations of the engine and ladder units. This includes the use of masks, smoke discipline, and the operation of fog nozzles in heavy heat conditions. The use of tools is taught under practical conditions.

During the first six months of intensive training, the probationary fireman receives an entrance salary, but

must buy his uniforms. If he completes his probation successfully, he is appointed a fireman fourth class and advances automatically one grade each year until, after three years, he becomes a fireman first class. Besides salary, he receives an annual allowance towards cost of uniforms.

In New York City there are some 280 fire-houses, 13,000 street alarm boxes and 520 special building alarm boxes from which a fire can be reported. The boxes are connected with all fire-houses through five central stations by more than 3,400 miles of cable and wire. When the alarm in one of these boxes is set off, it transmits its number by causing bells to ring in the fire department's communications centre. Within a few seconds, the centre in turn transmits the box number to the fire-houses in the relevant area.

The number of men on duty in a fire-house depends on what equipment is located there. One whole company includes a captain, three lieutenants and twenty-five men.

At the beginning of 1961, the ew York City Fire Department had more than 770 pieces of firefighting equipment, including pumpers, ladder trucks, and miscellaneous equipment-hydrant thawing devices, ambulances, searchlights, oxygen therapy units, wreckers, station wagons and cars.

In the previous year the department was called upon to deal with 60,941 fires and 16,868 emergencies in New York City.

Cities are like housewives in their concern to ensure cleanliness and order. To keep America's largest city as clean and tidy as possible, the New York City Sanitation Department has to conduct a "housekeeping" operation of huge proportions. One of its main tasks is to pick up and dispose of the five million tons of refuse discarded annually by the city's millions of inhabitants and visitors.

The 10,000-man bureau of cleaning and collection is the department's

II)6a

NEW

YORK CITY FIREMEN

battle a blaze in a faur-starey building.

The City

ENGINEER city's health department takes water samples from the harbour.

Beach and harbour waters are checked weekly at numerous sampling points to detect possible hazards to health.

of the

A SANITARY

MODERN POWER FLUSHERS are used to wash the city's streets.

A PUBLIC HEALTH SANITARIAN inspects fresh foods upon their orrivol ot morket. Food supplies are checked regularly to ensure compliance with pure food and sanitation laws.

largest operational unit and is responsible for two important duties: the daily cleaning of 4,500 miles of paved streets and the daily collection and disposition of 3,000 truckloads -about 9,000 tons-of refuse. All 6,000 miles of the city's streets are cleaned several times a week.

Another important responsibility, seasonally, is the removal of snow and ice from all streets in the city.

During the periods of freezing cold and blizzards in 1960, the department's snow removal crews worked day and night, successfully clearing the largest accumulation of snow in twelve years.

A

PROGRAMME to help keep ew York City clean is conducted through a continuous "Clean City Campaign," a project started in 1955 to educate the citizens not to throw litter on the streets. This programme is carried on mainly through the distribution of leaflets, and by advertising messages in the press, radio, television and other mass media. In 1960 an indispensable adjunct to the widespread education effort was the intensive enforcement of the city's health code by the I,ooo-man supervisory force and patrolmen of the sanitation departmen t. These two groups issued thousands of summonses and in many cases collected .fines from offenders against the litter regulations. The department also operates special services, one of which is the clearing of vacant, city-owned lots.

Refuse is either burned in one of the incinerators maintained by the city, or buried in carefully-engineered land reclamation projects, where it is disinfected, compacted by bulldozers, graded and covered quickly with a thick layer of earth. When these landfills are completed, formerly worthless land is thus transformed into parks or valuable tax-bearing property.

Some of the land reclamation projects are on islands or lagoons. For taking the refuse there the city operates eleven marine transfer stations and two barge-unloading plants, between which shuttle units of the sanitation department's "navy"-four tugboats and forty-two barges.

THOUSANDS OF BLOOD SPECIMENS are examined daily in clinical laboratories and blood banks operated under permits granted by the New York City Health Department. Labs make tests to detect contagious, communicable and chronic diseases.

Rigid control of their standards of accuracy is maintained by frequent inspections.

THE CITY SAN/TA TlON DEPARTMENT provides garbage and waste collections daily in half the city and three times weekly in the rest of the city.

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The City Protects

Its Citizens

An employee of the New York City Sanitation Department holds the civil service title of "Sanitationman," and has to fulfil prescribed requirements in specialized education before appointment. Prior to entering the job, he receives two weeks' basic training.

He also receives a complete orientation as to his privileges and obligations in the department.

He learns to operate thirty-seven types of mechanical equipment, including mechanical snow ploughs, tractors, vacuuming machines for picking up leaves in the fall of the year, sprinklers, blowers and sweepers.

The sanitationmen are represented by a labour union. Wages, hours, pensions, paid holidays and other money matters relating to sanitation employment are worked out annually by the union and a negotiating team appointed by the New York City Board of Estimate. Other conditionsseniority, grievance procedures, vacations, scheduling of overtime and hours of work, and sick leave-are within the jurisdiction of the department of sanitation.

T

HE NEW YORK City DepartmentofHealth is charged by law with the protection of the health of the city's millions of people. It spends several hundred million dollars each year for this purpose and employs more than 40,000 people in its twenty-seven health centres, twenty-two hospitals and¡ medical centres with nearly 19,000 beds.

Its responsibilities also include child health stations, school health services, research and inspection of foods and drugs and the facili ties used in their manufacture and handling. This latter job is carried out by public health sanitarians, who make inspections to improve food, drug and general environmental sanitation and to ensure compliance with the laws.

