December 1985

SPAN 2 Christmas in Williamsburg

by Philip Kopper

11 Formulating U.S. Trade Policy

by Stephen D. Cohen

14 Candid Congress: A Camera's Eye View of Lawmaking

by Warren W. McCurdy

16 The Secrets of Cancer Cells

22 Pride of the Princes

23

Festival of India 1986-Calendar

of Events

26 The Birdman of America

29 From the Birdman of India

32 On the Lighter Side Looking Up Trouble

by Russell Baker

34 Focus On ... The Summit

36

The Family Farm

by Christopher Hallowell

37 The Death of Apples A Short Story by Reed Whittemore

41 Saturn Auto A 5,000,000,000 Dollar Bet

by Jack A. Seamonds and Clemens P. Work

43 A Labor Deal that Cleared the Way for GM's Saturn

by Micheline Maynard

44 The House that Matt and Susan Built

48 A Touch of Gold

Publisher Editor

James A. McGinley Warren W. McCurdy

Managing Editor

Himadri Dhanda

Assistant Managing Editor

Krishan Gabrani

Senior Editor

Aruna Dasgupta

Copy Editor

Nirmal Sharma

Editorial Assistant Photo Editor

Rocque Fernandes Avinash Pasricha

Photographs: Front cover-Nathan Benn © National Geographic Society. Inside front cover-----'©1984, Peter B. Kaplan. 2-IO-Nathan Benn, © National Geographic Society. 14-IS-courtesy C-SPAN. 16-20courtesy World Health magazine. 21-courtesy of the Union Internationale Contre la Cancer (UICC), Geneva and World Health magazine.

22-24-courtesy Cincinnati Art Museum. 2S-Harry Deban/Artpark.

26-27-courtesy The New York Historical Society, New York except 26 bottom right courtesy U.S. Postal Service. 28, 30-31-courtesy University of South Carolina, Columbia. 38-Max Mackenzie. 44-47Matt Bradley. Inside back cover-~Avinash Pasricha except top left, center courtesy Golden Eye. Back cover top-Avinash Pasricha; bottom-courtesy Golden Eye.

Published-by the United States Information Service, American O:nter, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi I WOOl, on behalf of the American Embassy, New Delhi. The opinions expressed in this maga· zine do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Government. Printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited, Faridabad, Haryana.

Use of SPAN articles in other publications is encouraged. except when copyrighted. For permission write to the Editor. Price of magazine. one year's subscription (12 issues) Rs.25; single copy. Rs. 4. For change of address send an old address from a recent SPAN envelope along with new address to Circulation Manager, SPAN magazine, 24 Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110001. See change of address form on page 48b.

Front cover: Christinas in Colonial Williamsburg. See pages 2-10.

Back cover: Two examples from the Golden Eye exhibition in New York. The temple model (to be kept in a bureau) was designed by American architect Charles Moore; the materials and craftsmanship are Indian.

The smaller photograph shows Sikki toys from Bihar designed by American artists Milton Glaser and Ivan Chermayeff. See also page 48.

Last month's headlines heralded the news that 66 advanced computer systems had been cleared by the United States for export to India and a new light-combat jet engine was made available for purchase. This trade agreement is just the peak of the mountain of scientific and technological exchanges entered into by the two governments in recent years. with more than 13,000 Indians studying in America today, and some 10,000 Indian doctoral candidates receiving their PhDs from U.S. universities in the last two decades--most of them in scientific or technical fields--it is only natural that there are close ties between the two scientific communities. In space activities alone, India and the United States have been cooperating for more than 20 years. As part of this joint venture an Indian payload specialist will fly aboard the U.S. space shuttle next summer. Besides assisting in the launch of INSAT-1C, India's multipurpose communications satellite fabricated by Ford Aerospace, he will conduct a series of experiments in space. (Last month, India and Ford Aerospace signed yet another agreement under which the American company will build INSAT-LD.) A major Indo-U.S. program is the Gandhi-Reagan Science and Technology Initiative (STI), begun in 1982 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visited the United States, and renewed for an additional three years during Rajiv Gandhi's visit last June. The program involves scientists from both countries working in the areas of agriculture, health, monsoon forecasting and solid-state science and engineering. In addition, under the auspices of the STI and the Indo-U.S. Science and Technology Subcommission, 150 cooperative research projects are funded, sponsored by more than 20 American technical agencies such as the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation.

Other joint projects include a plan to develop vaccines against such intractable diseases as hepatitis, diarrhea and rabies; and agricultural research in biotechnology and genetic engineering that promises further advances in raising cereals, pulses and other major crops; animal husbandry; food processing and preservation; and nutrition.

SPAN will carry more articles on bilateral exchanges in the months ahead. As Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi has said, "We have so much in common--so many ideals, so many visions of the world--let us work together to make a better world for everyone to live in."

SPAN receives an average of 20 letters from readers each week, most telling the editors they are doing a good job. We have often thought about running a page of Letters to the Editor, but have always had to decide against it, usually because we seem to receive letters that only praise our efforts. However, we do sometimes receive letters we would like to share with our readers; such as the one from Mr. T.P. Rajagopalan in Madras, who used our article, "Confederation to Constitution" in the October issue, to fuel his own thoughts on republicanism and democracy. Here are excerpts from that letter: "Benjamin Franklin, when asked at the close of the Constitutional Convention what it had given the people, said, 'A republic, if you can keep it.'

"Perhaps we can go back to Plato for the idea of res publica, rule by the people, not directly but through their chosen representatives,' the ultimate sovereignty resting with the populace. This idea apparently was born when values were high in the order of precepts and practices. But when these values came to be jettisoned for reasons of profitability or propensity, we got on to the second best system of government, democracy, which could ensure to all a reasonable life of comfort, free from internal turmoil and external aggression, to attain a level of competence to compare with others more or less similarly stationed •••• fascist forces and has grown from strength to strength drawn from the innate vitality of the people who not only are, but also feel, free. India, still young in this exercise, has the advantage of a readymade document, in the U.S. Constitution, from which i~ has, no doubt, liberally drawn ••••" The U.S. Constitution will be 200 years old in 1987. We will be publishing a series of articles on the subject to bring readers closer to the precepts of that document.

--J.A.M.

<tr4ri;atmtts llillittlRsbufg Text by PHILIP KOPPER Photographs

by NATHAN

BENN

It is a time for an old-fashioned fair where craftsmen sell such items as hand-dipped candles; colorful parades are led by a uniformed fife and drum corps; doorways are decorated gaily in the 18th-century style and travel is done by horse-drawn sleigh.

Front cover: Crowned with a pineapple, a symbol of hospitality, the fruit-laden spray welcomes Christmas visitors to a Williamsburg house. Left: The colonial kitchen, though primitive by modern standards,

was a place of warmth and industry, capable of turning out a variety of food for the sumptuous holiday feast. Above: Bruton Parish Church has been serving the Williamsburg community since 1715.

3J

n a car packed wirh red-ribhoned presenrs, I clocked the distance in time and kilometers from my home in Washington, D.C., to Christmas in Williamsburg. My destination stood 240 kilometers and less than three hours ahead by unbroken highway. Yet this trip to the colonial capital of Virginia meant an instant leap backward of more than two centuries. And Christmas itself recalls events of some 2,000 years ago. In Williamsburg, anticipating a holiday means looking backward, too.

An unabashed fan of Christmas and a student of its many-splendored traditions, I had never before spent the holiday in a place where distinct eras met so intentionally as they do here. The old colonial city of Williamsburg has been carefully restored and rebuilt to recapture its heyday from 1699 to 1780 and to let modern visitors experience.

18th-century America-its architecture and atmosphere, its food, dress and customs. On any day of the year sojourners may watch craftsmen practice their trades as ~

From "Christmas in Williamsburg" by Philip Kopper, Traveler magazine, Vol L No.4, Winter 1984/85. Copyright Š 1984 by National Geographic Society.

Above: Rev.' Cotesworth P. Lewis inspires younger generations at a Williamsburg Christmas morning service. Right: Raleigh Tavern's Kevin Garland proudly displays a braided loaf of bread fresh from his wood-fueled brick oven.

blacksmiths, weavers and shoemakers. At any season they may visit many of 88 original colonial structures and hundreds of re-created' ones-from privies to a palace.

But at Christmas time Williamsburg's revival of the past takes on added meaning. It would create a very special holiday for my wife, Mary, and the boys.

Within Williamsburg's 70-hectare historic area we could enjoy caroling by the light of flaming baskets called cressets and savor such banquets as the Baron's Feast.

Like other guests of the three hotels of Colonial Williamsburg, we would practice the 20th-century custom of exchanging gifts, after attending evening services in a church where George Washington and Thomas Jeffers~n once worshiped.

The doings there would hearken back to events in the "days of Herod, the king." But perhaps my family would

also witness new traditions born, even some my 9-monthold son, Timothy, might one day think of as antiquated.

Christmas cele\}rations have always contained such a dynamic ambiguity: a blending of the ancient and the modern into a new tradition for every era. That has been the day's hallmark since the burgeoning of Christendom.

The men who wrote the Gospels considered Jesus' birth the fulfillment of Old Testament prophesies; when the feast came to be celebrated in December, it coincided with ancient Rome's most popular festival, the Saturnalia.

(Although the precise date of Jesus' birth is not known to us, Bible scholars agree that Pope Julius I decided in the 4th century to celebrate it on December 25.) The newly instituted Christian feast also took into consideration winter solstice celebrations held throughout Europe and the Mediterranean world. To boost Christianity's popularity, some early missionaries epcouraged converts to adapt their traditional bonfires and evergreen decorations to the new holy day.

At Christmas it's nothing unusual, then, to combine customs older than Scripture with others fresh as ovenwarm gingerbread. Nobody does this more consciously than the corporate fathers of Colonial Williamsburg.

From mid-December until New Year's Day, Williamsburg blends the ancient, the old, the recent and the new into a festival as bright, seasonal and richly textured as a flaming fruitcake ringed with holly. The curators of customs in this living museum have even revived the timeless rite of lighting Yule logs. Thus, visitors to the Inn, the Lodge, and the Motor House can enjoy a ritual that local scribes trace to both Scandinavia and ancient Persia.

When stepsons Christopher, 17, and 14-year-old twins Andrew and Jonathan grew tired of the colonial era, they played an up-to-date round of golf to work up appetites for the five-course Yuletide supper. Before little Tim tasted his fir¡st Christmas turkey, our costumed waiter secured him with "an 18th-century seatbelt"-linen napkins laced through the spindled sides of a high chair.

When we planned to attend a chambe.r music concert at the Governor's Palace, the Lodge provided us with that very contemporary personage, a baby-sitter.

In the 18th century, when this city was the seat of a colony claiming lands as far west as the Mississippi River, Christmas Day itself was a purely religious occasion. In 1770 George Washington summarily recorded that he "went to Pohick Church and returned to dinner." In 1773 a copious colonial diarist, private tutor Philip Vickers Fithian, noted that he gave his servants small coins and his students a brief break from classes. So much for presents.

Yet there were more lively celebrations on the days before and after the sacred holiday. "Nothing is now to be heard of in conversation," tutor Fithian had exclaimed in his journal, "but the Balls, the Fox-hunts, the fine entertainments ... which are to be exhibited at the approaching Christmas." Hewas describing the events of

From an ox-drawn hay wagon, young visitors take in the sights and sounds of Christmas in Williamsburg.

the holiday season, a festive time of music, dancing and other high-toned Georgian revelry.Today the season at Williamsburg begins about ten days before Christmas. Last year's inaugural event was a colonial fair on Market Square on December 15, with "wenches" selling scones and craftsmen offering everything from hand-dipped candles to silver earrings. Conjurer Robert Chambers turned three separate brass rings into a chain and back again, then found a rabbit in his pparently empty kerchief. A pair of draft animals, yoked to a cart filled with hay and children, obeyed drover James Sampson's murmured commands.

"Voice-activated oxen," commented one onlooker. The scent of hot cider spiced the air.

Traditions change, even here. Until several years ago the first evening of Williamsburg's Christmas season, marked by the Grand Illumination, featured torchcarrying paraders leading throngs of visitors down a dark Duke of Gloucester Street. But the march became too popular and the streets too crowded for safety. These days two parts of a fife-~nd-drum corps converge from the far ends of town, marching between the streets ide crowds. At the sound of artillery, residents of the historic area light white electric candles in their windows; then galaxies of fireworks ignite the evening sky above the Governor's Palace. After the finale, hungry visitors drift off toward Christiana Campbell's or Chowning'S Taverns for supper-if they've wisely reserved tables. Others head for nearby Merchants Square and Berret's Restaurant-Raw Bar, which serves just about the best oyster stew south of Boston, or to the Trellis, for its deliciously original French- Virginian fare.

Though not part of colonial Christmas celebrations, martial music and fiery beacons were all features of other, secular galas described in the 18th-century Virginia Gazette: "Last Saturday being his Majesty's Birthday, the same was observ'd here, with firing of Guns, Illuminations, and other Demonstrations of Loialty .... All the Houses in the City were illuminated, and a very large Bonfire was made in the Market-Place, 3 Hogsheads of

>

Punch [were] given to the Populace .... " Such displays were again created in Williamsburg as we heralded our own Christmas season. Still, it was a gentle evening: A kilted piper drew some folks down an alley; carolers from the Baptist Church held a knot of listeners entranced.

Next day our modern festivities continued as, three specially appointed judges in a horse-drawn carriage appraised the ornamented doorways of Williamsburg residences. Colonists are not known to have hung outdoor decorations at Christmastide. If they had, however, they would surely have done it as modern Williamsburgers do, using the natural materials-fruits, shells, branches, and so on-that were available to colonial Virginians. The judges award prizes for arrangements that reflect 18thcentury Georgian ideals of symmetry and visual restraint.

To my eyes, Duke of Gloucester Street seemed the most zealously trimmed promenade in the land-with not a neon reindeer or plastic sleigh in sight. Instead, Williamsburg's mistress of Christmas decor and flower arrangements, Libbey Oliver, pointed out ropes of pine; garlands of greenery framing doorways and entwining porch railings; sprays of boxwood branches blooming with pomegranates, kumquats and lemons.

While her staff decorates exhibition buildings, the residents of Williamsburg's private dwellings vie for the e'ight blue ribbons awarded each year. "Many of the ribbons are won by men," remarked Mrs. Oliver, whose husband handles the annual holiday decorating of the doorway of their cottage.

The window over one door sported a "partridge in a pear tree," its body fashioned from pinecone scales and real feathers, its perch a live-oak branch hung with fresh pears. Elsewhere seedpods of locust and sweet gum formed crisp brown cornucopias. Escutcheons of fir boughs held crab shells rampant. Cotton bolls, their tufts removed, became dark-edged stars lined with silver. The modern urge to decorate Main Street U.S.A. for the shopping season has taken on new meaning on this thoroughfare of yore. (The first tree trimmed indoors, however, was not recorded here until 1842.)

Williamsburg's kaleidoscope of Christmas events attracts people from all over the world. In the lobby of the Lodge a tree decorated with cards signed by guests displayed addresses as far-flung as Stockholm and Ontario ' and all across the United States. James and Margaret McGrillis have come from Philadelphia every Christmas for nearly 20 years. "It's our second home," said the retired civilian supervisor for the Navy. Newlyweds Muriel and Vance Cline, here for their first time together, played harmonica duets near the Lodge's blazing hearth; they'd met in a retirement home and married the previous June.

At one banquet the Rev. and Mrs. Julian Lake / of North Carolina celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary. Their tablemates included honeymooners Dan and Dana Thorpe Wisconsin, a football coach and his

historian wife. Wearing huge napkins like Mr. pickwick's bibs, we toasted both couples, exponents of Yuletide matrimony. (Christmas season weddings are nothing new.

Thomas Jefferson married Martha Skelton on New Year's Day, 1772, and George Washington married Martha Custis on Twelfth Day, 1759.)

Last year Williamsburg scheduled nearly 50 major events at Christmas time, most of them repeated about every three days, including sumptuous banquets, theatricals and concerts. Some afternoons featured colonial games on the palace grounds: barrel rolling, quoits tossing, penny pitching and climbing up a greased pole for a coin-filled purse (the last by Williamsburg "servants" only). Mary and Tim passed up a musket-firing demonstration in favor of the annual antique toy show in the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center. Huge Victorian dollhouses competed for their attention with a Noah's Ark that contained nearly 100 pairs of carved wooden beasts-from spiders to elephants.

On the Market Square green, there was a fife-anddrum display almost every day. Two dozen local boys as young as ten mustered, marched and _played, often without adult direction. "Why not?" asked bearded music director John C. Moon, himself a Scots Guards drummer boy years ago at age 14. "Children their age did as much and more in colonial days." Back then they acted as king's messengers and served in the general's signal corps. But the fate of an empire no longer rests in a drummer's hands. "Today we get paid the minimum wage for each muster," young Aaron O'Toole told me one evening as he tapped out the beat to "Yankee Doodle" on his family's dinner table.

Evening concerts in the candlelit ballroom of the Governor's Palace offered a more classical repertory. A chamber orchestra played a full program of works by Mozart, Corelli and Haydn on antique instrumentsharpsichord and strings-from Williamsburg's collection.

Other ensembles accompanied dancers who demonstrated the stately minuet.

Music and dancing were central to social life in 18th-century Virginia. Witness the "Colonial Family Christmas"-a sort of sampler of at-home festivitiespresented in the Powell-Waller House. There a music teacher gently chided us visitors because no one had offered to answer our hosts' musical entertainment with a song of our own or a tune on the spinet. Little performances were what colonists gave each other as gifts.

(To assure his social success, Thomas Jefferson practiced the violin three hours a day when he was a student at the College of William and Mary, the southern colonies' oldest university and Colonial Williamsburg's neighbor.)

Our visit to the Powell-Waller House had begun with effusive greetings from Mary Wiseman, acting the role of Annabell Powell, the hospitable wife of a wheelwright who worked his way up to contractor and who built the Bruton Parish Church spire in 1768 and the public hospital

in 1773. Her daughters had embroidered an apron for her, our hostess said proudly. Could any maidenly visitor do likewise? Schoolgirls in the group shook their heads, and "Mistress Powell" expressed dismay for their future, since "all a' woman could hope and work for is to conquer domestic economy." That remark, so quaint to modern ears, was drawn from sentiments found in the diaries of several 18th-c;entury women. Mistress Powell then elaborated on the colonial yiewpoint by declaring that "the chief business of life is the getting of a husband."

Like other actors here, Mrs. Wiseman had learned all she could about the historical person she portrayed. After compiling a "script" from contemporary sources with the help of Williamsburg's historians and archives, she fleshed out as real a persona as possible for visitors' education and entertainment. "People come here wanting to enter the past," she explained, and the actors perform theatrical living history to help them.

