SPARK Magazine Issue 1: STEM by Spark Magazine

STEM MAGAZINE

ISSUE NO. 1

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FUTURE OF FASHION: SHIRTS MADE FROM PLASTIC BOTTLES

DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINES: WHATâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S TAKING SO LONG?

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE FAMOUS SUPERNOVA OF 1987?

The question arises: how does a scratchy plastic bottle turn into a soft fabric?

The burning need for a vaccine has accelerated research and trials, all that is left to do is remain patient

It was in 158,013 B.C. that one of the most tempestuous and luminous events in nature occurred

DESIGNING DIRECTED BY ANGELA YU DESIGNED BY XUEN BEI CHIN

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OUR MISSION SPARK Magazine is a multinational, student-led initiative striving to promulgate knowledge across all disciplines and ultimately spread a lifelong passion to learn. This project was founded by a group of students who came together in their pursuit to form an interdependent organisation to SPARK knowledge in others. Each writer has a shared vision of kindling in others an interest in academia, by thoroughly investigating the aspects of STEM before applying these to realworld concepts, and exploring potentials to revolutionise our future. We hope that this project demonstrates to readers that learning is a lifelong process that transcends adversity.

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CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES 25 | Exploring the Applications of Molecular Docking in Developing Novel Therapies Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Binding and Membrane Fusion 62 | Autonomous Automobiles and Artificial Intelligence

4 Founders of SPARK

6 Biomedical Engineering

15 Health Sciences

18 Biology

43 Chemical Engineering

47 Physics

55 Mathematics

62 Computer Science

70 About the Authors

Get to know over 30 writers from all over the world who will capture and explore the elements of STEM!

74 References

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SPARK

FOUNDERS OF SPARK

Xuen Bei Chin Hi! I'm from Malaysia and I aspire to make a long term impact to society's health and wellbeing through pursuing Biomedical Engineering!Â

Alvin Ooi Hello everyone! I'm Alvin and am currently studying my second year of the IB. My interest in Mathematics has ignited my desire to study Actuarial Science for university. Asides from career-related ambitions, I enjoy my time reading dystopia, exploring the different terrain of Google Maps, watching CNN and occasionally the odd bit of gaming.

Anjeli Estrada I'm Anjeli; I'm from Ecuador and Guatemala but I've lived in Malaysia for my whole life. I'm interested in physics and so I'll be pursuing mechanical engineering in the future.

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FOUNDERS OF SPARK

Alithea Jade Pentadu Hi! I'm from South Africa and I currently live in Malaysia. Chemistry and Biology are the subjects Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;m most interested in and I plan to pursue a career in medicine :)

Jing Yuan Chan Hi, I'm an IB student from Malaysia and hope to contribute to the healthcare industry! My interests in the sciences and practical work have influenced me to pursue a course in dental surgery. Outside of academia, I like dedicating time to appreciating classical music and old movies :D

Hui Qi (Tiffany) Chin Hi! I'm Tiffany and I'm currently in my second year of the IB. I plan to study chemical engineering at university as I'm interested in sustainable industrial practices. When I have free time, I enjoy thrifting and watching film score analysis videos on YouTube.

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Biomedical Engineering

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WORLD AFTER COVID-19

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Although the pandemic has brought us great despair and distress, it is currently paving a way for a future with plentiful opportunities. By Xuen Bei Chin Edited by Jing Yuan Chan

Although the pandemic has brought us great despair and distress, it is currently paving a way for a future with plentiful opportunities. The healthcare system has been greatly challenged: from the rush to develop new medical devices and diagnostic methods, to making devastating choices to reallocate limited medical resources. Due to the current health crisis, the rapid development in medical technology and scientific knowledge regarding viruses will help catalyse new discoveries and theories, allowing us to better prepare for future pandemics. This could help save many lives in the future. One method of testing which was heavily relied on during the beginning of the virus outbreak consists of a technique called reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (real-time RTâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;PCR), which can detect the presence of specific genetic materials in pathogens.

Antibody tests were then developed, and can indicate the stage of the infection alongside the time since the exposure. Moreover, rapid tests have been formulated, enabling more accurate, efficient, easy-use and quick testing for this virus and perhaps for future viruses. These developments in healthcare will be beneficial for future pandemics and may further enhance our knowledge in the medical field. The current need for testing and medical devices has stimulated our development in innovative technology and virology research. This plays a crucial role in the current pandemic and will help us develop better diagnostic methods for accurate testing in future pandemics. Recently, NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Jet Propulsion Laboratory designed a prototype called a VITAL ventilator, providing breathing support for patients with acute

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WORLD AFTER COVID19

respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Moreover, Imperial College London developed a low-cost ventilator to aid with world-wide shortages. University College London has also produced breathing aids called UCL-Ventura, providing non-invasive respiratory support. These new medical devices, alongside many other devices created to help COVID-19 patients, all help combat the alarming worldwide shortages of medical equipment. These solutions are constantly being revised and refined, allowing for the advancement of costeffective and efficient medical technology which can be used in the future. Thus, I hope for more global co-operation and funding for research, as it will assist in innovating the healthcare system when it comes to medical treatments and diagnosis. Furthermore, digital health solutions are paramount in progressing the healthcare system in the future. As it is important for medical professionals to stay healthy and safe during this pandemic, there is a substantial need for remote medical technology. Telemedicine is playing an invaluable role during this period as it helps monitor patients at home, minimizing any contact with medical personnels. These telemedicine services allow results from patients to be shared remotely with doctors. Additionally, medical devices such as digital stethoscopes, digital otoscopes and portable ECG monitors have been used at home; telehealth can help us lower the risk of spreading infectious diseases in the future, which could help prevent another epidemic or pandemic. Additionally, through the current development in telehealth, there may be a lower risk of overloaded hospitals in future pandemics, as it minimizes the number of patients needing to enter medical facilities.

As the crisis has led the healthcare system to struggle in keeping up with a rapidly increasing influx of patients in hospitals, it is crucial for us to reform healthcare infrastructure after this pandemic. This will provide a safer and more efficient environment which can adapt to various emergency situations. Moreover, advancing technologies such as artificial intelligence are being used to identify those potentially infected; artificial intelligence also allows hospitals to manage their resources as well as assist in vaccine research. Thus, the progress in these advanced technologies can improve the efficiency of the healthcare system in the future. Furthermore, it is also critical to reflect and consider the aftermath of the pandemic as healthcare workers have been physically and mentally drained throughout the challenges they have faced when treating patients. There is a fear for the mental health of frontliners after the pandemic as they may experience burnout or post-traumatic stress disorder, leaving a long-lasting impact on medical professionals in the future; we must focus on the mental and physical well-being of these frontliners by means of funding organisations to help assist and support them. Hence, I believe that the innovative technologies we have developed can be used in the future to help improve the quality of lives for many and improve our response to an urgent health crisis. My visions of the future are hopeful as the current pandemic has shown us how much we can do when we collaborate and work together to provide services to those in need.

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Xuen Bei Chin Malaysia

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08 Biomedical Engineering

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THE FIELD OF BIOINSTRUMENTATION

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Bioinstrumentation is a field which studies the devices and mechanics used to analyze and treat biological systems. By Xuen Bei Chin Edited by Jing Yuan Chan Bioinstrumentation is a field which along with biosensors to compare the DNA studies the devices and mechanics used to sequence of individuals. Advances in analyze and treat biological systems. It microarray technology and DNA studies multiple sensors used to monitor sequencing have also played an incredible physiological characteristics of a human role in genetic testing. Microarrays, which or animal. It is a relatively new field is a laboratory tool used to detect the concentrating on treating diseases and expression of thousands of genes at the combines both the fields of engineering same time, helps reveal the activated and and medicine together. An example of an repressed genes of an individual. application of bioinstrumentation is the Additionally, DNA sequencing uses lasers bioinstrumentation sensor arrays which with different wavelengths that can indicate were built by NASA, which helped us the nucleotides present in different DNA gain a better understanding of how strands. As you can see, Bioinstrumentation humans were affected by space travel. has progressed scientists understanding of Astronauts were constantly monitored to DNA and the human genome. check their respiration, ECG, body temperature as well as blood pressure. Drug delivery and aiding machines have This helped physicians monitor the also been improved greatly by astronauts vital-signs in case of any bioinstrumentation. There has been a problems. growing use of pumps which have been designed and created to deliver drugs such Currently, Bioinstrumentation has as anesthesia and insulin. With these contributed significantly to the pumps, patients are no longer required to commercial market. As we know, there visit doctors regularly, and can treat has been a large amount of production of themselves faster in a cost-efficient wearables with wrist-worn activity manner. Moreover, aiding machines such tracking devices. Bioinstrumentation has as hearing aids and pacemakers have been contributed to smartphone designs, as developed due to our growing progress in smartphones are now capable of this field. Both of them use sensors and measuring heart rate, blood-oxygen circuits, which help amplify signals that can levels, number of steps taken, and more. reveal when a patient has a problem. It has also been used in biomedical optics, which is the field of performing Lastly, Bioinstruments have played an noninvasive operations and procedures invaluable role in monitoring and sampling to patients. This has been a growing field, soil and to measure plant growth. and it is easier and does not require the Biotechnology in agriculture requires the patient to be opened. An example of handling of compound plant genomes biomedical optics is LASIK eye surgery, using complex instrumentation. Devices which is a laser microsurgery done to such as tensiometers can be used to helps correct eye problems. maintain the most favourable conditions to maixmize crop growth as they measure the Additionally, bioinstrumentation can be moisture content of he soil. Attached an used for genetic testing. Through electrical transducer is allows for crop data, knowledge in chemistry and medical such as soil moisture and water profiles, to instruments, tissue analysis instruments be monitored at regular intervals. have been created: this allows for the Xuen Bei Chin Malaysia comparison of DNA between individuals. Another example of genetic testing is gel electrophoresis, which uses DNA samples

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SPARK Biomedical Engineering

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MEDICAL IMAGING

Article

Medical imaging is an area enabling clinicians to see the internal structures hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat diseases. By Xuen Bei Chin Edited by Jing Yuan Chan

Medical imaging is an area enabling clinicians to see the internal structures hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat diseases. This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology etc. Medical imaging is a technique used to form visual representations of the function of some organs or tissues which can assist in clinical analysis and medical intervention.

At first, these radiographic imaging systems were very rudimentary as they only provided images of broken bones or contrast-enhanced structures such as the urinary or gastrointestinal systems.

In 1895, the first Nobel laureate, physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, described a new type of radiation, x-rays. This catalyzed the new medical specialty of radiology, along with the medical imaging industry.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also provides detailed anatomic information without using ionizing radiation. MRI senses the spin of a person's atoms when they are placed in a large, static, magnetic field. These static cross-sectional images of the body produced include both bone

However, advances in imaging techniques have progressed the application of radiographic imaging techniques in medical diagnosis.

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MEDICAL IMAGING

and soft tissues. They are often used for presurgery planning and to diagnose cancer. MRI uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei of water molecules in a human tissue. This produces a signal that is spatially encoded and can be detected, thus producing images of the body. The MRI emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules and there are radio frequency antennas which sends this pulse to the area of the body which is being examined. This RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction to change due to the magnetic field. Once the RF pulse is turned off, the protons “relax” and emit radiowaves in the process, which is detected. This radio-frequency emission from the hydrogen-atoms on water helps construct an image. The Larmor frequency is the resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of a nuclei. MRI uses three electromagnetic fields. One is a very strong (typically 1.5 to 3 teslas) static magnetic field which is used polarize the hydrogen nuclei, and called the primary field. The second is gradient fields which can be modified to vary in space and time for spatial encoding. The third is a spatially homogeneous radio-frequency (RF) field that can assist in the hydrogen nuclei’s production of detectable signals, which is then collected through an RF antenna.

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A common use of this is to produce images of a fetus in pregnant women, although other important uses include imaging the abdominal organs, heart, breast, muscles etc. Despite its provision of less anatomical detail compared to CT scans or MRI, ultrasound imaging has several advantages. These include the fact that it emits no ionizing radiation, and contains speckle that can be used in elastography. Elastography maps the elastic properties of soft tissue and can distinguish between healthy and unhealthy tissue for medical diagnosis. Ultrasound is a little different from other medical imaging modalities as it works through the transmission and receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound waves are sent into the tissue and a signal will be reduced and returned at separate intervals. These signals depend on the composition of the different tissues. The real-time moving image which are created can be used to guide drainage and biopsy procedures. Additionally, a doppler radar used in modern scanners assist in analysing the blood flow in arteries and veins to be assessed.

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Xuen Bei Chin Malaysia

Unlike x-rays and computed tomography (CT) scans, ultrasound imaging does not involve any ionizing radiation and thus is considered to be noninvasive. Furthermore, it provides real-time diagnostic information about the mechanical nature and motion of soft tissue and blood flow. It is also portable, easy to use and low in cost. Medical ultrasound uses high frequency broadband sound waves that are reflected by human tissue to varying degrees. This helps produce images up to 3 dimensions.

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Biomedical Engineering

TISSUE ENGINEERING AND BIOMATERIALS Throughout the ages, biomaterials have made an enormous impact on the treatment of injury and disease of the human body.

By Xuen Bei Chin Edited by Jing Yuan Chan Throughout the ages, biomaterials have This requires understanding of various made an enormous impact on the biological fields ranging from cell and treatment of injury and disease of the molecular biology, to extracellular matrix human body. Biomaterial use increased chemistry and compounds. It also rapidly in the late 1800s, particularly after requires knowledge of engineering fields, Dr. Joseph Lister in the 1860s developed such as biochemical and mechanical an aseptic surgical technique. He engineering. This has also contributed to introduced carbolic acid (now known as the field of regenerative medicine, which phenol) which is now used to sterilise is similar to tissue engineering but surgical instruments and clean wounds. focuses more on strategies that use the Millions of lives have been saved due to bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural regeneration mechanisms biomaterials, and the qualities of lives to repair damaged tissues. improved drastically due to this. The field remains a rich area for research and Human tissue has been studied for invention, where new applications are thousands of years. In Ancient Egypt, continuously being developed. physicians studied corpses and living humans in order to understand how to Biomaterials are substances engineered treat wounds by grafting skin from to interact with biological systems and corpses onto living humans. Moreover, can be used to treat, augment, repair or between 1069 and 664 B.C, skin grafts replace a tissue function of the body or and transplants were discovered on can be used for diagnostic purposes. mummies and corpses of wealthy They are either derived from nature, or individuals. In 1931, signs of dental made in labs using metallic components, implants were discovered in a jaw polymers, ceramics or composite belonging to a Mayan woman which materials. They contribute to biomedical dated all the way back to 600 AD. This is devices and can help with the perhaps the earliest evidence of tissue performance or the replacement of a engineering being used in America. natural function. Such functions of biomaterials include being used for a The main goals of these fields involve the heart valve, or they may be bioactive injection or engraftment of cells or such as hydroxy-apatite coated hip cellular suspensions, as well as using implants. Biomaterials are also used tissue ex vivo, to be used as grafts or commonly in dental applications, extracorporeal organs which helps to surgery, and drug delivery. For example, assist or supplement ailing in vivo organs. impregnated pharmaceutical productsÂ These are examples cell therapies for the are produced through the use of repair of damaged tissues. Moreover, biomaterials, and can be placed into the tissue engineering strategies have helped body, which allows for a prolonged to develop in vitro diagnositic and release of a drug over an extended period screening techniques, as well as create of time. improved tissue models to study disease. Tissue engineering integrates biology with engineering to create tissues or cellular products outside the body (ex vivo) or to assists in the repair of tissues within the body (in vivo).

Another goal of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs through biomaterials for patients that need organ transplants. Currently, researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells.