To qualify for public health sanitarian, a man or woman must pass a written civil service examination and must have a baccalaureate degree with a major in chemistry, pharmacy, biology, physics, chemical engineering or sanitary engineering from an accredited college or university.

The public health sanitarian's job is all-inclusive and covers periodic inspections of plants manufacturing food or drugs, slaughter-houses, warehouses, wholesale and retail food and drug establishments, dairy farms, country milk shipping depots and pasteurizing plants. He may also be required to inspect business establishments, stores, private houses, schools,

institutions and recreational areas for defective plumbing, inadequate water supply, overflowing cesspools, sewers, and heating equipment.

Among steps taken by New York City to advance health and medical services for its citizens in recent years are: building or remodelling of hospital facilities at a cost of more than $200 million; creation of a community mental health board to improve, expand and co-ordinate programmes dealing with mental and emotional problems; enactment of a new health code to bring standards of sanitary regulations and control up to date; establishment of a unit to protect the citizens from the hazards of X-rays and radioactive material; and expansion of the municipal health research programme in which forty-six grants totalling five million dollars were given in 1960 alone for medical research.

In the diagnosis and treatment of patients, physicians in New York City depend largely on the results of tests made by a number of privately-run clinical laboratories and blood banks operated in the city under Department of Health permits. Bec~use of the vital importance of the work done by these laboratories, the health department has tightened regulatory controls to improve their standards of dependability and performance. Training courses, both for the directors of the laboratories and for the technicians who perform the actual work, have been developed by the city.

An important agency of the health department that protects the city's citizens in another way is the office of the chief medical examiner-the official responsible for the investigation and determination of the causes of all sudden, unexplained, suspicious and violent deaths. New York City law provides that the chief medical examiner and his assistants must be doctors of medicine, skilled in pathology and microscopy.

The office of the chief medical examiner services the public directly by its investigations and findings.

It is responsible to law enforcement agencies for the detection of deaths from criminal violence and it protects the innocent in cases that have a criminal appearance but prove to have resulted from non-criminal violence or natural causes. The public is also protected by the detection of deaths from unsuspected infectious diseases and unsuspected hazards in the home and in industry.

To become a member of the New an York City Police Department applicant must be atleast twenty years old and must satisfy other stipulated conditions regarding physical fitness and education. He also must give proof of good character and must

hold a valid motor vehicle operator's licence. These conditions apply equally to a woman candidate.

During a nine-month training period, both at the police academy and on the job, the police recruit learns human relations, how to handle the inebriated, the thief, orthe suspect, and how to direct traffic. He is also taught how to protect himself and receives sixty-two hours of instruction in the care and proper use of firearms.

Over the years the police department has discovered that effective law enforcement depends largely on the quality of recruits. In 1960, for the first time in the city's history, civil service tests were given on college campuses to persuade college students to enter the police department. The city also created the position of "Police Cadet" and by the end of 196o, I 12 young college students, mostly eighteen years of age, had been appoin ted. Cadets perform clerical and related duties at headquarters and precincts throughout the city when not attending their college classes.

Cadets may apply for the position of patrolman through civil service when they become eligible.

A policeman can continue his education at the police academy or by ou tside study on his own time. In 1960, over 1,200 men and women of the police force attended colleges and universities, wholly on their own time.

To encourage this, the department established achievement citations for successful completion of various levels of higher education. These citations give additional credits on future promotion examinations.

To help men with families who wish to continue their education, the department offers special scholarships under a collaborative arrangement with a local college. On an average more than IS0 members of the department-captains, lieutenants, sergeants, detectives and patrolmen-also receive college scholarships.

The authorized quota of the uniformed force in 1961 was 24,590 men and women. Included in this figure were patrolmen, detectives, members of the youth division, others on emergency services, in communications and records, safety, and on plainclothes assignments. In addition, there were more than one thousand civilian employees on duty at street crossings near schools to protect children going to and from school.

There is a total of about 87,000 persons employed in New York City's four main service departments-fire, health, sanitation and police. Thus, approximately ten per cent of the city's eight million population is engaged in protecting the health, the property and the rights of its other citizens .•

POLICEMEN ARE NOT ONLY adroit directors af traffic, above, and enforcers of the law, but accept many respansibilities in human relations, such as counselling youth and directing the energies of youngsters into constructive recreation. See story on the Police Athletic League which commences on the next page.

P.A. L. THE POLICE Athletic League (P.A.L.), which is in its thirty-first year, was founded by Lieutenant Edward W. Flynn of the Crime Prevention Bureau of the New York City Police Department. Challenged by complaints from neighbourhood storekeepers in a slum area of the Bronx that a gang of boys was making trouble, Lieutenant Flynn called the boys together and asked them what they wanted. The lads were surprised: this was not the way policemen usually acted. They said they wanted to play baseball.

Lieutenant Flynn obtained the money for equipment from storekeepers and police at the station house. A baseball team was formed, game.~ were played, and the boys stopped getting into trouble. P.AL. was born. The p'olice department developed the league on a city-wide basis, so that today the city has more than 100,000 members between the ages of seven and eighteen. Threefourths are boys.

The Police Athletic League does not pretend to be the whole answer to juvenile delinquency. It starts with the simple fact that youths usually get into trouble when they have nothing else to do. Then, particularly in poor and crowded sections, it seeks out the "unaffiliated"those youngsters whose recreational needs are not met by their parents or by other organizations. It combats delinquency by giving these youngsters a varied programme of athletics and handicrafts to take up their slack hours, especially between 3 and 9 p.m. That is when juveniles l1}ostfrequently get into trouble.