Colonial Williamsburg opens all its buildings on a rotating schedule through the holiday season (a dozen of them even on Christmas Day). At the shops I found last-minute gi(ts: an English flute for Andrew, a tin whistle for Jonathan; for Mary, cranberry red stockings complete with yellow ribbon garters. My Christmas stocking would hold a foot-long clay pipe from Andrew and Jonathan.

One morning when a rare gale bent the trees on the palace green, we sought quiet warmth in the detached kitchen of the Wythe House, once the home of the colonial town's most august jurist. Here Mickey Kovach was demonstrating 18th-century cooking at an open hearth. A turkey roasted on a spit; bread baked in a Dutch oven that was placed on embers with more hot coals covering the lid.

The blacksmith shop offered another warm stop, and Tim's eyes widened at the sight of cherry-colored iron; hot from the forge, being beaten into nails on a ringing anvil.

Modern health codes prohibit Williamsburg from serving dishes prepared in its colonial kitchens. Nevertheless, real food is displayed on the tables in buildings open to visitors. At the Peyton Randolph House, curatorial fellow Leslie Grigsby had laid out a holiday dessert course of delicious-looking pastries served on English porcelain and silver. Even the wine in crystal goblets was real, because imitations usually look fake. But don't jump the barrier to steal a sip; each glass is topped off with mineral oil to prevent the alcohol from evaporating. For a taste of colonial cooking, try the Raleigh Tavern Bakery, whose master bakers turn out several kinds of breads and cookies all year long.

Throughout the Christmas season Colonial Williamsburg sponsors morning organ concerts on the precious instrument that has found a perfect home in William and Mary's Wren Chapel. The small organ, built in England about 1725 and modified around 1758, lay forgotten for two centuries before it was found in an English country

Choirboy Karl Renne {center) sings with his father and Kevin Stiffler in the Bruton Parish men and boys choir.

'home in Norfolk. It was bought by Colonial Williamsburg 30 years ago and restored to Georgian splendor. With only one keyboard-but with several stops that affect the bass and treble independently-it is more versatile than its size suggests. This is just the sort of instrument that a prosperous 18th-century congregation would have imported from Europe, organist-choirmaster James S. Darling told me. He demonstrated its fine points by playing a Purcell voluntary written for performance in a church like Williamsburg's Bruton Parish.

The church, dating from 1715, was the first building in Williamsburg to be returned to its austere elegance, three generations ago. Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin, the rector, began by stripping away Victorian alterations from the structure.

When that was done, he set his sights on the entire town.

By 1926 Goodwin had found a patron for Williamsburg's restoration in John D. Rockefeller, Jf., who made the task his life's delight. The benefactor contributed some $67 million to the project before Colonial Williamsburg became a self-supporting educational institution a half century later.

Like the restored village that surrounds it, Bruton Parish Church is never busier than during the Christmas season. One candlelight service on Christmas Eve used to be enough to accommodate all parishioners, but the congregation and holiday visitors strain the capacity of the building. Now there are five services on Christmas Eve and two or three the next day to hold all the faithful.

"Many of our visitors would go to church back home, but they have special reasons to be away," explained the Rev. Cotesworth Pinkney Lewis, Bruton's rector, who celebrated his 28th Christmas there last year. He has met recently widowed worshipers, couples whose children have left the nest, divorced parents who want to re-create a family holiday. This becomes their home parish pro tern and, joyfully, "it fills a special need." (Of course Bruton Parish is no stranger to a flock of transients; in the 18th century the town's population doubled during the "publick times," when the courts. were in session and when the House of Burgesses summoned representatives from every part of the Virginia colony.)

On Christmas Eve during my visit, the church was lit by scores of candles "with a little electrical reinforcement," the white-haired rector confided. When I entered a few minutes before midnight, the reredos behind the altar, the organ loft and the elevated pulpit all were decked with garlands; the brass'rail around the governor's

pew gleamed like gold; the 16-taper candelabra shone like a miniature nebula, reflected in polished brass. The church seemed like a place resurrected from bygone times.

The blue-robed choir marched in singing "Oh Come All Ye Faithful," then the church filled with verses from the Gospel according to Luke.

The cadences of the King James version of the Scriptures rang out through the Episcopal Church's traditional liturgy, and communion was served at the rail where colonial worshipers used to kneel. After plainsong chants and traditional carols, Mendelssohn's "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" ushered us into the frost-bright night. It was Christmas ... of almost any year.

I cannot tell you how many ways there are to eat away Christmas Day in Williamsburg, starting with tavern brunches, or the Inn's array of delicacies like sauteed brook trout with scrambled eggs, or the Lodge's spectacular buffet of fruits and juices, six kinds of sweet bread, jams, cheeses, and made-before-your-eyes omelets.

All the restaurants and taverns serve Christmas dinners starting at midday. The King's Arms, where we ate, offered entrees of baked ham or turkey along with the time-honored trimmings. The Inn presented venison, veal and goose, serving them on linen covered tables, each with a single c~ndle. In the elegant dining room, gentlemen wore suits, the ladies dressy gowns. At the more casual Cascades Restaurant string ties-or none at all-

prevailed around tables agleam with red lanterns and alive with chatter.

My chief regrets about Christmas dinner here would apply to any restaurant. No one served my wife's figgy pudding, I missed carving the bird, and we had no leftoyers for nights to come.

Next morning, with Tim on my back, I ambled around the town in search of fifer, or the weaver spinning wool yam, or the drover and his oxen. At the sign of the golden ball, James Craig's jeweler's shop, we encountered Jimmy Curtis, who had spent ten years as an apprentice and eight more as journeyman. Now the master silversmith, he was already thinking about a Christmas to come.

Three months earlier he had taken a special order that would keep the shop's delicate hammers busy for more than a year: a service of coffeepot, teapot, sugar bowl, creamer and tray-all hand wrought from silver ingots in the traditional manner-for the very modem price of $27,000. As you read this, someone is wrapping that sterling gift of a "contemporary antique." And, all over America, many others are planning to celebrate the ancient holiday season in this historical place, where many joyful customs from the past and gratifying new practices are fashioned into a vibrant, living tradition.

0 About the Author: Philip Kopper, a Washington-based journalist, is the author of A Christmas Testament and The Wild Edge: Life and Lore of The Great Atlantic Beaches.

formulating U.S.Trade

Decisions made in Washington, D.C., concerning American foreign trade policies have become a major variable in the prosperity of many workers and companies throughout the world. The United States is the largest single trading country; the total value of its exports and imp9rts during 1984 exceeded $600,000 million. Its exports of agricultural and high-technology goods meet important global consumption needs. On the import side, the rapid growth in the American economy since 1983 has produced a boom in exports for the major trading partners of the United States. Indeed, the overall increase of $70,000 million in U.S. imports during 1984 provided one of the biggest stimulants to economic growth in many foreign countries.

The U.S. foreign trade decisionmaking process is more than an abstraction in the area of public administration.

By affecting the substance of policy,¡ the process has a major impact on the overall performance of the international economy and the standards of living in many countries.

The formulation of commercial policy in all countries reflects a series of tradeoffs. Domestic political and economic goals must be reconciled with both foreign policy goals and" international economic interdependence.

There are several unique characteristics in the American effort to consider trade-offs and to calculate the costeffectiveness of various tn~de-policy options. One major difference, as compared with most other countries, is the size of the bureaucracy, in terms of both personnel and numbers of concerned departments and agencies. In all governments,

Policv

It's a question of balancing both domestic and international realities, and economic priorities - as perceived by different government departments.

the foreign ministry and several domestic policy ministries (finance,-1ndustry, agriculture, energy, labor) have responsibilities in trade-policy formulation. However, no other government has anything to equal the numbers of personnel and organizational units that make up the Executive Office of the U.S. President. A significant number of presidential advisers and representatives from White House offices are involved in the trade policy-making process.

The number of bureaucratic participants is also enlarged by the second unique feature of U.S. trade-policy formulation: the very important role of the Legislative Branch. The extraordinary power of the U.S. Congress in this area is rooted in the country's Constitution. Article I empowers the Congress "to regulate commerce with foreign nations" and to "lay and collect taxes, duties ... and excises," activities that include tariffs on imports. The American concept of "separation of powers" is clearly embedded here. The President's powers are derived from Congress; his trade policy authority is solely deter-

mined by authority extended to him through laws passed by the Legislative Branch. Prior to the Trade Agreements Act of 1934, which initiated presidential efforts to negotiate reciprocal liberalization of trade barriers, the U.S. Executive Branch was little more than a passive collector of tariffs.

A third distinctive characteristic of the U.S. trade policy-making process is its need to conform with the unusually intense American preoccupation with legal procedures. The United States' reputation for being a "litigious society" is supported in a trade policy-making process that standardizes procedures, maximizes the transparency of debates and decisions, minimizes corruption and allows governmental institutions to be sued by persons who feel themselves grievously mistreated. For better or worse, a system based on separation of powers and legalisms frequently reduces the flexibility and independence of Executive Branch negotiators to adopt the policy stance that they prefer.

The implementation of U.S. trade policy also reflects some of the unique aspects of the American economy. With an enormous domestic market (moving toward the $4 million million level), few U.S. manufacturers have felt the need to emphasize foreign sales. Similarly, as possessor of the world's leading transactions and reserves currency, the United States is relieved of the pressures felt in every other country to maximize foreign exchange earnings to pay for needed imports. The resultant lack of an "exportor-else" mentality has allowed the U.S. government to take noncommercial factors into consideration when formulating

export poJicy. This situation explains why the Nixon Administration. International the United States is more willing than trade matters were absorbed by the other countries to restrict exports for Economic Policy Board in the Ford reasons of foreign policy, national Administration. Coordination of these security and ethics (for example, human issues subsequently was incorporated into rights violations). the Economic Policy Group in the Carter The unique size, strength and ideolo- Administration.

Today, the Reagan gical values of the U.S. economy haye Administration relies on the Cabinet contributed to the formation of a distinc- Council on Commerce and Trade as its tive import policy that is marked by a senior deliberating body in the area. relatively high tolerance for foreign-made More technical issues are thrashed out by goods. The U.S. government usually Cabinet members in the Trade Policy imposes import barriers only if imports Committee and its two lower level have achieved a large, growing share of groups-the Trade Policy Review Group the U.S. market or if political pressures and the Trade Policy Staff Committee. for reduced foreign competition have There are virtually no major trade become intense. The nation has no in- decisions in any large industrial democradustrial policy to protect. A firm believer cy that fall completely within the jurisdicin the virtues of the market mechanism, it tion of a single executive department or usually views imposition of import con- . agency. As in all other governments, trols as an inefficient, unpleasant, sec- each bureaucratic actor in America repond-best policy. option and has repeat- resents a different constituency: industry, edly demonstrated a greater willingness agriculture, labor, foreign policy, price than most countries to allow domestic stability, etc. Each one tends to have a producers to bear the brunt of market- slightly different opinion on how the induced foreign competition. "national interest" should be defined and On the other hand, when it does decide how policy priorities be ranked. that it is necessary to provide import The bureaucratic entities involved in relief, the government is unusually the formulation and administration of restricted in its actions by the American U.S. foreign trade policies can, for the economic philosophy. Partial or total sake of clarity, 'be divided into three nationalization of an import-impacted categories. Relative. authority and inindustry is totally contrary to American fluence vary according to the issue at h~nd. beliefs. Subsidies, guarantees and special On paper, the senior entity overseeing governmental procurement contracts are U.S. trade (and international investment) usually viewed as being unacceptable. policies is the Office of the U.S. Trade.

That is why U.S. trade policy-makers Representative (USTR). A 1980 reorgaoften enter into "voluntary" export nization effort officially designated the restraint agreements with other coun- USTR as the lead agency for the conduct tries. These are seen as an ideal way to of all international trade negotiations and bridge the gap between ideological pref- "principal adviser" to the President on erence for a liberal import policy and the international trade relations. Specifically, practical need to be politically responsive this White House office is charged with to a particular industrial sector faced with providing leadership in seven areas: rising import competition. eExpansion of U.S. exports. eMatters concerning the General The process by which the American government formulates its foreign trade Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, includpolicies and programs is probably more ing implementation of agreements negocomplicated than that of any other coun- tiated in the multilateral trade negotiatry. Organization charts can provide only tions; U.S. government positions on a relatively limited understanding of how trade and commodity matters dealt with in multilateral organizations; and the decisions are made. protection of U.S. rights under internaUpon coming into 'office, Presidents invariably have restructured the White tional trade and commodity agreements. eTo the extent permitted by law, overHouse-level interagency groups that are charged with reaching a consensus and all U.S. policy with regard to unfair trade practices, including enforcement of counproviding advice for final presidential decisions. A Council on International tervailing measures and antidumping Economic Policy was created early in functions.

-Bilateral trade and commodity issues, including East-West trade matters.

-International trade issues involving energy. eDirect investment matters to the extent they are trade related. ePolicy research on international trade, commodity and direct investment matters.

The professional staff of the National Security Council (NSC), headed by the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs, monitors the occasional links between foreign trade issues and U.S. foreign policy. To ensure that it can properly fulfill its mission tp coordinate national security policy and advise the President on international political and military issues, there is always at least one senior international economics specialist on the NSC staff who participates regularly in interagency trade policy deliberations.

Another regular participant in the trade policy-making process is the Coun~il of Economic Advisers (CEA). With the performance of the domestic economy as its focus. of responsibility, the CEA seeks to produce trade policies complementary to its efforts to maximize real domestic growth and price stability.

The fiscal and managerial responsibilities of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget frequently require its participation in decision-making that involves export and import policies.

Although the State and Treasury Departments now have few direct operational responsibilities in foreign trade, their important responsibilities in the areas of foreign policy and domestic macroeconomic policy management, respectively, ensure their widespread presence in trade policy forums. The State Department, like foreign ministries everywhere, brings a foreign policy perspective to bilateral and multilateral trade issues alike. Economic relations have an obvious impact on external political relationships. Meanwhile the importance of the trade account to GNP (gross national product) growth; price stability, the dollar's exchange rate and to the overall U.S. balance of payments position, ensures that government actions affecting exports and imports are a major concern to Treasury officials.

The Commerce Department has never reached the pinnacle of influence in the U.S. trade policy-making process, but since 1980 it has assumed leadership in

the administration of most import and export programs. This includes enforcement of export controls; advising U.S. business on export expansion; collection of international trade and investment statistics; and investigation of complaints filed in connection with statutes dealing with unfair foreign trade practices (namely, dumping goods sold in the U.S. market at less than fair value and countervailing duties or subsidies doled out by foreign governments to exporting companies).

Other departments and specialized agencies influence policy only in certain circumstances. The Departments of Agriculture and Energy deal with import and export issues involving their respective commodities. The Labor Department usually tries to speak on behalf of workers' interests in import policy deliberations. The International Trade Commission (ITC) is an independent agency charged with making determinations of whether U.S. companies and workers are being injured under terms established by U.S. trade laws dealing with fair foreign trade practices (the escape clause) and the above-mentioned unfair practices.

An ITC finding of injury in an escape clause investigation is followed by a recommendation to the President that he increase tariffs, impose quotas or negotiate "voluntary" export restraints so as to restrict imported goods determined to be causing injury. When both unfair export practices and injury to domestic producers have been found, the President is legally obliged to impose import duties that will offset the artificially low prices of the goods in question.

The Trade Act of 1974 gave the U.S. Congress power to override a presidential decision not to provide import relief to an industry found by the ITC to have been injured by increased imports. This is a classic example of the shared trade powers within the U.S. government.

The Legislative Branch's willingness through the 1960s to allocate the leadership role in U.S. trade policy to the Executive Branch has undergone a change: the Congress is now insisting on playing the role of a partner in policy formulation. The administration of trade practices and programs remains completely with the President. However, since the 1970s, the Congress has increasingly mandated that policy management should closely correspond to the

guidelines established by the lawmakers in trade legislation.

There are three main reasons for the trend toward increased involvement by the Congress in the formulation .of U. S. foreign trade policies: eThe increased importance of foreign trade to the U.S. domestic economy. eThe development of intense foreign competition to American industry, initially from Western Europe and Japan, and, more recently, from the newly industrialized countries. As the U.S. trade deficit has ballooned in recent years, the Congress has felt it necessary to urge a tougher, less internationalistic trade perspective on the Executive Branch. eIn the wake of the war in Vietnam and the Watergate scandal, Congress has demonstrated a growing assertiveness vis-a-VIs the Executive Branch across a wide range of economic, foreign policy and social issues.

Having adopted this attitude, the Congress then increased its own administrative support facilities so it could play a more influential role in the policy-making process. On an across-the-board basis, there has been a vast increase in the Congress' research, data-gathering and policy-analysis capabilities. The professional staffs assigned to all congressional committees have expanded in size by a significant amount. In addition, the U.S. Congress has created a series of supporting organizations whose magnitude and capabilities are without equal in any other national legislative body. The research facilities of the U.S. Library of Congress, the investigative facilities of the General Accounting Office and the analytic capabilities of the Congressional Budget Office and the Office of Technology Assessment have all been utilized to support Congress' growing participation in the formulation and review of American trade relations.

One important manifestation of the new policy capabilities of the U.S. Congress has been an expansion of its activity beyond its traditional responsibilities: legislation, appropriation of money and confirmation (by the Senate) of political appointees. In trade policy, members of Congress now regularly offer new policy ideas and new program initiatives. Members are regularly inVIted to be an unofficial part of the United States' delegation

to major trade negotiations, such as the Tokyo Round. Congressional committees with trade and policy responsibilities have participated in the general resurgence of "oversight" hearings-that is, investigative hearings that are concerned with critically evaluating administration policies, reviewing the merits of an existing program administered by the Executive Branch, defining the nature of existing probl~ms or addressing future trends and events.

The relative openness of United States trade policy-making in both branches of government has bestowed an influential role to the private sector. Through countless coalition groups, trade associations, corporate offices in Washington, lawyers, lobbyists, public relations specialists and free-lance influence peddlers, special in-. terest groups absorb vast amounts of information, meet with government officials, communicate arguments, needs and demands, and generally try to steer the trade policy formulation process in a direction favorable to the specific interests of particular groups.

There are no means to quantify precisely the impact of the lobbying process on policy substance. Many variables are at work. There is empirical evidence that special interest groups in some cases have directly affected the substance of U.S. trade policy. Once in a while, such as the 1984 decision to seek voluntary steel export restraint agreements with other countries, U.S. import policy decisions are made after close unofficial consultations with the affected industry, but there is also evidence suggesting that if two well-organized, well-financed lobbying efforts are launched on both sides of a single issue, there is a distinct possibility that the two groups will neutralize each other, giving the bureaucracy a free hand to formulate trade 0 policy as it sees fit.

Stephen D. Cohen is a professor in the School of International Service, The American University, Washington, D. C. He is the author of numerous books including The Making of United States International Economic Policy.

