Fakultät für Architektur und Landschaft Hannover Institut für Geschichte und Theorie der Architektur
Projekt: spaces & places
THE POWER OF THE WALL
Professor coord. : Prof. Dr. phil. Dr.-Ing. habil. Margitta Buchert
Student: Spiridon Catalin Vasile
1
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………….3
1. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BERLIN WALL
FORTRESS CITY……………………………………….……38 THE STRATEGIC WALL ………………………………….41
ZONES OF OCCUPATION ………………………………..…7 THE EVOLUTION OF THE WALL …………………..,…….10 THE BERLIN WALL ………………………………………….13 THE DIVISION…………………………………………….......15 IMPROVING THE WALL …………………………………....17
4.AGAINST THE WALL THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WALL ………………...46 ROUTE&WALL ……………………………………………52 THE EFFECTS OF THE WALL …………………………..54
2. THE WALL SICKNESS THE HUMAN MEMORY ………………………………....21 THE LANDSCHAP OF MEMORY………………………....25
5. THE CITY IN THE SHADOWS OF THE WALL IERUSALIM & BETHLEHEM ……………… …………….59
3. STRATEGY OF CONQUERING NEW TERRITORIES PLANNING STRATEGIES…………………………….…….33 MILITARY STRATEGY-THE ALLON PLAN …………..….34 DEMOGRAPHIC PLANNING ……………………….……..35 ARCHITECTURE STRATEGY…………………...…………...37
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………..66
2
INTRODUCTION “The wall suggested that architecture's beauty was directly proportional to its horror.”- Rem Koolhaas
The necessity of the wall throughout history represented either the (real or imagined) need of defence, or the desire of defining g the boundaries of a personal space. However, because the need to conquest is deeply seeded in human nature and the greater the conquest the higher the conquistador is regarded, more sumptuous walls attracted ever more eager conquistadors. On the short term walls can create the illusion of security, but on the long run, they can stand in the way of peaceful alliances. Whereas there are perceived functional benefits to the illusion of control, guard towers and war weaponry attached to them also contour "the Introduction
malevolent face of the people who live on the other side". Also, history teaches us that defence barriers, whether it is Athens‘ Long Wall, Hadrian‘s Wall or the Great Wall of China "agitate rather than soothe relations."
Instead of
strengthening the ties within a community, the concept of a citadel seems to help develop o
"mutual suspicion and a 3
profoundly anti-communitarian fortress mentality." Moreover,
separate the American forces from the local populations;
the wall is a clear barrier to the social inclusion of anyone
within the Italian city of Padua and in Californian suburbs,
outside it, who then becomes seen as an intruder who will
where walls and fences guard against "the unwanted other"; in
seed disease into the inner society.
the Brazilian city of Sao Paulo, where the increasing mix of
The birth of the Berlin wall invoked dangerous memories of medieval principles of discrimination between people on
social classes and rising crime rates has led to a proliferation of walled secured communities act.
different sides of it. On the other hand, The Berlin wall is a
All these instances are nothing but echoes of the
support structure for a scale that, if unbalanced, would have
oppressive power the Berlin Wall had. In 20012 yet another
had unimaginable consequences for humanity.
one took shape: The West Bank Wall, ―a security fence‖ four
Its collapse did not mean the complete abolition of
times the length of the Berlin Wall. This wall is not only
repressive political structures and economic dependency. On
important because of the size, but also because it is used as a
the contrary, the form, and concept have been adapted and re-
slow but steady moving juggernaut mastered by the Jewish
embedded in other cultures (see: walls between Mexico and
people and meant to crush Palestinian nationals living close to
the United States, the United Arab Emirates and Oman, India
the border, by either depriving them of their property through
and Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia and Yemen). Post-1989 Europe
para-legal means, or isolating them from their kin and vital
is also divided with a new and invisible "Schengen wall."
public services.
When the European Union (EU) implemented the Schengcn
The shared commonality between The Berlin Wall and
agreement, the aim was to create a borderless zone between
the West Bank Wall are both social and psychological
various European countries, ―while border controls with non-
repercussions because they do not separate a nation from
member stales were strengthened."
another, but cleave one nation leaving wounds that never heal.
Barriers are also increasingly being built within
The difference between the two consists in that
different countries: in the Iraqi Green Zone, where fortresses
whereas one represented a well-established border that had
4
the purpose of separating the world to prevent it from destroying itself, the former one is the symbol of everexpansionist tendencies that govern the world we are part of at times. The purpose of the present research was to explore the implications of the wall beyond its physicality: a vertical structure meant to separate or isolate a space or provide foundations for other elements of the construction (as the dictionary states). The wall represents a human-crafted tool that can divide and torture, as exemplified in Berlin‘s history. According
to
the
principles
of
modern
democratic
environment, the wall has not been destroyed, but perfected, improved in such a way that besides the characteristics already inherited from earlier concepts- most of them passive, it now has an added capacity of being a potential tool for everexpansionist interests.
5
1. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BERLIN WALL
6
ZONES OF OCCUPATION occupation and its capital, Berlin, is split into sectors. . ―As During its evolution from 1962 to 1989 the Berlin Wall became a symbol of the Cold War, a physical separation between two different systems the democratic-or capitalist one, and the communist-or socialist one. Meant to ‗‘protect socialist East Germany from fascist and capitalist infiltration, and define the political status of Germany as part of the Soviet alliance" ¹ it also became of notable economic and politic importance. If for GDR officials the Intra-German border was the "antifascist protection bulwark" that was to protect Fast Germany from ―fascist and capitalist infiltration‖, was referred to as the "Berlin Wall" by West Germans who‖ perceived it as a tool for oppression and used it as a symbol for political protest.‖² Furthermore , the Inner-German Border (IGB) had an important military because was the true frontline between
relations between the Soviets and the Western Allies rapidly deteriorated, so did cooperation within the Council‖⁴. The boundary between the British and American and French zones on one side and the Soviet zone on the other became the line of demarcation
between
two
opposed
worldviews:
West
Germany- with British rule in the north-west, American administration in the south, French domination in the southwest ( ―a total area of 251,124km2 , and East Germany with Soviet rule alone a total area of 108,298km‖).⁵ In 1946, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Winston S. Churchill gave a speech that included a soon to be famous metaphor: ‗‘An Iron Curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all of the capitals of the ancient states of central and eastern Europe ... All these famous cities
NATO forces and the Warsaw Pact for the 50 years.
and the populations around lie in the Soviet sphere and all are Originally, the division of Germany was decided in
subject ... to a very high and increasing measure of control
February 1945 at the Yalta and Postdam conferences. . The
from Moscow‘‘. ⁶ The Iron Curtain Churchill was referring to
Big Three, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US
stretched 6,800km from the north of Finland to the Black Sea.
President Harry Truman and Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin
In 1948 the population of the Soviet Zone was ―19
stated that ―they will jointly govern the defeated German
million; in 1960 it had fallen to 17 million. In contrast, the
Reich‖.³ Germany was thereafter divided into zones
of 7
FRG's population had grown from 47 million to 55 million in
―Bilateral frontier agreements were also concluded in 1973
the same timeframe....‖Most were not fleeing food, housing
to provide for care of frontier waterways and to handle
and consumer goods shortages, rather political suppression,‖
environmental problems. In 1978 the two Germanies signed a
the forced collectivization of agriculture, the repression of
protocol on the demarcation of about 90 percent of the inter-
private trade, and the loss of personal freedom and in special
German border.‖¹: This is how the wall first took conceptual
'brain drain‖⁷
shape, later on becoming the defining border between two
The massive migration from The East to the West of
states.
Germany became a big problem for the USSR economically
The key factor in the wall‘s construction, however, was
speaking, but also politically, because of its competition with
the impact of the connection between West Berlin and the
the rival Western powers.
increasing freedom in West Germany and Western Europe on
In May 1952 the border between the German
Eastern German inhabitants. In 1950, with certain exemptions
Democratic Republic (GDR -East Germany) and Federal
related to military service, West Berlin became a part of the
Republic of Germany (FRG- West Germany) was closed. Only
FRG. In 1957 West Berlin‘s geopolitical status vis-a-vis the rest
the border between East and West Berlin remained open,
of Western Europe was strengthened through the integration
allowing (at least until 1961) the city's inhabitants to cross
of the FRG into the Treaty of Rome. West Germany‘s
from one zone to the other.‖⁸ The build up to the erection of
involvement in the Western European Economic Community
the Wall began in October 1958 when Premier Khrushchev
confirmed West Berlin‘s place both relative to Western Europe
delivered the Berlin Ultimatum, demanding that the Western
and as a Western European enclave in the heart of the territory
allies withdraw their forces from West Berlin within six
controlled by the communist GDR.
months and that Berlin be declared a 'free city‖.⁹
8
This was an intolerable situation for the Soviets. Half-
The stages through which the wall goes through from
a-million people crossed the border between East and West
planning to complete construction go hand in hand with the
Berlin as they went to work, to shop or to visit family. Daily,
stages of the degradation of political relationships between
Eastern Germans voted with their feet and fled the Soviet
USSR and the Western powers. ,,Even with the increased
regime through West Berlin. By 1958 over three million East
security, the flow of emigrants remained large despite the
Germans had left the GDR through Berlin. This demographic
increase in East German security measures: 675,000 people
haemorrhage was a critical problem. Not only did it
fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952‖.¹³
demonstrate to the world that few Germans supported the Soviet regime, but it also deprived the government of their work force.‖ If it continued it would leave the country with few people to actually govern. Perhaps more concerning for the GDR leadership, some Germans even imagined a reunification of Germany, as East Berliners continued to migrate to the western side of the city. ―ˡˡ In his speeches Khrushchev conjured up the specter of nuclear war with the west if pushed by the United States. He "combined
an
reasonableness"
aggressive by
stance
publicly
with
asking
a
posture
for
of
multilateral
conferences, but "he offered no new proposals for negotiations and merely continued to insist that, if the Western Powers persisted in their refusal to sign a German peace treaty, this problem would have to be settled without them.".¹²
9
THE EVOLUTION OF THE WALL the roads that were close to the fence were destroyed, In 1952, the intra-German border has been sealed with
and ditches and mounds of earth were placed in the way
barbed wire and since Berlin was on the border line, it had a
to make access harder. The bridges crossing rivers and
much similar fate. ―The border within the city, by contrast,
streams on the border were dismantled, or at least had
though monitored, is not fully sealed thanks to the shared
sections removed; even elevated autobahn sections were
responsibility of all four Allied powers for Berlin‖¹⁴. No one
pulled down.
could go in and out of East Germany without a special permit
―Railway
track
sections
were
pulled
up
and
for pass. Anyone who approached the borders through
sometimes a buffer stop (bumper), built of sleepers (crossties),
restricted areas risked getting arrested.‖¹⁵
blocked the dead end; derailers were sometimes installed.
