SPAN: December 1978

SPRAYING CHERRIES American farm technologists are constantly creating devices to harvest farm crops more easily and quickly. The picture above shows a recent product of such research, a cherry sprayer; it is sprinkling a chemical on a cherry grove before the harvest. The chemical loosens the fruits and makes fruit picking after the harvest easier and more efficient.

A LEITER FROM THE PUBLISHER For many years the front-page motto of The New York Times has been that it publishes, "All the News That's Fit to Print."

Both parts of that proud claim are being challenged nowadays in parts of the world-and insofar as all international news sources are concerned, by no means only the highly respected Times. Government authorities in a number of countries are maintaining that international news agencies do not write up all the news, and that the news they do publicize is not always fit to print, so far as some developing countries are concerned. The contention is that the news that these news agencies distribute does not present an accurate picture of developments in the Third World; that it does not present a "balanced" picture. Too much emphasis, in judgments of what is news, is on the unusual, the disasters, violence and problems. Western news agencies, some Third World representatives claim, do a poor job in reporting the "positive developmental news." (One attempt to correct a perceived imbalance by adding to the news flow, not restricting it, is the Non-Aligned News Pool formed by a number of nonaligned countries, including India).

The free press, radio and television and governmental representatives of the developed world, on the other hand, are deeply concerned over what they judge to be a danger to a free press and a citizen's right to freedom of information implicit in government control of news. They readily agree that regional news agencies have a useful function to perform, and international news agencies, private media organizations, academic institutions and governments are not only willing but already have programs to help Third World counterparts develop and improve their own professional expertise, facilities, communications and information resources- but they are seriously concerned at the prospect of the communication process being politicized. The perils of news dictation and distortion by government fiat are obvious-as is evident from the experience of authoritarian societies which have been trying repeatedly in UNESCO and elsewhere to achieve and spread their dictatorial objectives. The United States and other Western democracies have stated firmly their opposition to moves which would further state manipulation of information anywhere in the world.

SPAN publishes two articles on the problem of international communication in this issue: one by an American communications specialist, the other by an Indian one. It is a subject capable of engendering more heat than light, and we are pleased to report a true dialogue: each author takes account of what is reasonable in the other's position. Both see the need to steer a course mi3way between the Scylla of unthinking bias and the Charybdis of deliberate thought control.

A different subject of importance is explored in the article called "Redefining National -Security." Its author has credentials of a high order. Lester R. Brown began as an agricultural economist specializing in South Asia, then moved on from the immediate programs of expanding food production to other. equally vital imperatives:' conserving the world's energy resources, stabilizing its population, providing employment for new workers, constructing a livable world, free of pollution. ' Brown argues that true national security cannot be achieved by armaments and defense systems, however sophisticated. Rather what is required is the satisfaction of the universal human needs for all peoples: food, shelter, clothing.

The security of nations, like meaningful communications between them, calls for all members of the international community to act in concert, realigning their priorities to a changing world.

It is a thesis few would challenge.

-J.W.G.

Spm

Decemha 1978

2 5 American Psychology 10 Slim Goodbody:

14 17 18

Today

by Elizabeth Hall

The Inside Story

Redefining National Security

by John Burstein

by Lester R. Brown

International Journalism and the Third World

by Paul Francuch

20 Roosevelt 22

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.

Island: Suburb With a Moat

by Deborah McRoy

28 32 36 Chachaji:

A Poor Relation

An Interview With Ved Mehta by Chidananda Das Gupta

40 44 On the Lighter Side 4 5 Liberal Trade Policy Creates More Jobs 46 Six Americans Win Nobel Prizes 49 Front cover: The smile on the face of this young Alaskan seems to reflect the prosperity and progress that oil and pipelines have brought to America's largest state, without desecrating tbe beauty of its wilderness. See pages 22-27.

Back cover: America's craftsmen work hard at meeting the nation's prodigious appetite for musical instruments. Picture shows a workman in a flute factory fitting head joints to flute bodies. See also page 49.

JACOB SLOAN, Editor; JAY W. GILDNER, Publisher.

Managing Editor: Cbidananda Das Gupta. Assistant Managing Editor: S.R. Madhu.

F.AlitorialStaff: Krishan Gabrani, Aruna Dasgupta, Nirmal Sharma, Murari Saba, Rocque Fernandes. Art Director: Nand Katyal. Art Staff: Gopi Gajwani, B. Roy Choudhury, Kanti Roy. Cbief of Production: Awtar S. Marwaha. Photo Editor: Avinash Pasricha. Pbotograpbic Services: ICA Photo Lab. Published by the International Communication Agency, American Center, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policie~ of the United States Government. Printed

by H.K. Mehta at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

'Our policy objectives in Soutli Asia are consistent with the interests and goals of countries in the area,' said David D. Newsom, U.S. Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs, in his October 18 address to the Council on Foreign Relations in New York, reproduced here. (;.'~ ne of the personalities I remember most vividly ..~ from my diploPlatic career was the first Iraqi ,:.representative to Pakistan, Abdul Qadir Gaylani.

Abdul Qadir Gaylani grew up in and around ,:1 the 900-year-old mosque of his ancestors in ;,j Baghdad. As a boy, he learned from the pilgrims Ci"; of the lands that lay to the east and to the west. "'~ By adulthood, he spoke fluently not only his native Arabic but Farsi, Pushtu, Urdu, and Hindi. He undoubtedly knew '!>omeBrijbhasha, Tamil, and Bengali. He stayed through most of his life in Pakistan, becoming ambassador and dying there, a revered man of Islam. His tomb is a point of pilgrimage in Karachi today.

His life illustrates two facts of that area we often refer to loosely as South Asia: its common ties ... and its diversity.

From the time of Alexander, this area has been one of interest and fascination to nations beyond its borders. Since Alexander's day, other actors from outside have tried to exercise influence or power to the exclusion of others.

The great powers of the 19th century viewed Southern Asia as a focal point of international rivalry. British and Russian imperialism met across the Hindu Kush. If after the Second World War some players changed, the region was still an area of direct competition between outside powers.

There is no doubt that the fears of history remain in the area today. In many of the countries, the American visitor is met by expressions of deep concern about the possibly conflicting ambitions of outside powers.

While one cannot ignore either history or the ambitions of nations, it is our strong hope that the future of these countries will lie in their hands, and not those of others.

Even the definition of South Asia is a shifting thing. It was once defined as a subcontinent. Today there is emerging clearly a commonness of interest and a growing intercourse between all

those nations which were the world of Abdul Qadir Gaylanithose which stretch from the Red Sea to the eastern borders of the subcontinent. It is of U.S. relations with this area that I shall speak today.

It is not possible to divide the world into neat segments.

The countries of the traditional Near East also relate to this area.

Their problems and concerns continue to influence the course of events in these neighbors to the south and east.

The relationship of the United States with these nations of South Asia began through commerce early in the 19th century.

Missionaries and teachers followed, particularly in Persia and India. Americans pioneered the development of oil resources in the Gulf and the Arabian peninsula.

We watched with keen interest as nationalism and the independence movement grew in India. This was one of the first areas where our identification with modem decolonization provoked the irritation of the metropole.

In our new role in the postwar period we sought to insure that nations in this area were not threatened as they were in Eastern Europe. We backed strongly Iran's resolve in 1946 to maintain its territorial integrity.

In our preoccupation with the outside threats to the area, we were no doubt not sufficiently conscious of the conflicting motives of the nations of the area in joining with us. They had their local objectives, their local rivalries which often transcended their concern over external forces.

We nevertheless found sufficient support for a series of local alliances which culminated in the Baghdad Pact in 1955. This beCame the Cenfral Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 1958: We have never felt we could formally adhere to CENTO, but we have continued to support it as an instrument for cooperation in the area and as a symbol of common interest.

Today, our policy focus toward the region has changed-as the region itself has changed. The one-dimensional strategic view of the 1950s and early 1900s has been replaced by a more

diverse and more complex outlook, particularly as the countries of the area have increased their ability to defend their own interests against outsiders.

We can define our policies in this region in terms of six broad objectives: eTo encourage and strengthen independent nations, free . from domination by outside powers; eTo assist, through investment, trade and, where appropriate, aid in the economic and social development of these nations; .To encourage regional cooperation in overcoming common economic and security problems and in resolving disputes and conflicts among the states of the region; eTo respond appropriately to the defense needs of these nations; eTo ensure that the development of peaceful nuclear technology is consistent with nonproliferation; eTo encourage the observance of human rights in all aspects, political, social and economic.

The visitor to the area today is impressed that the United States is still regarded as relevant to the area-just as we regard the area as relevant and important to us. ; t is not surprising, given history and the continua(~;\ tion of traditional concerns, that many still look to '•.,;-.1 the United States as the central actor in respondipg •.....~ to a perceived threat. Many are concerned that ::!J) recent events in the area, particularly in Afghani/:.. •• stanoand Yemen, are signs that outside forces still ::';.;} seek to destabilize the region and to increase the '6 threat of radical solutions to its myriad problems, They look to the United States for understanding, for reassurance, and for signs that we will help to meet their needs.

We fully understand these concerns, whether or not we share precisely the same perception of these events or their causes.

Just as we do not underestimate possible dangers to the South Asia and Middle East region, others should not underestimate American resolve and willingness to support our friends in safeguarding their integrity and independence.

The closeness of our relations with the countries in this area quite naturally varies. With one country, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, we have no relations. With Iraq, we have no formal relations, but an interests section in the Belgian Embassy.

In each case; the choice is that of the other country.

There are those who suggest that we show our displeasure with the policies of specific countries through the withholding of diplomatic relations or, where pertinent, of aid.

It is our feeling that so long as we can have effective and dignified access to a country and can contribute to development in a constructive way, we should maintain our relations with it.

It has proven in Americc:lndiplomacy far harder to return to a country than to leave it.

Although we no longer look at the region exclusively through the prism of East-West rivalry, we know that the Soviet Union sees important interests of its own in Soudi Asia. Historically, the Soviet Union has sought to improve its access to the Indian Ocean. As the strategic and economic import.ance of the region has grown, attempts by the Soviet Union to build its influence may be expected to continue. We have no desire to return to the rhetoric and political environment of the fifties and sixties. It remains true, however, that any attempt by the Soviet Union to achieve its objectives through the achievement of predominant and exclusive influence over individual nations in that area is ~.~

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not in our interest, nor do we believe it to be in the interest of the nations concerned.

The resources of this region are of interest to all nations. The United States obtains 27 per cent of its imported petroleum requirements from this region. OUr allies in Western Europe and Japan have an even greater dependence on the area for their energy needs than we do. The United States shares with other energy consumers the desire to participate in the development of the area on a basis of mutual benefit. he years have seen a dramatic evolution of patterns of investment and ownership. Today the resources "~~:5iof these nations to a very large extent are under :.~::;.their own control. Yet, so well conceived has been ,~} ; the transfer of ownership in the major oil-producing areas that the original investor continues to (';')) benefit and to participate. The area has become "(1."; not only a source of energy but a very significant •... market for our exports, our technology and. our capital. In 1977 we exported almost $10 billion in American goods to this region.

Where normal trade and investment patterns do not provide the necessary transfer of resources, we participate through both bilateral and multilateral aid. Our bilateral aid, in accordance with Congressional mandates and the policies of the Administration, concentrates on basic human needs, with emphasis on the poorer levels of the population.

The provision and production of food is also an important objective in this area. Almost all of these countries are net food importers. The nations of the area have, for a variety of reasons, found it difficult to achieve dramatic increases in food production.

As the world's principal exporter offoodgrains-either through commercial sales or through concessional Public Law 480 programs-our supply of grains is a major element in our relationship.

We continue to encourage and help the n'ations of the region to attain self-sufficiency, where this is possible. India, largely through its own efforts, but with some outside technical help, has become a net exporter of food barely a decade after having a 10-million-ton annual deficit.

Several of the countries in the area-India and Pakistan in particular-playa key role in the North-South dialogue on debt, commodities, and other features of a new world economic order.

An American ability, however limited, to demonstrate our interest in the special problems of the developing nations is not only important for the development in the area but in the context of this dialogue as well. Here is an area where we are clearly asked to support our words by example.

In 1977, the nations of South Asia received nearly half a billion dollars in bilateral assistance funds from us.

Where appropriate, we can and do encourage regional political cooperation in the area. Because of the nature of the new dynamics of the region, outsiders cart play only a minor role in influencing intraregional relationships-and appropriately so.

More than ever before, the region that stretches from the Arabian peninsula in the west to the subcontinent in the east is an interrelated unit of nations.

True, regional rivalries remain-between North and South Yemen and between Pakistan and India. Tensions persist between Pakistan and Mghanistan across the Durand Line, which we, and most others, recognize as the international border.

What is noteworthy and encouraging, however, is the pattern

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international concerns over the use of nuclear technology.

Often political circumstances inhibit nations from agreeing to the safeguards we consider necessary to nuclear cooperation.

The challenge to the U.S. and to all other nations with an interest in peaceful nuclear power is to develop bilateral and multilateral programs with the countries in the region which of efforts by governments within the region to resolve their support peaceful nuclear power development-and at the same differences and to work constructively together. time to ensure that our nonproliferation objectives will be met.

India and its neighbors in Bangladesh and Nepal have re-.

The task is not an easy one. Our policy, backed by legislation, often ..raises difficult questions involving shipments of nuclear solved significant past differences.

Relations between Pakistan and India have improved despite fuel and support for specific projects. Despite these tensions we feel that our efforts in this area are increasing the awareness of the the continuation of the unresolved Kashmir dispute.

Iran and Iraq have found significant solutions to their past need for a sound nonproliferation regime. Until, however, mutual agreement is reached on this regime, the temptations to territorial and political differences.

Cooperation, rather than animosity, today marks relations develop a nuclear weapons capability will remain. between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

The final U.S. objective in the area is an expression of our A pattern of cooperative relationships and political unity worldwide concern over human rights. This has struck a partichas been developed among the Gulf states, where conflicting ularly responsive chord with many in South Asia. territorial claims and personal rivalries once dominated the scene.

Some of the key countries of the region have, through their own internal dynamics, set democratic courses. rowing economic and commercial cooperation India has resumed its position as the world's largest democ6) among states in the region provides further racy. ~.positive signs. Countries of the Arabian peninsula Sri Lanka has maintained its democratic tradition through ''!o-~' and Iran provide significant economic assistance three decades of independence. {~. "i ,F¡.¡{,::,to the poorer countries of South Asia, and those Others, where traditional societies exist, are themselves ,.:~.~ countries, in turn,Jave contributed muek of the seeking to make the difficult transformation to more democratic l'r;) manpower-both 'sKilled and unskilled-that forms, forms which inevitably will spell greater protection for \,'" has built the economies of the states in the human rights.

Arabian peninsula. Trade and commercial ties Pakistan, in the midst of a difficult political transition, between India and Iran, Pakistan and Iran, and between other intends to hold national elections within a year. regional states have been strengthened.

In Iran, the Shah has made clear his strong commitment to In carrying out our objeotives in this area of the \V0rld, we political liberalizatIOn, despite the difficult challenges he now are faced with often difficult policy choices. . ~ faces within the country.

1:hecountries ofthe region have a genuine and understandable In this diversified area, there are many paths to achieve clear need to ensure their own defense and to obtain the military communication between the governor and the governed and to equipment necessary to that end. Our ability to supply is often fulfill the right of the people to participate in government. We important to our overall relationship. We recognize this need will not find all modes identical to our own. We recognize and have sought to respond to it. The bulk of our oyerseas arms that in traditional societies there are often strong traditions of sales-outside of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization mutual respect and democratic exchange even if more!modern (NATO)-is in this area. forms are not adopted. We will seek to see that the integrity of At the same time, it is a basic policy of the U.S. Administrathe person will be respected, regardless of the form of political tion that the transfer abroad of increasingly sophisticated system chosen. And we will continue to speak out for the rule conventional military equipment must be limited. We pursue of law, freedom of expression, and the democratic political this bilaterally and in our continuing talks on conventional process. arms transfers with the Soviets and other major suppliers and For 30 years, we have played a key role in helping to ensure recipients. development and stability in this sensitive part of the world.

Our policy has been to review with the greatest care all A relationship with South Asia which permits cooperation on a aspects of an arms transfer request, including the regional basis of mutual benefit with us and with other nations of the world security implications of any arms sales and the appropriateness is as important today as it has ever been. of the equipment requested in terms of the potential threat.

While not denying the interplay of outside influences, we It is a policy which.at times pleases neitl,1erthe country seek- remain confident that these nations will, through determination, ing equipment nor those who seek even greater restraints on solve their own problems without domination or intervention our transfer of arms. The importance to these nations of the by others. We will continue our own resolve to lend support, development of what they consider to be adequate defenses and not only to sound development, but to the safeguarding of their the existence of other sources of supply, however, do not permit independence and integrity. us to ignore their concerns or their requests.