CANDID CONGRESS

A Camera's

EveView of

lawmaking

Last July, a delegation of businesspeople from the rural, midwestern state of Iowa journeyed to Washington, D. c., to lobby their congressional representatives and meet with Reagan Administration officials. In a sense, they took the entire nation with them, because their visit was extensively covered by a public affairs television network having subscribers throughout the country. The network is a nonprofit cooperative that calls itself C-SPAN (for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network). More popularly and as accurately it is known as America's Network, for the unique voice it gives each individual, while imparting a new dimension to democracy in action.

C-SPAN began in 1979 as a medium for providing several million interested viewers with a window on the daily proceedings in the U.S. House of Representatives. Indeed, its 30 hours or so of live coverage each week of the House proceedings while in session remains very much the core of its broadcasting, but that has become only one of the reasons why 21 million American homes have subscribed to the cable television service since then.

When the House is in recess, C-SP AN programing may focus on congressional hearings, important conventions, press conferences, addresses at the National Press Club or any of a variety of events occurring in Washington or around the country. Just before the Iowa businesspeople arrived in Washington, C-SPAN concentrated on speeches and seminars, conducted by the American Bar Association and the Supreme Court Historical Society, discussing current considerations before the Court and looking at the Court from a historical perspective.

Several times each weekday, subscribers have a chance to participate in the American political process by telephoning C-SPAN and talking directly to elected officials, policymakers or working journalists. Typically, during the week of July 8-14, C-SPAN's 12 live call-in shows received 163 calls from viewers in 34 states and Puerto

Rico. One of those programs focused on whether medical malpractice in military hospitals should be subject to suit.

Democratic Congressman Dan Glickman, from the state of Kansas, was about to hold a hearing on the subject and went on C-SPAN an hour before the hearing was to begin to find out what viewers thought. One call came in from a citizen in Oklahoma saying: "Instead of overloading the courts with more malpractice cases, why not just give these cases to a panel of civilian physicians and let them decide whether these doctors should be practicing medicine?"

Answered Glickman: "You don't want the fox guarding the chicken coop. Doctors tend to protect themselves..... " Another caller from Virginia, a former serviceman, offered this opinion: "Having had 27 years of experience with military doctors, I'd like to say that I personally have no complaints or bad feelings with them. But I have served with some doctors aboard ships who should not have been interns, much less doctors. I think the root of the problem is to get standardized licensing."

Glickman agreed: "It's amazing in this modern day and age that we don't have formal licensing requirements for doctors in the military. That is a great part of the problem .... " The one-hour newspaper call-in shows have a moderator interviewing a newspaper guest about the day's news.

The two discuss how the day's events have been handled in the national press and then open the switchboard for five or six calls from viewers. "Your ticket is your newspaper," says sometime host and C-SPAN Chairman Brian Lamb to viewers. "How is the news being played today?"

Some of the issues discussed that week in July were whether President Reagan's new tax-reform proposal would be fair; does America have a policy on Lebanon; how to deal with illegal immigration; what to do about the nation's deficit spending; coping with terrorism; the fate of still-missing U.S. servicemen in Vietnam.

President Reagan is one of C-SPAN's biggest fans, watching it regularly and having been known to call up reporters or professors after their appearances to discuss some aspect of what they were discussing. The statistics for June 1985 show that there were 128 hours of live coverage of the House of Representatives, 45 hours of live viewer call-in programs, 129 hours of congressional hearings (18 of them live) and 72 hours of miscellaneous other events (18 live), for an average of better than 12 hours of new public affairs coverage per day. A study of C-SPAN subscribers indicates the obviousthey are well educated (58 percent with advanced degrees) and politically active (93 percent having voted in the last election). Typical viewers' comments: "I watch C-SPAN because it gives voice to a nation." "No soap opera script compares with the action C-SPAN has got." "C-SP AN provides me with a front row seat in the audience of viewers observing history in the making." "C-SP AN brings us as close to pure democracy as anything we have known." "It helped me choose my 1984 presidential candidate. I will vote, for I do count; I can bring about change when change is necessary. Thank you C-SPANyou are America's Network!"

0

Left: Chief Operating Officer Paul A. FitzPatrick.

Below: Chairman Brian P. Lamb ofC-SPAN. Bottom: Cathy Murphey directs C-SPAN cameramen's shots outside a live hearing of the House of Representatives, while audio technician Robert Gould assists in taping the shoot.

The Secrets of Cancer Cells Although it may be years before the secrets of cancer cells are fully understood, scientists have no doubts that smoking tops the list of risk factors. "If smoking were eliminated tomorrow," says the author, "deaths from cancer would decline by 30 percent over the next generation."

Over the past several years, the new techniques of biotechnology have touched one of the most recalcitrant problems in human health: cancer. Using these techniques, scientists have learned far more about the disease's origins and nature than could have been stated with any confidence even a few years ago. Those who follow the news about these advances may assume that cancer cures are imminent. Unfortunately, although present knowledge may point research in the direction of potential cures, major advances, with some exceptions, are still years away. A review of what has been learned, and where the discoveries might lead, should make clear how far the research still has to go.

In trying to trace the origins of cancer, one must first outline the disease's effects on large populations. Let us begin by asking a topical question: Is the industrialized world threatened by an ever-rising tide of cancer? The fact that the number of deaths as a result of cancer rose from 107.1 per 100,000 Americans in 1933 to 179.6 in 1979 would suggest that this is the case.

Some of the increase can be explained by one simple fact: cancer is in large part an affliction of the old.

Although many exceptions to this rule exist-childhood leukemia, for example-the great majority of people who die from the disease are those who have lived beyond their middle years: those who, if they did not die of cancer, would soon be lost to other ailments, such as circulatory disorders. Wiping out cancer would increase the average life span in the United States by only two years beyond the present 74. Once one realizes that cancer is largely a gerontological phenomenon, it becomes clear why doctors diagnose more new cases each year. Cancer is increasing in frequency because more people are living long enough to contract the disease. Fifty or 100 years ago, few reached the late age at which cancer becomes common.

Because longevity is increasing steadily, adding up the number of cancer deaths year py year and comparing the totals is a meaningless exercise. The only interpretable

statistic is one that compensates for the population's lengthening average life span. Age-adjusted statistics allow one to ask: What chance does the average 6O-yearold man or woman have of dying of cancer now? By comparison, what was the risk for 60-year-olds 50 years ago?

Even when one makes this adjustment, the numbers are depressing. The cancer death rate still appears to have increased substantially, from 143 per 100,000 people in 1930 to 170 in 1979. Yet another level of statistical sophistication exists, however. One can analyze the population not only according to age but also according to habits, distinguishing those who use tobacco from those who abstain. Once this is done, almost the entire increase in the cancer rate is accounted for by smokers. The number of deaths from respiratory-tract cancer (contracted chiefly by smokers) rose from 4 per 100,000 in 1930 to 44 in 1979-an increase of 1,000 percent; the death rate from other cancers actually declined somewhat over the same period. If smoking were eliminated tomorrow, deaths from cancer would decline by 30 percent over the next generation. With minor exceptions, the incidence of cancer among nonsmokers is about equal to the rates observed for this group 30, 40 and 50 years ago. This constancy is reassuring: it proves that nonsmokers are not in the grip of an epidemic of cancer.

The rapidly increasing cancer rate among smokers suggests something else-something that few people only a generation ago realized: cancer, unlike sagging skin and a collapsing spine, is not an inevitable consequence of growing old. The disease is not programed into the aging process. Instead, most forms are caused by exposure to substances brought into the body via food or tobacco.

Cancer comes from insults to the body that in the best of worlds could be avoided. .

Although smoking can explain. the causes of most respiratory-tract cancers, it cannot be invoked to explain the causes of dozens of other cancers, such as breast and colon tumors. Since the incidence of these other cancers has remained largely stable over the past 50 years, their causes-whatever they may be-cannot have changed much. If those of us in research could only determine the causes of these other cancers, in the same way that we have determined the cause of most lung cancers, then perhaps the best of worlds would become less elusive.

One can isolate potential causes of many cancers by studying the incidence of disease around the world; cancer

occurs at dramatically different rates in different geogreen vegetables, fruits and grains, which appear to graphical locations. Stomach cancer strikes six times more protect against certain types of cancer. frequently in Japan than in the United States. In West Environmental pollutants are conspicuously absent in Africa, colon cancer is about ten times less common than the list of factors that coincide with frequently occurring in the United States. We can conclude at least tentatively cancers. Many tumors common in industrial countries that environment creates drastic differences in risk. prove to be just as common in nonindustrial countries, Some might question this hypothesis by suggesting an such as New Zealand, Iceland and Finland. However, no alternative explanation: that Japanese or West Africans one can rule out the possibility that, at some point in the have special, genetically determined susceptibilities.

The future, the rates of certain cancers will rise dramatically, facts do not support this suspicion, however. Americans once populations have been exposed to industrial carcinof Japanese descent enjoy low stomach-cancer rates. And ogens for a sufficient period. Bombs could well be ticking American blacks, who are genetically close to West away under our feet. Some, for that matter, have already Africans, suffer colon cancer at rates greater than those gone off here and there, creating epidemics in small, for the rest of the U.S. population. Such evidence rules discrete populations: for example, among workers who, out genetic susceptibilities as an explanation of these having been exposed to various chemicals, are succumbgreatly different rates, and makes environmental expoing to bladder cancer, and among asbestos workers who sure the only reasonable interpretation. . show high rates of an unusual tumor called mesothelioma, This logic can be taken a step further. If colon cancer is which appears in the chest or abdomen. ten times more frequent in the United States than in West The identification of carcinogens may help people to Africa, then at least 90 percent of colon tumors in the minimize their chances of contracting cancer, but it does not begin to solve the underlying puzzle: How do nation would be avoided if the American environment could be made identical to the West African environment. carcinogens cause cancer? Biologists know much more By extension, one might ask: How would cancer rates about this now than they did even a few years ago. The change in the United States if the American environment advances rest on a body of work begun in a period that could be altered to achieve both the low colon-cancer risk most biology students consider prehistoric. Early in this of West Africa and, say, the low cervical-cancer risk of century, X-rays were found to be carcinogenic. Then In Israel? When the lowest rates of various cancers worldthe late 1920s, X-rays were discovered to cause changes in wide are listed together, it becomes clear that if the the hereditary patterns of fruit flies. From these two American environment were ideal, more than 85 percent seemingly unconnected facts came an important hypothof all cancers could be avoided. esis, which was widely held but based, until recently, only What do the environments of West Africa and Japan on circumstantial evidence: Agents that cause cancer are offer that make cancer rates there so different from those agents that damage (mutate) the genetic material. Carin the United States? Diet emerges as the chief environcinogens induce cancer because they are "mutagens"mental factor in many of the cancers that are not caused that is, they are capable of mutating genes. This hypotheby smoking. Epidemiologists have identified a number of sis suggested that the target of carcinogens is deoxyribonucdietary elements whose role in inducing cancer is gaining leic acid, or DNA-the complex molecule in the cells of all increasing acceptance. The one most widely cited is fat. living organisms whose segments,. or genes, serve as the Country-by-country comparisons show strong correlation carriers of information for biological functions. between fat intake and the incidence of colon and breast An important piece of evidence supporting this idea cancer; those whose diets are high in fat succumb with emerged 20 years ago, when researchers traced the path greatly increased frequency to these diseases. A diet rich of carcinogens introduced into rodents. The carcinogens in red meat also seems to correlate well with cancer of the entered the cells of various tissues and proceeded colon. In Japan, where dietary habits have become to bind tightly to the DNA. Significantly, strong carcinWesternized since World War II, the rates of colon and ogens-chemicals that most often provoked tumorsbreast cancer are climbing to Western levels. At the same bound more avidly to DNA than did weak carcinogens. time, the long-standing Japanese preference for pickled, A further clue to the action of carcinogens came from smoked and fermented foods seems to be related to the an unexpected quarter outside the mainstream of cancer country's traditionally high rate of stomach cancer. research-from studies of the hereditary patterns of These correlations do not conbacteria. There are strong analostitute rigorous scientific proof of a gies between human and bacterial Seven Warning cause-and-effect relationship becells, because all cells are built on Signals of Cancer tween diet and disease. Nonethethe same basic plan. They run on less, they are so persuasive that the same machinery, and depend several years ago a panel on diet on the same substance-DNAChange in bowel or bladder habits. and cancer convened by the to direct the machinery. Thus, the A sore that does not heal.

National Academy of Sciences DNA of bacteria can serve as an Unusual bleeding or discharge. recommended a drastic shift in excellent model for human DNA. American dietary habits.

The Moreover, bacteria are a pleasure Thickening or lump in breast or panel suggested a prudent, but to work with. They reproduce elsewhere. hardly Spartan, diet, much lower themselves as often as every 20 Indigestion or difficulty in swalin fats and oils, and higher in minutes.

In a simple and cheap lowing.

Obvious

change in wart or mole.

Nagging

cough or hoarseness.

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CANCER

continued

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overnight experiment, a researcher can study the DNA and heredity of a trait distributed through a population of hundreds of millions of bacteria. In contrast, cells taken from a human body are difficult to manipulate: they grow slowly, are expensive to feed and succumb to the slightest alteration in their environment.

Several experimenters reasoned that the DNA of bacteria should behave like human DNA when confronted with carcinogens.

Of course, bacteria do not contract cancer. How, then, could the effects of carcinogens be monitored?

A simple solution evolved: study instead the ability of carcinogens to alter bacterial genes controlling metabolism-genes that tell a bacterium how to break down certain nutritive compounds. This strategy, initiated by several groups, was developed most extensively by Bruce Ames, a professor of biochemistry at the University of California at Berkeley.

Ames gathered a large, motley group of chemicals: petrochemical products, hair dyes, natural biochemicals and so forth. He exposed bacteria, and thus their genes, to these chemicals, and waited-though not for long, of course, since bacteria respond quickly to stimuli. Ames confirmed what others before him had found-that certain compounds readily alter bacterial genes. These powerful mutagens cause genetic damage when present in only trace amounts. Ames found weak mutagens, as well: the DNA-damaging properties of these compounds became apparent only when they were present in high concentrations.

Most exciting, Ames found that the compounds wreaking genetic havoc in bacteria were the same ones that had been found to cause cancer in the experiments with rodents. Conversely, the compounds that reacted only weakly with Ames' bacterial genes had behaved as weak carcinogens in animals. Such data came close to proving the hypothesis that mutagens are almost invariably carcinogens.

This relationship has since emerged as a fundamental tenet of cancer research.

As a result of the work with rodents and bacteria, tpe perception of carcinogens has changed.

Scientists no longer think of carcinogens as chemicals that exist specifically to cause cancer. Instead, carcinogens are understood to be compounds that happen to be particularly adept at damaging DNA, thereby creating mutations in genes. Human cells exposed to carcinogens accumulate damaged genes. Cancer emerges as only one of several random consequences of the gene damage. Carcinogens do not seek out favored genetic targets for special attention.

Instead, after entering tissue, the invading molecules strike at many constituents of the cells. On rare occasions, a carcinogen molecule may encounter a critical target-a segment of DNA-and a deadly train of events is set in motion.

All this points to a simple pathway of carcinogenesis.

Substances enter the body largely via the lungs or gut.

These substances interact with the DNA present in the cells of certain tissues. By altering the structure of DNA, they create new genetic configurations that trigger the growth of tumor cells.

There are dangers in accepting a scheme as simple as this. Complicating facts intrude upon its clarity. Take, for

example, the substances implicated as carcinogens. When they enter the body, most are relatively inert, and lack any ability to damage DNA. But once inside a cell, these potential carcinogens are altered-activated by the cell's metabolic processes. At this point they readily attack, and combine with, vulnerable molecules in the cell. (Ironically, this metabolic activation of carcinogens depends on enzymes that exist to detoxify dangerous compounds.

Enzymes that have evolved to shelter the body from chemical attack can inadvertently create novel and dangerous compounds.)

Some researchers think that people's varying susceptibility to cancer may be explained in part by individual differences in metabolism.

Certain people may activate carcinogens more readily than others.

They may carry around especially powerful activating enzymes in their livers and lungs, and may, as a consequence, run special risks when confronted with potential carcinogens.

This problem of metabolic activation is only one of several complications in the attempts to discover the steps that lead to cancer. The greatest obstacle has to do with the DNA itself. Thirty years ago, James Watson and Sir Francis Crick unveiled DNA's double-helix form. Today, freshman students of biology learn the elegant simplicity of this structure. The problem with DNA arises not from its structure but from the staggering amount of information that a DNA molecule carries.

Each of the two intertwined strands of the DNA double helix forms a long polymer-an extended, end-to-end aggregate of chemical bases. There are four different kinds of bases, and their sequence in the strand composes information in the same way that the ordering of written characters composes words. The DNA double helix in a single bacterial cell carries the blueprint for building the bacterium. The strands of DNA in a single human cell, which are 1,000 times longer, carry the information for forming the entire human body; they consist of -6,000 million bases, strung out end-to-end.

In fact, the DNA in a human cell holds much more information than is required for a complete blueprint.

Human beings carry around information that has accumulated over 3,000 million years of evolution, much of it apparently unused-the artifacts of genetic events millions of years in the past. Information layered upon information.

A mixture of the truly important and the utterly useless. And endless complexity. The magnitude of the puzzle ~ow becomes apparent.

If activated carcinogens mutate DNA by altering ¡the sequence of bases, then which of these many sequences must be changed for cancer to begin? One answer would be that a change in sequence occurring anywhere in the DNA will lead to cancer. But such an answer ignores simple realities. Many DNA sequences are meaningless relics; changing these sequences would have no effect.

Other sequences of DNA bases carry information on important functions of the organism. Certain such sequence units encode information for eye color or hair curliness; others specify biochemical reactions in the cell.

The special functions of these sequences do not seem to be connected with the phenomenon of cancer. After all,

cancer is an aberration of growth-not of eye color or hair texture.

And there may lie a clue. Of all the myriad sequences in human DNA, those few that control normal, healthy growth could be the criti{;ally important targets.

Perhaps they become redirected by mutation into programing abnormal growth, which is often tantamount to cancer.

This is a simple model, and perhaps even a correct one. But how to confirm it? The real problem, momentarily forgotten, returns to frustrate us: these hypothetical growth-controlling sequences, seemingly important for understanding cancer, can make up only a minute fraction of all the DNA sequences in the cancer cell. The rest of the sequences in the cell-the vast majority-reveal nothing about the cancer process. Somewhere in 6,000 million bases of the cancer cell, something has gone drastically awry. A critical control sequence has been meddled with, but how to find it?

The Gordian knot was cut several years ago, and not by any modern-day Alexander.

Instead, biotechnology arrived on the scene. The techniques of "gene cloning" are ideally suited for solving the problem at hand, because they enable researchers to fish out a small genetic segment from the vast pool of unrelated sequences. After a gene has been isolated and cloned, it can be amplified to hundreds of millions of copies in properly prepared bacteria. Having many copies of a single gene simplifies analysis enormously.