The frontier fences were installed gradually, first by
Often, though, the track merely came to an abrupt dead end.
the Soviets and then by the East Germans, with remote sectors
Streams were blocked by fences or grates, which had to be
far away from villages and access ,roads being the lowest
replaced after flooding.‖18
priority. ―It was built like a barbed-wire fence and was, in
High board fences were erected on the sides of villages
most parts 1.2-1.5m high, but could be as high as 2.5m where
facing the frontier. ―House windows facing the border were
necessary, on square or round posts with 12-20 strands of
bricked or boarded up, and buildings too close to the border
barbed wire‖.ˡ⁶ It was built to prevent the exodus of GDR
were torn down. There were even instances when the border
citizens, as it was they who were referred to in the GDR
was declared to bisect houses; they were subsequently bricked
border troops' motto „None shall pass!‖17
up inside on the East German side, or the east portion of the
Other measures besides the construction of the
house was simply demolished and a fence erected.‘‘19 In some
wall were also taken along the border. For example, 10
cases, all or part of small villages were evacuated and leveled;
and the severe punishment of the ones who attempted. Many
all that remains today are foundation stones and overgrown
of the barrier, detection and surveillance means so
cemeteries.
successfully used in Berlin would be incorporated into
Moreover, all territory that ran across the Baltic Sea
the new system. ―Instead of barbed wire, difficult -to-
beach were shut down ―,The GDR implemented a variety of
climb steel mesh fencing would be used, and directional
security measures to hinder escape attempts. Barbed wire
anti-personnel mines, anti-vehicle ditches, inner barrier
fences were installed, camping and access to boats was
fences with electronic movement detectors, an all-
severely limited and 27 watchtowers were built along the
weather patrol road, concrete guard towers and low-
Baltic coastline. ―20 If a suspected escape attempt was spotted,
profile observation bunkers would be created.‘‘
high-speed patrol boats would be dispatched to intercept the fugitives. Even with all these implementation, escape attempts
22
This carried over into 1972 owing to bureaucratic inefficiency and financial shortfalls, and improvements continued into the 1980s.‖ A total of 1,289km of new
persisted and illegal handling of goods continued. West Berlin
fencing
―(excluding
double-fences
and
the
inner
becomes the city of refugees that had their houses illegally
electronic fence of almost the same length) lined the new
confiscated, were subject to pressure or simply desired
border.
freedom above all. ―Some 12000 refugees arrive in West Berlin
Trees and brush were cut down along the border
per month in 1959, a number that rises by half in 1960. Anyone
to clear lines of sight for the guards and to eliminate
who is recognized as a political refugee receives a flat in West
cover for would-be crossers. Houses adjoining the
Berlin ―21
border were torn down, bridges were closed and barbed -
The modernization of the barer began in September
wire fencing was put up in many places.(ai spus asta mai
1967 and was originally meant to be completed in 1970, when
sus) Farmers were permitted to work their fields along
FDR was planning the complete stop of escapes from territory
the border only in daylight hours and under the watch
11
of armed guards, who were authorized to use weapons if
Modlareuth in Bavaria, dubbed 'Little Berlin' by the
their orders were not obeyed.
Americans. In 1966 a 3.4m-high, 700m-long concrete wall
―The third-generation border retained the 5km restricted zone, wider or narrower in some areas,
was erected; previously there had been a barbed-wire fence.
running the entire length of the border. This required a
In
considerable area, approximately 6,900km2, although
proposals
portions
and
fortifications
For
codenamed Grenze‖ 2000. Drawing on technology used
comparison, today's reunited Berlin covers 890km2,
by the Red Army during the Soviet–Afghan War, it
Greater London 1,706km2, and Los Angeles 1,215km2,
would have replaced the fences with sensors and
Together these three major cities would fill just over half
detectors. However, the plan was never implemented.‖ 23
of
agriculture
"of
the
it
where
and
land
still
contained
occupied
by
used
for
some
the
grazing villages.
restricted
zone,
1988, to
the
replace with
GDR the ‘‘a
leadership expensive
considered
and
high-technology
intrusive system
a
In contrast, on the West German side of the
considerable sacrifice for a country slightly smaller than
frontier there were no barriers of any kind. The West
the state of Kentucky, but with over four times the
Germans did not even establish patrol roads on their
population‘‘. The main fence was formidable, even
side.
though it looked less intimidating than tangled barbed
(Grenzschilder) warning Achtung!‖
There
were
only
some
frontier
signs‖
wire. The standard fence was 3.2—4m high and bolted to 15cm-square,
reinforced
concrete
posts
set
at
2m
intervals. In some areas there were two parallel fences 10-20m apart.‖ 24 The sides of villages abutting or near the border were faced with 3-4m-high concrete barrier walls
(Betonsperrmauern).
One
example
was
at
12
THE BERLIN WALL
"It's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war." (F. Kennedy) Khrushchev launched the Berlin Crisis in November 1958, threatening to transfer to the GDR control over the access routes between West Germany and West Berlin if the West did not agree to a World War II peace treaty with the two Germanies (thus recognizing East Germany) or with a united Germany.‖ He also demanded the transformation of West Berlin into a "free city" (characterized by the withdrawal of Western troops and a drastic reduction in Western influence). Khrushchev's goal was to solidify his own sphere of influence in East Germany by reducing Western influence there. ―25(In a final analysis, the Western Powers determined that the Soviets were unwilling to risk war and that any actions on their part would be more defensive in nature.) The Western allies refused their ultimatum and East Germans continued to flee. ―In 1960 the GDR had a negative net migration of 216,642; by August 1961, over 3.6 million people had emigrated to the West. This massive migration,
which had already cost East Germany a fifth of its population, had a significant geopolitical impact: it threatened the legitimacy of the GDR.‖26 Unable to push the West out after almost three years of trying, he had to settle for a more defensive strategy of shoring up the GDR with the Berlin Wall, for many it quickly became known as the ‗wall of shame‘. ‗‘Two months before the Berlin Wall was built, President Walter UIbricht of the DDR declared, 'Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten! (―No one intends to set up a wall!‖); it was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (Wall) was used in this context. ‗‘27 prevent the increasing migration to the West, Ulbricht proposed a second Berlin blockade. Khrushchev rejected this proposal, owing to the failure of the first blockade. He approved the plan for the Wall, codenamed 'Rose'.‖ It was first to be constructed only of barbed wire, and if NATO troops challenged its construction the East Grermans were to fall back without firing. Had the West chosen to intervene in its construction, it might have prevented West Berlin's 30-year isolation‘‘
13
To the surprise of the East German leadership, Kennedy and the other Western leaders made no attempt to interfere with the construction of the Berlin Wall. East German leader Walter Ulbricht wrote to Khrushchev on September 15, confiding, "I must say that the enemy undertook fewer countermeasures than anticipated." In fact, Kennedy felt relief that the communists had finally found a way to halt the refugee exodus in a way that did not threaten a war. Kennedy observed to his aides, "It's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war."
28
Then, in 1963 facing the
Wall a few hundred yards north of Potsdamer Platz at the Brandenburg Gate, he proclaimed "All free men wherever they may live, are citizens of this city of West Berlin and therefore, as a free man I am proud to be able to say that 'Ich bin ein Berliner." 29
14
THE DIVISION
of the 81 official crossing points were closed. As many as 192 streets were cut, 97 into East Berlin and 95 into the DDR.‘‘29
On Saturday August 12, 1961, East Berlin mayor Walter
In these moments armed GDR forces are deployed not
Ulbricht signed an order to close the border and erect a Wall.
only here but all around the three Western sectors of Berlin.
The tide of East Germans flooding to the West through the
Dragging barbed wire across streets, ruins and parks, they seal
many roads, canals, crossings, and trains, came to an abrupt
off the roughly 80 then-existing official checkpoints. ―Germans
end. It is estimated that 3.7 to 4 million East Germans escaped
in East Berlin and the GDR are now permitted to cross the
to the West. The daily flow of refugees in the beginning of
border to the Western sectors only with a special pass -for all
August
intents and purposes, they are not allowed to cross it at all. ―30
was
roughly
1,500
East
Germans,
but
after
Khrushchev's "bomb-rattling" speech, the daily number had rose to 1,926.‘‘ On August 11, unbeknownst to all, the last 2,290 refugees seeking the freedoms of the west entered the Marienfelde reception center in West Berlin. Overnight, in a swift, unexpected manner, the door to freedom closed, and was to remain so for 28 years.‘‘ 29 The time comes in the middle of the night between 12 and 13 August 1961: ― the lights go out around 1.05 AM. Visible only as silhouettes, armored vehicles roll through the Classicist gate as uniformed soldiers form a cordon along the border between the central districts of Mitte and Tiergarten. ‗‘The West was taken entirely by surprise as 20,000 armed troops moved into position surrounding the city. All except 13
All traffic in both directions across the border was halted and DDR Water Protection Police launches patrolled the rivers. The S-Bahn and U-Bahn commuter lines were closed and phone lines were cut.1.
Scores of Soviet T-34 tanks
arrived at around 8 a.m. to block key routes.‘‘ Soon, DDR soldiers
began
boarding
up
the
Brandenburg
Gate
(Erandenburger Tor), the symbolic gateway to the East. Banners and posters went up announcing the ‗‘Neu Deutscblatid and the efforts to 'protect the East from Western aggression‘‘‘‘ or ("Wer die Staatsgrenze mit Gewalt einrenen will, wer an der Mauer provoiert, macht alles nur schlimmer!" ) - "Whoever threatens by force this authorized National Border, Whoever commits acts of provocation at the Wall, will 15
only make matters worse!" 31
to watch out for saboteurs, and West Berliners were ordered to
Hundreds of thousands of West Berliners attended night
stay 100m from the line. All of these actions carried with them
protest rallies, and targeted some of their anger at the Western
the risk of war.‘‘ There was a general fear that a military
Allies' passive response. The USA protested to the Soviets, but
confrontation over Berlin would quickly escalate into general
could do little as West Berlin itself was under no direct threat
hostilities, in an era in which both sides were prepared to
and the essentials of the Potsdam Agreement were not being
wage war with nuclear weapons. A crisis over Berlin, if it got
violated - namely the presence of Allied troops, free access to
out of control, could lead to Armageddon.‘‘ 32
East Berlin by the Western Allies, and the right of self-
In his publication ―Life in the Shadow of the Wall‖
determination of West Berliners, West Berliners could still
Ulrike Poppe says ‘‘I do not remember the day the Wall was
enter the East through the remaining entry points using their
built. However, I recall that there was considerable excitement
ausiveis; many did so, to help get friends and family out, often
when access to the West was barred. The words of a
resorting to bribing the Vopos. Thus the soldiers who guarded
neighbour are unforgettable. From his garden he said to me:
the Wall and who had orders to „an-nihilate" any adversary
„There will be war again. The Americans will not allow the
were seen by ‗‘their own commanders as potential fugitives,
Wall". His face was red and made me feel afraid. I watched for
and not without reason, as quite a few did in fact flee into the
aeroplanes in the sky because what I knew about war were
West‗‘.³¹
primarily the descriptions of the nightly bombings…‖33 As time went on, thousands of people began lining up
on both sides of the border. Western crowds chanted ―KZ, KZ, KZ‖ referring to Konzentrationslager (concentration camp), and the atmosphere began to sour as the day grew longer. West Berlin youths began throwing stones and fights with the Vopos broke out. East German and Soviet troops were warned
16
IMPROVING THE WALL
All the processes that the wall goes through in the 60s The first construction of the wall was done using
and 70s are nothing but a process of literal and figurative
― different materials, such as bricks and concrete blocks.‖ The
―demarcation‖ or ―border-making‖, through ―a new, large,
workmanship was crude, with speed being the major concern.
and more extensive border system‖ until the system of
Rubble buttresses had to be built to support some sections.
controls was perfect The first improvements of the already-
―Lookout and guard posts began to appear.‖ Shards of glass
existing wall started on the 19th of June 1962. More
and barbed wire were inserted in the superior part of it. Every
standardized materials and improved workmanship are now
1000 meters wooden towers were built, accompanied by
used to allow strengthening the wall faster.
underground bunkers. . Ground-floor building windows
The walls were usually topped by barbed wire, and
facing the West were bricked up to prevent escape. ―However,
floodlights were installed on poles. ‗‘In some areas there was
escapees would use upper windows, dropping notes to the
no space for the cleared strip and inner wall, so dense wire
West Berlin police below who would arrange for fire crews to
entanglements backed the wall and landmines were used.
come with nets to catch jumpers. Later all the apartments on
―Dog runs were installed and guards often patrolled with
the street were torn down and the materials integrated into the
attack dogs; some 600 dogs were kept for this purpose. Runs
Wall. Some buildings were cut in two, with the dividing line
might be the aerial cable type in open areas or 6-7m-wide
bricked up.‖ (ai spus asta mai sus). This initial wall was
parallel chain-link fences. More towers were built to cover the
rapidly replaced with one made of more modern materials
new cleared areas and observation posts were concealed in
that were also easier to maintain.
buildings. More towers were built to cover the new cleared areas and observation posts were concealed in buildings.