We believe our policy objectives in South Asia are sound, The nuclear field faces us with other dilemmas. Various consistent with the interests and goals of the countries in the nations in South Asia have the resources and the skilled man- area. If we pursue them with a clear recognition of the importance power to explore seriously and develop nuclear energy for of the area to us and with due regard for the mosaic of the region, peaceful purposes. India, Pakistan, and Iran are all actively we can continue to respond to the clear desire of these nations that we remain interested in their region and in cooperation engaged in nuclear development programs.

0 In 1974 India exploded a nuclear device, raising serious with them.

A relationship with South Mia which permits cooperation on a basis of mutual benefit ... is as important today as it has ever been.

/<:~t~'" ?:'.~/

Today's psychologists range far and wide, both in their methods and in their subjects. Some are behaviorists, strictly scientific in their approach. Others are humanists, who shun the scientific method. Stili others have paid equal attention to the empirical method and to subjective experience, and have produced some fascinating studies. The reasoning, the experiences, and the conclusions of psychologists of the various schools are examined by the author.

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he concerns of American psychology have shifted. A decade ago psychologists were either strict behaviorists who spent a good deal of time watching rats press bars and pigeons peck keys, or part of the new humanistic movement whose members shunned scientific methods and sought to develop human potential. The behaviorists regarded the humanists as fuzzy thinkers whose work was worthless. The humanistic psychologists regarded behaviorists as benighted creatures, who saw every leaf in the psychological woods but never glimpsed a tree, let alone the forest of human ability.

Recently a middle group of psychologists has gained prominence. They are researchers who use the empirical methods of science but who do not discount the subjective side of human experience. It is now respectable to study dreams, imagination and creativity. What is more, the union of subjectivity and objectivity has led to new studies that explore the structure and function of the brain, the close ties between emotions and illness, the possibility of gaining conscious control of internal organs, and parapsychology.

Other important new research has studied the way in which children develop a sense of self and of gender, and the effects of aging.

For a number of years most psychologists were obsessed with imitating chemists and physicists. In an attempt to be strictly scientific, they limited themselves to what they could observe and

to read and to hold jobs, the painfully shy became assertive, the violent became peaceful. Behaviorists reduced the populations of mental hospitals and helped persons shed phobias and sexual problems, making impotent men virile and frigid women orgasmic.

Sometimes their successes were only temporary, the patients slipping back into old habits when persons and events in their daily lives reinforced the very behavior the psychologists were trying to change. But enough of the patients did maintain their new behavior to make it apparent that behaviorism was a potent force in changing human action.

Behaviorists still flourish. They work with individuals and with groups. Some measure, treating their human subjects are developing programs that influence as if they wei"e rats or pigeons. Should a persons to keep streets and parks free subject volunteer any description of the way he felt during an experiment, his from litter; others are inducing Americans to recycle waste, to conserve energy and report was dismissed as so much noise to switch from private cars to subways that interfered with the clear signals emitted by his behavior. and buses, a move that reduces traffic This model of psychology, which saw jams and air pollution as it saves energy.

Still others are helping the unemployed human behavior as simply the result of reward past experience, genetic endowment and . find jobs. All these programs whatever reward or punishment was in- desired behavior, a process that behaviorvoJved in the immediate situation, left ists call positive reinforcement. little room for free will. It was carried Some behaviorists have joined hands farthest by behaviorists, and the psywith physicians to help solve medical chology that developed from the work problems.

A patient who has had a of B.F. Skinner was amazingly successful tracheotomy, for example, often comes to at discovering ways to change behavior. depend upon the tube in his throat.

Under the guidance of behaviorists, When the medical emergency has passed stutterers stopped stumbling over words, and the tube is removed, he sometimes mutes spoke, retarded persons learned finds that he cannot breathe and starts

connected to machines that sound a tone choking. By a process called shaping, which rewards desired behavior but de- whenever a muscle becomes tense. As the mands that ths:_subject continually do muscle relaxes, the sound becomes softer better if he is to get his reward, psychol- and finally stops. This kind of immediate ogists have taught such patients to give feedback soon teaches one how it feels to up their dependency on the tube and to relax and how to stay that way. Such . control can bring relief to a person who breathe freely. suffers from the cramps, pain, tics and Other experimental behavioral programs aim at reducing the incidence of headaches that may accompany tension. heart attack. Although physicians agree that obesity, smoking, heredity, lack of his biofeedback research, more than any other, is probably reexercise, high blood pressure and high sponsible for bringing subjective cholesterol levels make heart attacks more likely, some psychologists. believe that experience back into psychology. About 10' personality is the key that determines years ago, psychologist Joe Kamiya began whether a fat, sedentary' chainsmoker teaching persons to alter their brain waves actually will have a heart attack. at will simply by having electrodes make a Studies show that men who have had light flash whenever their brains produced heart attacks (and the majority of heart- alpha waves. Psychologists thus became inattack victims are men) exhibit similar volved in altering bodily processes they traits. They are highly competitive; they couldn't see and could measure only intake work home from the office; they directly. They began asking subjects to accept more work than they can accom- describe how they felt in such situations, plish easily, then push themselves hard to questions that would not have been deemed appropriate a few years earlier. complete it; they have an acute awareness These techniques may help patients of times and schedules. learn to slow their heart rates, reduce This pattern of behavior is called Type-A personality. Such men get things tension, relieve stress and lower blood done, but they also are likely to have high pressure. They also can teach epileptics to avoid seizures. Work with cats has cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and heart attacks while they are relatively shown that a particular brain rhythm young. accompanies regular breathing and a decrease in heart rate and muscle movePsychologist Richard Suinn has found ment.

Psychologist M.B. Sterman atthat he can train persons out of Type-A tached electrodes to epileptics' scalps behavior. He teaches them first to relax, then to use a process called visuo-motor and, using a combination of lights and behavior rehearsal, in which they imagine chimes, trained them to produce brain waves in the same range as those that themselves in various stressful situations calmed the cats. The training sharply and mentally rehearse ways of responding.

After several such fantasy sessions the reduced the number of epileptic seizures patients find that their behavior changes and had other benefits as well. The in actual situations. They are no longer patients slept better, their awareness was sharper, and they were able to sustain driven to overproduce ana their personalities appear to change. What is more, attention to a task for longer periods.

To maintain the benefits of the training, tests show a drop in cholesterol levels.

In similar programs, Suinn has success- Sterman found, the patients had to return to the laboratory three times a week, each fully trained Olympic athletes to perform at the peak of their abilities. After deep- time spending about a half-hour practic. . muscle relaxation, the athletes imagine ing the new brain rhythm.

One effect of biofeedback research has they are skiing, fencing or engaging in been to make American psychologists whatever activity their events require.

Electromyography-in which electrodes less skeptical of the claims of yogis. attached to major muscles record the Once psychologists learned that yogis electric impulses generated in those were. controlling their heartbeat, temareas- has shown that during the con- perature and other bodily processes withtrolled fantasy an athlete's muscles make out an expensive array of equipment, some became receptive to Eastern thought. the same response on a minute scale that Meditation was suddenly a popular they later make during, say, an actual run down a ski slope. subject for research. At Harvard UniverOther psychologists have used electro- sity, psychologist Gary Schwartz discovered that experienced meditators slept myographs and electroencephalographs (recordings of the brain's electrical im- better, had fewer colds or headaches, and pulses) to put persons in control of bodily reported less anxiety than nonmeditators.

His findings led psychologist Daniel Golefunctions that normally are automatic.

Electrodes attached to muscles can be man to study the reactions of meditators

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to stress. He showed films that depicted a series of bloody industrial accidents to meditators and nonmeditators. As they watched the film, meditators got ready to handle a distressing sight first. Their heart rates increased and they sweated more than did nonmeditators. But as soon as the accident was over, their bodies returned rapidly to normal. They relaxed much more quickly than the nonmeditators did.

Continued stress can lead to physical or mental illness, and Goleman suggests tha,t the meditator's ability to relax keeps him healthy. The psychologist says that because an anxious person doesn't relax after a minor threat, his tension builds and he meets life's normal events as if they were major cnses.

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ome psychologists believe that emotions may play a role in the development of cancer. A number of studies have shown that most cancer patients suffered a major loss before they developed the disease-the loss of a spouse, a sibling, a child, a close friend, a job, a home. Other studies indicate that persons who suppress unpleasant emotions-or those who deny their anger -are likely cancer victims. Psychologists Claus and Marjorie Bahnson, who have studied such patients, believe that pent-up tensions affect their endocrine and immunological systems, which make them vulnerable to the disease.

An unusual study of the possible link between personality and cancer was carried out by Molly Harrower, a psychologist at Florida State University. She studied data from Johns Hopkins University, which in 1946 began keeping extensive records on its medical students.

One test required the student to draw a person; such an exercise is supposed to reveal the artist's unconscious feelings.

When Harrower examined the old records, she found that the drawings fell into several distinct categories, including those in which the figures kept their arms at their sides, those in which the arms extended outward, those in which both arms touched the body, and those in which one arm extended outward, while the other was held back. This latter position, which supposedly indicates an ambivalence toward the world, showed up in the drawings of nearly 40 per cent of the medical students who later developed cancer. No more than 10 per cent of students who remained cancer-free drew such figures. Harrower believes that-for reasons yet unknown-cancer is more likely to strike persons who are confused about how to react to events in

their lives than those who are not., Along with increased interest in subjective experience has come a new respectability for parapsychology. A decade ago the subject was rarely discussed without a sneer, but research in several laboratories all over the United States has produced results that have changed some behaviorists' disdain to a cautious, waitand-see attitude.

For many years, since J.B. Rhine began to do research at Duke University, parapsychologists' searches for extrasensory perception (ESP) had stumbled over something called the decline effect. No matter how much skill a person appeared to show in reading minds or perceiving distant objects and events, after a time the skill

Studies have shown that both mothers and teachers unconsciously treat boys and girls differently-encouraging boys to be independent and girls to be submissive. slowly vanished. Unbelievers said that the law of averages was simply catching up with the subject, and that his earlier successes were coincidental.

Now Charles Tart, a parapsychologist at the University of California at Davis, has devised a testing method that has wiped out the decline effect among some subjects. Tart's success is based on application of principles set forth by B.F. Skinner-no one learns unless his behavior is reinforced, and unrewarded behavior slowly disappears. Old methods of testing for telepathic skills consisted of asking a person to display the ability, then telling him-after the test was overhow many correct answers he had given.

In Tart's view, this is like putting earmuffs on a piano student, then-after he has played a song-telling him he hit 165 correct notes and 73 wrong ones.

To get out of this bind, Tart set up a machine that rewards the subject with chimes and a light each time he gives a correct answer.- Tart's subjects aren't perfect; they often are wrong. In addition, the reinforcement doesn't seem to improve their performance. However, they continue to score at the same steady rate.

They may fail to improve because the machine can't tell when their correct answers are due to telepathy and when they're simply lucky guesses. So it rewards luck as well as extrasensory perception.

But Tart has succeeded at least in

negating the decline effect.

Promising parapsychological research is also in progress at Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn, New York. Several years ago, psychologist Montague Ullmann's Maimonides research team conducted experiments that indicated that some persons might be able to influence the dreams of others. The senders concentrated on paintings, while the receivers slept in the laboratory. Although the dreams of most sleepers showed only coincidental resemblance to the transmitted paintings, a few of the dreamers had amazing success in picking up elements of the target pictures.

Psychologist Charles Honorton, who participated in some of the dream experiments, decided that because dreaming is an altered state of consciousness, other altered states offered the best prospect for parapsychological research. One way to alter consciousness is to cut off normal perception. Honorton does this by placing halved ping-pong balls over his subject's eyes and by using earphones to send a softly roaring sound to their ears. Some of his attempts at evoking ESP in such conditions-again using senders to transmit paintings and photographs-have shown surprising results. Honorton believes that ESP is most likely to occur when a person undergoes a sharp shift in consciousness, and his experiments seem to bear out his contention.

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nother areas of psychology, researchers who study children are discovering that infants are much more functionally competent than was once assumed.

Their senses are more efficient at birth than earlier psychologists believed. They can process information, and prefer complex to simple objects. Babies as young as one day can recognize a checkerboard they have seen, although-as psychologist Steven Friedman has showntheir memories last no longer than 10 seconds. By two weeks, their eyes will follow a moving object.

At the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in Princeton, New Jersey, the work of psychologist Michael Lewis and his colleagues is expanding our knowledge of infancy. They found that one-monthold babies knew their mothers' voices and faces. When a baby saw his mother but heard the voice of a strange woman, he began searching his surroundings as if trying to solve the problem.

Babies are aware of strangers as early as three months, and older babies show more fear of adult strangers than of children. Lewis wondered whether the size or the configuration of an adult

face frightened infants, so he tested a group of six-month-old babies by having a strange midget approach them. If the babies were frightened, he reasoned, it was the adult face that scared them. If they were not, the adult height was responsible.

To his surprise, the babies were neither frightened nor pleased; they were astonished. Their eyes opened wide, eyebrows went up and mouths rounded. It was plain that they understood the relationship between faces and height, and that an adult face on a child-size body violated their expectations.

S

ooner or later a normal baby develops a sense of personal identity. At ETS, Lewis and Jeanne Brooks used a mirror and red dye to find out when this happens. Mothers brought their babies into the lab and placed them, one at a time, in front of a mirror, where a television camera recorded their behavior.

Then each mother picked up her baby and wiped its nose, but with a cloth that left behind a bright splotch of red. When the baby was again placed before the mirror, the camera recorded its reactions.

If the baby recognized the image in the mirror as itself, reasoned the psychologists, it would see the red spot on the reflection's nose and then touch its own.

Almost no baby younger than 12 months touched its nose. Between 15 and 18 months, 25 per cent of the babies reached for their noses and, by the time they were two, 88 per cent of them sent their hands to the red patch at the sight of their reflections. Apparently it takes at least a year for the sense of identity to emerge.

Additional studies by Lewis and Brooks indicate that a rudimentary sense of self begins to emerge before the first birthday.

When babies saw black-and-white films of themselves and of other babies, even ninemonth-old infants were more likely to imitate themselves than they were to imitate other babies. And in another ex" periment, the infants watched similar films in which a baby was approached from behind by a stranger. Those younger than a year turned to look over their shoulders at a possible intruder most often when their own images were on the TV screen.

Although the biological difference between the sexes is more than a matter of reproductive organs, society just as obviously teaches boys and girls to behave according to the rules laid down for each sex by the culture. Lately, developmental psychologists have been paying attention to the way young children learn those rules.

Several years ago psychologists Lewis )

and Susan Goldberg noticed that year-old boys played more roughly with their toys than girls did, and that the males were active explorers, investigating light switches and doorknobs in the laboratory, while girls of the same age played quietly at their mother's knees. When the psychologists put a baby on one side of a low picket fence and its mother on the other, a boy tried to get around or over the fence, but a girl simply cried.

Engaged by this early difference, the psychologists began to watch younger babies and discovered that mothers didn't treat boy and girl babies in the same way.

When mothers of six-month-old boys held them on their laps, they placed the boys so that they faced out toward the world. Girls were held facing their mothers. Mothers discouraged their baby boys from touching them and suggested that they play with toys that lay across the room. But when six-month~old girls were placed on the floor, they were allowed to touch their mothers and to play beside them. It appears that mothers encourage independence in boys at an early age, and that such encouragement affects their behavior.

W

hen they were asked, few of these mothers indicated awareness of a link between the sex of their children and the way they treated them. Later research indicates that similar subtle training goes on in nursery school. Psychologists Lisa Serbin and K. Daniel O'Leary watched nursery schoolteachers with their young charges and discovered that, once again, boys were encouraged to be independent and girls to be submissive. When the children made paper baskets, the teachers routinely showed the boys how to fasten the baskets together and then allowed them to complete the job. Without giving any instruction, they fastened the baskets completely for the girls. When the boys asked questions, they were answered fully; girls' questions were generally dismissed.

Boys who misbehaved were scolded before the class, a technique that behaviorists believe reinforces the behavior. Girls who misbehaved were either ignored, a technique that behaviorists say effectively stamps out the behavior, or gently reprimanded in private. The teachers also were unaware of any difference in their treatment of the children.

Childhood is not the only area that interests developmental psychologists. Although the United States has the reputation of being a youth-oriented culture, more and more. of its citizens are living longer. In 1900 only 3 per cent of the

population was over 65; today 10 per cent has reached that age, and¡ the proportion will continue to increase. By the year 2000 almost 30 million Americans will have passed their 65th birthdays. This realization has caused many psychologists to study later adulthood, and their work challenges stereotypical views.