Different genes are cloned every day: among others, those that specify insulin, the blood protein hemoglobin, connective-tissue protein and interferon have been identified. Eventually, someone will likely clone the gene that specifies eye color or hair curliness. A recipe book for cloning genes was published several years ago. Few genes, once pursued by the gene cloners, can elude capture.

Cancer cells have also yielded an important part of their mystery to these powerful techniques. The cloners have extracted from cancer cells those few genes that force cells to grow abnormally.

Researchers call these growth-controlling sequences in cancer cells "oncogenes."

Cloning has made it possible for researchers to retrieve oncogenes from carcinomas of the bladder, lungs and colon, as well as from leukemias. The most thoroughly studied oncogene in human cells comes from a human bladder carcinoma.

Six thousand bases, strung end-toend, make up this oncogene. (Its complexity may seem intimidating, but one should bear in mind that the DNA of a tumor cell as a whole has 6,000 million bases.) By studying the cloned oncogene, scientists have learned the answer to an intriguing question: How does a tumor cell acquire an oncogene?

Molecular analysis of a cloned oncDgene points to a simple solution. The malignant gene arises as a slightly altered version of a normal cellular gene. This normal gene, whose precise function remains obscure, is the critical target in the cell's DNA; when it is transformed into an oncogene, it assumes the role of a master control and soon dominates cellular behavior. It

Scientists have found that carcinogens are especially adeptat damaging thebasicmaterialoflife, DNA, thereby creating mutations ingenes. Human cells exposed to carcinogens accumulate damaged genes and cancer emerges as only one of several random consequences of gene damage. A t right two enormously complex intertwined spirals-the double helix-show the molecular structure of DNA. Acting th rough the th readlike ch romosome (above), DNA physically transmits the genetic message of reproduction.

The chromosome, part of the nucleus of living cells which carries genetic information, assumes quite different aspects (above, right) during the various phases of the division of the cell.

Startingfromastretched-out state (I), a chromosome is shown about to coil up (2), tightened more closely (3) and tightly coiled to assume a rodlikeshape (4).

Underneath this rodlikeexterior, strands of thin threads also packed tightly, line the interior surface of the chromosome.

Along these threads are arranged the genes, the factors of heredity, composed of DNA molecules.

forces the cell to shift gears. The cell loses touch with its normal priorities, which tolerate growth only when appropriate, and is forced into endless growth.

By growing and dividing, the cell spawns the billions of descendants that form a tumor mass.

In recent years, the steps by which a normal gene becomes mutated into an oncogene have been explained.

The change is extraordinarily subtle. Experiments have compared an oncogene of bladder carcinoma with its normal antecedent.

Since all genes are arrays of base sequences, comparsion of the two genes demflnded precise mapping of the sequences constituting the two genes.

These .days, experimenters can puzzle out the base sequence of a cloned gene in several months' time. The four bases-A, C, G and T (the letters represent the four different chemical bases)-are arranged in a special and meaningful order from the beginning to the end of each gene. By deciphering the sequence, one discovers the gene's structure. Such a sequence might read like this: AGGCCT AAGCCCT AGAGCCC, continuing on for a total of 6,000 bases in the case of both the oncogene and its normal counterpart.

Experimental tricks made it possible for researchers to focus attention on limited areas of the two genes-on limited portions of each sequence.

When the critical sequences of the oncogene and the normal gene were read out, the results were astounding.

The differences between the two almost disappeared.

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single base distinguished the oncogene from its normal precursor: one base out of 6,000. Change one critical base out of the 6,000 bases of the normal gene, and you get an oncogene. Change one critical base out of the 6,000 million in the cell's DNA, and you push the cell down the long slide toward cancer.

This difference is so subtle, so minute, that it defies credibility. How can such a tiny change in a gene have such shattering consequences for a cell, and subsequently for an organism? There are precedents, the most well known of which is sickle-cell anemia, a hereditary disease afflicting blacks. Those who suffer from this disease carry defective copies of the genes that serve as templates for blood hemoglobin. The defect here, as in bladder cancer, can be traced back to a single base. In the case of sickle-cell anemia, the altered gene¡ causes defective hemoglobin to be produced, and devastating circulatory problems ensue.

One circle in this description can be closed now by tying together carcinogens and oncogenes. Let us begin with circumstances and behavior that bring into the human body a variety of chemicals, both natural and man-made. Metabolic alteration of these compounds leads to their activation in various organs. In turn, the activated compounds begin their attack on the DNA, striking at sequences randomly. One molecule of a carcinogen has only a small chance of hitting a critical sequence. But patient repetition succeeds where a single rash attempt fails. After years of flooding a smoker's bladder, after millions of forays, the carcinogens will succeed: an active carcinogen molecule will hit a vulnerable chink in a critical gene. This hit creates a mutation and causes the altered gene to assume the role of an oncogene. The newly created oncogene now issues directives, forcing a compliant cell to grow and divide when and where this cell should, by all rights, remain inactive.

One can blame carcinogens for many disasters leading to oncogenes, but not for all of them. On occasion, the human body may create oncogenes in its cells without . external provocation. Cells can inadvertently mutate their own DNA. A striking example of this came to light about five years ago. Researchers have known for some years that certain bone-marrow cells rearrange a special set of genes in preparation for mounting a normal immune response. They have now learned that on rare occasions, the process goes awry, and brings about a bizarre rearrangement of genes. This in turn creates an oncogene.

Cancers like childhood leukemias, which have few apparent environmental sources, may ~esult from these internal mistakes-mistakes that can occur in anyone, even a person living virtuously in an ideal environment. It is indeed a wonder that such mistakes do not happen more often.

The cancer cell is no longer an impenetrable black box. Exactly what goes wrong when the cell undergoes its malignant transformation is becoming apparent. More import2.nt, scientists know where to look for solutions to the remaining puzzles. Crucial puzzles still exist.

Here are two of the big ones. It will take another decade to work these out.

First. Why does it take so long for cancer to occur? It does take a very long time. Lung cancer offers a most instructive lesson. In the next severa] years, a watershed in medical history will be reached: more American women will die from lung cancer than from breast cancer. The female lung-cancer epidemic can be traced back to its roots-to a point 30 years ago when it became acceptable, even fashionable, for women to smoke. A generation later, the innovators of social convention are dying left and right.

Why does it take so long-30 years of continued abuse-for tumors to appear? Some delay may come from the difficulty that a carcinogen has in meeting with and mutating the proper gene. But further answers are needed. Even after an oncogene becomes activated, other changes must occur in the cell before it can become a competent tumor cell. Scientists suspect that at least one and perhaps several other altered genes must cooperate with the oncogene to achieve the end result. Perhaps a relatively rare event like a mutation must occur to turn on each of these other genes. Cancer seems to depend on a succession of rare events taking place over many years. A cancer found today is likely to have been caused by a series of these events that began in the body 10, 20 or 30 years ago. Activating an oncogene seems to be one of these events. The nature of the other events is yet to be discovered.

Some of the steps leading to cancer seem to depend on chemicals, known as "promoters," that do not mutate DNA. They are known to aid the carcinogenic process by somehow pushing a cell further down the road toward cancer, cooperating with mutagens even though they do no damage to DNA by themselves. Asbestos may function as a promoter. While it is unable to damage DNA directly, it seems greatly to increase the risk of mesothelioma, usually by coopera~ing with cigarette smoke.

Not that cigarette smoke needs much help. It is thick with muta'gens and even thicker with promoters. Both kinds of molecules are to be avoided. And therein lies a quandary for the guardians of public health. One can test for mutagens rather easily. Thanks to Ames and his bacteria, cheap and simple methods for detecting mutagenic compounds in the air, in tobacco smoke and in charcoaled meat are available. But the promoters are more insidious. There is no simple way to test for them, because they do not mutate DNA. All one can do is apply them to test animals-a long, expensive and frequently unrewarding exercise. How can promoters in the environment be controlled if it is so hard even to identify them?

How important are they in the long-drawn-out process of human carcinogenesis?

Second. How does an oncogene force a normal cell to behave abnormally? The tumor cell carries 50,000 or more genes, and yet one of them, the oncogene, dominates behavior. How can one gene assume such influence in subverting cellular behavior? Most answers to this question are still wildly speculative.

The clues that exist are vague and not terribly useful.

One speculates that because the oncogene induces runaway growth, the normal version of the gene must reg-

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ulate normal growth. A lot is known already about the way in which a normal cell is put together and about how many normal genes work. One day soon, how the normal, growth-regulating genes work, and by implication, how their tainted versions disrupt the delicate normal balance between quiescence' and growth, will also become clear.

This is an exciting prospect, and not just for cell biologists. Understanding the way oncogenes work could provide a basis for developing a rational treatment of cancer. Once scientists understand the master control switches, they may be able to trip them back and limit the growth of cancer cells.

At the moment, cancer is treated in three basic ways: surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. These approaches in concert cure a substantial number of previously untreatable cases. For example, more than half of the patients afflicted with the most common kind of childhood leukemia are cured when the disease is diagnosed early. But many adult tumors, lung cancer among them, are largely unresponsive; treatment at best postpones the inevitable. New ways to kill cancer cells must be found. The existing chemotherapeutic drugs are rather ineffective at counteracting most types of solid tumors. These drugs are more lethal to cancer cells than to normal cells, but they aren't selective enough.

The design of selective drugs has been elusive, because, until recently, the essential differences between normal cells and cancer cells had not been understood. A truly selective drug would take advantage of such a difference, and kill only the flawed cells. Because the presence of an oncogene has been identified as an essential flaw in a cancer cell, ways of antagonizing the workings of an oncogene can begin to be studied. It is now possible to think of ways to design drugs that could kill cancer cells selectively, or return them to normal.

Selective drugs are not around the corner. Their development will likely take a decade or more.

For the next decade, and likely beyond, the big reductions in cancer deaths will come from preventing .cancer, not from treating it. A smoker indulges in selfdelusion if he thinks that medicine will rescue him from lung cancer ten years from now. The only effective way to reduce the number of deaths from lung cancer will be to reduce the number of smokers. Similarly, a substantial decline in the number of deaths from colon and breast cancer will likely come from changes in diet, perhaps

involving a shift in diet away from fat.

History offers precedents for this prediction. The enormous drop in the number of deaths from infectious diseases had little to do with antibiotic treatment. Instead, it was learned early in the 19th century that filth is unhealthful. Public sanitation led to great increases in life span a century before antibiotics appeared on the scene.

Similarly, the fourfold decline in deaths from stomach cancer in the United States over the past 50 years can in no way be credited to improvements in treatment. Stomach cancer is as lethal now as it was in earlier times, but fewer people contract it, most likely because fewer people are exposed to its causes. Perhaps improvements in food storage, such as refrigerators and the much-maligned food preservatives, are responsible. Here again, avoidance has succeeded where treatment has failed.

The recent, very real advances in biology reveal much not only about cancer but also about how to organize scientific research. Or, perhaps, how not to. The origins of some of these recent advances are edifying. How was the Ames test for carcinogens developed? How did scientists come to isolate and dissect oncogenes? Some may find the answer startling. These advances depended on areas of work totally unrelated to cancer: results from laboratories involved in studying the sexuality arid genetics of bacteria.

There are many such examples, but the point is already well made. Cancer research has continually reaped the harvest of other areas of experimentationmolecular and cellular biology, biophysics, microbial genetics and so on. For years, agencies such as the National Cancer Institute and the American Cancer Society have been supporting work in areas ostensibly outside their purview, because of a belief-almost a religious conviction-that basic, nongoal-oriented research would payoff in the end. These and other granting agencies have given license to many American biologists to do what interests them, so long as they do it well. Some of the researchers have done very well, and much of the investment has been paid back, in ways that nobody dreamed of a few years ago.

One might conclude that the scientific understanding of cancer has progressed so far that nongoal-oriented studies can be safely abandoned. The history of cancer research proves that such a policy would be a serious mistake. Imagine a scenario very different from that of the past two decades. Imagine that 20 years ago, the funding agencies decided that the best way to understand cancer was to support only those projects whose goals were to answer specific questions about human cancer. The impact of such a policy on science today should be clear.

Scientists would not have the Ames test or know about oncogenes. They would not have developed gene cloning and used the technique to produce cheap insulin and interferon. They would not have come so close to a full understanding of cancer, and, perhaps, further off, its cures. 0 the Author: Robert A. Weinberg is a professor in, the Department of BioLogy and the Center for Cancer Research at the Massachusetts Institute of TechnoLogy (MIT) and at the Whitehead Institute of BiomedicaL Research (an MIT affiLiate).

About

Pride of the Princes It was the evening of the opening of the Cincinnati Art Museum's exhibition of Indian Mughal art, "Pride of the Princes." The museum staff was astonished-and delighted too.

The parking areas were filled and visitors scrambled for the few remaining parking spaces along the roadways. It was one of the biggest crowds at a Cincinnati exhibition opening reception in memory.

Even more surprising was the capacity crowd in the lecture hall. Museum guards turned people away when the hall reached its 450-seat capacity. It is customary for most guests at an art opening to avoid the serious art lecture and to head for the food tables, but this one time everyone seemed to be keen to learn about the art.

Said Museum Director Millard F. Rogers, Jr. , happily

Above: Inlaid cabinet from early 17th century.

Right, above: A Lady and Two Musicians on a Terrace, Jaipur, Rajasthan, late 18th century.

Right: The Elephant Hunt of Maharaja Anup Singh of Bikaner, Rajasthan, 1695.

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Left: The Cincinnati Art Museum where the exhibition of Indian art of the Mughal era was held recently.

Facing page: The Durga Slays Mahisha, Mewar, Rajasthan, circa 1760.

Calendar

of

Events From Indian Earth 4000 Years of Terra-Cotta Art

Spanning the Indus Valley civilization to present-day India, the exhibition examines the history, versatility and importance of terra-cotta art in India. Brooklyn Museum, New York; January to March.

The Coins of India

Badi ai-Zaman

Emerges

from a Chest,

circa 1562 -77.

observing the milling crowds, "This shows that the Festival of India is a success. For over a year now, Americans have been reading about India in national magazines, and seeing films and television shows about the country. They're eager to know more."

The "Pride of the Princes" (September 4 to October 13, 1985) was a major Festival of India event in this middle-sized, mideastern city in Ohio. It included paintings, manuscripts, textiles and decorative arts, both from Mughal courts and from other regions of India where local arts were influenced by Mughal styles, from 1526 to 1858.

"Cincinnati is a provincial city, but the Cincinnati Art Museum is not a provincial museum," said Surya Y. Sardesai. "It has a splendid, firstrate collection in many areas of art." A dealer in and a collector of Indian art, Sardesai lived for many years in Bloomington, Indiana, before returning home to Bombay.

Pleased with the success of "Pride of the Princes," he remarked, "I don't think many of the people who are here really

understand the importance of what they are seeing, but I'm sure they can appreciate the colors in the Mughal court pieces. They compare admirably with the finest Italian Renaissance art." The principal organizer of the exhibition was Museum Curator Daniel Walker, whom Sardesai describes as a "great scholar."

Museum Director Rogers said that many people were drawn to the exhibition "by the magic and allure of India."

Among the admiring audience was Jay Chatterjee, dean of the University of Cincinnati College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning. Chatterjee, who is from Calcutta and studied architecture at Kharagpur before going to the United States in 1959, was excited by the exhibition, comparing it with the best that he had seen in India. John J. Schiff, chairman of the museum board, was delighted that "people are really taking their time to see the exhibits, read the material and study the art."

In addition to the exhibition, the . museum offered' Indian dance, music and food. All in all, delectable fare.

0

An exhibition of coinage of India through the centuries. American Numismatic Society, New York; through April.

"Aditi: The Monies of India."

Smithsonian Museum of American History.

Washington, D.C.; through March 12.

Islamic Calligraphy

Estampages of more than 70 carved-stone architectural inscriptions from the Sultanate and Mughal periods in India, an international seminar and calligraphy workshop have been part of this exhibition which began November 15. Museum of Art, University of Iowa; through January 5.

The Twain Shall Meet

An exhibition of artistic exchanges between the East and West-e.g., Greco-Roman influence on Kushan sculpture-culled from the Cleveland Museum of Art's permanent Oriental and Western collection. Cleveland, Ohio; through January.

Sacred India

An exhibition focusing on India's major ear~yreligions illustrated withsculptures, paintings, manuscripts, photographs of monuments. Cleveland Museum of Art;through January 12.

Seminar Series

"Role of Artists and Craftsmen: Making Things in South Asia"-an ongoing program of lectures and discussions. Department of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; through April.

Fatehpur Sikri and the Age of Akbar

Fogg Art Museum, Boston; February 10 to March 30. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas; May2toJune29.

Kushan Sculpture Asia Society Gallery, New York: February 13 to April6. Seattle Art Museum;¡ May13toJuly13.

Indian Contemporary Painting Works of S.H. Raza, Laxma Goud, Ramanujam and M.F. Husain. The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.; February 22 to April 6.

September 21 , University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; October 11 to November 23.

5000 Years of Indian Art An exhibition. Asian Art Museum, San Francisco; June to September.

Satyagraha Philip Glass' acclaimed opera, New York City Opera; September.

Film-Utsav India A two-part festival of Indian cinema.

Forty-nine classical and contemporary Indian films. Totour 12 cities; through 1986.

The Art of Storytelling Narrative art in India as expressed in paintings, sculptures, terra cottas and coins.

Elvehjem Museum of Art, Madison, Wisconsin; through January 12: Fabricsoflndia An exhibition entitled" ... AII sorts of painted stuff ... Indian Chintz and its Western Counterparts" illustrates the use of Indian fabric in the West and the impact of its exotic colors and designs on textile printing in Europe and America. The National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; through January 30.

The Jews of India Photographs, costumes and ceremonial objects focus on the lifestyles of the three Jewish communities-Bene Israel, Cochini and Baghdadi-who have been in India for over 1,000 years. The Jewish Museum of New York City; through February 15.

The Printed Word A history of printing and book development in India. New York Public Library; March.

Conflicting Images A seminar on India and America in the 1980s.

Harvard University; March 13 to 15.

The Master Weavers Samples of contemporary textiles from the looms of India's master weavers. Los Angeles Country Museum of Art; August 9 to

American Understanding of India A symposium. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; September.

Images of India in American Films Screening of films like Gunga Din, Bhowani Junction and The River.

Mary pkkford Theater, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; through 1986.

India in Transition: Mahatma Gandhi to Rajiv Gandhi Symposium. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; February.

Festival of SCience California Museum of Science and Industry, Los Angeles; through January 15. Oregon Museum of Science and Industry, Portland; March 1 to May 31. Pacific Science Center, Seattle; July 1 to September 30. Science Museum of Virginia, Richmond; t-Jovember 1 10 January 31, 1987.

Fatehpur Sikri Today Photographs by Sheldan Collins. Asia Society of New York; through January5.

Dance Performances Kuchipudi. Meitei troupe from Manipur. Touring several universities; March to May.