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TISSUE ENGINEERING AND BIOMATERIALS

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Not only that, several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs are also currently in development and use both synthetic and biological components: for example, hepatic assist devices have been developed and use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct. Biomimetics is a field focusing on the production of materials and systems to ultimately replicate those present in nature. In relation to tissue engineering, it is a common approach used by engineers to create materials for these applications which can be comparable to native tissues in terms of structure, properties, and biocompatibility. Thus, if a material is synthesized having the same characteristics of biological tissues both structurally and chemically, then the synthesized material should have similar properties as well. This technique has been used to design solutions to human problems. Many modern advancements in technology have been inspired by nature and natural systems such as aircraft, automobiles, architecture etc. Additionally advancements in nanotechnology helped apply this technique to micro- and nano-scale problems, especially in tissue engineering. This has been assisting the development of synthetic bone tissues, vascular technologies, functionalized nanoparticles, scaffolding materials and integration techniques.

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Xuen Bei Chin Malaysia

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Biomedical Engineering

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GHOST IN THE CELL: A LOOK INTO DECELLULARIZATION

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This advancement in the world of Biochemistry will surely impress you... By Precious Abang Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu

How good was the pun? Could’ve been better? Oh well, if that didn’t impress you, then this advancement in the world of biomedical engineering sure will. Decellularization is the name given to the process of carefully removing the cells from an organism to leave behind its ghostly extracellular matrix (also known as scaffolding.) We can thank Stephen F. Badylak and the McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh for this awesome innovation, along with the current researchers working on it. The cells can be kicked out from the collagen or cellulose they reside in a number of ways (including but not limited to: rapid freezing and thawing, disrupting the electric balance, enzymes, and soaking it in a special soap solution. The chosen method depends on the type and density of tissue. In all aforementioned processes, the cells are less coerced out and more… lysed (popped) or driven to selfdestruction. The wonders of science, everyone!

Decellularization on plant tissues is easier than on animal tissues because plants are unsurprisingly more structurally stable than us but in all processes, much care is taken for the delicate scaffolding to remain unscathed. After thorough washing and sterilization, they are ready for the new cells. Yes, you read it right: RECELLULARIZATION. The brilliant part about it is that only a small sample of tissue is needed and with the right cultures, antibiotics, and environment, you can grow many types of cells in many types of scaffolds. As this process stems from a biomedical background, the cells used for seeding are usually animal cells. In fact, the very video that inspired me to write this article is that of the Thought Emporium’s on their meatberry. In that specific experiment, skinless grape scaffolds were created and Vero cells derived from green monkeys were seeded into the grape. Andrew Pelling, a professor from the University of Ottawa, seeded mammalian cells into decellularized apple scaffolds that had been carved into the shape of a human ear!

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GHOST IN THE CELL: A LOOK INTO DECELLULARIZATION

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Apart from being crazy and neat, there are very helpful applications of this idea. For example, it can be an alternative to traditional organ transplants. It would provide the same benefits without the fear of rejection from the host as the cells within the tissue would be from the host. Acellular skin grafts (or skin grafts without cells) have had clinical success in burn care for that very reason. The Ross procedure is a technique that replaces a faulty heart valve with an acellular one which lets the body repopulate the new valve with its own cells. Additionally, there is a promising idea of incorporating decellularization and lab-grown meats, as a seeding of cells into the right textured scaffold would create a source of cheap meat. There are obviously some limitations as research on decellularization is still ongoing. Molecular specialization of the implanted cells has not yet been possible in heart scaffolds and the cells may not always implant correctly every time.Â In conclusion, decellularization is an amazing innovation that has the potential to improve and save the lives of many people with further studies and trials.

Precious Abang | Zimbabwe

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Health Sciences

CULTURE AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE Complementary and alternative medicine is something that I can assure we have all used at a certain point in our lives.

By Ahmad Imran Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu

Complementary and alternative medicine is something that I can assure we have all used at a certain point in our lives. Be it consistently or a onetime thing, CAM has always been a part of human history as we aim to cure any ailments that may affect us. The effectiveness of CAM has always been a point of debate, with most professionals stating that CAM treatment is nothing more than a placebo. For the sake of brevity, we shall use CAM in the place of complementary and alternative medicine.

What types of CAM do people lean towards? According to a survey with 359 participants carried out in 2016, CAM users mainly preferred manipulative and body practices, such as massage therapy, acupuncture and reflexology alongside more traditional medical systems with homeopathy and traditional Chinese medicine. These practices require a trained practitioner to carry out, however there are some CAM that do not require any practitioners with such examples being yoga, meditation and herbal remedies. What are the risks of CAM?

How does it play a part in our society? Before the days of modern science, humanity would attribute diseases as acts of divine punishment, as a way for the sinful to pay retribution, yet, they tried to cure themselves all the same. It is biological nature to try to keep ourselves alive as long as possible, be it through natural or unnatural means. One such example is how even if we try to hold our breath for too long, our body simply goes unconscious and resets our breathing, preventing suicide. In modern society, medical professionals must be tolerant towards individuals with beliefs in CAM, as it is a belief equal in magnitude to religious and political beliefs. To outright deny ones belief in CAM is equal to deny their individuality, and as such, medical professionals must remain tolerant of all info they are given. Patients may prefer traditional treatment over tried and tested methods due to them aligning better with their own beliefs, and like any other belief, must be tolerated. The medical professional must point their patient in the right direction rather than force them with prescriptions that they potentially will not follow.

In the UK, a vast majority of CAM practitioners do not have adequate medical training. CAM practitioners prefer to stick to more subjective matters such as views or philosophies, rather than concrete medical knowledge. Along with the lack of conventional medical knowledge, CAM is not regulated to the degree of conventional medicine, resulting in the treatment having potentially damaging effects to the patient. CAM products can be hard to properly assess due to the lack of regulation, resulting with the composition and possible side effects being completely unknown. Additionally, due to the presumption of the safety of the products, they may be stored improperly in the home and result in further changes to the product. Lastly, a lack of proper evidence of proper testing of the product could lead to potentially dangerous items within the hands of a patient. It is only natural we rely on CAM as it is human nature to try and fix ourselves. It is not wrong to rely on CAM but one should also take the methods with a grain of salt.

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Ahmad Imran Malaysia

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Health Sciences

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THE CHALLENGES OF RARE DISEASES

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Did you know that rare people are born all the time and around 350 million people are currently living with a rare disease? By Alithea Jade Pentadu Edited by Jing Yuan Chan

Did you know that rare people are born all the time and around 350 million people are currently living with a rare disease? A rare disease is defined as any disease that affects a small percentage of the population and there are more than 6800 of these in the world. The exact cause for many remains unknown, yet for a large proportion, it is due to mutations, which are changes in a single gene (a heritable factor consisting of a length of DNA, and influences a specific characteristic). Many of these genetic mutations can be passed on from one generation to the next.

There are also environmental factors, such as diet, smoking, and exposure to chemicals, which play a role in rare diseases as they may directly cause it or increase one’s chances of being affected by it. These diseases pose challenges to the patients affected, clinicians who take care of them, and researchers who examine their conditions. Patients may experience symptoms associated with common conditions, making it difficult for physicians to diagnose, especially since they may be unaware that such a disease exists. A clinician’s expertise in managing a specific disease will thus be proportional to the frequency with which they encounter and treat patients affected by it. This lack of knowledge can lead to a misdiagnosis, affecting the patient’s wellbeing, survival, and identity. Furthermore, it can financially and emotionally impact families.

The greatest challenge for researchers is gaining access to enough patient data to identify trends and draw conclusions. Effective therapies are therefore still unable to more than 95% of affected patients due to these uncertainties and risks. Currently, the most common therapy is the use of “orphan drugs” which are defined as medicinal products aimed at diagnosing, preventing, or treating rare disorders or life-threatening diseases.

Fig 1. Types of Mutations

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THE CHALLENGES OF RARE DISEASES

However, pharmaceutical companies have little interest in marketing and developing these drugs due to the small number of patients that would benefit from it. Moreover, the sales of the products would not make up for the high costs of generating these drugs, often leading to financial losses. Due to these numerous obstacles, what solutions exist? Patient advocacy groups, such as Rare Disease International, strongly support research in finding cures and ameliorating the impacts of diseases. A few of their many successes include fundraising for research and grantmaking, providing resources for clinical care, and directly supporting those affected through patient support groups. These groups also develop a community of activated patients, which relates to the high level of skills, knowledge, and confidence one has to manage their healthcare. Research has proven that these patients manage their illnesses more successfully. Despite the significant impact made by these groups, there is still a need to encourage collaborative research on a global scale. Rare diseases affect people around the world and thus, increased international initiatives could lead to tremendous breakthroughs as the distinct technological and medical equipment used by individual countries can produce invaluable knowledge.

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Alithea Jade Pentadu Malaysia

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18 Biology

THE IMPACT OF STEM CELLS ON ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

SPARK Article

What is Alzheimer’s Disease? By Victoria Ong Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu

What is Alzheimer’s Disease? Neurodegeneration is the processive loss of structure of function of neurons, including the death of neurons (Thompson, 2008). Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common example of neurodegeneration. AD is characterized by the loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and in certain subcortical regions (Tang, 2012).

The degeneration at the axon tip reduces communication between eventually the nerve pathway gets cutoff a healthy neuron and 1 with AD completely when the entire nerve cell collapses. Furthermore, patients with AD will also have amyloid plaques, located between nerve cells. They are formed when beta-amyloid from amyloid precursor protein (APP) get clipped off. As beta-amyloids are adhesive molecules, they tend to stick together, resulting in the formation of plaque. This plaque is formed between the neurons and distorts the function of neurons in the brain. A high concentration of amyloid plaque is highly toxic for neurons (Murphy and LeVine, 2010). This is because the presence of plaque triggers an immune response in the surrounding area, leading to neurons’ death. Due to the effect of neurofibrillary tangles reducing communication between neurons and beta-amyloids causing premature cell death, patients of AD have fewer functional neurons in their brain and hence decrease the size of the brain. This means that it is harder for them to store and retrieve information, impairing their memory.

In patients with AD, tau proteins that regulate important functions in our nervous system, such as axonal transport and synaptic plasticity, misfold and clump due to an increase in enzyme (tau kinase) activity that act on tau, forms threads that eventually joins to form neurofibrillary tangles in neurons. When this happens, the microtubules supporting the nerve cells are unable to hold the cell in a fixed parallel and straight structure, so the axon starts to collapse. This disrupts the transport pathway for nerve impulses, resulting in cell degeneration (Khamer, 2020). Usually, the first nerve endings that are degenerated are those at the tip of the axon. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

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THE IMPACT OF STEM CELLS ON ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

How does stem cells therapy benefit those who suffer from AD? As there is no cure for AD, using drug therapy to combat the effect of AD only improves patients’ cognitive symptoms temporarily. As of now, there is no drug treatment that can stop or reverse this neurodegenerative process (Small & Bullock, 2011). Furthermore, non-drug treatments such as gene therapy and behavioural interventions will only relief symptoms temporarily. Recently, neurogenesis, the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain, have been proven to exist in specific regions in the hippocampus, specifically the lateral subventricular zone (SVZ) and the Dentate Gyrus (DG), in the adult human brain (Curtis, Kam & Faull, 2011). Endogenous neural progenitor (NPC) stem cells have been proven to exist in the adult central nervous system and are involved in neurogenesis. These cells are able to migrate to injured regions of the brain and integrate into existing circuits in order to promote neural regeneration in the brain (Burns, Verfaillie & Low, 2009).

A new method of treating AD is called stem cell therapy, it involves the systematic introduction of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCc) or embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into the brain via in vitro (IV) (Cona, 2020). When these stem cells are introduced into the brain in large quantities, the stem cells can find damaged areas within the brain and repair these areas by differentiating into healthy nerve cells. This unique property of stem cells is what makes this therapy a viable treatment for AD. MSCs are found in the bone marrow and remain dormant until they are required to promote healing within the body. These stem cells age with us, and the older we are, the number and effectiveness of MSCs decrease. By using MSCs and duplicating them into larger numbers via mitosis, scientists can increase a person’s stem cell count by stem cell transplantation of younger and highly competent stem cells. These new stem cells can induce the activation of NPC stem cells and regenerate the injured cells from stem cells transplantation (Choi, Lee, Kim & Lee, 2014). Furthermore, the transplantation of MSCs have been proven to reduce betaamyloid plaque deposition, improving memory when tested in Ad mouse models (Choi, Lee, Kim & Lee, 2014). With further developments, stem cell therapy can be a viable cure for AD and other such neurological diseases. Victoria Ong | UK

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Health Sciences

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DENTISTRY IN THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

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The profession of dentistry has come a long way in history.

By Jing Yuan Chan Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu A brief background on dentistry The profession of dentistry has come a long way in history. From its humble origins as erratic barber-surgeons and toothdrawers who lacked any concept of professionalism, dentistry has evolved to be an integral part of the modern healthcare team. In recent times, however, the trajectory of this profession has experienced significant uncertainties due to the current social climate created by the virus, which may change the course of dentistry in the future.

Modes of transmission It has been found that the virus is spread via droplets from both symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. This mode of transmission causes two main problems in dental settings, where: 1. There is already a high risk of crosscontamination between dental health care personnel (DHCP) and patients. 2. Common treatment methods, such as drilling, filling, scaling, and polishing, are Aerosol Generating Procedures (AGPs) as they utilize high-speed instruments; this process creates a fine spray which may settle on nearby surfaces, or be inhaled by others.

As a result, the nature of dental settings, compounded by the fact that an infected individual at the surgery may not display any symptoms of the virus until much later, significantly increases the role of preventive measures in arresting the nosocomial spread of this virus. Dentistry in the present As of 2020, one popular preventive measure being implemented by many dental practices is the attempt to telephone triage patients requiring dental care, where patient symptoms are used to assess the extent to which a patient requires attention in a dental setting, as seen in fig. 1Â

Fig. 1: Managing dental problems in the pandemic

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DENTISTRY IN THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

In the case that a patient requires care in a dental setting, infection control strategies are put into place to restrict the nosocomial spread of the virus as much as possible: Patient management: Social media and websites are among the most common communication methods used by dental practises to inform patients about office closures for everyday dentistry. Education & instruction: Where possible, the dental practise should implement the strategic placing of visual alerts in the form of posters, brochures, etc. detailing instruction to maintain hygiene and cough etiquette. Along with the availability of sanitary supplies such as alcohol based hand rub (ABHR) in common areas such as waiting rooms and break rooms, this encourages the practise of good hygiene in order to reduce transmission risks. Protection: During treatments, sufficient personal protective equipment (PPE) is needed to reduce the risk of virus transmission. DHCP should also avoid the use of AGPs where possible, and utilize rubber dams during treatment, a method shown to reduce airborne particles in the operational field by 70%. Post-treatment care: When an AGP is unavoidable, a fallow period is recommended, allowing for time to clear the infectious aerosols before decontamination of the surgery takes place, which involves the use of disinfectants and virucidal agents. In addition, dental practises must ensure access to a clinical waste disposal system for discarding any biomedical waste.

Live video: Audio-visual technology allows for a synchronous experience, with two-way communication between dentist and patient. Store-and-forward: Asynchronous distribution of digital information from patient to dentist, used to evaluate the patient’s situation. Mobile health (mHealth): Public health practices carried out with the support of mobile communication devices. Despite these not constituting the traditional delivery methods of dental healthcare, teledentistry has proven useful for dental practices so far. One of the main benefits of teledentistry is its ability to significantly reduce the number of inperson appointments, hence reducing costs and increasing efficiency. The allencompassing nature of teledentistry also proves especially useful for those living in rural areas, where access to dental care is limited. Moving forward, we can interpret the rise of teledentistry as an emerging trend, even if the virus no longer poses such a threat to humanity in the (hopefully) near future. This revolutionary method of delivering dental care would inevitably have a significant impact on those in the healthcare team -- although how quickly it will completely replace in-person office visits is up to debate.

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Jing Yuan Chan Malaysia

Dentistry in the future As discussed, it is likely that the trajectory of dentistry will deviate from previous times. Of these changes, perhaps the most notable is the rise of teledentistry. The ADA defines teledentistry as the use of a “variety of technology and tactics to deliver virtual medical [...] services”. As such, the following modalities are available as alternatives to live treatment:

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Health Sciences

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IN MEDICINE

Article

In today’s 21st century, we are in a fast-paced and rapidly changing society, surrounded by innovations and life-changing developments on a daily basis.