A

pSYChOlOgistBernice Neugarten of the University of Chicago has shown, for most Americans the later years are not a period of isolation and neglect. Her team of investigators has spent decades following thousands of persons in the Chicago area. Most of these men and women in their 60s, 70s and beyond are relatively healthy, sexually active, either continue to workorenjoy retirement, and are neither conservative nor rigid.

What is more, although their eye-hand coordination has fallen off, their intelligence is unimpaired. Psychologists Paul Baltes and Werner Schaie have found that, far from declining, verbal skills like word comprehension and use are better at 65 than they were at 40, and that intellectual tasks that require visual skill-such as finding a simple figure hidden within a complex one-continue to improve into old age. Older adults retain their flexibility and shift from one way of thinking to another as well as they did in their prime.

Only their speed appears to be affected.

But given time, they can succeed at any intellectual task as well as the youthful.

The old can learn as well as the young.

Some can even master a new language, a feat that has been considered the province of the young. The difference between old and young appears to be that,¡ with age, motivation becomes paramount. Old people learn more slowly and they learn only things that appear meaningful. If they judge something to be irrelevant, trivial or meaningless, they either cannot learn it or simply will not.

When psychological research shows that popular views are wrong, it can serve a valuable purpose. The new view of Eastern thought could lead to a greater acceptance of ideas that originate outside American culture. Research in biofeedback could lead to an improvement in health and wellbeing. Studies of the aged could lead to an improved image of old persons, hence a positive change in the way the young¡ treat them. Many recent discoveries about human beings hold prO'mise for the entire society.

0 About the Author: Elizabeth Hall is a former managing editor of Psychology Today magazine, and has publis~ed numerous books, including Parapsychology and Why We Do What We Do.

Trachea (windpipe)

Blood

vessels

Everybody has a body of his/her very own, to live in for a lifetime and to make a happy home.

Your body is incredible, it's busy every minute, amazing things are happening to keep you living in it.

Slim Goodbody is my name, and I am here to guide you on a tour that will explain all the things inside you.

Before we start exploring there is one thing I must tell: Everything you see in me, is part of you as well.

LUNGS Around the Heart there is a pair of lungs which fill up with the air we breathe in through our mouth and nose.

Down to the diaphragm it flows.

BRAIN What would you do without your trusty old brain?

How would you know to come in out of the rain?

How could you read, laugh, dance, or sing?

Without your brain, you couldn't do anything.

MOUTH Just think how many visitors you welcome here each year; you greet them, then you eat them, while you treat them to root beer.

The food must get nice and wet before you swallow it down, so in a flash, your mouth will splash Saliva all around.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM When your fingertip touches something that's hot, your nerves send the message as quick as a shotback comes the order"Let go of that pot!"

The front teeth cut and tearthe back teeth grind and chew while your tongue is pushing food among those chomping 32!

Your lips, tongue, and teeth have to coordinate so you can make speech and song and communicate.

Food is the fuel that keeps us going, giving us the energy we need for growing.

Fingers bring it sometimesOr we use a fork and knife, But anyway you slice itFood's the Fuel of Life.

telling them what they have to do.

They'll push the food along in digestion to the stomach, through the small into the large intestine.

With every single beat of your heart a muscle is working and doing its part!

DIGESTION When you've finished eating your body's just starting to deal with the meal from your plate.

While you're busy snoring juices are pouring dissolving the food you just ate.

SKIN What will wrap me up, and keep me in?

A birthday suit made out of skin.

But supposing I cut it? What happens then?

Your skin suit will grow back together again.

I'm not quite convinced, what else does it do?

It keeps germs and dirt on the outside of you.

Can water,soak through it, when I'm in the rain?

You will be waterproof in a hurricane.

Is there anything else I ought to be told?

It lets out the heat, and keeps out the cold.

And no garment like it has ever been sold!

SKELETON Without your bones, you couldn't stand up; wouldn't have much shape at all.

Like a lump of clay, or a jellyfish, or a punctured rubber ball.

Ribs are like a vest that you wear around your chest to protect your lungs and heart.

Your cranium surrounds your brain-ium.

Bones guard your softer parts.

THE POINT OF A JOINT Your skeleton is dependable, And not only that-it's bendable!

THE MUSCLE HUSTLE When I want to move, I use my muscles to get moving.

When I want to dance, my muscles do the grooving.

Some of the muscles work without you,

HAIR If your head was a bed, then your hair would be the spread; a protective covering of black, brown, blond, or red.

THE OUTSIDE STORY Letting you know what's going on, bring you pleasure and pain, Five Sensational Senses are reporting it all to the Brain.

Sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell send you information very well.

OCEAN OF EMOTION Right now I'm feeling happy,

5. Your small intestines are between 20 and 30 feet long. That's four or five times as tall as you are.

The food takes as long as 12 hours to make the trip through.

6. There are about 9,000 taste buds inside the bumps on your tongue.

7. A newborn baby's skin is wrinkled because it is too big. It takes almost six months for baby's body to fill out.

8. Hair is as strong as aluminum. A single hair can hold up to three ounces, and if you made a rope out of strands of hair it could lift a 2,000-pound automobile.

9. While you sleep, you change positions 30 or 40 times a night to let your muscles rest evenly, and your blood circulate freely.

10. Only people, and no other animals, can'cry tears.

but sometimes I get mad.

I yell a bit, and have a fit and wind up feeling sad.

I sigh and cry and wonder why I have to feel so bad, but pretty soon things start to change and once more I am glad!

I feel just like a boat afloat upon an ocean of emotion.

Everyday I ride the tide while waves of feelings flow inside.

Be What You Want To Be it's a world you can experience each day in a way brand new to discover the very special things that only you can do!

Step right up and shout it loud My Body's Great, And I am Proud! !

There's no one else I'd rather be, I treasure the pleasure of Being Me!! !

1. If a computer was built that would contain all of the equipment of the human brain, it would have to be at least the size of a skyscraper and it would take several lifetimes to wire up.

2. Your heart is about the same size as your fist and grows at about the same rate.

3. We take about 10 million breaths a year.

4. Your tongue is a muscle.

1. Have fun with your faceLook in a mirror and time yourself for a minute to see how many different emotions your face can express. explanation: There are 16 different muscles in your face that can work together to produce hundreds of different expressions.

2. Can you swallow standing on your head?With the help of a friend, and using a soft pillow, stand on your head and drink a glass of water through a straw. explanation: Food and drink don't just fall into your stomach. Tiny muscles line your esophagus and push it along.

3. How does your body keep cool when it starts getting hot?Lick your index finger up to the first joint. When it is wet, wave it in the air to dry it off. Which part of your finger gets the coolest? explanation: When your body gets overheated you sweat through your skin. As the sweat dries, it gives off heat into the air and you cool off.

4. Fool a friend with foodCut up some apples and some pears. Have a friend close his or her eyes. Put the apple in your friend's mouth while you hold the pear under his or her nose.

Ask your friend to name the fruit being eaten. explanation: Your senses of taste and smell usually work together. Often you smell foods when you think you are tasting them. When you're sick and your nose is stuffed-up, you can hardly taste anything at all.

5. For a better understanding of your sense of touchHold out the palm of your hand and close your eyes.

Have a friend trace a number or a letter on your palm.

Can you tell what was traced? explanation: Your sense of touch sends a message to your brain and your brain figures out what that message means.

0

BIDIFIII18 IATIOIIL SICDBITY

National security is not merely a matter of arming oneself against hostile powers, says the president of Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C. Ecological stresses, such as encroaching deserts and food shortages, can endanger security too; for they may lead to economic crises and social unrest. National security is best guarded when man lives in harmony with nature, an ideal depicted in the painting above ('The Peaceable Kingdom,' 1833) by Edward Hicks.

See how these masses mill and swarm And troop and muster and assail: God! we could keep this planet warm By friction, if the sun should fail.

-EDNA

ST. VINCENT MILLAY

The concern for the security of nations is a time-honored preoccupation both of political leaders and their citizenries.

In modern times the national security concept has become increasingly tied to considerations of military threats, strategic arsenals, the balance of power, and other catchwords of defense planners.

But new threats are emerging, threats with which military forces cannot cope.

These new threats derive less from the relationship of man to man and more from the relationship of man to nature.

Reprinted with permission from Foreign Service Journal.

Š American

Foreign Service Associalion

1978.

For some Third World countries encroaching deserts may pose a far greater hazard than invading armies. Runaway population growth can destroy a country's ecosystem and disrupt its social structure more effectively than a foreign adversary ever could. For many industrial nations the projected depletion of oil reserves may be a more serious threat to national security than traditional military threats.

These numerous new threats derive directly or indirectly from the mounting human pressures on the earth's natural . systems and resources. The unfolding stresses in this relationship initially manifest themselves as ecological stressesfood and resource scarcities, and climatic changes. Later they translate into economic stresses-inflation, unemployment, capital scarcity. Ultimately, they erupt as social unrest and political instability.

National defense establishments are

useless against these new dangers. Neither bloated military budgets nor highly sophisticated weapons systems can halt the deforestation or solve the firewood crisis now affecting so many Third World countries. Nor can they ameliorate the worsening food shortages or arrest the rising unemployment.

One of these emerging threats to national security is the progressive depletion of oil reserves. Recently there has been much attention given to the occurrence of short-term supply disruptions in petroleum, but unfortunately strategic planners have lost sight of a far more central fact; namely, that oil reserves are being rapidly depleted and that the downturn in world oil production may be only a decade and a half away. It is the failure to prepare for this eventuality that poses the real threat to the future security of oil-dependent nations.

The seriousness of these threats and the obvious potential for disaster is now looming so large that it cannot be ignored, even by strategic planners accustomed to thinking in purely military terms. Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defense, reflected this new reality in a recent statement, "The present deficiency of assured energy resources is the single surest threat that the future poses to our security and to that of our allies."

Efforts to ameliorate the projected downturn in world oil production by turning to other energy sources have produced their own threats to national security. In the case of nuclear power, it has proven impossible to separate the international spread of nuclear power for peaceful purposes from the spread of bomb-grade nuclear materials. The modest contribution of nuclear power to the world's energy supplies cannot compensate for the volatility of a world of present and potential nuclear powers.

Coal has also been proclaimed as a potential means of circumventing the impending shortage of energy supplies, but there too is an unfortunate and possibly fatal flaw. A U.S. National Academy of Sciences study recently pointed out that the burning of coal in the quantity necessary would eventually lead to a several-fold increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a possibly catastrophic rise in the average global temperature.

With oil wells going dry, nuclear power in limbo, and the heavy use of coal threatening to alter the global climate, the urgency of developing renewable energy sources has become obvious. Circumstances suggest the need for immediate and broadly based efforts to develop the entire range of renewable energy sources, as well as a crash energy conservation program. The rate of transition from petroleum to solar energy sources, the number of solar collectors to be installed each year by country, the number of windmills to be erected where wind power is economically feasible, and the area of farmland to be devoted to the various energy crops need to be calculated. An all-out conservation program is needed to stretch remaining 'oil reserves as far as possible and so buy time to shift to renewable energy sources.

The need for all countries of the world to act in concert to formulate and launch a transition program, including devising a timetable, is paramount. Without a con¡¡ certed global effort, it is inevitable that the economic and political stresses resulting from the coming energy transition will imperil the security of all nations.

A¡second major threat to the security of modern nations involves the deterioration of biological systems as population

continues to expand. Stress is evident in each of the four major biological systems-oceanic fisheries, grasslands, forests, and croplands-on which humanity depends for food and industrial raw materials. In the past it has been assumed that because biological resources are renewable, they are of little concern. In fact, both the nonrenewable and renewable resource bases have been shrinking.

More and more the carrying capacities of biological systems are being ignored and exceeded. The world's fisheries have in the early seventies failed to show the steadily increasing yields that were typical of the fifties and sixties. Forests are shrinking on almost every continent as the cutting of trees exceeds their regenerative capacity. In many Third World countries population growth is now acting as a double-edged sword, simultaneously expanding demands on the biological systems while destroying the resource bases.

The oceanic food chain, yielding some 70 million tons offish per year, is humanity's principal source of high-quality protein. However, disturbing evidence indicates that the catch in a majority of oceanic fisheries may now exceed the sustainable level and the fisheries are being depleted. Between 1950 and 1970, fish supplied a steadily expanding share of human protein needs, but in 1970 the trend was abruptly and unexpectedly interrupted. Since then, the catch has fluctuated between 65 and 70 million tons, clouding the prospects for an ever bigger catch. Meanwhile, world population growth has led to an 11 per cent decline in the per capita catch and to rising prices for almost all edible species.

The earth's grasslands, too, are under growing pressure. The meat, milk, leather, and wool originating from the six billion acres of grassland play an important role in the food and industrial sectors 'of the global economy. Overgrazing is not new, but its scale and rate of acceleration is unprecedented. Deterioration that once took centuries is now being compressed into years by inexorable population growth.

Forests have proved to be one of humanity's most valuable economic resources and, in consequence, to be one of the most heavily exploited. Almost every country undergoing rapid population growth is being deforested. If cutting is excessive, forests shrink and their capacity to satisfy human needs diminishes. Most of the Middle East and North Africa and much of continental Asia, Central America, and the Andean regions of South America are now virtually treeless. In these denuded areas, wood and wood products are scarce and expensive. What is' worse, the remaining forested areas in all these

regions except China are shrinking.

Croplands produce an even greater variety of products. The proportionate contribution of cultivated crops to the global economy is far greater than the one-tenth of the earth's land surface that they occupy. However, in the case of croplands as well, biological carrying capacities are being reached and exceeded.

As world population gradually expanded after the development of agriculture, farming spread from valley to valley and from continent to continent until by the mid-20th century the frontiers had virtually disappeared. Even while the amount of new land awaiting the plow shrank, the growth in demand for food was expanding at a record pace. A land hunger is driving millions of farmers onto soils of marginal quality-lands subject to low and unreliable rainfall, lands with inherently low fertility, lands too steep to sustain cultivation.

Apart from the loss of cropland, erosion on remaining cropland is undermining soil productivity. A natural process, soil erosion as such is neither new nor necessarily alarming, but when erosion outpaces the formation of new soil, inherent soil fertility declines. It is the rate of soil erosion that distinguishes the current era from other periods. The result has been a gradual but potentially disastrous decline in land productivity in many parts of the world.

Arthur Candell, writing of the ecological deterioration in Haiti, reports that "the land produces less and less each year, while population soars .... The eroded and leached mountain soil can no longer support tree growth."

During the early seventies world food consumption steadily outstripped production, leading to greater global food insecurity than at any time since World War II. Declining food stocks led to soaring prices, export embargoes, and the emergence of a global politics of food scarcity. As the world price of wheat climbed, so did death rates in a dozen or more low-income countries. The lives claimed by the increase in hunger during the seventies may have exceeded the combat fatalities in all the international conflicts of the past two decades.

While stocks have been rebuilt somewhat as the result of uncommonly good harvests in 1976 and 1977, they are still far from adequate. Preliminary estimates indicate the carryover for 1978, including both the stocks of grain and the grain equivalent of idled U.S. cropland, amounts to only 53 days of world consumption, far less than the 62 days held in 1972, when poor crops in the Soviet Union, India, and several smaller countries of the world, wiped out food reserves

almost overnight.

The present trend is even more frightening in that the modern world is more dependent on one geographic area than at any time in the past. Since World War II every continent except North America has become food deficient.

Scores of countries have moved from surplus to deficit status, but not a single food exporter of global status has emerged. One result is greater insecurity in the international food economy during the seventies than at any time since the years following World War II. History provides some instructive lessons about ecological threats to national security. North Africa was once the granary of the Roman Empire. Today, the fertility of the region's badly eroded soils has fallen so low that the area imports much of its food. Accounts of the collapse of the early Middle Eastern civilizations attributed their downfall to invaders from the north, but more recent investigations link their decline to the waterlogging and salting of their irrigation systems and to the collapse of their food supplies.

For the modern world community, the prospect is equally threatening. Ultimately, efforts to preserve the biological systems on which humanity depends must involve constraints on global consumption which for many nations will require a reordering of social and economic priorities.

Few would doubt that economically the seventies have been traumatic and confusing. Both in the food and energy sectors, the slack appears to have gone out of the world economy, leaving the entire world in a highly vulnerable position. Accompanying the new global economics of scarcity has been a growing capital shortage that is plaguing the citadels of capitalism and socialism alike.

Furthermore, the seventies have brought the first global double-digit inflation on record during peacetime and the highest unemployment since the Depression.

The most significant aspect of the present economic trends is their pervasiveness, whicn seems to presage a period .of increasing economic stress for the world as a whole. Increases in population and in standard of living have begun to press up against the capacity of global markets to respond. Both in the case of renewable and nonrenewable resources, it will be extremely difficult for world supply to keep pace with the phenomenal growth in demand that is projected for the coming decades.