Shawls from India An exhibition. The Textile Museum, Washington, D.C.'; April 17 to August 21.

From Merchants to Emperors: British Artists in India, 1757-1930 Drawings, watercolors, photographs, historical documents and literary manuscripts recapture Britis~ rule in India. Los Angeles Country Museum of Art; Septemberto January 4, 1987. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; May 1 to July 31.

Vijayanagara: Where Kings and Gods Meet An exhibition of photographs, drawings and architectural reconstructions documenting the capital of the south Indian empire during the 14th through 16th centuries. American Museum of Natural History, New York; through January.

India in Photographs "People of India: Living, Working, Worshiping," an exhibition by authorphotographer Beatrice Pitney Lamb.

Hurlburt Gallery, Greenwich, Connecticut; February 2 to March 9.

Women Painters of Mithila An exhibition of 20 paintings. Springfield Museum, Oregon; through January 31.

Painted Delight Exhibition of 140 Mughal and Rajput paintings from the 16th to the 19th century.

Philadelphia Museum of Art, Pennsylvania; January 26to April 20.

Chenab World premiere performance by the Queens Symphony Orchestra of the work of Indian composer Akmal Parwez. Queens College, New York; February 15 and 16.

Dhrupad A performance of the oldest classical music in Indiabythe Dagarbrothers. Touringseveral universities; January through February.

Indian Miniatures From the Ehrenfeld Collection-127 miniatures dating from the 16th to the mid-19th century.

Archer M. Huntington Art Gallery, University of Texas, Austin; January 15 to March 9.

The Newark Museum, New Ark, New Jersey; April 4 to May 26. New Orleans Museum of Art; June 22 to August 17. Worcester Art Museum, ,Worcester, Massachusetts; September 14 to November 9.

Rabari "An Exhibition of Indian Folk Art in Context. " A multimedia exhibition portraying the Kachi Rabaris, a seminomadic tribe. Meadows Museum of Art, Shreveport, Louisiana; January 12 to February 23.

Ghasiram Kotwal A performance of Vijay Tendulkar's famous play by the Theatre Academy of Pune. Theater of Nations Festival; Baltimore; May/June. .

Health Care A conference on allocation of health care resources in India and America. Columbia University, New York; April 1 to 4.

"Indian Poetry Readings by Indian poets representing the major language groups. Touring several . cities; beginning April.

The World of Jainism.

Manuscripts from the Spencer Collection. New York Public Library; April.

The Birdman of America John James Audubon, whose 200th birthday is being celebrated this year, is known as the patron. saint of the feathered tribe. His paintings of birds, a sampling appearing on these pages, have been described as "the greatest monument ever offered to Nature by Art." John James Audubon (1785-1851), the celebrated American natural history artist, has been all but canonized among naturalists in the United States. His name has become synonymous with the conservation movement in America. He is often described as the Boswell of American birds and patronsaint of the feathered¡ tribe; his monumental book, Birds of America, with its 435 sumptuous plates remains the most comprehensive and colorful work on the subject. His paintings were acknowledged as being "the greatest monument ever offered to Nature by Art" and his claim as a latter-day Francis of Assisi straddles both ornithology and painting.

Yet, by training Audubon was neither a natural scientist nor a painter. A nondescript, itinerant immigrant, obsessed with birds, he went to America from France in 1793 to oversee his¡ father's business interests. Although he was an unsuccessful businessman during the greater part of his life, Audubon, the entirely self-taught and persevering man that he was, finally succeeded at the unlikely age of 53. In 1838, 13 years before his death, the Audubon legend was born with the completion of

Birds of America, today the Bible of American ornithologists.

The bicentennial celebrations of his birth this year further embellish the "American woodsman" mystique that seized the imagination of the world when he had his first exhibition in England 160 years ago. The American celebrations included a special 22-cent postage stamp and major exhibitions of h:'~ original engravings and plates at the American Museum of Natural History in New York and the New York Historical Society. England, where Birds of America was originally published, offered a similar tribute by mounting an exhibition at the National History Museum, London.

Audubon was the illegitimate son of a French naval officer, Lieutenant Jean Audubon. The future naturalist was born on his father's plantation at Les Cayes, in modern-day Haiti, on April 26, 1785. Few details are available about his mother, except that she was known as Mademoiselle Rabin and was a Creole from Santo Domingo. (Years later, Audubon was to allow the fact that Empress Josephine of France was also a Creole to lend tacit support to the theory that he was actually

the Dauphin, son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The local people. Yet his flamboyant lifestyle was contrasted by his Dauphin became titular king of France as Louis XVII, when his diligent studies of birds. He was up at dawn to greet the early father was guillotined, and then died himself in prison at age 11. birds and was almost vegetarian in his diet, rarely eating meat.

Such flights of fantasy were part of the Audubon charisma.

"Pies, puddings, eggs, milk and cream, was all I cared for in the In 1789, the senior Audubon returned to France from Haiti way of food," he wrote later. Mill Grove saw Audubon with his 4-year-old son, who was called Fougere, or occasional- consolidating his skill with the pencil and he commenced, as he ly, Jean Rabin. Affectionately received by his stepmother, put it, "my simple and agreeable studies [of birds], with as little Anne Moynet Audubon, young Fougere and his halfsister concern about the future as if the whole world had been made (born of another Creole woman) were legally adopted by the for me."

Audubons in 1794. Baptized as Jean Jacques Fougere AuEarly in 1804 there occurred a significant moment tor dubon, his early education fitted the pattern of a well-to-do Audubon and ornithology. Studying the nesting habits of a young bourgeois of that period, with mathematics, geography, family of phoebes, he tied silver thread to the legs of the music and fencing as his subjects. But AnIle Moynet, a doting fledgling birds to observe their migratory pattern. This was the mother, did not take her son's first recorded experiment of "banding birds" and Audubon had education seriously. The senior heralded an important ornithological practice that was to come Audubon, immersed as he was in into vogue a century later. In April 1808, after visiting France the revolutionary movement that and seeking his father's approval, Audubon married Lucy had gripped France, had Blakewell. This young woman of amazing fortitude was to nonetheless noted his son's evi- provide the encouragement and stability to sustain Audubon in dent lack of interest in formal the troubled years ahead. Chroniclers acknowledge the education. An abortive attempt significant role Lucy played and refer to her as "one of history's to have the boy follow in his great wives; without her courage, loyalty and faith, Audubon father's career saw Audubon would not have emerged triumphant from the many vicissitudes being enrolled in the French na- that lay before him; nor would the world have been presented val academy. But the boy's heart with Birds of America." was with his birds. In later years The next three decades of Audubon's life were years of he confessed, "Thus almost every day, instead of going to frustration and penury. Along with a partner, Audubon opened school, I usually made for the fields ... and I returned home a general store in Louisville, in the wilderness of Kentucky, but with what I called curiosities such as birds' nests, birds' his forte was not in bookkeeping and merchandising. Predicteggs.... " The father, recognizing the son's abiding interest in ably the store failed and the partners moved down the Ohio feathered creatures and his irresistible urge to draw them, River to Henderson, Kentucky. A familiar pattern emerged encouraged the boy and enrolled him at the atelier of Jacques "during their stay in Henderson, Rozier was behind the Louis David, doyen of French art during the revolutionary counter. , . while Audubon with a Kentucky lad named John period. However, this apprenticeship was short and to avoid Pope, who was nominally a clerk, roamed the country in eager conscription into Napoleon's army, Jean Audubon sent his son pursuit of rare birds." The family fortunes dwindled but to America to administer the family's recently-acquired busi- Audubon's gun and pencil were never idle. ness interests there.

A turning point in Audubon's life was his encounter with Alexander Wilson in 1810. Wilson, who was then regarded as Audubon landed in America when he was 18. His education had been rudimentary. According to sources, he "had no the foremost ornithologist, was then selling subscriptions for his training in his native tongue and he was never in fact able to book American Ornithology at $120 a set. Browsing through write with grammatical accuracy in French or in English." (Yet Wilson's paintings, the first seeds of what was to become the in his irrepressible manner he became a prolific writer and his "great idea" were sown in Audubon's mind. He determined total output in writing is estimated to be a million words.) Mill that his work would also appear in print. By the time his second Grove, his father's estate near Philadelphia, was an idyllic son was born, in 1812, the portfolio of drawings had grown initiation to America for Audubon and he revealed qualities measurably. And around this time Audubon elected to become that never forsook him and stood him in good stead later. an American citizen. Further business disappointments folHunting skills, an indefatigable curiosity about birds, coupled lo~ed. The partnership with Rozier was dissolved and Auwith a passion to draw them, and unflagging energy dubon ventured into other impractical commercial ventures, characte,ized John James Audubon. Biographers refer to the wiping out Lucy's little inheritance. young country gentleman as being free from fiscal cares while Bankruptcy, social ostracization and a brief spell in prison roaming the placid Pennsylvania countryside "in satin pumps weighed him down and he tried to make a fresh start. Recalling and silk breeches," hunting with a dog and a gun; but it was the bleak days, Audubon wrote in' his journal, "Without a here that Audubon began his nature studies in earnest. During dol!ar in the world, bereft of all revenues beyond my personal this period, he met Lucy Blakewell, a young English girl who talent and acquirements, I left my dear . ~,,,,\! also was an amateur ornithologist. Their courtship filled log house ... this was the saddest of all . ~, Audubon's days and he presented the image of a dandy French my journeys-the only one in my life aristocrat. "Not a ball, a skating match, a house or a riding when the wild turkeys ... and party took place without me," he wrote. Money was unimpor- ,thousands of lesser birds ... all looked tant in Audubon's scheme of things and he rode the best horses, like enemies and I turned my eyes wore the most expensive clothes and endeared himself to the from them."

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Dire penury forced Audubon to abandon pretensions of being a businessman. He sought his living as a portrait painter and here his initial training under Jacques Louis David came in handy. Priced at $5 each, Audubon's crayon portraits were remarkable for the speed with which they were executed and the manner in which the likeness and character of the subject was captured. His greatest asset in these gloomy days was Lucy, and her encouragement to enlarge his portfolio. "I never for a day gave up listening to the songs of our birds ... nay, during my deepest troubles I would retire to some secluded part of our noble forests; and many a time, at the sound of the wood-thrush melodies have I fallen on my knees and there prayed earnestly

SPAN: Salim Ali Sahib, you have been a pioneer in the field of Indian ornithology and have been chiefly instrumental in bringing awareness and creating interest in the Indian people about the subject., as was James Audubon in America early in the last century.

What would you say of Audubon the man and his contribution to ornithology?

SALIM ALl: I regard Audubon's contribution to American ornithology as seminal.

Apart from his being a passionate and lifelong student of living birds in the wild, he was a gifted field naturalist and wildlife artist. By the trend he set in the painting of life-like portraits of birds and mammals, Audubon was able to arouse a meaningful popular interest in birds and bird watching and conservation.

His pioneering work, Birds of America, really helped Americans to properly appreciate the ornithological treasures of their country.

What do you think was his greatest virtue?

I would say that Audubon's greatest virtue as a naturalist and wildlife painter was his passionate and persistent dedication, often under extremely difficult conditions, to the study of American birds in the wild, and, what is perhaps less generally known, to the study equally of terrestrial mammals.

What exactly has the Audubon Society done toperpetuate interest in birds specifically and in ecology generally?

To those living in countries outside America the Audubon Society is synonymous with the excellent and superbly illustrated monthly magazine Audubon which it produces. Its highly informative, interestingly written articles on a variety of natural history topics and on·the Society's current activities in conservation, ecology and environment are directly relevant to our own problems in India.

WhDlcould India do ro pTm~rv~ il~ binl culture?

to our God." Facing adversity squarely, Audubon once became a taxidermist (in Cincinnati), occasional drawing teacher and fencing instructor as he wandered down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers drawing his precious birds. Luckily Lucy obtained a job as a governess in New Orleans and this arrangement gave Audubon greater freedom for his travels.

From 1820 to 1826 he traversed different parts of the North American continent and compiled an imposing portfolio of his birds along with detailed field notes.

The time had come for Audubon to emulate ornithologist Wilson and he tried in vain to interest American publishers. His work was seen in Philadelphia, but rivals thwarted his plans and

at risk except for the large-scale destruction of forests and the consequent loss of habitat of some specialized forms.

However, .the fastchanging feeding habits of the Indian people-from vegetarianism to meat-eating-together with the unabated explosion of human population and the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides are serious potential threats. In some areas, there is locally a ~rowin~ drain of edible birds such as junglefowl, partridges and quails, and of migratory wild ducks and shorebirds. These are heavily poached by professional trappers in spite of one of the most comprehensive legislations we have in our Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is difficult to stop this illicit trade altogether, chiefly for lack of adequate protective machinery. Also because most of the comm'ercial poaching is done by tribes of hereditary bird catchers and to stop their traditional occupation overnight, as it were, without providing them with an alternative means of livelihood, would be harsh and unfair. We have an Indian Board for Wildlife under the chairmanship of the I;>rimeMinister himselfan advisory body for the government's policy decisions in all matters relating to wildlife conservation.

How did you become interested in birds in the first place? What was the inspiration?

The story of how I first beqm~ int~ry~tyd in birds has been peddled around ad nauseam in recent years. It began with my shooting an unfamiliar species of sparrow with J.11yairgun when I was about 9, and taking it for

other ways. He thus laid the foundation of an interest in birds that has continued to grow with the years.

How did you and S.Dillon Ripley, Secretary Emeritus of the Smithsonian Institution, come to collaborate on your latest volume on the birds of the subcontinent?

I first became acquainted with Dillon Ripley in 1944. He was then stationed in Sri Lanka with the American Armed Forces during World War II. When passing through Bombay on one of his routine visits to army headquarters in Delhi he dropped in at the Prince of Wales Museum where I was working on a collection in the Bird Room. Several meetings of this sort took place periodically.

We discussed many problems of ornithological and mutual interest on these occasions and a lasting bond of friendship was established between us that has grown closer with time.

We decided that, when the war was over and conditions returned to normal, we would collaborate in field expeditiOl'ls to collect arid study birds in the unexplored parts of the Indian subcontinent. Our first such joint expedition was in the Mishmi Hills on our northeastern frontier with China in 1947.

Since then we have done several expeditions of this kind together-in Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh and in some of the remoter parts of peninsular India, with scientifically rewarding results. Incidentally, it was on that Mishmi expedition that we first conceived the idea of producing an up-to-date illustrated manual on the birds of India and Pakistan under our joint authorship. Both of us were agreed that the existing standard work on birds in the "Fauna

of Briti~1l Instill" ~yriy~, ~y Stuart 6aKyr, Wa~ unsatisfactory and contained many flaws.

Since the time Dillon Ripley took overthe secretaryship of the Smithsonian Institution, in 1956 or thereabouts, a felicitous and mutually

id~ntifiQntion to th~ "8ombny Nntuml HiUory

b~n~fi~inl ~mJP~putiv~ p~lnti8ft~fti~ wifh I5UP

~oci@ty. Th@ §@Cf@t!Uy,!l Briton,

own in§titution-the

We are fortunate that in India a reverence for life still persists. Such animals as are not directly involved in the economic web-for food or monetary gain-are fairly safe. By

W!l~ W impressed by a small Indian boy being so inquisitive as to want to know-when practically no grown-ups were at all interested in birds-that he took special pains to encourage

thilt tolcn, bifd~ in gGnGfill~fC not normillly

m~ by h~IDinR with book~ nnd ndvi~~ und in th~y~npgto ~om~.

HombllY Nlltuml I=Ii§tory

Society-has developed and deepened. It is to be earnestly hoped that this happy symbiosis will continue to flourish under the new stewardship of the Smithsonian Institution In

0

Audubon's vanity about the superior quality of his work working hard all day, and disposing of my works at a price vis-a-vis that of Wilson's did not endear him to fellow which a common laborer would have thought little more than Americans. Both scientists and artists spurned him. Isolated, su(ficient remuneration for his work." His perseverance paid off the "great idea" became his life's aim and Audubon had only and, while printing proceeded unabated, Audubon sought Lucy to support him. "My best friends solemnly regard me as a subscribers at about ÂŁ182 in England and $1,000 in America for madman ... my wife determined that my genius should prevail a complete set. A visit to France resulted in a few more and that my final success shall be triumphant." subscriptions and soon Audubon was able to entrust the The former immigrant turned to Europe for succor. supervision of the publication to an English naturalist.

Scraping all their savings together, the rough American England, for all the avenues it provided in the realization of woodsman arrived in Liverpool on July 21, 1826, armed only the "great idea," stifled Audubon. He yearned to be back in with a portfolio of drawings and a few letters of introduction.

America. In 1829 he returned home and was received as a Fortunately, the introduction to the Rathbones, wealthy and famous ornithologist and bird painter. New York customs enlightened merchants of Liverpool, proved to be a godsend. waived duty on his b06ks and guns. Audubon was ecstatic at England was still infatuated with its former colony and . being back and wrote profusely in his journal, "This morning I Audubon's drawings of the birds had a richness and spon-, saw my dear native land .. :.1 offered my thanks to our God, taneous brilliance that evoked the untamed American pioneer that he had preserved and prospered me in my long absence and spirit. Audubon's personal image as an "American woodsman" once more permitted me to approach these shores so dear to me, in a wolf-skin coat with curly chestnut hair falling to his' and which hold my heart's best earthly treasures." shoulders added to the adulation that his work received. An The "great idea" soon became a family enterprise and exhibition of the drawings was organized at the Edinburgh Audubon took the family to England to assist him. His two sons Royal Institution and awed the city. The English aristocracy proved to be chips Of the old block, and helped in painting the feted Audubon.

Sir Walter Scott remarked on his "great canvases to pay for the printing of the book and in supervising simplicity of manners" and, as the new celebrity wrote to Lucy, the finished plates. Lucy laboriously wrote out the manuscript "I am feted, feasted, elected honorary member of societies to secure the American copyright. Realizing that the book under ... making money by my exhibition and painting .... It is Mr. preparation did not provide sufficient scientific information on Audubon here and Mr. Audubon there; I only hope they will the birds, Audubon teamed up with William MacGillivray, a not make a conceited fool of Mr. Audubon at last." The naturalist from the University of Edinburgh to produce the Edinburgh exhibition was seminal for the seriousness with five-volume Ornithological Biographies (1831-39). This conwhich his work was received by the artistic and scientific tained a detailed discussion on all the birds portrayed in his community in England. Commenting on his work, a critic forthcoming book and essays on American Scenery and Manheralded it as "an unheard of triumph of patience ners. Traveling between England and America, Audubon and genius." undertook arduous field trips and amassed considerable data on The "great idea" was heroic in scale, possibly new birds from Florida, Texas and from across the Western reflecting the vastness that America epitomized.