By Win Liu Edited by Xuen Bei Chin

In today’s 21st century, we are in a fastpaced and rapidly changing society, surrounded by innovations and lifechanging developments on a daily basis. Within the past few decades, technology, specifically Artificial Intelligence (AI), has been the biggest game changer for humanity.

Artificial intelligence is described as the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs (McCarthy, 1970), similar to human intelligence. From generating safe and seamless social media platforms like instagram, to compiling our daily recommendation of music playlists on spotify, AI and technology without doubt has impacted our daily lifestyle in several aspects.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IN MEDICINE

At times like the current COVID pandemic, the need for medicine and the healthcare industry has never been this crucial. Hence, with the addition of AI, doctors and many healthcare professionals are provided the opportunity to work with robots and cutting edge technology, to assist their respective tasks. This leads me to the concept of digital healthcare - healthcare through technology to both patients and medical professionals. There are many applications of AI algorithms and technologies in medical practices, examples include technology in MRI scans, algorithms for predicting virus outbreaks, processing of biopsy tissue sample images, and many more. One of the most prominent applications of AI in medicine today is the ability for AI technology and algorithms to help diagnose specific diseases in patients. Diagnosing diseases is a time-consuming and crucial process, a skill that requires many years of medical training to develop. Hence, there are only a fixed number of specialist doctors who are qualified and capable to perform such arduous tasks, creating a shortage in such experts. This creates more stress for those who are specialized in diagnosing and treating diseases, and may cause the delay of treatment timings for some patients. Machine Learning – particularly Deep Learning algorithms – have recently made huge advances in automatically diagnosing diseases, making diagnostics cheaper and more accessible (Schmitt, 2020). One benefit of machine learning, is that their algorithms are similar to that of the mindset of professional doctors, allowing them to recognize and detect disease patterns. It is very useful in assisting doctors in the diagnosis process, all doctors need to do is digitize their information or diagnosis data, and upload it into the AI machine. 2020). One benefit of machine learning, is that their algorithms are similar to that of the mindset of professional doctors, allowing them to recognize and detect disease patterns.

It is very useful in assisting doctors in the diagnosis process, all doctors need to do is digitize their information or diagnosis data, and upload it into the AI machine. Common examples of machine learning being incorporated in medicine include: detecting lung cancer or strokes from Computerized tomographic (CT) scans, assessing risks of heart diseases from electrocardiograms and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), detecting certain diseases or malfunctions in the human eye, or classifying skin lesions in skin images. For instance, the actionable result could be the probability of having an arterial clot (blood clot in human artery) given heart rate and blood pressure data, or the labeling of an imaged tissue sample as cancerous or non-cancerous (says: et al., 2019). Another significant advantage of AI machine learning in medicine is that such algorithms can draw conclusions, and interpret data based on digital data and images at much faster pace than most doctors (usually takes a fraction of a second!). It also is more economically cheaper to reproduce and incorporate this life-changing AI algorithm in other parts of the world. Without having to worry too much about time and money, many parts of the world will be able to make use of such technology in the future, as well as accessing top quality diagnostics for a lower price. Let’s take a closer look at a particular example, the famous Da Vinci surgical robotic system. Robotic-assisted surgery with the Da Vinci Surgical System allows surgeons to perform complex minimally invasive surgical procedures with precision and accuracy. It is designed to assist surgeons in their operations, allowing them to have more options when performing surgeries. The robot contains 3D cameras and a variety of surgical instruments, which can replicate the movements of the operating surgeon.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IN MEDICINE

The end result of this algorithm is that it provides a more comprehensive and accurate modeling or prediction of current virus outbreaks as compared to public health data. It enables governments and private sector customers to analyze this information, to help with future planning and measures to tackle this outbreak.

However, it is important to take note that there is of course a slight risk of complications occurring, such as unprecedented bleeding or infections.Â There are currently more than 1,700 Da Vinci systems installed in hospitals worldwide. With its enhanced dexterity and ergonomic comfort, the system has definitely improved the surgical process. Another common application of AI in medicine would be for predicting virus outbreaks. A Canadian AI firm, BlueDot, created an AI algorithm to simulate and predict future trends of virus outbreaks. It processes a wide range of data, from news stories around the world, reports from plant and animal disease tracking networks, or airline ticketing data.

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More data scientists, epidemiologists, and virologists are using such techniques to predict the spread of common diseases and viruses. Working alongside such experts, the AI algorithm provides more advanced and more accurate warnings that can enable a rapid response to an outbreak. The key is bringing AIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forecasting and prediction prowess to public health officials to improve their ability to respond to outbreaks (Vandana Janeja Professor of Information Systems, 2020). Whether it comes to predicting trends of the current COVID-19 virus outbreak, or performing medical treatments and diagnosis in hospital settings, the dependence on AI computed algorithms and technology has never been this prevalent. Many healthcare firms and settings are now adapting and relying on AI algorithms and technology to perform medical tasks, working alongside professionals to perform treatments and procedures efficiently and of high quality. AI in medicine is indeed the future for us, and this is just the beginning of something truly groundbreaking. Win Liu | Hong Kong

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Biology

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EXPLORING THE APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR DOCKING IN DEVELOPING NOVEL THERAPIES TARGETING SARS-COV-2: BINDING AND MEMBRANE FUSION By Ka Yeon Kim Edited by Hui Qi Chin

Investigating the biological modeling applications in drug discovery may prove crucial in accelerating drug development in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and preparation for potential future outbreaks.

Feature Article

EXPLORING THE APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR DOCKING IN DEVELOPING NOVEL THERAPIES TARGETING SARS-COV-2: BINDING AND MEMBRANE FUSION

COVID-19 is a disease caused by the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, believed to be of zoonotic origin [1] with a 96% similarity in the genome between a coronavirus in horseshoe bats. The enveloped, positive-sense RNA virus has a genome that primarily codes for four structural proteins [2]: the nucleocapsid proteins, small envelope glycoproteins, membrane glycoproteins, and spike glycoproteins. Arguably, the most significant protein in infection is the spike glycoprotein responsible for driving infection mechanisms by initiating membrane fusion. By using molecular docking, scientists could explore potential novel treatments by designing appropriate ligands resembling antibodies to neutralize the virus. Molecular docking is an interdisciplinary technique involving biomolecular simulations to help discover drugs such as antivirals by constructing a ligand that is effective and compatible when non-covalently bound to its target protein [3] in silico. Investigating the biological modeling applications in drug discovery may prove crucial in accelerating drug development in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and preparation for potential future outbreaks. Introduction The pathogenic nature of the SARSCoV-2 virus stems from its replicative cycle, which takes place within the host cell [4]. The spike (S) glycoproteins, exposed on the virus’s surface, are arranged in homotrimers and is the primary facilitator in infection, making it an appropriate target in molecular docking. The S glycoprotein is made up of two subunits - S1 and S2 - where S1 acts as the receptor-binding domain, and S2 is composed of several sequences of hydrophobic amino acids such as fusion peptides and heptad regions arranged in alpha-helical structures that enable membrane fusion by undergoing conformational changes upon proteolytic cleaving. When the S glycoprotein binds to an ACE2 entry receptor, typically expressed on the surface of respiratory tract cells, proteases like furin prime the S

glycoproteins, and fusion peptides and heptad regions in the S2 subunit work in conjunction to attach and fold back on itself, successfully enabling membrane fusion.

Figure 1: a visual representation of the structure of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus Once the virus has entered the host cell, it undergoes uncoating, and its positivesense RNA genome is exposed and acts as mRNA in the cell and gets translated into viral proteins. As this process repeats, a single virus can make thousands of copies of itself within minutes [5]. Hence, a patient’s condition will continue to worsen as the virus begins to hijack and take over the cell’s biochemical machinery until suitable antibodies or antivirals can be synthesized or administered to neutralize the invading virus. A possible way to approach the development of novel treatments is through the lens of molecular docking [6]. Unlike the traditional method of high throughput screening to develop antiviral drugs, molecular docking utilizes computational engineering to construct ligands complementary to the target protein. In the context of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, as a relatively conserved virus with unremarkable mutation rates in most regions [7], ligand design is likely going to be centered around substrate mimicry to maximize affinity between ligand and target protein in order to form a stable complex or adduct [8], hence inhibiting the binding of the S glycoprotein to the ACE2 receptor and preventing further infection.

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EXPLORING THE APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR DOCKING IN DEVELOPING NOVEL THERAPIES TARGETING SARS-COV-2: BINDING AND MEMBRANE FUSION

Potential Methodology There are several ways in which scientists can approach molecular docking. However, there are generally three main steps that are undergone to form a suitable ligand product. Scientists first express the protein as a data bank file that records the whole molecule’s atomic coordinates. For SARS-CoV-2, this can be done by purifying and isolating the S glycoprotein using column chromatography and translated into a digital format through X-ray diffraction crystallography to specify the location of each atom. After this, scientists will sample potential molecular ligands in silico based on the S glycoprotein structure. From this data, potential ligands can be ordered using a scoring function to determine which would be the most suitable fit in terms of binding free energy. Initial sampling can be determined by various algorithms, the most comprehensive of which is the Monte Carlo (MC) method. The MC method is classified as a stochastic method meaning that it is a random and thorough search of possible binding agents by rotating the configuration of bonds or altering the molecule’s position about an axis. As even the smallest changes can induce dramatic shifts in molecular conformation, each new molecule is tested by software to analyze its binding free energy, which determines binding affinity and favourability. If the binding free energy is sufficiently low, it will continue to be modified, bond by bond, to generate a comprehensive list of potential molecules that could act as a ligand. Lastly, scoring functions can be applied to determine the most effective poses of ligands by using force field parameters. Force fields are computational functions used to estimate the total potential energy (internal energy, electrostatic interactions, Van der Waals forces) [9] of a molecule and can be derived from the sum of all intermolecular forces between the atoms in ligand.

This method tends to be preferred over empirical scoring functions simply because proteins are not static and often experience conformational changes depending on their environmental interactions. For scientists, this has been the biggest challenge in successful drug development using molecular docking because the primary aim of using software to model proteins is to decrease the binding free energy between the interaction of the ligand and target protein to make the reaction as favorable as possible. Hence, scientists often look at the relative binding free energy (RBFE) and force field algorithms to refine measurements and reduce errors during the analysis of the binding affinity between the ligand and the target protein. This approach, called the free energy or alchemical perturbation, serves to compare the binding free energy of two given ligands and can be used repeatedly to select the most suitable ligand candidates. It focuses on computing the areas on the target protein and ligand that are transformed upon binding rather than sampling all the molecules’ configuration space and utilizes the binding reaction’s thermodynamic cycle to compare two ligands. A simplified equation for free energy perturbation is shown below, where two ligands A and B are being compared in terms of the free energy change induced when ligand A is being changed to ligand B (bond breaking and making) in both protein and water environments [10]:

What this equation entails is a more accurate way of comparing potential ligands, and it has been experimentally found that despite requiring more computational power, evaluating RBFE alongside force fields provides a reliable way to select appropriate ligands to act as antivirals for the SARS-CoV-2 virus, likely with a similar structure to the active binding site of the antibody to SARS-CoV-2.

EXPLORING THE APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR DOCKING IN DEVELOPING NOVEL THERAPIES TARGETING SARS-COV-2: BINDING AND MEMBRANE FUSION

Antiviral Ligands in Comparison to Other Novel Treatments Since the ligand structure will likely be comparable to that of human antibodies, it may be argued that the development of vaccines to induce active immunity may be a more worthwhile investment. Though there was initially thought to be evidence of reinfection in COVID-19 patients, it has since largely been disproven [11] as the form of diagnostic testing used (PCR testing) was designed to amplify and detect viral genetic material which is likely to remain present after recovery in the form of non-infectious or inactivated forms. However, one thing that remains a subject of uncertainty is the immune potency of human antibodies. In past coronavirus outbreaks, human antibodies have had varying immunity. For example, those infected by SARS-CoV [12] during the 2003 outbreak were observed to have immunity for around 8 to 10 years, whereas those infected by the MERSCoV during the 2012 outbreak were observed to have a much shorter-term immunity for around 1 to 2 years. Because of this variation in the time frame, it becomes crucial to have effective treatments on hand in the event of expired immunity. Another potential treatment under media attention is that of convalescent plasma [13] to gain passive immunity. While, in theory, the mechanisms with which convalescent plasma can attack and neutralize would be similar to antivirals targeting the membrane fusion stage, it is known that human antibodies in convalescent plasma are highly sensitive to temperature changes. As opposed to this, antiviral drugs in existence tend to be more thermally stable [14], meaning they are designed to be more accessible, particularly for those in rural communities where treatments may not be as widely available.

Conclusion As established, molecular docking is a highly complex process, and one of the many ways the frontiers of science transform the way we tackle infectious diseases. While it is just one of the numerous techniques that could be employed to help combat the devastating impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, what makes molecular docking a technology worth investing and furthering research in is its versatility in all fields of medicine and the potential accessibility of antivirals as a product of molecular docking. Though this is, by no means, a comprehensive review, it is hoped that this introduction provides insight into the progression of computational biology and its wide-ranging applications.

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Ka Yeon Kim Malaysia

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Biology

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DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINES: WHAT’S TAKING SO LONG?

Article

With the Covid-19 pandemic headlining the global news channels for the past seven months, the concern for a vaccine continues to grow, and the race is still ongoing.

By Anastasia Iman Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu With the Covid-19 pandemic headlining the global news channels for the past seven months, the concern for a vaccine continues to grow, and the race is still ongoing. The University of Oxford’s ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 impressively entered the final phase of Covid-19 trials1 and Vladimir Putin has also confirmed that a Russiandeveloped vaccine is safe for usage after several months of research. Additionally, more than 150 countries have engaged in the COVAX Facility, a mechanism working towards guaranteeing equal and rapid access to the Covid-19 vaccine. COVAX aims to end the pandemic’s acute phase and countries like Finland, Portugal, and Saudi Arabia have submitted interest for engagement. So how are vaccines made and why does it take so long to fully develop one? A vaccination is a functional way of protecting the body from the contraction of a harmful disease before coming into contact with it, according to the WHO. The immune system fights a weakened pathogen known as an antigen transported into the body using the vaccine. Antibodies and memory cells are released and will allow the body to defeat and remember this antigen so they will recognise it if it is ever contracted. There are five steps to developing a vaccine. The first step is to generate the antigen to induce an immune response in the body after a dosage. Pathogens are grown and harvested or a recombinant protein (a protein made with DNA technology) is generated after extraction from the pathogen.

Viruses are produced in cell cultures (a process where cells are grown under controlled conditions), meanwhile, bacteria are grown in bioreactors using a growth medium developed to enhance the yield of the antigen. The second step is to extract and isolate the antigen from the growth material used in the first step. Thirdly, the antigen is purified from any protein or other parts that might have clung to it during its release. For recombinant protein vaccines, chromatography may be used for purification or ultrafiltration on the specific MD and the severity of MD. Besides the antigen, a vaccine also contains adjuvants which boost the immune system, preservatives to maintain the effectiveness of the vaccination, and stabilisers to protect the vaccine during storage and transportation and prolong shelf-life. These are added in the fourth step of the development process. The final step is to distribute the finished product. All the components are combined in a vessel and then filled into vials or syringe packages, tightly sealed with sterile stoppers or plungers before being labelled for international distribution. Vaccines can take up to 32 months to be developed before it is ready to be distributed throughout a community. Moreover, vaccines must go through four phases, including human trials. Quality controls take up to 70% of the full manufacturing process to ensure that they are completely safe to be used. The components, manufacturing processes, testing methods, reagents, and quality have to fulfill the standards characterized by Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). population. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINES: WHAT’S TAKING SO LONG?