P.A.L. isa private and non-profit corporationassociated with the police department. It is supported by voluntary contributions solicited largely by mail, and is headed by the Deputy Police Commissioner in charge of the Police Department's Juvenile Aid Bureau. A situation typical of P.A.L. work can be found in the Bergen Street precinct in Brooklyn.

North and east, the precinct reaches into the downtown commercial area and towards the fringes of the crowded Bedford-Stuyvesant region. To the south, it borders partly on Prospect Park, around which are quiet . streets with a few lovely old one-family houses.

Walk into the station house on Bergen Street at Sixth Avenue on a Saturday morning, go past the desk lieutenant and into the muster room in the rear, and there behind a desk in the corner will probably be the youth patrolman, Vincent N. Maronne-"Vin" to several hundred youngsters.

"I was born and brought up in downtown Brooklyn," Vin told a visitor recently, "and I know the problems of these children and can speak their language." Vin has been a policeman for almost twenty years, a youth patrolman at Bergen Street for nearly ten, and is a father.

He is a husky six-footer with black hair and a broad face, and he does not look his forty-three years.

A STREET IN THE HEART OF THE CITY was blocked off for this P.A.L. shuffleboard tournament.

P.A.L.

"Saturday mornings I give out motion picture theatre passes," Vin explained. "They are something I worked out with theatre managers. I give out about fifty a week.

It helps keep me in contact with the boys. A lot of them come in here that I might not see otherwise and I can find out if they have problems and can keep tabs on things."

In came a twelve-year-old boy in tattered jeans. He asked for a pass for himself and one for a friend. He received a pass and a P.A.L. application for his friend.

In half an hour he was back leading the friend. The application, signed by a parent, was exchanged for a pass.

Both boys said they would be around to play ball, and left.

BASEBALL IS the largest summer athletic activity. Three teams-one junior, one intermediate and one seniorrepresent the precinct in borough competition. Other teams, usually four or five in number, go into "surplus leagues" run in conjunction with neighbouring precincts.

Six boys straggled into the muster room. A blondhaired fellow of thirteen shouldered his way forward. "We want to play baseball," he announced. Vin knew four of the boys. He gave P.A.L. applications to the two others.

"You want to playas a group?" he asked. The boys said they did. "Do you have any more in your group, Bob?" The blond lad said there were nine more. Vin gave out nine more P.A.L. applications and made a date to see the boys on the ball field. "We have a good spot for your team," said Vin. The boys straggled out. "I told you he was a good guy," the blond lad said from the side of his mouth.

"When boys come in as a group, wanting to form a team, we encourage them to stay as a group," Vin explained. "Our main job is not to make winning teams, but to reach the unaffiliated and keep them out of trouble.

Those were juniors-under fourteen. Intermediates are fourteen to sixteen and seniors, sixteen to eighteen.

One junior group was made into a team that really went places."

The story of that group began on a street corner in one of the poorest sections of the precinct in the spring of 1951. There had been complaints from shopkeepers in the area about a gang of boys, and some of these complaints reached Vin via the Juvenile Aid Bureau, which works in close co-operation with P.A.L. and refers youngsters to it.

Vin went to the scene and looked around. Soon he saw a group of boys on a street corner, walked over, and started talking baseball. They said they were interested in forming a team. Vin asked them to come to the station house that Saturday. At 10 a.m. fourteen boys came in, silent and on the defensive, yet eager to play ball. When the day was over they had become P.A.L. members and the team roster was made out. By the end of the summer, they had won the junior championship of Brooklyn. The complaints stopped, and one of the protesting shopkeepers became a contributor to P.A.L. Under the city-wide P.A.L. play street programme during the summer months, each roped-off street is supervised by two trained and paid workers. There are games and handicrafts and dramatics. One project is to learn songs and customs of member nations of the United Nations. Girls are especially active in the programme.

Lair in the There is also a P.A.L. summer camp-Fox Adirondack Mountains. Eight or ten boys go each year from Bergen Street.

In winter the athletic emphasis shifts to basketball.

Of the twenty-six part-time P.A.L. centres in the city, Bergen Street has one and uses it for some basketball and for pingpong and checkers. For boxing-Sugar Ray RlPbinson and Tiger Jones learned theirs with P.A.L.and such activities as dramatics, music instruction and woodworking, Vin sends the youngsters to a near-by full-time centre like the Loewe or Miccio Centre. There are twelve of these in the city, all with trained, paid staffs.

"Those centres are all named for policemen killed in the line of duty," Vin said. "Joe Miccio was a detective with the Bergen Street squad."

Volunteers also are relied upon, especially to help coach and umpire baseball and basketball. I t takes a dozen volunteer;:;, some working only in summer, to keep the Bergen Street P.A.L. programme going. All volunteers are interviewed and checked at headquarters.

One Bergen Street volunteer, Frank Lyons, was the original coach of the Dean Street Dodgers, one of the best known of the precinct's baseball teams.

"They are all good citizens now," Vin said of the Dodgers.

Their story begins in 1947 in a block on Dean Street near the station house. The tenement-lined block had a population of 400 youngsters between the ages of ten and eighteen. Forty had been in trouble with the law.

The older boys ran in gangs and hated policemen.

The Juvenile Aid Bureau and P.A.L. attacked the problem together. The bureau went into the homes, and P.A.L. organized the boys into a ball team called the Dean Street Dodgers. Gradually the trouble disappeared.