United States for the biographies. Working feverishly on both Audubon prevailed upon a Scottish engraver, books, he wrote notes for one and checked the color progresW.H. Lizar, to undertake the printing of his work sives of the other. Nothing escaped his eye. On June 20, 1838, in what is now called the "Double Elephant the last plate of Birds of America was printed. The Audubon Folio." Each print on handmade paper measured odyssey had ended triumphantly.

From late 1826, when the first 75 by 100 centimeters and the entire set of 435 .plates of the book were sent. to press, till its completion, plates weighed almost 25 kilograms. (More reAudubon had spent $115,640 on the publication-all raised by cently a full set of original prints was auctioned in him. He later said, "I doubt if any other family with our Sotheby's, New York, for $1,716,660.) But this pecuniary means will ever raise ~for themselves such a early scent of success was stillborn. Lizar had a monument as Birds of America is over their tomb!" Possibly strike in his press and the hapless Audubon had to never.

RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER h h Ip 0f anot h er pnnter. ' Th"IS Im1la .. I so I"IClt tee Finally, back in America, the Audubons bought land on the setback proved to be fortuitous in the long run for the artist.

Hudson River and settled down in "Minnie's Estate" or what is Desperately looking for another engraver in London, he now dIlled Audubon Park in New York City. The Herculean chanced upon the Havells, a father and son team that labors had taken their toll and in the late 1840s Audubon's undertook the mammoth task. Robert Havell, the son, assumed eyesight weakened and his other faculties became' dulled. the onus of printing the book and his team of dedicated Books like The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America engravers and colorists worked ceaselessly for 11 years (1827 to (1845-48) had to be completed by his sons. Toward the end of 1838) and production was not stopped for a single day. . his life, Audubon became a revered father figure to younger However, the responsibility for publishing the book had to be naturalists and artists. Fame and fortune had finally come to borne by Audubon. This meant using funds that were never him, but he had reached the end of his mortal tether. In 1847 his abundant. Audubon hit upon an ingenious scheme to finance mind began to fail and visitors only got a glimpse of a tall, his publication. Day after day he painted scenes of American patrician figure with snow-white hair walking along the banks of wildlife and, with the oil barely dry, hawked them from door to the Hudson, sometimes led by a servant. Four years later, on door in London. Audubon literally lived from hour to hour to January 27, 1851, the master artist died. pay for the printing and at one stage with only a sovereign in his In retrospect, it must be conceded that while Audubon pocket, wrote, "I extricated myself from all my difficulties not invited controversy, his work, both as an artist and scientist, by borrowing money, but by rising at four in the morning, retains a pre-eminent arid pioneering status in the annals of

American natural history. Artists ridiculed his work for being too photographic and ornate. Scientists found his depiction of the birds too emotional and dramatic.

He was accused of misrepresenting facts to heighten the content of his drawings.

He was later vindicated. His famous print of the mockingbirds defending their nest against a rattlesnake was subject to a scathing attack. The scientific establishment maintained that rattlesnakes did not climb trees and that their fangs did not bend upward at the tips, as depicted by Audubon. Audubon stood by his work and, years afterward, he was proved to be correct. Audubon lacked formal training as an ornithologist but compared with Wilson's work, his labor of love had a greater usefulness because of its readability.

Birds of America contains 60 percent of all the feathered tribe that inhabit the United States.

As an artist, Audubon was without equal and his drawings of birds have a dynamism and vibrancy that the genre had never seen before. Earlier studies of birds were stiff and colorless and lacked the degree of detail observed by Audubon. Whether it is the ferocious white-headed eagle holding a catfish in its claws or pileated woodpeckers feeding on a tree, Audubon captured the action of the moment and liberated his painting from a temporal freeze that suffocated the work of other painters.

Working in transparent water colors he had evolved a mode of combining different media to simulate the exact sheen and subtle color tones in the plumage of the birds. (This attention to the minute differences in plumage color led to a few discrepancies in the classification of certain birds, as pointed out by later ornithologists.) During his years in Florida, Audubon hit upon a method of combining pencil, water color, pastel, crayon, ink, oil and egg white that permitted him to "truthfully" portray his beloved birds.

Ornithology as a science owes a lot to John James Audubon

for making it popular. The study of birds, apart from providing rewarding hours in the field for bird ,.watchers, serves as an important barometer of ecological balance.

Birds' high metabolic rates and shorter life span permit them to reflect subtle changes in the environment that may not be apparent in the life cycles of other life forms, and are aptly called the litmus paper of environment.

Audubon's great contribution lay in creating an awareness about birds and, by extension, the flora and fauna of our planet.

His name has become synonymous with conservation and Audubon clubs and societies are scattered throughout the world. The man himself was conscious of the conservation ethic only toward the end of his life. During his prime, he slaughtered animals and birds both for sport and study, but later, writing of the brown pelicans and other species, he observed, "Year after year [they are] retreating from the vicinity of man." He feared they would be "hunted beyond the range of civilization." It is this concern with nature that Audubon ignited off in America and the rest of the world. Messiah of conservation and environmental protection, the greater wonder of Audubon lies in the fact that he seemed such an unlikely candidate for immortality. Even he would have been surprised at the way his feathered creatures catapulted him to everlasting fame.

0 About the Author: c./. Bhaskar is a Delhi-based free-lance journalist and the art critic of The Financial Express.

ON THE LIGHTER SIDE

Looking Up Trouble The first time I went to England, George told me to look up a baron. Let us call him Lord Flutter. "When you get down around. the Cotswolds, nip over to the castle and look up Lord Flutter," George urged.

I did so, for I was very young then and totally inexperienced in looking up people. This was because I had never traveled to any of the places inhabited by people worth looking up. Now and then I might travel from southwest Baltimore to ElliCopyright Š 1985 by The New York Times Company. Reprinted by permission from The New York Times Magazine.

cott City, but news that I was planning such a trip never stirred the world's Georges who invariably want you to look people up.

"Ellicott City, eh?" George would say, dismissing me from further consideration so he could focus on Bill or Leo, who were always traveling to romantic places.

"When you get to Rome," he once told Bill, "nip up to Florence and look up Bernard Berenson for me." Leo once got into a tight spot in Moscow during the Stalin era for looking up a remote cousin of George's named Trotsky.

Stalin is said to have halted the execution himself on grounds that anyone dense enough to go to the police for directions on how to find Leon Trotsky was probably the mere butt of some joke played by a certain American buffoon named, according to his

spies, George. I doubt this story, because George never plays jokes. The people he wants looked up are people he knows or, at least, has met.

Elizabeth Taylor, for example. An uncle of George's in the film industry once bribed a union leader to get George a summer job as a caterer's aide during the shooting of an Elizabeth Taylor film. One day, George served Miss Taylor a cup of tea.

"Thank you," Miss Taylor said.

Twenty-five years later George told Bill, "When you get out to California, nip down to Hollywood and look up myoId friend Liz Taylor."

But back to Lord Flutter those many years ago ....

I finally got down around

the Cotswolds and, remembering George's request, nipped over to the castle to look up Lord Flutter.

He was civil, as only the English can be civil.

"So you are looking me up, are you?"

"Exactly."

We stood there in long silence. It was in Lord Flutter's garden. He was watering the geraniums. He obviously knew nothing about geraniums, because his were being overwatered to death.

He finally interrupted the silence to ask, "How long will it take?" " ... will what take?"

"Looking me up," he said.

"How long will it take to look me up?"

"It was George's idea," I said. Realizing that Lord Flutter did not like being looked up, I yielded to a craven urge to shift the blame.

Later the police explained that Lord Flutter, unfamiliar with the American habit of looking people up, thought that I was either a blackmailer, a kidnapper, or a bounder who had come to seduce h\s ward. And, after all, as the constable noted, his Lordship had called off the dogs before they could maul me beyond surgical repair, hadn't he? I did not press charges. With his English civility, neither did Lord Flutter.

I can laugh now that I am rich and famous, with a touch of distinguished gray at the temples and a private humidor that is the envy of belted earls and royal dukes, but the experience left a psychic scar.

After the Lord Flutter humiliation, naturally I was never able to look up anybody again. It became a famous case for psychologists. They diagnose a disgusting timidity that left me powerless to intrude on the privacy of persons who had no desire to meet a thundering bore.

Naturally, a person with my problem is no more at ease when being looked up than when he is looking up somebody. The crux of the neurosis, you see, is fear of being recognized by strangers as the world's most tiresome human.

When you are rich, famous and distinguished, with an enviable humidor, the world mistakes such fear for snobbishness. Winston Churchill once libeled me by telling

Queen Elizabeth, "Well, go ahead if you must, Ma'am, and look him up when you get to America, but you are inviting a snub from an insufferable boor."

The Queen's note said: "Dear George, I am so sorry that I shall be unable to look up your friend this trip."

0 About the Author: Russell Baker has been a humor columnist with The New York Times since 1962.

Winner of two Pulitzer Prizes (for distinguished commentary in 1979 and for biography in 1983), he has also written several books.

FOCUS

The Summit

I have just come from Geneva and talks with General Secretary Gorbachev. In the past few days, we spent over 15 hours in various meetings with the General Secretary and the members of his official party. Approximately five of those hours were talks between Mr.Gorbachev and myself, just one on one. That was the best part-our fireside ~ummit.

There will be, I know, a great deal of commentary and opinion as to what the meetings produced and what they were like. There were over 3,000 reporters in Geneva, so it's possible there will be' 3,000 opinions on what happened. Maybe it's the old broadcaster in me but I decided to file my own report directly to you.

We met, as we had to meet. I had called for a fresh start-and we made that start. I can't claim we had a meeting of the minds on such fundamentals as ideology or national purpose-but we understand each other better.

That's key to peace. I gained a better perspective; I feel he did, too.

It was a constructive meeting. So constructive, in fact, that I look forward to welcoming Mr. Gorbachev to the United States next year. And I have accepted his invitation to go to Moscow the following year.

I found Mr. Gorbachev to be an energetic defender of Soviet policy. He was an eloquent speaker, and a good listener. Our subject matter was shaped by the facts of this century.

These past 40 years have not been an easy time for the West or the world. You know the facts; there is no need to recite the historical record. Suffice it to say that the United States cannot afford illusions about the nature of the U.S.S.R. We cannot assume that their ideology and purpose will change. This implies enduring competition.

Our task is to assure that this competition remains peaceful. With all that divides us, we cannot afford to let confusion complicate things further. We must be clear with each other, and direct. We must pay each other the tribute of candor.

When I took the oath of office for the first time, we began dealing with the Soviet Union in a way that was more realistic than in the recent past. And so, in a very real sense, preparations for the Summit started, not months ago, but five years ago when-with the help of Congress-we began strengthening our economy, restoring our national will, and rebuilding our defenses and alliances. America is once again strong-and our strength has given us the ability to speak with confidence and see that no true opportunity to advance freedom and peace is lost. We must not now abandon policies that work.

That is the history behind the Geneva Summit, that is the context in which it occurred. And may I add that we were especially eager that our meetings give a push to important talks already under way on reducing nuclear weapons. On this subject it would be foolish not to go the extra mile-or in this case the extra 4,000 miles.

We discussed the great issues of our time. I made clear before the first meeting that no question would be swept aside, no issue buried, just because either side found it uncomfortable or inconvenient.

I brought these questions to the Summit and put them before Mr. Gorbachev.

We discussed nuclear arms and how to reduce them. I explained our proposals for equitable, verifiable and deep reductions. I outlined my conviction that our proposals would make not just for a world that feels safer but that is really safer.

I am pleased to report tonight that General Secretary Gorbachev and I did make a measure of progress here.

While we still have a long way to go, we're at least heading in the right direction. We moved arms control forward from where we were last January, when the Soviets returned to the table.

We are both instructing our negotiators to hasten their vital work. The world is waiting for results.

Specifically, we agreed in Geneva that each side should move to cut offensive nuclear arms by 50 percent in appropriate categories. In our joint statement we called for early progress on this, turning the talks toward our chief goal, offensive reductions. We called for an interim accord on intermediate-range nuclear forces, leading, I hope, to the complete elimination of this class of missiles.

All this with tough verification.

We also made progress in combating together the spread of nuclear weapons, an arms control area in which we've cooperated effectively over the years. We are also opening a dialogue on combating the spread and use of chemical weapons, while moving to ban them altogether.

Other arms control dialogues-in Vienna on conventional forces, and in Stockholm on lessening the chances for surprise attack in Europe-also received a boost. Finally, we agreed to begin work on risk reduction centers.

I described our Strategic Oefense Initiative [SOI]our research effort that envisions the possibility of defensive systems which could ultimately protect all nations against the danger of nuclear war. This discussion produced a very direct exchange of views ....

I made it clear that SOl has nothing to do with offensive weapons; that, instead, we are investigating non-nuclear defensive systems that would only threaten offensive missiles, not people. If our research succeeds, it will bring much closer the safer, more stable world that we seek. Nations could defend themselves against missile attack, and mankind, at long last, escape the prison of mutual terror-this is my dream.

So I welcomed the chance to tell Mr. Gorbachev that we are a nation that defends, rather than attacks, that our alliances are defensive, not offensive. We don't seek nuclear superiority. We do not seek a first-strike advantage over the Soviet Union. Indeed, one of my fundamental arms control objectives is to get rid of first-strike weapons altogether. This is why we have proposed a 50 percent reduction in the most threatening nuclear weapons, especially those that could carry out a first strike.

I went further in expressing our peaceful intentions. I described our proposal in the Geneva negotiations for a reciprocal program of open laboratories in strategic defense research. We are offering to permit Soviet experts to see first hand that SOL does not involve offensive

November 21, immediately on his return from the Geneva Summit meeting with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, President Ronald Reagan addressed ajoint session of the U.S. Congress.

Following are excerpts from his speech.

weapons. American scientists would be allowed to visit comparable facilities of the Soviet strategic defense program, which, in fact, has involved much more than research for many years.

Finally, I reassured Mr. Gorbachev on another point. I promised that if our research reveals that a defense against nuclear missiles is possible, we would sit down with our allies and the Soviet Union to see how together we could replace all strategic ballistic missiles with such a defense, which threatens no one.

We discussed threats to'the peace in several regions of the world. I explained my proposals for a peace process to stop the wars in Afghanistan, Nicaragua, Ethiopia, Angola and Cambodia. Those places where insurgencies that speak for the people are pitted against regimes which obviously do not represent the will or the approval of the people. I tried to be very' clear about where our sympathies lie; I believe I succeeded. .

We discussed human rights. We Americans believe that history teaches no clearer lesson than this: Those countries which respect the rights of their own people tend, inevitably, to respect the rights of their neighbors.

Human rights, therefore, is not an abstract moral issueit is a peace issue.

Finally, we discussed the barriers to communication between our societies, and I elaborated on my proposals for real people-to-people contacts on a wider scale.

Americans should know the people of the Soviet Union, their hopes and fears and the facts of their lives.

And citizens of the Soviet Union need to know of America's deep desire for peace and our unwavering attachment to freedom. Our talks were wide ranging. Let me at this point tell you what we agreed upon and what we didn't.

We remain far apart on a number of issues, as had to be expected. However, we reached agreement on a number of matters, and, as I mentioned, we agreed to continue meeting and this is important and very good.

There's always room for movement, action and progress when people are talking to each other instead of about each other.

We have concluded a new agreement designed to send the best of America's artists and academics to the Soviet Union. The exhibits that will be included in this exchange are one of the most effective ways for the average Soviet citizen to learn about our way of life. This agreement will also expand the opportunities for Americans to experience the Soviet people's rich cultural heritage-because their artists and academics will be coming here.

We have also decided to go forward with a number of people-to-people initiatives that will go beyond greater contact not only between the political leaders of our two countries but our respective students, teachers and others as well. We have emphasized youth exchanges. This will help break down stereotypes, build friendships and, frankly, provide an alternative to propaganda.

We have agreed to establish a new Soviet consulate in New York and a new American consulate in Kiev. This will bring a permanent U.S. presence to the Ukraine for the first time in decades.

We have aiso, together with the government of Japan, concluded a Pacific air safety agreement with the Soviet Union. This is designed to set up cooperative measures to improve civil air safety in that region of the Pacific. What happened before must never be allowed to happen again.

As a potential way of dealing with the energy needs of the world of the future, we have also advocated international cooperation to explore the feasibility of developing fusion energy.

All of these steps are part of a long-term effort to build a more stable relationship with the Soviet Union. No one ever said it would be easy. But we've come a long way.

As for Soviet expansionism in a number of regions of the world-while there is little chance of immediate change, we will continue to support the heroic efforts of those who fight for freedom. But we have also agreed to continue-and to intensify-our meetings with the Soviets on this and other regional conflicts and to work toward political solutions.

We know the limits as well as the promise of summit meetings. This is, after all, the lIth summit of the post-War era-and still the differences endure. But we believe continued meetings between the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union can help bridge those differences.

The fact is, every new day begins with possibilities; it's up to us to fill it with the things that move us toward progress and peace. Hope, therefore, is a realistic attitude-and despair an uninteresting little vice.

And so: Was' our journey worthwhile?

Thirty years ago, when President Eisenhower had just returned from a Summit in Geneva, he said, " The wide gulf that separates so far East and West ... [is] wide and deep." Today, three decades later, that is still true.

But, yes, this meeting was worthwhile for both sides.

A new realism spawned the Summit; the Summit itself was a good start; and now our byword must be: Steady as we go.

I am, as you are, impatient for results. But goodwill and good hopes do not always yield lasting results. Quick fixes don't fix big problems.

Just as we must avoid illusions on our side, so we must dispel them on the Soviet side. I have made it clear to Mr. Gorbachev that we must reduce the mistrust and suspicions between us if we are to do such things as reduce arms, and this will take deeds, not words alone. I beIleve he is in agreement.

Where do we go from here? Well, our desire for improved relations is strong. We're ready and eager for step-by-step progress. We know that peace is not just the absence of war. We don't wailt a phony peace or a frail peace; we did not go in pursuit of some kind of illusory detente. We can't be satisfied with cosmetic improvements that won't stand the test of time. We want real peace....

0

The Family Farm

by CHRISTOPHER

HALLOWELL

Two years ago, my sister and I sold our family farm, 40 hectares in western Massachusetts. It was a glqrious piece of land, with rolling meadows leading to sweeping views of the Berkshire hills, a brook that glistened through a hemlock forest and a rambling 19th-century farmhouse with slanting floors and hand-hewn rafters. My wife and friends told me I was crazy to want to get rid of the place. I kept two hectares, not because of their remarks but for another reason that, I have only recently come to understand, is closely related to a mother's influence over a son.

Our mother and father bought the farm when I was 3 years old and my sister 7. It was a working farm, and my father was a dirt farmer. He was my childhood hero. I was in his constant tow-milking cows, erecting fences, hauling hay bales from field to barn, collecting eggs from clucking hens.

He cut a dramatic figure. He attacked the fields with a roaring tractor. He furrowed the earth into great brown snakes and cut crisp swaths of moist hay. He dug cavernous holes for foundations and built a barn over them. He squeezed milk from cows and pulled broken engines apart.