During the seventies world demand for food simply outstripped the capacity of fa~mers to expand supplies of wheat and other commodities at historical price

The purpose of national. security deliberations should not be to maximize a country's military strength but to maximize its national security. levels. Matching the rises in the prices of food staples, the prices of lumber and newsprint have doubled and even tripled.

Although the sharp climb was commonly attributed to the global surge in economic expansion of the early seventies, the subsequent cessation of economic growth during the mid-seventies did not bring prices down. The persistence of inflation suggests strongly that it is the overall relationship between the level of demand and the sustainable yield of resourcesand not the short-term rise in demandthat counts.

Global scarcities have affected not only prices but employment as well.

If new employment is to be created, there must be something for people to work with. For the half or so of the global labor force in agriculture, that "something" is land. As long as fronticrs existed, employment could be created with trifling amounts of capital-with that needed to buy crude farm implements and seed. But in many Third World countries a combination of land scarcity and the concentration of land ownership in a few hands make this far more difficult.

The inability of countries to create jobs rapidly enough is leading to chronically high unemployment in rich and poor countries, but particularly in the latter. Rising unemployment in turn leads to political instability.

These economic threats to national security are not well understood. But even the most optimistic economist must admit that if the trends of the seventies continue, society is in serious trouble.

Economic stresses can quickly aggravate social divisions, turning political cracks into fissures. When German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt was his country's Finance Minister in early 1974, he noted, "I only have to go to the years 1931 and 1933 to say that the meaning of stability is not limited to prices."

The new threats to national security are extraordinarily complex. Ecologists understand that the deteriorating relationship between four billion humans and the earth's biological systems cannot continue. But few political leaders have yet to' grasp the social significance of this ufisustaifi~fblesituation.

Unfortunately, however, nonmilitary threats to a nation's security are much

le.ss clearly defined than military ones.

They are often the result of cumulative processes that ultimately lead to the collapse of biological systems or to the depletion of a country's oil reserves.

These processes in themselves are seldom given much thought until they pass a critical threshold. Thus, it is easier in the government councils of developing countries to justify expenditures for the latest model jet fighters than for family planning to arrest the population growth that leads to food scarcity.

The continuing focus of governments on military threats to security also makes efforts to deal with these newer hazards more difficult. The heavy military emphasis pre-empts budgetary resources, management skills, and scientific talent.

Given the enormous investment required to shift the global economy forward to alternative energy sources, one might well ask whether the world could afford the sustained large-scale use of military might of the sort deployed in World Wars I and II. In effect, there simply may not be enough fuel to operate both tanks and tractors.

In a world that is not only ecologically interdependent but economically and politically interdependent as well, the concept of "national" security is no longer adequate. Though national governments are still the principal decision makers, many threats to security require a coordinated international response. Whether the immediate crises involve firewood shortages in the Third World or doubledigit inflation in the industrial countries, they will be increasingly influenced by a global web of forces which no nation can expect to control unilaterally.

The purpose of national security deliberations should not be to maximize military strength but to maximize national security. In the late 20th century the key to national security will be economic sustainability. The times call for efforts to secure the global systems on which nations depend. Perhaps the best contemporary definition of national security is one by Franklin P. Huddle, senior specialist at the U.S. Library of Congress. In Science, Huddle writes, "Security means more than safety from hostile attack; it includes the preservation of a system of civilization." At some point governments will be forced either to realign their priorities in a manner responsive to a changing world or to watch their national security deteriorate.

0 About the Author: Lester R. Brown is president of Wor/dwatch Institute in Washington, D.C. He is the author of Seeds of Change, World Without Borders and other books.

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INTERNATIONAl JOURNAliSM AND THE , THIRD WORLD ~

An American newsman examines the charge that Western news agencies tend to ignore or discredit the Third World, and discusses the various efforts under way to improve the global news flow.

Every day, the unending flow of news from the Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), Reuter and Agence France Pre sse gives life to newspapers and radio broadcasts around the world.

But in recent years, the relationship between the news agencies and a particular group of customers has strained.

Developing nations are frequently calling into question the way their news is covered and reported by the West. Sometimes they question the selection of news items that Western agencies send for their use. The flowof news is one-way, namely from the developed to the developing nations. Western reporters don't always give an accurate or complete picture of what is happening in the Third World.

The criticisms are numerous, but the developing nations seem unanimous on the solution: let them have their own news agencies.

Easwar Sagar, Washington correspondent for The Hindu of Madras, has been a reporter for nearly 30 years and is familiar with press problems of the Third World. He believes that many Third World nations are concerned about the small coverage they receive in the West.

"Primarily," he says, "it is a question of what interests the reader in the West. Year after year, I think there has been less and less interest in Third World events, unless they're disasters, earthquakes, and hijackings.

And there is less and less interest in such 'unexciting' stories as development. Large areas of the Third World are not covered by the Western press at all~ I mean particularly the American press, which can afford to have people abroad."

A leading student of the worldwide news flow problem is Professor Phillip Horton of Tufts University in Boston. He says that developed and developing countries have major differences over how "news value" is defined.

In the West, reports of spectacular events, disasters, crime and political scandals usually find their way onto a newspaper's front page. As some editors admit, these are stories that "sell papers." But most Western journalists agree that political reporting rates as the most valued assignment. Such reporting keeps citizens informed about their elected and appointed officials. A vigilant press also serves as a w.arning to government officials that the power they hold is constantly

being watched by the public. In the United States, this freedom of the press is cherished so highly that it 'is protected by the Constitution.

Although newspapers in the Third World also report on politics, Professor Horton notes that reporting of another sort has gotten primary consideration in recent years.

"There is no question," he says, "that there is perhaps almost total unanimity among Third World countries of what the values of 'development journalism' are. By that they mean news that deals with the constructive efforts of the governments and the people for the development of their countries."

Major Western news agencies frequently carry such dispatches, especially on days when there are few fast-breaking reports.

But sometimes complaints are raised that these articles lack Third World perspective, and sometimes the charge is undeniable. When an agency sends an inexperienced journalist to a foreign country, reports may be distorted. But usually reporters sent on such assignments are knowledgeable about their subject. Sometimes dispatches are filed by local reporters who work part time for the agencies as "stringers." Agencies know that

Western bias can creep into a report; as Reuter executive Gerald Long notes, it's something that editors constantly guard against.

"When you're in the information business," he says, "you have to be conscious all the time that the needs of a given market might distort your view of the information that you're called on to provide. So constant vigilance is necessary and this vigilance is built into Reuter's organization. We look for signs of bias of any sort and try to eliminate them. Now, we're not 100 per cent successful. Nobody is. I would claim we are as successful as it is humanly possible to be."

But sometimes, the daily diet of news distributed does not fill the needs of Third World subscribers. A dispatch that may seem irrelevant to Western customers may be just right for developing nations. Again, the question of defining news value emerges.

In 1975 the first major cooperative effort was taken to solve the problem. Yugoslavia's news agency, Tanjug, began what was called a "pool" for exchanging news items among developing nations. Some dispatches were in-depth reports on problems Third World nations

shared-dispatches of the so-called "development journalism" genre. Frequently, however, contributions were merely one-sided, self-serving government press releases-contributions that Tanjug generally ignored or which, when relayed, found little or no use in other countries.

Tanjug teletyped the items to subscribers in the Third World and elsewhere. The arrangement soon grew into an organization called the NonAligned Nations' News Pool.

"We found," said Tanjug director Pero Ivacic, "that it is a good way of cooperation.

It's not competitive, but complementary to the present information systems. We know that most of the consumers of the big international services are in the industrialized countries. If you take, for instance, UPI and AP, more than 50 per cent of their consumers are in the United States, and only 5 per cent are in the so-called 'Third World.' So we had to find a better forum to exchange information among ourselves."

Although most Western journalists applaud the idea of a nonaligned news pool, few are ready to pronounce the experiment a complete success. Among those watching the experiment closelyis Professor Horton.

"The Third World journalists' hope and assumption," he pointed out, "was that in the creation of the nonaligned pool the dispatches being put out by the various participating agencies would focus on Third World countries' constructive steps toward their national development. That seemed to be a perfectly sound idea; in the abstract. In practice, apparently what has happened is that the choice of those items has been left, pretty exclusively, to government, since the governments control the news agencies in the Third World pretty exclusively.

And apparently because of that, because the items were being chosen and the dispatches frequently written by government officials, what resulted was a rather low quality of news."

Developed nations believe it is in the interest of all to help

Third World nations improve their news-gathering facilities.

Funds have been raised to study the problems, and news agencies have offered to share their professional skills.

"We want to use our knowhow to help them, because we feel that the more news that's available in the world, the better," said Associated Press executive Stanley Swinton.

"Obviously, the voices of the Third World need to be heard.

They should have their own regional news agencies. We do not feel they're competitive. We feel they're complementary."

In recent months, the freeflow-of-information issue has occupied center stage at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which has worked for more than a quarter century to uphold the free-flow

concept by helping to train Third World journalists and to develop facilities for news gathering and distribution.

Several UNESCO conferences have been held in recent years to deal with the information-flow problem. But the one which received the greatest attention was the 1976 general conference held in Nairobi, Kenya. During that conference, the Soviet Union proposed a resolution that included a provision sanctioning government control over news-gathering activities to UNESCOmember nations. Western delegates managed to get it held over for future consideration.

A more encouraging development from the Nairobi conference was the formation of a l6-member panel of mass-media experts called the International Commission for the Study of

Two years ago, Surinam became a free country. How did the world's press treat the story? Says veteran Indian journalist D.R. Mankekar, "The obvious news element was that the last colony in Latin America had attained independence.

However, most newspapers, including those in countries located near Surinam, played up the fact that U.S. imports of bauxite would not be affected.

This is because the story put out by an American news agency emphasized Surinam's bauxite potential-a factor of interest to America and the West, but not to the rest of the world."

Mankekar cites the example of Surinam to make the point that for years developing countries have been seeing each other and the world through American or European eyes. He says that about 60 years ago, America felt the same way about the deficiency in international communication as Third World countries feel today. The Associated Press (AP) was then trying to break Reuter's stranglehold on world news. Kent Cooper, then general manager of AP, charged that Reuter (a British news agency) was distorting America's image by telling the world only about the tornadoes, floods and crime in the United States, by dramatizing 'race lynchings in the South. Reuter, Cooper said, "never portrayed the great spirit of the American nation." Further, Americans were being forced to look at the world through British eyes, while they ought todo so through their own eyes.

"Our goal today is similar," says Mankekar. "We want to look at the world not through American or European eyes, but our own."

One way the Third World aims to do this is by developing its own news agency. The two-year-old press pool of news agencies of nonaligned countries is regarded as the first step toward such an agency, says Mankekar, who is chairman of the pool's coordinating committee. The pool's members exchange information about each other, thus supplementing the established sourcesReuter, AP, UPI (United Press International) and

Communications Problems. The idea for it came from American communications consultant William Harley. The commission-commonly referred to as UNESCO's 16 Wise Men- is meeting periodically around the world.

Harley thinks "they will succeed in identifying some of the major issues in the communications field, and possibly suggest some new course of action that the problems they discover would require, both at the national and international level.

And in particular, they will address themselves to what seems to me to be the overriding issue in the communications field today: how to establish a free and better balanced flow of information."

D About the Author: Paul Francuch is a staffwriterfor Voice of America.

AFP (Agence France Presse). "We do not compete with them," says Mankekar, "we only provide access to other sources of news neglected so far."

The news pool is composed at present of some 65 member countries, of whom 40 have their own news agencies. About a dozen of the 65 members are active, says Mankekar. A few of them have been appointed "redistribution centers." These are Tanjug of Yugoslavia (which covers Europe, Africa, Latin America, China and South Asia through a large network of correspondents), INA of Iraq (which covers the Persian Gulf region), TAP of Tunisia (North Africa), the Middle East News Agency of Egypt (the Middle East, North and East Africa), Prensa Latina of Cuba (Latin America), Antara, the Indonesian agency (South Asia) and the India pool desk (South Asia). Each redistribution center selects news stories it receives from its region and sends them to other redistribution centers. It also feeds member countries with selected stories from its own region and from other redistribution centers. The news pool operates on a "self-financing system." Each member pays for the transmission charges of stories originating from its desk.

On an average, the Delhi desk of the nonaligned news pool puts out 1,000 words a day of news received from the dozen active members of the pool. This material goes to all Indian newspapers through the Press Trust of India, and is used regularly by the financial newspapers; it also goes to news agencies in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma and elsewhere, for local dissemination to newspapers. Countering the charge that the news pool is an outlet for government propaganda, Mankekar says that during the past two years, not a single item putl out by the Delhi desk could be described as a boost for the government ofthe country which originated the news.

"If the story isn't credible, or if it fails to meet professional standards, we don't use it. ... We have the freedom to select what is good, and we use that freedom."

-S.R.M.

LTIS

Suburb with a Moat It's only a three-minute trip on the bright red aerial tram, halfway across the East River from Manhattan, but to its residents Roosevelt Island is a different world. It's hard to believe, in fact, that this is New York City.

Safe streets, clean buildings, fabulous views,open waterfronts, good schools, tennis courts, swimming pools, gardens, parks and greenery everywhere, plus no dogs, graffiti or honking cabs-that's Roosevelt Island.

New Yorkers never had it so good.

An experimental undertaking of the New York State Urban Development Corporation (UDC), this new mixed-income, racially integrated community of "Manhattan's Other Island" is a suburb within the city, a small town with big-city convenience, a haven for families who want to stay in the city. It's a place where children can play freely, where residents can walk by the river at midnight, grow vegetables next door to their apartment house, send their children downstairs to school, and enjoy a clean, safe environment.

Roosevelt Islanders are thrilled with their newcommunity. To Monique Trebot, a nurse in Manhattan, and her husband, Jean-Pierre, manager of the Friars Club, it's the quiet and the view that make Roosevelt Island special. "Sometimes we just sit by the window and watch all the boats," says Monique. "We would have to pay the same in the city, but we get more for our money here, and we have something more than another building to look at. We have a feeling of privacy-we don't even need drapes!"

The ability to live so close to the heart of the city, yet without the problems of noise, litter, traffic and high crime rates, is a powerful draw in a metropolis where good housing is at a premium. About 50 per cent of the island's residents come from Manhattan, another 25 per cent from other parts of New York City. The income and racial mix of the community appeals to many New Yorkers, to whom such a mix is part of everyday life.

Three years after the first tenants moved in, the development is only half finished.

Original plans called for two sections, Northtown and Southtown, with an open area in between. So far, only four Northtown buildings have been completed, but they

adds, "We sat around and asked ourselves what we hated most about the city." Dogs, An aerial tram, America's garbage trucks, traffic and noise were major first, takes you to Roosevelt complaints. Out of these sessions came some of the more innovative aspects of the developIsland, New York's haven ment: electric mini-buses for intra-island in the heart of the city. A transportation, the aerial tram, a pneumatic racially integrated, mixedgarbage disposal system like that used at Disney World, kitchen windows in most income community here enjoys apartments, a mini-school system where all the big-city conveniences children learn at their own pace, cable without their problems television, and a ban on dogs. and with all the forgotten Roosevelt Island was the brainchild of Edward Logue, UDC president and chief pleasures of peace and quiet executive officer from its founding until 1975. amid a clean environment.

From his apartment overlooking the East River, Logue could see Roosevelt Island and dreamed of its redevelopment possibiliare 100 per cent occupied, housing more ties. Then called Welfare Island, it was a than 2,100 families with a total of 5,500 hodgepodge of institutions, including two state hospitals and the jail. residents.

Construction on the second stage of In 1969, UDC signed a lease with the Northtown-an additional 1,000 units-is city, changed the island's name, and began expected to begin early in 1979, followed planning in earnest. Through UDC, New by preliminary planning of South town, which York State committed around $200 million in long-term bonds, and ground-breaking will ultimately contain 2,000 units.

The ground floor of each building is was set for 1971. given over to community services-stores, a Operational and administrative costs of restaurant, schools, day-care centers, swim Roosevelt Island are funded by the state. clubs and even a branch library. Courtyards, Despite construction problems, rush-hour parks and a winding Main Street bring traffic still flowing down Main Street, and greenery and open space to the development. summertime tramway crowds, 80 per cent All these amenities are fine, but it is the of the residents stated in a survey that East River that gives special appeal to the' Roosevelt Island is as good or better than community. Because the island is only 800 the last place they lived. feet wide, the river dominates the landFor foreigners and out-of-towners, there's scape from every focal point. It provides the delight of discovering a place to live that security, for the only way on or off the doesn't fit their preconceived, dismal view island is via the tram or the bridge to Queens, of New York City. It's UDC's hope that the where a guard regulates traffic. And it success of Roosevelt Island in providing lends a certain romance that fosters com- attractive living conditions will encourage munity spirit and a sense of getting away business to stay in the city. from it all.