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Quality controls are extremely vital for ensuring safety, purity, and efficacy.According to health and science correspondent James Gallagher, a lot still needs to be done before the actual distribution of the potential Covid-19 vaccines that several research groups have designed. This includes carrying out trials to ensure the safety of the vaccine, clinical trials to prove that the vaccine triggers an immune response, large-scale production, approval from medical regulators, and figuring out the logistical challenge of providing immunity to most of the global Gallagher mentioned that priority will most likely be given to frontline healthcare workers who come into direct contact with patients. Furthermore, the elderly will be prioritised due to their vulnerability to the virus as well as certain ethnicities that are more susceptible than others. Bill Gates told Wired that "For the rich world, we should largely be able to end this thing by the end of 2021, and for the world at large by the end of 2022.” According to Dale Smith, Oxford has set a target for distribution by fall 2020, and Moderna, an American company, expects an early 2021 release for its proposed vaccine. Hopefully, an immunisation that is safe and successful will be developed soon and can help to protect most of the population from the virus. The burning need for a vaccine has accelerated research and trials, all that is left to do is remain patient and leave it to the hands of our medical professionals.

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Anastasia Iman Sufian Indonesia

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Biology

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COMBATING ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR)

Article

90 years ago, the first antibiotics were discovered serendipitously by Sir Alexander Fleming, and instantly revolutionised the treatment of bacterial diseases.

By Caitlin Tan Edited by Jing Yuan Chan 90 years ago, the first antibiotics were discovered serendipitously by Sir Alexander Fleming, and instantly revolutionised the treatment of bacterial diseases. However, concerns regarding antibiotic overuse were raised almost immediately: as early as 1945, Sir Alexander Fleming warned that the ‘public will demand [the drug] ... then will begin an era ... of abuses’. Indeed, antibiotics have become synonymous with healthcare. But it is precisely this synonymity that has led to antibiotic resistance, as epidemiological studies have demonstrated a direct link between antibiotic consumption and the emergence of resistant bacteria strains. The development of immunity and resistance towards antimicrobial medicines is a naturallyoccurring phenomenon. Bacteria can inherit resistant genes from relatives or acquire them fromnon-relatives via plasmids through the process of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Mutations can also enable resistance to occur spontaneously. Through the use of antimicrobial agents, susceptible bacteria will be destroyed while a survival advantage will be created for resistant bacteria. It is estimated that antimicrobial resistance accounts for 700,000 deaths annually, and according to the UN Ad Hoc Interagency Coordinating Group on Antimicrobial Resistance report, these figures could reach ‘10 million deaths each year’ within the coming decades.

The last class of antibiotics acting against Gram-negative bacteria - which has been placed on the World Health Organisation’s list of ‘priority pathogens’ - was discovered in the 1960s (Lewis, 2020), with no new discoveries since. Gram-negative bacteria (such as Escherichia coli,Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae) have a highly restrictive cell wall, and consist of an additional outer membrane made of lipo-polysaccharides (LPS) accounting for its impermeability to foreign molecules, and thus its resistance to antibiotics. However, researchers from Justus Liebig University Giessen have recently identified a potential candidate - Darobactin - to act against Gramnegative bacteria after analysing the photorhabdus bacteria found in the gut of nematodes (parasitic worms). Scientists were drawn to this platform as these nematodes feed on insects by targeting their larvae while also releasing this bacteria to combat pathogens similar to the ones in the human gut, thereby indicating good pharmacokinetics and low toxicity. Upon further investigation, it was discovered that Darobactin binds to the BamA protein located on the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, which controls access to the outer membrane, thereby interfering with the bacteria’s ability to build a proper cell envelope, causing it to be destroyed. If successful, Darobactin would be the first animal microbiome antibiotics to be used on humans.

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COMBATING ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR)

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Meanwhile, development of antibiotics acting against gram-positive bacteria have also seen some promising results. Since the discovery of penicillin, its success in exhibiting bactericidal effects prompted the wide range use of βLactam antibiotics (such as penicillins) to treat diseases caused by grampositive bacteria. However, in recent years, gram-positive bacteria gained the ability to resist β-Lactam antibiotics mediated by β-Lactamase enzymes. In response to these challenges, scientists identified β-Lactamase inhibitors to be co-administered with β-Lactam antibiotics which would enable the βLactam antibiotics to reach their targets of penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). For example, Clavulanic acid (a βLactamase inhibitor) enhances the ability of amoxilin (a β-Lactam antibiotic) to treat respiratory and urinary tract infections. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the globalthreat of antimicrobial resistance can be mitigated through three significant strategies: Raising awareness of AMRStrengthening antimicrobial stewardship in human health to avoid inappropriate prescription of antibioticsStrengthening infection prevention and controlAt the current rate, pathogens are developing defences and immunity a lot faster than we are developing antimicrobials. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the community as a whole to remain mindful of the consequences that accompany the growing threat of antimicrobial resistance in order to avert this crisis.

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Caitlin Tan Malaysia

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DOCTOR GRANT THINKS IT’S A BAD IDEA: THE IMPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING ON (FARM) ANIMALS

Article

Even if you haven’t already seen Jurassic Park, it’s pretty well known that the genetic engineering of animals has been developing more than ever. By Rhiya Furrah Edited by Hui Qi Chin

Even if you haven’t already seen the highly revered and highly factual Jurassic Park (what have you been doing with your time?), it’s pretty well known that the genetic engineering of animals has been developing more than ever. For starters, GMOs, often being animals, refer to organisms that have been genetically altered, by genetic engineering, usually to obtain more desirable phenotypes/traits. Genetic engineering is done by ‘cutting’ a gene that codes for a specific characteristic (e.g. insulin production) from one organism and sticking it to the genome of another organism. It’s a little more complicated than that, and there are quite a few methods in which you can proceed with the nifty gene sticking thing. Still, it’s essential to know that GMOs/transgenic organisms can express a gene from a different organism as genetic code is universal, and genes are responsible for all the traits we exhibit. Genetic engineering is done with the editing tool ‘CRISPR-Cas 9’. Genetic engineering in the animal community is rising in specific sectors, particularly that of farm animals, to generally improve animal productivity (like that of disease resistance and food quality). For one thing, genetically engineered livestock can doubtlessly enhance the yield of resources. Quite simply, genetically modified cows can produce a higher yield of milk -- which should theoretically allow us to reduce the resources and infringement of ethics we impose on intensive farming, right? That would be under the premise that the agriculture industry wouldn’t seek to exploit this

issue to the fullest and not further intensive farming with this newfound advantage. That would be the gist of it in farming, I suppose. Improve production. Improve efficacy. Improve profit. The priorities. China has undoubtedly taken the reins here with recent governmentapproved genetically modified ‘super muscly cows’ and gene-edited sheep and goats with thicker, lengthier wool. But a lot of the time, particularly with disease resistance, genetic engineering is used to combat problems that are caused by intensive farming itself. For instance, increased cases of mastitis (an inflammation of mammary/breast tissue) are thought to be due to the cows being more exposed to bacteria as a result of the uncleanliness of intensive farming. A less humane and ecological method for solving this issue is giving cows resistance to this disease via genetic engineering, as opposed to opening confined animals to wellmanaged pastures. It is remarkably industrial and crude and simply expected that instead of tackling the root problem by improving hygiene, the industry is more concerned with stocks and numbers. Additionally, the fear of the unknown is one that isn’t respected in this practice. While gene editing may undoubtedly affect the desired change, there is little to no information about other inadvertent changes that may be imposed on the animals as a result. The likelihood of ‘off-target’ effects is a very real one, in which CRISPR may cause accidental deletions to some exons (genes that code for a trait) within a gene. A mechanism known as gene/RNA splicing splices/removes WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

THE IMPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING ON (FARM) ANIMALS

some parts of the gene naturally to increase the variety of proteins/traits (phenotypes) produced. In gene editing, it’s been realised that CRISPR can cause alternative splicing, resulting in an abnormal/incorrect protein being produced from the gene instead. This protein could be inactive, or it could be active in a way that affects the animal’s health negatively. It can even result in health repercussions for the humans that may go on to consume the animal if animal welfare and rights isn’t enough of an issue to draw the line with gene technology.

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promote animal welfare such as but not limited to WWF to smaller-scale SPCAs, but the less romantic notion that we test on and genetically modify animals doesn’t receive as much coverage. I guess it just isn’t adorable enough. Rhiya Furrah | Malaysia

By and large, GMOs as plants no doubt can be beneficial in improving yield and making food resources more accessible. That could even be the case for animals if selective breeding doesn’t suffice for certain, necessary traits. GMOs have even been used in developing genetic vaccines for both humans and animals, and developing disease resistance when the disease is not human-induced is certainly something to bear in mind for both humans and animals. And if done safely, where the benefits outweigh the risk factors, genetic engineering on animals might not necessarily have to be as contentious as it is. But with the risk factors in mind, and the fact that much genetic engineering is perpetuated by intensive farming, drawing the line with genetic engineering is less a sci-fi concept but a genuine infringement of animal rights by humans (considering these are the animals we eat). I grew up in a country that possesses a rather broad intolerance to dogs. I always found a certain irony, probably due to my upbringing, of the fantastic romanticism of animals in the media (how adorable) considering how we treat them. Yes, we eat them. Inhumane in its way, but putting them through suffering and hormones and now gene tech where a lot of the risk factors are human-induced seems superfluous if some shy away from words of crudeness. Of course, we know there are respectable foundations that seek to WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

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Biology

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USING GENE THERAPY TO PREVENT THE TRANSMISSION OF MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES

Article

What is Mitochondrial Disease?

By Victoria Ong Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu What is Mitochondrial Disease? Mitochondrial Disease (MD) is the collective term for a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders characterized by defective oxidative phosphorylation during the respiration process, meaning that the mitochondria fail to produce enough energy for the body to function properly. Usually, MD is inherited (by means such as autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, or mitochondrial inheritance) but it can also be a result of spontaneous mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or nuclear DNA (nDNA), leading to a change in the DNA sequence hence a change in the protein and structure that this DNA codes for. MD commonly affects tissues with high energy demand such as in the skeletal muscle, the brain, and the heart. Since mitochondria are present in all cells of the body except in red blood cells, patients with MD can experience symptoms isolated in specific organs only, but they mostly occur in organs that are involved in multiple body systems. How does gene therapy benefit those suffering from MD? As there is currently no cure for MD, it is a chronic disorder. This also means that the goals of current treatment aim to alleviate symptoms and to slow the progression of MD. The effectiveness of treatment varies from patient to patient, also depending on the specific MD and the severity of MD.

However, these treatments are unable to reverse the damage already done. Genetic therapy- a cure for MD is being developed in its early stages. This genetic therapy incorporates the idea of reducing the levels of mutated mtDNA molecules as the disease-causing mutations are present in only a small fraction in each cell. Scientists from the University of Cambridge and University of Miami developed an approach to deactivate the mutated mtDNA regions within the cell, using a modified virus. The virus will deliver a gene into the cell nucleus that can code for a protein that works like molecular scissors. These molecular scissors will be produced by the cell and will target the mitochondria to “cut out” the mutated mtDNA. This was tested using a mouse model and provided positive results. The team was thrilled that the first gene therapy to remove the cause of MD in a living animal was a success, however more detailed work and safety assessments must be done before the therapy can be applied to human patients, says lead scientist Dr James Steward. Another potential gene therapy to prevent the transmission of MD involves eliminating mutant mtDNA from oocytes using the enzyme nuclease engineered to bind and remove specific mutant mtDNA sequences, through breaking the mtDNA’s double helix.

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USING GENE THERAPY TO PREVENT THE TRANSMISSION OF MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES

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Although this technique aims to reduce the transmission of mtDNA on oocytes, scientists must follow through this procedure by replacing the removed mtDNA sections with wild-type mtDNA, for daughter cells produced in cell division subsequently to receive a uniform collection of normal mtDNA, reducing the risk of heteroplasmy. This gene therapy approach can also be used by the CRISPR-Cas9 method. This method involves using guide RNAs (gRNAs) to direct the Cas9 nuclease to remove the target mutation by breaking the DNA double helix structure and is subsequently repaired. This nuclear genome editing is the most common technology used for genome editing, however, this has not been applied to mtDNA. This is because scientists have yet to confirm whether gRNAs can cross the mitochondrial membrane, and there has yet to receive news on successful applications of this method to modify mtDNA mutations.

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Victoria Ong United Kingdom

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Biology

STEM

EFFECTS OF THE PRESERVATIVE PARABEN IN COSMETICS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Article

In 2012, the National Health Service (NHS) of the UK posted an article, with the headline: "Deodorant chemical 'found in breast tumours'' By Win Liu Edited by Xuen Bei Chin

In 2012, the National Health Service (NHS) of the UK posted an article, with the headline: "Deodorant chemical 'found in breast tumours''. This shocking announcement was based on a lab study investigating how a group of chemicals or preservatives, known as parabens, which were deposited in the tissue of 40 women diagnosed with breast cancer. Furthermore, the same researchers also found that 99% of the samples taken from removed breast samples contained at least 1 concentration of paraben compounds, and 60% of the samples contained 5 types of paraben compounds, suggesting a possible correlation between parabens and breast cancer [1]. Could these parabens possibly be cancercausing culprits? This emerging possibility creates a potential area for further investigation, which we shall explore in more detail.

What are cosmetic products? According to the Cambridge English Dictionary, cosmetics are substances that you put on your face or body that are intended to improve one’s appearance [2]. Popular cosmetic products which parabens can be found in include shampoos, lipsticks and perfume. A simple categorization of parabens, are that they are chemicals widely used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. Parabens are often added in cosmetic products, because of their economic viability, chemical stability and effectiveness in preservation for the cosmetic’s shelf life. So how can parabens be harmful? There are several pathways that parabens can work their way into the body, with dermal (skin) and inhalation being the main sources of high exposure.

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EFFECTS OF THE PRESERVATIVE, PARABEN IN COSMETICS ON HUMAN HEALTH

This affects metabolic processes in our body, inactivating metabolisms through their reactions with enzymes. Parabens are not eco-friendly either, with their negative environmental impacts caused through improper disposal of products or chemicals. This creates chlorinated byproducts in water bodies, being toxic to biospheres. I will be discussing the harmful effects of paraben on the development of breast cancer. Firstly, Absorption of parabens may cause breast cancer in both male and females, as it is associated with estrogens -- a species of female sex hormones responsible for sexual and reproductive development. Typically, estrogens bind to receptors on breast cells, triggering their gene expressions, causing cell division. However, excessive amounts of estrogens cause breast cells to divide uncontrollably, which happens for both healthy cells and cancerous cells. As a result, the formation of cancer cells is accelerated uncontrollably, leading to breast cancer as a result of accelerated malignant tumour growth. Recent studies suggest parabens exert their estrogenic effects indirectly, by elevating levels of estrogens through inhibition of enzymes that are responsible for controlling estrogen levels in the skin. This is possibly due to the similar structure of parabens to that of estrogen, by the hydroxyl functional group.

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Hence, if the enzymes are inhibited, the reaction is not catalysed, so excessive amounts of estrogens accumulate in the body and leads to tumour growth in the breast. With the risks of cancer and disruptions to reproductive systems in mind, we can see that the effects of parabens are mostly targeted towards females, giving women all the more reason to stay away from potentially harmful cosmetic products containing parabens. Through understanding the biochemical processes involved in the endocrine disruptive effects of parabens, we believe the society and industry needs to generate more exposure for these scientifically proven consequences of using products containing parabens. Nevertheless, parabens are still a vital preservative to maintain the shelf-life of cosmetic products you see in stores such as Sasa or Sephora today. Parabens are practically unavoidable in our daily lives, therefore, it is crucial to minimise the use to prevent health issues. Many cosmetic products have started to use the label “paraben free” as a selling point, but parabens are not the sole harmful chemical in cosmetics. There may be other chemicals like phthalates that can still be present in cosmetic products, therefore, being "paraben free" does not necessarily mean complete safety. In conclusion, the harmful effects of paraben is still an ongoing hot topic in the field of biology and medicine, and is still an area for further research and exploration. For now, I hope you understand the effects of parabens on health, as well as to be mindful when purchasing cosmetic products and to maintain a healthy level of usage!