With this kind of excitement at hand, my awareness of my mother was dim. To this day, my memories of her are not clearly defined-only a lingering awareness of her quiet and concentrated appreciation of the place. She tried to help my father run the farm, but when she got into the driver's seat of the irascible old truck or when she cleaned freshly killed chickens, even my young eyes could see her mind travel away from her work, invariably stopping when she hit upon an object of natural beauty.

She stared at clouds racing across longgrassed fields, at Queen Anne's lace waving in the meadows and especially at the mountainside that rose from the valley below the farm and towered above us.

A little meadow high up on the mountain was yisible from our house. Sbe often wondered who had cleared it. She told me a story. Long ago, the man who had built our house went hunting on the mountain and shot a deer. He brought it back to the house and hung it on a tree. The next morning he found an American Indian in the kitchen.

He told him that he had killed the deer on his mountain and he wanted his deer back.

I cannot recall that she taught me anything specific, certainly not the way my father did. She did not know the names of the trees or the flowers or even when they blossomed. She must have taught me, though, how to observe. We took long walks through the fields and along the brook, she pointing out the nuances of nature. My father mocked what he considered to be her misty-eyed appreciation. To him the wildflowers that blanketed the fields took up space in which sweet grass could grow for his cows. Woodchucks were not designers of intricate underground passages. They were :vermin whose holes were booby traps for tractor wheels. I thrilled when he threw smoke bombs into their dens and quickly shoveled dirt over the openings to trap the animals in smoky death.

I was too much in awe of his gruff power to take in my mother's gentle whimsy. Still, he forced me at last to grow away from him.

One incident, especially, increased the distance. My father was cutting hay and I, as usual, was riding on the rear fender of the tractor. A high-pitched scream came from the long grass near the blade. We found a young rabbit with its four legs cleanly severed. My father said nothing, but carried the poor animal to a stone wall. The thing was in shock; it did not even try to hobble away on its stumps. My father picked up a rock and brought it down on the rabbit's head with such force that the head vanished, smashed into blood and fur. The body flip-flopped up and down like a shirt on a clothesline. Not a word from my father; not a glance at me, a lO-year-old boy as stunned into silence as had been the rabbit.

The farm eventually wore him out. He tried for 15 years to bend the land to his will, but the land beat him. He gave up the farm, confused and embittered.

The barn began to sag; wildflowers crept closer to the house; the unpruned branches of the apple trees split from their trunks. He railed against my mother as if the land and she had been allies working against him.

He took his anger out on me, too, but, like my sister, I escaped-first to college and then to the big city. I no longer thought much about the farm. I paid dutiful visits there to a father who had become distant and to a mother who now depended on her communication with the land for solace. I

began to respect her long staring at the mountainside.

After my father died, my mother continued to live on the farm alone, taking solemn joy in her wanderings through the broken apple orchard and among seedling white pines that sprouted where clover had grown. At last no one ridiculed the treasures she brought back-blossoming boughs, a cluster of silvery marsh grass or an assortment of berries.

When my mother was stricken with a disease that forced my sister and me to move her to a nursing home, I wanted to get rid of the farm. I talked to my sister about it, thinking, perhaps hoping, that she would protest. But she agreed with a shrug, as if to say, "Sure, I couldn't care less." Her response stung me. The pain made me realize that to discard the place like a used car would betray a love of something intangible that my mother had given me-the smell of freshly cut alfalfa, the springtime chorus of peepers in the brook, the cry of red-winged blackbirds in the meadows. My mother's passive caressing of the land had penetrated me far more than my father's energetic shaping of it.

The little corner of the farm that I decided to keep is far away from the rotting buildings that remind me of my childhood. I was glad to sell those and the surrounding land to a stranger. My two hectares are a lovely meadow slanting toward the mountain, a testimony to my mother's steadfastness. From it, the little pasture up above is just visible, though it is less manicured now, as nature reclaims it. That is fine with me.

The years have dissolved any desire to beat back natural growth. Now my heart races when I feel the tangled orchard grass and wildflower stems underfoot. I like them just 0 as they are.

About the Author: Christopher Hallowell is the author of Growing Old, Staying Young.

The Death of Apples A short story by Reed Whittemore Clemens had not thought much about "Apples" Mcintosh for 30 years, but now that he had the occasion, he remembered thinking of him as pleasant, unsure of himself,and not often of this world. That he should die rich, in a big house, was the father's fault, not Apples'.

Apples had gone into banking after his father. His father had not gone into banking after anybody. His father had been a waif from Aberdeen who had worked his way up in the big bank on College Street, from polishing brass doorknobs to a cashier's job, and then senior cashier, and then the big time.

When Apples was born the father was a

vice-president. When Apples was 18 the father was president, and gave Apples a speedboat.

It was a Hackercraft with a wide leather seat for four up front, and two blue captain's chairs stowed behind for harbor use. Apples moored the boat at the Stony Island Yacht Club and let its polishing be the making of him.

Looking at the body in the heavy casket in the back room of the funeral home, Clemens was struck by the lingering roundness, the appleness of the cheeks. He had thought the face would be weathered and withered, but no, it. was still shiny and bulbous. As for the

clothing, that was striking too. Apples was wearing grey flannels, and a navy blue sailing jacket over a white sport shirt open at the collar. His shoes were light summer affairs with air vents. Beneath the brass buttons of his coat the stubby fingers of his body were folded neatly over his lower stomach, making the body a sort of parody of the chubby original, an undertaker joke. Clemens doubted that he would have recognized the corpse had he met it on the street, yet the features from speedboat days were all there. Apples in death was still physically Apples, and up to the moment of death must even have still thought of himself as

Apples, the old boat polisher.

Why else would he have written to Clemens suggesting that they bring back the old days and have lunch? Clemens moved away from the casket thinking of the irony of the date Apples had set for their lunch, the date of the funeral.

Not far from the casket, but near the door into the room where the chairs were lined up, was a small round woman in black, arranging flowers. Clemens thought she looked very much like Apples, and assumed her to be a sister; but when he introduced himself he was embarrassed to be told that she was Mrs. Apples. As if to explain his mistake he said, "I knew Apples at Stony Island."

"Oh," she said, looking at him with Apples' bright button eyes, "I think everyone who is here did. We all met him at Stony Island, but you knew him before we did. He told me about you. You were a writer and always brought a certain kind of salami down to the boat. What kind of salami was it?" She was about to go on, chattily, as if they were talking in an aisle of a supermarket, but was called suddenly into the next room. Clemens noticed that as she left she picked up a chocolate mint from a dish oddly placed near the casket, and popped it into her mouth. He watched her plump legs take quick short steps across the carpet, and imagined her sitting with Apples in the captain's chairs, munching. He wondered if she had ever ridden out on the Sound with him.

Not that many persons had. Apples polished and munched more than he rode. On a warm Saturday morning he might take a quick spin out the channel and around Black Rock, but by the time the rest of the harbor had become busy hoisting up flags and sails, and starting up heavy Lycomings, and casting off for a day on the water, he was back at his mooring, polishing.

And filling the neat little ice box under the dashboard with beer, cream cheese, strawberry jam, bagels, pickles, salami, rye bread, lettuce, mustard, mayonnaise, butter and peanuts. And sometimes white wine.

And fitting the awning contraption into place.

Apples felt most comfortable in his

speedboat when it was still. He would start the engine regularly, to be sure it was in good order, but then he would shut it off and go to polishing the running lights and other hardware, and to varnishing the front deck. When Clemens prodded him to speed out on the Sound he would say that the wind was too high, or that he had to go to town soon. Then the wind would not be too high, and he would not go to town. He would sit with Clemens under the awning contraption, and they would drink beer together, and munch; and Apples would tell Clemens how crazy it was that he, Apples, had a speedboat at all.

If Clemens had been the one with the speedboat he would not have thought it crazy. He had been brought up to be familiar with speedboats, comfortable in the presence of speedboats, other people's. He had been out on the open Atlantic in them, had aquaplaned behind them, had gone aground with them. He had never taken one out alone but had been sure that he could, had been sure he could handle it expertly, as he handled all machines. He had a possessive American feeling about them. Apples did not.

Apples was not a possessor though he possessed, and at 19 he had given every sign that he would stay that way, stay uncomfortable as a skipper. His role was chef!

But how, then, had he later managed to live at ease with his large hunk of the College Street bank?

In the room with the chairs a short round man in black with a clerical collar was making motions that the service was about to begin. Clemens went in and sat in the back. There were two dozen or so chairs, of which perhaps half were filled.

The widow sat in the front row, next to another small, round woman, someone who looked like her, or like Apples. No children were present. Had there been any? The other mourners looked to be Apples' age, but in their neat soberness they did not look rich and imposing in the way Clemens had supposed Apples' friends from the bank would lookagainst a backdrop of safe-deposit boxes and walnut paneling. What these bodies shared was simply the simple Apples look. So many Apples! Clemens could

not begin to describe the look, but he knew it well, and knew he could spot it just as the bird man Roger Tory Peterson could spot vireos.

So he began to worry. Could it be that on this strange scene, and among strangers, he was hallucinating? He had seen tricky movies where the hero, having fallen for the hard-to-get heroine, kept having all the faces on the street turn into her face. Were these ordinary people, sitting in the chairs of the funeral parlor, being massaged into Appledom by his own queered senses?

Then for a moment he thought he saw yet another dish of chocolate mints resting on an empty chair. (It was not. It was an empty calling-card dish.)

But what should he do with the sudden busyness, in the front row, of the widow's sister?-lust as the cleric was about to begin she stood up with a small white rag, turned around, and polished the wood panel at the top of her chair.

Worse, he now wondered if they were examining his features-the slimness, the spectacles, the mussed hair-and asking themselves, "How does the professor fit into our Apple country?"

The cleric cleared his throat, asked the congregation to rise, recited a prayer, asked the congregation to be seated, and cleared his throat again. He had a small, reedy voice, and showed his professional. piety by appearing to be in pain. Clemens imagined a simpering to come, with

Reed Whittemore, a professor at the University of Maryland, has published several collections of his poems, stories, essays and a biography of William Carlos Williams.

"Katherine gave the details flatly, with no sentiment ... surprising him, not doing or saying what her appearance told him she should do or say."

psalm readings sandwiched between euphonious commentary on the general happiness of which Apples was now possessed; and so was pleased to learn that such a program was not to be. With everyone back on their chairs the cleric held up a long white envelope and said it contained a request from the deceased, communicated also verbally to Mrs McIntosh, that the usual funeral service be dispensed with.

The deceased had asked instead for a reading of Robert Browning's "Prospice."

Instantly Clemens' mind was driven back to the speedboat.路 Clemens had introduced Apples to that poem right on theback deck as they sat in their captain's chairseating. An image appeared to him. of an old, damp poetry anthology that Appleskept in the tool chest of the boat, andof Apples hauling the anthology out, unstickingthe pages and reading the lines aloud, surrounded by cheese and salami.

The cleric read "Prospice" in his smallvoice: Feardeath?-to feel the fog in my throat, The mist in my face, When the snows begin, and the blasts denote I am nearing the place.

Thepower of the night, the press of the storm, Thepost of the foe; Where he stands, the Arch Fear in a visible form, Yet the strong man must go ....

Yes, they had sat there being amused by the poet's battle with snow while they reclinedunder the boat's awning with the temperature at over 30; and now Clemenswas amused that Apples wanted his mourners to remember him not only battling in the snow but battling the Arch Fiend in the snow. Apples was just not Browning-ferocious, out of the casket or in. ... let me taste the whole of it, fare like my peers The heroes of old, Bear the brunt, in a minute pay glad life'S arrears Of pain, darkness and cold.

Forsudden the worst turns the best to the brave, The black minute's at end, And the elements' rage, the fiend voices that rave,

Shall dwindle, shall blend, Shall change, shall become first a peace out of pain, Then a light, then thy breast, o thou soul of my soul! I shall clasp thee again, And with God be the rest!

At least, Clemens reflected, it was nice h(iving Browning want to taste the whole of it; but the cleric had read it as if it were a grocery list written long before tasting, and the expressionless mourners gave no sign of having tasted anything eitherexcept one of them, a short balding man with coat sleeves that were too short, who seemed to be chewing gum.

Clemens was driven to the cemetery behind the hearse, in the first of three undertaker Cadillacs, sharing the car with the widow Katherine, her sister Amelia, and a round couple by the name of Roberts who had been connected with Apples' own bank. Clemens didn't understand why he had been put in the first car, but at any rate Katherine McIntosh introduced him to the Robertses as a very old friend of Apples from high school days, perhaps feeling that oldness and remoteness were needed to explain his not being round. The Robertses were content with the explanation, telling him that they just knew he would be able to tell them a great deal that they didn't know about Apples. No one, it seemed, knew very much about him except Katherine, who sat smiling primly at them all, and chatting about how nice it was that they had come, and how Apples (she was sure) appreciated it. Mrs. Roberts was herself a comfortable chatterer, but she was under the handicap of having to chatter in negatives, emphasizing how little she had seen of Apples of late. She looked at Katherine with mild disapproval, and said she had not even known that Apples was ill.

"Oh yes, yes, yes," said bright-eyed Katherine. "Very ill. He had known for years. " "Had known what?"

Katherine gave the details flatly, with no sentiment. Clemens kept being impressed at her way of surprising him, not doing or saying what her appearance told him she should do or say. In the car she

was wearing a tiny round hat with a little black veil, and it bothered her. She took it off, brushed back her ruffled hair with the back of her hand, held the hat in her lap, and said, "I knew I didn't want it when I got it, such a dumb hat." Mrs. Roberts and the' sister nodded in sympathy. They were all nodders,路 moving their heads suddenly, like chipmunks.

Yes, that was it. They were fatcheeked, munching chipmunks.

"But was he not," Clemens wondered, "working regularly at the bank at the time of his death?"

All the heads shook together to scuttle that error, and Katherine said that, Heavens, he had not been at the bank for years. After the death of his father he had been president for a short time, but then had retired. "He kept saying," she added, "that banking was not his dish."

Mrs. Roberts said that he was a very private man, a man for den rather than ballroom. "He was a man for kitchen," added Katherine. And no one had seen him at the Stony Island Club for years.

Nothing at all had been happening in his life for years.

"Seldom left the house," said Katherine.

"Seldom left the house," echoed the sister. The sister seemed to have been living with them. She took her little white rag and scrubbed a door handle.

So the bank, Clemens decided, had been路 a little bit like Long Island Sound, too rough for Apples, and the house had been like the speedboat at anchor, a quiet place to which Apples retreated, neatly, modestly, unto death. "What ever happened," he asked Katherine, "to the Hackercraft?"

"You mean the boat?" 路"It was a Hackercraft."

"I think it sank," she said, puckering her lips.

"Indeed it did," supplied Mr. Roberts.

"It was rammed right at the mooring by a drunk with a big outboard. 'in midafternoon, with Apples 'aboard. It went down with Apples bailing. I was in the next boat and picked him up in my dinghy. I even remember what he said.

He said he had not been born to have a speedboat. He sold it the next day, while it was still at the bottom." Mr. Roberts thought a moment. "And the same day

"It was... raining hard as the hearse ... turned into the cemetery. Katherine rummaged in her purse, found a roll of orange Life Savers, and passed them around." he also resigned from the Club."

With a quick movement forward and down Mrs. Roberts scrubbed with !ler handkerchief at a scuff mark on her husband's shiny black shoe. "The boat had been such fun for him," she said sadly. "He liked to give little lunches on it."

On rainy days especially-and the Cadillacs were now driving near the cemetery in a steady drizzle-Apples liked to eat on board, with the canvas and isinglass side curtains neatly in place, and the two blue captain's chairs facing to the open stern. The rain went well, he would say, with food and culture. As he spread the cheese his cheeks grew rounder and rounder, and as he passed the pickles and sipped his beer primly, the dream of culture seemed to materialize on the spot. Of course the base for the culture was the reading aloud of poems in the damp anthology. " Clemens could not remember how the poems came to be part of the lunch, but he remembered well that Apples lay great store by them. Like the speedboat, they were something that Apples in his lowliness did not deserve but respected from a distance, hence preferred to have Clemens read. So Clemens had read Blake's "Tyger, Tyger" to Apples, and Keat's "Ode to a Nightingale" to Apples; and he had spotted for Apples, like little fishies in a tank, the Metaphysicals and Romantics and Victorians. He had also talked learnedly of the Moderns, represented in the damp anthology by Vachel Lindsay's "Congo" and Robinson's "Miniver Cheevy."

And especially he had read death poems, emptiness poems, elegant quatrains about the futility of human endeavor. He had read them to the absolute delight of Apples, who clearly felt that in sharing the poems the two of them, protected from the soft rain by the isinglass curtains, had visited the central shrine of human understanding.

Stars, I have seen them fall, But when they drop and die No star is lost at all In all the star sown sky.

The toil of all that be Helps not the primal fault.

kling in his breast pocket, and said slowly, "I have to tell you that I feel very odd being here at this time because, you Grand, just grand, especially the "line know, I had a letter from Apples just about the salt-for everything was overlast week, and he said nothing about salted. There were also the lines at the his sickness, in fact nothing about his life. end of Whitman's "Out of the Cradle He said only that he thought it would Endlessly Rocking," where the poet rev- be nice if we renewed our acquainels in the sound of the word "death." tance, and talked over old times, and Apples reveled in it too, savoring the had lunch." word on his tongue like something yumThe limousine faces looked back at my with hot sauce. him, expressionless. He went on, "You But there were two lines from a Words- had not all, by any chance, been planning worth "Lucy" poem that took Apples a to have lunch with Apples today too?" long time to accommodate to. They were "Indeed!" cried Mrs. Roberts happily. the lines describing Lucy in death, the "Lunch! Katherine, you must have last two lines of this quatrain: known about Apples' plan for lunch?"

Katherine sat plumply silent, looking No motion has she now, no force; ~ysterious. Then she said, "Apples loved She neither hears nor sees; poetry. He read it to me by the hour. I do Rolled round in earth's diurnal course think it would be best, Clemens, if you With rocks, and stones, and trees. began."

"But really, Katherine," Clemens proApples thought "diurnal" was too flossy for him; and as for the rocks, stones and tested, "I don't think I should be the one, trees, they weren't flossy enough. He even if there should be one."