Porter is convinced that the racially and In school, children learn the parts of economically mixed project will work. "We speech by thinking of adjectives, adverbs, were told in the beginning that people would etc., for the river. And on a sizzling New resist the income mix, but we've managed to York summer day, watching the wild-running show that people aren't concerned about it. river has soothed many a frazzled spirit.

There's a lot of socializing back and forth."

The community was planned as a place Because what you see is what you get for families, explains Diane Porter, chief on Roosevelt IslaIld, those not ready for planner. "We wanted a small amount of an integrated, mixed-income community housing in a parklike setting where the simply are not moving there. As Gail quality of the environment was the major Zeitzer points out, "It takes a different kind of person to want to try this; people consideration. " In the first planning meetings, Porter are more tolerant here. We moved from a

Bottom: Roosevelt Island has brought back for its residents simple pleasures like relaxin/{ on the waterfront far from the hurly-burly of the big city. Visible across the river is the Manhattan skyline. Below: One of the island's biggest attractions is the aerial tram, America'sfirst and the only in-city aerial tramway in the world used for urban transportation. By tram it's afive-minute trip to Roosevelt Islandfrom Manhattan. Right: The Chapel of the Good Shepherd, a landmark dating back to 1889, is at the center of the island. Winding past it is Main Street, designed for buses and pedestrians.

Far right: Children play at Blackwell Park, one ot' the five playgrounds in the island.

house in Parlan, New Jersey, where we could go a year without seeing our neighbors. Here, everyone is friendly. It's the way things should be, but aren't, usually.

It's like a little United Nations, but I'm afraid not really representative of the real world. It's people at their best."

Watching the kids play in Blackwell Park-kids from so many different cultures and backgrounds learning to understand one another-it's hard not to believe that this may indeed be the New Frontier. Not a physical space to conquer, but the challenge of a full spectrum of a peopleliving harmoniously.

0 About the Author: Deborah Mf!Roy is a free-lance writer based in New York City.

T

he toughest and the biggest privately financed construction project in history, the trans-Alaska pipeline, completed in 1977, is a monument to the ingenuity and fortitude of man. "In a desert, if you design one mile of a line," says an engineer of the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, formed in 1970 byeightoilcom~ panies to build the line, "you've generally designed it all." However, this pipeline is different. It is 800 miles in arctic and subarctic climates, rising from sea level to cross three mountain ranges and descend to sea level again. The pipeline crosses numerous rivers and flood plains, and temperature, permafrost and seismic conditions vary considerably along the route.

"So," he adds, "it had to be designed mile by mile."

To build the pipeline required moving thousands of workers and tons of massive machinery to a terrain that is hostile and harsh. The camps were erected in temperatures as low as minus 68 degrees, in winds that brought the chill factor down to minus 115 degrees. Men labored in snowstorms and in darkness. For at the latitudes of interior Alaska, winter nights last from 18 to 21 hours, and on the North Slope the sun does not rise above the horizon for eight weeks of the year. As one worker says, "Nobody that went through that winter will ever run out of stories to tell his grandchildren."

Perhaps even more impressive than the advanced technology and high engineering standards was the care taken to avoid disturbing the ecology of the area. Every foot of the pipeline was checked and rechecked for environmental hazards. For example, in order to protect the spectacular peregrine falcon, engineers moved one pumping station two miles north of its planned site to preserve just four nests. In several zones where caribou migration paths crossed the right-of-way, stretches of the pipeline were placed underground to avoid interference with the caribou movement. At these buried animal crossings, the pipe was heavily insulated and special refrigeration installed to prevent melting the permafrost.

Besides, enormous areas are being marked off as reserves for wildlife and the undisturbed processes of nature.

Today oil flowing from Alaska is providing much needed energy for the world.

It is also ushering the state into a new stage of development.

Right: Geologists survey Alaska's North Slope for oil. Right, center: Workmen lay a pipeline. Far right: A scientist tests reddish Alaskan crude oil in his laboratory.

Top left: Waves of barley fall before the combine of an Alaskan farmer. Oats and barley make up the state's prime grain crops.

Matanuska valley's fertile farms yield 70-pound cabbages and 30-pound turnips. Top right: An Alaskan Kodiak bear plods beneath an arching rainbow. Above left: A beaming former Athakaskan chief, who at 95 still cuts his own firewood. Above: International airport at Anchorage, an important Alaskan port city, has become one of the busiest-thanks to the state's oil and its scenic grandeur.

the pipeline occupies only Although 12 of the 586,000 square miles in the vast state, it is reshaping Alaska's destiny.

The oil and the pipelines have provided training and jobs to nearly 6,000 of 65,000 native men and women of AlaskaAleuts, Eskimos and Indians. They have stimulated a growth in the state's population from an estimated 280,000 .in 1967 to about 420,000 today, and doubled the economic activity. Alaska is receiving the equivalent of every eighth barrel of oil moving through the line as a royalty payment-it is estimated that the state will collect over $550 million in royalties and taxes in fiscal year 1978 alone. And the oil industry will soon contribute 70 to 80 per cent of the state government's income.

The new oil wealth has built a number of schools, community colleges, libraries, hospitals, air fields, fire stations, boat harbors and a television network that brings education and entertainment to the remotest villages.

The impact of the new boom is reflected even in the most backward and inaccessible parts of Alaska, and a. veneer of modernity covers even the most tradition~ bound. For example, an Eskimo named Gilbert lives in a cluttered shack some 50 yards from the Bering Sea. Winters, he lives a life dictated by his heritage.

He hunts and traps everything from polar bears to arctic foxes. But Gilbert also wears a nylon parka, and skims the frozen Bering on a $2,300 snowmobile.

When summer comes, he works for a gold-mining company.

Alaska is an alive place today. Although the lines of rush-hour traffic continue to grow, it is only a few minutes' drive from any Alaskan city to scenes of heartwrenching beauty and tranquillity.

D

26

Above: An Alaskan child. With its newfound oil wealth, the state is building a number of schools. Right: This reproduction of a centuries-old totem pole of the Tlingfts symbolizes Alaska's rich cultural heritage.

Top left: Ice pinnacles 60 to 100 feet high dwarf visitors at the face of the Mendenhall, a glacier that meltsfaster than it moves forward. Top right: Arctic plants in the Alaskan summertime-bright splashes following dark seasons. Above: Hardy walrus hunters, Eskimos prowl the waters of the Bering Strait. Spying a herd sunning on an ice floe, they shut off the boat motor, and quietly paddle toward the huge mammals, which provide Eskimos with ivory for carvings, skins for their boats and meat for food. Left: No pampered pet's life awaits these sled-dog pups; they are treasured as future members of dog-sled teams. Far left: A sled dog tied to a whale rib.

Increasingly, dogs are being replaced by the snowmobile.

H

istoryis dotted with incidents like milestones along its route, and debate will never end as to their nature and significance. Did the "incident" alter the course of events radically or was it merely a sudden expression of forces long at work?Was it cause or symptom? How should one categorize, say, Sarajevo or Pearl Harbor?

The Boston Tea Party does not fit comfortably in either category. It belongs to a third-the catalyst of events of far-reaching significance that radically alter the situation and overshadow the incident that has triggered them.

The men who in three short hours on December 16, 1773, threw into the sea 342 chests of tea could not have dreamt that they were setting in motion a process that would lead inexorably to the American Declaration of Independence and war with Britain. "For three years before the Tea Party," writes its devoted chronicler Professor Benjamin Woods Labaree, "the 13 American colonies shared no common cause, and relations between them and the mother country were relatively calm. Within 18 months after the Tea Party the colonies were united in war against Great Britain. The Boston Tea Party was the catalyst that brought about this revolutionary change."

For all the paint and disguise they had put on, the men were not up to a prank. They were fighting for a principle on which none of their countrymen would brook compromise. It was a principle they had inherited, ironically, from the very country against which they were now pitted, and it was an Englishman, William Pitt, who gave the most eloquent expression to the American battle cry-taxation without representation is tyranny.

"America is almost in open rebellion," Pitt told the House of Commons on January 14, 1766, a decade before the actual rebellion. He was alluding to the colonies' resistance to the Stamp Act, 1765.* "I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest. ... Even under former arbitrary reigns, Parliaments were ashamed of taxing a people without their consent, and allowed them representatives."

The Stamp Act was repealed to great rejoicing in the colonies. Toasts were drunk to George III. But the joy was sh.ort-lived. Parliament soon proceeded to enact the De"The Stamp Act levied a stamp tax and required stamps on all legal and commercial papers, pamphlets, newspapers, etc.

clara tory Act of 1766 asserting its right to tax the colonies.

The speech that Pitt delivered in denunciation of the Stamp Act was his last in the Commons. When he spoke again in the Lords it was for conciliation with the American colonies now up in arms against the mother country. Pitt's role in the Commons was taken over by a new member, Edmund Burke, whose vehement attack on the Stamp Act won the master's instant acclaim. "It was, indeed, a splendid sunset and a splendid dawn," as Macaulay was to write in retrospect.

The metaphor could aptly be applied to England's dwindling fortunes in the American colonies and its imperial successes in India during the same period. Modern India and the United States thus acquired, almost at their respective births, a dual relationship-direct as well as through their common colonial overlord. Both inherited from Britain the common law, the English language and political concepts that influence them to this day.

An Indian student of history who reflects on those times today cannot but be struck by a series of coincidences. In both cases it was the travails of the East India Company that led to imperial intervention with remarkable consequences. The Burke who spoke for American freedom spoke also in favor of the establishment of the rule of law in India. A Cornwallis defeated disastrously at Yorktown went to India shortly thereafter to embark on a new and highly successful policy of conquest that led to the establishment of the Raj in India, even as Yorktown symbolized its demise in the American colonies.

These juxtapositions lend a certain sharpness and point to the Indian perception of the Boston Tea Party even now 200 years later. It was a striking case of nonviolent direct action by a people who seemingly fought against discrimination but, perhaps far more than they actually realized then, were really struggling for freedom from colonial rule. Economic grievances blended neatly with political causes to produce the ferment. The few who took to direct action were acting in a representative capacity. They enjoyed popular support. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Boston's leaders held not "town meetings" with all their legal constraints and consequences, but mass meetings which included nonvoters as well. The era of mass politics had begun. Small wonder that when Mahatma

When Gandhiji led his followers on a month-long march from Sabarmati to Dandi, the American press compared it to the Boston Tea Party a century and a half earlier.

Gandhi embarked with his companions on a month-long march on March 9, 1930, across the 380-kilometer route from Sabarmati to Dandi to break the salt tax laws, the American press compared the gesture to the Boston Tea Party.

Well before that event the colonies had devised the economic weapon-the boycott of British manufactures through "nonimportation" agreements. It was perfected after the Tea Party in retaliation to the Coercive Acts which the British Parliament passed to punish Boston. As early as 1906 the Indian National Congress approved of the "boycott movement" in Bengal as a protest against the partition of the province. Gandhi made boycott of foreign cloth an integral part of his program.

Doubtless, no two historical situations are exactly alike. As Henry Kissinger often remarks, history teaches by analogy, not by identity. As an historical incident, the Boston Tea Party still fascinates by its continuing relevance because it illustrates the folly of underestimating the potentialities of a revolutionary situation. This misjudgment cost Britain dear.

It was bad enough to enact the Declaratory Act while repealing the Stamp Act. But to allow the unimaginative Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles Townshend, to get away with his budgetary fantasies was to court disaster.

Adopted in June 1767, his Revenue Act imposed duties on various commodities, including tea, which were imported by the colonies from Britain. Their proceeds were to support the colonial civil list, thus making the officials independent of the colonial legislatures for their salary.

There was no pretense about regulating commerce with the colonies. It was taxation, direct and deliberate.

Reaction in the colonies was instant. A wave of protest swept through them. Pledges not to purchase certain foreign goods were coupled with a drive to promote home manufactures. "Ladies took to their wheels and looms to vie with neighboring towns and parishes in the production of homespun," we are told. The swadeshimovement and the charkha were not so novel as political weapons, after all.

The nonimportation movement, as it came to be called, concentrated its attack on tea.

Before long "the poisonous baneful plant and its odious infusion" acquired as much odium as the tax on it. Even Harvard College joined in the movement against English tea which, more than any other commodity, became a constant reminder of the British Parliament's claim to the right to tax the colonies.

However, to the British Prime Minister, Lord Frederick North, "the properest time to exert our right of taxation is when the right is refused." The King was similarly inclined.

By a narrow margin of 5 to 4, the Cabinet decided to retain the duty on tea as a symbol of Parliament's right to tax the Americans, while abolishing all the other Townshend duties. Tea was considered to be a promising source of revenue.

The decision split the colonies. Many were anxious to resume trade with Britain. Partial repeal of the Townshend Act came as a godsend. New York was the first to yield, followed by Philadelphia. By mid-October 1770 the boycott movement was over, leaving a trail of distrust among the colonies, which freely exchanged charges of betrayal.

Such resistance as remained came only from the smugglers of Dutch tea. Stricter enforcement of the tax laws brought them increasingly into conflict with authority.

Where they once smuggled for profit alone, they now professed to smuggle for patriotic reasons as well. Their effort had one important consequence-the erosion of lawful authority.

Meanwhile, the East India Company was in acute financial embarrassment. Various schemes to rescue it were considered. A singularly bright idea eventually won acceptance. The company was allowed a drawback of the tea duty in England, and was required, instead, to pay the full duty in the colonies.

Almost in a fit of absentmindedness, Parliament enacted in May 1773 the Tea Act which permitted the company to export tea directly to the American colonies free from all duties except the three-penny tax payable in America.

The company held enormous stocks of tea which it planned to sell through its own agents in America. It would thus enjoy a virtual monopoly in the tea business there.

In August 1773, the company's directors gave final approval to the plan. By early October the ships Dartmouth and Eleanor and the brigs Beaver and William sailed down the Thames for Boston. Three other ships-London, Polly, and Nancy-sailed off for Charleston, Philadelphia and New York, respectively. Well over a month before then, the proposed shipments were public knowledge in America.

Opposition from the smugglers was predicted, but the company as well as the British Government strangely overlooked the pos'sibility of opposition from the people at large. Memories of the Stamp Act and the Townshend dutles were still green. There was additionally the monopoly factor.

The colonies were not exactly idle during the period of calm. By 1773, their legislatures had set up a network of communications through standing Committees of Correspondence. Leading towns did the same.

Feeling rose high as the colonies awaited the shipments.

The consignees felt the full blast of popular resentment.

News of the Dartmouth's arrival on November 28, 1773, with 114 chests of tea on board spread like wild fire. The crisis could hardly be staved off, for the consignment had to be landed within 20 days of arrival on pain of the seizure of the ship. The very next day notices were pasted all over Boston calling on the inhabitants to meet at Faneuil Hall.

The meeting went on for two days in a vain effort to secure assurances from the consignees that the tea would be sent back.

At all the other ports the company's agents had resigned. In Boston, they joined hands with an intransigent Governor, Thomas Hutchinson, and refused to resign.

As the 20-day deadline approached, excitement rose steeply. .

Bostonians met on December 14 to take stock of the situation, but found it no more encouraging than before.

They met again two days later. December 16 was a cold rainy Thursday, and it seemed that the game was lost. The next day the customs officials would be free to seize the cargo, whereupon the consignees would cheerfully pay the duty and land the consignment.

The meeting went on all day barring a recess. Shortly after 5.:45 p.m., when the consignees finally said "no," war cries were heard. "Boston harbor a tea pot tonight"; "Hurrah for Griffin's Wharf!"; "The Mohawks are coming!"

The whole town seemed headed for Griffin's Wharf that evening. Dartmouth, Eleanor and Beaver held 90,000 pounds of tea worth about ÂŁ9,000. To this day none knows for sure who the actual participants in the Boston Tea Party were. It is one of history's best kept secrets. They were between 30 and 60 of them, and they were divided into three groups, each under a leader. Roughly disguised as Mohawk Indians, they went about their work of throwing the tea chests into the sea without the slightest interruption from the officials.

"This is the most magnificent¡ Movement of all," wrote John Adams in his diary the next day. "There is a Dignity, a Majesty, a Sublimity in this last Effort of the Patriots that I greatly admire .... This destruction of the Tea, is so bold, so daring, so firm, intrepid, & inflexible, , and it must have so important Consequences and so lasting, that I cannot but consider it as an Epoch in History .... " News of the Tea Party raised the spirit of resistance in New York, Philadelphia and Charleston. The drama was variously enacted, but the ending in each case was the same. Not a cent was paid in duty.

London went into a towering rage and reacted with consistent shortsightedness. Legal opinion was sought. Its conclusion was simple. Boston was guilty of high treason by "the levying of war against His Majesty." Ergo, punish Boston.