Win Liu | Hong Kong

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Biology

STEM

EFFECTS OF MERCURY AND LEAD ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Article

Contamination of the human body and soil with heavy metals is of most significant concern across the world.

By Ayham Ghaith Edited by Hui Qi Chin Mercury Environmental mercury can exist in its elemental form, as inorganic mercury or as organic mercury. Methylmercury (MeHg), the primary organic mercury source found in ecosystems, is the most common organic mercury source. The U.S. Government Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranks mercury as the third of the most toxic elements or substances on the planet. Mercury and these toxic substances continue to be spilled into the atmosphere, dumped into waterways and soil, and consumed in our food and water. Human exposure to fossil fuel emissions, the incineration of medical waste, dental amalgam, and various commercial products like skin creams are potential sources of organic mercury. Human actions have almost tripled the amount of mercury in the atmosphere, and the atmospheric burden is rising by 1.5% annually. Lead Lead is a naturally occurring bluishgray metal present in small amounts in the earth’s crust. While lead is naturally present in the atmosphere, anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel burning and mining contribute to its high quantities. Lead is and will continue to be a significant metal for multiple industrial applications, the principal one being the electric battery industry. However, leaded gasoline combustion in vehicles has accounted for a considerable portion of the total anthropogenic environmental lead sources.

An estimated 1.52 million metric tons of lead were used for various industrial applications in the U.S. in 2004. In recent years, paints and ceramic products have significantly decreased the industrial usage of lead. Nevertheless, estimations show that among 16.4 million households in the U.S. with more than one child younger than six per family, 25% of households have considerable quantities of leadcontaminated degraded paint, dust, or adjacent bare soil. Today, the largest lead poisoning source in children comes from dust and chips from deteriorating lead paint on interior surfaces. Effects of Mercury and Lead on the Environment Contamination of the soil with heavy metals is of most significant concern across the world. Heavy metals like lead and mercury cause contamination that results not only in adverse effects on different plant qualities, but also in changes in the scale, structure, and behavior of microbial populations. Therefore, these heavy metals are considered as one of the significant sources of soil pollution. They affect soil enzyme activity indirectly through changes to the enzyme synthesis of the microbial community. Uptake by plants and the resulting buildup in the food chain is a possible hazard to animal and human safety. One of the main routes of introduction into the food chain is absorption by plant roots. Lead has been found to have a substantial impact on the seed morphology and physiology of plants; it inhibits germination, root elongation, seedling development, plant growth, WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

EFFECTS OF MERCURY AND LEAD ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT

transpiration, chlorophyll production, and water and protein content, causing alterations in the chloroplast for example. Mercury is considered a widespread pollutant and environmental toxicant that induces significant alterations in body tissues and detrimental health effects. Because mercury is ubiquitous in the environment, humans, plants, and animals cannot avoid exposure to some form of mercury. The release of processed mercury may cause atmospheric mercury to slowly increase, which enters the atmosphericsoil-water distribution cycles where it will linger in circulation for years.

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dysfunction; even a relatively low level of lead can also cause the same problem. The neurotoxicity of lead at high levels of exposure has been welldocumented for both humans and animals; both the peripheral and the central nervous system are influenced by lead exposure. Ayham Ghaith | United Arab Emirates

Effects of Mercury and Lead on Human Health Exposure of humans to mercury occurs mainly through accidents, environmental pollution, food contamination, dental care, preventive medical practices, industrial and agricultural operations, and occupational procedures. Fish consumption and dental amalgams are examples of two primary sources of chronic, low-level mercury exposure. Exposure to elevated levels of metallic, organic, and inorganic mercury can damage the brain and kidneys. Exposure to metallic mercury vapors at higher levels for shorter periods can eventually lead to vomiting, nausea, skin rashes, lung damage, and increased heart rate or blood pressure. Since the symptoms of organic mercury poisoning (depression, memory problems, tremors, fatigue, headache, hair loss, etc.) are also common in other conditions, it may be difficult to diagnose such cases. Lead is known to affect critical neural and hormonal systems. Acute and chronic lead poisoning contributes to vascular and cardiac damage and cardiovascular illnesses and hypertension, potentially fatal consequences. Hypertension in both humans and animals could be caused by exposure to low levels of lead. Highlevel exposure to lead can cause renal WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

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Biology

STEM

THE RAMIFICATIONS OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE WORLD’S ECOSYSTEMS

Article

It is well-known that plastics are a primary pollutant in many aquatic environments, particularly oceans

By Kailey Wong Edited by Xuen Bei Chin It is well-known that plastics are a primary pollutant in many aquatic environments, particularly oceans. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch, located in the northcentral Pacific Ocean, is the most famous accumulation of plastic debris on Earth. However, microplastics, small fragments of plastic less than five millimeters in length, often slip by unnoticed due to their minuscule size. While most larger plastics can be found on land or floating on the surface of the water, microplastics are less visible and more pervasive.

High concentrations of microplastics in and near bodies of water have inadvertently made them a part of aquatic food chains. Because they are similar in size as the prey typically consumed by the smallest fish and vertebrae, microplastics quickly make their way up the food chain into larger predators in the process known as a trophic transfer. The situation is worsened by powerful currents at the ocean floor where microplastics are deposited in concentrated pockets in the deepest recesses of the sea.

There are two main classifications of microplastics: primary microplastics and secondary microplastics. Primary microplastics are deliberately manufactured to be small, such as the microbeads used as exfoliants in many health and beauty products. Secondary microplastics begin as part of a larger plastic product and are broken down into smaller and smaller fragments by sunlight and waves. We often value plastic products for their durability, but when it comes to secondary microplastics, this durability becomes an issue.

Microplastics have been found embedded in the tissues of marine invertebrates, which make up about ninety percent of life on the ocean floor (Rogers, 2020). Many marine invertebrates are also filterfeeders, organisms that are extremely susceptible to ingesting microplastics because they feed by filtering tiny suspended particles. In other cases, microplastics floating near the surface of the water are mistakenly eaten by fish and birds. Regardless of their entry point into the food chain, microplastics ingested by an aquatic species hinder their ability to absorb nutrients and results in a loss of energy, which makes it difficult for them to perform basic survival functions.

Microplastics are especially prone to dispersion across the planet because of their size, which makes them even more of a threat. These tiny bits of plastic can be found virtually everywhere on Earth, from the deepest valleys of the ocean floor to the dust high up in the atmosphere. They are especially dangerous in areas that are rich in diverse marine life, like the Maldives archipelago, which researchers have found to contain the world’s largest amounts of microplastics in beach sand and shallow waters (Parker, 2020).

Many microplastics also contain harmful chemicals that leach out as they disintegrate or are digested by organisms. The most damaging chemicals are Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), which can trigger changes in organisms’ endocrine systems and interfere with their hormones. EDCs like Bisphenol A (BPA) often cause reproduction toxicity, which correlates with low birth rates and developmental issues in offspring (Gallo et al., 2018).

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THE RAMIFICATIONS OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE WORLD’S ECOSYSTEMS

Unfortunately, even our land has been changed by microplastics. A farming technique known as plastic mulching, where plastic sheets are laid over fields to preserve moisture and prevent weeds, is becoming increasingly prevalent as droughts around the world worsen. In China, where this technique is popular, two-thirds of surveyed farmers failed to collect their plastics sheets after harvest, leaving them to decompose in the soil instead (Parker, 2020).

With microplastics invading ecosystems everywhere, it should come as no surprise that they have diffused into humans too. In August 2020, scientists revealed new techniques that allowed them to discover microplastics in every sample of organ tissue taken from 47 human donors (Wehner, 2020). The consequences of ingesting microplastics in humans are still unknown, but it is difficult to imagine having synthetic polymers embedded in your organs is a good thing.

Consequently, millions of tons of plastics have contaminated Chinese soil, altering its composition. Crops grown in this afflicted soil are weaker and crop yields have already begun to decline.

Although we are only just coming to recognize the detrimental consequences of microplastic contamination, the issue is hardly new —plastics have been mass-produced for over half a century, giving them decades to accumulate. There are still many unknown effects connected to this pervasive substance, but scientists are working hard to research its ramifications and to develop pragmatic solutions to this enduring problem.

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Kailey Wong United States

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Chemical Engineering

STEM

HARVESTING PHA BIOPOLYESTERS FROM DOMESTIC WASTEWATER

Article

We often associate wastewater with the unpleasantness of sewage, but the dirty work may yield a solution to the world's plastic problem.

By Hui Qi Chin Edited by Jing Yuan Chan

We often associate wastewater with the rancid smell and general unpleasantness of sewage. Due to the unappealing connotations of the job, the inner workings of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) are customarily left a mystery to those of us who prefer not to think about the dirty work. Nonetheless, wastewater engineering remains one of the most important branches of chemical engineering: after all, without engineers to facilitate the stages of a WWTP, we'd all die pretty soon from a lack of clean water. In addition to fulfilling the primary purpose of a WWTP - converting untreated wastewater into nonpathogenic, clean water fit for discharge into natural water bodies - chemical engineers also try to recover and valorize as many wastewater byproducts as possible. Valorization refers to the reusing or recycling of waste into more valuable products. One such form of valorization that has gained traction recently is the harvesting of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) polyesters from bacteria, which can form bioplastics for everyday use. To grasp such a process, let’s first go through a simplified overview of the stages involved in a domestic WWTP. Firstly, the pre-treatment stage removes large screenings, such as plastic cartons and large food waste, from the wastewater, usually through sieving (bar screens). Then, in the primary treatment stage, wastewater settles in a container called a primary clarifier; floatable solids and heavy, settleable solids are scraped off from the top and

bottom of the wastewater respectively, removing 60% of suspended solids. Next, the wastewater undergoes secondary biological treatment whereby bacteria consume dissolved organic contaminants in the wastewater under aerobic/anaerobic/anoxic conditions, further cleaning it. In the primary and secondary treatment stages, settleable solids (along with the microbial cultures involved in secondary treatment) are removed as sludge. An optional tertiary treatment stage includes further disinfection, such as by UV light. After the wastewater goes through all the WWTP stages, it is discharged into a nearby water body (e.g. a river), and clean water returns to nature. The waste sludge removed from the main stream is integral to PHA accumulation. Pittman & Steinmetz outline the production of PHAs as a side stream to wastewater treatment in the diagram below:

Figure 1. Diagram showing the production of PHA as a side stream process at a wastewater treatment plant.

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HARVESTING PHA BIOPOLYESTERS FROM DOMESTIC WASTEWATER

PHAs are polyesters that are naturally accumulated in microorganisms through fermentation lipids or sugars from sludge. PHAs can be chemically extracted for use in plastics. In the anaerobic reactor (stage (1)), acidogenic fermentation occurs acidogenesis being a stage in anaerobic digestion whereby monomers are converted into volatile fatty acids (VFA). The VFA-enriched substrate is then transferred to the aerobic reactor (stage (2a)). In stage (2a) - biomass accumulation PHA producing microorganisms are vetted by the feast/famine method. In the feast phase, the substrate is available, but in the famine phase, the substrate is removed. During the famine phase, microorganisms with the ability of PHA-accumulation or polymer-storage have a selection advantage and reproduce more since they can use the PHAs they accumulated as an energy store. This repeated process enriches PHA producing microorganisms.

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Bioplastics derived from PHA have numerous applications: packaging, agriculture, medicine, and more. The synthesis of PHA from waste sludge in wastewater can be integrated into both the actual wastewater treatment process and as a side stream as earlier described, opening up an opportunity for the continual production of plastics from the wastewater cycle. The ability to produce PHA at WWTP with relative ease holds significant implications for the green economy and the replacement of conventional petrochemical-derived plastics with eco-friendly alternatives; it is certainly something to look out for in years to come.

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Hui Qi Chin Malaysia

In stage (2b), PHA production occurs with VFA-enriched substrate and microorganisms with high PHA storage capacity, thereby maximizing PHA production efficiency. After PHAs are accumulated, they are dewatered and extracted from biomass chemically. From there, PHAs can be polymerized as polyesters do (through condensation polymerization), forming bioplastics with beneficial properties of being biodegradable, thermoplastic, and resistant to breakdown by UV. Since PHAs encompass a wide range of polyesters, they can vary in elasticity and other properties to suit the purpose; the mechanical properties can also be changed by combining with other materials (enzymes, polymers), enabling a more comprehensive range of applications.

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Chemical Engineering

STEM

FUTURE OF FASHION: SHIRTS MADE FROM PLASTIC BOTTLES

Article

Innovators and creators have found a solution to tackle plastic pollution: manufacturing shirts from plastic bottles.

By Treshia Siotama Tan Edited by Hui Qi Chin Plastic pollution, one of humanity’s most significant and unprecedented problems, started from over 50 years ago. From the twentieth century, plastic usage has risen exponentially due to its versatility, flexibility, and price (Guern, 2009). Due to irresponsible overconsuming, disposing of, and littering of plastic products, this led to a threat to the environment worldwide, such as flooding, reducing marine biodiversity, and disrupting the food chain (Moore, 2009). Fortunately, innovators and creators found a solution to tackle plastic pollution: manufacturing shirts from plastic bottles. Big companies such as Adidas, H&M, and Patagonia have started producing shirts made from plastic bottles, hoping that other multinational companies will hop on the bandwagon (Pardes, 2018). In this decade, sustainability has been a norm due to an increase in pollution awareness. For instance, in 2018, plastic straws’ banning became a worldwide campaign, and countries began implementing it, reducing marine animals from choking plastic straws (Gibbens, 2019). The question arises: how does a scratchy plastic bottle turn into a soft fabric? Plastic bottles are first turned into polyester threads made out of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In this process, plastic bottles are transported to the recycling center and classified by their respective colors, where they are broken down and shredded into little pieces. Shredding is the most crucial method because slicing the plastic bottles will remove excess moisture or liquids found inside the

bottle, and humidity is unfavorable during recycling (Danehy, 2016). However, it is hard to weave cloth from the pieces that are obtained. Thus, it is broken down again by passing it through a rotating screw heated up to 290 degrees Celsius to melt the plastic. The molten plastic is forced through a sieve where it will produce a string-like material that is fragile (Grishanov, 2011) To strengthen the strings, they are collected together and stretched multiple times while it is heated. In doing so, this will bond the fibers together to ensure its strength. Different colored bottles will emerge as different colors of thread. Unfortunately, this is not the final step. The threads will then be torn apart for the second time, where a softmaterial that looks like cotton wool will emerge during the process. Once the fluff is collected together, it will undergo a method called ‘carding’. Carding is when the bonded fibers are all brushed together to lie in a similar direction, strengthening the material (Raja, 2014). Finally, pure polyester will emerge, later teased into thin and delicate pieces of thread. After obtaining the thread, the thread needs to be softened to ensure that the manufactured shirt will be comfortable. One method is to mix the polyester with cotton to form poly-cotton. This mixture has 50% polyester and 50% cotton or 35% polyester and 65% cotton (Smeader, 2010). Another way is to pass through the polyester through a series of rigid steel brushes that act as spinning rollers. The result will be a shredded-like surface that gives a soft feel to make the clothes more comfortable. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

FUTURE OF FASHION: SHIRTS MADE FROM PLASTIC BOTTLES

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An average of 27 plastic bottles are used to produce a T-shirt (Hencks, 2018). By continuously innovating and finding solutions to reduce or eliminate plastic waste, plastic pollution may not be inevitable as we think it is now.

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Treshia Siotama Tan Singapore

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Physics

STEM

THE FUTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

Article

Will everything we know be ripped apart as the universe expands, or will the universe collapse on itself?