Vin knew the situation was conquered when the boys marched into the station house one day and presented a startled police sergeant with a box of cigars. One of the lads joined the police force himself, and several went to college.

Though athletics and other recreation are the most obvious methods by which P.A.L. works, these consume only about a quarter of the fifty hours a week that Vin puts in. Much time goes into trying to reach new members.

Vin walks most of the precinct at least once a week. He talks to local merchants and to the heads of schools, churches and civic organizations, constantly probing for youngsters who might need P.A.L. He makes it his business to know as many youths as possible, and he knows a surprising number.

One day he saw two eight-year-old boys bullying

a third. One held the victim's arm while the other, a blond boy with a wide grin, banged him on the head with a satchel full of schoolbooks. Vin stepped over and said, "Stop that." The lad stopped, but he looked sullenly at the pavement. "We could use that energy in baseball, Jeff," said Vin. The boy looked startled. "How did you know my name?"

"You have a brother who plays ball with us. He told me about you and you look like him. How would you like to play on one of our ball teams?" Soon all three boys, chattering good-naturedly, were on their way to becoming P.A.L. ball players.

The youth patrolman is also an unofficial fatherconfessor and a man to turn to in time of trouble. In the course of a routine day recently, Vin helped solve the problems of a boy who had been scared to appear in court as required, brought three young toughs in from the street and started them on their way to getting jobs through the placement bureau at P.A.L. headquarters, and discussed with a lad how he could hold a necessary , job and still stay in school.

It is difficult to measure the effect of P.A.L. in curbing delinquency-mainly because it exists because delinquency exists. It is necessarily most active where the problem is worst, and includes a number of youngsters who are members simply because they have been in trouble and were referred to P.A.L. by the Juvenile Aid Bureau. Vin said: "J.A.B. records show that most active P.A.L. youngsters do not give any trouble."

The Police Athletic League is simply one approach -the "play approach"-to the problem of juvenile delinquency. It is one of the commoner approaches, and ;' probably will always have an important part in combating juvenile delinquency. The roles of church and home are basic. But within its scope the league has helped to make good citizens out of many a potential and actual delinquent.. @ The New York Times Magazine.

"THeRE's MORE to driving a bus than people ththk. You don't have to have a big education to do it, but there's a lot of little things you've got to know."

Lamer Kelpy, who has been driving buses and street cars for nineteen of his forty-two years, applied the air brakes as a ball bounced into the road ahead of his vehicle.

As the heavy bus slowed to a crawl, a small child darted out from between two parked cars. The tot retrieved the ball and trotted back to the sidewalk.

"A ball usually means a kid," Kelpy explained.

"Kids are always running into the street. Around schools you've got to be specially careful. And when you approach a bus stop and see a woman waiting with a kid, you look to see if she has hold of him. If she hasn't, you come in very slow."

He glanced at the right rear-view mirror. "You try to keep other vehicles from getting between you and the curb or between you and a line of parked cars. Otherwise you can't pull in to make your stop. And in stopping or starting you look over the people who are standing and see that the older ones and the ones with parcels have hold of stanchions or hangers. If they don't, you go easy with the accelerator or the brakes-or you'll have a pile of passengers on the floor."

A big friendly man, Lamer Kelpy is one of 2,250,000 Americans who earn their living driving buses, trucks, or taxi cabs, and one of 1,9°0 bus drivers who work for the D.C. Transit System in Washington, District of Columbia. He is a member of the union, the Amalgamated Association of Street, Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employees of America, and stands ninety-fifth in seniority among the 420 drivers in the company's Northern Division. This seniority gives him a wide choice of routes and shifts. His current route extends from the centre of Washington to a small community in Maryland, just over the District of Columbia boundary. His shift begins at 5:30 a.m. and ends at I :30 p.m., five days a week, adding up to forty hours a week.

He chose this route and shift for several reasons.

Traffic on the run is relatively light, and the time involves only one rush hour-the morning period from about 8 to 9 when most adults and children go to work or school.

Kelpy doesn't mind getting up early and he likes to get his regular work finished by I :30. This gives him most of the afternoon off and the opportunity during the summer months to pick up extra money driving one of the company's sightseeing limousines or buses.

Like other drivers for big companies, Kelpy, when he applied for the job, had to pass a physical examination which included sight and hearing tests. He then underwent a month of training. This involved thirty-eight hours of classroom instruction on how to operate public vehicles safely and comfortably, how to deal with situations that commonly arise, and how to make out reports. It also involved five days of runs over all routes, accompanied only by an instructor, and three weeks of runs with an instructor and passengers.

After two accident-free years as an operator, Kelpy was eligible to take another month-long course as a driver-guide. This qualified him to lecture on the sights of Washington and vicinity. The company paid him his regular salary while he took these courses in its classrooms and vehicles, but he did some studying at home on his own time. He still takes a physical examination every three years as a bus driver and every year as a driver-guide.

Should he contract an illness which might jeopardize his ability to drive safely, the examinations would become more frequent.

Under his union's contract with the transit company, Kelpyearns $2. 5It (about Rs. 12) an hour as a bus driver and $2. 96t (Rs. 14) as a driver-guide. During the summer months he averages fifteen hours of driver-guide work a

THE BUS

Larner Kelpy:

week in addition to the hours on his bus. And sometimes he drives a charter bus to another city. In July, 1959, for example, he drove twice to New York and back with members of the Soviet Embassy who wanted to see the Soviet Exhibition, United Nations headquarters, and other attractions.