Four statutes, collectively known as the Coercive Acts, were passed by the end of May 1774. One, the Boston Port Act, closed the port after June 1. Another, the Massachusetts Government Act, enlarged the

Governor's powers and curtailed the people's chartered rights. The third, the Administration of Justice Act, enabled the Governor to send home for trial officials accused of crimes committed in the execution of their duties. Finally, the Quartering Act empowered the seizure of buildings for billeting troops.

Nothing could have been more effective in uniting moderate and radical alike in the colonies. Resentment swept through them. In June 1774, the colonists began electing delegates to the first Continental Congress, which met in Carpenters Hall, Philadelphia, on September 6.

The Congress proceeded to adopt a series of resolutions, the most famous among them being the Declaration of Colonial Rights and Grievances.

America had made Boston's cause its own. Britain had completely ignored such an eventuality. The mistake was to prove fatal. As late as February 1775, William Pitt proposed a plan of conciliation which might have worked.

It was rejected by the Lords. In April the first shots in the war of independence were fired at Concord and at Lexington. The rest is history.

And the pattern has kept repeating itself to this day, as the process of decolonization enters its final phase: the same underestimation of popular feeling; the same misjudgment as to the people's capacity to act; the tardy response, ever too little and too late; the escalation of mutual hostility after an incident; and the final denouement including, quite often, friendly relations between the erstwhile colony and overlord once freedom is won, however belatedly.

D About the Author: A.G. Noorani is a well-known lawyer and political commentator. His articles often appear in the Indian press.

One of America's most notable writers, John Updike (seen below relaxing at his home in Cape Cod, Massachusetts) has clear ideas of his own about the place of literature in this audio-visual age. The written word, he says, is alive and well and 'in combinative richness ... rivals Creation.' Updike's own writings-novels, stories, poems, plays, essayshave won both popular success and critical acclaim.

T

he topic of the written word feels intrinsically contentious; to think about it makes us itchy, somehow-irritated, as by cinder flecks in our eyes or an uneven buzzing in our ears. Any discourse upon it, like mine, is expected in this television age to strike an embattled note.

Yet the communiques from the front are not all bad. According to the Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade, the stocks of the major U.S. publishing companies went up roughly 85 per cent in 1975. In this same year, revenue from book sales rose 10 per cent over the previous year's, totaling over $3,500 million. Over 30,000 new titles were published, plus 9,000 new editions.

Creative writing is a booming major subject on college campuses, and one side effect of Watergate has been to lend journalism a new glamor. None of this would have been easy to predict 20 years ago, when television was implanting itself at the center of nearly every American home, and rock/pop music was extending its hypnotic, pervasive presence in the cultural ecology. In the early 1960s, Marshall McLuhan announced that the print culture was obsolete-had been obsolete since the invention of the telegraph, and certainly since there came upon us "the revolution in human perception and motivation that resulted from beholding the new mosaic mesh of the TV image."

What seems clearer today than it may have appeared in the early sixties is the extent to which the printed book exercises against the modern oral electronic culture the same advantages manifested against the oral manuscript culture of the Middle Ages: the advantages, that is, of portability and accessibility.

Though we are shown advertisements of people taking portable TV sets with them on camping trips and fanatically purchasing devices that enable them to record on tape one TV show while they watch another; the clumsiness of these expedients is laughable, compared to the ease with which books can be tucked into knapsacks or store their own texts against the moment when we want to consult them.

A distinction should perhaps be offered between postliteracy and illiteracy. It is one thing for members of the educated middle class to sit in their electrically suffused apartments and think of television news commentators as tribal elders, to read less and stare more, to imagine that their brains are proceeding by a "mosaic field" approach rather than by linear logic.

It is quite another thing to be unable to read. The ability to read the Bible or the Book of Common Prayer follows long after the rudimentary abilities to read an instruction leaflet, to read street signs and labels, to compose a legible letter, to keep a record of economic transactions.

There is nothing luxurious about literacy. Nor is illiteracy eradicated from the United States, where, according to an estimate that was reported in The New York Times in 1970, as much as half of the population over age 25 is functionally illiterate [that is, unable to read well enough to cope with the world around it]. James E. Allen, Jr., then U.S. commissioner of education, in 1969 told a Congressional committee that in large city school systems up to half of the students read below expectation, that half of the unemployed youths between ages 16 and 21 are functionally illiterate, that an armed forces program showed 68 per cent of the young men fell below grade 7 [first year of secondary school] in reading.

Reading is such hard work that a rebellion against it is always smoldering. The idea of mass literacy arose simultaneously

Reprinted

from the Frank

Nelson

Douhleday

Lecture

Copyright

with the factory sweatshop. In our American mythology it is associated with pioneer striving, with midnight oil and Abraham Lincoln's long trudge to return a book, with rail-splitting and stump-pulling. Reading thrives during depressions, and in stifling enclosures, in attics and monasteries; the great scholarsChristian, Talmudic, Confucian, Moslem-have a savor of the monstrous. Reading is not merely hard work, it is unnatural work.

What is natural to man? His very cranial size is unnatural; only humans find birth a travail, only humans wear clothes, talk, write and read. The human eye developed in the trees where our simian ancestors swung and then on the savannah where the primitive men hunted. In the trees depth perception was important, hence our bioptical vision and the frontal monkey faces that go with it; the conditions of the hunt demanded a far, scanning vision. This biological preparation is not for reading.

For most of their history men have not expected themselves to read. Systems of ~riting were long confined to the rulers and the priesthood. By the time of the New Testament, the Hebrews encouraged literacy among themselves; nevertheless, Jesus surprised the rabbis with his knowledge of the sacred literature.

To the Middle Ages, Plato was merely the amanuensis of Socrates, and the clerk, the man who could write, was synonymous with the clergy. References to "literate laymen" began to appear in English records at the end of the 14th century, but it took Protestantism and mercantilism two more centuries to create a literate middle class. French army records of 1832 record that half of the recruits were illiterate, and in Spain as late as 1910 half of the population over 10 years of age were reported as unable to read. An estimated two-fifths of mankind are illiterate right now.

Even for the literate the notorious multiplicity and variety of the forms of the printed word are a bane. We are in danger of being overpowered by the text, the wise typographer knows; we are in even more danger of being overwhelmed by the number of texts. In the torrent of print our brains become bottlenecks. Who could not pity President Jimmy Carter as, the day after his election, he promised us, over television, to master the stack of reading material that had been piled high on his desk, to begin to acquaint him with his duties? And during the campaign did not both candidates, in their honorable effort to. demonstrate mastered information, seem to lose themselves as men?

Reality, for Plato, was face-to-face instruction, the personal tribalism that saves us all from being "tiresome company."

But over 2,000 years after Plato we still look to our leaders and to our friends for a kind of haptic, touch integrity; the personal, as a mode, persists, and the written word, which can so easily be set aside, which is so plainly other, interferes less, it may be, with our personal communications, than the television set which dominates our living rooms like a tireless, box-shaped person.

Hearing in myself the forewarned note of embattlement, I think the time has come to attempt some conclusions. Of the written word as a medium of education in the real world, we seem toobserve: â&#x20AC;˘ It is elitist. The alphabet is a code, and large numbers of people, either through lack of opportunity or ability, cannot decipher it. It is less accessible than oratory, or music, or cinematic imagery. In the United States, Publisher's Weekly estimates, over 90 per cent of the population never buys a book.

Series given at the Smithsonian

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1976, 1977 by Doubleday

Institution's

& Company,

Inc.

National

Museum

of History

and Technology.

John Updike: " ... an immense space opens up in silence and privacy, a space where, literally, literally anything is possible."

• The written word, nevertheless, is not easily dispensed with, and those without it are disadvantaged in all but the remotest corners of our shrinking world. Literacy in this century suggests Christianity in the 19th; though subjected to intellectual challenge and public indifference in its centers of distribution, it nevertheless spreads outward with eager evangelism.

• It retains certain competitive advantages. The transformalive effect of a medium depends not only upon-to quote McLuhan - "the structuring power of media to impose their assumptions subliminally" but upon its capacity to absorb, store and transmit content. In this capacity print has not been superseded.

• It is antitribal. A man with a book in his lap epitomizes the antisocial, and there can be little doubt that our modern individualism, our egoism, our obsessions with freedom and personal aggrandizement are intertwined with the written word.

Burning and suppression of books is a natural totalitarian act.

• Reading is a low-priority activity. Imagine oneself reading a book in a room wherein a fistfight breaks out. The fistfight will claim priority of attention, as will a baby crying or a telephone ringing. The keenest rival to reading is, of course, not television but human activity. Someone in the 18th century, I think Alexander Pope, complained that no one ever reads, people are always playing cards. But, like the universal "weak force" of gravity, the attraction of the printed page asserts itselfwherever there is literacy, and in sum is surpassingly strong and holds us

fast to the world of the written word.

And T, where do I stand on this world? I labor or malinger in the sweatshop of the written word, reading whatever will help me write, sometimes a word-bored wanderer in the Gutenbergian wastes, sometimes a reader as enraptured as the adolescent Marcel Proust. "A writer," Saul Bellow has said, "is a reader moved to emulation."

A writer is a reader with a difference; yet perhaps that small angle of difference admits of one more perspective on our topic.

Language is not merely a medium of communication but a raw material, a man-made one, the most nearly complete, the most multiform and plastic and reverberant and even mysterious alternative creation Man has set beside the received Creation.

Once the double code is learned, an immense space opens up in silence and privacy, a space where, literally, literally anything is possible. Only music offers us such release from the material accidents of existence; and music can represent nothing but itself. Exploration frequently occurs as a simile for the reading experience: John Keats en ficst looking into Chapman's Homer becomes "like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes/He stared at the Pacific."

A sense of vast and potent space adheres to the written word.

Into an endlessly fecund subuniverse the writer descends and asks the reader to descend after him, not merely to gain instruction but to experience delight, the delight of mind freed from matter and exultant in the strength it has stolen from matter.

In combinative richness the written word rivals, almost blasphemously, Creation itself, and like that Creation holds within itself the seeds of infinite renewal.

0

CBICBIJI I POOl IBLITIOI Ved Mehta, the well-known writer of Indian origin who lives in New York, was recently in New Delhi, and gave some private showings of a video cassette of the film he had written-Chachaji: A Poor Relation.

An 83-year-old cousin of Ved Mehta's father is the subject of this one-hour film produced by WGBH television station in Boston, Massachusetts. SPAN's managing editor interviews Ved Mehta on the background to the :film, and the story of its making.

DAS GUPTA: Your film is called Chachaji: A Poor Relation. DAS GUPTA: I felt that it did express something essential How did a film on such a subject come to.be made in the United about India. What came through to me, apart from other things, States? is a sense of the richness of human relationships in the way the VED MEHTA: You see, the WGBH television station in family is looked upon here, and the kind of social insurance it Boston started a series called "The World." They needed, to provides. Even though there is a touch of condescension in the way begin with, 13 films on different countries. Most of the films some members of his family, elegantly sipping tea in the garden, were purchased; only three were going to be original WGBH talk about him, they still love him. productions, for that season. One of them was to be the film VED MEHTA: When I thought of a film on Chachaji, I saw on India. David Fanning, the executive producer, had read the film as a film of love; a compliment to him, a compliment my book The Fly and the Fly Bottle when he was an under- to the family. I am glad to say that viewers who have written graduate in South Africa. He came to me in the fall of 1977 and to me or to the WGBH station, which sponsored the film, and asked if I would like to be involved in this film about India. I also the reviewers, understood. They seemed to grasp the fact agreed, and we decided to tell the story of India implicitly, by that the underlying source, the thread or whatever one would telling the story of Chacha, a relation of mine. like to call it, of the film was love in various forms.

In any human relationship there are positive feelings and DAS GUPTA: I believe all the characters in the film are real negative feelings. Love and hate, psychologists tell us, exist people, and most of them are your relations? at the same time. So it would be very easy to make a one-dimenVED MEHTA: Right. The central figure is an 83-year-old sional film where everybody would just say nice things about first cousin of my father, my paternal grandfather's sister's Chacha for the camera. But we didn't want to do that. I mean son, a man whom we have grown up calling Chachaji which, as I didn't want to do that. I wanted to portray the complexity of you know, means "uncle." So ttIe attempt was to make a film feelings people have about him, the complexity of feelings he about India which would be accessible to Americans and show has about other people. He behaves differently in my parents' the complexity of relationships and the society here, but do it house from the way he behaves, say, in his son's house, or the through the story of one man. At least this was my idea, and way he behaves in the village where he has relatives whom he WGBH went along with it. calls closest to him in his "station of life." I think it is true that even when some of Chachaji's relations are talking about him, DAS GUPTA: Chachaji seems to be a very suitable man to as you said, with a little condescension, it is always out of love. convey your idea.

VED MEHTA: Yes. Chacha has the face of Buster Keaton; DAS GUPTA: Did all this come through to the American auhe is completely expressionless. He has this big turban which dience? I mean, I found the film simple and authentic-I thought you can spot in any cro.wd. He has a natural dignity, humor, Chacha's character in particular had an extraordinary authenticand a certain kind of doggedness, and all these qualities make ity about it. I wondered whether that conveyed itself to people up his character, which we were able to capture on camera. in a different country, a different situation.

I was glad to find that it worked so well.

VED MEHTA: Yes, it did. I think family is a universal theme, I

even though in the West it is breaking up to a degree. Certainly the joint family, the extended family is disappearing. Yet Americans and Canadians who watched the film felt that perhaps their own family had a tharacter like Chachaji.

Then the whole idea of the struggle and the journey of life, the story of survival-these, too, have certain universal resonances.

The other thing which people understood, and I wanted to portray, was that in any family, you have people of various social ranks; even if they all belong to the same social class, some are invariably better off than others. Even Chacha, though a poor relation of my family, has his own poor relation in his son, and the son himself may have a poor relation somewhere or another.

So it is a chain of human relationships which binds us all together. I should hasten to say that in the film itself we make no general points. We just tell the story of one man's survival, and hope that the story of his survival will throw some light on the story of the survival of his 600 million or so compatriots.

DAS GUPTA: And how have the critics, the reviewers reacted?

VED MEHTA: It's been very widely reviewed, and I have not seen a single unfavorable review. The Associated Press carried a story on its wires, so that got all over the United States. And The New York Times carried a feature, as well as a review. I would say the reaction has been universally favorable.

DAS GUPTA: Favorable at what level, in what way?

VED MEHTA: Well, everybody seems to find Chacha a very sympathetic, representative character, and is very moved by him. I have heard people say that they have cried watching the film. It's been described as cinema verite, and also as a documentary that has broken fresh ground. Although we didn't stage a single incident, it is constructed, and works, like a short story. I think we have managed to touch on some of the major themes of Indian life, and it' has been seen that way by most reviewers.

DAS GUPTA: The story has such a good dramatic form-events follow each other so well, as when he goes to Hardwar and takes that unsteady dip in the Ganga, it makes such a beautiful ending.

Even before that, when he is about to be dismissed, it forms a sort of climax, as it were. It is difficult to believe that nothing in it was arranged.

VED MEHTA: Nothing. I tell you, a documentary has to rely on a portion of good luck. Nothing was arranged, but, of course, the film was edited in a particular way. The film is an hour long, and we shot 12 hours of film-well within the limit of 18 hours for which we had been given raw stock. As edited, the film falls basically into three parts: e The first part is introductory, and I think there is a certain humor to it. It is set entirely in Delhi. eThe second part, which is set in the village, I think is very warmhearted. eThe third part, which opens with Chacha being relieved of his duties and losing his allowance, is sad.

I think through this structure we were able to suggest the differences of life in the city and the village. Also how religion, family, and just the daily routine help to support Chacha and, by analogy, his compatriots.

You know, the producer, Bill Cran and I came here with a crew of five. A very international crew. The cameraman was from South Africa, now settled in England. The sound engineer

was an Irishman. My assistant was an American. The camera assistant was a girl from Yorkshire, and Bill himself is from Canada. The executive producer in Boston who financed us comes from South Africa. All of them, by the way, are in their 20s or 30s.

Bill Cran's original idea was to come here earlier and sort of arrange the spots for shooting, locations and work out all the details. That's the usual way documentaries are made, because it is very expensive to have a crew on location without knowing what you are to shoot. But I argued, and Bill eventually agreed with me, that this was going to be a spontaneous, unrehearsed, unplanned and natural film; if we wanted to shoot what was actually happening at any time, we should be able to shoot it. The WGBH people went along with us, although it was a very expensive, and as some people might say, chancy and wasteful way of doing it. For instance, it happened by sheer coincidence that my niece was getting married in New Delhi.

If we had come for a reconnaissance trip, without a crew, we would not have been able to film the wedding. The film bears no impress of this luck; it just flows well.