17
Guards were under orders not to open fire into West Berlin,
comparatively quick and easy to install, that required less
but this did happen: 456 bullet marks were found on West
maintenance and was more durable. The modular wall
Berlin walls and paving over the years.‘‘35
section, officially known as a Stiitzwandelement UL 12.11
The improvements continued, so in 1965 the wall went
(retaining wall element), was made of reinforced concrete and
through a general reconstruction to completely stop even the
was L-shaped in cross-section. ―This was known as the Border
most inventive escapes such as underground tunnels or
Wall 75 and was also impossible to climb because of the round
wholes made through it with a vehicle. ‘‘It consisted of vertical
concrete pieces that topped it across its length. Security was
concrete or steel I-beams set in concrete with cm-thick, 1 x 3m
strengthened by reinforcement of watchtowers coupled with
pre-cast concrete construction panels inserted into the beams'
the demolition of even more buildings, widening the original
slots, and stacked three (sometimes four and five) high.
border zone to somewhere between 100 and 200 m.‖37
Approximately 25cm-diameter, thick-walled sewer pipe was
‗‘From 1976 to 1989, 45,000 concrete slabs were
fitted to the top on steel mounting brackets, making it
installed along the border at cost of 15.7 million Marks, and
impossible to grip on to for climbing over‘‘36 To prevent
these, along with high-tech instruments such a motion sensors,
vehicles attempting to crash through the Wall, V- and square-
helped to ensure that the border was virtually impossible to
shaped ditches, steel hedgehogs and fields of spikes ('Stalin's
breach.‘‘
grass') were emplaced.
GDR government was also mindful of the Wall‘s outward
37
In constructing the fourth-generation Wall, the
In 1976 the wall goes into general reconstruction again.
appearance, wanting to create a particular impression on, not
Large sections of it were now replaced with prefabricated
only West Berliners but of course the world. Specifically, the
pieces 3.6m high, 1.2m wide and with a platform base running
government wanted to convey an image of ‗‘order and
1.6m deep into the ground, thus making tunnelling
cleanliness‖ and reinforce the sovereignty and power of the
impossible. . Grenzwall 75 was a state-of-the-art prefab
GDR.
barrier,
essentially
person-
and
vehicle-proof
plus
18
In his book ―The Wall Jumper‖, Peter Schneider wrote: The border between the two German states, and especially between the two halves of Berlin, is considered the world's most closely guarded and the most difficult to cross. The ring around West Berlin is 102.5 miles in length. Of this, 65.S miles consist of concrete slabs topped with pipe; another 34 miles is constructed of stamped metal fencing. Two hundred and sixty watchtowers stand along the border ring, manned day and night by twice that many border guards. The towers are linked by a tarred military road, which runs within the border strip. To the right and the left of the road, a carefully raked stretch of sand conceals trip wires; flares go off if anything touches them. Should this happen, jeeps stand ready for the border troops, and dogs are stationed at 267 dog runs along the way. Access to the strip from the east is further prevented by an inner wall, which runs parallel to the outer Wall at an irregular distance. Nail-studded boards randomly scattered at the foot of the inner wall can literally nail a jumper to ground, spiking him on the five-inch prongs. It is true that long stretches of the inner wall still consist of the facades of houses situated along the border, but their doors and windows have been bricked up. Underground in the sewers, the border is secured by electrified fences, which grant free passage only to the excretions of both parts of the city.
19
2. THE WALL SICKNESS
20
THE HUMAN MEMORY
The power of the Berlin Wall was felt from the very
institutions and practices that had turned its citizens
beginning of its construction until its lass in 1989 but it
into an alienated, repressed, emotionally split, sterile,
continued to echo in the memory of the former Berlin citizens
inhibited, and compulsive people. The fall of the Wall
even 20 years later as its eistance was firmly lodged in German
and the consequent "emotional liberation" provided an
minds. "The mental wall" was a "worthwhile invention ... after
opportunity to make visible and treat people's "social
the real wall had crumbled.. Such an attitude established an
pathologies"
invisible border continuously affecting the relationships
suffer.‖ 34
between the ―moralistic, idealistic and egalitarian‖ East and the ―hedonistic, individualistic and Amricanizeed‖ West. ,,For East German psychologist Hans-Joachim
41
Another considered
from which they were thought to
psychoanalyst, that
Germans
Reimer were
Hinrichs, "unstable"
psychotherapeutic patients who "possessed a burdened
Maaz, the wall symbolized East Germans* "emotional
collective psychological infrastructure."
blockage" that had built up over years of a "walled in
patients" needed to mature and adjust to the new
and restricted existence" marked by "authoritarian"
political and economic conditions by becoming more
structures in schools, homes, and professions. . He
autonomous, self-reliant, and independent—skills they
argued that "the wall provided the outer framework" for
had failed to develop in a socialist system.‖ 35 For this,
East Germany's "repressive and authoritarian"
every individual would have to rediscover his true self,
These "GDR
21
and explore the qualities he or she could not make use of in a democratic space.
The lack of cultural norms and ideologies also had a notable negative effect on the society at large. This was mostly
Even if the wall in itself seems trivial, the material
due to the inexistence of a democratic space, of opinion, the
nor the form can claim any monumental character. It created
citizen then being forced to create his own world, one
the physical manifestation of a unique situation, of an
governed by doubts and conspiracy. All these were in that
unprecedented historic event because it parted a continent not
context a completely normal way of life. Motionless and with
only physically but also ideologically. ―For many West
eyes wide shut one has nothing to do but lower his standards
Germans,
who
of normality. „Anyone who does not move, will not notice the
occasionally travelled to the GDR felt that the border controls
shackle" could be read on one of the signs on November 4
were annoying. What the Wall really meant and the damage it
,1989
Europe
ended
at
the
Wall.
…Those
did within the socialist system, was too difficult to comprehend‘‘. 36
Because of the instability within the Communist Party Governance, public manifestos for freedom started appearing
The wall‘s psychological impact went far beyond
during the 1980s.‖Nevertheless, it took until the mid 1980s
cleaving the relationships between the Western and Eastern
before public protest was voiced against this. Ludwig Drees,
inhabitants. In its shadow individuals were transformed into
who was active in various opposition groups of the 1970s and
deserters by the crushing power of fear. As a result, human
1980s reacted to the above-mentioned application (nu este
relations suffered a change in nature in the East. For example,
above mentioned. Fie o numesti si o explicit sau pui o poza, fie
a student had reported to a policeman that a man had asked
nu mentinezi in leagatura cu ce e citatul) to the Synod as
him how to get to the border. Consequently, the man was
follows: ―We feel that something has been touched that moves
arrested. The student was presented to us as a hero, received a
us to the core but that we, nevertheless, have been silent about
document and a set of badminton rackets.‘‘
it until now. It is the muted wound of our life in this country.
reports.
Ulrike Poppe
The restriction of freedom to travel and of contacts to the West
22
as part of the division process that has permeated our society
could have taken advantage of. ―Much of the material used in
has become a symbol for the confinement, the fearful
the frontier barriers had to he purchased from other
immobility and the avoidance of social confrontation and
countries..... and plus the additional manning of the various
complexity‖37. In this confinement our life has become
police and security organs kept thousands of able-bodied men
monotonously privatised, dull and provincial."
out of the already limited labour pool.'...The monetary cost of
When the wall collapsed all Berlin citizens went out in
the barriers was high. To improve the still-crude IGB in 1961
the streets and celebrated the entire nation that was divided by
—64 cost 1,822 million Ostmarks, while another 400 million
the former monument of punitive isolation. Even so, there are
were expended on the Berlin Wall. It is estimated that some
those who still believe that than‘‘ They had become used to it
500 million a year were spent to improve and maintain the
in the way one gets used to an incurable illness: it hurts, one is
Wall and the IGB plus another 38 million Ostmarks for Stasi
reminded of it constantly, and yet one accommodates to a life
passport-control operations.''39
with what cannot be changed. On both sides (lipsa logica.
Moreover, it represented
a machine of death. The
Verifica citatul!!!!) was eight years old when the Wall was built
circumstances of most of the deaths are not always known,
too young to understand what was happening, nevertheless
and numbers are unclear. While some were indeed killed by
old enough to get an impression of what was changing in my
escapees and possibly suicide, most are believed to have been
surroundings. My perspective of the Wall is that of a non-
shot accidentally by guards, accidentally killed by mines, or
Berliner.‘‘ 38
shot attempting to escape. The actual circumstances of the
The final collapse of the wall also meant the dissolution
latter deaths were not even reported. Those who died under
of the USSR, which proves its significance to the politics and
'honourable'
circumstances
were
heralded
as
'frontier
economy of the Communist state. The Wall represented a
protectors'. 239 are known to have lost their lives at the wall,
―coat‖ for the Party, in which immense sums of money have
out of which 85 Grenzpolizisti and Grenztriippen were killed
been invested in order to hide the difficulties that the West
attempting to escape and a total of 29 Grenzpolizist and
23
Grenztruppen were killed on duty. ―Everybody in the GDR
interconnected world. However, since 1989 walls and fence
knew that people were shot at the Wall although the numbers
have again been built across the globe, dividing people,
were not known. However, those killed at the Wall
cultures, and territories. Indeed, one of the results of global
represented only one tragedy in a system that paralysed the
inter connectedness is a proliferation of borders, check-points,
hearts and choked the throats of many of those who were
and physical and virtual frontiers.‖41
locked up by it‖ said Ulrike Poppe. The physical Wall is now history, but the conceptual shape has been translated and adapted to separate many worlds. Its presence still lingers in the minds and hearts of some as a reminiscence of the oppressive separation. As proof, pieces of the former wall stand as monuments in a number of former Communist countries.
,,We might even say that
memory is naturally place-oriented or at least placesupported" says phenomenologist Robert Casey. As for this case, ‗‘Memory clings to places and objects‖.40
The fall of the Berlin Wall‖ purportedly marked the beginning of a new era of open geographical spaces and unparalleled physical and electronic mobility, replacing a world divided along
ideological
and
political
lines.‖
Globalism
and
internationalism ostensibly superceded nationalism, and bordered spaces seemingly gave way to a borderless and
24
THE LANDSCHAP OF MEMORY
The Berlin Wall, which for thirty years prevented free migration from East Germany, was no different. Even decades after, the impact of the structure on the mindscape memory of Berlin remains very strong. The wall’s space heritage continues to Influence the city. Even with the aid of millions of Euros that flooded into the city since 1989 to help reunify Germany and its role as Germany's capital, Berlin Remains a city deeply affected by the moral and physical scars left by the wall. “ Reunification did not perform miracles. The eastern part of the city continues to be challenged by the Soviet legacy. Berlin is only now in the process of becoming a significant city. Its socio-spatial distortions - mostly caused by the wall - have prevented its growth and development. One opportunity for Berlin to overcome these obstacles, however, is through the eastern growth of the European Union.''51 The process by which the city is divided, '' begins with a man painting a line on the ground ''
52.