All this work adds up to a year-round average of about $120 (Rs. 567) a week, or $6,240 (Rs. 29,484) a year. In 1959, when tourists were more numerous than usual, Kelpy's earnings totalled $6,900 (Rs. 32,585).

But he and his wife make up their budget on the lower figure, which is about what the average driver for the company earns.

Kelpy drives to work in his 1954 Ford station wagon from his home in Wheaton, Maryland, a distance of about eight miles. It's dark, except in mid-summer, when he arrives at the big yard where buses-the successors to Washington's vanished trolley cars-wait in silent rows.

An

DRIVER

The Northern Division headquarters is one of seven from which buses move out over more than roo routes in the capital. On the second floor of its garage is the big brightly-lighted drivers' room, furnished with tables and benches and vending machines for dispensing coffee, milk, soft drinks, sandwiches, cigarettes, and candy.

At one end are several clerks' windows where drivers get change, tokens, and transfers.

He knows his schedule by heart, so he doesn't need a schedule sheet. But he does get the number of the bus he is to drive. It is No. 5625 and he finds it easily, for the buses are lined up in various sections of the yard according to the figures on their sides.

Entering the bus, Kelpy starts the engine to build up air pressure for the brakes. He's not permitted to move the vehicle until this pressure is at least eight pounds per square inch-enough for a quick stop. While waiting for the pressure to increase, he turns on the

treadle mechanism which opens the rear door, then walks back to the door and tests it.

The bus assigned to him is clean for the day's run.

Outside mud and grime have been washed off by revolving brushes and jets of water, and inside dirt has been sucked out by a big vacuum cleaner whose mouth fits flush with the bus's front door. When the air brake pressure is satisfactory, Kelpy steers the vehicle across the yard, pauses while an attendant checks the radiator water, and moves into the street, heading for his first stop ten blocks away. Kelpy constitutes the entire crew. The conductors who used to collect fares on American trolley cars and buses have disappeared.

The bus-a 200-horsepower Diesel machine-has seats for 5 I persons and a legal load limit of 82. Its automatic two-speed transmission, air suspension, air conditioning, and easy steering qualities make it a popular model with drivers. Operating modern buses, Kelpy thinks, is preferable to running trolley cars. "With a bus you can move around other vehicles, and stop quicker than you can in a car. Of course, you do more physical work, but it's just enough to keep you interested."

The bus arrives at its first stop at 5:30. The first passenger, as usual, is Joe, a white-haired old fellow who manages a lunchroom downtown. Joe is dejected this morning because an old friend succumbed yesterday to a heart attack. He and Kelpy ponder the uncertainty of human fate. "Here today and gone tomorrow," Joe philosophizes as he drops his token in the box (cash fare is 25 cents [Rs. I. 18J but tokens cost 20 cents [94 nP.J each for five). Kelpy goes him one better. "Here today and gone today," he says.

Around the corner three more passengers climb in out of the dark ..Kelpy greets all of them by name. "You get to know a lot of people on an early run," he says.

"And every run has different kinds of people. On this run we get restaurant and construction workers and some maintenance people like scrubwomen. On the second trip it will be office workers and school children. After that we'll get sales people in the department stores which don't open till 9:30. And from 10 o'clock on it will be mostly women shoppers."

Some shoppers have irritating habits. One may signal for a stop and then continue a conversation with a friend long after she reaches her destination. With the exit door open, she will talk and talk, reluctant to leave the bus.

Often women ask Kelpy for directions. He gives them clearly and accurately, for he knows the city well. But occasionally another shopper pipes up with differentand inaccurate-advice.

She's so positive she's right that the first woman is impressed.

"I never argue with 'em," Kelpy says. "If you do, the woman who gave the wrong dope is sure to get into the act and pretty soon everybody is shouting at each other. If a woman wants to go off in the wrong direction, it's better to just let her do it."

At every stop Kelpy makes change, sells tokens, or gives out transfers. He does this with one hand and, while looking at the road or at one of his two rear-view mirrors, uses a coin changer and tears off transfers by sense of touch. He also answers questions about streets, stops, and intersecting bus lines, calls out important stops, and informs passengers who asked for guidance that they are approaching their destinations.

After six hours of driving back and forth over his route, Kelpy pulls up in front of a drug store where another driver is waiting to relieve him. Under the union-management agreement, every driver must have a lunch break after six hours at the wheel. There also must be lavatory facilities for him at the place where he has lunch and at both ends of his run.

During his thirty-minute break Kelpy eats lunch

and discusses his job. "I make six and one-half round trips on this shift. If I work more than eight hours I get paid time-and-a-half.

"After you've been driving for a while you get so you can follow your schedule pretty closely. Of course, we're supposed to reach certain points at certain times.

During rush hours we have a four-minute headway on the main streets. At other times the buses are farther apart, getting down to half an hour apart at night. The passengers know the schedules and they don't like to wait, especially when they're going to work. So if you're a minute or two late you can count on hearing from them."

But to an easy-going man like Kelpy, passengers seldom spell real trouble. Occasionally some truculent person refuses to pay his fare. Kelpy makes a reasonable effort to collect, but doesn't press it to the point of either verbal or physical violence. "After all, we don't want to make enemies"," he explains. "We want all the customers we can get, and if somebody gets sore at the bus line he may take a taxi or start using his own car."

After lunch, Kelpy relieves another driver. His second bus is air-conditioned but its metal spring suspension makes it ride harder than the first. He drives for an hour through rain.

Relieved at r :30, Kelpy takes another bus back to the garage. He travels free on all company vehicles and is paid for the twenty minutes he spends getting from the relief point to the garage. There he makes out his report and turns it in to the clerks, together with any coins, tokens, or transfers he has left over.