DAS GUPTA: In other words, you wrote the text entirely after the film had been made, and brought no rough script or treatment?

VED MEHTA: That's right. Well, I did write out what I might call a "shopping list" of possible scenes. I had grown up with Chachaji. I had known him for most of my life. I remembered, for instance, his shaving habits, his cadging a blade from my father, which he does regularly, or his dropping by to have a meal with us, and so on. The other scenes Bill and I developed when we were here. We had not known that Chacha would be going to his village, and when it turned out that he was, we went was written after we had a along with him. My commentary rough cut of the film.

DAS GUPTA: During the filming, did Chacha take leave from his work?

VED MEHTA: We tried, but he could not get leave. So we went to Hardwar on a weekend. For going to the village, he got a normal one or two days off that he would get anyway.

But he did not get paid for those days. Otherwise, we simply filmed him as he was going about his business. If he went to the tax office to collect forms, we went with him. If he went to the Bhogal bazaar or to the teashop, we went with him. We did not tell him: "Go to the teashop, go to the tax office." If he got up and shaved, we were there to film that. If he went to the milkman at a certain hour, we would know that and we would be there and shoot it in that light. Of course there were certain takes that we had to do over again.

DAS GUPTA: Your producer, Bill Cran. Had he done this kind offilm before?

VED MEHTA: No, no. His background is, of course, in documentary films, but they were mostly political ones-Watergate hearings and things like that. He was born in Tasmania, educated in Britain, and worked at the BBC on a very good program called "Panorama."

Now he is a producer with a Canadian Broadcasting company in Toronto. He was the producer whom WGBH chose to come with me for this film. I have not seen his other work, but I am told most of it is political. So it was an adventure and an experience for him to be involved with a writer, because he had never worked with a writer before. For that matter, this is my first brush with a film. I am a writer; I have so far written 10 books. My last book is The New India. It is a

It would be very easy to make a one-dimensional film where everybody would just say nice things about Chacha for the camera. But we didn't want that .â&#x20AC;˘.. I wanted to portray the complexity of feelings people have about him, and he has about other people. political book. But this experience of making a film has been a fascinating one, because you can convey something quickly to a lot of people, whereas in writing it is a much slower and more reflective process, I think.

Anyway, every day from morning to evening, Bill Cran and I would talk as we were shooting. There was a sort of gentle conflict in the background. He wanted to do a more general kind of film about India, and I wanted to do a more personal kind of film. He wasn't sure that the family and Chacha could really support an hour-long film. But I am glad that I was able to persuade him to stay with the subject for most of our shooting time.

DAS GUPTA: But Cran does seem to have a particular facility for putting people at their ease. Here are people who have never acted before, and they don't even steal a quick glance at the camera!

VED MEHTA: Well, I don't think it's just the producer. You see, nearly everybody in the film belonged to my family. If Cran or anybody else had come to them, they would have been selfconscious and they wouldn't have been just themselves. But it was because I was involved in the project and because the crew was a very friendly crew, casual and free, and we filmed in a casual sort of way, that we were able to make the people in the film feel free and easy. We filmed very economically, but we didn't do those bizarre things like saying: "Okay, get ready, we are going to shoot," or anything like that. It was all very relaxed. The only tension was within us. We worried whether we would get it right or not, all the time. But I always basically thought we would, and I am sure so did Bill. Here we were, six gifted people in India, such a marvelous country for filming; how could we fail to bring in something?

Television work is so different from writing. Everything to do with television is a collaborative thing. In the crew I was the only one who knew India, the only one who could speak an Indian language. Between the producer and the crew and myself, all through the month for which we lived and ate and traveled together, there was constant talk back and forth, reactions, responses. We were like a family trying to film another family.

DAS GUPTA: What was it like to film in India?

VED MEHTA: In some ways, I must admit, it was a nightmare.

No sooner is the camera seen than a hundred people gather.

Luckily I had an old driver who had a knack for diverting the crowd away. Sometimes I had to lecture to the crowd not to look toward the camera, and at other times we had to pretend that we were shooting behind us in order to take pictures in front, so that the crowd would look in the opposite direction.

The funny thing is that the crowd would keep following us.

DAS GUPTA: Did you shoot any incidents that you eventually left out?

VED MEHTA: No. Of course we cut the scenes shorter and shorter until we had the essence.

DAS GUPTA: When was the film made?

VED MEHTA: We came to India around the middle of February in 1978 and spent a month shooting. Then the film was

edited and printed in Boston from April through June. It was broadcast on the 15th of June on the Public Broadcasting System.

DAS GUPTA: Throughout America?

VED MEHTA: Well, throughout the National Educational network, which extends all over the country. It was broadcast eight times.

DAS GUPTA: Eight times?

VED MEHTA: Eight times. The reason I know is that I got a letter from a minister, a religious minister, from Brooklyn, New York, who said he had seen it eight times-three times on the regular educational channel, and the rest I suppose on cable channels.

DAS GUPlA: Has Chacha seen thefilm?

VED MEHTA: No, he hasn't. I have this video cassette of it,

but we have been able to get the equipment for showing it so far onlyduring the day, when he is not free. I am hoping to show it to him in the evening one of these days.

DAS GUPTA: Is he continuing to do the same work? At the chemist's?

VED MEHTA: Right DAS GUPTA: And he still lives at the Arya Sama} house?

VED MEHTA: As the film shows, he was relieved of his duties of taking care of the prayer utensils and cleaning the house.

It waspure chance, but while we were here filming, he was relieved of his duties and also of the allowance which he earned for performing these duties. He is still allowed to stay in the house.

But Chacha knows all too well that life is very precarious, and there is no assurance that he can go on staying there. But for themoment, he is safe in his room.

D

Ved Prakash Mehta, born in Lahore ill March 1934, is perhaps the most successful writer of Indian origin in the United States. He went to America in 1949 and started to write and publish while still in the midst of a brilliant academic career, lI'inning an all'ard for his ver,rfirst book, Face to Face (1957).

Among his other books are Walking the Indian Streets, Delinquent Chacha, Daddyji, and Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles. A stqlf writer with The New Yorker magazine since 1961, Mehta also contributes articles and stories to various Indian, American and British newspapers and magazines. He became a naturalized American citizen in 1975.

MINING OUTER SPACE For an answer to the inevitable shortage of mineral resources, the earth may have to reach far outto outer space. Scientists have discovered that not only are extraterrestrial bodies a virtual mine of wealth, but also that recovering resources from them may be an 'unexpectedly reasonable' exercise.

We on earth face a dismal and inevitable future of decreasing mineral resources. As our search for minerals becomes wider and more frantic, we are forced to use ores of ever lower grades. Even before the easily available terrestrial deposits of many metals such as copper, nickel, and iron are completely exhausted, the economic and environmental costs of discovering and developing low grade ores will become prohibitive.

Without the basic resources our civilization requires, the standard of living for most of us on this planet will inevitably decrease.

Perhaps before supplies are exhausted we will have so drastically polluted and disrupted our environment that life will be very difficult.

The answer to our mineral shortages may not lie on earth at all, but in space. The earth is only one of a large number of objects- the planets, satellites, asteroids, comets orbiting the sun-which were formed of material similar to the earth's, in similar ways. Thus these objects may harbor familiar resources. The prospects of detecting and recovering resources from these extraterrestrial bodies are exciting and unexpectedly reasonable.

The need for new resources is not restricted to the earth's surface. Raw materials will also be needed to construct and operate nearearth solar power stations, factories or other installations. To use materials which need not be lifted out of earth's deep gravity well would be much more economical.

We know that the setting is right for the existence of material resources like those found on earth or other inner solar system objects.

But whether certain specific ores are in fact present requires more direct investigation.

The best way to determine the composition of materials in an object is to obtain samples and analyze them. The earth's surface presents no problem in this respect; and eight sites on the moon have been analyzed.

But, justifications for sending prospecting spacecraft to other solar system objects are difficult to make without some prior specific information on the likelihood of a successful return on the investment.

Without direct sampling, one must rely on remote sensing techniques to probe for surface expressions of needed materials.

Earth-based telescopic techniques cost the least; spacecraft-borne experiments carried out on fly-by or orbiting missions cost considerably more. Remote sensing techniques using earth-based telescopes have already revealed the existence of nickeliron (Ni-Fe) objects within the asteroid belt, as well as objects rich in carbon compounds.

Lunar samples returned in the Apollo program from several sites revealed titaniumrich rocks. Remote sensing techniques, again applied from earth, have mapped vast extents of these titanium-rich deposits across moon's surface.

From earth, one can observe only electromagnetic radiation.

Fortunately, sunlight reflected from surface materials does contain information about composition.

The reflectance spectra of well over 100 asteroids have been measured, and the surface composition of many tens of asteroids seems well determined. Among these asteroids are many metal-rich objects which are possible sources of useful raw materials.

The Grubstake and the Return Obviously, we will be able to mille extraterrestrial resources for earth use only if they are both retrievable and profitable, both economically and socially.

A simplistic analysis indicates a gross value of approximately $5 trillion, or about five times the United States gross national product, for an asteroidal body containing one cubic kilometer of meteoritic metal.

The asteroid's nickel content would provide approximately two-thirds of its

potential monetary value, and represent a nickel supply for more than a millennia at present terrestrial use rates.

We estimate an annual return of at least $140 billion. This would require a delivery rate of 650,000 metric tons per day for iron and 135,000 metric tons for nickel.

In a more conservative economic scenario in which the rate of delivery to the surface of the earth is sharply constrained (for example, I to 10 per cent of the previously mentioned figures), the major economic benefit is derived from the nickel phase: a delivery rate of 10,000 to 50,000 metric tons per day, and an annual market of$20 to $100 billion per year.

Ecological Benefits The major nonmonetary benefits of using extraterrestrial resources are ecological and political, and, while they are easy to define, they are difficult to quantify. We do know, however, that the mining of low grade ores can have severe ecological effects.

Mining appears to be taking an everincreasing environmental toll. For example, in 1972, 450 million metric tons of coal, or approximately 15 per cent of world coal production, was consumed to smelt 750 million metric tons of iron ore to produce raw iron. Whereas in new mines, such as Iron Mountain in Australia, the ratio of material mined to ore shipped is about I: I, older iron ore districts, such as the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, at best produce a ratio of about 2.5: I. The illUSlralion al righl gives all idea o[how, in a dislantfuture, man can mine minerals and bring them back to earth. It shows a mineral-rich asteroid being moved into an orbil near earth. Miners living in space colonies will melt and refine metal ji-om Ihe aSleroid, using large solar mirrors. The metal will be formed il1lo ingots and slored for eventual transfer to a space factory in orbit around Ihe earth.

Some estimates indicate that an asteroidal body with one> cubic kilometer of meteoritic metal may have a gross value of approximately $5 trillion, or about five times the U.S. gross national product.

As the recoverable iron content of the crude ore decreases, more material must be excavated, more energy must be used to concentrate the iron bearing phases, and more waste material must be disposed.

The environmental costs or the financial costs of negating the environmental damage increase significantly as the grade of the crude ore decreases. These costs must be paid in a lowering of the quality of life or an increase in the cost of materials or both.

Recent public reaction to similar choices has shown the second alternative to be the least offensive.

We emphasize that we are not discussing the exhaustion of these sources. Total iron reserves are effectively infinite (3 to 5 per cent of crust, 35 per cent of total earth).

This discussion centers on the exhaustion of easily accessible or high-grade deposits which can be exploited at a low environmental and financial cost. In this case, extraterrestrial sources for certain materials can bypass these costs.

The political benefits of extraterrestrial mining stem from the distribution of the highest grade reserves (least exploited and hence cheapest) around the world. Most of these reserves are located in the underdeveloped areas of South America, Africa and Asia. The developed countries are exhausting their domestic sources of environmentally and financially inexpensive ores. The Third World, rising nationalism, and the advent of raw material ~artels, such as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), signal a period of confrontation between the producer and the consumer nations over supplies of these raw materials.

Extraterrestrial sources of materials represent an alternative source of materials, and one without the high environmental costs. However, at this time there exists no legal basis for acquiring and using materials beyond one country's boundaries. Arrangements made for sea floor material utilization would probably be a reasonable basis.

Spacing Mining Techniques The use of abundant solar energy to refine and process the material while it is still in space would decrease the terrestrial demand for energy as well as the pollution arising from processing. Of the three types of objects-materials similar to iron meteorites, stony-iron meteorites, and ordinary

chondrites (stony meteorites containing 3 to 20 per cent iron) found in the asteroid belt-only the ordinary chondritic materials require significant concentration of the Ni-Fe-Co phases. This can be accomplished by the simple process of crushing the material and magnetically extracting the metallic minerals from a ballistic stream.

A large mirror focusing sunlight on the aperture of an insulated cavity can raise the temperature of the cavity to several thousand degrees. One can envision a slowly moving stream of crude metal fragments entering one side of the cavity, and a continuous bar of metal being withdrawn from the opposite side. Approximately 150 metric tons of Ni-Fe-Co mineral fragments could be melted per square meter of mirror area per year using the solar energy available at the earth's distance from the sun. Material-processing offers no insurmountable problems,¡ for a variety of techniques are available to process raw metal fragments and to extra specific metals.

The Push to Earth Transport problems will be the knottiest.

A scheme must be devised to move this material from some point in the solar system to near-earth space and from nearearth space to the surface of earth. Whatever techniques are employed must have no significant adverse environmental effects, and must be within the present or projected state of the art.

Before the various transportation options are discussed, it is enlightening to consider the relative energy requirements for the terrestrial and extraterrestrial cases. In order to smelt high-grade iron ore (iron oxide) to metal in a blast furnace, about 17 megajoules of energy (from oil, coal and natural gas) are needed to produce each kilogram of iron metal. The energy expenditure (in an efficient transportation system) required to move metal from an asteroidal source to near-earth space is estimated to be somewhere between 5 and 100 megajoules per kilogram, depending on the initial orbit. Thus the energy expenditures are comparable in either case.

To transport a large mass of mined metal .fr-omthe¡asteroid belUo earth, two separate velocity changes will be needed. The first is needed to push the mass out of its original orbit around the sun and into a transfer orbit that will take it near earth. The second

thrust is that required to change the transfer orbit into a final orbit about the earth.

Landing the Ore Once in earth orbit, space-mined metal must then be brought down from high orbit (at 60 earth radii) to the earth's surface. As in the previous case, two braking thrusts are required. The first is needed to lower the orbit and the second to finally land the material.

The first orbit change could be obtained by passing the object close to the moon.

This technique, however, will require a great deal of precision in the object's velocity and distance from the moon at encounter.

Until the point of atmospheric re-entry, the shape or character of the material mass hasn't mattered much, but now the nature of the mass becomes critical. We shall assume that the only braking on the mass of re-entering metal is atmospheric drag. We shall also assume that the mass can present no hazards to population or environment during re-entry.

Thus, there can be little particulate material dumped into the upper atmosphere from are-entering massand the mass must land at a low velocity in a safe region of the earth.

There are designs and re-entry paths, however, that will result in no loss of material; as is demonstrated by the nondestructive re-entries and landings planned for the Space Shuttle.

Since the processing and fabrication of the entry vehicle is carried out in a zerogravity environment, it is a simple matter to inject gas or volatile material into the molten metal at its last processing stage to produce a metal foam structure. The re-entry mass would thus be made up of material less dense than water which can be dropped into any large body of water and will float, even if it breaks upon impact.

The low-density structural material is important for purposes of safety; if the structure should disintegrate during re-entry, the individual pieces would have very low terminal and impact velocities.

Life as a Space Miner We can imagine a future space-mining operation.

Mining colonies of up to have been established on stony-iron asteroids (about relatively close to the earth energy required to land the

scenario

for a

10,000 workers a few small, 10 kilometers), in terms of the material. These

encounter with moon some weeks hence. A small bevy of tugs coax the landing bodies into the optimum trajectory.

The lunar encounter lasts less than an hour. Once past the moon and lined up with earth, lunar, terrestrial, and space-based radar networks lock onto each lander and report on its path. Again the tugs orient each lander to encounter earth atmosphere at just the right altitude. As the earth approaches, the final adjustments are made. The tugs pull away from the lander, miss the atmosphere, pass around earth, and head back to repeat the process.

Ground and low orbit stations are now in contact with the lander's onboard computers. Lift-to-drag at a maximum, the lander feels the first wisp of atmosphere and rotates slowly to the correct orientation, nose forward. Air resistance climbs as it sinks lower into the atmosphere. The lander's lift begins to flatten the orbit to a hypersonic glide at about 75 kilometers above the surface of the earth. The on board computers, using updated data from the low orbit stations, adjust each lander's center of mass to stretch or shorten its projected flight path.