This first step is being made
under British Army supervision. The line starts at the sidewalk on the west side of Potsdamerstrasse in 1948 and has remained visible from the patio, a line on the ground drawn by the great powers of the time. But for the inhabitants of Berlin it will turn into a wall, in a line of the horizon that it can no longer be crossed but only by imagination. The wall can be seen as a continuation of the Second World War. It can be seen as a bomb, not one that acts instantaneously and cripples everything in its path but one that is triggered while producing lasting effects. Maybe this was the answer of the Russians for the atomic bomb created by USA, a bomb manipulation. The daily behavior of Berlin Tourists who are greatly fascinated by the minutest remains of the wall shows its historical and social significance that lingers still. "The Berlin border is a landscape of memory offering many chances of discoveries. It is strewn with hundreds of physical remnants and traces of the border installations and it provides much insight 25
into the way this border functioned and how it was adapted to
its former central point as a huge and extensive piece of
the various needs of topography and how it was continuously
architecture in the shadow that can be evoked only using
perfected over the years. ''
imagination. “44 The gaps left after the demolition of the wall
The Berlin Wall is a complex and deeply emotional
maybe have more to say than the wall itself. Maybe the gap
landscape - Its remnants still show palimpsest indelible year,
enables us to imagine our own adjustable single wall pain as
twenty- three years after STI fall within the dynamic heart of the
Berliners felt that time. Sometimes these negative spaces - alien
city of Berlin. It Evolved as part of the city, and the city's fabric
bodies in the densely built -up urban area are supported or filled
WAS uniquely altered by the Wall. An analysis of infrastructure-
by spontaneous vegetation or maybe even that has produced the
wide scale down to alley ways reveals how profoundly the Wall -
negative of the border.
altered, and most importantly controlled, movement within the
,,The void of the cleared death- strip has clearly created two
city. Only thirteen crossing points served the entirety of West
different entities: the south of Berlin is mostly missing such
Berííapf. The number of crossings open to any individual was at
spaces, except a few sparse patches of grass that have been
most one or two. This created the feeling of being on an island,
drenched in herbicides for the last couple of. In the north,
and now we know more about the why it is important to
however, there is a dense growth of young trees over long
understand the psychological and practical realities of life under
stretches of the former border. Emptiness replacing the former
the shadow of the Wall, when time meant for progress was
monument stands testimony in the landscape memory of the
rather a sinkhole for a period of thirty years of emptiness. If
city. “Things are different in West Berlin, where the Wall is now
before its construction, the traffic arteries were around
integrated into daily life. Graffiti artists use it as a massive
Posdamer Platz, around an a market, a public space, after the
canvas, camping enthusiasts treat it as a weekend refuge,
construction the city’s rules were lost because the major arteries
improvised Kreuzber bars and beer gardens run beside it-all as if
of the city were cut by the wall.
there were no wall at all. The perilous Wall running through the
After ’’the fall’’ in 1989, the leftover pieces of it became a totally different symbol, this time of peace and union.” The
heart of this major city will soon be of more interest to tourists than to those who live with it . " ¹¹
sporadic dispersed remnants of the Wall in the landscape prove 26
In November 1990 public presentations reflected the
“reinterpretation with a new public programs” . On the topic of
intense interest and excitement generated by the fall of the Wall
the area itself, she wrote: “The border line does not have the
and the sense of new possibilities occurring. Many of the
definition of the Berlin rectilinear block structure. It is delicate,
contributors presented schemes hat supplanted the Wall areas
vulnerable and witness to Berlin's separation. Establishing the
with new development, but others supported the Wall area being
19th - century Berlin block over this ribbon of non-territory
replaced with a green band. For example, Norman Foster, who
would erase all memory”;<
would design the renovated Reichstag building later in the
In October 2001, the year of the fortieth anniversary of the
decade, argued that Berlin's situation was not unlike that of
erection of the Wall, the Berlin Senate voted to create an official
many European cities in which old fortifications had been
“Wall Path”, a bicycle and walking route, along the entire circuit
destroyed, yielding a positive urban amenity in the form of a
of the former Wall. Elements of them were reused in city
park and preserving the history of former spatial divisions.'' By
planning suggesting that the area the wall occupied should
linking this [park areas] to a controlled development programs
become an outdoor museum. It is interesting to note that some of
which would Increase land values around such a public amenity,
the remnant small- scale features associated with the Wall have
'history of can be preserved, new green space in the city can be
been adaptively reused like- scale features such as light posts,
created, high quality development can be made possible“ he
benches, signs, fences, and other site details. '' Many remnants
states 12 . But those who saw the green belt as a way to preserve
exist on and under the ground as archaeological sites. Where at
the memory of the Wall, complemented by documentation
first glance it seems there is nothing, suddenly missing features -
stations and memorials, would have to wait several years before
for example , rows of tank traps at Sebastian Straße - begin to
their ideas would be seen as worthwhile or practicable.
reveal themselves. These less obvious elements and patterns is a
Architect Zaha Hadid, another contributor to the 1991 “Berlin Tomorrow” exhibition, foresaw the fragility of such
compelling part of the Wall's story , and allow us to bring hidden layers of the past to light ''
traces of the Wall in her submission, entitled “The Dead Zone”.
On the other hand the wall is revolutionary for Modern
She proposed “preserving the Wall zone 'to Prevent it from being
Art since it combines all forms of art and translate them into a
covered by homogeneous commercial development” and for
symbol of victory, of the war, of pain, of union, of ...the 27
metamorphosis undergone from a simple wall to the element of torture, the weapon, our incapacity to change and our predisposition for destruction that goes as far as isolating kin from kin and crushing identity in the battle for conquest. The drawings added on it, do nothing else but to tell us a different story from the one in the history textbook, a history of the individual, a history of feelings in a creative form of revenge.
28
29
30
31
3. STRATEGY OF CONQUERING NEW TERRITORIES
32
West Bank map can be separated in three portions based on geographical ranges and agglomeration. ―In a strange and almost perfect correlation between latitude, political ideology and urban form, each topographical strip became an arena for another phase of the settlement project, promoted by politicians with different agendas to appeal to settlers of different ideologies in different settlement typologies.‖1 The strip from East of Jordan valley has a greater number of Jewish settlements. They were instituted ―to establish a security border with Jordan while relying on the principle of
plentiful water and a position overlooking the coastal plain, they form the West Bank's 'area of high demand‖This is the most suitable for developing the appropriate standard of quality of life that is aimed for, but also has the most important military purpose of officially setting the boundary between the Israeli state and the West Bank. In each one of these strips the Israeli government built Jewish colonies using different tactics.
'maximum security and maximum territory for Israel, with a minimum number of Arabs‖2. Moreover, they represented an economic interest for the Israeli state because of the fertile lands that could be unused for agriculture. The second strip west of Jordan valley is occupied by
PLANNING STRATEGIES One
of
the
strategies
employed was project
and
registration in order to discover public lands that Israeli could claim. Strips that were not claimed yet or did not have a legal ownership certificate were claimed by the state or by Jewish
―high and steep mountains of Judea and Samaria along whose
organizations
main ridge most large Palestinian cities are located.3 It
construction‖. Moreover, the lands that were not harvested in
represents the portion with the least agglomeration of Jewish
the last 10 years , and the farmers who were not paying taxes
settlements. It represents a high strategic military because of
for the lands they were using for legitimate purposes such as
its hights, but also has a religion importance because pristine
grazing were taken by the Israeli state. In total, ―by early
places offer inner peace.
1990s, more than 38 per cent of land area of the West Bank,
The third strip is the one neighboring the Israeli state, characterized by ―moderate topography, agricultural soil,
―for
the
purpose
of
settlement
and
comprising this patchwork quilt of isolated plots and noncontiguous pockets of land, as well as tracts of desert, were 33
MILITARY STRATEGY-THE ALLON PLAN
registered under Israeli ownership. ―
4
The system generated
by the Israeli military government had focused expansion Palestinian agricultural production bought in the first decade of the occupation, Israeli agency ‗‘ conducted a survey of 30,000 farms
in about half of all West Bank villages,
examining the utilization of farm areas and their yields.‖
One of the first strategies of expansion after the 6-Day War was the Allon Plan developed by Yigal Allon. The strategic prerequisite was to separate the West Bank from the Arab countries on its eastern
borderland , Israel
would control a strategic zone in the eastern West Bank running up from the Jordan Valley to the eastern slopes of the
Another method of development of the Israeli state for the
West Bank hill ridge. ―This area would allow Israel‘s small
benefit of the Jewish population, was planting pine forests in
standing army to hold off an assault from a combination of
areas declared as ‗‘ state land‖, mainly around grater
Arab states to Israel‘s east for enough time for Israel to
Jerusalem in what was called ‗the green belt‘‘. ― Pine trees
mobilize and deploy its reserve forces, which constitute the
were chosen because of their fast growth and because ―the
bulk of Israel‘s military power. For these ―secure borders‖
acidic deposit of pine needles they leave on the ground‘‘, thus
Allon envisioned that Israel would need some 700 square
making the land around them unusable for Palestinian
miles of the 2100 square miles that make up the West Bank.‖6
shepherds and depriving their flocks of pasture.‖
5
Israel would retain control of the Jordan River valley and mountain ridges, where it could establish settlements and early-warning systems (of radar and other devices) to provide warnings against attacks from the east. The main advantage of the plan was that that this strip was sparsely populated was
34
due to the fact that during the war, wanting to secure its new
resolve to annex this frontier zone.‖
borderlines, ―the Israeli military evacuated and destroyed the
was perceived as the regeneration of Labor Zionism and the
Palestinian villages of the Jordan Valley (except the city of
revival of its agricultural pioneering spirit. Agriculture in this
Jericho), the Syrian towns and villages of the Golan Heights
arid landscape, sustained by over-extraction of water from the
and all Egyptian citizens but the Bedouin in the Sinai.‖
mountain aquifer, was seen, according to the common Zionist
On this generally arid and now sparsely populated strip, remote from Israeli population centers, Allon proposed‖ to establish a string of agricultural Kibbutz and Moshav settlements, as well as several paramilitary outposts of the NAHAL Corps - the settlements arm of the Israeli Defense Force (IDF)‖
7
.Their establishment
slogan, as an attempt to 'make the desert bloom'. DEMOGRAPHIC PLANNING Other spatial manipulations were similarly undertaken to try to maintain the ‗‘demographic balance‖. ‖ There is a government decision to maintain the proportion between the Arab and Jewish population in city at 28 per cent Arab and 72
― The Jordan Valley was conceived as a hybrid
percent Jewish‖ 8. Every master plan was developed to keep
military/civilian defensive zone, split by four parallel roads
this policy of maintaining ‗‘demographic balance through the
that
agricultural
housing potential growth is so much faster, implied the use
settlements. In the event of an armoured invasion from the
of one or both of two planning policies: ―one promoting the
east, the valley's cultivated fields would be flooded, and the
construction of housing in Jewish neighborhoods and other
settlements hardened into fortified positions that would allow
limiting the Palestinian ones. .. While
the military to organize and channel invading forces into
average of 1,500 building permits to Jewish
designated zones of Israeli fire. Moreover, the inhabitation of
constructing 90,000 housing units for Jews in all parts of East
the area by a civilian population, rather than military bases,
Jerusalem since 1967, the municipality has issued an annual
was to demonstrate, according to Allon, Israel's political
average of only 100 building permits to Palestinians in the city
strung
together
military
bases
and
issuing an annual
, thus creating Palestinian housing crisis‖
9
Israelis and
This will push 35
many Palestinian citizens into building illegal houses which
for settlements in the West Bank was a government program
upon being discovered were then demolished, Moreover, this
that encouraged Jewish and especially ultra-Orthodox neo-
would also lead to building stacked rather than neighboring,
Zionist communities or new immigrants from the former
to accommodate the lack of space.