His day's work over, he gets into his Ford and heads for home.

bunks. Eventually Roger, twelve, will tuck in there too, . but he now has a bed upstairs because Dawn, four, wants company at night. A cute little trick with twin pony tails, Dawn gets about anything she wants. "She's spoiled, I suppose," Mrs. Kelpy said. "But how can you help it when you have one little girl and three boys?"

Lamer, Jr., works part time in a clothing store and has saved $300 (Rs. r ,400) for his first year's tuition at a local college. He plans to take a course in business administration there when he graduates from secondary school. Kerry, also in secondary school, is thinking of an engineering career. He's interested in electronics and has a corner of the basement filled with electrical gadgets and tools. With these he repairs TV sets, radios, and other items that the neighbours bring in. He also sells some repaired articles and trades others with like-minded pals. .

Roger, still in elementary school, is the most musical member of the tribe. He's learning to play the accordion.

It was strictly his own idea. "We want the kids to do what they like," Kelpy explained. "We don't want to force things on them."

The adjoining back yards are twin meccas for neighbourhood children. Both have swings, trapezes, and other small-fry equipment. The Kelpy yard also has a basketball net where Kerry sometimes rigs a light so he can practise at night.

Near the back fence there's a rock garden which is bright in various seasons with jonquils, tulips, iris, lilacs, and roses. There's also a picnic area with a table, benches, and an outdoor fireplace, all of which Kelpy built out

KELPY LIVES on a quiet suburban street lined with two-family, semi-detached houses owned by working people with about the same incomes as his own. The house next to his is owned by a salesman of medicines and cosmetics. Nearby homes are owned by carpenters, plumbers, bricklayers, auto mechanics. The house across the street is owned by another professional driver who works for an ice cream company in summer and a fueloil company in winter.

As a U.S. Army veteran of World War II, Kelpy was eligible for a government-guaranteed loan to buy his home. He chose a home priced at $8,900 (Rs. 42,000), buying it on a four per cent mortgage running for twentyfive years. His monthly payments on the house are $65.50 (Rs. 3 IO), which includes amortization, taxes, and premiums on a $ r0,000 (Rs. 47,000) fire insurance policy. He has made r 30 of the 297 total payments.

The house, a two-storey frame structure, comprises a living room, dining room, kitchen, three bedrooms, and bath. Kelpy added one of the bedrooms and extended the dining room by building an additional 240 square feet. He did most of this work himself and it has raised the house's value, he estimates, to more than $r3,000 (Rs. 6r,000) at current prices.

Mrs. Kelpy, an attractive blue-eyed blonde of thirtynine, is partly responsible for the decoration. She took a night art course at Wheaton secondary school one winter and some of her paintings hang on the walls.

With Kelpy she also took an upholstering course and helped him do a professional job on a blue sofa and other furniture in the living room.

The two oldest boys-Lamer, Jr., eighteen, and Kerry, sixteen-sleep in the new downstairs bedroom.

A pine-panelled snuggery reminiscent of a ship's stateroom, it has ample wardrobe and storage space and three 44

S~an

September I962

NEAR U.S. CAPITOL, left, Kelpy checks traffic before turning his forty-foot-Iong bus.

Opposite: the Ke/py family.

of odds and ends. He picks up many things second-hand.

The swing-trapeze combination, for instance, cost a mere $2 (Rs. 9.50). He got the family TV set~originally a $400 (Rs. 1,900) model-for $175 (Rs. 826). And the a quarter of Ford cost him $600 (Rs. 2,800)-about what it cost its first owner. Before its purchase, it was subjected to a thorough inspection by Kelpy's brother-inlaw, an auto mechanic.

In summer the Kelpys spend considerable time at a swimming club about a half-mile from their house. While 1,500 families belong to this club, it's not crowded on Tuesdays and Wednesdays-Kelpy's days off-and he thinks it's well worth the $90 (Rs. 425) a year the family's membership costs. There's a pool 50 yards long by 23 yards wide, a separate area for diving, and a separate wading pool for tots. There are also dressing rooms, showers, and other facilities. Kerry is a diving instructor there and a member of the swimming team which competes against those of other clubs.

T HE nearby

FAMILY also picnics frequently in one of the county parks. And the elder Kelpys, both members of the Parent-Teachers Association, sometimes go to dances the organization holds in the local community centre. They also act as chaperons at teen-age dances which their oldest sons attend. During Kelpy's annual four-week vacation the family may pile camping

equipment into the station wagon and head for a national or state park. .

A weekly budget, followed fairly closely, keeps the Kelpys within their income. They own everything outright except their house and the only instalment payments they are making are the $65.50 (Rs. 3 IO) a month on the mortgage. One budget item- $5 (Rs. 24) a week-is for a fund to help the children through college. Surplus money often finds its way into this fund which now stands at about $1,000 (Rs. 4,700). Larner, Jr., doesn't plan to tap it. He feels he can earn his own way through college.

Several of the most important weekly expenditures do not appear on the budget because the money is deducted from Kelpy's pay cheque before he gets it. These items include the Federal income tax, union dues, unionmanagement retirement and health plans, and the government-administered social security programme to provide additional financial aid to retired persons.

On his usual income of $6,240 (Rs. 30,000), Kelpy pays a Federal income tax of $440 (Rs. 2,IOO), a figure based on his having six dependants including himself.