The lander cools and settles as it slows to a kilometer per second. Several minutes later, the surface of the ocean rushes up, the lander nose hits the water, and a splash of water is thrown several hundred meters by the great impact. The ocean-going recovery tugs wait a dozen kilometers away. A hundred thousand tons of pollution-free, energyfrugal stainless alloy is thus available for use.

Metal ingots formed at the asteroid mining facility are shaped into large rafts and sent by space tug to a refinery in orbit around the earth. There they will be remelted to form the foam metal components requiredfor atmospheric entry, and sent to earth.

relatively self-sustaining colonies are closed ecosystems. They obtain those necessary materials which they cannot find on their home-base asteroid (e.g., hydrogen, nitrogen) from nearby asteroids. For 12 to 18 earth months, the colonists carry out mining operations, melting and refining metals melted in large solar furnaces. Ingots are formed and waste material (primarily silicates) are stored.

At a time depending on relative orbital location of the asteroid, earth, and perhaps Mars, a large tug leaves the asteroid, pushing its cargo of nickel and iron ingots into a

transfer orbit to the earth. Near the end of the year-long voyage, the optimum entry path is determined, .with respect to the complex motions of the earth-moon system, in order to gain as much benefit as possible from gravitational interaction.

The vessel and its cargo rendezvous with one of several very large space factories/colonies located in a resonant orbit about earth, about 100,000 kilometers from the moon. The vessel transfers its metal cargo, takes on the smaller cargo of supplies for the colony, and begins the long trek back to the mining asteroid.

On the space base, the metal ingots are again melted to form the foam metal 'components of the atmospheric entry bodies.

As each body is completed, the guidance computer and internal mass mover are installed, and cargo loaded aboard. Small tugs gently shove these bodies to arrange an

The Knowledge Needed Significant economic, envirorpnental and political incentives exist for the utilization of extraterrestrial resources. No insurmountable technical problems should prevent such utilization.

But economic studies are needed of the initial investments required, return on investment, operating economics and impact on the terrestrial economy. Similarly, a study should be made of the political impact of this new material source on the economies and dependence patterns between the developed and the developing nations.

Finally, an international agreement will be needed to allow full use of resources from 0 space.

About the Authors: Thomas B. McCord is an associale professor of planetary physics al the Massachusells institute of Technology, and Michael J: Caffey is an astronomer al the Institute for Astrollomyat the University of Hawaii.

"Which do you think sounds better, Miss Hutton, 'All the problems of the world \¡muld be solved if people only understood each other,' or, 'All the problems of the world lVould be solved if people would only stop trying to understand each other' ?"

ON THE LIGHTER SIDE

"Any mall who'd go to all that trouble and expense for his wife must have had something to hide I"

AMERICAN STUDY FINDS

LIBIBlL IBOI POLICYCBIIIIS 1I0BI JOBS Those who want domestic industry to be shielded from,foreign competition ignore the true relationship between foreign trade and domestic jobs, says a study on 'Imports, Exports and Jobs,' commissioned by the American Importers Association. Excerpts are published below.

A renewed drive to "protect" American industry from the rigors of foreign competition is being served up as a policy that saves domestic jobs, or creates new job opportunities for American workers. The simplistic logic is tempting, but does not hold up under close scrutiny. It ignores the true relationship between foreign trade and domestic jobs, the fundamental realities of international competition, and the underlying dynamics of our own economy. American unemployment problems cannot be solved, as the critics contend, by erecting an increasingly elaborate network of protectionist devices that limit access to our markets. The ultimate effect would more likely be a net reduction, rather than an increase, in domestic employment, with very great attendant costs to our domestic economy, including the consumer.

Trade policy critics consistently point to specific job losses attributable to foreign competition, and then mistakenly extrapolate to the larger proposition that trade has a negative impact on domestic employment. What they leave out are the millions of jobs tied directly to U.s. exports, as well as those domestic jobs associated with imports.

In terms of our economic future, jobs associated with exports are more important (in an economic sense) because they generally carry higher wages, are more productive (also in an economic sense), and are tied to continuing capital investment and technological innovation, the keys to sustained economic growth and job expansion.

The mobility of our labor force is a fundamental and necessary part of our economic system. Each month hundreds of thousands of workers change jobs for a variety of reasons. In 1977, for example, an average of 780,000 were add~d to industry employment rolls each month. At the same time, approximately 740,000 employees left their jobs each month, at least half of them involuntarily. This adds up to an incredible number of job changes each year: at least 10million and probably more.

The vast majority of these job changes result from such factors as the simple desire to get a better job; altered consumer preferences and technological innovations that create demand for new products while diminishing demand for old ones, shifts in the regional location of industries, and changing governmental policies which may have a tremendous impact on aggregate employment and the patterns of employment among economic sectors. We accept these changes with the certainty that the , inability or unwillingness to adjust to changing circumstances

would eventually lead to economic stagnation. Changes in employment patterns brought about by foreign competItIOn are only one aspect of this broader, continuous process.

Maintaining market-oriented trade policies requires that our industries adapt to changes in foreign competition, just as they adapt to internal domestic competition. Imports will cause reduced employment in some domestic industries over the long run, as one or another U.S. product or industry becomes relatively less competitive. At the same time, employment in successful export industries will expand with the growing volume of trade. Available evidence supports the conclusion that this adjustment process is working.

Import competition has affected employment in specific industries. In most cases the effect has been diminished prospects for additional growth in existing employment. In some instances, there has been an actual net loss of jobs over time, as in the case of the domestic footwear industry and certain sectors of the domestic apparel industry. It is equally true, though, that the extent of this job displacement is often wildly exaggerated.

Apparel industry employment, for example, has grown by over 100,000 in the past three years. But the fact remains that over the long term, jobs in some industries have been lost to imports, whether they are real job losses or lost job opportunities. One crucial question then, in trade-related employment issues, is whether we have gained jobs onthe export side of the ledger.

The 1976 census survey on exports and employment indicates that virtually every major domestic industry reported an increase in export-related employment between 1972 and 1976. As might be expected, the greatest growth occurred in relatively high-technology, capital-intensive industries. The nonelectricalmachinery industry, for example, added almost 100,000 workers directly to the production of goods for export between 1972 and 1976. Over 15 per cent of the industry's entire domestic work force is now engaged directly in the export effort. In 1969, this ratio was less than 10 per cent. The situation in the electricalmachinery industry is equally impressive. Employment related directly to the production of exports increased by nearly 100,000, and now accounts for almost 13 per cent of the industry's total work force. Similar stories are told in the fabricated metal-products, transportation-equipment and instruments-and-relatedproducts industries. Even the domestic textile and apparel ind~stries each added more than 10,000 export-related jobs (Continued on page 48)

between 1972 and 1976.

Moreover, rising imports have resulted in the creation of thousands of jobs in the United States. Since far more than half of our imports are noncompetitive or supplementary, this growth, to an important degree, has not come at the expense of displaced workers in domestic industry.

The notion that we should not be required to adjust to foreign competition implies that we should maintain labor and capital in increasingly uncompetitive industries, instead of allowing these industries to contract, thus freeing resources to support the expansion of industries where we are competitive and which generally provide higher wages and more productive use of resources. The nation's interests, and ultimately those of labor, are not well served by freezing jobs in industries that are increasingly uncompetitive in the international market place.

In an era of innovation and. technological change, one in which new industries emerge as dynamic forces, often at the expense of others, we must insure that our productive resources are channeled into tomorrow's industries, rather than yesterday's.

Attempting to insulate uncompetitive industries from foreign competition will not solve our employment problems; rather, over the long run, it will add to them. We know that restrictions on imports result in higher prices, both for the restricted import and for domestic products, which typically follow with matching price increases. Part of our current inflation is due to the rising import costs stemming from exchange rate adjustments, foreign price inflation, and trade restrictions already in existence. A decrease in imports, coupled with higher imported and domestic price levels, may very well result in increased output and employment in industries granted protection. However, the higher price levels will ultimately lead to a reduction in real consUI1ler incomes, and hence tend to reduce overall real consumption, output, and ultimately, lead to slower growth in employment.

The employment impact of protectionism is likely to be decidedly negative when one also considers the probable

response of other countries to increased protection of U.S. industries. To the extent that foreign governments respond with restrictions of their own (and we must assume in the presentday world that they will respond, given their own economic problems and relatively greater dependence on trade), we can expect an even greater net reduction in domestic employment as our export industries are shut out of overseas markets. In weighing the consequences of protecting domestic industries, we must recognize that restrictions will have the effect of limiting employment growth 1n dynamic, competitive, high-wage, exportoriented industries by artificially maintaining jobs in contracting, low-wage, import-competing industries, and ultimately reducing employment in the aggregate.

As a matter of national policy, we have adopted specific programs for dealing with trade-induced changes in domestic eIPployment. Implicit in the economic case for liberal trade, and explicit in its acceptability as a national policy, is the fundamental acknowledgment that, while expanding trade will benefit all in the long run, some may be adversely affected in the short run, and there must be adequate means for taking care of specific instances of displacement or hardship. However, the policy goal of preventing hardship calls for protecting people, not specific jobs in inefficient and uncompetitive firms. To the extent that current programs are inadequate to facilitate adjustment to foreign competition, the solution lies, not in increased protectionism, but rather in improving these programs. so they function as intended.

Adjusting human and other resources into their most productive uses, and creating more and better jobs, is first and foremost in American self-interest. The process of adjustment to domestic competition goes on continuously. Adjustment to foreign competition should be only one aspect of this broader process. Ultimately, the best solution to import-induced changes in employment patterns is a better job in a healthy, internationally competitive, and growing domestic industry or service.

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SII AMEBICANS WIN NOBEL PRIZES

Six Americans have won the 1978 Nobel Prize in four disciplinesphysics, medicine, economics, literature. They are Dr. Arno Penzias. years ago in a giant explosion. and Dr. Robert Wilson (physics); Penzias and Wilson began radio astronDr. Daniel N athans and Dr. Hamilton omy research on Gamow's big bang Smith (medicine); Professor Herbert theory in 1964. A year later they disSimon (economics); and Isaac Bashevis . covered that the universe was filled with Singer (literature). microwaves of a uniform intensity. At The Nobel awards for physics, chem- first they suspected that the radiation istry, medicine, literature and peace originated in their receiver or in the were established by the will of Alfred atmosphere. They were able to show, Nobel, the Swedish inventor of dynamite. however, that it came from outer space They have been given since 1901 from the and that its intensity was the same in 'all income of a $9 million fund he established. directions.

The economics award was instituted by the "Their work opened up a whole new Swedish Central Bank in 1968 to mark horizon in cosmology," says Professor the bank's 200th anniversary, and was Sven Johansson of the Swedish Academy first given in 1969. The value of this of Science. "The discovery gives us an year's Nobel award is $165,000. absolute system of measuring the moveIncluding the 1978 winners, 151 Amer- ments of the earth and other heavenly icans have won Nobel Prizes so far. bodies."

Physics: Dr. Penzias, 45, and Dr. WilPenzias, a Jewish refugee from Nazi son, 42, share the physics prize with the Germany, says, "I guess it's no longer 84-year-old Soviet physicist, Dr. Piotr fashionable to believe in the American Kapitsa. The two American scientists, dream, but I am really a beneficiary of both of whom work at the Bell Telephone that ... to come with nothing but to be Laboratories in New Jersey, have been able to achieye something."

Penzias holds a number of global honored for their work in cosmic microwave radiation, which tends to prove scientific honors, including an honorary physicist George Gamow's "big bang" doctorate from the Paris observatory. theory of the universe-that the universe Wilson, who received a bachelor's degree was created more than 15,000 million with honors in physics from Rice Uni-

versity, Houston, in 1957,and a Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology in 1962, is a member of the American Astronomical Society, the International Union of Radio Scientists and the American Physics Society.

Medicine: Dr. Daniel Nathans and Dr. Hamilton Smith, both of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, share the Nobel award for medicine with Dr. Werner Arber of the University of Basel, Switzerland. The three scientists have been honored for their work in "the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics."

Dr. Arber, 49, discovered restriction enzymes, which control the linkage of various genes on a chromosome. Dr. Smith, 47, a biochemist, proved Dr. Arber's theories separately, while Dr. Nathans, 50, pioneered the application of restriction enzymes to problems of genetics.

Thanks to the work of the three scientists, "We will soon be able to discover the secret of cell differentiation, one of the secrets of life explaining what makes a fertilized cell develop into a human being with limbs and complete internal organs," says Professor Rolf Luft of Sweden's Karolinska Institute, which announced the award for medicine.

A citation of the Karolinska Institute

said that greater knowledge of restriction enzymes should help scientists "in the prevention and treatment of malformations, hereditary diseases and cancer." It can also be used to help produce insulin for diabetes treatment and to help produce healthy test-tube babies-because egg defects can be detected before fertilization in the test tube. However, these benefits will flow to patients in the long term, not immediately.

Dr. Nathans, who received a doctorate in medicine from the Washington School of Medicine in St. Louis in 1954, joined Johns Hopkins eight years later. His colleague, Dr. Smith, earned his medical degree from Johns Hopkins in 1956 and began working there in 1967.

EcoDomic~: Dr. Herbert Simon, 62, a professor at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh, has won the economics award for "his pioneering research into the decision making process within economic organizations." The Swedish Academy of Sciences, which announced the award, said that "modern business economics and administrative research are largely based on Simon's ideas."

The .professor, the seventh American Nobel winner in economics, describes his work as an attempt to modify classical economic theory-which assumes that businessmen have perfect information and that they are able "to make any complicated computations." He tries to take into account "limits on people's ability to compute and deal with incomplete

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information and sometimes overwhelming information." The Swedish Academy said that "what is new in Simon's ideas is, most of all, that he rejects the assumption made in the classic theory of the firm as an omniscient, rational, profit-maximizing entrepreneur. " Besides the decision-making process, Professor Simon has also made other important contributions to economics, the academy said. "For example, his interest in simplifying and understanding complex decision-making situations led him at an early stage to the problem of breaking down complex equations systems. His studies of single 'casual order' in such systems have been of particular importance."

Dr. Simon is the author of Organization Theory, a classic in business decision making. Besides economics, his output has covered science theory, applied mathematics, statistics, operations analysis and business administration.

Professor Simon earned his doctorate in political science from the University of Chicago in 1943. He has taught at Carnegie-Mellon University since 1949, and is a Richard King Mellon professor of computer science and psychology.

Literature: Isaac Bashevis Singer, 74, the Nobel winner for literature, is the author of 30 books and numerous short stories. He writes in a vanishing language, Yiddish, and the first English translation of his work appeared when he was 46.

"Yiddish con tams vitamins that other

languages don't have;" said Singer once.

On anqther occasion he said: "I like to write ghost stories,' and nothing fits a ghost better than a dying language. The deader the language the more alive the ghost. Ghosts love Yiddish, and'as far as I know, they all speak it."

Singer was born in Poland in 1904.

His family moved to Warsaw when he was four. At the age of 31 he followed his brother to America and settled in New York, where he wrote regularly for a Yiddish newspaper, The Jewish Daily Forward. His first full-length novel, The Family Moskat, was serialized there in 1945; his newest novel, Jewish Belief and Doubt, is also appearing in that daily.

In the words of the Swedish Academy, Singer's work is suffused with "the author's apparently inexhaustible psychological fantasy ... of manias and superstitions, fanatical hopes and dreams, the figments of terror, the lure of lust or power."

Singer himself says of his work: "I never forget that I am only a storyteller."

The sources of his inspiration are the Bible, mystic Jewish writings, Tolstoi and Chekhov. His first reaction to the news of his winning the Nobel award was: "Are you sure?" The award will not change his lifestyle. "Everything will remain the same-same typewriter, same wife, same apartment, same telephone number, same language. I am thankful, of course, for the prize, and thankful to God for each story, each idea, each word, each day." 0

MakingThe Instrmnents ThatMake TheMusic One out of every five Americans, between the ages of 5 and 75, plays at least one musical instrumentand some more than one. This adds up to more than 40 million people who "make music" in the United States. And the number is growing. To meet this demand, American companies are manufacturing some very sophisticated and technically perfect musical instruments, like the horn below. Although most of the operations are highly mechanized, each instruFor ment is the result of exquisite craftsmanship. instance, it takes from eight months to one year to make high-quality clarinets. The familiar trumpet takes 30 days to make since individual bell stems have to be cut from sheets of brass. After the trumpet bells have been formed (right), craftsmen fashion them into the elegant finished product. Similarly, flutes and piccolos (see back cover) are assembled from dozens of tiny parts made of such precious metals as gold and sterling silver. Besides, the manufacturers' ingenuity has eliminated the need for any formal training to play such complicated instruments as the electronic organ. Many organs are fitted with numbering devices or colored keys, and can be played by persons who cannot read music (right, below). Photo at bottom shows the final step in the manufacture of drumsmating them with their frames.