Soviet Republics to establish homes in Palestinian-inhabited
A try and maintain , ―demographic balance‖, the
Israeli
government built the new Jewish neighborhood settlements as ‗‘ antidotes to Palestinian urbanization and were planned in such a way as to create wedges between Palestinian neighborhoods and villages, limiting their possible expansion and splintering Palestinian urban contiguity.‖ 10
territory. The ones who agreed were promised ―high living standards‖ and were aided by receiving either financial help or housing. ). Israel uses the seized lands to benefit the settlements, while prohibiting the Palestinian public from using them in any way. For example, the Labor government of Yitzhak Rabin (1992-1996) and ―all subsequent governments built thousands of new housing units, claiming that this was necessary to meet the "natural growth‖ of the existing
On the other hand the pretext of preservation used in planning
strategies
another
pretext
to
maintain
the
‗‘demographic balance‖. Protect the traditional rural character of Palestinian village within ‗‘the municipal area and the historical
of
Since 1967, each Israeli government has invested significant
municipality insisted that the for area ratio‘‘ 11, resulting in a
Occupied Territories. As a result of this policy, approximately
small house within a large plot.
500,000 Israeli citizens now live on the settlements on the West
transfer
neighborhoods,
by almost 100 percent. ― 12
resources in establishing and expanding settlements in the
population
Palestinian
settlers on the West Bank (excluding East Jerusalem) increased
the
The
nature
population. As a result, between 1993 and 2000 the number of
represented
yet
another
Bank, including those established in East Jerusalem.
approach used for conquering new territory. The Master Plan
36
ARCHITECTURE STRATEGY
the settlement blocks was itself to be protected by other
Seeking to implement the lessons learned from the 1973
settlements along the routes.‘‘14
Sinai campaign, Sharon claimed that: ―. . . a thin line of
Explained in military terms the logic of defence embodied
settlements along the Jordan [i.e. the linear Allon plan] would
in the project: 'In any attack our lines had to be held by limited
not provide a viable defence unless the high terrain behind‖ it
regular forces in conjunction with the civilian communities
was also fortified . . . the vital strategic issue was how to give
whose role is to guard our borders, secure roads,‖ insure
depth to the coastal plain ... the answer was to build a
communications, and so on . . . [the West Bank settlements]
[network] of urban, industrial settlements on the ridges
would be organized for defence, with their own weapons and
overlooking the plain'.‖13
ammunition, their contingency plans and their integration into
In
concordance
with
Sharon-Wachman
plan
,
the
the overall defensive system. ‗15
settlements would also function as barriers, enveloping the
As a result, by the late 1970s and early 1980s there began
Palestinian-populated mountain region from both east and
the frenzy of construction that was indicative of Sharon's
west, and fragmenting it internally with Israeli east-west
proximity to executive power. A growing spider's web of
traffic corridors and by settlements located on the Palestinian
installations was being spun throughout the West Bank. Like
road network. ‗‘According to the plan, settlements were to be
the Sinai a few years previously, the land was being inscribed
organized in sustainable blocks, in which a number of smaller
by two symbiotic and synergetic instruments of territorial
rural and suburban settlements would receive services from
expansion: the settlement point and the road network. The
larger urban, industrial ones. Each block of settlements was to
latter served the former, and the the former overlooked and
be
such
protected the latter. The network of roadways that was
conurbations, and to the main metropolitan centres in Israel
purportedly built for the purpose of facilitating military
proper. The high-volume traffic network that would connect
manoeuvres became effective instruments of development not
connected
along
major
highways
to
other
37
only for the ideological core of Gush Emunim, but for Israeli
'site accommodation' of the 'archaeological expedition' wis'
suburb-dwellers.
expanded and family members of the 'archaeologists' arrived
Because he lost the total support of the government, Sharon had to limit himself to a number of experimental approaches.‖ He believed that it was important 'to secure a presence first [in all points] and only then build the settlements up‖16. He wanted to establish the entire skeleton for the geography of occupation, present it as an ineradicable
to live with them on site‘‘. ‗‘Mobile homes replaced tents, water towers were built, and electricity was provided courtesy of a nearby military base. When the excavation camp was finally exposed as an act of optical-political camouflage, the modern settlement of Shiloh was already a fact on the ground.‘‘17
fact on the ground and later allow it to evolve and consolidate. He accordingly started scattering the West Bank with small outposts, some hardly more than footholds, composed of tents or mobile homes, knowing that each of these places, once established on the ground, could later grow into a settlement. Tents and prefabricated homes could be deployed quickly and under cover of night on the back of trucks or, in cases where a road was not available, by helicopter.
FORTRESS CITY The establishment of Jewish populations in the West Bank was done through ―an isolated form of monotheism‘‘ because the development of the cities had the urban character of a fortress. Along Judea and Samaria mountains, the low number of Palestinian settlements (mainly due to soil infertility in the area) allowed the Jewish population to claim it.‘‘This migration from the plains to the mountain does not happen
The events in year 1976 constitute an example of such
solely because of their intention to conquer more land, but also
policy of domination. ―A group of archaeologists located in
because of a ―regeneration of the soul‖ campaign that is meant
the biblical town of Shiloh presumably for excavation
to bear the symbol of a ―personal and national renewal‖‖
purposes. There, on the foothills of a ridge separating the
The hilltop environment, isolated, overseeing and hard to
present-day districts of Ramallah and Nablus. Soon after, the
reach, lent itself to the development of this newly conceived
18
form of utopia 38
The urban plans of every settlement were developed ―following a well-established geometrical system, purposely overlooking main traffic arteries, controlling
Palestinian
towns and villages, and self-defensive in its overlooking its immediate surroundings and approach roads.
Settlements
become, in effect, optical devices, designed to exercise control through supervision and surveillance.‘‘19
located within the inner most ring, on the highest ground. The 'ideal' arrangement for a small settlement is a circle. The concentric disposition of housing creates two perspectives: one oriented towards the interior that comes with a feeling of security through intimacy, and one oriented towards the exterior, offering a different type of security, this time through increased visibility and the illusion of being in
The settlements in high hill and mountain areas follow a
control.
principle
the
tactical strength, self-protection and a wider view, which are
topographical contours of the map are retraced as lines of
principles as old as military history itself. Like the Crusaders'
infrastructure. The roads are laid out in rings following the
fortresses, some incidentally built on the West Bank summits,
shape of the mountain to create a complete circuit around the
settlements operate through 'the reinforcement of strength
summit, with the water, sewage, electricity and telephone
already provided by nature'. The settlements are not only
lines buried under them. The division of lots is equal and
places of residence, but create a large-scale network of 'civilian
repetitive,
fortifications', generating tactical territorial surveillance in the
of
'concentric
providing
organization,
small,
private
in
which
red-roofed
houses
positioned along the roads, against the backdrop of the
―‘High ground offers three strategic assets: greater
state's regional strategic defence plan. ―21
landscape ―20 . The publication further advises that in order to maximize visibility, the inner circle of homes should be positioned in front of the gaps left between the buildings along the outermost ring.1 The public functions are generally
39
40
THE STRATEGIC WALL or what Sharon called ‗‘the seam-line obstacle‖. The fact The idea of separation barrier between Israel and the West
that he does not give up on‖ his politics of territorial
Blank had first been proposed in 1999, by Minister Ehud Barak
expansion‖ is reflected in the politics behind the construction
and Minister of Internal Affairs Haim Ramon, via Barak‘s Oslo
strategy, as means of obtaining new territories. He therefore
era Peace Bureau‖. They believed that the wall would not only
starts a large studio of urban studies and planning, under the
set a clear border between Israel and Palestine, but also end
claim that ―I want everybody to pay attention to what I do
the conflict between the two countries. ―Moreover, he believed
here.‖- Spending hours studying maps and plans developing
that it was essential to prevent Palestinian would-be suicide
different strategies and concepts that allowed Israel to control
bombers from entering Israel and attacking Israeli civilians, as
Palestinian territory.
has happened many times during the Palestinian intifada. ―22
The result? The first path drawn by Sharon, now
Once he gained power, Ariel Sharon was in disagreement
bynamed ―Sharon the Bulldozer‘‘ incorporated roughly half of
with the route. Sharon 'would have preferred not to have built
the West Bank with major West bank cities . The concept that it
[a wall], because it broke a conception and created a situation
was based on was ―maximum Jewish population, minimum
in which de facto we were establishing a border. ―The concept
Arab population and maximum territory‖- which would bring
itself is as old as the Israeli state. 'I told [them]: don't build
dozens of settlements and more (than 100,000) Palestinians to
fences around your settlements. If you put up a fence, you put
the Israeli side of the wall.
a limit to your expansion ... we should place the fences around the Palestinians and not around our
places.'‖23
Because of public pressure and left opposition, the Labour Party accepts the construction of the wall,
He therefore succeeds in enclosing10 per cent of the West Bank. Some 56 settlements containing approximately 170,000 settlers - 76 per cent of the West Bank settlement population - fall on the Israeli side of the wall, as do all the 41
settlements in East Jerusalem.‘ Carte zid pag 49 ―Moreover,
between the West Bank and Jordan, and would have been
the wall takes in not just the current boundaries of these
constructed ―along the entire length of the valley north of the
settlements, ‖but the huge reserves of land included in their
Dead Sea.‖ This would have had one sole purpose: ―dividing
master plans, guaranteeing the potential for massive growth in
the Palestinian-populated parts of the West Bank into non-
the future,‖ because most of the settlements contain massive
contiguous cantons surrounded by settlement blocs and
water reserves. ―This represents some 1/3 to 1/6 of the Wall's
security zone‖ 26 with the pretext of maintaining the security.
length, contingent upon Israel's current plans to expand the Wall and to build a second one, reaches up to 6 kilometres inside the West Bank.‖24
David Levy, the head of the Jordan Valley Council –"the regional settlement administration - recounted that Sharon showed him a map of the route of the Jordan Valley wall.
This 2003 project is not much different from the one in 1975
'[According to that map, the fence will keep all of the Jordan
when ―an Israeli-annexed seam three to five kilometres wide
Valley and the Judean Desert under Israel's control, a 20-30
east of the Green Line, and a 10 to 15-kilometre seam annexed
kilometre wide strip- just as it appears in maps that Sharon has
west of the Jordan River‖. He called it then his Bantustan plan,
been showing for years. Such a fence, Levy says with
since it concentrates the Palestinians into three disconnected
satisfaction, is a political statement, a statement of annexing the
enclaves or 'homelands': Jenin and Ramallah, with a corridor
Jordan Valley under cover of the "security fence'27
to Jericho; Bethlehem and Hebron; and Gaza, which would have no land corridor to the West Bank.