This is deducted from his pay at the rate of about $8.50 (Rs. 40) a week. His union dues total $ 1.50 (Rs. 7) a week. As a union member, he gets an $800 (Rs. 3,800) life insurance policy without cost to himself.

The retirement plan-administered jointly by representatives of the union and the company-costs Kelpy 2 (Rs. 9.50) a week. The company puts in $4 (Rs. 19) for him-twice his own contribution-and the resulting $6 (Rs. 28.50) goes into a fund to finance the pension he will draw when he quits work at the age of sixtyfive. The plan is similar to those in effect in other big American companies.

The health and welfare plan-also administered jointly by the union and the company-costs Kelpy another $2 a week. Under it he gets $2,000 (Rs. 9,500) life insurance~ In addition, he and members of his family get medical care at a well-equipped health centre and care, if required, in a good hospital. The company made a gift of $10,000 (Rs. 47,000) to help start this centre and matches all contributions made to it by union members.

Another item deducted from Kelpy's pay- $2 .40 (Rs. I I) a week, representing three per cent of the first $4,800 (Rs. 23,000) of his pay-is for the social security programme. The transit company also matches his contribution here. On his retirement twenty-three years hence, Kelpy will get about $275 (Rs. 1,3°0) a month as pension and $ I20 (Rs. 570) as social securi ty for himself, plus $60 (Rs. 28o) social security for his wife or a total of $455 (Rs. 2, 150) per month.

The biggest item in the Kelpy weekly budget is $45 (Rs. 200) for food. Clothes do not always use up the $10 (Rs. 47) allotted for them because Mrs. Kelpy makes many of her own and Dawn's clothes. The insurance Kelpy carries includes $ I,500 (Rs. 7,000) additional life insurance on himself and $500 (Rs. 2,400) on each member of the family. He also has a policy which would payoff the mortgage in case he died before completing payments, and liability insurance on the car.

A minor hidden budgetary item is the Maryland income tax which is not deducted from Kelpy's pay. It totals about $54 (Rs. 250) per year.

"Bus driving's not for everybody," Kelpy said.

"To like it, you've got to be an easy-going kind of guy who gets along with all kinds of people. But I like it better than working in a plant, and it's not as monotonous as you might think. Every day is different, and if we go round in circles on our routes at least we don't get dizzy.

"I've got a fine family and we live in a good house and have a lot of fun. The kids are getting educated and the future's provided for. I'm not complaining and neither are the rest of the gang. We think we're doing all right.".

Span

September I962

45

Friendship 7's Fourth

FRIENDSHIP

7, the actual space capsule in which American Astronaut John Glenn (right) made his historic three-orbit flight around the earth on February 20, 1962, was recently on display in Bombay. The spacecraft was in India in the course of its fourth orbit-a global tour of important cities. Millions of people around the world obtained a close look at the pioneer manned space vehicle.

The one-and-a-half ton capsule arrived at Santa Cruz Airport in a giant Globemaster plane (below).

Mounted on an open trailer (left) the six-foot-wide and ten-foot-high spacecraft passed along the streets of Bombay to Brabourne Stadium where it was on dispJa.y for four days and attracted large crowds (bottom).

Airtight, watertight and soundproof, the capsule contains complex instrumentation with more than 10,000 components and seven miles of wiring.

Having completed its round-the-world exhibition tour, the capsule is currentlv on view at the Century 21 Exposition in Seattle, Washington. It will later become a permanent exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.-

rbit

Colour Photographs

by Avinash

C. Pasricha

RUTH

REEVES

, 'WHEN

DR. S. P. Srivastava, Director of Archeology and MuseumDepartment,Jaipur, was leaving for the States, he asked me for letters of introduction to curators and directors of different American museums.

With each letter I gave him also a little brass image lately cast in a remote village of Bengal. Almost to a man, the curators wrote me back saying that they did not believe these were contemporary pieces. This ancient method of metal-casting, they said, is extinct now. That decided me.

By jingo, I told myself, I'm going to write a book and show them it is not."

The controversial method of metal-casting is the classic cire perdue process and the emphatic speaker a sprightly American lady, Mrs. Ruth Reeves, originally a Fulbright scholar to India for fine and applied arts, who has remained for six years to pursue her research on Indian crafts.

Mrs. Reeves continues: "Few archeologists outside India are aware of the fact that this now virtually lost art of lost-wax casting-known even in pre-historic times to the Greeks, the Nigerians, the Central Europeans, the Inca and the Mayan Indians of America, to the metalsmiths of Mohenjodaro and Harappa-is still being actively practised in parts of India today. In the Eastern hemisphere, India, Nepal, Burma and Malaya are the only countries where the lost-wax process is a living tradition.

"My scholarship grant is over, you see, and I'm drawing on my own personal resources, but I made up my mind to stay on and carry out some research on this job.

India, I think, is a very very beautiful country. I've enjoyed every moment of my stay here and it is already six years that I'm here, you know. For the last four years I have slung my camera over my shoulder and trekked the countryside up and down India. In and out of rickety buses and jolting bullock-carts. I went from village to village, mostly in Bengal and Orissa and the South, questioning people about their crafts. In Central East India, working on the clues supplied by the National Museum and other sources, I followed the tracks of the nomad tribes who are the traditional creators of this ancient and sacred craft of India."

So ancient a craft, in fact, that it is mentioned in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas and the Silpasastras.

The Silpasastras and parts of the encyclopaedic work, called Manasollasa, written by King Somesvara Bhulokamall a of the Western Chalukya Dynasty, especially, have meticulously detailed accounts of the cire perdue process, from the preparation of the model to the finishing of the metal cast. Icons were made according to strict formulae and prescribed canonical rules governing both the casting technique and the proportions, stance, appurtenances and the symbolic meaning ofthe image. And, down to this day, icons and other metal images, as well as certain householdwares, are fashioned within these rigid rules.