By Anjeli Estrada Edited by Hui Qi Chin We have all heard of the Big Bang, where 14 billion years ago, time and space were created simultaneously in a small point. We also know that the universe is currently expanding at an accelerating rate. But how about the future? Will everything we know be ripped apart as the universe expands, or will the universe collapse on itself? Essentially there are three possibilities: the Big Freeze, the Big Rip, or the Big Crunch. What differentiates these three possibilities has to do with how the universe is expanding and will continue to grow. This depends on the gravitational force pulling it together and the force causing it to expand. It all centers around Hubble’s constant - the measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe. Deceivingly, Hubble’s constant isn’t a constant as it is changing over time; the term constant is used to describe it because it is constant throughout the entire universe in a single moment in time. How this constant changes through time is what will determine the future of the universe. The constant is decreasing through time but how it decreases depends on various factors. For simplicity, we will be looking at three factors: radiation, matter, and dark energy. If you don’t know what dark energy is, you’re not alone. Even scientists haven’t discovered what it is. It’s essentially a term given to the energy source that opposes the attractive force of gravity between galaxies. We know that there must be a force counteracting the force of gravity, but since we haven’t found out what it is, it is simply named dark energy.

In simple terms, dark energy is what causes the expansion of the universe. How does radiation, matter, and dark energy change as the universe expands? As the universe expands, the density of matter will drop by a^3 (cubed due to its volume). The process of radiation diluting is a bit more complicated, but it will drop as well. The exciting part is energy density. Since the energy is intrinsic to space itself, energy density will remain constant at a value of a0. Now, if these calculations are accurate, then the Hubble’s constant - the rate of expansion of the universe - would drop but reach somewhat of a constant in the future. This is the first possibility and is what we call the Big Freeze. This is also the possibility that scientists are most inclined to believe. Big Freeze What this means is that the universe will continue expanding forever. The heat in our universe will be so evenly distributed through such a vast space that the universe would go through ‘heat death’. ‘Heat death’ doesn’t mean that it will become scorching but rather the opposite. Mechanical motion within the universe will no longer be possible. Stars would also be unable to form due to the gases in the universe being spread so thin. With such little energy in the universe, nothing would happen. However, the values stated before were a simplification. While it is likely that the energy density will remain constant at a0, there are still uncertainties with it. It would be more realistic to say that it evolves as a0 ± 0.08. The implications of this are substantial. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

THE FUTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

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Although the number of 0.08 may seem insignificant, this is not only an exponential graph but indicates a massive change in values through a small difference in time. It would mean that the energy density could become more positive or even negative through time. This provides a more realistic interpretation of what could happen in the future. Radiation and matter density would go down as expected, while dark energy has uncertainties associated with its constant value. This brings us to our two final possibilities. Big Rip The Big Rip is what will occur if the energy density was greater than we had previously expected. It would mean that the expansion would be at a much faster rate. The very fabric of our space, black holes, stars, and our own galaxy would all be torn apart. This would result in a bunch of single disconnected particles composing our universe. A model made by Marcelo Disconzi suggests that the rate of expansion would eventually become infinite. Big Crunch What about the opposite result? What if the energy density became smaller than we had initially assumed with a0? This would result in the Big Crunch. Imagine the universe expanding to its maximum and then collapsing on itself due to the gravitational pull being stronger than the dark energy. Essentially this would be the opposite of the Big Bang as everything would implode back on itself. This brings us to another theory that the universe would begin the cycle once again. If the universe is in such a small point in space after the Big Crunch, this will allow the Big Bang to occur again through what is called the Big Bounce. And the cycle would start again. These are the three main theories scientists have developed to attempt to predict the future of our universe. Perhaps in the future we will be sure of what will happen to the universe; for now, these are merely predictions.

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Anjeli Estrada Malaysia

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SPARK Physics

STEM

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE FAMOUS SUPERNOVA OF 1987? In 1987, in a galaxy 160,000 light-years away, a blue giant more powerful than the Sun was soon to change astronomers' understanding of space forever. By Defne Sametoglu Edited by Hui Qi Chin

In a galaxy 160,000 light-years away, a blue giant more powerful than the Sun was soon to change astronomers' understanding of space forever. In 158,013 B.C., one of the most turbulent and luminous events in nature occurred. It was only observed as a delayed-action replay by observers on the exciting day of February 23, 1987. This massive star blew up and strewed glowing gas throughout the Large Magellanic Cloud (the satellite galaxy in which the star resided in) in fascinating forms such as ribbons and rings. It also released a massive smoke ring that scientists have continued to track using the Hubble Space Telescope. However, after that miraculous event took place, scientists could not find any hint of the exploded star's core. For nearly three decades, scientists had no proper form of evidence to indicate SN 1987A's (Supernova 1987A) fate. However, this does not mean that the fate of SN 1987A is entirely unknown. A critical aspect of SN 1987A is that astronomers have long suspected that it exploded asymmetrically. Essentially, these astronomers suspect that the exploded supernova flung more of its matter in one direction than the other. Therefore, according to Newton's third law of motion, this blast would have kicked away whatever the supernova had become in the opposite direction at hundreds of miles per second. This means that it only takes a few simple calculations to predict its location. Using this information, a team of astronomers led by Mikako Matsuura and Phil Cigan discovered a hot shiny blob of dust emanating 100 times as much energy as the Sun in the area that SN 1987A's core should now be located.

They made this discovery using the Atacama Large Millimeter/ Submillimeter Array (ALMA), an astronomical interferometer of 66 radio telescopes in the Atacama Desert of Chile. "We were very surprised to see this warm blob made by a thick cloud of dust in the supernova remnant. There has to be something in the cloud that has heated the dust and which makes it shine. That's why we suggested that there is a neutron star hiding inside the dust cloud." said Dr. Matsuura. Before this observation, scientists have theorized the possibility of SN 1987A becoming a neutron star. This is because, in its prime, the star was 19 times as large as the Sun. "It's one thing for a bunch of theorists to say 'we think it probably formed a neutron star' and an entirely different thing when astronomers actually find evidence that there is, in fact, a neutron star there," said Daniel Holz, an astrophysicist at the University of Chicago. To bolster that conviction, 2 or 3 hours after the supernova's light reached the Earth's surface, a wave of neutrino particles made their way to Earth, and a total of 19 neutrinos were detected on particle detectors. "Neutrinos are indeed key to the supernova and neutron star process," said Dr. Burrows of Princeton University. Stars, specifically massive stars, develop onion-skin layers of newly minted elements such as helium, oxygen, and carbon, and at its center, there is a growing core of iron. Soon, the star's atomic forces will no longer be able to support its weight, and because of this, the star implodes and rebounds, leaving a neutron star.

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WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE FAMOUS SUPERNOVA OF 1987?

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After this, a galore of neutrino particles is created from the collapse's energy and roam throughout the cosmos. Ninety-nine percent of the supernova's energy goes into these neutrinos. The other 1 percent of energy is required to destroy the star (this percent is also responsible for the star's visible light). Now that scientists have potentially found the location of the neutron star, a new quest begins. Researchers are trying to see if NS 1987A (Neutron Star 1987A) is a standard neutron star or a pulsar (a member of the neutron star family that emits powerful beams of radio waves as it rotates). Currently, astronomers have not detected these radio waves.Although the mystery of SN 1987A is mostly over, astronomers will most likely continue to track this neutron star to learn as much as they can about our large yet fascinating universe.

Figure 1: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), P. Cigan and R. Indebetouw; NRAO/AUI/NSF, B. Saxton; NASA/ESA

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Defne Sametoglu Canada

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SPARK Physics

STEM

WHY DON’T PLANES FALL OUT OF THE SKY?

Article

Coming up with an accurate physical explanation for lift, rather than a purely mathematical one, has been surprisingly controversial. By Elena Merican Edited by Hui Qi Chin

Anyone who has ever been on an airplane can testify that they indeed fly. Aerospace engineers use the Navier-Stokes equations, which describe the motion of fluids (Acheson, 1990), to design wings that produce lift. But coming up with an accurate physical explanation for this phenomenon, rather than a purely mathematical one, has been surprisingly controversial. You may have already heard a simple explanation for lift. When air meets the wing’s leading edge, it has to split between the upper and lower surfaces. The cross-section of a wing is usually designed such that air particles going over the top have to travel a longer distance before they reach the trailing edge, where they meet up with the particles that traveled below the wing. Since the air on top moved further in the same amount of time, it must be flowing faster. Thus, by Bernoulli’s principle, the air pressure above the wing is lower than the pressure below it, creating lift (Hanson, 1965). Sounds relatively straightforward, doesn’t it? However, this line of reasoning has a significant flaw: there’s no reason that the air particles need to meet up at the end of the wing (Craig, 1997). In fact, observation of the movement of smoke around a wing demonstrates that the particles on the upper surface reach the trailing edge before their lower surface counterparts (Ackroyd, 2015). Despite its popularity and straightforwardness, this explanation is completely wrong. An alternative explanation put forward by Anderson and Eberhardt (2001) invokes the Coandă effect, the tendency of a fluid stream to attach itself to a solid surface and follow its shape. Air is viscous, causing it to ‘stick’ to the wing and thus have zero velocity

on the wing’s surface. This creates a ‘boundary layer’ where airspeed increases from zero to its free stream value as you move further away from the wing. The resulting differences in velocity between neighboring layers of air create shear forces that bend the flow towards the slower layers. In this way, the curvature of an aerofoil deflects air downwards, a change in direction, which implies a force is exerted on the air by the wing. By Newton’s third law, there must be an equal and opposite force exerted on the wing by the air, i.e. lift. However, this explanation has been criticized because it misattributes the change of direction to the Coandă effect and viscous forces. Actually, airflow deforms around an object due to the random motion and collision of air molecules (McLean, 2013). Babinsky (2003) offers an entirely different description of lift production based on pressure differences. The change in airflow direction to follow the wing’s curvature suggests a centrifugal force is present. This force is generated by a pressure gradient in which pressure decreases towards the center of rotation. Hence, on the upper surface, air pressure decreases from its ambient value as it approaches the wing. On the lower surface, the opposite occurs. Therefore, the air pressure on the bottom of the wing is greater than on top, producing lift. In his book Understanding Aerodynamics, McLean (2013) provides an explanation which ties together these competing theories. Adding to Babinsky’s line of reasoning, he states that the pressure difference changes both the airflow's horizontal and vertical velocity. As acceleration increases, so does inertia, which sustains the pressure difference. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

WHY DONâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;T PLANES FALL OUT OF THE SKY?

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The pressure difference, acceleration of the airflow, and change in direction are not unrelated phenomena but instead interconnected elements that have a reciprocal relationship and all work together to produce lift. Some may question the need for a thorough explanation for lift. After all, as long as engineers can design planes that work, who cares? However, for people who fly on airplanes, it can be nice to know that there is a physical explanation for why they are not currently plummeting towards the ground. Even if nobody can agree on what it is. Elena Merican | United Kingdom

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Physics

STEM

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN SOLAR PANELS

Article

Although he is known for his principle of general relativity, Albert Einstein won a Nobel Prize for his study on the photoelectric effect.

By Halit Osman Ozgur Edited by Xuen Bei Chin Although he is known for his principle of general relativity, Albert Einstein won a Nobel Prize for his study on the photoelectric effect. Until Einstein's breakthrough which opened a new era in the world of Physics, physicists were not sure if the light is a particle or a wave. In the year of 1905, Einstein offered a theoretical explanation of the photoelectric effect which suggests that light behaves both like a particle and a wave. Let's rewind a little while to 1887. A German scientist called Heinrich Hertz observed a UV light shined on a metal plate resulting in a spark. This meant that the light hitting on the metal plate is followed by emission of electrons and that light is a form of energy since breaking the bond between the electron and nucleus requires energy. The energy directed at the electrons can result in the excitation of electrons. As a result, electrons become free and generate a flow of electron. However, the most surprising thing in Hertz’s findings is that different metals required different minimum frequencies of light emitted to them. No matter how intense the light is, if the frequency of it is below the required frequency, there would be no spark. Moreover, Hertz also observed that when the intensity of light with sufficient frequency increases, the number of electrons emitted increases as well. The photoelectric effect was discovered, but could not be explained. This was because Hertz was trying to prove that light behaves like a wave.

Since Maxwell’s equations (1864), scientists were convinced that light behaves like a wave. Maxwell’s equations tell us that light is electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum consists of waves with varying wavelengths and frequencies, including the visible light and UV (ultraviolet) light. Nevertheless, Hertz’s discovery on the photoelectric effect suggested that light behaves like a particle. According to the wave theory of light, the light would have emitted an electron from the metal plate regardless of its frequency since the amplitude is the factor that determines the energy of a wave. However, if a light is a particle, then its frequency, namely its speed, would be a factor that determines its energy. This can be seen from the kinetic energy formula. Hertz’s findings seemed to contradict the wave theory of light. Although he did not care about it, these contradicting theories bothered Albert Einstein. In Annus Mirabilis (1905), one of Einstein’s papers was about the wave and particle behavior of light. He described light as packets of waves which are called "photons". In quantum mechanics, photons are described as tiny particles made up of electromagnetic radiation having no charge, no resting mass, and travels at the speed of light. Einstein also provided an equation for the photons' energy in the photoelectric effect (E = hv, where E is for the photon energy, h is the Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of the photon).

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THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN SOLAR PANELS

The wave-particle duality was discovered thanks to the discovery of the photoelectric effect, otherwise, we would still be thinking that light is a wave that would have prevented us from studying quantum mechanics. But, are there other uses for this photoelectric effect? After all, it generates an electron flow. We can see the photoelectric effect taking place in solar panels. In solar panels, we make use of the photovoltaic effect which is a way of producing a direct current from sunlight with the photoelectric effect. Unlike in Hertz’s experiment, the material exposed to the photoelectric effect is not a metal. It is a semiconductor called silicon. Silicon can make four bonds with other silicon atoms. This means that there are no free electrons in silicon material. If silicon is doped with a group 5A element, there will be free electrons in the silicon (n-type semiconductor); whereas, if it is doped with a group 3A element, there will be holes (p-type semiconductor). When n-type (N) and p-type (P) semiconductors are compressed into each other, free electrons will move from N to the holes in P which creates the p-n junction which is an electrically neutral barrier between the N and the P.

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As electrons move from N to P through the wire, the holes are filled while other holes were being opened as a result of the photoelectric effect. Thus, a solar panel will never stop producing electricity as long as the sun shines its light. However, this begs us another question: why sunlight? Sun emits ultraviolet light and its frequency is relatively higher than other electromagnetic radiations like visible light. As seen from the photoelectric effect, higher frequency means higher photon energy. If a photon with higher energy hits an electron, it is more likely for that electron to be free. Furthermore, it is also known that higher intensity of the sunlight results in higher potential differences in a solar panel which is related to Hertz’s experiment. In conclusion, the photoelectric effect was a groundbreaking discovery that led us to new fields of research in science and an invention that could save us from climate change. With the discovery of the photoelectric effect, humanity has once again seen how useful science can be.

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Halit Osman Ozgur Indonesia

These semiconductors are called N and P because of their electrical charge. N is negatively charged because it has free electrons and P is positively charged because it has holes. As a result, they have a potential difference. To increase this potential difference, we need light. If photons hit the p-n junction, due to the photoelectric effect, there can be more free electrons and holes in the semiconductor which increases the potential difference. Now, all there is needed to make use of this potential difference is connecting N to P with a wire.