Moreover, he would have aimed for creating ―one of the largest West Bank settlements and a Likud stronghold,
Another plan developed by Sharon in 2003 was ―to
strategically located on a series of hills ranging 22 kilometres
construct an additional wall along the Jordan Valley.‖ The wall
into the West Bank. Ariel was situated on the east-west Trans-
would be made up of fences and ditches and follow the natural
Samaria highway which extends into the Jordan Valley, and its
topography of mountain and cliff tops, creating a buffer zone
eastern edge was close to the principal north-south highway,
42
Route 60. This route would have connected Jordan valley with
Road Map called for a halt to such attempts at geo-political
Tel-Aviv‘s metropolitan area, thus sectioning the West Bank in
engineering.‖29
two regions: the north and the south, project known as Ariel Finger. The second phase was built closer the Green Line, and although still constructed within the West Bank it did not affect the general layout as much as the first phase did.‖ A survey led by the World Bank found that 'the prospect of physical separation and isolation in northern Jenin governorate, with inhabitants effectively cut off from workplaces, agricultural lands, irrigation networks, water resources, and/or school, health clinics and other social services, is much less than the affected areas near Tulkarm and Qalqilya of Phase ―28
Following the route ―along the Green Line‖ would have implied official recognition of a border established in 1967, which would have meant the destruction of the colonist‘s dream, that to establish a ―Greater Israel‖. As a result, in 2005 the government officialised a different route for the wall, which was nothing else but a partial correction of the Sharon plan. ―A major difference between this route and the first official plan approved in October 2003 is the decrease in the amount of land between the wall and the Green Line, down from more than 16 per cent to approximately 10 per cent of Palestinian territory. The other
However, while the first phases of construction in the
important distinction is the reduction in the number of
northern West Bank were unfolding largely out of the public
Palestinians trapped between the wall and the Green Line,
eye, phase III was coming under greater scrutiny from the
from an estimated 189,000 to 49,000.‖
international community, because of the deeper intrusions into
over 200,000 Palestinians enclosed by the wall in the Jerusalem
the West Bank and the impact on Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
Envelope area who, as residents of Israel, are not subject to the
From this moment on ―moving the Green Line' so radically as
same movement restrictions as West Bank Palestinians ).
to include Ariel would now be more difficult, especially as the
30(This
does not include
If this route was to remain unchanged, the territory that was annexed will also remain under Israeli administration:‖ in 43
the future, it follows that everything to the east will by default accrue to the Palestinian state‖. However, there is no certainty that the government will continue fighting for every piece of land in the West Bank. This reflects in Ariel Sharon‘s speech regarding the establishment of borders in 2005: ―The Americans have often asked us to sketch out the boundaries of large settlement blocs in Judea and Samaria [the West Bank], and we have refrained from doing so in the hope that by the time the discussion on the settlement blocs comes, one day, these blocs will contain a very large number of settlements and residents‖.31
44
4.AGAINST THE WALL
45
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WALL
If asked whether the barrier between Israel and West
optimistic: ―You have to be almost insane to think that
Bank is a wall, Ariel Sharon answers ―nothing more
somebody uprooted mountains, leveled hills and poured
substantial than a fence‖.
billions here in order to build some temporary security barrier
It is disingenuous to describe such a formidable construction as a ―fence‖, a term which cannot convey the magnitude of a structure that carves a 810-kilometre path through the West Bank landscape. The undertaking is the largest infrastructure project in Israel's history: as one Israeli commentator observed, 'even the national water carrier or the draining of the Hula swamps look like an exercise in sandcastles compared to this colossal project'.6Nor does it appear temporary, for all the Israeli claims to the contrary: as the same commentator points out. The way Ariel Sharon describes the wall, it carves a 670kilometre path through the West Bank landscape, representing the largest infrastructure project in the Israeli history. Moreover, the ―fence‖ will only be there as long as the conflict between Israeli and Palestinians will still exist, and the incidence of suicide bombers will decrease. Others are not so
"until the permanent borders are decided".‖Its permanent nature is borne out by the cost, which doubled from an initial estimate of 8 million shekels ($US 1.75 million) per kilometer when the project started in 2002 to 15 million shekels per kilometer by February 2004.8 The cost of the Wall is now estimated at $2.1 billion, and each km costs approximately $2 million. In addition, the Occupation has spent 2 billion shekels to construct alternative roads and tunnels, and the high cost of construction was cited by the State of Israel in the High Court as a reason not to alter the route, 'as it would be very expensive to move'. The wall is made in its most parts out of a wire fence, a ―smart‖ fence, approximately three meters high, mounted on a concrete base. It is equipped with electronic sensors, including cameras with night vision capacity, to warn of infiltration attempts.‖ Moreover, ―the ‗smart‘ fence is augmented by a 46
number of static security features. On at least one and usually
to build a fence for topographical reasons.'5 Also, they are
both sides of the fence are paved roads for patrol vehicles.
constructed in all urban areas and close to Green Line, where
Smoothed strips of sand on either side of the patrol road will
the wall is capped with surveillance cameras and towers for
show the footprints of any intruders. On the 'Palestinian side'
enforced security. In most of its parts, it reaches up to 7-10
there is a ditch or trench 'or other means intended to prevent
meters in the sky of barbed wire which makes it impossible to
motor vehicles from crashing into and through the fence'. This
climb over. In urban area it is even more so a vivid presence of
is flanked by a pyramid-shaped stack of coiled razor wire,
oppression, as it is constructed of concrete and topped with
some two meters tall. An additional razor wire barrier lies on
barbed wire.
the 'Israeli side'. The complete obstacle is generally between 30 and 70 meters wide, although it spans 100 meters in certain areas. Signs are placed on the razor wire on the Palestinian side with warnings in Arabic, Hebrew and English which read: 'Mortal danger: military zone. Any person who passes or damages the fence endangers his life.'‖ 33
Another fence built by the Israeli government is the one in Gaza Strip which extends to about 55 kilometers starting from northwest of Beit Lahia until southeast of Rafah. ―Gaza's relatively flat and sandy topography ensured that construction of a barrier was technically undemanding and inexpensive. Moreover, the Gaza barrier was also built on the original
On the other hand, this fence does not have a buffer zone
demarcation line, so that Israel's right to build a structure on
that is big enough, like the one in Gaza strip of approximately
internationally recognised borders has not been legally
one kilometer, which will cause a lot of false alarms or a
challenged.‖34
greater risk for the people being forced to leave near it.
Along the Wall runs a ―buffer zone‖ which ranges,
The other part of the wall is made from concrete
since the Gaza assault, between 300 – 600 meters‖, offering a
prefabricated that are built 'in areas where the threat of sniper
high degree of security. On the other hand, the buffer zone
fire is real and immediate or in areas where it was impossible
represents 25% of the most fertile agricultural lands in Gaza.
47
As a consequence unemployment amongst farmers in the area
potential for development into a durable entity in the absence
grew by 15%. The geographical space also represents one of
of
the most populated areas on the globe, ―with a population of
with its neighbor
communication
some 1.5 million people in 365 km2‖. The lack of space and freedom of movement transforms the territory into a prison. Without any possibility of directly communication with West Bank territory transforms the Gaza Strip into an autonomous territory which, much like the Left Bank, does not have any potential for development into a durable entity in the absence
A.
of communication with its neighbor. Along the Wall runs a ―buffer zone‖ which ranges, since the Gaza assault, between 300 – 600 meters‖, offering a high
B.
degree of security. On the other hand, the buffer zone represents 25% of the most fertile agricultural lands in Gaza. As a consequence unemployment amongst farmers in the area grew by 15%. The geographical space also represents one of
C.
the most populated areas on the globe, ―with a population of some 1.5 million people in 365 km2‖. The lack of space and freedom of movement transforms the territory into a prison. Without any possibility of directly communication with West Bank territory transforms the Gaza Strip into an autonomous territory which, much like the Left Bank, does not have any 48
A. 49
B. 50
C. 51
ROUTE&WALL
Since the second intifada erupted in late 2000, over ―400 Israeli fatalities and many more injuries have been caused by Palestinian suicide bombers. Most of these attacks have taken place on buses or in shopping malls, restaurants and hotels, and the majority of those killed and maimed have been civilians, including women and children. ―35 The militants' claims that they are retaliating for the greater number of Palestinian civilians killed or that suicide bombings are a legitimate response to Israel's superior weaponry in no way justify such attacks, which have been condemned by human rights groups as crimes against humanity. Because of public pressures and the opposition Ariel Sharon accepts the construction of the wall as a last resort ion fighting against suicide bombers. ―Moreover Israeli sources cite an 80 per cent drop in suicide attacks in the first six months of 2004 compared with the same period the previous year.‖36 This statistic proves the wall‘s efficiency against terrorist acts. The vast majority of suicide attacks ―has been perpetrated by militants from the West Bank and took place, in most part, in spaces where the wall was not finalized, such as the cities of Tulkarm and Jenin.‖ However, the wall has been and continues being contested in international courts of justice because it illegally extends the borders of the Israeli
state. In response, the Governments articulated a petition explaining why the wall does not follow the Green Line.‖ 37 Firstly, It cannot follow the borders due to topographical reasons: :‖'The barrier must pass through, to the greatest extent possible, areas from which the surrounding territory can be controlled, in order to prevent harm to forces operating along the route, and to enable the forces to operate observation points that overlook both sides of the fence'‘37 Secondly, it makes more strategic sense that the wall is on a higher ground so that guards have more control over the landscape that is in sight. Thus, potential terrorists cannot run away or hide, and even when present in high numbers would not have strategical advantage. A second argument for locating the wall some distance inside the West Bank was set out in response to the same petition. ‖The fear is that the barrier will not prevent every penetration, and that security forces will not be able to arrive in time to thwart the crossing of potential attackers. A geographic security area is necessary to enable the combat forces to chase the terrorists within Judea and Samaria [the West Bank] before they are able to cross into Israel and disappear within the population.‖38
52
Council for Peace and Security are disagree with this argument that defensive depth necessarily provides the best security and they said :‖'Once the terrorist has found a way over the fence, he moves in less than a minute over 14 meters or 30 meters. Security is provided by the type of fence, because that is where the terrorist can be caught.‖ 39 Yet another argument is that ―the protection of a nature reserve of rare irises historical site could only be guaranteed if it were to remain under Israeli control‘‘ pag and so obviously, they cannot be found on Palestinian territory. The association of Israeli landscape designers published an article by one such architect, who claimed that ―although human security is the main consideration in the routing of the barrier, other considerations take into account the values of landscape and nature and their relation to topography ... in many places the route has been, changed to preserve special and sensitive areas like cliffs and springs or eagle nests . . . my hope is that the route of the separation barrier will become a landscape route in the state of Israel, a touristic route, crossing various kinds of landscapes.‖40An example of such deviation is the settlement of Bethlehem in which the wall incorporates archaeological site believed to be the biblical-era tomb of Rachel‘‘
behind the recent frenzy of outpost construction in the West Bank lies in the settlers' desire to influence the Wall's path by seeding the terrain with "anchor points* around which it might loop. ―41The military strategies sustained by the Israeli government have been subject to extensive critique and are considered an illegal method of claiming new territory. A number
Green Line wall could 'be as forbidding as the authorities chose: patrolled by the army on both sides, heavily mined, impenetrable. Such a wall would maximize security, and there would be no international protest or violation of international law. ― A Green Line wall would have been completed in a much shorter time and at half the cost of the current 670-kilometre structure. It would also require fewer troops to monitor and patrol, would not corral Palestinian villages into enclaves and closed areas and would thus dispense with the need for a discriminatory gate and permit regime.‖ 42 of military specialists consider that
Another force influencing the route of the Wall came from a variety of settlement lobby groups. As the Wall drew closer to their region, settlement councils started to apply political pressure for the route to loop around their communities and absorb them into the safer, Israeli ‗side of the Wall. ―The logic 53
THE EFFECTS OF THE WALL
Even if at the beginning the International Court of Justice agreed with the construction, in 2004 in suffers a change of attitude claiming that it is in disagreement with human rights especially the right to property. Because of this, it wrote a petition to be forwarded to the Israeli government in which it is clearly stated that : ‗‘Israel must cease construction, dismantle the sections already built, compensate those affected and 'repeal or render ineffective' the gate and permit system.‘‘43
One of the studies carried out by the World Bank ―reported a marginal improvement in per capita incomes in 2003, but they were still 36 per cent lower than their preintifada levels, and indicators for the first part of 2004 revealed the economy stagnant again. Almost half of the Palestinian population was living below the official poverty line of just over $US2 a day, and 16 per cent of Palestinians were living in absolute
poverty,
barely
surviving
despite
significant
provisions of humanitarian assistance.‖44 Besides the fact that the wall poses juridical issues, the wall will start a socio-economical disaster: ‗Rural communities were separated from the land and water resources on which they depended for their livelihood. The situation was especially acute for Palestinians isolated in closed areas between the wall and the Green Line who required special permits to reside in their homes and to access educational and health services on the Palestinian side of the wall‘‘
Moreover, an assessment by the ―UN Food and Agriculture Organization found that approximately 40 per cent of the population was 'food insecure'‖ and that this insecurity was high in regions previously known for their agricultural abundance: the Jenin, Tulkarm and Qalqilya districts where the wall was already constructed. UNICEF, the UN Children's Fund, ―also reported 'an increase in chronic malnutrition and a degradation of the nutritional status of small children' and warned that 'one in ten children under five is now suffering from stunting'.‖ 54
Indeed, such was the 'humanitarian food crisis' that the UN
unemployed increased, with 2,000 agricultural workers
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Jean Ziegler,
supporting 15,000 residents by 2003.
advocated that the European Union suspend its Association Agreement with Israel, because of Israel's failure to respect the Agreement's humans rights clauses.