In her book Cire Perdue Casting in India, recently published by the Crafts Museum, New Delhi, and based on the research she has conducted on the subject with the help of All India Handicrafts B::>ard, Ruth Reeves describes the procedure of hollow and solid metal-casting. In ancient India both cire perdue solid and-hollow casting techniques were employed in all the centres where metal-casting was undertaken, but today solid casting is practised almost entirely in the South. Mrs. Reeves has recorded both techniques in detail in her book, which is likely to prove a useful reference volume in museums, schools of art, and centres of Asian studies in all parts of the world.

The cire perdue process is still a living art in India at the remote village of Rampur, in the Bankura district of West Bengal; at Lowdiah, Bihar; at Sorponkha and Asnasol villages of Pairakuli casbah in Mayurbhanj district of Orissa; at Jagdalpur, Madhya Pradesh; at Swaminmalai village ofThanjavur in Madras and at some villages in Tripura and Manipur. Many of the craftsmen from Central and Eastern India belong to nomadic tribes, while others are permanently settled in their villages. Icons and more aesthetic figurines are the speciality of the South while the Central and Eastern Indian craftsmen mainly produce household utensils and toys.

For these craftsmen, this is about their only way of earning a living.

The techniques practised by these cire perdue craftsmen differ from centre to centre. Given -the basic essentials of an easily malleable material for the sculpture and a sticky and adhesive mixture of clay for the mould, the actual mixture of substances used varies from place to place. The range of wax or wax substitute runs from pure and mixed beeswax to dhuna, an extract of the sal tree (Shorea Robusta) which is cooked with mustard oil or ground-nut oil or Kochra oil. Clay is mixed and pounded with other materials, such as powdered charcoal, charred husk, strips of cotton, salt, dung and nut-water.

In the cire perdue process, simply stated, a sculpture is made of wax; the wax is covered with clay; the clay model is heated, so that the wax runs off; and metal is then cast in the mould left by the lost wax. The techniques are, in fact, much more complex.

In her contacts with the cire perdue craftsmen, Mrs. Reeves did not, and "would not," attempt to interfere with their technical and artistic problems. But where economic and commercial problems arose, she was ready with helpful suggestions and advice on marketing.

Ruth Reeves, granddaughter of the first Congregational Minister to be sent out to the West Coast of the

SIVA and PARVATI, flanked by Ganesha and Kartikeya, hollow-cast brass from Bankuro. West Bengal.

United States, was born around the turn of the century in Redlands, California. A handsome and charming lady now, she was called "a cute little beauty" in her youthbright, agile and sensitive. "Not of the ordinary college timbre," was how she was described to her father by an old aunt of hers, who insisted that, after high school, young Ruth should be given a chance at fine arts. After a short but tense parental discussion, it was decided that perhaps the girl ought be given a chance and off she was whisked to the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn. Hers was a family of orthodox missionaries. She still recalls, with a whimsical smile, the horror she spread once on a vacation home when, entering a room full of her father's colleagues, she proudly displayed a stack of beautiful nude sketches she had made!

From Pratt Institute she went to the San Francisco School of Art, then to the Art Students' League in New York City and finally to the Academie Moderne in Paris where she worked with Fernand Leger. On her return from Paris she started a series of exhibitions, extending over a period of twenty-five years, showing her paintings collectively and individually at many important centres of art all over America.

In the meantime, she was married and finally was left with three young daughters to be brought up singlehandedly. To get her children through school and college and, ultimately, through a finishing course in Europe, she took up textile designing. It was during this periodwhich coincided with the depression of the 1930's-that she proposed to the U.S. Government The Index of American Design, a project aimed at throwing light on a virtually lost chapter of American handicrafts. She travelled throughout the United States in connection with this project, collecting data and delivering lectures on American textile designs and handicrafts. The Index of American Design is the record of folk-craft articles in daily use or used as adornment in America from early colonial times to the close of the nineteenth century.

When her daughters were married and had settled down, Mrs. Reeves left textile design and turned to the less strenuous work of teaching. "I had now just myself to look after, you see, and this way I could do some painting on the weekends, too," she explains.

"I became interested in India and cire perdue sometime during the period when I was attached to the Art Students' League. I was seventeen then and I remember we had gone over to Boston on a study tour. It was at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts that I met Dr. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. He was for many years the curator of the Indian Section of the Museum and a formidable authority on Indian bronzes. His knowledge of the Indian metal images was very profound and it fired my imagination and spurred my curiosity. He encouraged me with my studies and research in this field but I felt that, to know more, I'd have to come out to India. At last I made it.

"I have all along felt so deeply for this country and it has meant so much to me that I can try to express my feeling only through giving something of myself to it.

I'm now indexing and captioning the photographs I took during my research on the cire perdue and some other handicrafts ofIndia. These photographs of the objects and techniques of their production will be included in the Census Crafts Survey which is compiled for every State in the country.

"There was something inside that told me it just wasn't fair to take away all this precious material with me," Ruth Reeves declares. "I've picked too many Indian brains and used the help of too many Indian people. I feel I have to put it back where I got it from; otherwise, I could never go back to America with a clear conscience.

I'm glad I had this opportunity to make my work available to the country to which this art belongs.".

with a ball

CHILD KRISHNA PRANCING solid bronze, South India.

of butter,