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STEM

Mathematics

MATHEMATICS AND ETHICS: ABSOLUTE OBJECTIVITY IN PROOFS

Article

Mathematics and ethics act as a foil to one another: the former can be justified with deductive reasoning and factual information while the latter substantiates moral implications. By Sarah Liaw Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu Mathematics and ethics act as a foil to one another: the former can be justified with deductive reasoning and factual information while the latter substantiates moral implications. In the specific system of Maths (discounting the incompleteness theorem that will be discussed later), equations are universal facts that have been pursued relentlessly; these calculating rules form the mathematical axioms and logic in the field. To argue that the equation: 1+1=2 is fallible would be reductio ad absurdum - contradiction. In the essay, I will define morality as ‘a system of accepted beliefs that control behaviour’. Should mathematicians be functionalists, those who build maths as a system with conjectures, or moralists, those who build mathematics as a system with ethical values? When discussing a topic like this, one should view it from a third-person perspective – the platonic relationship between maths and ethics. It is then sensible to highlight the accepted way to gain knowledge in mathematics from a philosophical approach. In the realms of ethics, mathematics introduces three ways where readers can seek knowledge and truths from acceptably: moral, proven, and believed. The latter two are often viewed of most importance by functionalist mathematicians while the former is held strongly by moralists. Generally, moral truths draw correlations to a proof’s ethical considerations and applications, such as the Prisoner’s dilemma. Proven truths are associated with knowledge – this may include axiomatic statements in maths ‘the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees’.

Belief truth is devised when mathematicians make provable assumptions, which generally links to equalities: ‘180 degrees is equivalent to π radians’. Unlike provable truths, moral truths tend to have counter-arguments since it often requires the integration of ethical values alongside the implications of modeling objects. This often results in different conclusions drawn, which inevitably disrupts arithmetic truth and communication within the field of maths: how crucial is it to apply a contextual and ethical understanding to proofs? Beyond the real-life situation occurring in the field of mathematics, the contextual nature of the subject discussing an axiomatic theory conceives moral truths: arithmetic truth. This is often defined as arithmetic axioms in a conventional and standard system with natural numbers. In proofs with believed truths, partial algorithms can be used to search for improved proofs which satisfy one by not refuting the other; this involves formalising set theory to describe infinite sets. As a moralist mathematician, a potentially riveting argument against arithmetic truth is the conflict between intuition and reason (MIT). To validate the argument within an algorithm would require intuition without formal ways in ethics. However, a problematic contradiction to arithmetic truth is Kurt Göde first incompleteness theorem which states that within any (formal) system that is consistent with axiomatic arithmetic interpretations, there are statements within the system that limits its validity by neither being able to be proved or disproved. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

MATHEMATICS AND ETHICS: ABSOLUTE OBJECTIVITY IN PROOFS

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By formulating paradoxical mathematical statements, Göde contradicts the general understanding of proofs as he states that provability is inapplicable to true statements. Simply, he suggests that when constructing a proof, it is necessary to account for other theorems and axioms, where results can be contradictory between the different proofs. To hold this accountable, mathematicians then suggest that provability, which denotes the logic ‘It can be proven that’, can often be viewed as a separate and peculiar case in the incompleteness theorem. This statement itself is paradoxical as it negates the ethical considerations of all proofs being held accountable and rejects the purpose of the incompleteness theorem. From a moralist mathematician’s perspective, the persistence of ethical norms in a field where reason plays one of the larger roles invalidating its certainty is problematic as ethics is seen as a function of an individual’s rational choice. Unequivocally, ethics is normative and acts as guidance for how society should react collectively. The parallels between ethics and mathematics conceivably guise them as a double of one another – their ideas converge to determine the models of absolute objectivity. Mathematics to ethics, the pinnacle of brilliance to morale conducts – can ethics be integrated into mathematics without refutation by either system? Sarah Liaw | United Kingdom

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STEM

MANDELBROT SET AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ¿CAN WE QUANTIFY REALITY?

Article

Is there a way by which we can quantify everything found in reality?

By Alejandro Baena Edited by Xuen Bei Chin Is there a way by which we can quantify everything found in reality? Well, if you are able to find it, a Nobel Laureate will undoubtedly fit you short. Indeed, this inquiry not only poses a mathematical challenge but also an epistemological one. If you google every philosopher, mathematician, physicist, and biologist that has tried to do this throughout the course of human history, you will be astonished on how difficult really is to address this question. However, although almost impossible, quantifying reality as a whole may not be a question that must be answered in its entirety; rather, we may obtain partial truths by just disseminating the question into smaller chunks. To elaborate, I will refer to one of the greatest mathematical landmarks that revolutionized the way we see nature quantitatively as well as one of the greatest shots we have up to the moment to answer the billion-dollar question: Fractals. When thinking in a fractal mentality, you must first leave the Euclidean mindset you learned at school at the entrance (I know is hard, but you have to let Pythagoras go); otherwise, you will never grasp the full potential of this mathematical system. In essence, a fractal is a shape that follows a uniform pattern of fragmentation as many times as you want to. The mathematician, well, the mastermind that came up with this revolutionary idea was Benoît Mandelbrot (Warsaw, 1924) (Britannica, n.d), who dedicated his life to understand this complex but amazing world of fractals.

Fractals often arise from an attempt of challenging traditional geometry. In the case of Mandelbrot, he encountered them when examining sound waves representing the flow of information traveling through the novel IBM phone lines in the 60s (IBM, n.d). He found that no matter what the time interval was (one minute, one hour, one day and so on), the sound wave diagram was exactly the same.

This spurred Benoît ́s curiosity to investigate this strange phenomenon called self-similarity. After carrying in-depth investigations and by studying previous works on dynamic systems (abstract mathematical relationships that evolve with time), he developed what is known as the Mandelbrot set. To work out a fractal, one must iteratethe art of repeating as many times as desired, where the same mathematical equation is placed in a feedback loop (insert the output of an equation as an input for the next one). To understand this better, let’s put an example: the same equation Mandelbrot used.

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MANDELBROT SET AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

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The two conditions that Mandelbrot sets for the iteration are: 1. We must start off from z=0 2. The moment the square of a number is bigger than 2 (z >2), the number 2 is not part of the Mandelbrot Set.

If we carry out this same process with every single complex number in the plane, we would find out something like this:

The patterns of coloring are very important in the creation of the fractal. In this particular case, black represents all the digits within the complex plane that remain stable and blue the ones that have blown up. Nevertheless, the colors that reside in between those ends are what makes magic to happen. The ones that are closer to blue are complex numbers that blow up easier whereas the ones closer to black are complex numbers that require thousands or millions of iterations to finally blow up (z >2) 2

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MANDELBROT SET AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

But, what does this have to do with nature? Well, at first it may be a bit difficult to grasp the whole significance of the set but think about what would happen if we zoom in: we would never reach the end (video) (@Fractal Universe (YouTube), 2017). We would come across a similar phenomenon to the one Mandelbrot encountered at IBM, it does not matter how much we zoom in, the image will never end. Translated into the natural world, the idea that fractals convey is the sense of roughness based on the concept of selfsimilarity.

As you can see, the chaos of infinite iterations seems to finally induce order. The harmony created by the Mandelbrot set can be extrapolated to how nature is organized based on the repetition of the same shapes infinte times. From how plants grow their roots to the establishment of galaxies seem to be explained by mechanisms thought to be far from reality. It is the fractal universe that seems not only to give explanation to many natural geometrical phenomena, but to provide a system by which reality can ultimately be quantified. Alejandro Baena | Spain

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Mathematics

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INTRODUCTION TO THE BIRTHDAY PARADOX

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Everyone has a birthday. We might even know a few people who share the same birthday. With probability, the chance of an event occurring can be calculated. The birthday paradox, or the birthday problem, is one of them. Probability is seen as one of the more ‘elementary’ mathematics. However, the birthday problems remain as a startling paradox. The problem can be stated as follows: In a random group of n people, what is the probability that 2 of them share the same birthdate? With intuition, one might think that if n = 60, the probability would be 60 out of 365, the number of days in a year, which is around 0.16 or one-sixth. However, the actual probability is at 99%, an almost certainty. The birthday paradox arises from an error in the intuitive approach. The birthday paradox states that “in a random group of 23 people, there is about a 50 percent chance that two people have the same birthday”. When 23 individual’s birthdays are compared against one another, we begin with one person. The first person will have to compare themselves to the rest of the individuals, or 22 people. Thus, the second person will only have to compare their birthday with 21 other people.

Using the arithmetic sum formula, the number of total combinations is determined to be 253. To determine the chances that there is a birthday match, it would be rather simpler to observe the probability that none of the birthdays will match. An individual’s birthday exists in 1 out of 365 days (under the assumption that it is a non-leap year). This means that there are 364 days that exist in a year which are not that individual’s birthday. Therefore, the possibility that another person matching the individual’s birthday will be 364/365 = 0.997260274. Converting the value to a percentage:

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INTRODUCTION TO THE BIRTHDAY PARADOX

Combining the number of total combinations, and the probability that two individuals not matching their birthdays’, one can determine the chances of 23 people not matching birthdays in a random group. To calculate the chances, the value of 99.73% will have to be multiplied by itself (253) for each combination. Converting the value to a percentage:

As there is a 49.95% chance that a random group of 23 people will not share the same birthday, the odds that there is a match of birthdays in the group is 100% − 49.95% = 50.05%, a bit over half. This methodology differs from the intuitive approach stated above. The actual probability for a group of 23, 50.05%, does not correlate to the intuitive approach introduced earlier, which would produce an answer of 23/365 x 100% = 6.3%. The intuitive approach stated earlier mistakes the probability of 2 individuals having the same birthday with the number of people in a sample group.

The birthday paradox is a mathematical problem in probability. The problem is a perfect example of nonintuitive probability, something which makes probability so easy to understand. The paradox is explored by numerous approaches, including conducting experiments and analysis with the use of statistics, and many have created stimulations to depict the birthday paradox. While the problem seems elementary at first, the methodologies to solve the paradox and the variations of the problem remain endless. Clarissa Yu | Hong Kong

Another approach to solving the paradox revolves around Kleber’s (1969) generalization of the problem. Kleber explores the paradox by removing its association with birthdays, turning it into a more mathematical problem: If n people each choose a number randomly and independently from the set of whole numbers from 1 to N, what is the probability that two or more people choose the same number? Similar to the methodology above, Spencer details that to compute the probability P of 2 or more people selecting the same number, one must first derive the probability Q, the selections which bring no matching numbers, or P = 1 − Q. In both methodologies, the approach is to determine the possibilities that would not fit the criteria in order to solve the problem.

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Computer Science

AUTONOMOUS AUTOMOBILES AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

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Feature Article

By Ian Sung Yihang Edited by Xuen Bei Chin

Partially self-driving vehicles are skyrocketing in popularity, but is it possible for us to develop artificial intelligence that can drive a car completely on its own?

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND AUTONOMOUS AUTOMOBILES

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) defines a fully autonomous vehicle as a vehicle capable of performing all driving tasks under all conditions, with no human intervention or monitoring needed. A vehicle that meets all parts of these criteria would receive a Level 5 rating, and one that requires all tasks to be performed manually would be considered Level 0. For instance, Tesla’s “self-driving” cars are considered to be Level 2 — “Partial Automation”; the highest level currently claimed by any vehicle is Level 4, “High Automation,” awarded to Google’s Waymo. By examining the definition provided by the SAE, the criteria for a fully autonomous vehicle can be split into two distinct but related parts: the vehicle’s ability to reliably monitor its driving environment, and its ability to control the motion of the vehicle without requiring a human driver to assume control. However, a vehicle cannot be programmed conventionally to perform these tasks in unfamiliar and complex situations. Therefore, artificial intelligence — computer systems that possess the ability to perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence — plays a pivotal role in progressing towards fully selfdriving road vehicles. Hence, this essay will explore how far artificial intelligence can be used to advance towards achieving fully autonomous road transportation, with reference to the two aforementioned criteria. Reliable Environment Monitoring Computer vision, a field of artificial intelligence seeking to train computer systems to accurately interpret visual information, plays a crucial role in allowing a self-driving vehicle to reliably monitor its driving environment. Self-driving systems today are taught to identify objects through deep learning, a sub-field of artificial intelligence that revolves around neural networks — learning algorithms architecturally inspired by the human brain. Neural networks’ initial results are often inaccurate and random, but large quantities of training data — typically thousands of labelled images — allow for adjustments to reach more consistent and accurate

predictions. In 2016, researchers provided videos of driving, alongside the corresponding steering angle as training data; after under 100 hours, the neural network had taught itself to identify and filter relevant road objects without any prior knowledge of what those objects were. Given the relatively small amount of training data, end-toend (E2E) learning, as the process is called, could potentially propel advancement towards Level 5 automation by getting algorithms to begin to contextualise the information they receive with far less training data required. These E2E algorithms could be used alongside others specifically taught to identify the filtered objects, making perception systems less likely to fail. Additionally, Volvo, which has its own self-driving division, is currently testing a cloud-based system where its cars can communicate wirelessly and relay information about hazards. Through this Wi-Fi-like network, the perception systems and algorithms of every car can be essentially combined. Enabling this near-instant exchange of information between cars may mitigate or completely eliminate the effects of one car’s perception systems failing to recognise a significant object. As a result of this, perception systems may become less prone to failure and error, and even more so as they learn in real-time from their mistakes. Thus, enabling communication between the machine learning algorithms of different vehicles is likely to allow driverless vehicles to monitor their driving environment with a more consistent level of accuracy. However, it is paramount to acknowledge the limitations of these solutions that must still be overcome if full self-driving is to be achieved. For example, Volvo’s and all other vehicleto-vehicle (V2V) communication technology require dedicated, highbandwidth networks to function as intended. A 2020 study suggests that a frequency of 28 GHz may be required to handle the high rate of data transfer between vehicles, but at this frequency,

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND AUTONOMOUS AUTOMOBILES

communication may be regularly disrupted. In addition, the accuracy of a neural network is heavily dependent on how much data it is trained on. There is a finite supply of data, and thus a theoretically “perfect” algorithm can likely never exist. Currently, the best self-driving systems fail an average of 100 times more than a competent human driver. V2V communication would theoretically reduce this error rate, but as the number of self-driving cars on the road increases, the network becomes over-congested, and V2V’s effectiveness will decrease substantially. Furthermore, using more algorithms which may be needed to achieve “human-like” visual perception will significantly increase the amount of data sent across the network at once. A semi-autonomous car today generates over 12 GB of data a minute; a true selfdriving car will likely produce even more. Hence, if V2V is used, each car will have to process significantly more data at once, which will require much more computational power. It is possible to simply forgo technologies like V2V in order to reduce congestion and required processing power, but without them, there is very little guarantee of any sort of reliability; selfdriving cars could then fail to meet the level of consistency needed to be considered fully self-driving. Hence, the lack of infrastructure that prevents the implementation of error reduction technologies may make it impossible to develop fully driverless cars. Expanding Driving Capabilities To achieve Level 5 Automation, the second part of the SAE’s definition must also be fulfilled: controlling the motion of the car under all reasonable conditions, with no human intervention required. However, self-driving cars today only operate within specific areas that are extensively mapped out in 3-D beforehand. A model of a small city such as San Francisco is 4 terabytes large; it is impossible to generate such a model in real-time with existing computers. It would also take a long time to manually map out every driveable location on Earth. However, researchers from MIT trained a neural

network with GPS data and driving videos in a small number of locations, and the system then taught itself to construct simple navigational models of unfamiliar driving environments in real-time, based on sensor input. The need for extensive 3-D mapping could thus be eliminated if learning models like this are implemented, and driverless cars may then be able to operate in any driveable location on the planet. Despite the potential of these novel machine learning concepts, they do have trade-offs that must be considered. For instance, the simpler real-time navigational models that MIT developed are much less detailed and thus far less reliable than the 3-D premapping done today. So, while this new approach is a step forward in allowing driverless cars to operate under any reasonable conditions, they may do so at a higher risk of accidents occurring. Such vehicles would neither be purchased by consumers nor allowed to operate on the road. Fortunately, sophisticated machine learning algorithms are being developed to specifically avoid accidents, which may make using simpler navigational models while maintaining a consistent level of safety very much possible. A large part of these accident-avoidance algorithms involves considering the behaviour of other drivers. Currently used decision-making algorithms are highly inflexible, thus driverless vehicles may exhibit unexpected and erratic behaviour, leading to a higher risk of accidents. Researchers have developed a model that analyses other vehicles’ behaviour and driving styles, adjusting its parameters to make more contextualised and appropriate decisions. This leads driverless vehicles towards achieving more “human-like” driving, including more natural lane changes and speed adjustments, bringing about a substantially lower risk of accidents thanks to greater situational awareness and adaptability. Moreover, the same MIT researchers also developed a photorealistic simulation engine that allows their neural network to learn how to react in