Moreover, the construction of the wall in the city, agricultural productivity had a lot to suffer. ―Of the city's remaining 6,000 dunams of agricultural land, almost 5,000 are
The city of Qualqilya is one of the most important economic
occupied by the wall and its flanking obstacles, or isolated in
centers for the Palestinian population. Due to the existence of
closed areas, as are agricultural wells supplying a third of the
large water reserves surrounding it, a plentiful agricultural
city's water. Since October 2003, access to these land and water
setting was developed over the years. Also, the water reserve
resources has been dependent on the gate and permit
also sustains cities surrounding it, including the Jewish city if
regime.‘‘47 Because of the fencing, the city now has lost all its
Tel-Aviv. Even if the city suffered because of ongoing
chances to become a small harbor-city on the map of the
conflicts, it keeps offering vital jobs and social services.
Mediterranean Sea.
However, after year 2000 the city‘s economy stagnated.
Another consequence of the wall is the migration of
Access to jobs in Israel ceased and income from commerce and
young professionals from West Bank and especially
manufacturing plummeted. ―A policy of strict internal closure
Qualqilya City looking for employment and education
fragmented the West Bank, restricting the access of residents
in different states. By inducing a 'voluntary transfer' of the
of the hinterland villages to Qalqilya and the ability of the
young and the educated, Marouf Zahran fears that the wall
city's traders to transport goods to markets elsewhere in the
may yet accomplish in Qalqilya what the Israeli army failed to
West Bank.‖46
do in 1948 and in 1967.
Although the role of agriculture as an earner for the city diminished, its importance as a 'shock absorber' for the newly
Palestinian communities that are fully surrounded b y the wall have no access to health systems, which 55
raises another set of problems on the arena of
water resources, markets, public services, and varied
international human rights. With the gates open for a
social
total of 30 minutes – 15 minutes in the morning and 15
inaccessibility to income, education, and medical care.
in the afternoon, this is not nearly enough for
ties;
implying,
among
other
things,
the
Communities affected by the Wall are facing fatal
transporting all severely wounded and pregnant
challenges to their survival as the Wall takes on various
women. The last category of the population is usually forced to move into a hospital as early as the 7th month in order to assure access to a normal child-birth.
forms in different areas, all of which eventuate into a practical
stranglehold
on
these
areas.
Affected
communities—those directly affected by the Wall being
Beyond its impact on the ground, the Wall functioned very
located on their lands or communities in the zone
effectively as a powerful image within a media-economy of
between the Wall and the Green Line—number 65, with
the conflict, one resonating within a Western historical
over
imagination still engaged with unresolved memories of its
devastating consequences, for those living this reality,
colonial and Cold War legacies.
the ultimate goal of the Wall is to ensure that
The snaking path of the Wall follows the pattern of land
confiscation
and
control,
the
annexation
of
206,000
people.
A
major
land
grab
with
communities and families cannot survive. As the effects and the immediate reality of the war
settlements, and the caging off of built-up, Palestinian
wears out through time, more and more young people
areas. The loops and detours that the Wall takes have
on both sides of the barricade may be tempted to turn
created
tens
surrounded
by
of
enclaves—ghettos— the
Wall
on
three
some
totally
to martyrdom. Also, the lack of employment
sides,
others
opportunities and relative deprivation may make death
surrounded by the Wall, settlements, and checkpoints.
for religious purposes a much more desirable option.
The Wall has already cut roads, separating people on
These reasons are however invisible to policy making
either side of the Wall from their agricultural lands,
Jewish officials. However, the wall may be a constant 56
reminder of the anger and frustration that can turn present street and community riots into nation-wide phenomenon. As part of a study, children were were asked to write down words that describe the wall. The most common word they used to describe the wall was 'a prison. One child described it as 'a snake that spreads its poison, reflecting the way the wall twists through farmland to encircle the village. Other common terms included images of fear, death and sadness, for example: 'It destroyed our lives; it is 'a deadly barrier Moreover, one " study Showed That the wall of can induce feelings of hopelessness , depression , and inferiority , and passing checkpoints of can bring on feelings of humiliation , demoralisation , anger , or aggression . Exposure to both the barrier and checkpoints produces a sense of " siege " -the feeling of being imprisoned and Unable to conduct a normal life . While Israelis suffer from the " Siege Mentality , " a desire to close Themselves in so as to protect Themselves from the hostile outside world , Palestinian psychologists Argue That Their Patients suffer from a different kind of " siege " by Israel 's closure induced Policies. 57
5. THE CITY IN THE SHADOWS OF THE WALL
58
IERUSALIM & BETHLEHEM of Jerusalem believed the integration of Jerusalem‘s periphery Following the 60-Day War, the Israeli army occupied the
was necessary:
eastern part of Jerusalem, annexed almost 70 square
contemporary capital that pays drought compensation to
kilomneters almos ‗‘70 square of land and incorporated
farmers in villages within its boundaries…‖ All the master
approximately
newly
plan and amendments were laid out to complete‘‘ a belt of
expanded boundaries of the previously western Israeli
built fabric that enveloped and bisected the Palestinian
municipality‖48. This widening of the borders allowed it
neighborhoods and villages annexed to the city.‖ 49
69,000
Palestinians
within
the
Jerusalem is, most likely, the only
develop a metropolitan area in the real sense, A Jordanian-
Because under international law the annexation of East
administrated city. The master plan from 1968 was developed
Israel would have been illegal, ―concentrating instead on
in two parts: a plan for the immediate condition (the 1986
creating geographic and demographic facts on the ground in
Plan) and two alternate plans for future consideration (the
order to establish exclusive Jewish hegemony over the city‖
2010 Plan). The plan was based on the assumption of organic
50was
not.
interrelation between three urban entities: ‗‘ the historic nucleus which includes the Old City of Jerusalem, the Mount
In order to encourage more Israeli nationals to move to
of Olives and a surrounding park system the continuous,
East Israel, cheap and affordable construction programs were
highly populated urban ring, which spreads around the
put in place. This action continued through demolition of
historical center up to a well-defined verge and a metropolitan
illegally-build housing because for Palestine citizens the legal
area‖ which incorporates over 28 Palestinian villages, their
procedures required to obtain a building permit made it close
fields, agricultural settlements,
to impossible for them to live there.
natural reserves and small
townships (Bethlehem and Ramalla). Teddy Kollek, the Mayor
Another method was the implementation of more green areas to safeguard the environmental character of a
59
neighborhood: in practice, the designation is 'intended to
― Mayor Teddy Kollek4 declared in an interview:‖
deprive the Palestinians of the right to build on their land, and
Never have we given them a feeling of being equal before the
to keep these areas in reserve for building earmarked for the
law. They were and remain second- and third-class citizens…..
Jewish population'.
For Jewish Jerusalem I did something in the past twenty-five
Applying the Absentee Property Law actively in
years. For East Jerusalem? Nothing! What did I do? Nothing.
Jerusalem meant that 'in the eyes of the government of Israel,
Sidewalks? Nothing. Cultural institutions? Not one. Yes we
these flesh-and-blood people, who live in Bethlehem or Beit
installed a sewerage system for them and improved the water
Sahour or Ramallah and have olive groves or houses or land
supply. Do you know why? Do you think it was for their
within the municipal boundaries of Jerusalem, do not exist.
good, for their welfare? Forget it!‖51
They are absentees. In other words, the theoretically uninhabited territory would become state property.
Over the years, twelve settlements were constructed, consuming more than a third of the 70 square kilometers
The complete cut of investment in public services and
expropriated from East Jerusalem and the West Bank: it was a
the development of infrastructure surrounding east Jerusalem
policy of 'military conquest by architectural means'.9 By the
was another method used to deny the existence and rights of
end of 2001, nearly 47,000 housing units had been built
the Palestinian population, even if they alone represented 28%
exclusively for Jews on this expropriated land but not a single
of the population residing in Jerusalem. ―Today, East
one for Palestinians, although the Arab population in East
Jerusalem continues to suffer from inadequate roads, lighting,
Jerusalem had increased to some 230,000.10
sewerage systems and refuse collection, while being severely under-supplied with public parks, sports facilities and educational and cultural centres‖
Yet another method of winning new territories was the construction of a concrete wall around Jerusalem, with the pretext of maintaining public security within the border . It
60
will cut East Jerusalem and the largest Israeli settlement in the
21st, 2005, the Israeli government confirmed its plan to ―build
West Bank off from the rest of the West Bank, and will divide
an additional 3,500 housing units in Ma'ale Adumim, Israel's
Bethlehem .When the wall will be finished a number of
largest settlement. The construction of the wall and the
territories will be annexed to Jerusalem, ―became thus a
expansion of Ma'ale Adumim under Israel's current plan
sprawling metropolis reaching the outskirts of Ramallah in
(referred to as the 'E-1 Plan') consolidate Israel's control over
the north, Bethlehem in the south, and Jericho in the east- a
East Jerusalem by separating Palestinians from their homes
massive section of the middle of the West bank-isolating
and jobs.‖
Palestinians from their culture centers in Jerusalem and
Moreover, it would result in a chain of Jewish settlements
cutting off the north of the West bank from the south. At
surrounding and sealing off Arab East Jerusalem, eliminating
present the new Jewish neighborhoods within the municipal
the possibility of existing Palestinian communities expanding
boundaries are home to about 200,00 settlers- almost the same
eastwards. Implementation of the E1 Plan would also sever
number as all the other settlers in the West bank combined.‘‘
territorial and transport contiguity between the northern and
52
southern West Bank, effectively cutting the territory into two. ―Jerusalem Defense Plan‖ approved in March 2003 called
As East Jerusalem accounts for some 30 percent of Palestinian
for the fence to be constructed around three parts of the
GDP, the Jerusalem wall combined with the E1 Plan would
capital, which has been the most frequent target of suicide
effectively destroy the geographical and economic viability of
bombers. This section of the fence was expected to run about
a future Palestinian state. Politically, in the words of the
40 miles around the municipal boundaries of the city. Israeli
Palestinian Minister of State for Jerusalem Affairs, 'without
and Palestinian residents in areas along the fence route filed
Jerusalem as a shared capital for Palestinians and Israelis,
legal challenges that required changes in the construction
there is no two-state solution'.
plan. On February 20th, 2005, the Israeli government approved a "new" wall route. One month after that, on March
61
Implementation of the E-1 plan and the expansion of
dunums of land, 500 which will be isolated behind the Wall
Ma'aleh Adumim effectively excise East Jerusalem from the
and another 300 which will be in the Wall's "buffer zone". The
rest of the West Bank. The E-1 Plan seeks to do three things: (1)
northern Jerusalem Wall is isolating 15,000 Jerusalem ID
Restrict natural development of Palestinian communities (on
holders living in Kufr Aqab and Qalandiya Refugee Camp
Palestinian land) in and around East Jerusalem; (2) slice the
from the city, their familial and social ties, and public services.