Yet of course as he said the words he grumbled a lot about the rocks, stones and trees, but in doing so he kept saying knew that he was the one, for up ahead the lines, until finally he discovered that he could now see through the windshield the lines had "got to" him. Then they the grave site, protected from the rain by became lines he liked to say aloud him- a large rectangular green awning, under self. He would sit like a lump in his which there appeared to be a row of blue captain's chair, then abruptly recite the captain's chairs. He also saw a small quatrain resonantly, with a voice like an white delicatessen truck pulled up nearunhappy foghorn. by. And now he knew not only that he But one day he changed the last line. was to be the one but also which poem His voice became contented and mellow was to be the one. He knew what was as he said, "With lox and bocks and expected of him and why Apples had cheese." He was just delighted, and went invited him, for he could see, over by the grave itself where the coffin was held to slicing salami. unbeautifully in the air by a fork lift, a bar complete with bottles and a man It was not drizzling but raining hard as behind it in a white coat. Yes, of course, the hearse and the three limousines he would have to recite Tennyson's turned into the cemetery. Katherine rum- "Crossing the Bar." He whispered the maged in her purse, found a roll of first quatrain to himself: orange Life Savers, and -passed them Sunset and evening star around. Only Clemens declined. He was And one clear call for me! starting to hallucinate again. The chipAnd may there be no moaning of the bar munk faces were nibbling. Through the When I put out to sea. long morning he had been thinking of Apples, and of the coincidence of his own And certainly also Apples would want re-entry into the Apples sphere at a him to read Apples' own emendation of time-exactly noon as they approached the third line, "And may there be no the cemetery-that put lunch and moaning at the bar." death-love and death?-together like . He felt better now. It would be easy, a' old marrieds. He felt Apples' letter crin- piece of cake.

0 It rains into the sea And still the sea is salt.

Saturn Auto

A 5,000, 000, 000 Dollar Bet The first new name to figure in the General Motors' list since 1918, the Saturn car is about to revolutionize the auto industry in America. Computer designed (below), this all-new engine and new-transmission car is expected to hit the market before the end of this decade.

General Motors (GM) intends to redefine how cars are made.

To do so, the company has gone back to square one.

"One of Saturn's mandates," says automotive analyst Ann Knight of PaineWebber Group, "is to pretend that nobody on Earth has ever made a car and to essentially re-invent the wheel." In an industry now 100 years old, that's a daring premise.

Saturn is GM's name for the subcompact car it expects will match or beat, in cost as well as quality, anything imported from Japan. The car will be produced in Spring Hill, Tennessee, a sleepy town of 1,040 south of Nashville.

Saturn will cost about $ 5,000 million to put if1to production and provide jobs to 6,000 workers at the plant and 10,000 others in nearby supply factories. That investment, GM says, will produce a car that is designed,

built and distributed so much better and more cheaply that the company will regain a competitive edge over Japanese imports that ha,ve1been flooding the U.S. market.

The car itself will prdbably look and drive much like automobiles sold today. More important than the product is the way it will be made. '''The key goal for Saturn ,is to build a small car profit<tbly by changing the whole system," says David Healy, automotive expert at Drexel Burnham Lambert, an investment house.

Virtually every aspect of car making will be .affected.

Separate'dealerships will be spawned. GOTI\Puterswill be on center stage at every step. Labor lfelations will be radically different [see following story]. 'Saturn will be made by fewer workers and more robots than today's cars.

Workers will be paid salaries, not by the hour, and they will be trained to accomplish more tasks in less time. "I would hqpe GM tries things that carry a 70 or 80 percent chance of failure," says Thomas O'Grady, an automotive analyst at Chase Econometrics in Detroit, Michigan. "The payoff could be worth taking the risk."

In fact, some analysts call Saturn' a giant crap shoot-an enormous investment in a product with a maximum annual production of 450,000 cars. They may be correct, but General Motors decided it had little choice. Howard Kehrl, GM's vice-chairman, says that executives.in mid-1981 were nearing a decision to build a new S-body car', to be introduced in 1984. Then a GM cost study concluded that the Japanese could build the same car for $2,000 less, largely because Japanese production methods were far more efficient. "We said, 'This is crazy,' and that's how Saturn was born," relates Kehrl.

The ill-fated S-body car illustrates GM's problems in competing'with the Japanese-problems that Saturn will have to overcome. The U.S. auto industry pays more than twice the hourly rate of Japan. Average U.S. hourly labor costs stood at $19.49 in 1984, and had risen by 57 percent since 1978, according to the U.S. Department of Labor.

Japanese line workers average $8.10 per hour.

Productivity too is far lower than in Japan. In 1983 GM workers devoted 144 hours to produce each vehicle.

Toyota spent only 38 worker-hours per car, and Honda took 67. GM is handicapped in this comparison by the fact that it makes larger cars and more of its own parts than the Japanese car manufacturers. But MichaerLuckey, president of Merrill Lynch Economics, says Japan has a clear advantage by any way of measuring.

G M~s vast bureaucracy of 134,000 nonproduction workers also hampers its flexibility. Mass-production techniques perfected by GM locked it into rigid schedules and rewarded managers who adhered, lock step, to numerous forms and operation manuals.

So in June 1982, GM engineers set out to create Saturn from scratch. Roger Smith, GM's chairman, pushed the project. What began as a "no year" car evolved into a much more ambitious project with a production deadline-no later than 1990, when Smith is to retire at age 65.

Like the planet after which it is named, Saturn will have riVgs around it-in this case, at least a half-dozen parts factories near the assembly plant. By itself, this

lowers inventory and transportation costs considerably.

Moreover, it makes possible vertically integrated production. Raw materials such as steel, rubber and plastic will be shipped to the site and turned into engines, gaskets and body paneis.

Clustering manufacturing and assembly enables GM to utilize just-in-time parts delivery. Computers that track inventories will tell parts makers what to produce for each day's run, and the parts will be brought directly to the factory floor rather than being stockpiled.

The moving assembly line, a hallmark of the auto industry ever since Henry Ford, will be abandoned at Saturn. Instead, cars will be made in a modular fashion.

Workers will be organized into small groups to build subassemblies, such as the cooling system, to be installed in a single step. They will test their work, too. In present auto plants, if an inspector notices a faulty part or production practice, the car is run through part of the assembly line again, wasting time and money.

Robots and computers will playa critical role. Robots are now widely used for such tedious tasks as painting, or such precise jobs as welding. Thanks to microcomputers, the next generation will be much smarter. Some robots will be able to "see," allowing them to do more exacting work, such as installing wheels and windshields. Others will pick up and deliver, in proper ~equence, heavy or unwieldy components to assembly stations. Robots will physically inspect the jobs they have just done, set off alarms when they spot defective parts and feed production information into computers.

The goal is to tie together robots and computers-let them "speak" to each other. If that can be done, exact specifications for an engine valve, once designed and tested on a computer, can be transmitted to a computerized machine tool on the shop floor and manufactured.

Flaws would be detected after just a few parts had been made, not after thousands have been installed.

Computer-aided design and manufacturing, as this process is called, will enable Saturn to adjust production much more quickly to meet changing demand and consumer preferences for colors, components or styles.

Tool-and-die changes could De done in hours, not days, at a fraction of present costs. These advanced techniques, says GM's Kehrl, could improve productivity in some cases by 800 percent.

Productivity is also expected to soar among human workers. Today, if a machine breaks down, an electrician is summoned. If he finds that the problem is mechani'cal, another technician is called. There are dozens of rigid job classifications in the typical plant. Saturn, however, will have no more than six job categories. Workers, organized into small teams, will do a wider variety of work, and decide among themselves how best to do it.

On and off the factory floor, GM is determined to make Saturn as "paperless" as possible. Helping achieve that goal will be Electronic Data Systems (EDS), GM's new computer subsidiary. Tired of the sea of paper over which GM managers work, Chairman Smith says he gave the people working at EDS a 21 centimeters by 27 centimeters sheet of paper and told them "to get everything

The

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When free-lance photographer Matt Bradley announced that he would be unavailable for photo assignments because he was taking a year off to build his own home in Little Rock, Arkansas, SPAN asked him and his wife, Susan, to document the experience for these pages.

Since their marriage in 1976, the Bradleys had talked often of building their dream house. They wanted it to be close to nature-with open, airy spaces and lots of glass and natural wood surfaces.

Although he had no experience in home construction, Matt wanted to build the house himself. In 1983 the couple took their rough sketches and ideas to an agent of Lindal Cedar Homes of Seattle, Washington, one of many companies in the United States that specialize in partially prefabricated houses. Buyers can choose from one of the firm's standard plans, modify those plans, or even, as Matt and Susan did, have a Lindal architect incorporate their own ideas into plans that fit Lindal's building methods and materials.

The Bradleys bought a half-hectare lot in a heavily wooded suburb of Little Rock, just a 20-minute drive from downtown. They began clearing the lot in January 1984. "People thought I was nuts to clear the place myself," Matt says.

"But I wanted to be sure that if any trees were damaged, I was the one who damaged them. I knew nobody else would be as careful as we were. Besides, we really enjoyed the hard work and the companionship of doing it together."

Soon two Lindal trucks pulled up, bringing most of the building materials, plansand instructions. At that point Matt became both workman and construction supervisor, doing some work himself and directing the work of subcontractors and laborers he had hired. Among the jobs he contracted out to local experts were excavation for the lower floor, concrete pouring, plumbing and electrical wiring.

He hired students and young people for the unskilled jobs. "The kids did a little of everything," he says, "shoveling, piling, carrying and installing the tongueand-groove cedar paneling, insulation bats and hardwood flooring."

Spring rains delayed excavation until March. The Bradleys began framing the housein May, closed it off in August, and movedin on October 1, but it was a long way from being completed. They lived like campers in a beautiful tent until January 1985, when the plumbing was finallyfinished and the kitchen appliances were installed. That done, the Bradleys concerned themselves with what possibly is the most difficult task in house building-furnishing it, which they completed recently.

Matt figures he saved 15 percent of construction costs by doing the contracting and much of the work himself, but more important is the feeling of satisfaction and pride he and Susan gained from the pro(More photos overleaf) ject.

1. Workmen pour concrete footings for the Bradley house in Little Rock, Arkansas.

2. Plans of the top floor. 3. Set amidst lush woods thefinished house shimmers against the backdrop of a night sky. 4. The Bradleys, who saved about 15 percent of building costs

through self-help, pose in front of their partially completed house. 5. Matt (in shorts) and Susan (far right) entertain friends who helped them with various building chores. 6. Matt and a helper work on the second-floor frame.

Left: Susan applies varnish to the wood surface of the house. Below her are partially built kitchen cabinets. Top: Matt helps a plumber fix a toilet. Center: To blend landscaping with the natural surroundings, Matt builds a rock wall near the main entrance to the house.

Above: Susan and her mother-in-law visit a store to select wallpaper for bathrooms.

Right: Floor-to-ceiling windows seem to make the forest part of the living room.

Right, above: Susan's parents are the first dinner guests in the Bradleys' new house.

ATouch of Gold W

hen Golden Eye opened last month, it was the culmination of many dreams coming true. There were the dreams of half a dozen yet-unknown young Indian designers who worked with "people we'd read about, whose books we'd learned from"; of a dozen internationally known designers whose art took an exciting new turn when exposed to Indian crafts; of Rajeev Sethi and his dedicated band of innovators who have created yet another winner after Aditi; of more than 100 craftspeople from all over India who possess the golden touch that Golden Eye is all about; and of Rochelle Kessler and other Americans who, as coordinators, have been instrumental in mounting one of the most unusual exhibitions ever conceived-a celebration of traditional Indian crafts expressed in modern design.

From mid-November to midJanuary, this exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution's CooperHewitt Museum in New York displays 250 items created especially for Golden Eye, a sampling of traditional handicrafts, the tools used to make them and text panels of interviews with the craftspeople.

"It's all really a result of Rajeev's 'Why not?' philosophy," says Kessler. "Why not get foreign designers to use Indian craft techniques and Indian materials for their designs? Why not use IndiaD craftsmanship in ways never thought of before? Why not have bidriwork chairs? Why not have damascene work, which was traditionally done on swords, used on cutlery?"

Why not, to put it simply, let the dying arts of India come alive?

Rajeev Sethi, explaining the exhibition's concept-his conceptsays: "Man has this versatile hand which can do this [snaps his fingers 1 and this [makes a mudra]. When this hand becomes just a point to press a button, then ... well, evolution will take its rational course.

Maybe the fingers will drop off and all we'll have is a little edge to press buttons. How can we let that happen? How can we forget the association between the hand and the mind? People must be made aware of the craft process, of what the human hand can do."

Like Aditi, Golden Eye was the logical result of a growing concern for the future of Indian crafts. Says Kessler, who has been coordinating for both Aditi and Golden Eye on behalf of Smithsonian, "Everyone in the West knows about Jaipur block prints, about the little Kashmiri boxes ... they flood the American market from time to time but it's usually a passing fad. In India too there is no market for so much that the craftsman produces-from the mundane to the exotic."

What was needed was not just an awareness of the craft or some official encouragement of it, but an increase in its practical potential, revising the skills to create items that are needed today. The Handicrafts and Handlooms Exports Corporation (HHEC) decided to use the Festival of India as a launching pad for Sethi's revolutionary idea of interesting internationally known designers in creating items inspired by Indian craftsmanship.

"In the beginning to get some notoriety you need big names," Kessler points out. "But later we hope that Indian designers will take over and start designing things for today keeping these traditional crafts in mind. We hope to get mass orders for some of the items at Golden Eye. It will be an ongoing interaction-between the East and the West, between the designer and the craftsman."

As a first step, Sethi and a grou~ of young designers roamed the' country compiling a sampledirectory of Indian crafts (which is also on display at Golden Eye).

"And then I became a traveling salesman," Sethi says. "I went with nine suitcases-200 kilograms-to designers in America, Germany, Italy, France and Britain, showing them the variety of Indian crafts."

The designers-ranging from architects to fashion and magazine designers-were invited to India to see the crafts and craftsmen for themselves and meet the young Indian designers who were to coordinate the work for them.

The international designers, all of whom have given their services gratis, saw the opportunity as an exciting challenge, allowing them to move in new directions, often far

from their usual line of work. The result is a medley of colorful ingenuity: from toys to furniture, shoes to pottery, dresses to tents.

Milton Glaser and Ivan Chermayeff wanted to participate but were unable to come to India because of their heavy workloads and commitments; so two young designers, Jatin Bhatt and Jyoti Rath, went to New York to help them plan out their collaboration.

Glaser, an industrial and graphic designer, and Chermayeff, an architect, wanted to create toys "using the different Indian textiles that had fascinated Chermayeff on his visits to India," says Bhatt, a 1977 graduate of Ahmedabad's National Institute of Design (NID).

Bhatt and Rath also selected two Glaser posters for an unusual experiment: translating the designs into mediums that Glaser had never contemplated using himselfpapier-mache, marble inlay, quilting, crewelwork. "We are giving depth to something which was very flat," says Bhatt. One poster titled A View From an English Cottage Into a French Garden with Japanese Objects Through American Eyes gets yet another dimension-India, and in two versions. While Bhatt has worked on getting the design made in papier-mache in Srinagar, Shrikrishna Kulkarni got the same design worked on a quilt in Delhi.

Kulkarni, a 27-ÂĽear-old graduate of NID, has had his hands full coordinating the works of Mary McFadden (U.S.A.), Jack Larson (U.K.) and Ettore Sots ass (Italy). This was fairly typical of the six young (all under 30) Indian artists.

A spirit of spontaneity reigned throughout the whole affair.

McFadden was here to design shoes and dresses; inspired by the Mughal Gardens she saw in Delhi and elsewhere she also created a Mughal Garden of her own-a model that companies could keep in mind while landscaping their offices-using a stunning variety of Indian crafts.

Each item for Golden Eye is a virtual showcase not just of the designer's creativity, but of a range of Indian crafts. Golden Eye has turned out to be a multipurpose bonanza for everyone involved in it. It has revived crafts, discovered

unknown craftsmen, exposed India's young artists to the great masters -Indian and foreign.

During his NID student days, while on a scholarship abroad, Kireet Patel had apprenticed in German architect Frei Otto's studio in Stuttgart. It was Otto himself who suggested the young designer's name to Rajeev Sethi. "I was teaching at NID's School of Architecture when Rajeev called me," 26-year-old Patel remembers.

"I was thrilled at the opportunity of exploring Indian crafts and working with such well-known the process of designers-seeing creation. I have been reading about American architect Charles Moore since my first year in college, and now to get a chance to work with him-it was just too tremendous!

And then when Rajeev told me one day to go and receive Bernard Rudofsky-another American architect-at the airport, I was thrilled. It was like a dream. When I met him I told him that I had learned the essence of what architecture means from his books."

Shakeel Hossain, a 28-year-old graduate from the Delhi School of Architecture, highlights another valuable spin-off from Golden Eye. "It has made us all more aware of our own crafts. In the last 20-30 years we've tended to ignore crafts.

When we think of doors, we think of plywood and brass handles.

Walls-we think of brick and tiles.

But there is so much more available right here that we can use."

Hossain, who worked with Brit,ish architect Sir Hugh Casson for Golden Eye, was exposed to a whole range of crafts that Casson used on a facade designed by him.

"For making just one screen we used five craftsmen and seven kinds of material. That is the' kind of thing we architects should be doing, not just buildings. We should concentrate on the crafts.

Of course, it doesn't mean we go back to yesterday'S crafts. Just because something was beautiful 500 years ago, doesn't mean it will be considered beautiful today. We have to relat.:: it to today's context.

We have to use the skill and the spirit within the craft, not just the motifs. The spirit-that's what Golden Eye is all about."

0

A Dream Fulfilled America celebrates the first Martin Luther King Day on January 20, 1986. Nissim Ezekiel talks about King, his dream and the influence of Mahatma Gandhi (whose death anniversary falls in January) on King's nonviolent civil Tights crusade.

A Manned Base on the Moon It's a daunting engineering and technological challenge but experts say that it can be done. And the benefits promise to be many-the moon would be an outstanding astronomical obserl.'atory for the study of the universe, a springboard for exploring other planets and a rich source of raw materials to the eternal benefit of mankind.

Discovering Shapin sky The unlikely but true story of Akumal Ramachander, an Indian teacher who discovers an obscure American abstract expressionist painter, Harold Shapinsky, and puts him on the world art map.

Computers' Next Frontiers A video screen that reads your lips, eyes and gestures; a car that won't budge if the driver has been drinking; a typewriter-without a keyboard-that converts speech to written text. ... These are just a few of the innovations expected as computers become superfast, supersmart and superfriendly.

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Above, left: A Gujarati crafts woman doing applique embroidery for a tent designed for.

Golden Eye by German architect Frei Otto.

Top: Khurja pottery from Otto's designs.

Top, right: Shoes, designed by Bernard Rudofsky of the United States, were made in Bombay; the beadwork was done in Delhi.

Above: Italian designer Mario Bellini's sandstone bench was made by stone carvers from Jagner near Agra.

Left: Bernard Rudofsky's inspiration for this pattern for a screen came from the work of Jivya .

Soma, a well-known Warli (Maharashtra) painter. It was executed by Indian craftsmen in rosewood with brass inlay work.

Right, above: A Milton Glaser print translated into stone by Agra's marble craftsmen.

Right, below: Ivan Chermayeff and-Milton Glaser designed this collection of toys made by Indian artisans using a variety of textiles and craft techniques.