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND AUTONOMOUS AUTOMOBILES

the event of a near-miss incident, teaching driverless cars how to deal with extreme situations prior to experiencing them in real life. Allowing the vehicles’ algorithms to learn from experience without physically driving on the road is a valuable advancement that may substantially accelerate the learning process, bringing Level 5 Automation significantly closer. Hence, through the development of taskspecific, adaptive artificial intelligence, it appears highly possible that driverless cars may soon be able to operate with a reliable standard of safety, in a humanlike manner. An Ethical Dilemma It is important to note that the above accident-avoiding algorithms only function to prevent avoidable accidents. However, when autonomous vehicles are faced with a situation with no “perfect” outcome, they will have to select what they deem to be the “lesser of two evils.” This is often presented as a hypothetical situation known as the Trolley Problem: a train is moving towards five people laying on a track ahead, but by pulling a lever, the train can be diverted onto another track with just one person on it. The question is whether the lever should be pulled or not. A human is emotional and impulsive, and no matter what choice they make in a situation like this, they are unlikely to be faulted. However, a driverless vehicle is controlled by a logical, calculative computer, that makes split-second decisions — it will thus choose who to save and sacrifice based on its training alone, raising ethical concerns. Autonomous vehicle manufacturers must quantify the significance of different human lives in order to allow their cars to be able to function to a full extent, but doing so begs the question of whether they are crossing the proverbial line. The moral dilemma is incredibly difficult to answer because there is no right answer. For instance, a 2016 survey found that people would generally prefer driverless vehicles that prioritised protecting pedestrians over their occupants, but that they would also not buy a car programmed to act

that way. This confusing result is just one example that serves to demonstrate how complex this issue actually is. Moreover, further analysis of the results found that responses differed significantly based on geographical location. For example, people in western countries preferred to save the greatest number of lives possible, but those in eastern countries opted to sacrifice those who were not abiding by the law, such as jaywalkers. A number of other disparities were also observed, but these examples alone serve to show how difficult it is to produce a single solution for an issue such as this, where there are a near-countless number of factors to consider. Neural networks and other forms of machine learning help with this ethical conundrum only so far as to reinforce the guidelines that humans must first decide on. Teaching the vehicles to act based on the “correct” decision is not difficult — it goes hand in hand with existing decision-making algorithms, such as those mentioned above — but it is whether humans are able to or even want to define which lives take precedence over others, that may prevent Level 5 Automation from ever being attained, unless a single definitive consensus can be reached. Conclusion Artificial intelligence developed through machine learning is already at the heart of the semi-autonomous vehicles that currently exist, and new machine learning algorithms that are in development appear set to pave the way for more reliable and more capable self-driving systems. As these algorithms improve with time, more effective ones are developed. Thus, Level 5 Automation can only be brought closer. It is important to reiterate that there are still a considerable number of technical challenges that must be overcome, including insufficient processing power and constructing more advanced network infrastructure. Both will likely become far less of a problem in the foreseeable future, as both computational power and bandwidth become more and more inexpensive. However, there is not, and there will

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND AUTONOMOUS AUTOMOBILES

likely never be an artificial intelligence system capable of acceptably valuing the importance of different human lives. Hence, although continuous advancements in machine learning will undoubtedly bring Level 5 Automation much closer, external challenges, including ethical and financial ones, will largely influence whether fully autonomous road transportation is ever achieved. Ian Sung Yihang | United Kingdom

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Computer Science

THE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE REVOLUTION Most people have heard of artificial intelligence (AI)—it is one of the hottest topics today—but it still remains a mystery to most of the general public. By Kailey Wong Edited by Xuen Bei Chin

Most people have heard of artificial intelligence (AI)—it is one of the hottest topics today—but it still remains a mystery to most of the general public. What is AI? What are its capabilities? The media sends mixed messages on the subject, declaring that AI robots could take over the world or that AI will be the solution to all our problems. The reality, however, lies somewhere in between these claims. Although there is no clear definition for AI, most experts classify AI as a collection of algorithms capable of utilizing data to make calculated, real-time decisions (West, 2018). Because their functions are not a predetermined set of responses, AI technologies are incredibly dynamic and have a vast range of abilities. Machine learning is an especially useful subset of AI in which algorithms use statistics to perform data analytics (Hao, 2018). This data can be either provided or collected by the machine as it operates and is used to improve its responses to different situations. Many cutting-edge AI technologies use deep learning, an advanced type of machine learning that further enhances a machine’s ability to uncover and analyze patterns. This is possible through the usage of deep neural networks, a system inspired by the neural pathways in our brain. Similar to their namesake, these networks use layers upon layers of complex components that function in tandem to produce a single output. AI machines that employ deep learning have both intention and the ability to reach conclusions with instantaneous analysis, both of which are human-like characteristics. There are two general classifications of AI: artificial general intelligence (strong AI) and narrow AI (weak AI).

Although it may not be obvious at first, anyone can probably find evidence of narrow AI, or AI trained for a specific task, in their life. For example, most of the services we use on the web are powered by AI specifically designed to tailor our internet experience based on the personal data they have gathered. More of the general populace will begin to interact with AI on a regular basis as AI becomes more advanced and human-like. Popular virtual assistant technologies like Amazon’s Alexa and Google’s Assistant allow people to interact with AI in a more human capacity. However, artificial general intelligence has more generalized human capabilities, which allows it to respond to unfamiliar situations with educated decisions (Cooper 2019). As AI is utilized in more and more industries for a myriad of purposes, it will likely transform life as we know it. Automated robots will be able to execute high volume, repetitive tasks, and possess the valuable ability to adapt to evolving circumstances. These robots will be especially helpful in completing difficult tasks or tasks that require high levels of precision and consistency. In 2020, many companies have begun to focus on augmented automation, attempting to help people to work more efficiently, rather than turning to complete automation (Ohnsman & Cal, 2020). By streamlining processes, AI will enhance the work we do and free up more of our time to be innovative. Whether we embrace it or not, AI will no doubt be an integral part of the future. Just as electronic smartphones have become the norm, so too will AI. It is important to educate people about AI so they can understand its potential and embrace this part of their future. Rather than seeing AI as a magical solution or a nefarious entity, we must recognize it as a powerful tool with the potential to make our lives better.

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Kailey Wong United States

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THE FUTURE OF COMPUTING: QUANTUM COMPUTERS AND BIOCOMPUTERS Currently, we are living on the very edge of modern computing, with the death of Moore’s law, many are asking “What’s next?” By Yuxuan Seah Edited by Alithea Jade Pentadu

Currently, we are living on the very edge of modern computing, with the death of Moore’s law, many are asking “What’s next?” This is where non-conventional computing like bio and quantum computers come in. Quantum computing is perhaps the more popular between the two due to more research being carried out by various schools and organizations. In contrast, biocomputing has remained more of a theoretical possibility with a little investigation. The main difference between quantum computers and traditional computer systems is that traditional computers use binary bits which are represented by 1 and 0 whereas quantum computers process information using quantum bits or qubits for short. Unlike regular bits, qubits can be both 1 and 0 at the same time due to superposition. Superposition is a complex topic, but in layman’s terms, superposition is when an object can hold two different states at any given time but would consolidate into a single state when observed or measured. The most famous analogy would be Schrodinger’s Cat where we are uncertain of whether a cat is dead or alive until we observe it. This theoretically allows quantum computers to complete tasks that are impossible for regular hardware. This is precisely the goal of ‘Quantum Supremacy’ which was first described by John Preskill in 2012: To reach a stage where quantum computers can solve problems that cannot be solved or which take a relatively astronomical amount of time on a classical computer.

There are a total of 3 different classifications for quantum computers: Annealers, Analog Quantum, and Universal Quantum Computers. The application for the first is somewhat limited as it can only perform one specific function. An analog Quantum Computer would be the first practical Quantum Computer that can be built yet most companies are aiming for a Universal Quantum computer that can calculate and simulate plenty of complex calculations. This is why quantum computers are worth pursuing due to their ability to calculate complex problems that will take several orders of magnitude longer than classical computers. One of the main issues that people are primarily concerned with is the fear of breaking modern encryption methods. Therefore, increased efforts have been made to start migrating computer systems to use cryptosystems that cannot be broken quantumly after several decades of trying On the flip side, biocomputers are another potential pathway that computing can take. Biocomputers, as their name implies, are computers made with biological molecules like DNA and proteins. Biocomputers existed as nothing more than an idea until relatively recently in 2013 when a group of Stanford engineers created the biological equivalent of the transistor which they dubbed as the “transcriptor”.

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THE FUTURE OF COMPUTING: QUANTUM COMPUTERS AND BIOCOMPUTERS

This meant that all the components needed to build a fully functional computer were now in place. Furthermore, in 2016, it was proven that a biological parallel computing system could be created. This is important since parallel computing allows multiple processors to simultaneously conduct smaller calculations that are broken down from larger complex problems. To date, there has been less enthusiasm in further developing viable biocomputers when compared to quantum computers. Thus, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s still hard to tell what the potential of biocomputers is. Yuxuan Seah | Malaysia

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THE AUTHORS Ahmad Imran (represented by a cat) Hi! My name’s Ahmad Imran, or just Imran. I’m a student from Malaysia who’s currently studying in Indonesia. I love noodles, cats and biology.

Alejandro Baena My name is Alejandro, and I am a rising senior from Madrid, Spain. I study the IB Diploma at SEK-Ciudalcampo and live in the heart of the Spanish capital. I am passionate about music, especially blues and rock; debate, and soccer (Real Madrid fan). As for my future plans, I don´t really know where I want to redirect my life, but I know I like Biology, Chemistry, Maths, and Philosophy.

Anastasia Iman Sufian My name is Anastasia and I’m a 17-year-old from Malaysia. I attend school in Jakarta, in Indonesia. I am most passionate about current issues around the world and activism. On days where I am not drowning in the IB, I like to watch anime and listen to my favourite bands.

Ayham Ihab Ghaith My name is Ayham Ihab Ghith. I’m Egyptian and I attend school and live in the United Arab Emirates. I like playing soccer as a hobby and I also enjoy photography. Biology is the subject that I’m most interested in.

Caitlin Tan I’m Caitlin and I’m from Malaysia. I aspire to pursue pharmacology in the future, and I plan to specialise in antibiotic research!

Clarissa Yu My name is Clarissa Yu and I am currently 16 years old, a Grade 12 student taking the diploma programme at Carmel School Association Elsa High School in Hong Kong. The subjects I take are Eng Lit, Econ and Math AA HL, Physics, History and Mandarin B SL. While I do not take them as a subject, I am also interested in art and psychology.

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THE AUTHORS Defne Sametoglu Hi my name is Defne. I currently live and attend school in Canada. I love to read and watch anime (I just finished BNHA and I’m currently waiting for season 5). My two all-time favourite subjects are Math and Physics. For the future I hope to do research in physics. And to whoever is reading this, have a good day!

Elena Merican Elena Merican is from Malaysia but is currently studying for her Alevels in the UK. When she has free time, she enjoys playing the flute, writing poetry and listening to kpop. In the future, she aspires to become an aerospace engineer.

Halit Osman Özgür I am from Turkey, but I live in Indonesia. My family and I moved to Medan 3 years ago. I am studying at the Sampoerna Academy Medan. I am interested in physics, mathematics, and history. My ambition is to become an electrical & electronics engineer.

Ian Sung Yihang Ian Sung is a Malaysian student completing his A-Levels in the UK. He aspires to study computer science at university, and his particular interests include the sub-fields of artificial intelligence and software development. When he isn't thinking about all the good food he's missing out on back home, Ian enjoys playing the piano and violin, writing code, and playing football.

Kailey Wong Kailey Wong is a 16-year-old high school senior in the United States aspiring to major in computer science and minor in music. She is passionate about music and enjoys playing piano and violin. During her free time, she can be found reading, listening to Broadway, or watching sci-fi shows.

Ka Yeon Kim (represented by apple pie) Hi, my name is Kayeon and I'm from Malaysia. Evidently, the fact that I have voluntarily - not really - chosen to write about molecular docking probably tells you as much as you need to know about me! Some of my passions include collecting freebies, sustainability and staring at living things. WWW.FRAMEMAG.COM | 20

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THE AUTHORS Precious Abang Precious Abang is from Nigeria but is currently studying in Zimbabwe. Her interests include visual and dramatic arts, biology, chemistry and natural hair. Her aspiration is to grow her hair past her shoulders!

Rhiya Kaur Furrah Rhiya is an A-Level student who studies Math, Chemistry and Biology. Her hobbies include questioning her future and university degree, skydiving, tap dancing and feeding the homeless.

Sarah Liaw (represented by the sloth from Zootopia) Hello. I’m Sarah and I’m a Malaysian currently studying in the UK. Definitely a cheerful pessimist with Flash as the alter ego, I’m awfully passionate about the ‘unknowing’ (that’s why I don’t have any aspirations yet) and board games (that’s what my EE’s on)!

Treshia Siotama Tan Hi! My name is Treshia, but my friends call me Tracy. I’m 18 and from Indonesia but currently studying IB in Singapore. In my free time, I am passionate about giving back to the community and playing badminton. During my tertiary studies, I plan to pursue the course of applied mathematics.

Victoria Ong (represented by a lovely landscape) Hi! My name is Victoria Ong. I’m from Singapore but I currently study in a 6th form college in the UK. I’m very interested in biology- especially neuroscience and biotechnology. I also like photography and I want to work in finance in the future!

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THE AUTHORS Win Liu Hi! My name is Win Liu. I am from Singapore, and I currently study at Singapore International School (Hong Kong) as a grade 12/year 13 student. I am also in my second year of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program. I enjoy playing sports, especially football or volleyball, and I am passionate about photography and editing! My future aspirations are to study and work in the healthcare sector! I hope everyone will find my articles interesting and useful :)

Yuxuan Seah (represented by an original symbol) I am Seah Yuxuan and I am a Malaysian who is currently studying in ISKL. I am truly passionate about Chinese History, Computers and Global Unification for the human race. The image shown is a symbol I created for a hypothetical Sino Union. My future aspirations would be to help advance development of Computers and eventually help humanity to unite.

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About the daVinci Surgical System. (n.d.). Retrieved September 01, 2020, from https://www.uchealth.com/services/roboticsurgery/patient-information/davinci-surgicalsyste m/ Vandana Janeja Professor of Information Systems. (2020, August 13). Predicting the coronavirus outbreak: How AI connects the dots to warn about disease threats. Retrieved September 01, 2020, from https://theconversation.com/predicting-thecoronavirus-outbreak-how-ai-connects-the-dotsto -warn-about-disease-threats-130772 Molecular Docking Qiu, J., 2020. How China’s Bat Woman Hunted Down Viruses From SARS To The NewCoronavirus. [online] Scientific American. Available from: <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/howchinas-bat-woman-hunted-down-viruses-fromsars-to-the-new-coronavirus1/> [Accessed 14 May 2020]. Astuti, I. and Ysrafil, 2020. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV2): An overview of viral structure and host response. Diabetes & MetabolicSyndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 14(4), pp.407-412. Srinivas, RR., 2017, Computational engineering of small molecules to treat infectious diseases,PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Tang, T., Bidon, M., Jaimes, J., Whittaker, G. and Daniel, S., 2020. Coronavirus membranefusion mechanism offers a potential target for antiviral development. Antiviral Research, 178, p.104792. Patel, N., 2020. How Does The Coronavirus Work?. [online] MIT Technology Review.Available at: <https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/04/15/ 999476/explainer-how-does-the-coronaviruswork/? truid=c1207a0ffd1550b883cb7568d4ca56a2&utm_s ource=engagement_email&utm_medium=email& utm_campaign=site_visitor.unpaid.engagement& utm_content=04.29.non-subs> [Accessed 22 May 2020]

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