West Bank in two, thus pre-empting territorial contiguity for
The northern Wall will also bring to the de facto annexation,
the Palestinian state; and (3) encircle Palestinian East
i.e. further isolation, of Qalandiya village, Judeira, Bir Nabala
Jerusalem, Palestine's capital, with the territory and citizens of
and A-Ram.
a foreign sovereign. Revista Israel Israel will continue its illegal control of East Jerusalem, In the case of the northern Jerusalem Wall,
deny those east of its municipal border, like the rest of the
Israel is staying true to its policy of "more land less people."
West Bank, their legal and human rights, while expanding its
The actual path of the Wall is a winding path that ensures total
colonial project eastwards unabated. Settlements like the
proximity to the residential areas, confiscating lands while
massive Ma'ale Adumim and beyond continue to grow and
isolating communities just "behind" the Wall.â&#x20AC;&#x2013;The Wall in this
Israeli control of the central West Bank until the Jordan Valley
area will be 40-100 meters wide, with paths for military
remains. The West Bank is guaranteed to be cut into a
vehicles, sensors, watchtowers, and additional buffer zones.â&#x20AC;&#x2013;53
southern and northern portion. A total of 53,500 Palestinian Jerusalemites will be
The northern Jerusalem Wall spreads on the lands of
separated from East Jerusalem, and 200,500 Palestinian
theâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; northern villages of A-Ram (Khalet A-Sheik), Qalandiya,
Jerusalemites will be separated from the West Bank as a result
Kufr Aqab, Al-Bira (Rafat Al-Maysun) and Rafat. It will be, in
of Israel's Wall. And as Israel promises to remove 8,000 settlers
this area alone, some 8 kilometers in length, stealing 800
from the Gaza Strip this summer, it is building room for 30,000
62
more in the West Bank this year alone, primarily in East
will consist of fences (including electric), buffer zones,
Jerusalem and its environs.
trenches, barbed wires, sensors, as well as an 8-10 meter-high Wall. Most of the Wall in this area will be layers of fences
The updated route is to run about 32 miles around
surrounding the northern part of the city, and will include
Jerusalem, but was only 25 percent complete in July 2005. As
between the fences a major bypass road connecting the
of August 2008, nearly one-third of the fence — about 30 miles
settlements in the area. The Bethlehem Wall is annexing entire
of the approximately 100 mile fence — remained unfinished.
communities, religious/historical sites, and large tracts of
The principal impediment to finishing the job has been a
land.
shortage of funds, however, about 2 miles of the fence has also been held up by ongoing legal appeals. Once finished, problems will occur with crossing over, as there will be 11 transit points for vehicles and pedestrians, including two cargo terminals. These will be insufficient as the school population that commutes to East Jerusalem alone is of about 15,000 pupils. Moreover, because of the lack of space and the massive overcrowding of Palestinian neighborhoods along with the rapid increase in property prices that will ultimately forced many Palestinian
families to leave Jerusalem for
nearby towns and villages in the West Bank, cohesion will be even more at risk. South of Jerusalem lays the city of Bethleem,
For both portions of the Wall, dozens of houses are expected to be demolished and thousands of dunums confiscated. Confiscations have already begun; military orders have already been given. ―Over 170,000 Palestinians live in the Bethlehem District, where the majority live in the three main cities of Bethlehem, Beit Sahour and Beit Jala as well as in the surrounding villages and refugee camps. Approximately 16,000 people live in the Bethlehem refugee camps of Deheisheh, Aida, and Beit Jibrin (Aza) while 70,000 out of the 170,000 live in the surrounding villages‖54. The Wall will affect the entire area as a final seal in the iron grip of the Bethlehem District from the north.
which will be crossed by a 15 kilometer large scale shackle that
63
― The mayor of Beit Sahour, Mr. Fu'ad Kokali,
daily measures imposed by the Israeli military. Such closure
confirms that the Bethlehem Wall draws the new boarders of
and the repeated reoccupation of Bethlehem have severely
Greater Jerusalem in order to isolate Palestinian residential
affected the Bethlehem area communities in loss of lives and
blocks from Israeli settlements linked to Jerusalem. According
livelihoods. The Israeli closure on Bethlehem, which has
to him, Israel is drawing the map of the Palestinian state
remained since 1993 and worsened in the past two years, has
according to its vision, while further suffocating the entire
ensured, among other things that the major source of income
district.‖55
in the city—tourism—would be controlled by an Israeli
As the Bethlehem Wall looks to seal the fate of the area
market, with little benefit for Palestinians. The story goes that
and expand the Jerusalem Municipal control of Palestinian
when there were tourists, even the bottled water would be
lands, a number of communities in the area will be on the
brought from Israel. The water, of course, was most often West
"Jerusalem side" of the Wall. Beside the 500 people that will be
Bank or Golan Heights water. The majority of Bethlehem
isolated behind the Wall around Rachel's Tomb, close to 4,000
residents are relying for their main income resources on
people from Bir 'Ona (southwest Beit Jala), 8,000 in Western
tourism. Some 60% of Bethlehem's economy is based on
Ta'amreh (No'man and Al Khas), and some 3,500 in Al
tourism, while with no tourists and endless military
Walajeh will find themselves isolated. In Western Ta'amreh,
incursions, it is now at 0%.
construction of the Wall has already caused damage to the
Moreover, the people living in these areas are an
water network, now there is no water. Their fate is similar to
integral part of Bethlehem, whether for work, school, familial
those in the Wall's first phase that will be between the Wall
and social ties, or some semblance of mobility. They are also
and the Green Line.
dependent upon the Bethlehem Municipality for services that
Since the breakout of the Intifada, which started in
will no longer be reachable behind Israel's Wall. There is little
September 2000, Bethlehem district as the other Palestinian
doubt by those living in this area that they will have no choice
communities has been subjected to heavy siege and closure as
but to leave their homes, or face starvation within this ghetto.
64
Israelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Wall and Settlements in Jerusalem.
65
CONCLUSION
Although the value of the wall throughout the history
the smooth, mechanical, designed wall taken down 20 years
has been of defense, protecting the city, the Berlin Wall it is
later.―
used as a fortress yet with a different purpose, to divide , to
cylinders, it is impossible to grip for those who might want to
deny the existence of world outside the wall. Migration from
escape‖ and with cannons guarding the routes, the wall truly
the East of the Berlin to the West took place until the wall
becomes a war machine.
was build with political and economic purpose, developing the idea that: half the city is good and the other is evil. As a result "it countered this migration (but ultimately it exacerbated) into a 'desperate and savage use of architecture, the construction of the wall‖47
48Topped
by an endless row of hollow concrete
On the other side the entire wall, divided the society vertically, but its image of individual and collective mentally blocked people living in its shadow. The wall was a gap, an end, beyond which nothing was living. In this isolation, "inequality, aggression, destruction, the wall operated not by a
The wall was not just a line, it represented an entire system
timid reformist Intervention into troubled social domains but
which gradually developed and turned into a weapon used
a machine that revolutionized the entire mentality of the
to seal the world around it. ―In its first "primitive" stage the
individual making the abnormal world they inhabited seem
wall is the decision, applied with absolute architectural
completely natural.
minimalism: concrete blocks, bricked-in windows and doors, sometimes with trees… This second wall is also unstable. It is continuously "perfected" through construction techniques more and more prefabrication - that finally give it ultimate
The Berlin Wall was a symbol of the Cold War, and has been named the " physical representation " of the Iron Curtain . The building monster split in two a city and a country.
form: 66
Berlin Wall marks more than anything else the collapse of the
length of 700 kilometers. More than half has already been
communist regime. Of course there were other "walls" in
raised. Palestinians who live here do not speak openly about
history, but none bearing as strong a significance as the Berlin
this. They fear the Israeli security forces.
one did.
However, the Israel and Palestine walls are more than a
Less than one year after the fall of the Berlin Wall ( 9
barrier between the two peoples, establishing territorial
November 1989) the German reunification took place. How
borders. It has a different purpose, a more strategic part,
much did the country's reunification cost? Answer: the lives
which is to become a machine that is seemingly harmless but
of over 160 people who were killed when they tried to cross
will carry through deeply-seeded historical, more than that:
the wall and the freedom of other 75,000 who were all
biblical aspiration for the Jewish people. If the Berlin wall was
imprisoned for trying to escape. In the middle of the Arab
barrier between the two forces of the time: the Western powers
world there where political and religious conflicts are a
and the Soviet Union, the West Bank wall is a mean of political
mundane reality, the Israeli state has literally re-defined
and geospatial conquest. Why did Jewish officials decided to
borders with the Palestinians by a huge wall of concrete,
build an Israel wall in the West Bank? Maybe the answer is to
watchtowers and barbed wire.
eliminate the terrorist attacks official in a peaceful manner.
To understand the conflict and the consequences that will occur because of the construction of the wall between the two territories (Israel and Palestine) one needs to know the effects wall between the GDR and DDR produced on the long tern on the German population, Berlin inhabitants in particular. It's a giant wall. It is twice as long and three times as high as the Berlin Wall was. Israel will build walls of separation on a
Perhaps this decision can be seen as a viable one and President Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s words about Berlin Wall: "It's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war." are universally applicable whenever brick after brick barriers are set between people. However, if we think of the effects the Berlin Wall has been shown to have, it becomes obvious that it is only a momentary solution, which in turn amplifies the problems
and
conflicts
between
the
two
countries, 67
accumulating negative energies that will produce disastrous effects between the two nations.
The second question is why does the Israel government show such a swift change in counter-terrorism policy and suddenly decides that building a wall is the only possible solution. Maybe an argument for the new policy would be that in nowadays social organization, it is not enough to kill a man in order to win a war one has to crush an entire nation. Maybe such initiatives do not represent the end of the Jewish nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s fight for land, but the beginning of a more elaborate one.
68
69
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http://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/creation-israel (2.01.2014) http://www.nh4israel.org/uploads/5/7/3/3/5733440/evolution_of_ the_region_postcard.pdf. harta http://www.nh4israel.org/uploads/5/7/3/3/5733440/one_with_isra el_presentation_powerpoint_version.pdf (2.01.2014) http://www.mideastweb.org/alonplan.htm (4.01.2014) http://www.wrmea.org/special-topics/366-special-topics/jews-forjustice/10411-the-1967-war-and-the-israeli-occupation-of-the-westbank-gaza-and-east-jerusalem.html (19.01.2014) http://drybonesblog.blogspot.co.il/2013/10/the-plain-brownbox.htmleh (22.01.2014) http://books.google.de/books?id=l2uz0gaxA9YC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9 &dq=geddes+West+Bank&source=bl&ots=pN0ML51NXP&sig=hIBgSI oOaVFZKtIDPwuafFJmTQ&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=JjLPUsWeOYWStAax64Gg Dw&ved=0CGoQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=geddes%20West%20Ba nk&f=false (2.01.2014) http://books.google.de/books?id=3kbU4BIAcrQC&pg=PA400&hl=ro &source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false (3.01.2014)4 Conclusion: Architecture or Techno- utopia , Politics after modernism, ELICITY D. SCOTT, The Mit Press Cambrige, Massachusetts London , Englend
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